document_title: History of California before 1900

question_text: in the early 1800s california society was dominated by which group

question_tokens: in the early 1800s california society was dominated by which group

text: History of California before 1900

text: Native inhabitants[edit]

text: The most commonly accepted model of migration to the New World is that peoples from Asia crossed the Bering land bridge to the Americas some 16,500 years ago. The remains of Arlington Springs Man on Santa Rosa Island are among the traces of a very early habitation, dated to the Wisconsin glaciation (the most recent ice age) about 13,000 years ago. In all, some 30 tribes or culture groups lived in what is now California, gathered into perhaps six different language family groups. These groups included the early-arriving Hokan family (winding up in the mountainous far north and Colorado River basin in the south) and the recently arrived Uto-Aztecan of the desert southeast. This cultural diversity was among the densest in North America, and was likely the result of a series of migrations and invasions during the last 10,000–15,000 years.[1] At the time of the first European contact, Native American tribes included the Chumash, Maidu, Miwok, Modoc, Mohave, Ohlone, Pomo, Serrano, Shasta, Tataviam, Tongva, Wintu and Yurok.

text: Tribes adapted to California's many climates. Coastal tribes were a major source of trading beads, produced from mussel shells using stone tools. Tribes in California's broad Central Valley and the surrounding foothills developed an early agriculture, burning the grasslands to encourage growth of edible wild plants, especially oak trees. The acorns from these trees were pounded into a powder, and the acidic tannin leached out to make edible flour. Tribes living in the mountains of the north and east relied heavily on salmon and game hunting, and used California's volcanic legacy by collecting and shaping obsidian for themselves and for trade. The deserts of the southeast were home to tribes who learned to thrive in that harsh environment by making careful use of local plants and living in oases and along water courses. The indigenous people practiced various forms of forest gardening in the forests, grasslands, mixed woodlands, and wetlands, ensuring that desired food and medicine plants continued to be available. The Native Americans controlled fire on a regional scale to create a low-intensity fire ecology which prevented larger, catastrophic fires and sustained a low-density "wild" agriculture in loose rotation.[2][3][4][5] By burning underbrush and grass, the Native Americans revitalized patches of land whose regrowth provided fresh shoots to attract food animals. A form of fire-stick farming was used to clear areas of old growth to encourage new in a repeated cycle; a primitive permaculture.[4]

text: The relative strength of the tribes was dynamic, as the more successful expanded their territories and less successful tribes contracted. Slave-trading and war among tribes alternated with periods of relative peace. The total population of Native California is estimated, by the time of extensive European contact in the 18th century, to have been perhaps 300,000. Before Europeans landed in North America, about one-third of all natives in what is now the United States were living in the area that is now California.[6]

text: European exploration (1530–1765)[edit]

text: The first European explorers, flying the flags of Spain and of England, sailed along the coast of California from the early 16th century to the mid-18th century, but no European settlements were established. The most important colonial power, Spain, focused attention on its imperial centers in Mexico and Peru. Confident of Spanish claims to all lands touching the Pacific Ocean (including California), Spain sent an exploring party sailing along the California coastline. The California seen by these ship-bound explorers was one of hilly grasslands and wooded canyons, with few apparent resources or natural ports to attract colonists.

text: The other colonial states of the era, with their interest on more densely populated areas, paid limited attention to this distant part of the world. It was not until the middle of the 18th century that both Russian and British explorers and fur traders began establishing stations on the coast.

text: Hernán Cortés[edit]

text: Around 1530, Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán (president of New Spain) was told by an Indian slave of the Seven Cities of Cibola that had streets paved with gold and silver. About the same time Hernán Cortés was attracted by stories of a wonderful country far to the northwest, populated by Amazonish women and abounding with gold, pearls and gems. The Spaniards conjectured that these places may be one and the same.

text: An expedition in 1533 discovered a bay, most likely that of La Paz, before experiencing difficulties and returning. Cortés accompanied expeditions in 1534 and 1535 without finding the sought-after city.

text: On May 3, 1535, Cortés claimed "Santa Cruz Island" (now known as the Baja California Peninsula) and laid out and founded the city that was to become La Paz later that spring.

text: Francisco de Ulloa[edit]

text: Also: Island of California

text: In July 1539, moved by the renewal of those stories, Cortés sent Francisco de Ulloa out with three small vessels. He made it to the mouth of the Colorado River, then sailed around the peninsula as far as Cedros Island.

text: The account of this voyage marks the first-recorded application of the name "California". It can be traced to the fifth volume of a chivalric romance, Amadis de Gallia, arranged by Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo and first printed around 1510, in which a character travels through an island called "California".[citation needed]

text: Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo[edit]

text: Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo is believed to be the first European to explore the California coast. He was either of Portuguese or Spanish background, although his origins remain unclear. He was a soldier, crossbowman, and navigator who sailed for the Spanish Crown.

text: In June 1542 Cabrillo led an expedition in two ships of his own design and construction from the west coast of what is now Mexico. He landed on September 28 at San Diego Bay, claiming what he thought was the Island of California for Spain. Californias' channel islands lie offshore from Baja California to northern California, and Cabrillo named each of the channel islands as he passed and claimed them for Spain.

text: Cabrillo and his crew continued north and came ashore October 8 at San Pedro bay, later to become the port of Los Angeles, which he originally named the bay of smoke (bahia de los fumos) due to the many cooking fires of the native Chumash Indians along the shore. The expedition then continued north in an attempt to discover a supposed coastal route to the mainland of Asia. Cabrillo may have sailed as far north as Point Reyes (north of San Francisco), but died as the result of an accident during this voyage; the remainder of the expedition, which may have reached as far north as the Rogue River in today's southern Oregon, was led by Bartolomé Ferrer.[7]

text: Sir Francis Drake[edit]

text: On June 7, 1579, the English explorer Sir Francis Drake saw an excellent harbor, on a land mass that he called Nova Albion and claimed for England. The accepted location for Drake's port is at Drake's Cove in Drakes Bay which has been named a National Historic Landmark.[8][9] There was no English follow-up.[10] Subsequent English maps name the land above Baja California, New Granada, New Mexico and Florida "Nova Albion". Drake held the first Protestant Christian service at Nova Albion.

text: Sebastián Vizcaíno[edit]

text: In 1602 the Spaniard Sebastián Vizcaíno explored California's coastline as far north as Monterey Bay, where he put ashore. He ventured inland south along the coast and recorded a visit to what is likely Carmel Bay. His major contributions to the state's history were the glowing reports of the Monterey area as an anchorage and as land suitable for settlement, as well as the detailed charts he made of the coastal waters (which were used for nearly 200 years).[11]

text: European exploration (1765–1821)[edit]

text: Spanish ships plying the China trade probably stopped in California every year after 1680. Between 1680 and 1740, Spanish merchants out of Mexico City financed thriving trade between Manila, Acapulco and Callao. In Manila, they picked up cotton from India and silks from China. The Spanish Crown viewed too much imported Asian cloth to Mexico and Lima as a competitive threat to the Spanish American markets for cloth produced in Spain, and as a result, restricted the tonnage permitted on the ships from Manila to Acapulco. Mexico City merchants in retaliation overstuffed the ships, even using the space for water to carry additional contraband cargo. As a result, the ships coming from Manila had enough water for two months, but the trip took four to six months. (Hawaii was unknown to the Spanish navigators). The sea currents take ships sailing from Manila to Acapulco up north, so that they first touch land at San Francisco or Monterey, in what is now California. [12][13]By the late 18th century, imperial war was heating up between Britain and Spain. In 1762, Britain occupied Manila in the Pacific and Havana in the Atlantic. This was probably a stimulus for Spain to build presidios at San Francisco and Monterey in 1769. The British, too, stepped up their activities in the Pacific. British seafaring Captain James Cook, midway through his third and final voyage of exploration in 1778, sailed along the west coast of North America aboard the HMS Resolution, mapping the coast from California all the way to the Bering Strait. In 1786 Jean-François de Galaup, comte de Lapérouse, led a group of scientists and artists on a voyage of exploration ordered by Louis XVI and were welcomed in Monterey. They compiled an account of the Californian mission system, the land and the people. Traders, whalers and scientific missions followed in the next decades.[14]

text: Spanish colonization and governance (1697–1821)[edit]

text: In 1697 the Viceroy Duque de Linares along with the Conde de Miravalle (180) and the treasurer of Acapulco (Pedro Gil de la Sierpe) financed Jesuit expansion into California. The Duque de Linares lobbied the Spanish Crown in 1711 to increase trade between Asia, Acapulco and Lima. [15]It is possible that Baja California Sur was used as a stopping point for unloading contraband on the way back from Manila to Acapulco. The contraband might then have been shipped across the Gulf of California to enter mainland Mexico by way of Sonora, where the Jesuits also had missions and sympathies for their financial backers.

text: In 1697 the Jesuit missionary Juan María de Salvatierra established Misión de Nuestra Señora de Loreto Conchó, the first permanent mission on the Baja California Peninsula.[16] Spanish control over the peninsula, including missions, was gradually extended, first in the region around Loreto, then to the south in the Cape region, and finally to the north across the northern boundary of present-day Baja California Sur. A total of 30 Spanish missions in Baja California were established.

text: During the last quarter of the 18th century, the first Spanish settlements were established in what later became the Las Californias Province of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. Reacting to interest by the Russian Empire and, later, Great Britain in the fur-bearing animals of the Pacific north coast, Spain further extended the series of Catholic missions, accompanied by troops and establishing ranches, along the southern and central coast of California. These missions were intended to demonstrate the claim of the Spanish Empire to what is now California. By 1823, 21 Spanish missions had been established in Alta California. Operations were based out of the naval base at San Blas and included not only the establishment and supply of missions in California, but a series of exploration expeditions to the Pacific Northwest and Alaska.

text: The first quarter of the 19th century showed the continuation of the slow colonization of the southern and central California coast by Spanish missionaries, ranchers and troops. By 1820 Spanish influence was marked by the chain of missions reaching from Loreto, north to San Diego, to just north of today's San Francisco Bay Area, and extended inland approximately 25 to 50 miles (40 to 80 km) from the missions. Outside of this zone, perhaps 200,000 to 250,000 Native Americans were continuing to lead traditional lives. The Adams–Onís Treaty, signed in 1819, set the northern boundary of the Spanish claims at the 42nd parallel, effectively creating today's northern boundary between California and Oregon.

text: First Spanish colonies[edit]

text: Spain had maintained a number of missions and presidios in New Spain since 1519. The Crown laid claim to the north coastal provinces of California in 1542. Excluding Santa Fe in New Mexico, settlement of northern New Spain was slow for the next 155 years. Settlements in Loreto, Baja California Sur, were established in 1697, but it was not until the threat of incursion by Russian fur traders and potentially settlers, coming down from Alaska in 1765, that Spain, under King Charles III, felt development of more northern installations was necessary.

text: By then, the Spanish Empire was engaged in the political aftermath of the Seven Years' War, and colonial priorities in far away California afforded only a minimal effort. Alta California was to be settled by Franciscan Friars, protected by troops in the California missions. Between 1774 and 1791, the Crown sent forth a number of expeditions to further explore and settle Alta California and the Pacific Northwest.

text: Portolá expedition[edit]

text: In May 1768, the Spanish Inspector General (Visitador) José de Gálvez planned a four-prong expedition to settle Alta California, two by sea and two by land, which Gaspar de Portolá volunteered to command.

text: The Portolá land expedition arrived at the site of present-day San Diego on June 29, 1769, where it established the Presidio of San Diego. Eager to press on to Monterey Bay, de Portolá and his group, consisting of Father Juan Crespí, 63 leather-jacket soldiers and a hundred mules, headed north on July 14. They reached the present-day site of Los Angeles on August 2, Santa Monica on August 3, Santa Barbara on August 19, San Simeon on September 13, and the mouth of the Salinas River on October 1. Although they were looking for Monterey Bay, the group failed to recognize it when they reached it.

text: On October 31, de Portolá's explorers became the first Europeans known to view San Francisco Bay. Ironically, the Manila Galleons had sailed along this coast for almost 200 years by then, without noticing the bay. The group returned to San Diego in 1770.

text: De Portolá was the first governor of Las Californias.

text: Junípero Serra[edit]

text: Junípero Serra was a Majorcan Franciscan who founded the first Alta California Spanish missions. After King Carlos III ordered the Jesuits expelled from New Spain on February 3, 1768, Serra was named "Father Presidente".

text: Serra founded San Diego de Alcalá in 1769. Later that year, Serra, Governor de Portolá and a small group of men moved north, up the Pacific Coast. They reached Monterey in 1770, where Serra founded the second Alta California mission, San Carlos Borromeo.

text: Alta California missions[edit]

text: The California missions comprise a series of religious outposts established by Spanish Catholic Dominicans, Jesuits, and Franciscans, to spread the Christian doctrine among the local Native Americans. Eighty percent of the financing of Spain's California program went not to missions but rather to the military garrisons established to keep Britain and Russia out of the three great Pacific Ports of San Diego, Monterey and San Francisco; the Santa Barbara presidio on the Channel was added later. The primary benefit to Spain of occupying California was to confirm historic claims to the territory in the context of imperial war with Britain. The missions introduced European livestock, fruits, vegetables, agricultural industry, along with invasive species of plants into the California regions. It is widely believe in California that the labor supply for the missions was supplied by the forcible relocation of the Native Americans and keeping them in peonage.[17] However, more recent scholarship suggests that the tiny number of Spaniards at each mission relied more upon negotiation, enticement and the threat of force to control the estimated 5,000 Indians typically surrounding what would become a mission. The missionaries and military were often at cross purposes in their vision of what California could become, and the missionaries preferred to rely upon Indian allies to maintain control. [18]

text: Most missions became enormous in terms of land area (approximately the size of modern counties in California), and yet the Spanish and Mexican staff was small, with normally two Franciscans and six to eight soldiers in residence. The size of the Indian congregations would grow from a handful at the founding to perhaps two thousand by the end of the Spanish period (1810). All of these buildings were built largely by the native people, under Franciscan supervision. Again, there is controversy in the literature as to whether the labor was forced. Production on missions between 1769 and 1810 was distributed primarily among the Indian congregation. However, in 1810, the California missions and presidios lost their financing as the Spanish Empire collapsed from Buenos Aires to San Francisco, as a result of the imprisonment of King Fernando VII in 1808 by the French. In this context, Indians came under increased pressure to produce, and the missions exported the produce of Indian labor via Anglo-American and Mexican merchants. Whether the proceeds were distributed to Indians or to local military men came increasingly to depend on the political skill and dedication of the individual missionaries. In 1825, independent Mexico finally send a governor to take control of California, but he arrived without adequate payroll for the military. In 1825, the use of uncompensated Indian labor at missions to finance Mexican presidios in California became normalized.[19]

text: In addition to the presidio (royal fort) and pueblo (town), the misión was one of the three major agencies employed by the Spanish crown in an attempt to consolidate its colonial territories. None of these missions were completely self-supporting, requiring continued (albeit modest) financial support.

text: Starting with the onset of the Mexican War of Independence in 1810, this support largely disappeared, and the missions and their converts were left on their own. By 1827, the Mexican government passed the General Law of Expulsion, which exiled Spanish-born people, decimating the clergy in California. Some of the missions were then nationalized by the Mexican government and sold off. It was not until after statehood that the US Supreme Court restored some missions to the orders that owned them.

text: In order to facilitate overland travel, the mission settlements were situated approximately 30 miles (48 km) apart, so that they were separated by one day's long ride on horseback along the 600-mile-long (970 km) el Camino Real, Spanish for "the Royal Road", though often referred to today as the "King's Highway", and also known as the "California Mission Trail". Tradition has it that the padres sprinkled mustard seeds along the trail in order to mark it with bright yellow flowers. Later El Camino Viejo, another more direct route from Los Angeles to Mission San José and San Francisco Bay, developed along the western edge of the San Joaquin Valley.[20][21] Heavy freight movement over long distances was practical only via water, but soldiers, settlers and other travelers and merchandise on horses, mules, or carretas (ox carts), and herds of animals used these routes.

text: Four presidios, strategically placed along the California coast and organized into separate military districts, served to protect the missions and other Spanish settlements in Upper California.

text: A number of mission structures survive today or have been rebuilt, and many have congregations established since the beginning of the 20th century. The highway and missions became for many a romantic symbol of an idyllic and peaceful past. The Mission Revival style was an architectural movement that drew its inspiration from this idealized view of California's past.

text: Ranchos[edit]

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tag: table

text: The Spanish encouraged settlement with large land grants called ranchos, where cattle and sheep were raised. The California missions were secularized following Mexican independence, with the passing of the Mexican secularization act of 1833 and the division of the extensive former mission lands into more ranchos. Cow hides (at roughly $1 each) and fat (known as tallow, used to make candles as well as soaps) were the primary exports of California until the mid-19th century.

text: The owners of these ranchos styled themselves after the Dons in Spain.[citation needed][dubious – discuss] The rancho workers were primarily Native Americans, many of them former residents of the missions who had learned to speak Spanish and ride horses. Some ranchos, such as Rancho El Escorpión and Rancho Little Temecula, were land grants directly to Native Americans.

text: Administrative divisions[edit]

text: In 1773 a boundary between the Baja California missions (whose control had been passed to the Dominicans) and the Franciscan missions of Alta California was set by Francisco Palóu. Due to the growth of the Hispanic population in Alta California by 1804, the province of Las Californias, then a part of the Commandancy General of the Internal Provinces, was divided into two separate territorial administrations following Palóu's division between the Dominican and Franciscan missions. Governor Diego de Borica is credited with defining Alta California and Baja California's official borders.[22] The Baja California Peninsula became the territory of Baja California ("Lower California"), also referred to at times as Vieja California ("Old California"). The northern part became Alta California, also alternatively called Nueva California ("New California"). Because the eastern boundaries of Alta California Province were not defined, it included Nevada, Utah and parts of Arizona, New Mexico, western Colorado and southwestern Wyoming. The province bordered on the east with the Spanish settlements in Arizona and the province of Nuevo México, with the Sierra Nevada or Colorado River serving as the de facto border.[23]

text: Russian colonization[edit]

text: Part of Spain's motivation to settle upper Las Californias was to forestall Russian colonization and British incursion into their territory. In the early 19th century, fur trappers with the Russian-American Company of the tsarist Russian Empire explored down the West Coast from trading settlements in Alaska, hunting for sea otter pelts as far south as San Diego. In August 1812, the Russian-American Company set up a fortified trading post at Fort Ross, near present-day Bodega Bay on the Sonoma Coast of Northern California, 60 miles (97 km) north of San Francisco on land claimed, but not occupied, by the British Empire. This colony was active until the Russians departed in 1841.[24]

text: In 1836 El Presidio de Sonoma, or "Sonoma Barracks", was established by General Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo, the Comandante of the northern frontier of Alta California. It was established as a part of Mexico's strategy to halt Russian incursions into the region, as the Mission San Francisco de Solano (Sonoma Mission) was for the Spanish.

text: California under Mexican rule (1821–1846)[edit]

text: General[edit]

text: Substantial changes occurred during the second quarter of the 19th century. By 1809, Spain no longer governed California because the Spanish king was imprisoned by the French. For the next decade and a half, the colony came to rely upon trade with Anglo-Americans and Spanish-Americans from Lima and San Blas for economic survival and political news. The victory in the Mexican War of Independence from Spain in 1821 marked the beginning of Mexican rule in California, in theory, though in practice Mexico did not exert control until 1825. The Indian congregations at missions and the missionaries provided the critical source of products that underlay export revenues for the entire colony between 1810 and 1825. Converting new Indians faded, while ranching and trade increased.

text: As the successor state to the Viceroyalty of New Spain, Mexico automatically included the provinces of Alta California and Baja California as territories. With the establishment of a republican government in 1823, Alta California Territory, like many northern territories, was not recognized as one of the constituent states of Mexico because of its small population. The 1824 Constitution of Mexico refers to Alta California as a "territory". Independent Mexico came into existence in 1821, yet did not send a governor to California until 1825, when José María de Echeandía brought the spirit of republican government and mestizo liberation to the frontier. Echeandia began the moves to emancipate Indians from missions, and to also liberate the profit motive among soldiers who were granted ranches where they utilized Indian labor. Pressure grew to abolish missions, which prevented private soldiers from extending their control over the most fertile land which was tilled by the Indian congregations. By 1829, the most powerful missionaries had been removed from the scene: Luis Martinez of San Luis Obispo, and Peyri of Mission San Luis Rey. The Mexican Congress had passed the General Law of Expulsion in 1827. This law declared all persons born in Spain to be "illegal immigrants" and ordered them to leave the new country of Mexico. Many of the missionary clergy were Spanish and aging, and gave in to the pressure to leave.

text: In 1831 a small group made up of the more wealthy citizens of Alta California got together and petitioned Governor Manuel Victoria asking for democratic reforms. The previous governor, José María de Echeandía, was more popular, so the leading wealthy citizens suggested to Echeandía that Victoria's stay as governor would be coming to an abrupt end soon. They built up a small army, marched into Los Angeles, and "captured" the town. Victoria gathered a small army and went to fight the upstart army, leading it himself. He met the opposing army on December 5, 1831, at Cahuenga Pass. In the Battle of Cahuenga Pass Victoria was wounded and resigned the governorship of Alta California. The previous governor, Echeandía, took the job, which he did until José Figueroa took over in 1833.

text: Next, the Mexican Congress passed An Act for the Secularization of the Missions of California on August 17, 1833. Mission San Juan Capistrano was the very first to feel the effects of this legislation the following year. The military received legal permission to distribute the Indian congregations' land amongst themselves in 1834 with secularization. Some aging Franciscans never abandoned the missions, such as Zalvidea of San Juan Capistrano. From Spain, Peyri regretted that he had departed.

text: In 1836, Mexico repealed the 1824 federalist constitution and adopted a more centralist political organization (under the Siete Leyes) that reunited Alta and Baja California in a single California Department (Departamento de las Californias). The change, however, had little practical effect in far-off Alta California. The capital of Alta California Territory remained Monterey, as it had been since the 1769 Portola expedition first established an Alta California government, and the local political structures were unchanged.

text: In September 1835, Nicolás Gutiérrez was appointed as interim governor of California in January 1836, to be replaced by Mariano Chico in April, but he was very unpopular. Thinking a revolt was coming, Chico returned to Mexico to gather troops, but was reprimanded for leaving his post. Gutierrez, the military commandant, re-assumed the governorship, but he too was unpopular. Senior members of Alta California's legislature Juan Bautista Alvarado and José Castro, with support from Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo, Comandante of the Fourth Military District and Director of Colonization of the Northern Frontier, and assistance from a group of Americans led by Isaac Graham, staged a revolt in November 1836 and forced Gutierrez to relinquish power. The Americans wanted Californian independence, but Alvarado instead preferred staying part of Mexico, albeit with greater autonomy.

text: In 1840, Graham allegedly began agitating for a Texas-style revolution in California, in March issuing a notice for a planned horse race that was loosely construed into being a plot for revolt. Alvarado notified Vallejo of the situation, and in April the Californian military began arresting American and English immigrants, eventually detaining about 100 in the Presidio of Monterey. At the time, there were fewer than 400 foreigners from all nations in the department. Vallejo returned to Monterey and ordered Castro to take 47 of the prisoners to San Blas by ship, to be deported to their home countries. Under pressure from British and American diplomats, President Anastasio Bustamante released the remaining prisoners and began a court martial against Castro. Also assisting in the release of those caught up in the Graham Affair was American traveler Thomas J. Farnham.[25] In 1841, Graham and 18 of his associates returned to Monterey, with new passports issued by the Mexican federal government.

text: Also in 1841, political leaders in the United States were declaring their doctrine of Manifest Destiny, and Californios grew increasingly concerned over their intentions. Vallejo conferred with Castro and Alvarado recommending that Mexico send military reinforcements to enforce their military control of California.

text: In response, Mexican president Antonio López de Santa Anna sent Brigadier General Manuel Micheltorena and 300 men to California in January 1842. Micheltorena was to assume the governorship and the position of commandant general. In October, before Micheltorena reached Monterey, American Commodore Thomas ap Catesby Jones mistakenly thought that war had broken out between the United States and Mexico. He sailed into Monterey Bay and demanded the surrender of the Presidio of Monterey. Micheltorena's force was still in the south, and the Monterey presidio was undermanned. As such, Alvarado reluctantly surrendered, and retired to Rancho El Alisal. The next day Commodore Jones learned of his mistake, but Alvarado declined to return and instead referred the commodore to Micheltorena.

text: Micheltorena eventually made it to Monterey, but was unable to control his troops, a number of whom were convicts. This fomented rumors of a revolt, and by 1844, Alvarado himself became associated with the malcontents and an order was given by Micheltorena for his arrest. His detention, however, was short-lived as Micheltorena was under orders to organize a large contingent in preparation for war against the United States. All hands would be required for the task at hand.

text: This turned out to backfire on him, as on November 14, 1844, a group of Californios led by Manuel Castro revolted against Mexican authority. José Castro and Alvarado commanded the troops. There was no actual fighting, however; a truce was negotiated and Micheltorena agreed to dismiss his convict troops. However, Micheltorena reneged on the deal and fighting broke out this time. The rebels won the Battle of Providencia in February 1845 at the Los Angeles River and Micheltorena and his troops left California.

text: Pío Pico was installed as governor in Los Angeles, and José Castro became commandant general. Later, Alvarado was elected to the Mexican Congress. He prepared to move to Mexico City, but Pico declined funding for the transfer, and relations between the northern part of Alta California, with the increased presence of Americans, and the southern part, where the Spanish-speaking Californios dominated, became more tense.

text: John C. Frémont arrived in Monterey at the beginning of 1846. Afraid of foreign aggression, Castro assembled his militia, with Alvarado second in command, but Frémont went north to Oregon instead. An unstable political situation in Mexico strained relations among the Californios, and it seemed that civil war would break out between north and south.

text: By 1846, Alta California had a Spanish-speaking population of under 10,000, tiny even compared to the sparse population of states in the rest of northern Mexico. The Californios consisted of about 800 families, mostly concentrated on large ranchos. About 1,300 American citizens and a very mixed group of about 500 Europeans, scattered mostly from Monterey to Sacramento, dominated trading as the Californios dominated ranching. In terms of adult males, the two groups were about equal, but the American citizens were more recent arrivals.

text: Other nationalities[edit]

text: The Russian-American Company established Fort Ross in 1812 as its southernmost colony in North America, intended to provide Russian posts farther north with agricultural goods. When this need was filled by a deal between the RAC and the Hudson's Bay Company for produce from Fort Vancouver on the Columbia River and other installations, the fort's intent was derailed, although it remained in Russian hands until 1841, and for the duration had a small population of Russians and other nationalities from the Russian Empire.

text: In this period, American and British traders began entering California in search of beaver. Using the Siskiyou Trail, Old Spanish Trail, and later, the California Trail, these trading parties arrived in California, often without the knowledge or approval of the Mexican authorities, and laid the foundation for the arrival of later Gold Rush era Forty-Niners, farmers and ranchers.

text: In 1840, the American adventurer, writer and lawyer Richard Henry Dana, Jr., wrote of his experiences aboard ship off California in the 1830s in Two Years Before the Mast.[26]

text: The leader of a French scientific expedition to California, Eugène Duflot de Mofras, wrote in 1840, "...it is evident that California will belong to whatever nation chooses to send there a man-of-war and two hundred men."[27][28] In 1841, General Vallejo wrote Governor Alvarado that "...there is no doubt that France is intriguing to become mistress of California", but a series of troubled French governments did not uphold French interests in the area. During disagreements with Mexicans, the German-Swiss francophile John Sutter threatened to raise the French flag over California and place himself and his settlement, New Helvetia, under French protection.

text: American interest and immigrants [edit]

text: Although a small number of American traders and trappers had lived in California since the early 1830s, the first organized overland party of American immigrants was the Bartleson–Bidwell Party of 1841. With mules and on foot, this pioneering group groped its way across the continent using the still untested California Trail.[29] Also in 1841, an overland exploratory party of the United States Exploring Expedition came down the Siskiyou Trail from the Pacific Northwest. In 1844, Caleb Greenwood guided the first settlers to take wagons over the Sierra Nevada. In 1846, the misfortunes of the Donner Party earned notoriety as they struggled to enter California.

text: California under American rule (beginning 1846)[edit]

text: Population[edit]

text:
Historical population

Census
Pop.

%±

1840
8,000

—

1850
120,000

1,400.0%

1860
379,994

216.7%

1870
560,247

47.4%

Sources: 1850–1870 U.S. Census[30]

text: The non-Indian population of California in 1840 was about 8,000, as confirmed by the California 1850 U.S. Census, which asked everyone their place of birth. The Indian population is unknown but has been variously estimated at about 30,000 to 150,000 in 1840. The population in 1850, the first U.S. census, does not count the Indian population and omits San Francisco, the largest city, as well as the counties of Santa Clara and Contra Costa, all of whose tabulations were lost before they could be included in the totals. Some estimates can be obtained from the Alta Californian newspapers published in San Francisco in 1850. A corrected California 1850 Census would go from 92,597 (the uncorrected "official number") to over 120,000. The 1850 U.S. Census, the first census that included the names and sex of everyone in a family, showed only 7,019 females, with 4,165 non-Indian females older than 15 in the state.[31] To this should be added about 1,300 women older than 15 from San Francisco, Santa Clara, and Contra Costa counties whose censuses were lost and not included in the totals.[32] There were less than 10,000 females in a total California population (not including Indians who were not counted) of about 120,000 residents in 1850. About 3.0% of the Gold Rush "Argonauts" before 1850 were female or about 3,500 female Gold Rushers, compared to about 115,000 male California Gold Rushers.

text: By California's 1852 "special" State Census, the population had already increased to about 200,000, of which about 10% or 20,000 were female.[33] Competition by 1852 had decreased the steamship fare via Panama to about $200. Many of the new and successful California residents sent off for their wives, sweethearts and families to join them in California. After 1850 the Panama Railroad (completed 1855) was already working its way across the Isthmus of Panama, making it ever easier to get to and from California in about 40 days. Additional thousands came via the California Trail, but this took longer—about 120 to 160 days. The "normal" male to female ratio of about one to one would not arrive until the 1950 census. California for over a century was short on females.

text: Bear Flag Revolt and American conquest[edit]

text: After the United States declared war on Mexico on May 13, 1846, it took almost two months (mid-July 1846) for definite word of war to get to California. Upon hearing rumors of war, U.S. consul Thomas O. Larkin, stationed in Monterey, tried to keep peace between the Americans and the small Mexican military garrison commanded by José Castro. American army captain John C. Frémont, with about 60 well-armed men, had entered California in December 1845 and was making a slow march to Oregon when they received word that war between Mexico and the U.S. was imminent.[34]

text: On June 15, 1846, some 30 non-Mexican settlers, mostly Americans, staged a revolt, seized the small Mexican garrison in Sonoma, and captured Mexican general Mariano Vallejo. They raised the "Bear Flag" of the California Republic over Sonoma. The so-called California Republic lasted one week with William B. Ide as president of the Republic, until the U.S. Army, led by Frémont, took over on June 23. The California state flag today is based on this original Bear Flag, and continues to contain the words "California Republic".

text: Commodore John Drake Sloat, on hearing of imminent war and the revolt in Sonoma, ordered his naval forces to occupy Yerba Buena (present San Francisco) on July 7 and raise the American flag. On July 15, Sloat transferred his command to Commodore Robert F. Stockton, a much more aggressive leader. Commodore Stockton put Frémont's forces under his command. Frémont's "California Battalion" swelled to about 160 men with the addition of volunteers recruited from American settlements, and on July 19 he entered Monterey in a joint operation with some of Stockton's sailors and marines. The official word had been received — the Mexican–American War was on. The American forces easily took over the north of California; within days, they controlled Monterey, San Francisco, Sonoma, and Sutter's Fort.

text: In Southern California, Mexican General José Castro and Governor Pío Pico fled from Los Angeles. When Stockton's forces entered Los Angeles unresisted on August 13, 1846, the nearly bloodless conquest of California seemed complete. Stockton, however, left too small a force (36 men) in Los Angeles, and the Californios, acting on their own and without help from Mexico, led by José María Flores, forced the small American garrison to retire in late September.

text: Two hundred reinforcements were sent by Stockton, led by US Navy Captain William Mervine, but were repulsed in the Battle of Dominguez Rancho, October 7–9, 1846, near San Pedro, where 14 US Marines were killed. Meanwhile, General Kearny with a much reduced squadron of 100 dragoons finally reached California after a grueling march across New Mexico, Arizona, and the Sonoran Desert. On December 6, 1846, they fought the Battle of San Pasqual near San Diego, where 18 of Kearny's troop were killed—the largest number of American casualties lost in battle in California.

text: Stockton rescued Kearny's surrounded forces and, with their combined force, they moved northward from San Diego. Entering the present-day Orange County area on January 8, they linked up with Frémont's northern force. With the combined American forces totaling 660 troops, they fought the Californios in the Battle of Rio San Gabriel. The next day, January 9, 1847, they fought the Battle of La Mesa. Three days later, on January 12, 1847, the last significant body of Californios surrendered to American forces. That marked the end of the war in California. On January 13, 1847, the Treaty of Cahuenga was signed.

text: On January 28, 1847, Army lieutenant William Tecumseh Sherman and his army unit arrived in Monterey, as American forces continued to stream into California. On March 15, 1847, Col. Jonathan D. Stevenson's Seventh Regiment of New York Volunteers of about 900 men began to arrive. All of these troops were still in California when gold was discovered in January 1848.

text: The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed on February 2, 1848, marked the end of the Mexican–American War. In that treaty, the United States agreed to pay Mexico $18,250,000; Mexico formally ceded California (and other northern territories) to the United States; and the first international boundary was drawn between the U.S. and Mexico by treaty. The previous boundary had been negotiated in 1819 between Spain and the United States in the Adams–Onís Treaty, which established the present border between California and Oregon. San Diego Bay is one of the few natural harbors in California south of San Francisco, and to claim this strategic asset the southern border was slanted to include the entire bay in California.

text: Gold Rush[edit]

text: In January 1848, gold was discovered at Sutter's Mill in the Sierra Nevada foothills about 40 miles east of Sacramento – beginning the California Gold Rush, which had the most extensive impact on population growth of the state of any era.[35][36]

text: The miners and merchants settled in towns along what is now California State Highway 49, and settlements sprang up along the Siskiyou Trail as gold was discovered elsewhere in California (notably in Siskiyou County). The nearest deep-water seaport was San Francisco Bay, and San Francisco became the home for bankers who financed exploration for gold.

text: The Gold Rush brought the world to California. By 1855, some 300,000 "Forty-Niners" had arrived from every continent; many soon left, of course—some rich, most not very rich. A precipitous drop in the Native American population occurred in the decade after the discovery of gold.

text: Statehood: 1849–1850 [edit]

text: In 1847–49, California was run by the U.S. military; local government continued to be run by alcaldes (mayors) in most places, but now some were Americans. Bennett C. Riley, the last military governor, called a constitutional convention to meet in Monterey in September 1849. Its 48 delegates were mostly pre-1846 American settlers; eight were Californios. They unanimously outlawed slavery and set up a state government that operated for 10 months before California was given official statehood by Congress on September 9, 1850, as part of the Compromise of 1850.[37] After Monterey, the state capital was variously San Jose (1850–1851), Vallejo (1852–1853) and Benicia (1853–1854), until Sacramento was finally selected in 1854.

text: Californios (dissatisfied with inequitable taxes and land laws) and pro-slavery Southerners in lightly populated, rural Southern California attempted three times in the 1850s to achieve a separate statehood or territorial status separate from Northern California. The last attempt, the Pico Act of 1859, was passed by the California State Legislature, signed by the state governor, approved overwhelmingly by voters in the proposed "Territory of Colorado" and sent to Washington, D.C., with a strong advocate in Senator Milton Latham. However, the secession crisis in 1860 led to the proposal never coming to a vote.[38][39]

text: The Civil War[edit]

text: Because of the distance factor, California played a minor role in the American Civil War. Although some settlers sympathized with the Confederacy, they were not allowed to organize, and their newspapers were closed down. Former Senator William M. Gwin, a Confederate sympathizer, was arrested and fled to Europe. Powerful capitalists dominated Californian politics through their control of mines, shipping, and finance. They controlled the state through the new Republican Party. Nearly all the men who volunteered as soldiers stayed in the West to guard facilities, suppress secessionists, or fight the Indians. Some 2,350 men in the California Column marched east across Arizona in 1862 to expel the Confederates from Arizona and New Mexico. The California Column then spent most of the remainder of the war fighting hostile Indians in the area.

text: Labor[edit]

text: In his maiden speech before the United States Senate, California Senator David C. Broderick stated, "There is no place in the Union, no place on earth, where labor is so honored and so well rewarded..." as in California. Early immigrants to California came with skills in many trades, and some had come from places where workers were being organized. California's labor movements began in San Francisco, the only large city in California for decades and once the center of trade-unionism west of the Rockies. Los Angeles remained an open-shop stronghold for half a century until unions from the north collaborated to make California a union state.

text: Because of San Francisco's relative isolation, skilled workers could make demands that their counterparts on the East Coast could not. Printers first attempted to organize in 1850, teamsters, draymen, lightermen, riggers and stevedores in 1851, bakers and bricklayers in 1852, caulkers, carpenters, plasterers, brickmasons, blacksmiths and shipwrights in 1853 and musicians in 1856. Although these efforts required several starts to become stabilized, they did earn better pay and working conditions and began the long efforts of state labor legislation. Between 1850 and 1870, legislation made provisions for payment of wages, the mechanic's lien and the eight-hour workday.

text: It was said that during the last half of the 19th century more of San Francisco's workers enjoyed an eight-hour workday than any other American city. The molders' and boilermakers' strike of 1864 was called in opposition to a newly formed iron-works employers association which threatened a one thousand dollar a day fine on any employer who granted the strikers' demands and had wired for strikebreakers across the country. The San Francisco Trades Union, the city's first central labor body, sent a delegation to meet a boatload of strikebreakers at Panama and educated them. They arrived in San Francisco as enrolled union members.

text: After the Civil War ended in 1865, California continued to grow rapidly. Independent miners were largely displaced by large corporate mining operations. Railroads began to be built, and both the railroad companies and the mining companies began to hire large numbers of laborers. The decisive event was the opening of the transcontinental railroad in 1869; six days by train brought a traveler from Chicago to San Francisco, compared to six months by ship. The era of comparative protection for California labor ended with the arrival of the railroad. For decades after, labor opposed Chinese immigrant workers and politicians pushed anti-Chinese legislation.

text: Importation of slaves or so-called "contract" labor was fought by miners and city workers and made illegal through legislation in 1852.

text: The first statewide federated labor body was the Mechanics' State Council that championed the eight-hour day against the employers' 1867 "Ten Hour League". The Council affiliated with the National Labor Union, America's first national union effort. By 1872 Chinese workers comprised half of all factory workers in San Francisco and were paid wages far below white workers. "The Chinese Must Go!" was the slogan of Denis Kearney, a prominent labor leader in San Francisco. He appeared on the scene in 1877 and led sandlot vigilantes that roamed the city beating Chinese and wrecking their businesses.

text: Twice the seamen of the West Coast had tried to organize a union, but were defeated. In 1875, the Seaman's Protective Association was established and began the struggle for higher wages and better conditions on ships. The effort was joined by Henry George, editor of the San Francisco Post. The legislative struggle to enforce laws against brutal ship's captains and the requirement that two-thirds of sailors be Americans was proposed, and the effort was carried for thirty years by Andrew Furuseth and the Sailors' Union of the Pacific after 1908, and the International Seamen's Union of America. The Coast's Seamen's Journal was founded in 1887, for years the most important labor journal in California.

text: Concurrently, waterfront organizing led to the Maritime Federation of the Pacific.

text: See: History of California 1900 to present.

text: Labor politics and the rise of Nativism[edit]

text: Thousands of Chinese men arrived in California to work as laborers, recruited by industry as low-wage workers. Over time, conflicts in the gold fields and cities created prejudices between white and Chinese laborers. During the decade-long depression after the transcontinental railroad was completed, white workers began to lay blame on the Chinese laborers. Many Chinese were expelled from the mine fields. Some returned to China after the Central Pacific was built. Those who stayed mostly moved to the Chinatown in San Francisco and a few other cities, where they were relatively safe from violent attacks they suffered elsewhere.

text: From 1850 through 1900, anti-Chinese nativist sentiment resulted in the passage of innumerable laws, many of which remained in effect well into the middle of the 20th century. The most flagrant episode was probably the creation and ratification of a new state constitution in 1879. Thanks to vigorous lobbying by the anti-Chinese Workingmen's Party, led by Denis Kearney (an immigrant from Ireland), Article XIX, Section 4 forbade corporations from hiring Chinese "coolies", and empowered all California cities and counties to completely expel Chinese persons or to limit where they could reside. The law was repealed in 1952.

text: The 1879 constitutional convention also dispatched a message to Congress pleading for strong immigration restrictions, which led to the passage of the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1882. The act was upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1889, and it would not be repealed by Congress until 1943. Similar sentiments led to the development of the Gentlemen's Agreement with Japan, by which Japan voluntarily agreed to restrict emigration to the United States. California also passed an Alien Land Act which barred aliens, especially Asians, from holding title to land. Because it was difficult for people born in Asia to obtain U.S. citizenship until the 1960s, land ownership titles were held by their American-born children, who were full citizens. The law was overturned by the California Supreme Court as unconstitutional in 1952.

text: In 1886, when a Chinese laundry owner challenged the constitutionality of a San Francisco ordinance clearly designed to drive Chinese laundries out of business, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in his favor, and in doing so, laid the theoretical foundation for modern equal protection constitutional law. See Yick Wo v. Hopkins, 118 U.S. 356 (1886). Meanwhile, even with severe restrictions on Asian immigration, tensions between unskilled workers and wealthy landowners persisted up to and through the Great Depression. Novelist Jack London writes of the struggles of workers in the city of Oakland in his visionary classic The Valley of the Moon, a title evoking the pristine situation of Sonoma County between sea and mountains, redwoods and oaks, fog and sunshine.

text: Rise of the railroads[edit]

text: The Big Four were the famous railroad tycoons who built the Central Pacific Railroad, (C.P.R.R.), which formed the western portion of the first transcontinental railroad in the United States. They were Leland Stanford, (1824–1893), Collis Potter Huntington (1821–1900), Mark Hopkins (1813–1878), and Charles Crocker (1822–1888).[40] The establishment of America's transcontinental rail lines permanently linked California to the rest of the country, and the far-reaching transportation systems that grew out of them during the century that followed contributed immeasurably to the state's unrivaled social, political, and economic development.[41][42]

text: The Big Four dominated California's economy and politics in the 1880s and 1890s, and Collis P. Huntington became one of the most hated man in California. One typical California textbook argues:

text: Huntington, however, defended himself:

text: Late developments[edit]

text: 1898 saw the founding of the League of California Cities, an association intended to fight city government corruption, coordinate strategies for cities facing issues such as electrification, and to lobby the state government on behalf of cities.


document_title: National Recovery Administration

question_text: who was appointed to manage the national recovery administration

root

text: National Recovery Administration

text: Background[edit]

text: As part of the "First New Deal," the NRA was based on the premise that the Great Depression was caused by market instability and that government intervention was necessary to balance the interests of farmers, business and labor. The NIRA, which created the NRA, declared that codes of fair competition should be developed through public hearings, and gave the Administration the power to develop voluntary agreements with industries regarding work hours, pay rates, and price fixing.[2] The NRA was put into operation by an executive order, signed the same day as the passage of the NIRA.

tag: p

text: New Dealers who were part of the administration of President Franklin D. Roosevelt saw the close analogy with the earlier crisis handling the economics of World War I. They brought ideas and experience from the government controls and spending of 1917–18.

text: In his June 13, 1933 "Statement on the National Industrial Recovery Act," President Roosevelt described the spirit of the NRA: "On this idea, the first part of the NIRA proposes to our industry a great spontaneous cooperation to put millions of men back in their regular jobs this summer."[3][4] He further stated, "But if all employers in each trade now band themselves faithfully in these modern guilds—without exception—and agree to act together and at once, none will be hurt and millions of workers, so long deprived of the right to earn their bread in the sweat of their labor, can raise their heads again. The challenge of this law is whether we can sink selfish interest and present a solid front against a common peril."[3][4]

text: Inception[edit]

text: The first director of the NRA was Hugh S. Johnson, a retired United States Army general and a successful businessman. He was named Time magazine's "Man of the Year" in 1933. Johnson saw the NRA as a national crusade designed to restore employment and regenerate industry.

text: Johnson called on every business establishment in the nation to accept a stopgap "blanket code": a minimum wage of between 20 and 45 cents per hour, a maximum workweek of 35 to 45 hours, and the abolition of child labor. Johnson and Roosevelt contended that the "blanket code" would raise consumer purchasing power and increase employment.

text: To mobilize political support for the NRA, Johnson launched the "NRA Blue Eagle" publicity campaign to boost his bargaining strength to negotiate the codes with business and labor.

text: Historian Clarence B. Carson noted:

text: At this moment in time from the early days of the New Deal, it is difficult to recapture, even in imagination, the heady enthusiasm among a goodly number of intellectuals for a government planned economy. So far as can now be told, they believed that a bright new day was dawning, that national planning would result in an organically integrated economy in which everyone would joyfully work for the common good, and that American society would be freed at last from those antagonisms arising, as General Hugh Johnson put it, from "the murderous doctrine of savage and wolfish individualism, looking to dog-eat-dog and devil take the hindmost."[5]

text: Goal[edit]

text: The negotiations of a code for the bituminous coal industry came against the background of a rapidly swelling union, the United Mine Workers headed by John L. Lewis and an unstable truce in the Pennsylvania coal fields. The NRA tried to get the principals to compromise with a national code for a decentralized industry in which many companies were anti-union, sought to keep wage differentials, and tried to escape the collective bargaining provisions of section 7A. Agreement among the parties was finally reached only after the NRA threatened that it would impose a code. The code did not establish price stabilization, nor did it resolve questions of industrial self-government versus governmental supervision or of centralization versus local autonomy, but it made dramatic changes in abolishing child labor, eliminating the compulsory scrip wages and company store, and establishing fair trade practices. It paved the way for an important wage settlement.[6]

text: Price controls[edit]

text: In early 1935 the new chairman, Samuel Williams, announced that the NRA would stop setting prices, but businessmen complained. Chairman Williams told them plainly that, unless they could prove it would damage business, NRA was going to put an end to price control. Williams said, "Greater productivity and employment would result if greater price flexibility were attained."[7] Of the 2,000 businessmen on hand probably 90% opposed Mr. Williams' aim, reported Time magazine: "To them a guaranteed price for their products looks like a royal road to profits. A fixed price above cost has proved a lifesaver to more than one inefficient producer."[7] However, it was also argued NRA's price control method promoted monopolies.[8]

text: The business position was summarized by George A. Sloan, head of the Cotton Textile Code Authority:

text: "Maximum hours and minimum wage provisions, useful and necessary as they are in themselves, do not prevent price demoralization. While putting the units of an industry on a fair competitive level insofar as labor costs are concerned, they do not prevent destructive price cutting in the sale of commodities produced, any more than a fixed price of material or other element of cost would prevent it. Destructive competition at the expense of employees is lessened, but it is left in full swing against the employer himself and the economic soundness of his enterprise....But if the partnership of industry with Government which was invoked by the President were terminated (as we believe it will not be), then the spirit of cooperation, which is one of the best fruits of the NRA equipment, could not survive.[7]

text: Critics[edit]

text: Most businesses adopted the NRA without complaint, but Henry Ford was reluctant to join.[9]

text: The National Recovery Review Board, headed by noted criminal lawyer Clarence Darrow, a prominent liberal, was set up by President Roosevelt in March 1934 and abolished by him that same June. The board issued three reports highly critical of the NRA from the perspective of small business, charging the NRA with fostering cartels. The Darrow board, influenced by Justice Louis D. Brandeis, wanted instead to promote competitive capitalism.[10]

text: Representing big business, the American Liberty League, 1934–40, was run by leading industrialists who opposed the liberalism of the New Deal. Regarding the controversial NRA, the League was ambivalent. Jouett Shouse, the League president, commented that "the NRA has indulged in unwarranted excesses of attempted regulation"; on the other, he added that "in many regards [the NRA] has served a useful purpose."[11] Shouse said that he had "deep sympathy" with the goals of the NRA, explaining, "While I feel very strongly that the prohibition of child labor, the maintenance of a minimum wage and the limitation of the hours of work belong under our form of government in the realm of the affairs of the different states, yet I am entirely willing to agree that in the case of an overwhelming national emergency the Federal Government for a limited period should be permitted to assume jurisdiction of them."[12]

text: British journalist Alistair Cooke described Franklin Delano Roosevelt's presidency of the United States of America in the two years from his inauguration to the Supreme Court's declaration that the National Recovery Administration was unconstitutional, as a benevolent dictatorship.[13]

text: The NRA in practice[edit]

text: The NRA negotiated specific sets of codes with leaders of the nation's major industries; the most important provisions were anti-deflationary floors below which no company would lower prices or wages, and agreements on maintaining employment and production. In a remarkably short time, the NRA won agreements from almost every major industry in the nation. According to some conservative economists, the NRA increased the cost of doing business by forty percent.[14] Donald Richberg, who soon replaced Johnson as the head of the NRA said:

text: There is no choice presented to American business between intelligently planned and uncontrolled industrial operations and a return to the gold-plated anarchy that masqueraded as "rugged individualism."...Unless industry is sufficiently socialized by its private owners and managers so that great essential industries are operated under public obligation appropriate to the public interest in them, the advance of political control over private industry is inevitable.[15]

text: By the time it ended in May 1935, industrial production was 22% higher than in May 1933.[citation needed]

text: Specific industries[edit]

text: Pennock (1997) shows that the rubber tire industry faced debilitating challenges, mostly brought about by changes in the industry's retail structure and exacerbated by the Depression. Segments of the industry attempted to use the NRA codes to solve these new problems and stabilize the tire market, but the tire manufacturing and tire retailing codes were patent failures. Instead of leading to cartelization and higher prices, which is what most scholars assume the NRA codes did, the tire industry codes led to even more fragmentation and price cutting.[16]

text: Alexander (1997) examines the macaroni industry and concludes that cost heterogeneity was a major source of the "compliance crisis" affecting a number of NRA "codes of fair competition" that were negotiated by industries and submitted for government approval under the National Industry Recovery Act of 1933. The argument boils down to assumptions that progressives at the NRA allowed majority coalitions of small, high-cost firms to impose codes in heterogeneous industries, and that these codes were designed by the high-cost firms under an ultimately erroneous belief that they would be enforced by the NRA.[17]

text: Storrs (2000) says the National Consumers' League (NCL) had been instrumental in the passage and legal defense of labor legislation in many states since 1899. Women activists used the New Deal opportunity to gain a national forum. General Secretary Lucy Randolph Mason and her league relentlessly lobbied the NRA to make its regulatory codes just and fair for all workers and to eliminate explicit and de facto discrimination in pay, working conditions, and opportunities for reasons of sex, race, or union status. Even after the demise of the NRA, the league continued campaigning for collective bargaining rights and fair labor standards at both federal and state levels.[18]

text: Enforcement[edit]

text: About 23 million people were employed under the NRA codes. However, violations of codes became common and attempts were made to use the courts to enforce the NRA. The NRA included a multitude of regulations imposing the pricing and production standards for all sorts of goods and services. Individuals were arrested for not complying with these codes. For example, one small businessman was fined for violating the "Tailor's Code" by pressing a suit for 35 rather than NRA required 40 cents. Roosevelt critic John T. Flynn, in The Roosevelt Myth (1944), wrote:

text:
“
The NRA was discovering it could not enforce its rules. Black markets grew up. Only the most violent police methods could procure enforcement. In Sidney Hillman’s garment industry the code authority employed enforcement police. They roamed through the garment district like storm troopers. They could enter a man’s factory, send him out, line up his employees, subject them to minute interrogation, take over his books on the instant. Night work was forbidden. Flying squadrons of these private coat-and-suit police went through the district at night, battering down doors with axes looking for men who were committing the crime of sewing together a pair of pants at night. But without these harsh methods many code authorities said there could be no compliance because the public was not back of it.
”

text: The NRA was famous for its bureaucracy. Journalist Raymond Clapper reported that between 4,000 and 5,000 business practices were prohibited by NRA orders that carried the force of law, which were contained in some 3,000 administrative orders running to over 10 million pages, and supplemented by what Clapper said were "innumerable opinions and directions from national, regional and code boards interpreting and enforcing provisions of the act." There were also "the rules of the code authorities, themselves, each having the force of law and affecting the lives and conduct of millions of persons." Clapper concluded: "It requires no imagination to appreciate the difficulty the business man has in keeping informed of these codes, supplemental codes, code amendments, executive orders, administrative orders, office orders, interpretations, rules, regulations and obiter dicta."[19]

text: Judicial review[edit]

text: On 27 May 1935, in the court case of Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States, the Supreme Court held the mandatory codes section of NIRA unconstitutional,[20] because it attempted to regulate commerce that was not interstate in character, and that the codes represented an unacceptable delegation of power from the legislature to the executive. Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes wrote for a unanimous Court in invalidating the industrial "codes of fair competition" which the NIRA enabled the President to issue. The Court held that the codes violated the United States Constitution's separation of powers as an impermissible delegation of legislative power to the executive branch. The Court also held that the NIRA provisions were in excess of congressional power under the Commerce Clause.[21]

text: The Court distinguished between direct effects on interstate commerce, which Congress could lawfully regulate, and indirect, which were purely matters of state law. Though the raising and sale of poultry was an interstate industry, the Court found that the "stream of interstate commerce" had stopped in this case: Schechter's slaughterhouses bought chickens only from intrastate wholesalers and sold to intrastate buyers. Any interstate effect of Schechter was indirect, and therefore beyond federal reach.[22]

text: Specifically, the Court invalidated regulations of the poultry industry promulgated under the authority of the National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933, including price and wage fixing, as well as requirements regarding a whole shipment of chickens, including unhealthy ones, which has led to the case becoming known as "the sick chicken case." The ruling was one of a series which overturned some New Deal legislation between January 1935 and January 1936, and which ultimately caused Roosevelt to attempt to pack the Court with judges that were in favor of the New Deal.

text: Subsequent to the decision, the remainder of Title I was extended until April 1, 1936, by joint resolution of Congress (49 Stat. 375), June 14, 1935, and NRA was reorganized by E.O. 7075, June 15, 1935, to facilitate its new role as a promoter of industrial cooperation and to enable it to produce a series of economic studies,[20] which the National Recovery Review Board was already doing.[23] Many of the labor provisions reappeared in the Wagner Act of 1935.

text: Legacy[edit]

text: In Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in 1933, DeBenneville "Bert" Bell formed a new National Football League franchise to replace the defunct Frankford Yellow Jackets, naming this team the Eagles in recognition of the NRA (a name the team retains to the present).[24][25]

text: In 1934, at the request of the Interior Secretary Ickes, who wished to use the statute criminalizing making false statements to enforce Section 9(c) of the NIRA against producers of "hot oil", oil produced in violation of production restrictions established pursuant to the NIRA, Congress passed Pub.L. 73–394, 48 Stat. 996, enacted June 18, 1934, which amended the False Claims Act of 1863 to read:[26]

text: … or whoever, for the purpose of obtaining or aiding to obtain the payment or approval of such claim, or for the purpose and with the intent of cheating and swindling or defrauding the Government of the United States, or any department thereof, or any corporation in which the United States of America is a stockholder, shall knowingly and willfully falsify or conceal or cover up by any trick, scheme, or device a material fact, or make or cause to be made any false or fraudulent statements or representations, or make or use or cause to be made or used any false bill, receipt, voucher, account, roll, claim, certificate, affidavit, or deposition, knowing the same to contain any fraudulent or fictitious statement or entry, in any matter within the jurisdiction of any department or agency of the United States or of any corporation in which the United States of America is a stockholder …

text: This form of the statute, in slightly modified form, still exists today at 18 U.S.C. § 1001.


document_title: Retirement age

question_text: when did the government change the retirement age

text: Retirement age

text: Retirement age by country[edit]

text: This article needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (September 2015)

text: Many of the countries listed in the table below are in the process of reforming the ages (see the notes in the table for details). The ages in the table show when an individual retires if they retire/have retired in the year given in the table; the trend in some countries is that in the future the age will increase gradually (where available, explanations are given in the section on notes), therefore one's year of birth determines when one has the age of retirement (e.g. in Romania women born in January 1955 had the retirement age in January 2015 at age 60; those born in January 1958 will retire in January 2019 at age 61; those born in January 1961 will retire in January 2023 at age 62; those born in January 1967 will retire in January 2030 at age 63).[2]

text:
Retirement age

Country
Men
Women
Year
Notes
References

Albania
65
60
2012

[3]

Argentina
65
60

[4]

Armenia
63
2011

[3]

Australia
65
2016
In Australia the retirement age is to be increased gradually to 67 years by July 2023.
[5]

Austria
65
60
2015
In Austria the retirement age for women is to be equalized to the retirement age for men (65) by 2033.[6]
[3][7]

Azerbaijan
62
60
2012
In Azerbaijan the retirement age for women became 60 years in 2016.
[3]

Belarus
60.5
55.5
2007
By 2022, the age will be 63 for men and 58 for women.[8]
[9]

Bangladesh
59
2013

[10]

Belgium
65
2017
In Belgium the retirement age is to be increased gradually and reach 67 years by 2030.
[9]

Bosnia and Herzegovina
65
2011

[3]

Brazil
65
60
2015
This is the minimum retirement age required for all urban workers who have contributed for at least 180 months (15 years) - see below. If they have contributed for at least 35 years (for men) or 30 years (for women)[11] - or less, for teachers,[12] for workers exposed to harmful health agents,[13] for disablement,[14] and for disabled people (if proved)[15] - it's possible to retire before the minimum age. Regarding to non-urban workers (farmers, fishermen, and native Indians, among others) and to disabled people[16] (if proved), these people are considered "special insured"; thus, the minimum age is reduced in 5 years (60 years for men, 55 years for women); this rule is only valid if these people prove they are still working under these circumstances at the moment of retirement. It's necessary to have at least 180 months (15 years) of contribution in order to retire (in all cases cited above).
[17]

British Virgin Islands
65
2017

[18]

Bulgaria
64y1months
61y2months
2018
In Bulgaria the retirement age is to be increased gradually and reach 65 years by 2029 for men and by 2037 for women.
[19]

Canada
65

Further information: Pensions in Canada
The standard age to begin receiving a CPP retirement pension is when one attains age 65 (the month following the 65th birthday). However, one may receive a reduced CPP retirement pension as early as the month following the 60th birthday. Alternatively, one may receive an increased pension after reaching age 65. Canada also has a pension supplement with different rules called Old Age Security (OAS).
[20][21]

Chile
65
60

[22]

China
60
50–55
2011
The retirement age in China currently is 60 for men and 55 for female civil servants and 50 for female workers.[23]
[24]

Croatia
65
61y3months
2015
By 2038 there will be an equal age for women and men set at 67. (Women's age will reach 65 in 2030 and 67 in 2038).[6]
[6]

Cuba
65
60
2015
The retirement age threshold was increased by 5 years in 2015
[25]

Cyprus
65
2011

[3][7]

Czech Republic
62y10months
58-62
2015
In the Czech Republic, in the year 2015, men had the retirement age of 62years10months and women had it between 58 and 62, depending on number of children.[26][27] In Czech Republic, the retirement age is in the process of being increased, and therefore depends on year of birth (for individuals born after 1977 it may exceed even 67. e.g. a person born in year 1995 must be at least 70 years old.[28]) For women the retirement age depends on the number of raised children as well.[29] For people born in 1975, the retirement age will be the same (66y8m) regardless of sex and number of children raised; and this age will reach 67 for people born in 1977.[27]

Colombia
62
57
2014

[30]

Denmark
65
2015
In Denmark, the retirement age will be increased gradually to reach 67 years by 2022. From 2030 onwards, it will be increased a maximum of one year every five years depending on increases in average lifespan.[31][32]
See also: Pensions in Denmark

[7][9]

Egypt
60
2015

Estonia
63
2016
In Estonia the retirement age is to be increased gradually to 65 years by 2026.[33] After 2026, it will be linked to the average life expectancy
[7][9]

Finland
62–68
2008

[7]

France
62
2018
In France the retirement age is to be increased gradually to 67 years by 2023.
See also: Pensions in France

[3][7]

Georgia
65
60
2011

[3]

Germany
65y7months
2018
In Germany the retirement age is to be increased gradually and reach 67 years by 2029.
See also: Pensions in Germany

[7][9]

Greece
67
2015

[6]

Hungary
63
2018
The age will be 65 by 2022.[6] Women with 40 years of insurance can retire at any age.[34]
[6]

Iceland
67
2007

[9]

India
60-65
2014
For special cases of Health and education, the retirement age is increased to 65 years.[35]

Indonesia
58
2014

[36]

Iran
60
55
2018

Ireland
66
2015
In Ireland the retirement age is to be increased gradually and reach 68 years by 2028.[6]
[3][7][9]

Israel
67
62
2011

[37]

Italy
65y7months
65y7months (employees)
66y1month (autonomous workers)
2017
Employees who accumulated 2,227 weeks of work(men) or 2,175 weeks of work(women) can retire early.
Retiring age will be standardised to 66 year and 7 months for both men and women from 2018.

[38][39]

Japan
62
2018
In Japan the retirement age is to be increased gradually to 68 years.
See also: Pensions in Japan

[6]

Kazakhstan
63
58
2015
From 2017 the retirement age for women is to be increased gradually and reach 63 years in 2027[40]

South Korea
60
2016
Employers with more than 300 employees are mandatory to extend the retiring age to 60. From 1 January 2017, it will be mandatory for all employers nationwide.[41]

Kyrgyzstan
63
58
2011

[3]

Latvia
62y6months
2015
The age will be 65 by 2025.[6]
[6]

Libya
65
1980
The age is 60 if in hazardous or unhealthy occupations.

Liechtenstein
64
2007

[9]

Lithuania
63y2months
61y4months
2015
In Lithuania, the retirement age will be raised to 65 for both men and women by 2026.[6]
[6][42][43]

Luxembourg
65
2011

[3]

Macedonia
64
62
2011

[3]

Malaysia
60
2013
In Malaysia, The Congress of Unions of Employees in the Public and Civil Services (Cuepacs) wants the government to consider extending the retirement age for civil servants from 60 to 62,[44] but the government has no immediate plan to extend it as the current retirement age is deemed as sufficient.[45]
[46]

Malta
62
2015
In Malta the retirement age is to be increased gradually to 65 years by 2027.[6]
[6]

Mexico
65
2015
Retirement age is expected to be increased in the coming years.

Moldova
62
57
2015

[3]

Montenegro
65
60
2013

[3]

Morocco
65
2014
Abdelilah Benkirane increased the retirement age to 65 since 2015. Expectations say that it will increase to 66 by 2017.

Namibia
60
2015
The early retirement age for public employees is 55 years, but will be reduced to 50 years (in 2016).
[47][48]

Nepal
58
2007

Netherlands
68
2018

[49]

New Zealand
65
2013

[50]

Norway
67
2018

See also: Pensions in Norway
The general retirement age is currently set to age 67, however, given sufficient pension contributions it is possible to retire as early as at age 62. The longer an individual postpones withdrawing a pension, the greater the government pension provision becomes.
[51]

Oman
65
2013
The age is 60 if in hazardous or unhealthy occupations.

Pakistan
60
2007

[52]

Philippines
60
1990
The retirement age for an employee depends on the employment contract. Upon retirement, the retired employee should be given his/her benefits according to the agreement or contract between the employer and the employee. However, if there is no existing retirement plan or agreement for the employee, he/she may retire at the age of 60, given that he/she has served the employer for 5 years, and shall be given a retirement pay of at least half a month’s salary for every year of service (6 months of work given is considered as 1 whole year for the retirement pay).
[53]

Poland
65
60
2016

Portugal
66
2014

[54]

Romania
65
60y9 months
2018
The age for women is being increased gradually. It will reach 63 by 2030.[55]
[2]

Russia
60
55
2015

[56]

Saudi Arabia
60
2014
In Saudi Arabia, the retirement age is based on the Hijiri (lunar) calendar.
[57]

Serbia
65
60
2011

[3]

Singapore
62–65
2012
In Singapore, the Retirement Age Act (RAA) has been replaced by the Retirement and Re-employment Act (RRA) in 2012. Under the RRA, the statutory minimum retirement age is still 62, but employers are now required to offer re-employment to eligible employees who turn 62, up to the age of 65.
[58]

Slovakia
62
58y3months-62y
2015
In Slovakia the retirement age for women depends on the number of children.[citation needed] The retirement age will be equalized for men and women at 62 in 2017.[6]
[7]

Slovenia
64y4months
2015

[6]

Spain
65y3months
2015
The age will be 67 by 2027.[6]
See also: Pensions in Spain

[3][7]

Sri Lanka
55
2014

[59]

Sweden
65

[60]

Switzerland
65
64
2017
The retirement age will be equalized for men and women at 65 in 2020.[9]

Taiwan
66
2015
In Taiwan the retirement age is to be increased gradually and reach 68 years by 2028.[6]
[3][7][9]

Tajikistan
63
58
2011

[3]

Thailand
60
2015

Trinidad and Tobago
60–65
2015

[61]

Turkmenistan
62
57
2011

[3]

Turkey
60
58
2014
In 1999 the retirement age was changed from 48 for men and 38 for women.[62] [clarification needed]

Ukraine
60
57
2015
In Ukraine the retirement age is to be increased gradually to 60 years for women and 62 years for men-civil servants by 2021.[63]
[3][64]

United Arab Emirates
65
2010
In the United Arab Emirates the mandatory retirement age was raised from 60 to 65 in 2010, enabling the UAE to retain its needed expat skilled work force longer for key construction projects.[65]

United Kingdom
65
2017
State pension age equalized at 65 in 2018. Increasing to 66 by 2020, 67 by 2028[66] and 68 by 2037.[67]
See also: Pensions in the United Kingdom

United States
66
2015

Main article: Pensions in the United States
The earliest age workers may statutorily receive Social Security benefits and Medicare. Retirement Age in the US The age will be 67 by 2027.[6]
[6]

Uzbekistan
60
55
2011

[3]

Venezuela
60
55
2015

[68]

Vietnam
60
55
2011

text: The average of statutory retirement age in the 34 countries of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in 2014 was males 65 years and females 63.5 years, but the tendency all over the world is to increase the retirement age.[69] This is also reflected by the findings that just over half the Asian investors surveyed region-wide said they agreed with raising the retirement age, with a quarter disagreeing and the remainder undecided.[70]

text: Gender inequality[edit]

text: Men either retire later than women or at the same time. This inequality is being addressed in some countries where the retirement ages are being equalised.

text: Reform[edit]

text: Reforms tend to be phased-in slowly when the retirement age (or pension age) is increased, with grandfathering ensuring a gradual change. In contrast, when the age of retirement is decreased, changes are often brought about rapidly.[71]

text: One such example of grandfathering are the transitional pension rules which were applied for staff aged 54 years or older, and to some extent for all staff in place, when in 2014 the retirement age of European civil servants was increased to 66 years of age.[72]


document_title: Line of Duty

question_text: who plays jill bigelow in line of duty

question_tokens: who plays jill bigelow in line of duty

text: Line of Duty

text: Main cast and characters[edit]

text: AC-12 personnel[edit]

text: Martin Compston as Detective Sergeant Steve Arnott

tag: ul

text: Vicky McClure as Detective Constable Kate Fleming

text: Adrian Dunbar as Superintendent Ted Hastings

text: Craig Parkinson as Detective Inspector Matthew "Dot" Cottan (series 1–3)

text: AC-12 suspects[edit]

text: Lennie James as Detective Chief Inspector Anthony "Tony" Gates (series 1)

text: Keeley Hawes as Detective Inspector Lindsay Denton (series 2 & 3)

text: Daniel Mays as Sergeant Danny Waldron (series 3)

text: Thandie Newton as Detective Chief Inspector Roseanne "Roz" Huntley (series 4)

text: Supporting cast and characters[edit]

text: AC-12 personnel[edit]

text: Jessica Raine as Detective Constable Georgia Trotman (series 2)

text: Polly Walker as Gill Biggeloe (series 3)

text: Maya Sondhi as Police Constable Maneet Bindra (series 3 & 4)

text: Royce Pierreson as Detective Constable Jamie Desford (series 4)

text: TO-20 personnel[edit]

text:
Neil Morrissey as DC Nigel Morton (series 1–3)
Claire Keelan as DS Leah Janson (series 1)
Nigel Boyle as DI, later DCI, Ian Buckells (series 1 & 4)
Faraz Ayub as DC Deepak Kapoor (series 1)

text: Armed Response personnel[edit]

text:
Arsher Ali as PC Harinderpal "Hari" Bains (series 3)
Leanne Best as PC Jackie Brickford (series 3)
Will Mellor as PC Rod Kennedy (series 3)
Lisa Palfrey as Insp. McAndrew (series 3)

text: Operation Trapdoor personnel[edit]

text:
Jason Watkins as FC Tim Ifield (series 4)
Claudia Jessie as DC Jodie Taylor (series 4)
Mark Stobbart as DS Neil Twyler (series 4)

text: Other police personnel[edit]

text:
Paul Higgins as Chief Supt., later ACC, Derek Hilton (series 1 & 4)
Owen Teale as Chief Insp. Philip Osborne (series 1)
Tony Pitts as DCS Lester Hargreaves (series 2 & 4)
Christina Chong as DS Nicola Rogerson (series 2)
Mark Bonnar as DCC Mike Dryden (series 2)
Steve Toussaint as Chief Supt. Mallick (series 2)
Sacha Dhawan as DS Manish Prasad (series 2)
Aiysha Hart as DS Sam Railston (series 3 & 4)
Shaun Parkes as Chief Supt. Terry Reynolds (series 3)
George Costigan as Former Chief Supt. Patrick Fairbank (series 3)

text: Other supporting cast and characters[edit]

text:
Gina McKee as Jackie Laverty (series 1)
Kate Ashfield as Jools Gates (series 1)
Brian McCardie as Tommy Hunter (series 1 & 2)
Liz White as Jo Dwyer (series 2)
Jonas Armstrong as Joe Nash (series 3)
Lee Ingleby as Nick Huntley (series 4)
Gaite Jansen as Hana Reznikova (series 4)
Scott Reid as Michael Farmer (series 4)
Patrick Baladi as Jimmy Lakewell (series 4)

text: Production[edit]

text: Series one and two were created and written by Jed Mercurio and produced by World Productions, on behalf of BBC Two. David Caffrey and Douglas Mackinnon directed series one. Mackinnon was retained as director for series two's first three episodes, whilst Daniel Nettheim directed series two's last three episodes. Mercurio produced series one and acted as executive producer for series two, with Peter Norris taking over as producer for series two.

text: Inspiration[edit]

text: Although the police refused to co-operate with the programme's producers, the production team was advised anonymously by serving officers and by retired police officers. Use was made of anonymous police blogs.[14]

text: Locations[edit]

text: Series one was filmed in Birmingham (including pub interiors in the Queens Arms)[15] and series two, three and four in Northern Ireland by BBC Northern Ireland. The name of the city is not mentioned. Maps of Birmingham appear on walls and telephone numbers use an 0121 area code, so would indicate Birmingham. The police force referred to in multiple series is the fictional East Midlands Constabulary. A photo gallery of exterior scenes from series two shows the 4th Street Station on Ormeau Avenue in Belfast.[16]

text: Series overview[edit]

text:
Series
Episodes
Originally aired
DVD release date

Series premiere
Series finale
Region 2
Region 1

1
5
26 June 2012
24 July 2012
3 February 2014
29 October 2013

2
6
12 February 2014
19 March 2014
24 March 2014
2 September 2014

3
6
24 March 2016
28 April 2016
2 May 2016
9 August 2016

4
6
26 March 2017
30 April 2017
8 May 2017
26 September 2017

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text:
Year
Association
Category
Nominee(s)
Result

2012
2012 Royal Television Society Awards
Actor (Male)
Lennie James
Nominated

Drama Series
Line of Duty 1
Nominated

Writer – Drama
Jed Mercurio
Nominated

2012 Royal Television Society Midlands Awards
Best Drama/Fictional Programme
Line of Duty 1
Won

Best Acting Performance (Male)
Lennie James
Won

Best Acting Newcomer
Gregory Piper
Won

2012 Crime Thriller Awards
The TV Dagger
Line of Duty 1
Nominated

2013
2013 Broadcast Awards
Best Drama Series or Serial
Line of Duty 1
Nominated

2013 South Bank Sky Arts Awards
TV Drama
Line of Duty 1
Nominated

Broadcasting Press Guild Awards
Best TV Drama
Line of Duty 1
Nominated

2014
2014 Freesat Awards
Best TV Drama
Line of Duty 2
Won

2014 Crime Thriller Awards
The TV Dagger
Line of Duty 2
Nominated

Best Actress Dagger
Keeley Hawes
Won

Best Supporting Actress Dagger
Vicky McClure
Nominated

BAFTA Scotland
Best Actor – Television
Mark Bonnar
Nominated

2014 Royal Television Society Craft & Design Awards
Best Editing – Drama
Andrew McClelland
Won

2015
Writers' Guild of Great Britain
TV Drama – Long Form
Jed Mercurio
Nominated

2015 Broadcast Awards
Best Drama Series or Serial
Line of Duty 2
Nominated

International Programme Sales
Line of Duty 2
Nominated

Broadcasting Press Guild Awards
Best Drama Series
Line of Duty 2
Nominated

Best Drama Writer
Jed Mercurio
Nominated

2015 Royal Television Society Awards
Best Drama Series
Line of Duty 2
Won

BAFTA Television Craft Awards
Drama: Writer
Jed Mercurio
Nominated

BAFTA Television Awards
Leading Actress
Keeley Hawes
Nominated

Supporting Actress
Vicky McClure
Nominated

Drama Series
Line of Duty 2
Nominated

2015 South Bank Sky Arts Awards
TV Drama
Line of Duty 2
Nominated

Royal Television Society Northern Ireland Awards
Best Drama
Line of Duty 2
Won

2016
TV Choice Awards
Best Drama Series
Line of Duty 3
Nominated

BAFTA Scotland
Best Director – Television
Michael Keillor
Nominated

Royal Television Society Northern Ireland
Best Drama
Line of Duty 3
Nominated

2017
Broadcast Awards
Best Drama Series or Serial
Line of Duty 3
Nominated

Broadcasting Press Guild Awards
Best TV Drama Series
Line of Duty 3
Nominated

Broadcasting Press Guild Awards
Best Actress
Keeley Hawes
Won

2017 Royal Television Society Awards
Drama Series
Line of Duty 3
Nominated

2017 Royal Television Society Awards
Writer – Drama
Jed Mercurio
Nominated

BAFTA Television Awards
Supporting Actor
Daniel Mays
Nominated

Virgin TV's Must-See Moment
Urgent Exit Required
Nominated

Celtic Media Festival
Best Drama Series
Line of Duty 3
Won

Diversity in Media Awards
TV Programme of the Year
Line of Duty 3
Nominated

TV Moment of the Year
Urgent Exit Required
Nominated

TV Moment of the Year
DCI Roz Huntley Interview
Nominated

TV Choice Awards
Best Drama
Line of Duty 4
Nominated

British Screenwriters' Awards
Best Crime Writing on Television
Jed Mercurio
Won

Royal Television Society Northern Ireland
Best Drama
Line of Duty 4
Won

2018
Writers' Guild of Great Britain
TV Drama – Long Form
Jed Mercurio
Pending

National Television Awards
Crime Drama
Line of Duty 4
Pending

Irish Film and Television Academy
Drama
Line of Duty 4
Pending

Actor in a Leading Role - Drama
Adrian Dunbar
Pending

text: Censure by Ofcom[edit]

text: Following the complaint of one viewer, the media regulator Ofcom found the BBC had breached Rule 1.28 of the Code in 2012 . Specifically that there was a "serious lapse" in its duty of care for a 13-year-old actor, Gregory Piper, who had appeared in scenes which were "of a particularly violent nature and included sexually explicit language" by breaching broadcasting rules requiring that "due care must be taken over the physical and emotional welfare and the dignity of people under 18".[17] In its full report, Ofcom cited the programme's failure to involve an independent expert, such as a child psychiatrist, to determine the actor's intellectual and emotional capacity to participate in the controversial scenes and that programme makers had not followed the best practice advice of the BBC's Editorial Policy Unit. However, the regulator found that there was no actual harm, distress or anxiety caused to the child actor.[18]

text: Home media releases[edit]

text: iTunes releases for Line of Duty

text:
Name
Release date
Ep #
Additional Information

Line of Duty, Series One
30 August 2013[19]
5

The complete first series
Ability to buy single episode(s) or whole series
Rated "Caution" by iTunes
Standard-definition versions

Line of Duty, Series Two
12 February 2014[20]
6

The complete second series
Ability to buy single episode(s) or whole series
Rated "Caution" by iTunes
High-definition & Standard-definition version

Line of Duty, Series One & Two
26 June 2012[21]
11

The complete first and second series
Ability to buy single episode(s) or whole series one and two
Rated "Caution" by iTunes
Standard-definition version

text: Blinkbox releases for Line of Duty

text:
Name
Release date
Ep #
Additional Information

Line of Duty, Series One
2013[22]
5

The complete first series
Ability to buy single episode(s) or whole series
Certificate 15
Standard-definition version

Line of Duty, Series Two
2014[23]
6

The complete second series
Ability to buy single episode(s) or whole series
Certificate 15
High-definition & Standard-definition versions

text: BBC Store releases for Line of Duty

text:
Name
Release date

Line of Duty, Series One – Three
2016

Line of Duty, Series Four
2017

text: DVD releases for Line of Duty

text:
Name
Release dates
Ep #
Additional Information

Region 2

Line of Duty Series 1
(DVD)
3 February 2014[24]
5
The two-disc box set includes all five episodes from series one, with a classification age of 15.
Running time: 300 minutes.

Line of Duty Series 2
(DVD)
24 March 2014[25]
6
The two-disc box set includes all six episodes from series two, with a classification age of 15.
Running time: 360 minutes.

Line of Duty Series 1&2
(DVD)
24 March 2014[26]
11
The four-disc box set includes all eleven episodes from series one and two, with a classification age of 15.
Running time: 660 minutes.

text: Blu-ray releases for Line of Duty

text:
Name
Release dates
Ep #
Additional Information

Region B

Line of Duty: Series 1
(Blu-ray)
10 April 2015[27]
5
The two-disc box set includes all five episodes from series one, with a classification age of 16.
Running time: 300 minutes.
Audio: English: DTS-HD Master Audio 5.1

Line of Duty: Series 2
(Blu-ray)
25 September 2015[28]
6
The two-disc box set includes all six episodes from series two, with a classification age of 16.
Running time: 369 minutes.
Audio: English: DTS-HD Master Audio 5.1

Line of Duty: Series 3
(Blu-ray)
20 January 2017[29]
6
The two-disc box set includes all six episodes from series Three, with a classification age of 16.
Running time: 390 minutes.
Audio: English: DTS-HD Master Audio 5.1