document_title: Minimum wage in the United States

question_text: when was the minimum wage established in the united states

question_tokens: when was the minimum wage established in the united states

text: Minimum wage in the United States

text: History[edit]

text: 19th Century[edit]

text:
No business which depends for existence on paying less than living wages to its workers has any right to continue in this country.

President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, 1933[14]

tag: div

text: Minimum wage legislation emerged at the end of the nineteenth century from the desire to end sweated labor which had developed in the wake of industrialization.[15] Sweatshops employed large numbers of women and young workers, paying them what were considered nonliving wages that did not allow workers to afford the necessaries of life.[16] Besides substandard wages, sweating was also associated with long work hours and unsanitary work conditions.[17] From the 1890s to the 1920s, during the Progressive Era, a time of social activists and political reform across the United States, progressive reformers, women’s organizations, religious figures, academics, and politicians all played an important role in getting state minimum wage laws passed throughout the United States.[18]

text: The first successful attempts at using minimum wage laws to ameliorate the problem of nonliving wages occurred in the Australian state of Victoria in 1896.[19][20] Factory inspector reports and newspaper reporting on the conditions of sweated labor in Melbourne, Victoria led in 1895 to the formation of the National Anti-Sweating League which pushed the government aggressively to deal legislatively with the problem of substandard wages.[21] The government, following the recommendation of the Victorian Chief Secretary Alexander Peacock, established wage boards which were tasked with establishing minimum wages in the labor trades which suffered from nonlivable wages. During the same time period, campaigns against sweated labor were occurring in the United States and England.[22]

text: In the United States in 1890, a group of concerned female reformers who wanted to improve the harsh conditions of sweated workers formed the Consumer’s League of the City of New York. The consumer group sought to improve working conditions by boycotting products which were made under sweated conditions and did not conform to a code of “fair house” standards drawn up by them. Similar, consumer leagues formed throughout the United States, and in 1899, they united under the National Consumer League (NCL) parent organization.[23] Consumer advocacy, however, was extremely slow at changing conditions in the sweated industries. When NCL leaders in 1908 went to an international anti-sweatshop conference in Geneva, Switzerland and were introduced to Australian minimum wage legislation, which had successfully dealt with sweated labor, they came home believers and made minimum wage legislation part of their national platform.[24]

text: 20th Century[edit]

text: In 1910, in conjunction with advocacy work led by Florence Kelley of the National Consumer League, the Women’s Trade Union League (WTLU) of Massachusetts under the leadership of Elizabeth Evans took up the cause of minimum wage legislation in Massachusetts. Over the next two years, a coalition of social reform groups and labor advocates in Boston pushed for minimum wage legislation in the state.[25] In 1912, Massachusetts passed the first American minimum wage legislation, which established a state commission for recommending non-compulsory minimum wages for women and children. Within eight years, at least thirteen U.S. states and the District of Columbia would pass minimum wage laws, with pressure being placed on state legislatures by the National Consumers League in a coalition with other women's voluntary associations and organized labor.[26][27] The United States Supreme Court of the Lochner era consistently invalidated compulsory minimum wage laws. Advocates for these minimum wage laws hoped that they would be upheld under the precedent of Muller v. Oregon, which upheld maximum working hours laws for women on the grounds that women required special protection that men did not.[27] However, the Court did not extend this principle to minimum wage laws, considering the latter as interfering with the ability of employers to freely negotiate wage contracts with employees.[26]:518

text: In 1933, the Roosevelt administration made the first attempt at establishing a national minimum wage, when a $0.25 per hour standard was set as part of the National Industrial Recovery Act. However, in the 1935 court case Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States (295 U.S. 495), the US Supreme Court declared the act unconstitutional, and the minimum wage was abolished. In 1938, the minimum wage was re-established pursuant to the Fair Labor Standards Act, once again at $0.25 per hour ($4.78 in 2017 dollars[28]). In 1941, the Supreme Court upheld the Fair Labor Standards Act in United States v. Darby Lumber Co., holding that Congress had the power under the Commerce Clause to regulate employment conditions.[29]

text: The 1938 minimum wage law only applied to "employees engaged in interstate commerce or in the production of goods for interstate commerce," but in amendments in 1961 and 1966, the federal minimum wage was extended (with slightly different rates) to employees in large retail and service enterprises, local transportation and construction, state and local government employees, as well as other smaller expansions; a grandfather clause in 1990 drew most employees into the purview of federal minimum wage policy, which now set the wage at $3.80.[30]

text: 21st century[edit]

text: Legislation[edit]

text: In 2006, voters in six states (Arizona, Colorado, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, and Ohio) approved statewide increases in the state minimum wage. The amounts of these increases ranged from $1 to $1.70 per hour and all increases were designed to annually index to inflation.[31] Some politicians in the United States have advocated linking the minimum wage to the Consumer Price Index, thereby increasing the wage automatically each year based on increases to the Consumer Price Index. So far, Ohio, Oregon, Missouri, Vermont and Washington have linked their minimum wages to the consumer price index. Minimum wage indexing also takes place each year in Florida, San Francisco, California, and Santa Fe, New Mexico.[citation needed]

text: The federal minimum wage in the United States was reset to its current rate of $7.25 per hour in July 2009.[30] Some U.S. territories (such as American Samoa) are exempt. Some types of labor are also exempt: employers may pay tipped labor a minimum of $2.13 per hour, as long as the hour wage plus tip income equals at least the minimum wage. Persons under the age of 20 may be paid $4.25 an hour for the first 90 calendar days of employment (sometimes known as a youth, teen, or training wage) unless a higher state minimum exists.[32] The 2009 increase was the last of three steps of the Fair Minimum Wage Act of 2007, which was signed into law as a rider to the U.S. Troop Readiness, Veterans' Care, Katrina Recovery, and Iraq Accountability Appropriations Act, 2007, a bill that also contained almost $5 billion in tax cuts for small businesses.

text: Living wage protests[edit]

text: Since 2012, a growing protest and advocacy movement called "Fight for $15", initially growing out of fast food worker strikes, has advocated for an increase in the minimum wage to a living wage.[33] On March 27, 2014, Connecticut passed legislation to raise the minimum wage from $8.70 to $10.10 per hour by 2017, making it one of about six states to aim at or above $10.00 per hour.[34] In 2014 and 2015, several cities, including San Francisco, Seattle, Los Angeles, and Washington passed ordinances that gradually increase the minimum wage to $15.00 per hour.[35][36] In 2016, New York and California passed legislation that would gradually raise the minimum wage to $15 per hour in each state.[37][38]

text:
Living wage to cover basic needs in select U.S. cities (2016)[39][40]

City
Living wage

New Orleans
$14.51[41]

Houston
$14.55[42]

Cleveland
$14.77[43]

Atlanta
$15.43[44]

Tampa
$15.78[45]

United States
$15.85[46]

Philadelphia
$15.98[47]

Boston
$17.27[48]

Los Angeles
$17.70[49]

New York City
$20.08[50]

San Francisco
$20.32[51]

text: In April 2014, the U.S. Senate debated the Minimum Wage Fairness Act (S. 1737; 113th Congress). The bill would have amended the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 (FLSA) to increase the federal minimum wage for employees to $10.10 per hour over the course of a two-year period.[52] The bill was strongly supported by President Barack Obama and many of the Democratic Senators, but strongly opposed by Republicans in the Senate and House.[53][54][55] Later in 2014, voters in the Republican-controlled states of Alaska, Arkansas, Nebraska and South Dakota considered ballot initiatives to raise the minimum wage above the national rate of $7.25 per hour, which were successful in all four states. The results provided evidence that raising minimum wage has support across party lines.[56]

text: In April 2017, Senator Bernie Sanders and Senator Patty Murray, backed by 28 of the Senate's Democrats, introduced new legislation which would raise the minimum wage to $15 per hour by 2024 and index it to inflation.[57] The Raise the Wage Act of 2017, which was simultaneously introduced in the House of Representatives with 166 Democratic cosponsors, would raise the minimum wage to $9.25 immediately, and then gradually increase it to $15 by 2024, while simultaneously raising the minimum wage for tipped workers and phasing it out.[58] The legislation was introduced according to Senator Bernie Sanders to make sure that every worker has at least a modest and decent standard of living.[59]

text: As of 2017, recent legislation passed in multiple states that raised the minimum wage a certain amount in a certain time. California is set to raise their minimum wage to $15.00 per hour by January 1, 2023.[60] Colorado is set to raise their minimum wage from $9.30 per hour to $12 per hour by January 1, 2020, raising $0.90 per year.[61] Seattle passed legislation in 2015 for a raise in minimum wage. For employers of 500 or more employees without health benefits, the minimum wage rose to $15.00 per hour in 2017. For employees with health benefits, the minimum wage will raise to $15.00 per hour by 2018. For smaller employees, the $15.00 per hour wage takes effect at different times. Seattle is one of the first cities with a plan that after the minimum $15.00 per hour wage takes effect, they increase minimum wage by a certain percentage every year based on inflation.[62] New York has also recently passed legislation to increase their minimum wage to $15.00 per hour over time, certain counties and larger companies are set on faster plans than others.[63] As there have only been a few places mentioned, cities and states across the United States are putting in place certain legislation to increase the minimum wage for minimum wage workers to a livable wage.[64]

text: Local ordinances[edit]

text: On June 2, 2014, the City Council of Seattle, Washington was the first city to pass a local ordinance to increase the minimum wage of the city to $15.00 per hour,[65] which will be phased in over seven years, to be fully implemented by 2021.[66] Numerous cities have followed Seattle's example since. San Francisco is expected to become the first U.S. city to reach a minimum wage of $15.00 per hour on July 1, 2018.[67] New York City's minimum wage will be $15.00 per hour by the end of 2018.[68] The minimum wage in Los Angeles and Washington, D.C., will be $15.00 per hour in 2020.[69][70] A growing number of California cities have enacted local minimum wage ordinances, including Los Angeles, San Francisco, Oakland, Berkeley, Emeryville, Mountain View, Richmond, and San Jose.

text: In September 2014, the Los Angeles City Council approved a minimum salary for hotel workers of $15.37 per hour.[71] In April 2016, The Los Angeles Times reported that there is an exemption for unionised workers, and interviewed longtime workers at unionised Sheraton Universal who make $10.00 per hour, whereas non-union employees at a non-union Hilton less than 500 feet away make at least the $15.37 mandated by law for non-unionised employees.[72] Similar exemptions have been adopted in San Francisco, San Jose, Oakland, and Santa Monica.

text: On August 18, 2015, the El Cerrito City Council directed city staff to draft a local minimum wage ordinance based on a template provided by a coalition for a county-wide minimum wage effort. The details are not final, but the Council discussed an initial increase of roughly 28–36% ($11.52 – $12.25 or more) by January 1, 2016, with annual increases that will result in a $15.00 hourly wage rate by 2018–2020. The Council did not direct staff to create small business exemptions (or any other exemptions), but a slower phase-in rate may be considered for employees of small businesses. The city will have outreach for residents and business owners to discuss details of the proposed ordinance. Staff hopes to present a draft for The Council's approval as early as October or November 2015.[73]

text: Union exemptions[edit]

text: As of December 2014, unions were exempt from recent minimum wage increases in Chicago, Illinois, SeaTac, Washington, and Milwaukee County, Wisconsin, as well as the California cities of Los Angeles, San Francisco, Long Beach, San Jose, Richmond, and Oakland.[74] In 2016, the Washington, D.C. Council passed a minimum wage ordinance that included a union waiver, but Mayor Vincent Gray vetoed it. Later that year, the council approved an increase without the union waiver.[75]

text: Trends in purchasing power[edit]

text: Since its inception the purchasing power of the minimum wage has fluctuated. The minimum wage had its highest purchasing power in 1968, when it was $1.60 per hour ($11.49 in 2017 dollars).[28][76] From January 1981 to April 1990, the minimum wage was frozen at $3.35 per hour, then a record-setting minimum wage freeze. From September 1, 1997 through July 23, 2007, the federal minimum wage remained constant at $5.15 per hour, breaking the old record. From the United States Department of Labor. Employment Standards Administration. Wage and Hour Division, the source page has a clickable US map with current and projected state-by-state minimum wage rates for each state. Some government entities, such as counties and cities, observe minimum wages that are higher than the state as a whole. One notable example of this is Santa Fe, New Mexico, whose $9.50 per hour minimum wage was the highest in the nation,[77][78][79] until San Francisco increased its minimum wage to $9.79 in 2009.[80] Another device to increase wages, living wage ordinances, generally apply only to businesses that are under contract to the local government itself.

text: Since 1984, the purchasing power of the federal minimum wage has decreased. Measured in real terms (adjusted for inflation) using 1984 dollars, the real minimum wage was $3.35 in 1984, $2.33 in 1994, $1.84 in 2004, and $1.46 in 2014.[28] If the minimum wage had been raised to $10.10 in 2014, that would have equated to $4.40 in 1984 dollars.[81][82] This would have been equal to a 31% increase in purchasing power, despite the nominal value of the minimum wage increasing by 216% in the same time period.

text: Economic effects[edit]

text: The economic effects of raising the minimum wage are controversial. Adjusting the minimum wage may affect current and future levels of employment, prices of goods and services, economic growth, income inequality, and poverty. The interconnection of price levels, central bank policy, wage agreements, and total aggregate demand creates a situation in which conclusions drawn from macroeconomic analysis are highly influenced by the underlying assumptions of the interpreter.[83]

text: Employment and job creation[edit]

text: In neoclassical economics, the law of demand states that—all else being equal—raising the price of any particular good or service reduces the quantity demanded.[84] Therefore, neoclassical economists argue that—all else being equal—raising the minimum wage will have adverse effects on employment. Conceptually, if an employer does not believe a worker generates value equal to or in excess of the minimum wage, they do not hire or retain that worker.[85]

text: Other economists of different schools of thought argue that a limited increase in the minimum wage does not affect or increases the number of jobs available. Economist David Cooper for instance estimates that a higher minimum wage would support the creation of at least 85,000 new jobs in the United States.[86] This divergence of thought began with empirical work on fast food workers in the 1990s which challenged the neoclassical model. In 1994, economists David Card and Alan Krueger studied employment trends among 410 restaurants in New Jersey and eastern Pennsylvania following New Jersey's minimum wage hike (from $4.25 to $5.05) in April 1992. They found "no indication that the rise in the minimum wage reduced employment."[87] In contrast, a 1995 analysis of the evidence by David Neumark found that the increase in New Jersey's minimum wage resulted in a 4.6% decrease in employment. Neumark's study relied on payroll records from a sample of large fast-food restaurant chains, whereas the Card-Krueger study relied on business surveys.[88]

text: A literature review conducted by David Neumark and William Wascher in 2007 (which surveyed 101 studies related to the employment effects of minimum wages) found that about two-thirds of peer-reviewed economic research showed a positive correlation between minimum wage hikes and increased unemployment—especially for young and unskilled workers. Neumark's analysis further found that, when looking at only the most credible research, 85% of studies showed a positive correlation between minimum wage hikes and increased unemployment.[89] Neumark was also part of a study that compared areas that have received minimum wage hikes that were in proximity to each other and areas that are farther apart and they concluded that there is always net job loss experienced.[90]

text: In 2005, T.D. Stanley showed that Card and Krueger's results could signify either publication bias or the absence of a minimum wage effect. However, using a different methodology, Stanley concluded that there is evidence of publication bias and that correction of this bias shows no relationship between the minimum wage and unemployment.[91] In 2008, Hristos Doucouliagos and T.D. Stanley conducted a similar meta-analysis of 64 U.S. studies on disemployment effects and concluded that Card and Krueger's initial claim of publication bias is still correct. Moreover, they concluded, "Once this publication selection is corrected, little or no evidence of a negative association between minimum wages and employment remains."[92] In 2013, a meta-analysis of 16 U.K. studies found that the minimum wage has no significant effects on employment.[93]

text: The Congressional Budget Office (CBO) in 2014 estimated the theoretical effects of a federal minimum wage increase under two scenarios: an increase to $9.00 and an increase to $10.10. According to the report, approximately 100,000 jobs would be lost under the $9.00 option, whereas 500,000 jobs would be lost under the $10.10 option (with a wide range of possible outcomes).[95]

text: A 2013 Center for Economic and Policy Research (CEPR) review of multiple studies since 2000 indicated that there was "little or no employment response to modest increases in the minimum wage."[96] Another CEPR study in 2014 found that job creation within the United States is faster within states that raised their minimum wage.[97] In 2014, the state with the highest minimum wage in the nation, Washington, exceeded the national average for job growth in the United States.[98] Washington had a job growth rate 0.3% faster than the national average job growth rate.[86]

text: A 2012 study led by Joseph Sabia estimated that the 2004-6 New York State minimum wage increase (from $5.15 to $6.75) resulted in a 20.2% to 21.8% reduction in employment for less-skilled, less-educated workers.[99] Another study by Sabia in 2008 concluded that a 10% increase in the minimum wage was associated with an 8.8% reduction in employment and an 11.8% reduction in hours for uneducated single mothers.[100] A study led by Richard Burkhauser in 2000 concluded that minimum wage increases "significantly reduce the employment of the most vulnerable groups in the working-age population—young adults without a high school degree (aged 20-24), young black adults and teenagers (aged 16-24), and teenagers (aged 16-19)."[101] A 2007 study by Daniel Aaronson and Eric French concluded that a 10% increase in the minimum wage decreased low-skill employment by 2-4% and total restaurant employment by 1-3%.[102]

text: The Economist wrote in December 2013: "A minimum wage, providing it is not set too high, could thus boost pay with no ill effects on jobs...Some studies find no harm to employment from federal or state minimum wages, others see a small one, but none finds any serious damage...High minimum wages, however, particularly in rigid labour markets, do appear to hit employment. France has the rich world’s highest wage floor, at more than 60% of the median for adults and a far bigger fraction of the typical wage for the young. This helps explain why France also has shockingly high rates of youth unemployment: 26% for 15- to 24-year-olds."[103]

text: Prices[edit]

text: Conceptually, raising the minimum wage increases the cost of labor, ceteris paribus. Thus, employers may accept lower profits, raise their prices, or both. If prices increase, consumers may demand a lesser quantity of the product, substitute other products, or switch to imported products, due to the effects of price elasticity of demand. Marginal producers (those who are barely profitable enough to survive) may be forced out of business if they cannot raise their prices sufficiently to offset the higher cost of labor. Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago research from 2007 has shown that restaurant prices rise in response to minimum wage increases.[104] However, there are studies that show that higher prices for products due to increased labor cost are usually only by about 0.4% of the original price.[86]

text: Effects on crime[edit]

text: A 2016 White House report based on "back of envelope calculations and literature review" argued that higher hourly wages led to less crime.[105] The study by the Council of Economic Advisers calculated that "raising the minimum wage reduces crime by 3 to 5 percent." To get those numbers, the study assumed that "such a minimum wage increase would have no employment impacts, with an employment elasticity of 0.1 the benefits would be somewhat lower."[105]

text: In contrast in a 1987 journal article, Masanori Hashimoto noted that minimum wage hikes lead to increased levels of property crime in areas affected by the minimum wage after its increase.[106] According to the article, by decreasing employment in poor communities, total legal trade and production are curtailed. The report also argued that to compensate for the decrease in legal avenues for production and consumption, poor communities increasingly turn to illegal trade and activity.[106]

text: Economic growth[edit]

text: Whether growth (GDP, a measure of both income and production) increases or decreases depends significantly on whether the income shifted from owners to workers results in an overall higher level of spending. The tendency of a consumer to spend their next dollar is referred to as the marginal propensity to consume or MPC. The transfer of income from higher income owners (who tend to save more, meaning a lower MPC) to lower income workers (who tend to save less, with a higher MPC) can actually lead to an increase in total consumption and higher demand for goods, leading to increased employment.[95] Recent research has shown that higher wages lead to greater productivity.[107]

text: The CBO reported in February 2014 that income (GDP) overall would be marginally higher after raising the minimum wage, indicating a small net positive increase in growth. Raising the minimum wage to $10.10 and indexing it to inflation would result in a net $2 billion increase in income during the second half of 2016, while raising it to $9.00 and not indexing it would result in a net $1 billion increase in income.[95]

text: Income inequality[edit]

text: An increase in the minimum wage is a form of redistribution from higher-income persons (business owners or "capital") to lower income persons (workers or "labor") and therefore should reduce income inequality. The CBO estimated in February 2014 that raising the minimum wage under either scenario described above would improve income inequality. Families with income more than 6 times the poverty threshold would see their incomes fall (due in part to their business profits declining with higher employee costs), while families with incomes below that threshold would rise.[95]

text: Poverty[edit]

text: Among hourly-paid workers In 2016, 701,000 earned the federal minimum wage and about 1.5 million earned wages below the minimum.Together, these 2.2 million workers represented 2.7% of all hourly-paid workers.[109]

text: The CBO estimated in February 2014 that raising the minimum wage would reduce the number of persons below the poverty income threshold by 900,000 under the $10.10 option versus 300,000 under the $9.00 option.[95] Similarly, Arindrajit Dube, professor of economics at University of Massachusetts Amherst, found in a 2017 study "robust evidence that higher minimum wages lead to increases in incomes among families at the bottom of the income distribution and that these wages reduce the poverty rate." According to the study "a 10 percent increase in the minimum wage reduces the nonelderly poverty rate by about 5 percent."[110][111]

text: In contrast, research conducted by David Neumark and colleagues in 2004 found that minimum wages are associated with reductions in the hours and employment of low-wage workers.[112] A separate study by the same researchers found that minimum wages tend to increase the proportion of families with incomes below or near the poverty line.[113] Similarly, a 2002 study led by Richard Vedder, professor of economics at Ohio University, concluded that "The empirical evidence is strong that minimum wages have had little or no effect on poverty in the U.S. Indeed, the evidence is stronger that minimum wages occasionally increase poverty…"[114]

text: Federal budget deficit[edit]

text: The CBO reported in February 2014 that "[T]he net effect on the federal budget of raising the minimum wage would probably be a small decrease in budget deficits for several years but a small increase in budget deficits thereafter. It is unclear whether the effect for the coming decade as a whole would be a small increase or a small decrease in budget deficits." On the cost side, the report cited higher wages paid by the government to some of its employees along with higher costs for certain procured goods and services. This might be offset by fewer government benefits paid, as some workers with higher incomes would receive fewer government transfer payments. On the revenue side, some would pay higher taxes and others less.[95]

text: Commentary[edit]

text: Economists[edit]

text:
Effective minimum wage
adjusted for cost of living
for select U.S. cities (2015)[115][116]

City
Effective
minimum wage

Seattle
$8.51

Denver
$7.57

Houston
$7.26

United States
$7.25

San Francisco
$7.03

Chicago
$7.01

Boston
$6.59

Washington, D.C.
$6.53

Los Angeles
$6.38

Philadelphia
$6.08

New York City
$3.86

text: According to a survey conducted by economist Greg Mankiw, 79% of economists agreed that "a minimum wage increases unemployment among young and unskilled workers."[117]

text: A 2015 survey conducted by the University of New Hampshire Survey Center found that a majority of economists believes raising the minimum wage to $15 per hour would have negative effects on youth employment levels (83%), adult employment levels (52%), and the number of jobs available (76%). Additionally, 67% of economists surveyed believed that a $15 minimum wage would make it harder for small businesses with less than 50 employees to stay in business.[118]

text: A 2006 survey conducted by economist Robert Whaples of a sample of 210 Ph.D. economists randomly selected from the American Economic Association, found that, regarding the U.S. minimum wage:[119]

text:
46.8% favored eliminating it
14.3% favored keeping it the same
1.3% favored decreasing it
5.2% favored increasing it by about 50 cents per hour
15.6% favored increasing it by about $1 per hour
16.9% favored increasing it by more than $1 per hour

text: In 2014, over 600 economists signed a letter in support of increasing the minimum wage to $10.10 with research suggesting that a minimum wage increase could have a small stimulative effect on the economy as low-wage workers spend their additional earnings, raising demand and job growth.[120][121][122][123] Also, seven recipients of the Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences were among 75 economists endorsing an increase in the minimum wage for U.S. workers and said "the weight" of economic research shows higher pay doesn’t lead to fewer jobs.[124][125]

text: According to a February 2013 survey of the University of Chicago IGM Forum, which includes approximately 40 economists:

text:
34% agreed with the statement that "Raising the federal minimum wage to $9 per hour would make it noticeably harder for low-skilled workers to find employment", with 32% disagreeing and 24% uncertain
42% agreed that "...raising the minimum wage to $9 per hour and indexing it to inflation...would be a desirable policy", with 11% disagreeing or strongly disagreeing and 32% uncertain.[126]

text: According to a fall 2000 survey conducted by Fuller and Geide-Stevenson, 73.5% (27.9% of which agreed with provisos) of American economists surveyed[How many?] agreed that minimum wage laws increase unemployment among unskilled and young workers, while 26.5% disagreed with the statement.[127]

text: Economist Paul Krugman advocated raising the minimum wage moderately in 2013, citing several reasons, including:

text:
The minimum wage was below its 1960s purchasing power, despite a near doubling of productivity;
The great preponderance of the evidence indicates there is no negative impact on employment from moderate increases; and
A high level of public support, specifically Democrats and Republican women.[128]

text: Major political parties[edit]

text: Democratic candidates, elected officials, and activists support an increase in the minimum wage.[129] In his 2013 State of the Union Address, President Barack Obama called for an increase in the federal minimum wage to $9 an hour; several months later, Democrats Tom Harkin and George Miller proposed legislation to increase the federal minimum wage to $10.10; and in 2015, congressional Democrats introduced a proposal to increase the federal minimum wage to $12 an hour.[130] These efforts did not succeed, but increases in city and state minimum wages prompted congressional Democrats to continue fighting for an increase on the federal level.[130] After much internal party debate,[131] the party's official platform adopted at the 2016 Democratic National Convention stated: "We should raise the federal minimum wage to $15 an hour over time and index it, give all Americans the ability to join a union regardless of where they work, and create new ways for workers to have power in the economy so every worker can earn at least $15 an hour."[132][133]

text: Most Republican elected officials oppose action to increase the minimum wage,[134][135] and have blocked Democratic efforts to increase the minimum wage.[136] Republican leadership such as Speakers of the House John Boehner[134] and Paul Ryan have opposed minimum wage increases.[137] Some Republicans oppose having a minimum wage altogether, while a few, conversely, have supported minimum wage increases or indexing the minimum wage to inflation.[134]

text: Former President Bill Clinton advocated raising the minimum wage in 2014: "I think we ought to raise the minimum wage because it doesn’t just raise wages for the three or four million people who are directly affected by it, it bumps the wage structure everywhere...The estimates are that 35 million Americans would get a pay raise if the federal minimum wage was raised...If you [raise the minimum wage] in a phased way, it always creates jobs. Why? Because people who make the minimum wage or near it are struggling to get by, they spend every penny they make, they turn it over in the economy, they create jobs, they create opportunity, and they take better care of their children. It’s just the right thing to do, but it’s also very good economics."[138]

text: Polls[edit]

text: The Pew Center reported in January 2014 that 73% of Americans supported raising the minimum wage from $7.25 to $10. By party, 53% of Republicans and 90% of Democrats favored this action.[139] Pew found a racial difference for support of a higher minimum wage in 2017 with most blacks and Hispanics supporting a $15.00 federal minimum wage, and 54% of whites opposing it.[12]

text: A Lake Research Partners poll in February 2012 found the following:

text:
Strong support overall for raising the minimum wage, with 73% of likely voters supporting an increase to $10 and indexing it to inflation during 2014, including 58% who strongly support the action;
Support crosses party lines, with support from 91% of Democrats, 74% of Independents, and 50% of Republicans; and
A majority (56%) believe that raising the minimum wage will help the economy, 16% believe it won't make a difference, and only 21% felt it would hurt the economy.[140]

text: List by jurisdiction[edit]

text: This is a list of the minimum wages (per hour) in each state and territory of the United States, for jobs covered by federal minimum wage laws. If the job is not subject to the federal Fair Labor Standards Act, then state, city, or other local laws may determine the minimum wage.[141] A common exemption to the federal minimum wage is a company having revenue of less than $500,000 per year while not engaging in any interstate commerce.

text: Under the federal law, workers who receive a portion of their salary from tips, such as waitstaff, are required only to have their total compensation, including tips, meet the minimum wage. Therefore, often, their hourly wage, before tips, is less than the minimum wage.[142] Seven states, and Guam, do not allow for a tip credit.[143] Additional exemptions to the minimum wage include many seasonal employees, student employees, and certain disabled employees as specified by the FLSA.[144]

text: In addition, some counties and cities within states may implement a higher minimum wage than the rest of their state. Sometimes this higher wage applies only to businesses that contract with the local government, while in other cases the higher minimum applies to all work.

text: Federal[edit]

text:
Type
Min. wage ($/h)
Notes

Tipped
$2.13
The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 has been requiring a minimum wage of $2.13 for tipped workers with the expectation that wages plus tips total no less than $7.25 per hour since September 1, 1991.[145] The employer must pay the difference if total income does not add up to $7.25 per hour.[146]

Non-tipped
$7.25
Per the Fair Minimum Wage Act of 2007 (FMWA) since July 24, 2009.[147]

Youth
$4.25
The Fair Labor Standards Act has since September 1, 1996 allowed for persons under the age of 20 to be paid $4.25 for the first 90 calendar days of their employment .[148]

text: State[edit]

text: The average US minimum wage per capita (2017) is $8.49 based on the population size of each state and generally represents the average minimum wage experienced by a person working in one of the fifty US states. Cities, counties, districts, and territories are not included in the calculation.[citation needed] As of October 2016, there have been 29 states with a minimum wage higher than the federal minimum. From 2014 to 2015, nine states increased their minimum wage levels through automatic adjustments, while increases in 11 other states occurred through referendum or legislative action.[76] Beginning in January 2017, Massachusetts and Washington state have the highest minimum wages in the country, at $11.00 per hour.[149] New York City's minimum wage will be $15.00 per hour by the end of 2018.[150]

text:
State
Min. wage
($/h)[151][152]
Tipped
($/h)[153][a]
Youth/
training
($/h)[b]
Automatic indexed adjustment
Notes

Alabama
None[c]

No

Alaska
$9.84
$9.84

Yes
Minimum wage increased to $9.84 on January 1, 2018.[155]

Arizona
$10.50
$7.50

Yes
Voters passed Proposition 206 in 2016 to schedule a series of wage increases starting with $10.00/hour in 2017, $10.50 in 2018, $11.00 in 2019, $12.00 in 2020 and every year afterwards will be tied to inflation.[156]

Arkansas
$8.50
$2.63

No
Minimum wage increased to $8.50 on January 1, 2017. The rate applies to employers of four or more employees.[157]

California
$11.00[158]
$11.00

Yes
Minimum wage increased to $11.00 for business with 26 employees or more; $10.50 for business with 25 employees or less, effective on January 1, 2018[159] and increases to $15.00 by 2022.[160] At least 20 California cities will have a minimum wage higher than the state minimum on January 1, 2018.[161] Berkeley: $13.75 since October 1, 2017 and increases to $15.00 by 2018.[162] Emeryville: $15.20 for businesses with 56 or more employees; $14.00 for businesses with 55 employees or less, effective July 2017.[163] Jackson Rancheria: $10.60 since January 1, 2014 on the Tribe's sovereign 1,500-acre reservation in Amador County. Oakland: $13.23 since January 1, 2018. Unions are exempt from Oakland's minimum wage law. Los Angeles: $12.00 for Businesses with 26 or more employees $10.50 for businesses with 25 employees or less since July 1, 2017 and increases to $15.00 by 2020. Unions are exempt from Los Angeles's minimum wage law. San Francisco: $14.00 since July 1, 2017 and increases to $15.00 by 2018.[164] Unions are exempt from San Francisco's minimum wage law.[74] San Jose: $13.50 since January 1, 2018. Unions are exempt from San Jose's minimum wage law.[74] San Diego $11.50 since January 1, 2017.

Colorado
$10.20
$7.18

Yes
On January 1, 2018, the minimum wage increased to $10.20 and will increase annually by $0.90 until it becomes $12 in January 2020. Starting in 2021, it will be adjusted by cost of living increases.[165] The tipped wage is $3.02 less than the minimum wage[166]

Connecticut
$10.10
$6.59

No
On March 26, 2014, the state passed legislation to raise the minimum wage to $10.10 by January 1, 2017.[167] Connecticut's tipped minimum wage is 65.2% of the state minimum wage (tipped employees defined as $10/wk or $2/day in tips).[168]

Delaware
$8.25
$2.23

No
Minimum wage increased to $8.25 on June 1, 2015.[169]

Florida
$8.25
$5.08

Yes
Minimum wage is increased annually on September 30 (effective January 1 of the following calendar year) based upon a cost of living formula (the Consumer Price Index for Urban Wage Earners and Clerical Workers, not seasonally adjusted, for the South Region or a successor index as calculated by the United States Department of Labor, using the rate of inflation for the 12 months prior to September 1).[170] Florida's minimum wage increased to $8.10 and the tipped minimum wage to $5.08 on January 1, 2017.[171]

Georgia
$5.15[172][173]
$2.13

No
Only applicable to employers of 6 or more employees. The state law excludes from coverage any employment that is subject to the Federal Fair Labor Standards Act when the federal rate is greater than the state rate.[174]

Hawaii
$10.10
$9.35

No
Minimum wage increased to $8.50 on January 1, 2016, and increases to $10.10 by January 1, 2018. Tipped employees earn 75 cents less than the current state minimum wage.[175]

Idaho
$7.25[176]
$3.35

No

Illinois
$8.25
$4.95
$7.75
No
Employers may pay anyone under the age of 18, or anyone for the first 90 days of employment, fifty cents less. Tipped employees earn 60% of the minimum wage (employers may claim credit for tips, up to 40% of wage). There is a training wage for tipped employees.[177] Chicago: $10.00 from July 1, 2015 and increases to $13.00 by 2019.[178] Unions are exempt from Chicago's minimum wage law.[74]

Indiana
$7.25[179]
$2.13

No

Iowa
$7.25[180]
$4.35

No
Most small retail and service establishments grossing less than $300,000 annually are not required to pay the minimum wage.[180] A tipped employee who makes $30.00 per month or more in tips, can be paid 60% of the minimum wage, i.e. as little as $4.35 per hour.[180] Increased minimum wage laws in Johnson and Linn counties were nullified by the legislature.[181]

Kansas
$7.25[182]
$2.13

No
Kansas had the lowest legislated, non-tipped worker, minimum wage in the U.S., $2.65 per hour, until it was raised to $7.25, effective January 1, 2010.[183]

Kentucky
$7.25[184]
$2.13

No
Louisville: $8.10 from July 1, 2015 and increases to $9.00 by 2017.[185][186] However, the Kentucky Supreme Court ruled that localities do not have authority to increase the minimum wage.[187]

Louisiana
None[c]

No

Maine
$10.00
$5.00

Yes
Tipped rate is half of the current state minimum wage.[188] On July 6, 2015, the city council of Portland voted 6-3 to raise the city's minimum wage to $10.10 beginning on January 1, 2016 – an increase of 34%.[189] Note: The tipped wage returns to 50% of the regular minimum wage starting January 1, 2018. Minimum wage will increase to $10 in January 2018, $11 in January 2019, and $12 in January 2020.[190][191]

Maryland
$9.25
$3.63

No
Minimum wage is $8.75 per hour as July 1, 2016; $9.25 as of July 1, 2017; and $10.10 as of July 1, 2018.[192][193]
For employees working in Prince George's County, the minimum wage is $10.75 per hour, effective October 1, 2016, and increases to $11.50 on October 1, 2017.[192]
For employees working in Montgomery County, the minimum wage is $11.50 per hour starting July 1, 2017.[194] County Council bill 12-16 was enacted on January 17, 2017 to adjust the minimum wage to $15 and base future adjustments on the Consumer Price Index, but was later vetoed by the County Executive.[195][196]

Massachusetts
$11.00
$3.75

No
Minimum wage increased to $11.00 ($3.75 for tipped workers) on January 1, 2017, making it the highest minimum-wage in the country at the state level. Massachusetts is the only state in the country that mandates time-and-a-half for retail workers working on Sunday. With state minimum wage at $11 an hour the effective minimum wage for a retail worker working on Sunday is $16.50 an hour.[197] As of 2017, Massachusetts has the largest gap between the hourly minimum wage for tipped workers ($3.75) and the general minimum wage ($11).[198]

Michigan
$9.25[199]
$3.52
$4.25 (training) $7.86 (youth)
Yes
Annual minimum wage increases, linked to the consumer price index, will start on February 1, 2019, and shall not exceed 3.5%. There is no increase in minimum wage if the unemployment rate rises to or above 8.5% in the previous year. Tipped workers must earn at least standard Michigan minimum wage once tips are included in their wages.[200][201]

Minnesota
$9.65[172]
$9.65
$7.87 (for small employers, training, youth and J-1 Visas)[202]
Yes
Small employers, whose annual receipts are less than $500,000 and who do not engage in interstate commerce, can pay their employees $7.25 per hour. Overtime applies after 48 hours per week.[203] Note: For large employers, the minimum wage became $9.00 on August 1, 2015; and $9.50 on August 1, 2016. For small employers the minimum wage became $7.25 on August 1, 2015; and $7.75 on August 1, 2016. Beginning January 1, 2018, all minimum wage rates will increase by the national implicit price deflator or 2.5%, whichever is lower.[204]

Mississippi
None[c]

No

Missouri
$7.70
$3.85

Yes
Minimum wage rate is automatically adjusted annually based on the U.S. Consumer Price Index rounded to the nearest five cents, and increased to $7.70 on January 1, 2017.[205] While a city ordinance was passed in St. Louis area to increase the minimum wage was set to $8.25 in 2015,[206] in October 2015 the law was voided by a new statewide bill barring cities from setting their own minimum wages.[207] The State Supreme Court ruled on 28 February 2017 that the ordinance was lawful and could go into effect, with the minimum wage rate set to rise to $11.00 an hour by 2018 in St. Louis.[208] However, on July 5, 2017, another law was passed to nullify the increase and to have a statewide minimum wage of $7.70.[209]

Montana
$8.15
$8.15

Yes
Minimum wage rate is automatically adjusted annually based on the U.S. Consumer Price Index, and increased to $8.15 on January 1, 2017. Income from tips cannot offset an employee's pay rate. The state minimum wage for business with less than $110,000 in annual sales is $4.00.[151]

Nebraska
$9.00[210]
$2.13

No
Minimum wage increased to $9.00 January 1, 2016.[211]

Nevada
$8.25
$8.25

Yes
The minimum wage has been $8.25 ($1 higher than the federal minimum) since July 1, 2010. Employers who offer health benefits can pay employees $7.25.[212] The rate is adjusted every July 1, based on the federal minimum or the accumulated inflation since 2006, whichever is higher, based on a 2006 Minimum Wage Amendment to the Nevada Constitution.[213]

New Hampshire
$7.25[214]
$3.27

No

New Jersey
$8.60[215]
$2.13

Yes
Minimum wage increased to $8.60 on January 1, 2018.[215]

New Mexico
$7.50
$2.13

No
Santa Fe: $10.84 since January 1, 2015.[216] Albuquerque: $8.75 since January 1, 2015.[217]

New York
$10.40[218]
Varies

Yes
The minimum wage rate increased to $9.00 on December 31, 2015.[219] As of July 24, 2009 there has been a minimum for exempt employees of $543.75 per week.[220] Tipped employee minimum ranges from $4.90 to $5.65 depending on industry.[154] Effective December 31, 2013, there have been different rules for the minimum cash wage for tipped employees outside of the hospitality industry, (e.g., in car washes and in salons). For workers earning more than $1.95 on average per hour in tips, the minimum cash wage has been $6.05 per hour; for workers earning between $1.20 and $1.95 in tips on average per hour, the cash wage has been $6.80.[221]
A 2016 law changed the minimum wage over the following six years. "Large" employers have 11 or more employees, and "small" have between 1 and 10. "Downstate" includes Nassau, Suffolk, and Westchester Counties.[222] NYC large employers: $11.00, NYC small employers: $10.50, Downstate employers: $10.00, Upstate employers: $9.70. As of December 31, 2017: NYC large employers: $13.00; NYC small employers: $12.00; Downstate employers: $11.00; Upstate employers: $10.40. As of December 31, 2018: NYC large employers: $15.00; NYC small employers: $13.50; Downstate employers: $12.00; Upstate employers: $11.10. As of December 31, 2019: NYC large employers: $15.00; NYC small employers: $15.00; Downstate employers: $13.00; Upstate employers: $12.50. As of December 31, 2020: NYC large employers: $15.00; NYC small employers: $15.00; Downstate employers: $14.00; Upstate employers: $12.50. As of December 31, 2021: NYC large employers: $15.00; NYC small employers: $15.00; Downstate employers: $15.00; Upstate employers: Set by Commissioner of Labor based on economic conditions, up to $15.00.
Tipped food service workers will be paid $7.50 per hour, or two-thirds of the applicable minimum wage rate rounded to the nearest $0.05, whichever is higher.[citation needed]

North Carolina
$7.25[223]
$2.13

No
The employer may take credit for tips earned by a tipped employee and may count them as wages up to the amount permitted in section 3(m) of the Fair Labor Standards Act.[223]

North Dakota
$7.25[224]
$4.86

No
Tipped minimum is 67% of the minimum wage.[154]

Ohio
$8.30
$4.15
$7.25 under 16 years old
Yes
The rate is $7.25 for employers grossing $299,000 or less.[225] The rate is adjusted annually on January 1 based on the U.S. Consumer Price Index[226] Ohio's minimum wage will increase to $8.30 ($4.15 for tipped employees) on January 1, 2018

Oklahoma
$7.25[227]
$2.13

No
Minimum wage for employers grossing under $100,000 and with fewer than 10 employees per location is $2.00.[228](OK Statutes 40-197.5).

Oregon
$10.00 (rural counties)
$10.25 (non-rural counties)
$11.25 (Portland metro)[229]
$10.00 (rural counties)
$10.25 (non-rural counties)
$11.25 (Portland metro)

Yes
On March 2, 2016, Senate Bill 1532 was signed into law, increasing minimum wage depending on the county. Beginning July 1, 2016 the minimum wage increased to $9.75 for non-rural counties and to $9.50 for rural counties, thereafter increasing each year by fixed amounts until June 30, 2022 when the minimum wage will be $14.75 for the Portland metro area, $13.50 for other non-rural counties, and $12.50 for rural counties. Thereafter, the minimum wage will be adjusted each year based on the U.S. Consumer Price Index.[230] Non-rural counties are defined as Benton, Clackamas, Clatsop, Columbia, Deschutes, Hood River, Jackson, Josephine, Lane, Lincoln, Linn, Marion, Multnomah, Polk, Tillamook, Wasco, Washington, and Yamhill counties.[231] Rural counties are defined as Baker, Coos, Crook, Curry, Douglas, Gilliam, Grant, Harney, Jefferson, Klamath, Lake, Malheur, Morrow, Sherman, Umatilla, Union, Wallowa, Wheeler counties.[231] The Portland Metro rate ($1.25 over the non-rural rate) applies to employers located within the urban growth boundary (UGB) of the Portland metropolitan service district.[229]

Pennsylvania
$7.25[232]
$2.83

No

Rhode Island
$10.10
$3.39

No
Minimum wage increased to $9.60 January 1, 2016.

South Carolina
None[c]

No

South Dakota
$8.85[233]
$4.425

Yes
Minimum wage increased to $8.85 on January 1, 2018, and is indexed to inflation.

Tennessee
None[c]

No

Texas
$7.25[234]
$2.13

No
Applies to all workers in the state, excluding patients of the Texas Department of Mental Health and Mental Retardation who have diminished production capacity and who work on behalf of the Department; their salary is calculated at the minimum wage times a percentage of their diminished capacity.

Utah
$7.25
$2.13

No

Vermont
$10.50
$5.00

Yes
Minimum wage increased to $10.00 on January 1, 2017,[235] will increase to $10.50 by January 1, 2018, and will be indexed to inflation beginning on January 1, 2019.[236]

Virginia
$7.25[237]
$2.13

No

Washington
$11.50[238]
$11.50[238]
$9.78[239]
Yes
Minimum wage increases annually by a voter-approved cost-of-living adjustment based on the federal Consumer Price Index for Urban Wage Earners and Clerical Workers (CPI-W).[240] Seattle: $11.00 for businesses less than 500 employees, $15.00 for businesses with over 500 employees, and for all businesses by 2021.[241][242] SeaTac: $15.00 for airport-related businesses.[243] Union workshops are exempt from SeaTac's $15 minimum wage law.[244]

West Virginia
$8.75[245]
$2.62

No
Minimum wage increased to $8.75 on December 31, 2015.[246] The state minimum wage is applicable to employers of six or more employees at one location not involved in interstate commerce[151] and for tipped employees is 30% of the federal minimum wage.[154]

Wisconsin
$7.25[247]
$2.33

No

Wyoming
$5.15[172]
$2.13

No

text:
Jump up ^ Generally applies to employees who make over $30 in tips per month, unless otherwise noted.[154]
Jump up ^ Applies to persons under age 20, for the first 90 days of employment (per FMWA), unless otherwise noted.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e No state minimum wage law. Federal rates apply, although some small businesses exempt from FMWA may not be covered.

text: Territory[edit]

text:
Territory
Min. wage ($/h)[151]
Tipped
($/h)[153]

Notes

American Samoa
$4.58–$5.99
$2.13
Varies by industry.[248] On September 30, 2010, President Obama signed legislation that delays scheduled wage increases for 2010 and 2011. On July 26, 2012, President Obama signed S. 2009 into law, postponing the minimum wage increase for 2012, 2013, and 2014. Annual wage increases of $0.40 recommenced on September 30, 2015 and will continue every three years until all rates have reached the federal minimum.[249]

Guam
$8.25
$8.25

Northern Mariana Islands
$7.05
$2.13
Since September 30, 2016. Wages are to go up $0.50 annually until reaching the federal $7.25 rate by 2018.[250] Bill S. 256 to delay the planned increases to the full rate until 2018 passed in Sept. 2013.[251]

Puerto Rico
$7.25
$2.13
Following the Fair Minimum Wage Act of 2007, Employers covered by the Federal Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA)[which?] are subject to the federal minimum wage and all applicable regulations. Employers not covered by the FLSA will be subject to a minimum wage that is at least 70 percent of the federal minimum wage or the applicable mandatory decree rate, whichever is higher. The Secretary of Labor and Human Resources may authorize a rate based on a lower percentage for any employer who can show that implementation of the 70 percent rate would substantially curtail employment in that business. Puerto Rico also has minimum wage rates that vary according to the industry. These rates range from a minimum of $5.08 to $7.25 per hour.

U.S. Virgin Islands
$9.50
$3.80
The Virgin Islands' minimum wage increased to $9.50 on June 1, 2017 for all employees, with the exception of tourist service and restaurant employees (or those businesses with gross annual receipts of less than $150,000 set at $4.30). It is scheduled to increase to $10.50 on June 1, 2018.[252]

text: Federal District[edit]

text:
Federal District
Min. wage
($/h)
Tipped
($/h)
Youth/
training
($/h)
Notes

District of Columbia
$12.50
$3.47
None
In accordance with a law signed on June 27, 2016,[253][254] the minimum wage became $12.50 per hour as of July 1, 2017; $13.25 per hour as of July 1, 2018; $14.00 per hour as of July 1, 2019; and $15.00 per hour as of July 1, 2020.[255] As of each successive July 1, the minimum wage will increase by the Consumer Price Index for All Urban Consumers in the Washington Metropolitan Statistical Area for the preceding twelve months.[255]
The minimum wage for tipped-employees will increase to $4.17 per hour as of July 1, 2018; $4.87 per hour as of July 1, 2019; and $5.55 per hour as of July 1, 2020.[255]
The minimum wage established by the federal government may be paid to newly hired individuals during their first 90 calendar days of employment, students employed by colleges and universities, and individuals under 18 years of age.[256]

text: Low-paying occupations, 2006 and 2009[edit]

text: Jobs that a minimum wage is most likely to directly affect are those that pay close to the minimum.

text: According to the May 2006 National Occupational Employment and Wage Estimates, the four lowest-paid occupational sectors in May 2006 (when the federal minimum wage was $5.15 per hour) were the following:[257]

text:
Sector
Workers employed
Median wage
Mean wage
Mean annual

Food preparation and serving related occupations
11,029,280
$7.90
$8.86
$18,430

Farming, fishing, and forestry occupations
450,040
$8.63
$10.49
$21,810

Personal care and service occupations
3,249,760
$9.17
$11.02
$22,920

Building and grounds cleaning and maintenance occupations
4,396,250
$9.75
$10.86
$22,580

text: Two years later, in May 2008, when the federal minimum wage was $5.85 per hour and was about to increase to $6.55 per hour in July 2008, these same sectors were still the lowest-paying, but their situation (according to Bureau of Labor Statistics data)[258] was:

text:
Sector
Workers employed
Median wage
Mean wage
Mean annual

Food preparation and serving related occupations
11,438,550
$8.59
$9.72
$20,220

Farming, fishing, and forestry occupations
438,490
$9.34
$11.32
$23,560

Personal care and service occupations
3,437,520
$9.82
$11.59
$24,120

Building and grounds cleaning and maintenance occupations
4,429,870
$10.52
$11.72
$24,370

text: In 2006, workers in the following 13 individual occupations received, on average, a median hourly wage of less than $8.00 per hour:[257]

text:
Occupation
Workers employed
Median wage
Mean wage
Mean annual

Gaming dealers
82,960
$7.08
$8.18
$17,010

Waiters and waitresses
2,312,930
$3.14
$4.27
$11,190

Combined food preparation and serving workers, including fast food
2,461,890
$7.24
$7.66
$15,930

Dining room and cafeteria attendants and bartender helpers
401,790
$7.36
$7.84
$16,320

Cooks, fast food
612,020
$7.41
$7.67
$15,960

Dishwashers
502,770
$7.57
$7.78
$16,190

Ushers, lobby attendants, and ticket takers
101,530
$7.64
$8.41
$17,500

Counter attendants, cafeteria, food concession, and coffee shop
524,410
$7.76
$8.15
$16,950

Hosts and hostesses, restaurant, lounge, and coffee shop
340,390
$7.78
$8.10
$16,860

Shampooers
15,580
$7.78
$8.20
$17,050

Amusement and recreation attendants
235,670
$7.83
$8.43
$17,530

Bartenders
485,120
$7.86
$8.91
$18,540

Farmworkers and laborers, crop, nursery, and greenhouse
230,780
$7.95
$8.48
$17,630

text: In 2008, only two occupations paid a median wage less than $8.00 per hour:[258]

text:
Occupation
Workers employed
Median wage
Mean wage
Mean annual

Gaming dealers
91,130
$7.84
$9.56
$19,890

Combined food preparation and serving workers, including fast food
2,708,840
$7.90
$8.36
$17,400

text: According to the May 2009 National Occupational Employment and Wage Estimates,[259] the lowest-paid occupational sectors in May 2009 (when the federal minimum wage was $7.25 per hour) were the following:

text:
Sector
Workers employed
Median wage
Mean wage
Mean annual

Gaming dealers
86,900
$8.19
$9.76
$20,290

Combined food preparation and serving workers, including fast food
2,695,740
$8.28
$8.71
$18,120

Waiters and waitresses
2,302,070
$8.50
$9.80
$20,380

Dining room and cafeteria attendants and bartender helpers
402,020
$8.51
$9.09
$18,900

Cooks, fast food
539,520
$8.52
$8.76
$18,230


document_title: Kruger National Park

question_text: where is kruger national park in south africa

root

text: Kruger National Park

text: History[edit]

text: Pre-Reserve (–1898)[edit]

text: The area that the park covers today was part of the last wild frontier in the eastern half of Transvaal before the Second Anglo-Boer War. Paul Kruger, President of the Republic of South Africa at the time, proclaimed the area, which was inhabited by the Tsonga people, a sanctuary for the protection of its wildlife. Today it is against the law to farm or hunt animals in that area. James Stevenson Hamilton noted many kraals along the Sabi River and also further north beyond the Letaba River[7] although the north was sparsely populated compared to the south. Many of the local natives were employed by Railway companies trying to connect Pretoria and Maputo during the end of the 19th century. The proclaimed area, called Makuleke, was returned to the Tsonga people in 1998. Since then the Kruger National Park has paid royalties to the Tsonga, which is collected as a tribal fee from tourists.

tag: p

text: Sabi Game Reserve (1898–1926)[edit]

text: In 1895, Jakob Louis van Wyk introduced in the Volksraad of the old South African Republic a motion to create the game reserve. The area proposed extended from the Olifants River to the Sabi River in the north. That motion, introduced together with another Volksraad member by the name of R. K. Loveday, and accepted for discussion in September 1895 by a majority of one vote, resulted in the proclamation by Paul Kruger, president of the Transvaal Republic (South African Republic), on 26 March 1898, of a "Government Wildlife Park." This park would later be known as the Sabi Game Reserve.

text: The park was initially created to control hunting[8] and protect the diminished number of animals in the park.

text: James Stevenson-Hamilton became the first warden of the reserve in 1902.[8] The reserve was located in the southern one-third of the modern park.[9] Shingwedzi Reserve, named after the Shingwedzi River and now in northern Kruger National Park, was proclaimed in 1903.[10] During the following decades all the native tribes were removed from the reserve and during the 1960s the last were removed at Makuleke in the Pafuri triangle. In 1926, Sabie Game Reserve, the adjacent Shingwedzi Game Reserve, and farms were combined to create Kruger National Park.[11]

text: During 1923, the first large groups of tourists started visiting the Sabie Game Reserve, but only as part of the South African Railways' popular "Round in Nine" tours. The tourist trains used the Selati railway line between Komatipoort on the Mozambican border and Tzaneen in Limpopo Province. The tour included an overnight stop at Sabie Bridge (now Skukuza) and a short walk, escorted by armed rangers, into the bush. It soon became a highlight of the tour and it gave valuable support for the campaign to proclaim the Sabie Game Reserve as a national park.[12][13]

text: Kruger National Park (1926–1946)[edit]

text:
After the proclamation of the Kruger National Park in 1926, the first three tourist cars entered the park in 1927, jumping to 180 cars in 1928 and 850 cars in 1929.[5]
Warden James Stevenson-Hamilton retired on 30 April 1946, after 44 years as warden of the Kruger Park and its predecessor, the Sabi Sabi Game Reserve.

text: Stevenson-Hamilton was replaced by Colonel J. A. B. Sandenbergh of the South African Air Force.[12] During 1959, work commenced to completely fence the park boundaries. Work started on the southern boundary along the Crocodile River and in 1960 the western and northern boundaries were fenced, followed by the eastern boundary with Mozambique. The purpose of the fence was to curb the spread of diseases, facilitate border patrolling and inhibit the movement of poachers.[12]

text: The Makuleke area in the northern part of the park was forcibly taken from the Makuleke people by the government in 1969 and about 1500 of them were relocated to land to the south so that their original tribal areas could be integrated into the greater Kruger National Park.[14][15]

text: In 1996 the Makuleke tribe submitted a land claim for 19,842 hectares (198.42 km2) in the northern part of the Kruger National Park.[16] The land was given back to the Makuleke people, however, they chose not to resettle on the land but to engage with the private sector to invest in tourism, thus resulting in the building of several game lodges.[17][18]

text: In the late 1990s, the fences between the Kruger Park and Klaserie Game Reserve, Olifants Game Reserve and Balule Game Reserve were dropped and incorporated into the Greater Kruger Park with 40 000 hectares added to the Reserve.

text: In 2002, Kruger National Park, Gonarezhou National Park in Zimbabwe, and Limpopo National Park in Mozambique were incorporated into a peace park, the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park.[11]

text: Location and geography[edit]

text: The park lies in the north-east of South Africa,[9] in the eastern parts of Limpopo and Mpumalanga provinces. Phalaborwa, Limpopo is the only town in South Africa that borders the Kruger National Park. It is one of the largest national parks in the world, with an area of 19,485 square kilometres (7,523 sq mi). The park is approximately 360 kilometres (220 mi) long,[9] and has an average width of 65 kilometres (40 mi).[11] At its widest point, the park is 90 kilometres (56 mi) wide from east to west.[9]

text: To the north and south of the park two rivers, the Limpopo and the Crocodile respectively, act as its natural boundaries. To the east the Lebombo Mountains separate it from Mozambique. Its western boundary runs parallel with this range, roughly 65 kilometres (40 mi) distant. The park varies in altitude between 200 metres (660 ft) in the east and 840 metres (2,760 ft) in the south-west near Berg-en-Dal. The highest point in the park is here, a hill called Khandzalive. Several rivers run through the park from west to east, including the Sabie, Olifants, Crocodile, Letaba, Luvuvhu and Limpopo Rivers.

text: Climate[edit]

text:
Skukuza

Climate chart (explanation)

J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D

94

33
21

96

32
20

66

31
19

38

29
15

14

28
10

11

26
6

11

26
6

8

27
9

28

29
13

40

30
16

63

31
18

92

32
20

Average max. and min. temperatures in °C

Precipitation totals in mm

Source: SAWS[19]

[show]Imperial conversion

J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D

3.7

91
70

3.8

90
68

2.6

88
66

1.5

84
59

0.6

82
50

0.4

79
43

0.4

79
43

0.3

81
48

1.1

84
55

1.6

86
61

2.5

88
64

3.6

90
68

Average max. and min. temperatures in °F

Precipitation totals in inches

tag: table

text: The climate of the Kruger National Park and Lowveld is subtropical. Summer days are humid and hot. The rainy season is from September until May. The Kruger National Park website lists September and October as the driest periods, culminating in rains late in October. The dry winter season is the ideal time to visit this region for various reasons. There is less chance of contracting malaria and the days are milder. Viewing wildlife is more rewarding as the vegetation is more sparse and animals are drawn to the waterholes to drink every morning and evening.

text: Flora and fauna[edit]

text: Vegetation[edit]

text: Plants life in the park consists of four main areas:

text: Thorn trees and red bush-willow veld[edit]

text: This area lies between the western boundary and roughly the centre of the park south of the Olifants River. Combretums, such as the red bush-willow (Combretum apiculatum), and Acacia species predominate while there are a great number of marula trees (Sclerocarya caffra). The Acacias are dominant along the rivers and streams, the very dense Nwatimhiri bush along the Sabie River between Skukuza and Lower Sabie being a very good example.

text: Knob-thorn and marula veld[edit]

text: South of the Olifants River in the eastern half of the park, this area provides the most important grazing-land. Species such as red grass (Themeda triandra) and buffalo grass (Panicum maximum) predominate while the knob-thorn (Acacia nigrescens), leadwood (Combretum imberbe) and marula (Sclerocarya caffra) are the main tree species.

text: Red bush-willow and mopane veld[edit]

text: This area lies in the western half of the park, north of the Olifants River. The two most prominent species here are the red bush-willow (Combretum apiculatum) and the mopane tree (Colophospermum mopane).

text: Shrub mopane veld[edit]

text: Shrub mopane covers almost the entire north-eastern part of the park.

text: There are a number of smaller areas in the park which carry distinctive vegetation such as Pretoriuskop where the sickle bush and the silver cluster-leaf (Terminalia sericea) are prominent. The sandveld communities near Punda Maria are equally definitive, with a wide variety of unique species.

text: Birds[edit]

text: Out of the 517 species of birds found at Kruger, 253 are residents, 117 non-breeding migrants, and 147 nomads. Some of the larger birds require large territories or are sensitive to habitat degradation. Six of these species, which are by and large restricted to Kruger and other extensive conservation areas, have been assigned to a fanciful grouping called the "Big Six Birds".[20] They are the lappet-faced vulture, martial eagle, saddle-billed stork, kori bustard, ground hornbill and the reclusive Pel's fishing owl, which is localized and seldom seen. There are between 25 and 30 breeding pairs of saddle-billed storks in the park, besides a handful of non-breeding individuals.[20] In 2012 178 family groups of ground hornbills roamed the park and 78 nests were known, of which 50% were active.[21]

text: Mammals[edit]

text: All the Big Five game animals are found at Kruger National Park, which has more species of large mammals than any other African game reserve (at 147 species). There are webcams set up to observe the wildlife.[22]

text: The park stopped culling elephants in 1994 and tried translocating them, but by 2004 the population had increased to 11,670 elephants, by 2006 to approximately 13,500, by 2009 to 11,672, and by 2012 to 16,900. The park's habitats can only sustain about 8,000 elephants. The park started an attempt at using contraception in 1995, but has stopped that due to problems with delivering the contraceptives and upsetting the herds.

text: Kruger supports packs of the endangered African wild dog, of which there are thought to be only about 400 in the whole of South Africa.[23]

text:
Wildlife Population As of 2009[update]

Species
Count (2009)
Count (2010)[24]

Black Rhinoceros
350
590-660

Blue Wildebeest
9,612
11,500

Burchell's zebra
17,797
26,500

Bushbuck
500
500

Cape buffalo
27,000
37,500

Eland
300
460

Elephant
11,672
13,700

Giraffe
5,114
9,000

Greater Kudu
5,798
9,500

Hippopotamus
3,000
3,100

Impala
150,000
120,000

Lichtenstein’s Hartebeest

50

Mountain Reedbuck

150

Nyala

300

Roan Antelope

90

Sable Antelope

290

Warthog

3,500

Waterbuck
5,000
5,500

White Rhinoceros
7,000 to 12,000[25]
10,500

African wild dog
150

Cheetah
120
120

Crocodile

4,420

Leopard
2,000
1,000

Lion
2,800
1,600

Spotted hyena
2,000
3,500

text: Reptiles[edit]

text: Kruger houses 114 species of reptile, including black mamba, african rock pythons, and 3000 crocodiles.

text: Amphibians and fish[edit]

text: Thirty-three species of amphibians are found in the Park,[26] as well as 50 fish species. A Zambesi shark, Carcharhinus leucas, also known as the bull shark, was caught at the confluence of the Limpopo and Luvuvhu Rivers in July 1950. Zambezi sharks tolerate fresh water and can travel far up rivers like the Limpopo.[27]

text: Anti-poaching measures[edit]

text: Kruger is not exempt from the threat of poaching that many other African countries have faced. Many poachers are in search of ivory from rhino and elephant tusks.[28] The park's anti-poaching unit consists of 650[29] SANParks game rangers, assisted by the SAPS and the SANDF (including the SAAF). As of 2013, the park is equipped with two drones borrowed from Denel and two Aérospatiale Gazelle helicopters, donated by the RAF to augment its air space presence.[30][31] Automated movement sensors relay intrusions along the Mozambique border to a control center,[32] and a specialist dog unit has been introduced.[33] Buffer zones have been established along the border with Mozambique,[34] from where many poachers have infiltrated the park, as an alternative to costly new fences.[35] The original 150 km long fences were dropped in 2002 to establish the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park.[29][36] The national anti-poaching committee oversees all activities and coordinates interested parties.[37][38]

text: Poachers[edit]

text: Kruger's big game poachers operate with night vision instruments and large caliber rifles, fitted with suppressors and sophisticated telescopic sights.[39][40] They are mostly Mozambique citizens that initiate their carefully planned incursions from the Mozambique border region.[39][41][42] In 2012 some 200 poachers were apprehended,[43] while about 30 were killed in skirmishes.[44][45]

text: In July 2012, a Kruger game ranger and policeman were the first to die in an anti-poaching operation,[46] while other employees reported intimidation by poachers.[47][48][49][50] A Kruger personnel strike affected some anti-poaching operations,[51] and a few employees have been directly implicated.[47][52][53][54][55] Rangers in and around the park have been pressured or blackmailed by poaching syndicates to provide intelligence on the whereabouts of rhinos and anti-poaching operations.[56]

text: In December 2012, Kruger started using a Seeker II drone against rhino poachers. The drone was loaned to the South African National Parks authority by its manufacturer Denel Dynamics, South Africa.[57][58]

text: In February 2018, a head belonging to a suspected poacher appeared in Kruger National Park near Hoedspruit, with the body dragged off and eaten by lions, it is assumed. Officials had assumed at first that it was the head of a park employee that had gone missing days before, but it was later determined the man was, in fact, a suspected poacher after the park employee had been found alive. The head belonging to the suspected poacher had been found in an area highly trafficked by lions, along with a loaded hunting rifle.

text: Rhino horn[edit]

text: Poachers mostly operate at or near full moon[42][59][60] and make no distinction between white and black rhinos.[48][61] Losses of black rhino are however low due to their reclusive and aggressive nature.[62] With rhino horn fetching around $66,000 (and up to $82,000) per kilogram,[42][49][62][63][64] the CITES ban on the trade in rhino horn has proved largely ineffectual.[65][66] The second horn is sometimes hacked from the skull to obtain about 100 ml of moisture that is sold locally as traditional medicine.[62]

text: Poaching related to rhino horn escalated in the 21st century with 949 rhinos killed in Kruger in the first twelve years (2001 to 2012),[30] and over 520 in 2013 alone.[67][68] A planned memorandum of agreement between South Africa and Vietnam, in addition to the one with China,[35] are seen as necessary milestones in stemming the tide,[69][70] while negotiations with Thailand have not yet started.[71] The amount of rhino horn held in storage is not publicly known.[72] Since 2009 some Kruger rhinos have been fitted with invisible tracing devices in their bodies and horns which enable officials to locate their carcasses and to track the smuggled horns by satellite.[73] South Africa's 22,000 white and black rhinos, of which 12,000 are found in Kruger, represent some 93% of these species' world population.[48][66]

text: Ivory stocks[edit]

text: Kruger experienced significant elephant poaching in the 1980s,[73] which has since abated. It holds over 48 tons of ivory in storage. According to Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES), it is allowed to sell 30 tons.

text: Following approval by CITES, 47 metric tons of stockpiled ivory from Kruger were auctioned on 6 November 2008. The sale fetched approximately US$6.7 million which will be used towards increasing anti-poaching activity. The average price for the 63 lots on auction was US$142/kg.

text: Other[edit]

text: It is foreseen that the placement of wire traps to procure meat would eventually become the most challenging form of poaching.[74] A scheme has been proposed to reward adjacent communities with the proceeds of game sales in return for their cooperation in game preservation.[74] The larger communities include Bosbokrand, Acornhoek, Hazyview, Hoedspruit, Komatipoort, Malelane, Marloth Park, Nelspruit and Phalaborwa.[66]

text: Accommodation and facilities[edit]

text: The Kruger National Park has 21 rest camps, as well as two private lodge concessions, and 15 designated private safari lodges. The concessions are parcels of land operated by private companies in partnership with communities, who outsource the operation of private lodges. Camping in the park has become popular with tourists and backpackers because it is much less expensive, and open to anyone, requiring no special permission to partake.[75]

text: Rest camps[edit]

text:
Bateleur Bushveld Camp
Berg-en-Dal Camp
Biyamiti Bushveld Camp
Boulders Bush Camp
Balule Camp, near Olifants Camp
Crocodile Bridge Camp
Letaba Camp
Lower Sabie Camp
Malelane Camp
Maroela Camp, near Orpen
Mopani Camp
Olifants Camp
Orpen Camp
Pretoriuskop Camp
Punda Maria Camp
Roodewal Bush Lodge
Satara Camp
Shimuwini Bushveld Camp
Shingwedzi Camp
Sirheni Bushveld Camp
Skukuza Camp
Talamati Bushveld Camp
Tamboti Tented Camp, near Orpen
Tsendze Rustic Camp

tag: ul

text: Designated private lodges[edit]

text:
Camp Shawu near Crocodile Bridge Gate
Camp Shonga near Crocodile Bridge Gate
Hamiltons Tented Camp
Hoyo Hoyo Tsonga Lodge
Imbali Safari Lodge
Jocks Safari Lodge & Spa
Lukimbi Safari Lodge
Pafuri Camp, near Pafuri Gate
Plains Camp
Rhino Post Camp
Shishangeni Lodge near Crocodile Bridge Gate
Singita Lebombo Lodge
Singita Sweni Lodge
The Outpost Lodge, near Pafuri Gate
Tinga Game Lodges

text: Bushveld camps[edit]

text:
Bateleur Bushveld Camp
Biyamiti Bushveld Camp
Shimuwini Bushveld Camp
Sirheni Bushveld Camp
Talamati Bushveld Camp

text: Restaurants[edit]

text: On 30 October 2013, South African National Parks (SANParks) announced the establishment of franchise restaurants in several rest camps.

text: Mugg & Bean restaurants have been established at Lower Sabie, Olifants and Letaba rest camps. Wimpy restaurants have been established at Pretoriuskop and Satara rest camps. Skukuza's Selati Station Grill House has been replaced by Ciao! and Skukuza’s main camp restaurant and take away will be run by Cattle Baron and Bistro.[78]

text: This decision was controversial, with some people welcoming the improvement in food services, and others viewing the introduction of franchises as detracting from the purpose of the Kruger Park.[79][80]

text: Gates to the Kruger Park[edit]

text: The Kruger Park has the following gates:

text:
Name
Road
From Town
Coordinates

Crocodile Bridge Gate
on the extension of Rissikstreet
from Komatipoort
25°21′30″S 31°53′37″E / 25.35833°S 31.89361°E / -25.35833; 31.89361 (Crocodile Bridge Gate)

Malelane Gate
on the R570 off the N4
near Malelane
25°27′43″S 31°31′59″E / 25.46194°S 31.53306°E / -25.46194; 31.53306 (Malelane Gate)

Numbi Gate
on the R569 road
from Hazyview
25°9′19″S 31°11′51″E / 25.15528°S 31.19750°E / -25.15528; 31.19750 (Numbi Gate)

Phabeni Gate
on the road off the R536
from Hazyview
25°01′30″S 31°14′29″E / 25.02500°S 31.24139°E / -25.02500; 31.24139 (Phabeni Gate)

Paul Kruger Gate
on the R536 road
from Hazyview
24°58′53″S 31°29′7″E / 24.98139°S 31.48528°E / -24.98139; 31.48528 (Paul Kruger Gate)

Orpen Gate
on the R531 road
from Klaserie
24°28′33″S 31°23′27″E / 24.47583°S 31.39083°E / -24.47583; 31.39083 (Orpen Gate)

Phalaborwa Gate
on the R71 road
from Phalaborwa
23°56′44″S 31°9′54″E / 23.94556°S 31.16500°E / -23.94556; 31.16500 (Phalaborwa Gate)

Punda Maria Gate
on the R524 road
from Thohoyandou
22°44′18″S 31°0′33″E / 22.73833°S 31.00917°E / -22.73833; 31.00917 (Punda Maria Gate)

Pafuri Gate
on the R525 road
from Musina
22°24′1″S 31°2′29″E / 22.40028°S 31.04139°E / -22.40028; 31.04139 (Pafuri Gate)

text: Wilderness trails[edit]

text: Nine different trails are on offer in the Kruger National Park. Some are overnight and they last several days in areas of wilderness virtually untouched by humans. There are no set trails in the wilderness areas; a visitor walks along paths made by animals or seeks out new routes through the bush.

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
Elephant family at an artificial water hole

Male giraffes necking

Two lionesses having a break after an unsuccessful hunt

A greater kudu bull