question_text: when was last time bayern munich won champions league

text: List of finals[edit]

text:
Key

Match was won during extra time

*

Match was won on a penalty shoot-out

&

Match was won after a replay

text:
The "Season" column refers to the season the competition was held, and wikilinks to the article about that season.
The wikilinks in the "Score" column point to the article about that season's final game.

text:
List of European Cup and UEFA Champions League finals

Season

Nation

Winners

Score

Runners-up

Nation

Venue

Attendance[11]

1955–56

 Spain

Real Madrid

4–3

Stade de Reims

 France

 Parc des Princes, Paris

38,239

1956–57

 Spain

Real Madrid

2–0

Fiorentina

 Italy

 Santiago Bernabéu Stadium, Madrid

124,000

1957–58

 Spain

Real Madrid

3–2

Milan

 Italy

 Heysel Stadium, Brussels

67,000

1958–59

 Spain

Real Madrid

2–0

Stade de Reims

 France

 Neckarstadion, Stuttgart

72,000

1959–60

 Spain

Real Madrid

7–3

Eintracht Frankfurt

 West Germany

 Hampden Park, Glasgow

127,621

1960–61

 Portugal

Benfica

3–2

Barcelona

 Spain

 Wankdorf Stadium, Bern

26,732

1961–62

 Portugal

Benfica

5–3

Real Madrid

 Spain

 Olympisch Stadion, Amsterdam

61,257

1962–63

 Italy

Milan

2–1

Benfica

 Portugal

 Wembley Stadium, London

45,715

1963–64

 Italy

Internazionale

3–1

Real Madrid

 Spain

 Prater Stadium, Vienna

71,333

1964–65

 Italy

Internazionale

1–0

Benfica

 Portugal

 San Siro, Milan

89,000

1965–66

 Spain

Real Madrid

2–1

Partizan

 Yugoslavia

 Heysel Stadium, Brussels

46,745

1966–67

 Scotland

Celtic

2–1

Internazionale

 Italy

 Estádio Nacional, Lisbon

45,000

1967–68

 England

Manchester United

4–1

Benfica

 Portugal

 Wembley Stadium, London

92,225

1968–69

 Italy

Milan

4–1

Ajax

 Netherlands

 Santiago Bernabéu Stadium, Madrid

31,782

1969–70

 Netherlands

Feyenoord

2–1

Celtic

 Scotland

 San Siro, Milan

53,187

1970–71

 Netherlands

Ajax

2–0

Panathinaikos

 Greece

 Wembley Stadium, London

83,179

1971–72

 Netherlands

Ajax

2–0

Internazionale

 Italy

 De Kuip, Rotterdam

61,354

1972–73

 Netherlands

Ajax

1–0

Juventus

 Italy

 Red Star Stadium, Belgrade

89,484

1973–74

 West Germany

Bayern Munich

4–0&[A]

Atlético Madrid

 Spain

 Heysel Stadium, Brussels

72,047

1974–75

 West Germany

Bayern Munich

2–0

Leeds United

 England

 Parc des Princes, Paris

48,374

1975–76

 West Germany

Bayern Munich

1–0

Saint-Étienne

 France

 Hampden Park, Glasgow

54,864

1976–77

 England

Liverpool

3–1

Borussia Mönchengladbach

 West Germany

 Stadio Olimpico, Rome

52,078

1977–78

 England

Liverpool

1–0

Club Brugge

 Belgium

 Wembley Stadium, London

92,500

1978–79

 England

Nottingham Forest

1–0

Malmö FF

 Sweden

 Olympiastadion, Munich

57,500

1979–80

 England

Nottingham Forest

1–0

Hamburg

 West Germany

 Santiago Bernabéu Stadium, Madrid

51,000

1980–81

 England

Liverpool

1–0

Real Madrid

 Spain

 Parc des Princes, Paris

48,360

1981–82

 England

Aston Villa

1–0

Bayern Munich

 West Germany

 De Kuip, Rotterdam

46,000

1982–83

 West Germany

Hamburg

1–0

Juventus

 Italy

 Olympic Stadium, Athens

73,500

1983–84

 England

Liverpool

1–1*[B]

Roma

 Italy

 Stadio Olimpico, Rome

69,693

1984–85

 Italy

Juventus

1–0

Liverpool

 England

 Heysel Stadium, Brussels

58,000

1985–86

 Romania

Steaua București

0–0*[C]

Barcelona

 Spain

 Estadio Ramón Sánchez Pizjuán, Seville

70,000

1986–87

 Portugal

Porto

2–1

Bayern Munich

 West Germany

 Prater Stadium, Vienna

57,500

1987–88

 Netherlands

PSV Eindhoven

0–0*[D]

Benfica

 Portugal

 Neckarstadion, Stuttgart

68,000

1988–89

 Italy

Milan

4–0

Steaua București

 Romania

 Camp Nou, Barcelona

97,000

1989–90

 Italy

Milan

1–0

Benfica

 Portugal

 Prater Stadium, Vienna

57,558

1990–91

 Yugoslavia

Red Star Belgrade

0–0*[E]

Marseille

 France

 Stadio San Nicola, Bari

56,000

1991–92

 Spain

Barcelona

1–0

Sampdoria

 Italy

 Wembley Stadium, London

70,827

1992–93

 France

Marseille

1–0

Milan

 Italy

 Olympiastadion, Munich

64,400

1993–94

 Italy

Milan

4–0

Barcelona

 Spain

 Olympic Stadium, Athens

70,000

1994–95

 Netherlands

Ajax

1–0

Milan

 Italy

 Ernst-Happel-Stadion, Vienna

49,730

1995–96

 Italy

Juventus

1–1*[F]

Ajax

 Netherlands

 Stadio Olimpico, Rome

70,000

1996–97

 Germany

Borussia Dortmund

3–1

Juventus

 Italy

 Olympiastadion, Munich

59,000

1997–98

 Spain

Real Madrid

1–0

Juventus

 Italy

 Amsterdam Arena, Amsterdam

48,500

1998–99

 England

Manchester United

2–1

Bayern Munich

 Germany

 Camp Nou, Barcelona

90,245

1999–2000

 Spain

Real Madrid

3–0

Valencia

 Spain

 Stade de France, Saint-Denis

80,000

2000–01

 Germany

Bayern Munich

1–1*[G]

Valencia

 Spain

 San Siro, Milan

71,500

2001–02

 Spain

Real Madrid

2–1

Bayer Leverkusen

 Germany

 Hampden Park, Glasgow

50,499

2002–03

 Italy

Milan

0–0*[H]

Juventus

 Italy

 Old Trafford, Manchester

62,315

2003–04

 Portugal

Porto

3–0

Monaco

 France

 Arena AufSchalke, Gelsenkirchen

53,053

2004–05

 England

Liverpool

3–3*[I]

Milan

 Italy

 Atatürk Olympic Stadium, Istanbul

69,000

2005–06

 Spain

Barcelona

2–1

Arsenal

 England

 Stade de France, Saint-Denis

79,610

2006–07

 Italy

Milan

2–1

Liverpool

 England

 Olympic Stadium, Athens

63,000

2007–08

 England

Manchester United

1–1*[J]

Chelsea

 England

 Luzhniki Stadium, Moscow

67,310

2008–09

 Spain

Barcelona

2–0

Manchester United

 England

 Stadio Olimpico, Rome

62,467

2009–10

 Italy

Internazionale

2–0

Bayern Munich

 Germany

 Santiago Bernabéu Stadium, Madrid

73,490

2010–11

 Spain

Barcelona

3–1

Manchester United

 England

 Wembley Stadium, London

87,695

2011–12

 England

Chelsea

1–1*[K]

Bayern Munich

 Germany

 Allianz Arena, Munich

62,500

2012–13

 Germany

Bayern Munich

2–1

Borussia Dortmund

 Germany

 Wembley Stadium, London

86,298

2013–14

 Spain

Real Madrid

4–1

Atlético Madrid

 Spain

 Estádio da Luz, Lisbon

60,976

2014–15

 Spain

Barcelona

3–1

Juventus

 Italy

 Olympiastadion, Berlin

70,442

2015–16

 Spain

Real Madrid

1–1*[L]

Atlético Madrid

 Spain

 San Siro, Milan

71,942

2016–17

 Spain

Real Madrid

4–1

Juventus

 Italy

 Millennium Stadium, Cardiff

65,842

Upcoming finals

Season

Nation

Finalist

Match

Finalist

Nation

Venue

2017–18

–

 NSC Olimpiyskiy Stadium, Kiev

2018–19

–

 Wanda Metropolitano, Madrid

text: Performances[edit]

text: By club[edit]

text:
Performance in the European Cup and UEFA Champions League by club

vte Club

Winners

Runners-up

Years won

Years runner-up

 Real Madrid

12

3

1956, 1957, 1958, 1959, 1960, 1966, 1998, 2000, 2002, 2014, 2016, 2017

1962, 1964, 1981

 Milan

7

4

1963, 1969, 1989, 1990, 1994, 2003, 2007

1958, 1993, 1995, 2005

 Bayern Munich

5

5

1974, 1975, 1976, 2001, 2013

1982, 1987, 1999, 2010, 2012

 Barcelona

5

3

1992, 2006, 2009, 2011, 2015

1961, 1986, 1994

 Liverpool

5

2

1977, 1978, 1981, 1984, 2005

1985, 2007

 Ajax

4

2

1971, 1972, 1973, 1995

1969, 1996

 Internazionale

3

2

1964, 1965, 2010

1967, 1972

 Manchester United

3

2

1968, 1999, 2008

2009, 2011

 Juventus

2

7

1985, 1996

1973, 1983, 1997, 1998, 2003, 2015, 2017

 Benfica

2

5

1961, 1962

1963, 1965, 1968, 1988, 1990

 Nottingham Forest

2

0

1979, 1980

—

 Porto

2

0

1987, 2004

—

 Celtic

1

1

1967

1970

 Hamburg

1

1

1983

1980

 Steaua București

1

1

1986

1989

 Marseille

1

1

1993

1991

 Borussia Dortmund

1

1

1997

2013

 Chelsea

1

1

2012

2008

 Feyenoord

1

0

1970

—

 Aston Villa

1

0

1982

—

 PSV Eindhoven

1

0

1988

—

 Red Star Belgrade

1

0

1991

—

 Atlético Madrid

0

3

—

1974, 2014, 2016

 Reims

0

2

—

1956, 1959

 Valencia

0

2

—

2000, 2001

 Fiorentina

0

1

—

1957

 Eintracht Frankfurt

0

1

—

1960

 Partizan

0

1

—

1966

 Panathinaikos

0

1

—

1971

 Leeds United

0

1

—

1975

 Saint-Étienne

0

1

—

1976

 Borussia Mönchengladbach

0

1

—

1977

 Club Brugge

0

1

—

1978

 Malmö FF

0

1

—

1979

 Roma

0

1

—

1984

 Sampdoria

0

1

—

1992

 Bayer Leverkusen

0

1

—

2002

 Monaco

0

1

—

2004

 Arsenal

0

1

—

2006

text: By nation[edit]

text:
Performance by nation

Nation

Winners

Runners-up

 Spain

17

11

 Italy

12

16

 England

12

7

 Germany

7

10

 Netherlands

6

2

 Portugal

4

5

 France

1

5

 Romania Scotland Yugoslavia

1

1

 Belgium  Greece  Sweden

0

1

text: Venues[edit]

text:
European Cup and UEFA Champions League final venues

Ground

Hosts

Years

 Wembley Stadium, London
7
1963, 1968, 1971, 1978, 1992, 2011, 2013

 Santiago Bernabéu Stadium, Madrid
4
1957, 1969, 1980, 2010

 King Baudouin Stadium, Brussels
4
1958, 1966, 1974, 1985

 Ernst-Happel-Stadion, Vienna
4
1964, 1987, 1990, 1995

 San Siro, Milan
4
1965, 1970, 2001, 2016

 Stadio Olimpico, Rome
4
1977, 1984, 1996, 2009

 Parc des Princes, Paris
3
1956, 1975, 1981

 Hampden Park, Glasgow
3
1960, 1976, 2002

 Olympiastadion, Munich
3
1979, 1993, 1997

 Olympic Stadium, Athens
3
1983, 1994, 2007

 Mercedes-Benz Arena, Stuttgart
2
1959, 1988

 De Kuip, Rotterdam
2
1972, 1982

 Camp Nou, Barcelona
2
1989, 1999

 Stade de France, Saint-Denis
2
2000, 2006

 Wankdorf Stadium, Bern
1
1961

 Olympisch Stadion, Amsterdam
1
1962

 Estádio Nacional, Lisbon
1
1967

 Red Star Stadium, Belgrade
1
1973

 Estadio Ramón Sánchez Pizjuán, Seville
1
1986

 Stadio San Nicola, Bari
1
1991

 Amsterdam Arena, Amsterdam
1
1998

 Old Trafford, Manchester
1
2003

 Veltins-Arena, Gelsenkirchen
1
2004

 Atatürk Olympic Stadium, Istanbul
1
2005

 Luzhniki Stadium, Moscow
1
2008

 Allianz Arena, Munich
1
2012

 Estádio da Luz, Lisbon
1
2014

 Olympiastadion, Berlin
1
2015

 Millennium Stadium, Cardiff
1
2017

 NSC Olimpiyskiy Stadium, Kiev
1
2018

 Wanda Metropolitano, Madrid
1
2019

text: Notes[edit]

text: A. ^  The first final, played two days earlier, ended 1–1 after extra time.[12]

text: B. ^  Score was 1–1 after 90 minutes and extra time. Liverpool won the penalty shoot-out 4–2.[13]

text: C. ^  Score was 0–0 after 90 minutes and extra time. Steaua București won the penalty shoot-out 2–0.[14]

text: D. ^  Score was 0–0 after 90 minutes and extra time. PSV Eindhoven won the penalty shoot-out 6–5.[15]

text: E. ^  Score was 0–0 after 90 minutes and extra time. Red Star Belgrade won the penalty shoot-out 5–3.[16]

text: F. ^  Score was 1–1 after 90 minutes and extra time. Juventus won the penalty shoot-out 4–2.[17]

text: G. ^  Score was 1–1 after 90 minutes and extra time. Bayern Munich won the penalty shoot-out 5–4.[18]

text: H. ^  Score was 0–0 after 90 minutes and extra time. Milan won the penalty shoot-out 3–2.[19]

text: I. ^  Score was 3–3 after 90 minutes and extra time. Liverpool won the penalty shoot-out 3–2.[20]

text: J. ^  Score was 1–1 after 90 minutes and extra time. Manchester United won the penalty shoot-out 6–5.[21]

text: K. ^  Score was 1–1 after 90 minutes and extra time. Chelsea won the penalty shoot-out 4–3.[22]

text: L. ^  Score was 1–1 after 90 minutes and extra time. Real Madrid won the penalty shoot-out 5–3.[23]


document_title: Islamia College University

question_text: who laid foundation stone of islamia college peshawar

root

text: Islamia College University

text: Conception[edit]

text: When the new province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (previously N.W.F.P) was formed in 1901 after its separation from the Punjab, there was only one college (Edwardes College) in whole province. This scarcity of quality educational institutions forced local youth to travel to faraway regions of the country (British India) in pursuit of higher education. This same lack of educational opportunities in the region motivated Nawab Sir Sahibzada Abdul Qayyum and Sir George Roos-Keppel to establish an institution that would not only cater the academic needs of the region but also produce leaders from the region.

tag: p

text: History[edit]

text: By 1909, as the idea of a college in the province was taking shape in the minds of both Nawab Sir Sahibzada Abdul Qayyum and Sir George Roos-Keppel, it was further strengthened by their visit to the Aligarh Muslim University the same year. Nawab Sahib asked the students, especially those from the N.W.F.P. who were studying there as to what were the problems they were facing there and how he could help them. The students told him that they needed a hostel. Nawab Sahib informed them that rather than building them a hostel at Aligarh, he would build them a college at Peshawar.

text: Consequently, on April 12, 1911, Nawab Sahib arranged a meeting of like minded people in Peshawar at the residence of Abdul Karim, contractor at Peshawar city, which was attended by Arbab Ghulam Haider Khan Khalil of Tehkal, Habibullah Khan, Khushal Khan, Sethi Karim Bakhsh, Sir Sahibzada Abdul Qayyum, Khan Sahib Abdul Majid Khan and others. Sir Sahibzada Abdul Qayyum moved the motion for collection of contributions, which was instantly responded to by cash donations by all present.Mian Rahim Shah Kaka Khel donated cash at the meeting and promised to make a hostel for the students apart from the donation, which he did and still it stands in the campus as 'Rahim Shah Ward' In addition to his instant cash donation, the Nawab of Dir promised further cash 5 lakh ropees and 5 kg gold besides four hundred trees. The Nawab of Amb, Nawab Khan i Zaman Khan also made a cash contribution of Rs. 100,000 on the request of Syed Abdul Jabbar Shah to the cause[citation needed]. Subscriptions were also given by the Afridi Chiefs and leading religious elders. An example was set by Bibigul, widow of Khairullah Khan of Prang, who gave her ornaments on Jun 6, 1911 as her subscription towards the college fund.

text: Subsequently, a large plot of land was purchased for the college building from the Khalil (Arbabs) of Tehkal Rs. 1,50,000/- from Nizam of Hyderabad was sent by Syed Abdul Jabbar Shah to Sahibzada Abdul Qayyum as donation for the college. Other chiefs and nobles of the North-West Frontier and Punjab, also made various donations.

text: Haji Sahib of Turangzai, the most famous Pukhtun religious leader of the time was requested by Nawab Sir Sahibzada Abdul Qayyum to lay the foundation stone of Islamia College. Haji Sahib agreed to the request, however, he had been declared a proclaimed offender by the British for his anti-British activities and his entry was banned into British controlled territory. He was residing in tribal territory, which was outside British control, so Nawab Sahib prevailed upon Sir George Roos-Keppel and the British to permit Haji Sahib to enter British controlled territory for one day so he could lay the foundation stone of Islamia College. The British agreed to this request with the understanding that Haji Sahib would return to tribal territory once he had laid the foundation stone. Haji Sahib was permitted to enter British controlled territory for the ceremony and spent the night in the 'Pokh' Mosque of Tehkal. At the foundation stone laying ceremony, Sir Roos Keppel and other British officials were present, so Haji Sahib hid his face in his sheet (Chadar) from them and was led by Sheikh Muhammad Ibrahim to the place where he was to lay the foundation stone. After laying the stone Haji Sahib went to Tehkal and then returned to the tribal territory.

text: Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah's will[edit]

text: ... All my residuary estate including the corpus that may fall after the lapse of life interest or otherwise to be divided into three parts - and I bequeath one part to Aligarh University - one part to Islamia College Peshawar and one part to Sindh Madrassa of Karachi ... Quaid-e-Azam's Will, Bombay, May 30, 1939 Addressing the students of the college on April 12, 1948, he said: “Let me tell you that nothing is nearer to my heart than to have a great center of culture and learning in a place like Peshawar, a place from where the rays of knowledge and culture can spread throughout the Middle East and Central Asia.”

text: Endowment[edit]

text: According to the Board of Trustees, the College, which is spread over 300 acres of land, has 1089 Jaribs cultivable land in Harichand, Rai Killi and Tarnab, (District Charsadda). In addition to this, there are 395 shops and flats in the Khyber Bazaar Peshawar and main bazaar Charsadda.


document_title: Thorin Oakenshield

question_text: who became king of erebor after thorin dies

text: Thorin Oakenshield

text: Characteristics[edit]

text: Thorin is described as haughty, stern, and officious. He sings and plays the harp, wears a gold chain, and has a long beard. He wears a distinctive sky blue hood with a long silver tassel. He refers to his home in the Blue Mountains as "poor lodgings in exile". He is a capable and a cunning warrior, if not a particularly inspiring or clever leader. While shorter than Elves or Men, Thorin is said to be quite tall for a Dwarf. Thorin was smart, proud, brave, vengeful, and stubborn. He was infamous for a high sense of his importance and rank. He shared the greed of his family, though he valued the welfare of others as well.

text: Biography[edit]

text: In the year T.A. 2746, Thorin II was born to Thráin II in the Lonely Mountain. The dwarves of the Lonely Mountain were forced to flee by the dragon Smaug in T.A. 2770 while Thorin was quite young. In exile, he became a capable warrior, and while still young participated in the Battle of Azanulbizar in T.A. 2799. During the fighting, his shield broke, and he took up an oak branch to serve as a shield; "Oakenshield" thus became his epithet. Thorin became King-in-Exile of Durin's Folk after his father presumably died in the dungeons of Dol Guldur. He led the expedition recounted in The Hobbit to win the Lonely Mountain back from Smaug, but was killed in the Battle of Five Armies described at the end of that book.

text: Appearances[edit]

text: The Hobbit[edit]

text: In The Hobbit, Thorin and twelve other Dwarves visited Bilbo Baggins on Gandalf's advice to hire Bilbo as a burglar to steal their treasure back from the dragon Smaug. Smaug had attacked Erebor (the Lonely Mountain) about 150 years before, and had taken both the dwarves' mountain and their treasure. Thorin was determined to get the treasure back, and especially wanted the Arkenstone, the Heart of the Mountain, an heirloom of his house.

text: On the journey the company encountered a band of trolls, and Thorin alone of the Dwarves was not taken unawares. He found the Elven blade Orcrist in the trolls' cache, and used the sword thereafter until it was taken when he was captured by the wood-elves. He and Gandalf fought valiantly in the goblin tunnels in the Misty Mountains. When the dwarves were captured by the wood-elves of Mirkwood, Thorin insisted that the others not disclose their quest to their captors. He was the first to emerge from the barrels at Lake-town and marched right up to the leaders of the town, declaring himself as King Under the Mountain.

text: With provisions from Lake-town, Thorin led the company to Erebor. After Smaug was destroyed, the dwarves reclaimed the treasure, and Thorin, very pleased with Bilbo, gave the Hobbit a chain-mail coat made of mithril as the first instalment of his payment. Faced with demands from Thranduil the Elvenking and Bard the Bowman for a fair share of the treasure to be distributed to the wood-elves and the men of Lake-town, Thorin let greed get the better of him and refused to acknowledge their right to any of the hoard. He fortified the Mountain against his new rivals, and sent to his cousin Dáin Ironfoot for reinforcements. Thorin was furious when Bilbo stole the Arkenstone to use as a bargaining counter, and drove him from the Mountain. The growing conflict was averted only by an invasion of goblins and wargs, whereupon the dwarves joined forces with the wood-elves, the men of Lake-town, and the great eagles in what became known as the Battle of Five Armies. During the battle, Thorin was mortally wounded, but he made his peace with Bilbo before he died.

text:
If more of us valued food and cheer and song above hoarded gold, it would be a merrier world. But, sad or merry, I must leave it now. Farewell.

Thorin, The Hobbit

tag: div

text: When Thorin died, he was buried with the Arkenstone, and Orcrist was returned and laid upon his tomb. The blade would glow blue should Orcs approach, and they could thus not take the Mountain by surprise. Thorin was succeeded as leader of Durin's Folk by his cousin Dáin.

text: The Lord of the Rings[edit]

text: Part III of Appendix A in The Return of the King gives an overview of the history of Durin's Folk and gives more of Thorin's background. He was born in T.A. 2746, and when Smaug attacked Erebor in 2770, Thorin was driven into exile with the other surviving dwarves. In 2799 when he was 53 (a young age for a Dwarf), he marched with a mighty dwarf-army against the orcs of Moria. In the Battle of Azanulbizar in Nanduhirion beneath the East-gate of Moria, Thorin's shield was broken, and he used his axe to chop a branch from an oak tree to defend himself, thus earning the epithet "Oakenshield". After the battle Thorin led his people to establish a foothold in the Ered Luin - the Blue Mountains west of the Shire.

text: Unfinished Tales[edit]

text: Unfinished Tales, a book of Tolkien's essays and stories about Middle-earth published posthumously in 1980, elaborates on Thorin's reasons for accepting Bilbo into his company. As depicted in the story "The Quest of Erebor", Thorin met with Gandalf in Bree shortly before the quest began. Gandalf persuaded him that stealth, rather than force, was needed to infiltrate Erebor; they would therefore need a burglar. Gandalf feared that Sauron could use Smaug as a weapon, and was concerned that Thorin's pride and quick temper would ruin the mission to destroy the dragon. He thought that Bilbo would be a calming influence on Thorin, as well as a genuinely valuable addition to the company. Thorin, who did not think much of Hobbits, reluctantly agreed, realizing that Bilbo's presence would be a small price to pay for Gandalf's help.

text: Names and titles[edit]

text: Tolkien adopted Thorin's name from the Old Norse poem "Völuspá", part of the Poetic Edda.[1] The name "Thorin" (Þorinn) appears in stanza 12, where it is used for a dwarf, and the name "Oakenshield" (Eikinskjaldi) in stanza 13.[2] The names also appear in Snorri Sturluson's Prose Edda.[3] The Norse Þorinn means darer or bold one,[4] which is apt for the dwarf who initiated the quest of Erebor.

text: As he was by right of birth the king of Erebor following the death of his father Thráin, he was King under the Mountain in exile until Smaug was destroyed. Upon Thorin's death, the title passed to Dáin, his cousin and nearest heir.

text: Adaptations[edit]

text: In the 1977 animated version of The Hobbit, Thorin is voiced by Hans Conried. In the 1982 game The Hobbit Thorin appears as an AI controlled character and one of his seemingly random actions ("Thorin sits down and starts singing about gold", which occurs when the player does nothing for a while) became quite famous.[5]

text: In the 2003 video game, Thorin is voiced by Clive Revill. Thorin briefly appears in The Lord of the Rings Online during the prologue for the Dwarven characters, set shortly before The Quest for Erebor. In the game the stronghold in the Ered Luin of the refugees from Erebor bears the name "Thorin's Hall" in his honour.

text: In the Extended Edition of The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (2001) Gandalf briefly mentions Thorin as the one who gave the mithril shirt to Bilbo as a gift.

text: In the three-film adaptation of The Hobbit (2012–2014), Thorin is portrayed by Richard Armitage.[6] The movie adaptation adds to Thorin's quest a personal vendetta against the orc Azog, who murdered Thorin's grandfather, Thrór. Thorin and Azog face each other once again following the dwarves' escape from Goblin-Town, and Thorin sets out to kill Azog once and for all during the Battle of the Five Armies. After a prolonged fight, Thorin and Azog mortally wound each other, and Thorin dies in Bilbo's arms.

text: Family tree[edit]

text: Durin's Folk

text:
Durin I

Other Dwarf Clan

Durin II

Durin III

Durin IV

Durin V

Durin VI

Náin I

Thráin I

Thorin I

Glóin

Óin

Náin II

Dáin I

Borin

Frór

Thrór

Grór

Farin

Thráin II

Náin

Fundin

Gróin

Dís

Thorin II Oakenshield

Dáin II Ironfoot

Dwalin

Balin

Glóin

Óin

Ori, Dori, Nori

Bifur, Bofur, Bombur

Fili, Kili

Thorin III Stonehelm

Gimli

Durin VII

tag: table

text: * Names in italics are Thorin and his company from The Hobbit


document_title: Alice Through the Looking Glass (2016 film)

question_text: who plays the mouse in alice in wonderland

text: Plot[edit]

text: Alice Kingsleigh has spent the past three years following in her father's footsteps and sailing the high seas. Upon her return to London from China, she learns her ex-fiancé, Hamish Ascot, has taken over his father's company and plans to have Alice sell him over her father's ship in exchange for her family home. Alice follows a butterfly she recognizes as Absolem and returns to Underland through a mirror.

text: Alice is greeted by the White Queen, the White Rabbit, the Tweedles, the Dormouse, the March Hare, Bayard and the Cheshire Cat. They inform her that the Mad Hatter, Tarrant Hightopp is acting madder than usual because his family is missing. Alice tries to console him, but the Mad Hatter remains sure of his family's survival of the Attack of the Jabberwocky day.

text: Believing finding the Hatter's family is the only way to stop his deteriorating health, the White Queen sends Alice to consult Time himself and convince him to save the Hatter's family in the past. The Queen cautions Alice that history will be destroyed if anyone sees their past or future self. Upon visiting Time's palace, Alice finds the Chronosphere, an object that powers all time in Underland.

text: After being told by Time that altering the past is impossible, Alice steals the Chronosphere and travels back in time, shortly after finding the exiled Red Queen, Iracebeth of Crims, is in the care of Time. The Red Queen urges Time to go after Alice. Alice accidentally flies to the day of Iracebeth's coronation, where a younger Tarrant begins a mockery of the Red Queen when the royal crown does not fit on her abnormal head. This causes Iracebeth to melt down. Her father deems her inappropriate to rule and passes the title of queen to her younger sister Mirana, the White Queen.

text: Alice learns of an event in Iracebeth and Mirana's past that caused friction between the two, and she travels back in time again, hoping it will change Iracebeth's ways and cease the Jabberwocky from killing the Hatter's family. Mirana (as a young girl) steals a tart from her mother and eats it. When confronted by their mother, Mirana lies about eating the tart, and Iracebeth is accused, causing her to run out of the castle in sadness. Alice sees her about to run into a clock, the event that deforms her head and personality. She is able to get the clock out of the way, but fails to change the past as Iracabeth trips and slams her head anyway.

text: Alice is then confronted by a weakened Time, scolding her for putting all of time in danger. She runs into a nearby mirror back into the real world, where she wakes up in a mental hospital, diagnosed with female hysteria. By the help of her mother, she returns to Underland, where she travels to the Attack of the Jabberwocky and discovers that the Hatter's family never died, but were captured by Iracebeth. Returning to the present, Alice discovers she is too late, and that the Hatter is at the brink of death.

text: After Alice tearfully says that she believes him, Tarrant awakens and reforms back to his normal self. The Underlanders go to the Red Queen's castle, where Hatter finds his family shrunk and trapped in an ant farm. Iracebeth apprehends them and steals the Chronosphere from Alice, taking Mirana back to the day she lied about the tart. By the time Tarrant and Alice get there, Iracebeth and her past self see each other. Time becomes irrelevant, and Underland begins to freeze. Using the Chronosphere, Alice and the Hatter race back to the present, where Alice is able to place the Chronosphere back in its original place.

text: With the Chronosphere stabilized, Underland reverts to normal. The Hatter reunites with his family. Mirana apologizes to Iracebeth for lying, and both of them make amends. Alice bids her friends farewell and returns to the real world where her mother refuses to return Alice's ship over to Hamish, and the two set to travel the world together with their own company.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Johnny Depp as Tarrant Hightopp, the Mad Hatter[3]

Louis Ashbourne Serkis as a young Tarrant Hightopp[4]

Anne Hathaway as Mirana of Marmoreal, the White Queen[3]

Amelia Crouch as a young Mirana[5]

Mia Wasikowska as Alice Kingsleigh[3]
Helena Bonham Carter as Iracebeth of Crims, the Red Queen.[3]

Leilah de Meza as a young Iracebeth[6]

Sacha Baron Cohen as Time, a powerful Father Time-godlike human clockwork hybrid who speaks in a German accent and rules over of time in Underland using the Chronosphere in his castle[3]
Rhys Ifans as Zanik Hightopp, the Hatter's father[3]
Matt Lucas as Tweedledum and Tweedledee[3]
Lindsay Duncan as Helen Kingsleigh, Alice's mother
Leo Bill as Hamish Ascot, now "Lord Ascot" following his father's death
Geraldine James as Lady Ascot, Hamish's mother
Andrew Scott as Dr. Addison Bennett,[7] a cruel psychiatric doctor
Ed Speleers as James Harcourt,[3] an employee of the Ascots
Richard Armitage as King Oleron, Iracebeth and Mirana's father
Hattie Morahan as Queen Elsemere, Iracebeth and Mirana's mother
Joanna Bobin as Lady Alexandra Ascot, Hamish's wife
Simone Kirby as Tyva Hightopp, the Hatter's mother
Joe Hurst as Bim Hightopp

Oliver Hawkes as a young Bim Hightopp

Siobhan Redmond as Bumalic Hightopp
Frederick Warder as Poomally Hightopp
Eve Hedderwick Turner as Baloo Hightopp
Tom Godwin as Pimlick Hightopp

tag: ul

text: Voice cast[edit]

text:
Alan Rickman as Absolem, the Butterfly[3]
Stephen Fry as Cheshire, the Cheshire Cat[3]
Michael Sheen as Nivens McTwisp, the White Rabbit[3]
Timothy Spall as Bayard, the Bloodhound[3]

Kyle Hebert as a young Bayard[8]

Barbara Windsor as Mallymkun, the Dormouse[3]
Matt Vogel as Wilkins, Time's long-suffering manservant. Toby Jones was originally announced in the role[9]
Paul Whitehouse as Thackery Earwicket, the March Hare[3]
Wally Wingert as Humpty Dumpty. John Sessions was originally slated to voice the character[10]
Meera Syal as Nobody
Edward Petherbridge as Gentleman Fish
Owain Rhys Davies as Delivery Frog
Paul Hunter as the White Chess King, a chess piece

text: Production[edit]

text: The film was announced via Variety in December 2012.[11] Bobin was first approached about the project while doing post-production work on Muppets Most Wanted,[12] Of being asked, Bobin has said that "I just couldn't pass it up", as he has a passion for the works of Lewis Carroll as well as history in general.[13] In July 2013, it was announced that Johnny Depp would return as the Hatter,[14] with Mia Wasikowska's return confirmed the following November.[15] In January 2014 Sacha Baron Cohen joined the cast to play Time.[16] In May 2014, Rhys Ifans joined the cast to play Zanik Hightopp, the Mad Hatter's father.[17] In developing the character of "Time", Bobin sought to avoid creating a "straight-up bad guy", noting that it would be "a bit dull", and also that the role in that universe already existed in the form of The Red Queen.[12] Instead, Bobin sought to make Time a "Twit", further explaining that "There's no one better at playing the confident idiot trope than Sacha Baron Cohen", and adding that "it was very much with Sacha in mind".[12]

text: Principal photography began on August 4, 2014, at Shepperton Studios.[18] In August 2014, filming took place in Gloucester Docks, which included the use of at least four historic ships: Kathleen and May, Irene, Excelsior, and the Earl of Pembroke, the last of which was renamed The Wonder for filming.[19][20][21][22][23] Principal photography ended on October 31, 2014.[24]

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text:
Alice Through the Looking Glass: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack

Film score by Danny Elfman

Released
May 27, 2016

Recorded
2016

Studio
Abbey Road Studios

Genre
Orchestral, pop rock

Length
76:53

Label
Walt Disney

Producer
Danny Elfman

Danny Elfman film scores chronology

Goosebumps
(2015)Goosebumps2015
Alice Through the Looking Glass
(2016)
Before I Wake
(2016)Before I Wake2016

Singles from Alice Through the Looking Glass: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack

"Just Like Fire"
Released: April 15, 2016
"Alice"
Released: May 27, 2016
"Saving the Ship"
Released: May 27, 2016
"Looking Glass"
Released: June 1, 2016
"Truth"
Released: July 28, 2016
"Story of Time"
Released: August 7, 2016
"The Red Queen"
Released: October 18, 2016
"The Chronosphere"
Released: October 20, 2016

text: The film’s score was composed by Danny Elfman. The soundtrack was released on May 27, 2016, by Walt Disney Records. Pink recorded the song "Just Like Fire" for the film, and also covered Jefferson Airplane's "White Rabbit", only used in the film's promotional material.

text: Track listing[edit]

text: All music composed by Danny Elfman.

text:
No.
Title
Length

1.
"Alice"
6:35

2.
"Saving the Ship"
3:40

3.
"Watching Time"
5:10

4.
"Looking Glass"
3:30

5.
"To the Rescue"
0:56

6.
"Hatter House"
3:47

7.
"The Red Queen"
2:29

8.
"The Chronosphere"
4:15

9.
"Warning Hightopps"
2:23

10.
"Tea Time Forever"
1:45

11.
"Oceans of Time"
1:15

12.
"Hat Heartbreak"
2:27

13.
"Asylum Escape"
4:06

14.
"Hatter's Deathbed"
3:22

15.
"Finding the Family"
2:04

16.
"Time Is Up"
4:24

17.
"World's End"
1:50

18.
"Truth"
4:09

19.
"Goodbye Alice"
2:13

20.
"Kingsleigh & Kingsleigh"
1:19

21.
"Seconds Song"
0:11

22.
"Friends United"
1:06

23.
"Time's Castle"
1:49

24.
"The Seconds"
1:55

25.
"Clock Shop"
0:50

26.
"They're Alive"
2:23

27.
"Story of Time"
3:03

28.
"Just Like Fire" (performed by Pink)
3:35

Total length:
76:53

text: Release[edit]

text: Alice Through the Looking Glass premiered in London on May 10, 2016, and was theatrically released on May 27, 2016, in the United States by Walt Disney Pictures.

text: Home media[edit]

text: Alice Through the Looking Glass was released on Blu-ray, DVD and digital download on October 18, 2016, by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment.[25][26] It debuted at No. 2 in the Blu-ray Disc sales charts.[27]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: Alice Through the Looking Glass grossed $77 million in the United States and Canada and $222.4 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $299.5 million, against a budget of $170 million.[1]

text: North America[edit]

text: Alice Through the Looking Glass opened in the United States and Canada on May 27, 2016, alongside X-Men: Apocalypse, and was initially projected to gross $55–60 million from 3,763 theaters over its four-day Memorial Day opening weekend, but projections were continuously revised downwards due to poor word of mouth.[28] It had the added benefit of playing in over 3,100 3D theaters, 380 IMAX screens, 77 premium large formats and 79 D-box locations.[29][30] It made $1.5 million from Thursday previews (to the first film's $3.9 million)[31] and just $9.7 million on its first day, compared to the $41 million opening Friday of its predecessor.[32] Through its opening weekend, it earned $27 million, which when compared to its predecessor's $116 million opening is down 70%.[28] While 3D represented 71% ($82 million) of the original film's opening gross, 3D constituted only 41% ($11 million) for this sequel, with 29% coming from traditional 3D shows, 11% from IMAX, and 1% from premium large formats.[33] It became the studio's third Memorial Day opening flop following Tomorrowland in 2015 and Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time in 2010.[33] During its first week, the film grossed $40.1 million.[34] In its second weekend, the film grossed $11.3 million (a 55.1% drop), finishing 4th at the box office.[35]

text: Other countries[edit]

text: The film was released across 43 countries (72% of its total market place) the same weekend as the US, and was estimated to gross $80–100 million in its opening weekend. It faced competition from Warcraft and X-Men: Apocalypse.[36] It ended up grossing $62.7 million, which is well below the projections of which $4.1 million came from IMAX shows.[37] It had an opening weekend gross in Mexico ($4.5 million), Brazil ($4.1 million), and Russia ($3.9 million).[37] In the United Kingdom and Ireland, it had an unsuccessful opening by grossing just £2.23 million ($3.1 million) during its opening weekend, a mere 21% of the first film's £10.56 million ($15.2 million) opening from 603 theaters. It debuted in second place behind X-Men: Apocalypse which was on its second weekend of play.[38] In China, it had an opening day of an estimated $7.3 million[39] and went on to score the second biggest Disney live-action (non-Marvel or Lucasfilm) opening ever with $26.6 million, behind only The Jungle Book.[37] However, this was down from its $35–45 million projections.[40] It debuted at the No. 1 spot among newly released film in Japan with $5.2 million and $4.1 million on Saturday and Sunday. By comparison, the first film opened with $14 million on its way to a $133.6 million a total.[41][42]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 29% based on 234 reviews, and an average rating of 4.6/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Alice Through the Looking Glass is just as visually impressive as its predecessor, but that isn't enough to cover for an underwhelming story that fails to live up to its classic characters."[43] On Metacritic, the film has a score of 34 out of 100 based on 42 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".[44] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A–" on an A+ to F scale, the same grade earned by its predecessor.[45]

text: Stephen Holden of The New York Times wrote in his review, "What does all this have to do with Lewis Carroll? Hardly anything" and that overall, "It's just an excuse on which to hang two trite overbearing fables and one amusing one".[46] Ty Burr of The Boston Globe gave the movie 1.5 out of 4 stars and called the film, "gaudy, loud, complacent, and vulgar."[47] Stephen Whitty of New York Daily News called the film "hugely expensive and extravagantly stupid" and that, overall, the movie "is just one more silly Hollywood mashup, an innocent fantasy morphed into a noisy would-be blockbuster".[48]

text: Matt Zoller Seitz of RogerEbert.com was deeply critical of Through the Looking Glass, describing it as "the most offensive kind of film...one that spends an enormous amount of money yet seems to have nothing on its mind but money. You give it, they take it. And you get nothing in return but assurances that you're seeing magic and wonder. The movie keeps repeating it in your ear, and flashing it onscreen in big block letters: MAGIC AND WONDER. MAGIC AND WONDER. But there is no magic, no wonder, just junk rehashed from a movie that was itself a rehash of Lewis Carroll, tricked out with physically unpersuasive characters and landscapes and 'action scenes', with blockbuster 'journey movie' tropes affixed to every set-piece as blatantly as Post-It Notes."[49]

text: Kyle Smith of New York Post gave the film a positive review: "The screenplay (by Linda Woolverton) isn't exactly heaving with brilliant ideas, but it works well enough as a blank canvas against which the special-effects team goes bonkers".[50] Matthew Lickona of San Diego Reader said that while he found the visual effects to be "stupidly expensive" and the story familiar, he called it, "a solid kids’ movie in the old style".[51]

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
List of awards and nominations

Award
Category
Recipient(s)
Result
Ref(s)

Golden Raspberry Awards
Worst Prequel, Remake, Rip-off or Sequel
Alice Through the Looking Glass
Nominated
[52]

Worst Supporting Actor
Johnny Depp

Worst Screen Combo
Johnny Depp and His Vomitously Vibrant Costume

Golden Trailer Awards
Best Animation Family
"Poem"
[53]

The Don LaFontaine Award for Best Voice Over
"Poem"

Best Fantasy Adventure TV Spot
"Grammys"

Best Original Score TV Spot
"Grammys"

Grammy Awards
Best Song Written For Visual Media
"Just Like Fire" – Oscar Holter, Max Martin, Pink and Shellback
[54]

Hollywood Music in Media Awards
Best Song – Sci-Fi/Fantasy Film
"Just Like Fire" – Oscar Holter, Max Martin, Pink and Shellback
Won
[55][56]

People's Choice Awards
Favorite Family Movie
Alice Through the Looking Glass
Nominated
[57]

Satellite Awards
Best Art Direction and Production Design
Dan Hennah
[58]

Best Costume Design
Colleen Atwood

Saturn Awards
Best Costume Design
Colleen Atwood
[59]

Teen Choice Awards
Choice Music: Song from a Movie or TV Show
"Just Like Fire" by Pink
[60]

Visual Effects Society Awards
Outstanding Effects Simulations in a Photoreal Feature
Jacob Clark, Joseph Pepper, Klaus Seitschek and Cosku Turhan
[61]


document_title: United States in World War I

question_text: who did us fight in world war 1

question_tokens: who did us fight in world war 1

text: United States in World War I

text: Entry[edit]

text: The American entry into World War I came in April 1917, after more than two and a half years of efforts by President Woodrow Wilson to keep the United States out of the war. Apart from an Anglophile element urging early support for the British, American public opinion reflected that of the president: the sentiment for neutrality was particularly strong among Irish Americans, German Americans and Scandinavian Americans,[3] as well as among church leaders and among women in general. On the other hand, even before World War I had broken out, American opinion had been more negative toward Germany than towards any other country in Europe.[4] Over time, especially after reports of atrocities in Belgium in 1914 and following the sinking of the passenger liner RMS Lusitania in 1915, the American people increasingly came to see Germany as the aggressor in Europe.

text: As U.S. President, it was Wilson who made the key policy decisions over foreign affairs: while the country was at peace, the domestic economy ran on a laissez-faire basis, with American banks making huge loans to Britain and France — funds that were in large part used to buy munitions, raw materials and food from across the Atlantic. Until 1917, Wilson made minimal preparations for a land war and kept the United States Army on a small peacetime footing, despite increasing demands for enhanced preparedness. He did however expand the United States Navy.

text: In 1917, with Russia experiencing political upheaval following widespread disillusionment there over the war, and with Britain and France low on credit, Germany appeared to have the upper hand in Europe,[5] while the Ottoman Empire clung to its possessions in the Middle East. In the same year, Germany decided to resume unrestricted submarine warfare against any vessel approaching British waters; this attempt to starve Britain into surrender was balanced against the knowledge that it would almost certainly bring the United States into the war. Germany also made a secret offer to help Mexico regain territories lost in the Mexican–American War in an encoded telegram known as the Zimmermann Telegram, which was intercepted by British Intelligence. Publication of that communique outraged Americans just as German U-boats started sinking American merchant ships in the North Atlantic. Wilson then asked Congress for "a war to end all wars" that would "make the world safe for democracy", and Congress voted to declare war on Germany on April 6, 1917.[6] On December 7, 1917, the U.S. declared war on Austria-Hungary.[7][8] U.S. troops began arriving on the Western Front in large numbers in 1918.

text: Neutrality[edit]

text: After the war began in 1914, the United States proclaimed a policy of neutrality despite president Woodrow Wilson's antipathies against Germany. Early in the war, the United States started to favor the British and their allies.[9] President Wilson aimed to broker a peace and sent his top aide, Colonel House, on repeated missions to the two sides, but each remained so confident of victory that they ignored peace proposals.

text: When the German U-boat U-20 sank the British liner Lusitania on 7 May 1915 with 128 US citizens aboard, Wilson said "America is too proud to fight" and demanded an end to attacks on passenger ships. Germany complied. Wilson repeatedly warned that the US would not tolerate unrestricted submarine warfare in violation of international law and of human rights.[citation needed] Wilson came under pressure from war hawks led by former president Theodore Roosevelt, who denounced German acts as "piracy",[10] and from British delegations under Cecil Spring Rice and Sir Edward Grey. Wilson realized he needed to enter the war in order to shape the peace; indeed in 1919 he was one of those who achieved the establishment of the League of Nations at the Paris Peace Conference.[11] Wilson's Secretary of State, William Jennings Bryan, whose pacifist goals Wilson ignored, resigned in frustration in June 1915. Public opinion reacted with outrage to suspected German sabotage of Black Tom in Jersey City, New Jersey on 30 July 1916, and to the Kingsland explosion on 11 January 1917 in present-day Lyndhurst, New Jersey.[12]

text: Public opinion[edit]

text: American public opinion was divided, with most Americans until early 1917 largely of the opinion that the United States should stay out of the war.  Opinion changed gradually, partly in response to German actions in Belgium and the Lusitania, partly as German Americans lost influence, and partly in response to Wilson's position that America had to play a role to make the world safe for democracy.[13]

text: In the general public, there was little if any support for entering the war on the side of Germany. The great majority of German Americans, as well as Scandinavian Americans, wanted the United States to remain neutral; however, at the outbreak of war, thousands of US citizens had tried to enlist in the German army.[14][15] The Irish Catholic community, based in the large cities and often in control of the Democratic Party apparatus, was strongly hostile to helping Britain in any way, especially after the Easter uprising of 1916 in Ireland.[16] Most of the Protestant church leaders in the United States, regardless of their theology, favoured pacifistic solutions whereby the United States would broker a peace.[17] Most of the leaders of the women's movement, typified by Jane Addams, likewise sought pacifistic solutions.[18] The most prominent opponent of war was industrialist Henry Ford, who personally financed and led a peace ship to Europe to try to negotiate among the belligerents; no negotiations resulted.[19]

text: Britain had significant support among intellectuals, Yankees, and families with close ties to Britain.[20] The most prominent leader was Samuel Insull of Chicago, a leading industrialist who had emigrated from England. Insull funded many propaganda efforts, and financed young Americans who wished to fight by joining the Canadian military,[21] Canada at that time being a Dominion of the British Empire.[22]

text: Preparedness movement[edit]

text: By 1915, Americans were paying much more attention to the war. The sinking of the Lusitania aroused furious denunciations of German brutality.[citation needed] By 1915, in Eastern cities a new "Preparedness" movement emerged. It argued that the United States needed to build up immediately strong naval and land forces for defensive purposes; an unspoken assumption was that America would fight sooner or later. The driving forces behind Preparedness were all Republicans, notably General Leonard Wood, ex-president Theodore Roosevelt, and former secretaries of war Elihu Root and Henry Stimson; they enlisted many of the nation's most prominent bankers, industrialists, lawyers and scions of prominent families. Indeed, there emerged an "Atlanticist" foreign policy establishment, a group of influential Americans drawn primarily from upper-class lawyers, bankers, academics, and politicians of the Northeast, committed to a strand of Anglophile internationalism.[23]

text: The Preparedness movement had what political scientists call a "realism" philosophy of world affairs—they believed that economic strength and military muscle were more decisive than idealistic crusades focused on causes like democracy and national self-determination. Emphasizing over and over the weak state of national defences, they showed that the United States' 100,000-man Army, even augmented by the 112,000-strong National Guard, was outnumbered 20 to one by the German army; similarly in 1915, the armed forces of Great Britain and the British Empire, France, Russia, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Ottoman Empire, Italy, Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, Belgium, Japan and Greece were all larger and more experienced than the United States military.[24]

text: They called for UMT or "universal military service" under which the 600,000 men who turned 18 every year would be required to spend six months in military training, and then be assigned to reserve units. The small regular army would primarily be a training agency. Public opinion, however, was not willing to go that far.[25]

text: Both the regular army and the Preparedness leaders had a low opinion of the National Guard, which it saw as politicized, provincial, poorly armed, ill trained, too inclined to idealistic crusading (as against Spain in 1898), and too lacking in understanding of world affairs. The National Guard on the other hand was securely rooted in state and local politics, with representation from a very broad cross section of the US political economy. The Guard was one of the nation's few institutions that (in some northern states) accepted black men on an equal footing with white men.

text: Democrats respond[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The Democratic party saw the Preparedness movement as a threat. Roosevelt, Root and Wood were prospective Republican presidential candidates. More subtly, the Democrats were rooted in localism that appreciated the National Guard, and the voters were hostile to the rich and powerful in the first place. Working with the Democrats who controlled Congress, Wilson was able to sidetrack the Preparedness forces. Army and Navy leaders were forced to testify before Congress to the effect that the nation's military was in excellent shape.

text: In reality, neither the US Army nor US Navy was in shape for war in terms of manpower, size, military hardware or experience. The Navy had fine ships but Wilson had been using them to threaten Mexico, and the fleet's readiness had suffered. The crews of the Texas and the New York, the two newest and largest battleships, had never fired a gun, and the morale of the sailors was low. The Army and Navy air forces were tiny in size. Despite the flood of new weapons systems unveiled in the war in Europe, the Army was paying scant attention. For example, it was making no studies of trench warfare, poison gas or tanks, and was unfamiliar with the rapid evolution of Aerial warfare. The Democrats in Congress tried to cut the military budget in 1915. The Preparedness movement effectively exploited the surge of outrage over the "Lusitania" in May 1915, forcing the Democrats to promise some improvements to the military and naval forces. Wilson, less fearful of the Navy, embraced a long-term building program designed to make the fleet the equal of the British Royal Navy by the mid-1920s, although this would not come to pass until after World War II.[26] "Realism" was at work here; the admirals were Mahanians and they therefore wanted a surface fleet of heavy battleships second to none—that is, equal to Great Britain. The facts of submarine warfare (which necessitated destroyers, not battleships) and the possibilities of imminent war with Germany (or with Britain, for that matter), were simply ignored.

text: Wilson's decision touched off a firestorm.[27]  Secretary of War Lindley Garrison adopted many of the proposals of the Preparedness leaders, especially their emphasis on a large federal reserves and abandonment of the National Guard. Garrison's proposals not only outraged the provincial politicians of both parties, they also offended a strongly held belief shared by the liberal wing of the Progressive movement, that was, that warfare always had a hidden economic motivation. Specifically, they warned the chief warmongers were New York bankers (such as J. P. Morgan) with millions at risk, profiteering munition makers (such as Bethlehem Steel, which made armour, and DuPont, which made powder) and unspecified industrialists searching for global markets to control.  Antiwar critics blasted them.  These selfish special interests were too powerful, especially, Senator La Follette noted, in the conservative wing of the Republican Party. The only road to peace was disarmament in the eyes of many.

text: National debate[edit]

text: Garrison's plan unleashed the fiercest battle in peacetime history over the relationship of military planning to national goals. In peacetime, War Department arsenals and Navy yards manufactured nearly all munitions that lacked civilian uses, including warships, artillery, naval guns, and shells. Items available on the civilian market, such as food, horses, saddles, wagons, and uniforms were always purchased from civilian contractors.

text: Peace leaders like Jane Addams of Hull House and David Starr Jordan of Stanford University redoubled their efforts, and now turned their voices against the President because he was "sowing the seeds of militarism, raising up a military and naval caste." Many ministers, professors, farm spokesmen and labor union leaders joined in, with powerful support from a band of four dozen southern Democrats in Congress who took control of the House Military Affairs Committee. Wilson, in deep trouble, took his cause to the people in a major speaking tour in early 1916, a warm-up for his reelection campaign that fall.

text: Wilson seemed to have won over the middle classes, but had little impact on the largely ethnic working classes and the deeply isolationist farmers. Congress still refused to budge, so Wilson replaced Garrison as Secretary of War with Newton Baker, the Democratic mayor of Cleveland and an outspoken opponent of preparedness.[28] The upshot was a compromise passed in May 1916, as the war raged on and Berlin was debating whether America was so weak it could be ignored. The Army was to double in size to 11,300 officers and 208,000 men, with no reserves, and a National Guard that would be enlarged in five years to 440,000 men. Summer camps on the Plattsburg model were authorized for new officers, and the government was given $20 million to build a nitrate plant of its own. Preparedness supporters were downcast, the antiwar people were jubilant. The United States would now be too weak to go to war. Colonel Robert L. Bullard privately complained that "Both sides [Britain and Germany] treat us with scorn and contempt; our fool, smug conceit of superiority has been exploded in our faces and deservedly.".[29] The House gutted the naval plans as well, defeating a "big navy" plan by 189 to 183, and scuttling the battleships. The battle of Jutland (May 31/June 1, 1916) saw the main German High Seas Fleet engage in a monumental yet inconclusive clash with the far stronger Grand Fleet of the Royal Navy. Arguing this battle proved the validity of Mahanian doctrine, the navalists took control in the Senate, broke the House coalition, and authorized a rapid three-year buildup of all classes of warships.[citation needed] A new weapons system, naval aviation, received $3.5 million, and the government was authorized to build its own armour-plate factory. The very weakness of American military power encouraged Berlin to start its unrestricted submarine attacks in 1917. It knew this meant war with America, but it could discount the immediate risk because the US Army was negligible and the new warships would not be at sea until 1919 by which time the war would be over, Germany thought, with Germany victorious. The notion that armaments led to war was turned on its head: refusal to arm in 1916 led to war in 1917.

text: War declared[edit]

text: In January 1917, Germany resumed unrestricted submarine warfare. The German Foreign minister, Arthur Zimmermann invited revolution-torn Mexico to join the war as Germany's ally against the United States in the Zimmermann Telegram. In return, the Germans would send Mexico money and help it recover the territories of Texas, New Mexico and Arizona that Mexico lost during the Mexican–American War 70 years earlier.[30] British intelligence intercepted the telegram and passed the information on to Washington. Wilson released the Zimmerman note to the public and Americans saw it as a casus belli—a cause for war.

text: At first, Wilson tried to maintain neutrality while fighting off the submarines by arming American merchant ships with guns powerful enough to sink German submarines on the surface (but useless when the U-boats were under water). After submarines sank seven US merchant ships, Wilson finally went to Congress calling for a declaration of war on Germany, which Congress voted on April 6, 1917.[31]

text: As a result of the Russian February Revolution in 1917, the Tsar abdicated and was replaced by a Russian Provisional Government. This helped overcome Wilson's reluctance to having the US fight alongside a country ruled by an absolutist monarch. Pleased by the Provisional Government's pro-war stance, the US accorded the new government diplomatic recognition on March 9, 1917.[32]

text: Although the United States declared war on Germany on April 6, 1917, it did not initially declare war on the other Central Powers, a state of affairs that Woodrow Wilson described as an "embarrassing obstacle" in his State of the Union speech.[33] Congress declared war on the Austro-Hungarian Empire on December 7, 1917,[34] but never made declarations of war against the other Central Powers, Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire or the various co-belligerents allied with the Central Powers.[35] Thus, the United States remained uninvolved in the military campaigns in central and eastern Europe, the Middle East, the Caucasus, North Africa, Sub-Saharan Africa, Asia and the Pacific.

text: Home front[edit]

text: The home front saw a systematic mobilization of the entire population and the entire economy to produce the soldiers, food supplies, munitions, and money needed to win the war. Although the United States entered the war in 1917, there had been very little planning, or even recognition of the problems that the British and other Allies had to solve on their home fronts. As a result, the level of confusion was high in the first 12 months, then efficiency took control.[36]

text: The war came in the midst of the Progressive Era, when efficiency and expertise were highly valued. Therefore, the federal government set up a multitude of temporary agencies with 500,000 to 1,000,000 new employees to bring together the expertise necessary to redirect the economy into the production of munitions and food necessary for the war, as well as for propaganda purposes.[37]

text: Food[edit]

text: The United States Food Administration under Herbert Hoover  launched a massive campaign to teach Americans to economize on their food budgets and grow  victory gardens in their backyards, where crops were grown for US soldiers.  It managed the nation's food distribution and prices.[38]

text: Propaganda[edit]

text: Crucial to US participation was the sweeping domestic propaganda campaign executed by the Committee on Public Information, overseen by George Creel.[39] The campaign consisted of tens of thousands of government-selected community leaders giving brief carefully scripted pro-war speeches at thousands of public gatherings.[40][41] Along with other branches of government and private vigilante groups like the American Protective League, it also included the general repression and harassment of people either opposed to American entry into the war or of German heritage.[42] Rumors about a German-induced attempt to start uprising among Black Americans caused a wave of lynchings to occur in the Southern United States.[43] Other forms of propaganda included newsreels, photos, large-print posters (designed by several well-known illustrators of the day, including Louis D. Fancher and Henry Reuterdahl), magazine and newspaper articles, and billboards.[44]

text: Children[edit]

text: The nation placed a great importance on the role of children, teaching them patriotism and national service and asking them to encourage war support and educate the public about the importance of the war. The Boy Scouts of America helped distribute war pamphlets, helped sell war bonds, and helped to drive nationalism and support for the war.[45]

text: Army and Navy[edit]

text: As late as 1917, the United States maintained only a small army, one which was in fact smaller than thirteen of the nations and empires already active in the war. After the passage of the Selective Service Act in 1917, it drafted 4 million men into military service.[46] By the summer of 1918, about 2 million US soldiers had arrived in France, about half of whom eventually saw front-line service; by the Armistice of November 11 approximately 10,000 fresh soldiers were arriving in France daily.[47] In 1917, Congress gave US citizenship to Puerto Ricans when they were drafted to participate in World War I, as part of the Jones Act. In the end, Germany miscalculated the United States' influence on the outcome of the conflict, believing it would be many more months before US troops would arrive and overestimating the effectiveness of U-boats in slowing the American buildup.[48]

text: The United States Navy sent a battleship group to Scapa Flow to join with the British Grand Fleet, destroyers to Queenstown, Ireland and submarines to help guard convoys. Several regiments of Marines were also dispatched to France. The British and French wanted US units used to reinforce their troops already on the battle lines and not to waste scarce shipping on bringing over supplies. The US rejected the first proposition and accepted the second. General John J. Pershing, American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) commander, refused to break up US units to serve as mere reinforcements for British Empire and French units. As an exception, he did allow African-American combat regiments to fight in French divisions. The Harlem Hellfighters fought as part of the French 16th Division, earning a unit Croix de Guerre for their actions at Château-Thierry, Belleau Wood, and Séchault.[49]

text: Impact of US forces on the war[edit]

text: On the battlefields of France in spring 1918, the war-weary Allied armies enthusiastically greeted the fresh American troops. They arrived at the rate of 10,000 a day,[47] at a time when the Germans were unable to replace their losses. The Americans won a victory at Cantigny, then again in defensive stands at Chateau-Thierry and Belleau Wood. The Americans helped the British Empire, French and Portuguese forces defeat and turn back the powerful final German offensive (Spring Offensive of March to July, 1918), and most importantly, the Americans played a role in the Allied final offensive (Hundred Days Offensive of August to November). However, many American commanders used the same flawed tactics which the British, French, Germans and others had abandoned early in the war, and so many American offensives were not particularly effective. Pershing continued to commit troops to these full- frontal attacks, resulting in high casualties against experienced veteran German and Austrian-Hungarian units. Nevertheless, the infusion of new and fresh US troops greatly strengthened the Allies' strategic position and boosted morale. The Allies achieved victory over Germany on November 11, 1918 after German morale had collapsed both at home and on the battlefield.[50][51]

text: After the war[edit]

text: The government promptly cancelled wartime contracts, ended the  draft, and started to bring home its troops from Europe as fast as transport became available.[52]   However there was no GI Bill or financial or educational benefits for veterans, and the lack became a major political issue, especially for the large veterans' groups such as the Veterans of Foreign Wars and the new American Legion.[53]   The readjustment period was marked by soaring unemployment, massive strikes, and race riots in 1919. The public demanded a return to "normalcy," and repudiated Wilson with the election of conservative Republican Warren G. Harding.[54]?


document_title: Acid rain

question_text: rain sleet or snow that contains a high concentration of acids is called

text: Acid rain

text: Definition

text: "Acid rain" is a popular term referring to the deposition of a mixture from wet (rain, snow, sleet, fog, cloudwater, and dew) and dry (acidifying particles and gases) acidic components. Distilled water, once carbon dioxide is removed, has a neutral pH of 7. Liquids with a pH less than 7 are acidic, and those with a pH greater than 7 are alkaline. "Clean" or unpolluted rain has an acidic pH, but usually no lower than 5.7, because carbon dioxide and water in the air react together to form carbonic acid, a weak acid according to the following reaction:

text: Carbonic acid then can ionize in water forming low concentrations of hydronium and carbonate ions:

text: However, unpolluted rain can also contain other chemicals which affect its pH (acidity level). A common example is nitric acid produced by electric discharge in the atmosphere such as lightning.[1] Acid deposition as an environmental issue (discussed later in the article) would include additional acids other than H2CO3.

text: History

text: The corrosive effect of polluted, acidic city air on limestone and marble was noted in the 17th century by John Evelyn, who remarked upon the poor condition of the Arundel marbles.[2] Since the Industrial Revolution, emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere have increased.[3][4] In 1852, Robert Angus Smith was the first to show the relationship between acid rain and atmospheric pollution in Manchester, England.[5]

text: Though acidic rain was discovered in 1853, it was not until the late 1960s that scientists began widely observing and studying the phenomenon.[6] The term "acid rain" was coined in 1872 by Robert Angus Smith.[7] Canadian Harold Harvey was among the first to research a "dead" lake. At first the main focus in research lay on local affects of acid rain. Waldemar Christofer Brøgger was the first to acknowledge long-distance transportation of pollutants crossing borders from the United Kingdom to Norway[8]. Public awareness of acid rain in the U.S increased in the 1970s after The New York Times published reports from the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest in New Hampshire of the myriad deleterious environmental effects shown to result from it.[9][10]

text: Occasional pH readings in rain and fog water of well below 2.4 have been reported in industrialized areas.[3] Industrial acid rain is a substantial problem in China and Russia[11][12] and areas downwind from them. These areas all burn sulfur-containing coal to generate heat and electricity.[13]

text: The problem of acid rain has not only increased with population and industrial growth, but has become more widespread. The use of tall smokestacks to reduce local pollution has contributed to the spread of acid rain by releasing gases into regional atmospheric circulation.[14][15] Often deposition occurs a considerable distance downwind of the emissions, with mountainous regions tending to receive the greatest deposition (simply because of their higher rainfall). An example of this effect is the low pH of rain which falls in Scandinavia.

text: In the United States

text: The earliest report about acid rain in the United States was from the chemical evidence from Hubbard Brook Valley. In 1972, a group of scientists including Gene Likens discovered the rain that was deposited at White Mountains of New Hampshire was acidic. The pH of the sample was measured to be 4.03 at Hubbard Brook.[17] The Hubbard Brook Ecosystem Study followed up with a series of research that analyzed the environmental effects of acid rain. Acid rain that mixed with stream water at Hubbard Brook was neutralized by the alumina from soils.[18] The result of this research indicates the chemical reaction between acid rain and aluminum leads to increasing rate of soil weathering. Experimental research was done to examine the effects of increased acidity in stream on ecological species. In 1980, a group of scientists modified the acidity of Norris Brook, New Hampshire, and observed the change in species’ behaviors. There was a decrease in species diversity, an increase in community dominants, and a decrease in the food web complexity.[19]

text: In 1980, the U.S. Congress passed an Acid Deposition Act.[20] This Act established an 18-year assessment and research program under the direction of the National Acidic Precipitation Assessment Program (NAPAP). NAPAP looked at the entire problem from a scientific perspective. It enlarged a network of monitoring sites to determine how acidic the precipitation actually was, and to determine long-term trends, and established a network for dry deposition. It looked at the effects of acid rain and funded research on the effects of acid precipitation on freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems, historical buildings, monuments, and building materials. It also funded extensive studies on atmospheric processes and potential control programs.

text: From the start, policy advocates from all sides attempted to influence NAPAP activities to support their particular policy advocacy efforts, or to disparage those of their opponents.[20] For the U.S. Government's scientific enterprise, a significant impact of NAPAP were lessons learned in the assessment process and in environmental research management to a relatively large group of scientists, program managers and the public.[21]

text: In 1981, the National Academy of Sciences was looking into research about the controversial issues regarding acid rain.[22] President Ronald Reagan did not place a huge attention on the issues of acid rain[23] until his personal visit to Canada and confirmed that Canadian border suffered from the drifting pollution from smokestacks in Midwest of US. Reagan honored the agreement to Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau’s enforcement of anti-pollution regulation.[24] In 1982, US President Ronald Reagan commissioned William Nierenberg to serve on the National Science Board.[25] Nierenberg selected scientists including Gene Likens to serve on a panel to draft a report on acid rain. In 1983, the panel of scientists came up with a draft report, which concluded that acid rain is a real problem and solutions should be sought.[26] White House Office of Science and Technology Policy reviewed the draft report and sent Fred Singer’s suggestions of the report, which cast doubt on the cause of acid rain.[27] The panelists revealed rejections against Singer’s positions and submitted the report to Nierenberg in April. In May 1983, the House of Representatives voted against legislations that aimed to control sulfur emissions. There was a debate about whether Nierenberg delayed to release the report. Nierenberg himself denied the saying about his suppression of the report and explained that the withheld of the report after the House's vote was due to the fact that the report was not ready to be published.[28]

text: In 1991, the US National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program (NAPAP) provided its first assessment of acid rain in the United States.[29] It reported that 5% of New England Lakes were acidic, with sulfates being the most common problem. They noted that 2% of the lakes could no longer support Brook Trout, and 6% of the lakes were unsuitable for the survival of many species of minnow. Subsequent Reports to Congress have documented chemical changes in soil and freshwater ecosystems, nitrogen saturation, decreases in amounts of nutrients in soil, episodic acidification, regional haze, and damage to historical monuments.

text: Meanwhile, in 1990, the U.S. Congress passed a series of amendments to the Clean Air Act.[30] Title IV of these amendments established the a cap and trade system designed to control emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. Title IV called for a total reduction of about 10 million tons of SO2 emissions from power plants. It was implemented in two phases. Phase I began in 1995, and limited sulfur dioxide emissions from 110 of the largest power plants to a combined total of 8.7 million tons of sulfur dioxide. One power plant in New England (Merrimack) was in Phase I. Four other plants (Newington, Mount Tom, Brayton Point, and Salem Harbor) were added under other provisions of the program. Phase II began in 2000, and affects most of the power plants in the country.

text: During the 1990s, research continued. On March 10, 2005, the EPA issued the Clean Air Interstate Rule (CAIR). This rule provides states with a solution to the problem of power plant pollution that drifts from one state to another. CAIR will permanently cap emissions of SO2 and NOx in the eastern United States. When fully implemented, CAIR will reduce SO2 emissions in 28 eastern states and the District of Columbia by over 70% and NOx emissions by over 60% from 2003 levels.[31]

text: Overall, the program's cap and trade program has been successful in achieving its goals. Since the 1990s, SO2 emissions have dropped 40%, and according to the Pacific Research Institute, acid rain levels have dropped 65% since 1976.[32][33] Conventional regulation was used in the European Union, which saw a decrease of over 70% in SO2 emissions during the same time period.[34]

text: In 2007, total SO2 emissions were 8.9 million tons, achieving the program's long-term goal ahead of the 2010 statutory deadline.[35]

text: In 2007 the EPA estimated that by 2010, the overall costs of complying with the program for businesses and consumers would be $1 billion to $2 billion a year, only one fourth of what was originally predicted.[32] Forbes says: In 2010, by which time the cap and trade system had been augmented by the George W. Bush administration’s Clean Air Interstate Rule, SO2 emissions had fallen to 5.1 million tons. [36]

text: The term Citizen science can be traced back as far as January 1989 and a campaign by the Audubon Society to measure Acid rain. Scientist Muki Haklay cites in a policy report for the Wilson Center entitled 'Citizen Science and Policy: A European Perspective' a first use of the term 'citizen science' by R. Kerson in the magazine MIT Technology Review from January 1989.[37][38] Quoting from the Wilson Center report: "The new form of engagement in science received the name "citizen science". The first recorded example of the use of the term is from 1989, describing how 225 volunteers across the US collected rain samples to assist the Audubon Society in an acid-rain awareness raising campaign. The volunteers collected samples, checked for acidity, and reported back to the organization. The information was then used to demonstrate the full extent of the phenomenon."[37][38]

text: Emissions of chemicals leading to acidification

text: The most important gas which leads to acidification is sulfur dioxide. Emissions of nitrogen oxides which are oxidized to form nitric acid are of increasing importance due to stricter controls on emissions of sulfur containing compounds. 70 Tg(S) per year in the form of SO2 comes from fossil fuel combustion and industry, 2.8 Tg(S) from wildfires and 7–8 Tg(S) per year from volcanoes.[39]

text: Natural phenomena

text: The principal natural phenomena that contribute acid-producing gases to the atmosphere are emissions from volcanoes. Thus, for example, fumaroles from the Laguna Caliente crater of Poás Volcano create extremely high amounts of acid rain and fog, with acidity as high as a pH of 2, clearing an area of any vegetation and frequently causing irritation to the eyes and lungs of inhabitants in nearby settlements. Acid-producing gasses are also created by biological processes that occur on the land, in wetlands, and in the oceans. The major biological source of sulfur containing compounds is dimethyl sulfide.

text: Nitric acid in rainwater is an important source of fixed nitrogen for plant life, and is also produced by electrical activity in the atmosphere such as lightning.[40]

text: Acidic deposits have been detected in glacial ice thousands of years old in remote parts of the globe.[14]

text: Soils of coniferous forests are naturally very acidic due to the shedding of needles, and the results of this phenomenon should not be confused with acid rain.

text: Human activity

text: The principal cause of acid rain is sulfur and nitrogen compounds from human sources, such as electricity generation, factories, and motor vehicles. Electrical power generation using coal is among the greatest contributors to gaseous pollutions that are responsible for acidic rain. The gases can be carried hundreds of kilometers in the atmosphere before they are converted to acids and deposited. In the past, factories had short funnels to let out smoke but this caused many problems locally; thus, factories now have taller smoke funnels. However, dispersal from these taller stacks causes pollutants to be carried farther, causing widespread ecological damage.

text: Chemical processes

text: Combustion of fuels produces sulfur dioxide and nitric oxides. They are converted into sulfuric acid and nitric acid.[41]

text: Gas phase chemistry

text: In the gas phase sulfur dioxide is oxidized by reaction with the hydroxyl radical via an intermolecular reaction:[5]

text: which is followed by:

text: In the presence of water, sulfur trioxide (SO3) is converted rapidly to sulfuric acid:

text: Nitrogen dioxide reacts with OH to form nitric acid:

text: Chemistry in cloud droplets

text: When clouds are present, the loss rate of SO2 is faster than can be explained by gas phase chemistry alone. This is due to reactions in the liquid water droplets.

text: Sulfur dioxide dissolves in water and then, like carbon dioxide, hydrolyses in a series of equilibrium reactions:

text: There are a large number of aqueous reactions that oxidize sulfur from S(IV) to S(VI), leading to the formation of sulfuric acid. The most important oxidation reactions are with ozone, hydrogen peroxide and oxygen (reactions with oxygen are catalyzed by iron and manganese in the cloud droplets).[5]

text: Acid deposition

text: Wet deposition

text: Wet deposition of acids occurs when any form of precipitation (rain, snow, and so on.) removes acids from the atmosphere and delivers it to the Earth's surface. This can result from the deposition of acids produced in the raindrops (see aqueous phase chemistry above) or by the precipitation removing the acids either in clouds or below clouds. Wet removal of both gases and aerosols are both of importance for wet deposition.

text: Dry deposition

text: Acid deposition also occurs via dry deposition in the absence of precipitation. This can be responsible for as much as 20 to 60% of total acid deposition.[42] This occurs when particles and gases stick to the ground, plants or other surfaces.

text: Adverse effects

text: Acid rain has been shown to have adverse impacts on forests, freshwaters and soils, killing insect and aquatic life-forms as well as causing damage to buildings and having impacts on human health.

text: Surface waters and aquatic animals

text: Both the lower pH and higher aluminium concentrations in surface water that occur as a result of acid rain can cause damage to fish and other aquatic animals. At pHs lower than 5 most fish eggs will not hatch and lower pHs can kill adult fish. As lakes and rivers become more acidic biodiversity is reduced. Acid rain has eliminated insect life and some fish species, including the brook trout in some lakes, streams, and creeks in geographically sensitive areas, such as the Adirondack Mountains of the United States.[43] However, the extent to which acid rain contributes directly or indirectly via runoff from the catchment to lake and river acidity (i.e., depending on characteristics of the surrounding watershed) is variable. The United States Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) website states: "Of the lakes and streams surveyed, acid rain caused acidity in 75% of the acidic lakes and about 50% of the acidic streams".[43] Lakes hosted by silicate basement rocks are more acidic than lakes within limestone or other basement rocks with a carbonate composition (i.e. marble) due to buffering effects by carbonate minerals, even with the same amount of acid rain.[44][citation needed]

text: Soils

text: Soil biology and chemistry can be seriously damaged by acid rain. Some microbes are unable to tolerate changes to low pH and are killed.[45] The enzymes of these microbes are denatured (changed in shape so they no longer function) by the acid. The hydronium ions of acid rain also mobilize toxins such as aluminium, and leach away essential nutrients and minerals such as magnesium.[46]

text: Soil chemistry can be dramatically changed when base cations, such as calcium and magnesium, are leached by acid rain thereby affecting sensitive species, such as sugar maple (Acer saccharum).[47][48]

text: Forests and other vegetation

text: Adverse effects may be indirectly related to acid rain, like the acid's effects on soil (see above) or high concentration of gaseous precursors to acid rain. High altitude forests are especially vulnerable as they are often surrounded by clouds and fog which are more acidic than rain.

text: Other plants can also be damaged by acid rain, but the effect on food crops is minimized by the application of lime and fertilizers to replace lost nutrients. In cultivated areas, limestone may also be added to increase the ability of the soil to keep the pH stable, but this tactic is largely unusable in the case of wilderness lands. When calcium is leached from the needles of red spruce, these trees become less cold tolerant and exhibit winter injury and even death.[49][50]

text: Ocean acidification

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (July 2013)

text: Acid rain has a much less harmful effect on the oceans. However, acid rain can cause the oceans acidity to rise, making it more difficult for different coastal species to create their exoskeletons that they need to survive. These coastal species link together as part of the ocean's food chain and without them being a source for other marine life to feed off of more marine life will die.[51]

text: Coral's limestone skeletal is sensitive to pH drop, because the calcium carbonate, core component of the limestone dissolves in acidic (low pH) solutions.

text: Human health effects

text: Acid rain does not directly affect human health. The acid in the rainwater is too dilute to have direct adverse effects. However, the particulates responsible for acid rain (sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides) do have an adverse effect. Increased amounts of fine particulate matter in the air do contribute to heart and lung problems including asthma and bronchitis.[52]

text: Other adverse effects

text: Acid rain can damage buildings, historic monuments, and statues, especially those made of rocks, such as limestone and marble, that contain large amounts of calcium carbonate. Acids in the rain react with the calcium compounds in the stones to create gypsum, which then flakes off.

text: The effects of this are commonly seen on old gravestones, where acid rain can cause the inscriptions to become completely illegible. Acid rain also increases the corrosion rate of metals, in particular iron, steel, copper and bronze.[53][54]

text: Affected areas

text: Places significantly impacted by acid rain around the globe include most of eastern Europe from Poland northward into Scandinavia,[55] the eastern third of the United States,[56] and southeastern Canada. Other affected areas include the southeastern coast of China and Taiwan.[57]

text: Prevention methods

text: Technical solutions

text: Many coal-firing power stations use flue-gas desulfurization (FGD) to remove sulfur-containing gases from their stack gases. For a typical coal-fired power station, FGD will remove 95% or more of the SO2 in the flue gases. An example of FGD is the wet scrubber which is commonly used. A wet scrubber is basically a reaction tower equipped with a fan that extracts hot smoke stack gases from a power plant into the tower. Lime or limestone in slurry form is also injected into the tower to mix with the stack gases and combine with the sulfur dioxide present. The calcium carbonate of the limestone produces pH-neutral calcium sulfate that is physically removed from the scrubber. That is, the scrubber turns sulfur pollution into industrial sulfates.

text: In some areas the sulfates are sold to chemical companies as gypsum when the purity of calcium sulfate is high. In others, they are placed in landfill. However, the effects of acid rain can last for generations, as the effects of pH level change can stimulate the continued leaching of undesirable chemicals into otherwise pristine water sources, killing off vulnerable insect and fish species and blocking efforts to restore native life.

text: Fluidized bed combustion also reduces the amount of sulfur emitted by power production.

text: Vehicle emissions control reduces emissions of nitrogen oxides from motor vehicles.

text: International treaties

text: A number of international treaties on the long-range transport of atmospheric pollutants have been agreed for example, the 1985 Helsinki Protocol on the Reduction of Sulphur Emissions under the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution. Canada and the US signed the Air Quality Agreement in 1991. Most European countries and Canada have signed the treaties.

text: Emissions trading

text: In this regulatory scheme, every current polluting facility is given or may purchase on an open market an emissions allowance for each unit of a designated pollutant it emits. Operators can then install pollution control equipment, and sell portions of their emissions allowances they no longer need for their own operations, thereby recovering some of the capital cost of their investment in such equipment. The intention is to give operators economic incentives to install pollution controls.

text: The first emissions trading market was established in the United States by enactment of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990. The overall goal of the Acid Rain Program established by the Act[58] is to achieve significant environmental and public health benefits through reductions in emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx), the primary causes of acid rain. To achieve this goal at the lowest cost to society, the program employs both regulatory and market based approaches for controlling air pollution.