document_title: Diary of a Wimpy Kid (book series)

question_text: how many books are in the diary of a whimpy kid series

text: Diary of a Wimpy Kid (book series)

text: Background[edit]

text: In January 1998, Diary of a Wimpy Kid officially began, when Kinney brought up an idea about a middle-school weakling named Greg Heffley, who wrote about his personal life. In May 2004, FunBrain and Kinney released an online version of Diary of a Wimpy Kid. The website made daily entries until June 2005.[5] He worked on his book for almost eight years, before showing it to a publisher in New York.

text: In February 2006, during the New York Comic Con, Jeff signed a multi book deal with publisher Harry N. Abrams, Inc., to turn Diary of a Wimpy Kid into a print series.[6]

text: The book became an instant hit, and the online version received about 20 million views as of 2009; many online readers requested a printed version. Kinney had agreed, and in April 2007, Diary of a Wimpy Kid was published.[5] To date, twelve Wimpy Kid books have been released, plus one do-it-yourself book and two movie diaries. In April 2009, TIME named Kinney one of The World's Most Influential People.[7]

text: Chronology[edit]

text:
#
Title
Date
ISBN

1Diary of a Wimpy KidApril 1, 2007ISBN 978-0-8109-9313-6 The introduction to the series introduces the protagonist, Greg Heffley, his best friend Rowley, his middle school problems, Halloween, and the Cheese Touch.

2Rodrick RulesFebruary 1, 2008ISBN 978-0-8109-9473-7 Greg must stop Rodrick from revealing the secrets that had happened last summer.

3The Last StrawJanuary 13, 2009ISBN 978-0-8109-7068-7 When Greg's father threatens to send Greg to a military academy, Greg must find a way to prevent this from happening.

4Dog DaysOctober 12, 2009ISBN 978-0-8109-8391-5 Summer is here, but when the family has not that much money to go to the beach (money is tight at that time), it might not be the best summer ever.

5The Ugly TruthNovember 9, 2010ISBN 978-0-8109-8491-2 Greg is growing up, and he will have to face the challenges of this period (like changing dentists, and a school lock-in).

6Cabin FeverNovember 15, 2011ISBN 978-1-4197-0223-5 The family is stranded in the house as snow begins to fall.

7The Third WheelNovember 13, 2012ISBN 978-1-4197-0584-7 The Valentine's Day dance is coming up, and Greg has no one go with. But when Michael Sampson (Abigail's date) will not be going, things turn around.

8Hard LuckNovember 5, 2013ISBN 978-1-4197-1132-9 Greg's friend count is dropping as Rowley now has a girlfriend, named Abigail (continuing the last book).

9The Long HaulNovember 4, 2014ISBN 978-1-4197-1189-3 This is the family's second summer trip, but instead, it's a road trip. But with the Heffleys, you know what to expect from this disaster.

10Old SchoolNovember 3, 2015ISBN 978-1-4197-1701-7 The neighborhood is going to cut electricity for the weekend, and as the family's car has a fender bender, it forces Greg to go to the farm trip. Will Greg survive the electricity-free days?

11Double DownNovember 1, 2016ISBN 978-1-4197-2344-5 Greg's mom wants him to do something else than video games, so he makes a movie in collaboration with Rowley and joins the music program.

12The GetawayNovember 7, 2017ISBN 978-1-4197-2545-6 Instead of celebrating the holidays at home, Greg and his family head on a tropical vacation to a resort. But what first starts as an relaxing trip, later turns into a Christmas nightmare. Will Greg be able to turn this vacation around?

text: Supplementary books[edit]

text:
Diary of a Wimpy Kid Do-It-Yourself Book (published between Rodrick Rules and The Last Straw) is an activity book that features a blank section encouraging readers to keep their own journal in the style of the books.
The Wimpy Kid Do-It-Yourself Book: Extended Edition (published after Wimpy Kid Movie Diary 2 and before Cabin Fever) is the same book as the first Do-It-Yourself Book, but with extra 60 pages and 16 more full-color comics.
The Wimpy Kid Movie Diary is a book about the making of the first film, which features stills and brand-new illustrations. Jeff Kinney dedicated the book to the film's main stars, Zachary Gordon and Robert Capron.
The Wimpy Kid Movie Diary 2: Rodrick Rules is an updated version of the first book, now featuring stills from the second film Rodrick Rules, more new illustrations, and information on how the second film was made.[verification needed]
The Wimpy Kid Movie Diary 3: Dog Days is the second updated version of the first book, now adding stills from the third film Dog Days, and information on how this film was made.[verification needed]
The Wimpy Kid Movie Diary: The Next Chapter covers how the film The Long Haul was made. It is dedicated to Jason Drucker, the actor who played Greg in that movie.[8]

text: Toys and games[edit]

text: Action figures included a minifigure pack (with Greg, Rowley, and Fregley), a 6-inch Greg Heffley figure, a 6-inch holiday figure based on Cabin Fever, and a Greg and Rodrick plush doll.

text: Audiobooks[edit]

text: Twelve audiobooks have been released for the Diary of a Wimpy Kid series. The first six are read by Ramon de Ocampo and Dan Russell from number seven. They are presented by Recorded Books and distributed by Audible Inc.

text:
Diary of a Wimpy Kid (April 1, 2007)
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Rodrick Rules (February 1, 2008)
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Last Straw (January 13, 2009)
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Dog Days (October 12, 2009)
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Ugly Truth (November 9, 2010)
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Cabin Fever (November 15, 2011)
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Third Wheel (November 13, 2012)
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Hard Luck (November 5, 2013)
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Long Haul (November 4, 2014)
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Old School (November 3, 2015)
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Double Down (November 1, 2016)
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Getaway (November 7, 2017)

text: Characters[edit]

text:
Greg Heffley is a wimpy student, who is the main character and narrator of the series.
Rowley Jefferson is Greg's childish best friend.
Rodrick Heffley is Greg and Manny's older brother, who is rude, and the drummer in his self-titled band, Löded Diper. He usually is noted for playing tricks on Greg.
Manny Heffley is Greg and Rodrick's spoiled younger brother, who is known to be a tattletale.
Susan Heffley is Greg's mother. She often embarrasses Greg.
Frank Heffley is Greg's father. He always wants Greg to do sports and "to become a man," and doesn't like giving up.
Gramma is Greg's grandmother on his mother's side.
Fregley is Greg's weird neighbor and classmate.
Chirag Gupta is one of Greg's friends whom he once played a trick on, pretending Chirag to have been invisible, then later pretended he was going deaf.
Holly Hills is Greg's crush, who once thought he was "Fregley."
Heather Hills is Holly's sister, and was Greg and Rodrick's crush.
Sweetheart otherwise known as Sweetie is the name given to the Heffleys' dog who Greg's dad buys in Dog Days. Later on, they give him to Greg's grandmother who spoils him and when he appears in later books, he is said to be very overweight.
The Heffleys' Pig was won by Manny in The Long Haul . The pig displays high intelligence, and walks upright in a reference to Animal Farm.
Abigail Brown is Rowley's girlfriend in The Third Wheel and in Hard Luck for the majority of pages, however it is later revealed that Abigail only did it to make her previous boyfriend feel bad.
Meemaw is Greg's great-grandmother on his mother's side (only in Hard Luck).
Gammie is Greg's great-grandmother on his father's side.
Vice Principal Roy The Vice Principal at Greg's school. He conducts most of the disciplinary action at his school.

text: Peepaw is Greg's great grandpa on his mother's side (only in Hard Luck).

text: Achievements[edit]

text: Awards and honors[edit]

text:
Award

Category

Result

#1 New York Times Best Seller (114 weeks)

Won

2008 Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards

Favorite Book

2009 Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards

Nominated

ALA Notable Book

Won

2010 Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards

Favorite Book[9]

2010 Most Favorite Book Around the World

2011 Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards

Favorite Book

2012 Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards

2013 Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards

Nominated

2014 Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards

Won

2015 Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards

2016 Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards

text: Commercial success[edit]

text: Diary of a Wimpy Kid was well received from The Princeton Review, Gold Card Association, The Dallas News, The TRR Editors, The NW Press, and The JJ Printing Company. The New York Times, which ranks children's serials collectively on a "Series Books" bestseller list, has included the Wimpy Kid series for 64 weeks as of August 10, 2015.[10] USA Today, which ranks best sellers based on sales alone regardless of genre or intended audience, has listed Diary of a Wimpy Kid in its top 150, peaking at number 8, for 141 weeks as of April 4, 2010.

text: As of the same date, Rodrick Rules has been on the list for 117 weeks (peaking at number 4), The Last Straw has been on the list for 65 weeks (peaking at number 1), Dog Days has been on the list for all 25 weeks of its publication (peaking at number 1), and The Wimpy Kid Movie Diary has been listed for all three weeks of its publication, peaking at number 2.[11]

text: The series has sold over 194 million books [12][13][14] in more than 30 countries.[15] The series has also generated over $500 million in revenue.[16]

text: Films[edit]

text: This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (March 2017)

text: Jeff Kinney announced that a film based on the first book would be produced by 20th Century Fox. The film was released on March 19, 2010, moved up from an April 2 release date.[17] It was directed by Thor Freudenthal, who also directed Hotel for Dogs. The film starred Zachary Gordon as Greg, Robert Capron as Rowley (Greg's best friend), Steve Zahn as Frank (Greg's father), Rachael Harris as Susan (Greg's mother), Devon Bostick as Rodrick (Greg's older brother), Connor and Owen Fielding as Manny (Greg's younger brother), Chloë Grace Moretz as a new character named Angie, and Grayson Russell as Fregley.[4][18]

text: There is a second film in the Diary of a Wimpy Kid film series that was released on March 25, 2011,[19] which was based on the second book Rodrick Rules, with Zachary Gordon returning as Greg Heffley. Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Rodrick Rules was also filmed in Vancouver, BC, Canada. The film also contains some scenes from The Last Straw.

text: The third film combines the third and fourth books The Last Straw and Dog Days, taking stories from both, but mainly from Dog Days, from which it took its title. The decision to blend the two films was made to keep up with the ages of the actors. The film was released on August 3, 2012.[20]

text: The likelihood of a fourth live action film was slim. Kinney has announced the possibility for an animated film to be based on Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Cabin Fever as the next installment. In an interview for the latest book Hard Luck, Jeff Kinney stated he was working with Fox on a half-hour special of Cabin Fever, which was to be aired in late 2014,[21][22] but has since been delayed. In September 2016, Jeff Kinney announced officially the production of a fourth film, Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Long Haul, on his Twitter account.[23]

text: Musical[edit]

text: A musical titled Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Musical is being produced by the Children's Theatre Company.[24]


document_title: Pseudounipolar neuron

question_text: where are unipolar neurons found in spinal cord

root

text: Pseudounipolar neuron

text: Structure[edit]

text: By definition, a pseudounipolar neuron has one axon with two branches: central and peripheral. These axonal branches should not be confused with dendrites. These sensory neurons are an exception to the typical neuron, in that they do not have separate dendrites and an axonal process, but rather one branched process that serves both functions.[2] The axon has a peripheral branch (from the cell body to the periphery: skin, joint and muscle) and a central branch (from the cell body to spinal cord).[1]

tag: p

text: In the dorsal root ganglia[edit]

text: The soma (cell body) of each pseudounipolar neuron is located within a dorsal root ganglion.[2] The axon leaves the cell body (and out of the dorsal root ganglion) into the dorsal root, where it splits into two branches. The central branch goes to the posterior (dorsal) horn of the spinal cord, where it forms synapses with other neurons. The peripheral branch travels through the distal dorsal root into the spinal nerve all the way until skin, joint, and muscle.

text: In the sensory ganglia of cranial nerves[edit]

text: Pseudounipolar neurons are also found in the sensory ganglia of cranial nerves V, VII, IX and X, all mixed-cranial nerves. The vestibulocochlear nerve, has the bipolar neuron type in both the spiral ganglion as well as Scarpa's ganglion.

text: Function[edit]

text: Signal pathway[edit]

text: These neurons have sensory receptors on skin, joints, muscles, and other parts of the body. The area of the axon that is closest to the receptor is the trigger zone for the neuron.[3] The signal is conducted through the axon to the dorsal root ganglion's cell body, then through the axon and ending at the sensory nuclei in the posterior horn of the spinal cord.


document_title: Domain name

question_text: what are the parts of a domain name called

text: Domain name

text: Purpose

text: Domain names serve to identify Internet resources, such as computers, networks, and services, with a text-based label that is easier to memorize than the numerical addresses used in the Internet protocols. A domain name may represent entire collections of such resources or individual instances. Individual Internet host computers use domain names as host identifiers, also called host names. The term host name is also used for the leaf labels in the domain name system, usually without further subordinate domain name space. Host names appear as a component in Uniform Resource Locators (URLs) for Internet resources such as web sites (e.g., en.wikipedia.org).

text: Domain names are also used as simple identification labels to indicate ownership or control of a resource. Such examples are the realm identifiers used in the Session Initiation Protocol (SIP), the Domain Keys used to verify DNS domains in e-mail systems, and in many other Uniform Resource Identifiers (URIs).

text: An important function of domain names is to provide easily recognizable and memorizable names to numerically addressed Internet resources. This abstraction allows any resource to be moved to a different physical location in the address topology of the network, globally or locally in an intranet. Such a move usually requires changing the IP address of a resource and the corresponding translation of this IP address to and from its domain name.

text: Domain names are used to establish a unique identity. Organizations can choose a domain name that corresponds to their name, helping Internet users to reach them easily.

text: A generic domain is a name that defines a general category, rather than a specific or personal instance, for example, the name of an industry, rather than a company name. Some examples of generic names are books.com, music.com, and travel.info. Companies have created brands based on generic names, and such generic domain names may be valuable.[citation needed]

text: Domain names are often simply referred to as domains and domain name registrants are frequently referred to as domain owners, although domain name registration with a registrar does not confer any legal ownership of the domain name, only an exclusive right of use for a particular duration of time. The use of domain names in commerce may subject them to trademark law.

text: History

text: The practice of using a simple memorable abstraction of a host's numerical address on a computer network dates back to the ARPANET era, before the advent of today's commercial Internet. In the early network, each computer on the network retrieved the hosts file (host.txt) from a computer at SRI (now SRI International),[3][4] which mapped computer host names to numerical addresses. The rapid growth of the network made it impossible to maintain a centrally organized hostname registry and in 1983 the Domain Name System was introduced on the ARPANET and published by the Internet Engineering Task Force as RFC 882 and RFC 883.

text: Domain name space

text: Today, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) manages the top-level development and architecture of the Internet domain name space. It authorizes domain name registrars, through which domain names may be registered and reassigned.

text: The domain name space consists of a tree of domain names. Each node in the tree holds information associated with the domain name. The tree sub-divides into zones beginning at the DNS root zone.

text: Domain name syntax

text: A domain name consists of one or more parts, technically called labels, that are conventionally concatenated, and delimited by dots, such as example.com.

text:
The right-most label conveys the top-level domain; for example, the domain name www.example.com belongs to the top-level domain com.
The hierarchy of domains descends from the right to the left label in the name; each label to the left specifies a subdivision, or subdomain of the domain to the right. For example: the label example specifies a node example.com as a subdomain of the com domain, and www is a label to create www.example.com, a subdomain of example.com. Each label may contain from 1 to 63 octets. The empty label is reserved for the root node and when fully qualified is expressed as the empty label terminated by a dot. The full domain name may not exceed a total length of 253 ASCII characters in its textual representation.[5] Thus, when using a single character per label, the limit is 127 levels: 127 characters plus 126 dots have a total length of 253. In practice, some domain registries may have shorter limits.
A hostname is a domain name that has at least one associated IP address. For example, the domain names www.example.com and example.com are also hostnames, whereas the com domain is not. However, other top-level domains, particularly country code top-level domains, may indeed have an IP address, and if so, they are also hostnames.
Hostnames impose restrictions on the characters allowed in the corresponding domain name. A valid hostname is also a valid domain name, but a valid domain name may not necessarily be valid as a hostname.

tag: ul

text: Top-level domains

text: The top-level domains (TLDs) such as com, net and org are the highest level of domain names of the Internet. Top-level domains form the DNS root zone of the hierarchical Domain Name System. Every domain name ends with a top-level domain label.

text: When the Domain Name System was devised in the 1980s, the domain name space was divided into two main groups of domains.[6] The country code top-level domains (ccTLD) were primarily based on the two-character territory codes of ISO-3166 country abbreviations. In addition, a group of seven generic top-level domains (gTLD) was implemented which represented a set of categories of names and multi-organizations.[7] These were the domains gov, edu, com, mil, org, net, and int.

text: During the growth of the Internet, it became desirable to create additional generic top-level domains. As of October 2009, 21 generic top-level domains and 250 two-letter country-code top-level domains existed.[8] In addition, the ARPA domain serves technical purposes in the infrastructure of the Domain Name System.

text: During the 32nd International Public ICANN Meeting in Paris in 2008,[9] ICANN started a new process of TLD naming policy to take a "significant step forward on the introduction of new generic top-level domains." This program envisions the availability of many new or already proposed domains, as well as a new application and implementation process.[10] Observers believed that the new rules could result in hundreds of new top-level domains to be registered.[11] In 2012, the program commenced, and received 1930 applications.[12] By 2016, the milestone of 1000 live gTLD was reached.

text: The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) maintains an annotated list of top-level domains in the DNS root zone database.[13]

text: For special purposes, such as network testing, documentation, and other applications, IANA also reserves a set of special-use domain names.[14] This list contains domain names such as example, local, localhost, and test. Other top-level domain names containing trade marks are registered for corporate use. Cases include brands such as BMW, Google, and Canon.[15]

text: Second-level and lower level domains

text: Below the top-level domains in the domain name hierarchy are the second-level domain (SLD) names. These are the names directly to the left of .com, .net, and the other top-level domains. As an example, in the domain example.co.uk, co is the second-level domain.

text: Next are third-level domains, which are written immediately to the left of a second-level domain. There can be fourth- and fifth-level domains, and so on, with virtually no limitation. An example of an operational domain name with four levels of domain labels is sos.state.oh.us. Each label is separated by a full stop (dot). 'sos' is said to be a sub-domain of 'state.oh.us', and 'state' a sub-domain of 'oh.us', etc. In general, subdomains are domains subordinate to their parent domain. An example of very deep levels of subdomain ordering are the IPv6 reverse resolution DNS zones, e.g., 1.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.ip6.arpa, which is the reverse DNS resolution domain name for the IP address of a loopback interface, or the localhost name.

text: Second-level (or lower-level, depending on the established parent hierarchy) domain names are often created based on the name of a company (e.g., bbc.co.uk), product or service (e.g. hotmail.com). Below these levels, the next domain name component has been used to designate a particular host server. Therefore, ftp.example.com might be an FTP server, www.example.com would be a World Wide Web server, and mail.example.com could be an email server, each intended to perform only the implied function. Modern technology allows multiple physical servers with either different (cf. load balancing) or even identical addresses (cf. anycast) to serve a single hostname or domain name, or multiple domain names to be served by a single computer. The latter is very popular in Web hosting service centers, where service providers host the websites of many organizations on just a few servers.

text: The hierarchical DNS labels or components of domain names are separated in a fully qualified name by the full stop (dot, .).

text: Internationalized domain names

text: The character set allowed in the Domain Name System is based on ASCII and does not allow the representation of names and words of many languages in their native scripts or alphabets. ICANN approved the Internationalized domain name (IDNA) system, which maps Unicode strings used in application user interfaces into the valid DNS character set by an encoding called Punycode. For example, københavn.eu is mapped to xn--kbenhavn-54a.eu. Many registries have adopted IDNA.

text: Domain name registration

text: History

text: The first commercial Internet domain name, in the TLD com, was registered on 15 March 1985 in the name symbolics.com by Symbolics Inc., a computer systems firm in Cambridge, Massachusetts.

text: By 1992, fewer than 15,000 com domains had been registered.

text: In the first quarter of 2015, 294 million domain names had been registered.[16] A large fraction of them are in the com TLD, which as of December 21, 2014, had 115.6 million domain names,[17] including 11.9 million online business and e-commerce sites, 4.3 million entertainment sites, 3.1 million finance related sites, and 1.8 million sports sites.[18] As of July 2012 the com TLD had more registrations than all of the ccTLDs combined.[19]

text: Administration

text: The right to use a domain name is delegated by domain name registrars, which are accredited by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), the organization charged with overseeing the name and number systems of the Internet. In addition to ICANN, each top-level domain (TLD) is maintained and serviced technically by an administrative organization operating a registry. A registry is responsible for maintaining the database of names registered within the TLD it administers. The registry receives registration information from each domain name registrar authorized to assign names in the corresponding TLD and publishes the information using a special service, the WHOIS protocol.

text: Registries and registrars usually charge an annual fee for the service of delegating a domain name to a user and providing a default set of name servers. Often, this transaction is termed a sale or lease of the domain name, and the registrant may sometimes be called an "owner", but no such legal relationship is actually associated with the transaction, only the exclusive right to use the domain name. More correctly, authorized users are known as "registrants" or as "domain holders".

text: ICANN publishes the complete list of TLD registries and domain name registrars. Registrant information associated with domain names is maintained in an online database accessible with the WHOIS protocol. For most of the 250 country code top-level domains (ccTLDs), the domain registries maintain the WHOIS (Registrant, name servers, expiration dates, etc.) information.

text: Some domain name registries, often called network information centers (NIC), also function as registrars to end-users. The major generic top-level domain registries, such as for the com, net, org, info domains and others, use a registry-registrar model consisting of hundreds of domain name registrars (see lists at ICANN[20] or VeriSign).[21] In this method of management, the registry only manages the domain name database and the relationship with the registrars. The registrants (users of a domain name) are customers of the registrar, in some cases through additional layers of resellers.

text: Technical requirements and process

text: In the process of registering a domain name and maintaining authority over the new name space created, registrars use several key pieces of information connected with a domain:

text:
Administrative contact. A registrant usually designates an administrative contact to manage the domain name. The administrative contact usually has the highest level of control over a domain. Management functions delegated to the administrative contacts may include management of all business information, such as name of record, postal address, and contact information of the official registrant of the domain and the obligation to conform to the requirements of the domain registry in order to retain the right to use a domain name. Furthermore, the administrative contact installs additional contact information for technical and billing functions.
Technical contact. The technical contact manages the name servers of a domain name. The functions of a technical contact include assuring conformance of the configurations of the domain name with the requirements of the domain registry, maintaining the domain zone records, and providing continuous functionality of the name servers (that leads to the accessibility of the domain name).
Billing contact. The party responsible for receiving billing invoices from the domain name registrar and paying applicable fees.
Name servers. Most registrars provide two or more name servers as part of the registration service. However, a registrant may specify its own authoritative name servers to host a domain's resource records. The registrar's policies govern the number of servers and the type of server information required. Some providers require a hostname and the corresponding IP address or just the hostname, which must be resolvable either in the new domain, or exist elsewhere. Based on traditional requirements (RFC 1034), typically a minimum of two servers is required.

text: Domain names may be formed from the set of alphanumeric ASCII characters (a-z, A-Z, 0-9), but characters are case-insensitive. In addition the hyphen (U+002D) is permitted if it is surrounded by characters, digits or hyphens, although it is not to start or end a label. Labels are always separated by the full stop (period) character in the textual name representation.

text: Business models

text: Domain names are often seen in analogy to real estate in that domain names are foundations on which a website can be built, and the highest quality domain names, like sought-after real estate, tend to carry significant value, usually due to their online brand-building potential, use in advertising, search engine optimization, and many other criteria.

text: A few companies have offered low-cost, below-cost or even free domain registration with a variety of models adopted to recoup the costs to the provider. These usually require that domains be hosted on their website within a framework or portal that includes advertising wrapped around the domain holder's content, revenue from which allows the provider to recoup the costs. Domain registrations were free of charge when the DNS was new. A domain holder may provide infinite number of subdomains in their domain. For example, the owner of example.org could provide subdomains such as foo.example.org and foo.bar.example.org to interested parties.

text: Many desirable domain names are already assigned and users must search for other acceptable names, using Web-based search features, or WHOIS and dig operating system tools. Many registrars have implemented domain name suggestion tools which search domain name databases and suggest available alternative domain names related to keywords provided by the user.

text: Resale of domain names

text: The business of resale of registered domain names is known as the domain aftermarket. Various factors influence the perceived value or market value of a domain name. Most of the high-prize domain sales are carried out privately.

text: Domain name confusion

text: Intercapping is often used to emphasize the meaning of a domain name. However, DNS names are not case-sensitive, and some names may be misinterpreted in certain uses of capitalization. For example: Who Represents, a database of artists and agents, chose whorepresents.com,[citation needed] which can be misread as whore presents. Similarly, a therapists' network is named therapistfinder.com. In such situations, the proper meaning may be clarified by use of hyphens in the domain name. For instance, Experts Exchange, a programmers' discussion site, for a long time used expertsexchange.com, but ultimately changed the name to experts-exchange.com.[citation needed]

text: Use in web site hosting

text: The domain name is a component of a uniform resource locator (URL) used to access web sites, for example:

text:
URL: http://www.example.net/index.html
Top-level domain: net
Second-level domain: example
Host name: www

text: A domain name may point to multiple IP addresses to provide server redundancy for the services offered, a feature that is used to manage the traffic of large, popular web sites.

text: Web hosting services, on the other hand, run servers that are typically assigned only one or a few addresses while serving websites for many domains, a technique referred to as virtual web hosting. Such IP address overloading requires that each request identifies the domain name being referenced, for instance by using the HTTP request header field Host:, or Server Name Indication.

text: Abuse and regulation

text: Critics often claim abuse of administrative power over domain names. Particularly noteworthy was the VeriSign Site Finder system which redirected all unregistered .com and .net domains to a VeriSign webpage. For example, at a public meeting with VeriSign to air technical concerns about SiteFinder,[22] numerous people, active in the IETF and other technical bodies, explained how they were surprised by VeriSign's changing the fundamental behavior of a major component of Internet infrastructure, not having obtained the customary consensus. SiteFinder, at first, assumed every Internet query was for a website, and it monetized queries for incorrect domain names, taking the user to VeriSign's search site. Unfortunately, other applications, such as many implementations of email, treat a lack of response to a domain name query as an indication that the domain does not exist, and that the message can be treated as undeliverable. The original VeriSign implementation broke this assumption for mail, because it would always resolve an erroneous domain name to that of SiteFinder. While VeriSign later changed SiteFinder's behaviour with regard to email, there was still widespread protest about VeriSign's action being more in its financial interest than in the interest of the Internet infrastructure component for which VeriSign was the steward.

text: Despite widespread criticism, VeriSign only reluctantly removed it after the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) threatened to revoke its contract to administer the root name servers. ICANN published the extensive set of letters exchanged, committee reports, and ICANN decisions.[23]

text: There is also significant disquiet regarding the United States' political influence over ICANN. This was a significant issue in the attempt to create a .xxx top-level domain and sparked greater interest in alternative DNS roots that would be beyond the control of any single country.[24]

text: Additionally, there are numerous accusations of domain name front running, whereby registrars, when given whois queries, automatically register the domain name for themselves. Network Solutions has been accused of this.[25]

text: Truth in Domain Names Act

text: In the United States, the Truth in Domain Names Act of 2003, in combination with the PROTECT Act of 2003, forbids the use of a misleading domain name with the intention of attracting Internet users into visiting Internet pornography sites.

text: The Truth in Domain Names Act follows the more general Anticybersquatting Consumer Protection Act passed in 1999 aimed at preventing typosquatting and deceptive use of names and trademarks in domain names.

text: Seizures

text:
Seizure notices

absolutepoker.com

channelsurfing.net

libertyreserve.com

text: In the early 21st century, the US Department of Justice (DOJ) pursued the seizure of domain names, based on the legal theory that domain names constitute property used to engage in criminal activity, and thus are subject to forfeiture. For example, in the seizure of the domain name of a gambling website, the DOJ referenced 18 U.S.C. § 981 and 18 U.S.C. § 1955(d).[26][1] In 2013 the US government seized Liberty Reserve, citing 18 U.S.C. § 982(a)(1).[27]

text: The U.S. Congress passed the Combating Online Infringement and Counterfeits Act in 2010. Consumer Electronics Association vice president Michael Petricone was worried that seizure was a blunt instrument that could harm legitimate businesses.[28][29] After a joint operation in February 15, 2011, the DOJ and the Department of Homeland Security claimed to have seized ten domains of websites involved in advertising and distributing child pornography, but also mistakenly seized the domain name of a large DNS provider, temporarily replacing 84,000 websites with seizure notices.[30]

text: In the United Kingdom, the Police Intellectual Property Crime Unit has been attempting to seize domain names from registrars without court orders.[31]

text: Suspensions

text: PIPCU and other UK law enforcement organisations make domain suspension requests to Nominet which they process on the basis of breach of terms and conditions. Around 16,000 domains are suspended annually, and about 80% of the requests originate from PIPCU.[32]

text: Fictitious domain name

text: A fictitious domain name is a domain name used in a work of fiction or popular culture to refer to a domain that does not actually exist, often with invalid or unofficial top-level domains such as ".web", a usage exactly analogous to the dummy 555 telephone number prefix used in film and other media. The canonical fictitious domain name is "example.com", specifically set aside by IANA in RFC 2606 for such use, along with the .example TLD.

text: Domain names used in works of fiction have often been registered in the DNS, either by their creators or by cybersquatters attempting to profit from it. This phenomenon prompted NBC to purchase the domain name Hornymanatee.com after talk-show host Conan O'Brien spoke the name while ad-libbing on his show. O'Brien subsequently created a website based on the concept and used it as a running gag on the show.[33]


document_title: Villanova Wildcats

question_text: when was the last time villanova won the ncaa basketball championship

text: Villanova Wildcats

text: Teams[edit]

text:
Men's sports
Women's sports

Baseball
Basketball

Basketball
Cross country

Cross country
Field hockey

Football
Lacrosse

Golf
Rowing

Lacrosse
Soccer

Soccer
Softball

Swimming & diving
Swimming & diving

Tennis
Tennis

Track & field†
Track & field†

Volleyball

Waterpolo

† – Track and field includes both indoor and outdoor.

tag: table

text: Men's basketball[edit]

text: The Villanova Wildcats compete in the Big East Conference and are coached by Jay Wright. The team has traditionally divides its home schedule between its on-campus arena, the William B. Finneran Pavilion, and the Wells Fargo Center in South Philadelphia, for larger draws. During the 2017-18 season, the team played its entire home schedule that season at the Wells Fargo Center following the reconstruction of the Pavilion scheduled to be completed in time for the 2018-19 school year. Wright has taken the Wildcats to 12 postseason appearances including 7 consecutive trips (2005–2011) and 5 consecutive trips (2013-2017) to the NCAA Tournament. The 2011-12 team struggled and missed postseason but Coach Wright brought a surprising young team back to the 2013 NCAA Tournament. Villanova has appeared in the NIT 17 times, winning in 1994, and won the Big East Tournament in 1995, 2015 and 2017. The Wildcats have appeared in the NCAA Men's Tournament 37 times, the 8th highest total in NCAA history have reached the Elite Eight 13 times. They have been to the Final Four of the NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament on five occasions. The 1939 team coached by Al Severance reached the inaugural NCAA Final Four played at the Palestra for the 1939 NCAA Basketball Tournament. All-American Howard Porter led a Wildcat team coached by Jack Kraft to Final Four of the 1971 NCAA University Division Basketball Tournament. Coach Rollie Massimino took Villanova to a surprising 1985 National Championship. Current Coach Jay Wright reached the Final Four at the 2009 NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament behind Dante Cunningham and Scottie Reynolds. The team most recently won the 2018 NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament for their third National Championship.

text: Villanova won the 1985 NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament with a historic 66-64 win over top-seeded Georgetown. The eighth-seeded Wildcats (unranked in the final AP poll) beat Dayton (at Dayton), top-seeded Michigan, Maryland and second-seeded North Carolina to win the Southeast Regional en route to the Final Four in Lexington, Kentucky. After defeating 2-seed Memphis State (now known as Memphis) in the national semifinals, Villanova met defending champion and ten-point-favorite Georgetown, led by Patrick Ewing, in the title game on April 1, 1985. The Wildcat squad remains the lowest overall seed in tournament history to win the championship, and their overall team shooting percentage of 78.6% remains an NCAA tournament record for a single game. This Championship Game is often cited among the greatest upsets in college basketball history. Ed Pinckney, who shot 5-of-7 and had 16 points in the game, was named the NCAA Tournament's Most Outstanding Player.

text: On April 4, 2016, the Wildcats won their second NCAA Championship in Men's Basketball, the first time in 31 years. They beat the North Carolina Tar Heels 77-74 off a buzzer-beater shot by Kris Jenkins with 0.5 seconds remaining in regulation. Two years later, on April 2, 2018, Villanova earned its third national championship beating the Michigan Wolverines 79-62.

text: Women's basketball[edit]

text: The Villanova Wildcats women's basketball team are coached by Harry Perretta,[4] now serving his 34th year as head coach of the team. For the 2017–18 season, they will play their home games at Jake Nevin Field House on the Villanova campus while the future Finneran Pavilion is undergoing renovations. The Women's basketball program started in 1969 and played under CIAW and AIAW through 1981-82 season before moving to NCAA Division I. In the 81-82 season, the Wildcats posted an outstanding 29-4 record and reached the Final Four of the 1982 AIAW Women's Basketball Tournament before losing to eventual National Champion, Rutgers. Through the 2009-10 season, the Villanova Women have a 669-413 alltime record since the program started in 1969. Previous head coaches include Liz Cawley (1969–70), Jane Sefranek-Stoltz (1970–75) and Joan King (1975–78). The 1982-83 season was the initial season for Villanova Women's basketball to play NCAA Division I and they joined the Big East Conference that same season. Villanova was the Big East regular season and tournament champions in both 1985-86 and 1986-87 behind All-American Shelly Pennefather.

text: During the 2008-09 season, Coach Perretta led the Wildcats to the NCAA Tournament for the ninth time in his Villanova career. This marked the ninth postseason appearance in the previous 10 years for the Wildcats. After playing in the 2000 WNIT, Villanova went to four consecutive NCAA Tournaments from 2001 to 2004 before playing in the WNIT in 2005, 2006 and 2008.

text: The 2002-03 season was a special one for the Wildcats. In addition to an impressive 28-6 overall record and a 12-4 Big East Conference mark, the Wildcats won their third Big East Conference Tournament championship and first since 1987 with an improbable 52-48 upset over previously unbeaten Connecticut. The win snapped Connecticut's then NCAA Division I women's basketball record of 70-straight victories and ended Connecticut's streak of nine-straight conference tournament championships.

text: The dean of the Big East and Big 5 coaches, Harry Perretta has brought the Wildcats national respect and success during his tenure at Villanova which began in 1978 at the age of 22. Coach Perretta reached a coaching milestone on November 12, 2011 with a win over Iona, representing the 600th win of his career. He is the 35th coach in the history of women's basketball at any level to reach the 600 win plateau, including the 22nd to accomplish the feat at the Division I level. Perretta is only the seventh NCAA Division I coaches to have 600 victories all at one school.[5] On February 8, 2012, Perretta reached another milestone as he became the seventh coach across all NCAA divisions to coach 1,000 games at the same institution. Perretta was named the 2009 Big East Conference Co-Coach of the Year. That was the third time in his career that he has garnered Big East Coach of the Year distinction. He has led the Wildcats to fourteen seasons of 20 wins or more. Since joining the Big East in 1982, Perretta has compiled a 200-175 conference record through 2010.

text: Shelly Pennefather, was recognized in 1987 as the nation's top women's college basketball player, winning the Margaret Wade Trophy and earning Kodak All-America honors. Pennefather was the first 3-time winner of the Big East Conference Women's Basketball Player of the Year. She is the all-time leading scorer in the history of Villanova basketball with 2408 points. Pennefather was named the best Colorado Girls High school player of all-time and led Bishop Machebeuf Catholic High School to a 96-0 record and 3 State Championships.

text: Football[edit]

text: The Wildcats compete in the Colonial Athletic Association and are coached by Andy Talley who is the winningest football coach in school history with a 190-117-1 (.617) record. Since moving to I-AA, Villanova has made 9 appearances in the I-AA/FCS playoffs making trips to the NCAA Semifinal in 2002 and 2010 and winning the 2009 FCS National Championship. The Wildcats played in the NCAA Division I Football Championship game on December 18, 2009 against the Montana Grizzlies. The Wildcats beat the Grizzlies 23–21 to win their first NCAA Division I-AA National Championship.

text: Villanova played in bowl games following the 1936, 1947, 1948, 1961, and 1962 college football seasons. After 87 seasons, the Board of Trustees voted to drop Football in April 1981 due to financial losses and poor attendance. In April, 1984, the Board of Trustees agreed to reinstate Football at a lower level as a non-scholarship program (Division I schools could field a non-scholarship Division III program at the time) and named Andy Talley as the head coach, with first Division III practice that fall and first . The program began competing in Division I-AA (now Division I FCS) level during the 1988 season.

text: Villanova football has sent 36 players to the NFL over the years including Hall of Fame defensive end Howie Long, formerly of the Oakland Raiders and All-Pro running back Brian Westbrook of the Philadelphia Eagles.

text: Villanova plays the Delaware Fightin' Blue Hens in the "Battle of the Blue". Villanova leads the all-time series which was first played in 1895 by the margin of 23-21-1. The Wildcats have a current four-year series where they will play the Temple Owls for the Philadelphia "Mayor's Cup". Villanova won the inaugural game in September 2009 but dropped the next two games to the FBS school. Villanova still leads the all-time series that started in 1928 by the margin of 16-14-2. The Wildcats also play the Penn Quakers in most recent seasons with many of the games held at historic Franklin Field. The series was first played in 1905 and Villanova has an 11-5 lead.

text: There has been some discussion regarding a potential promotion to the Football Bowl Subdivision and into the Big East in which they already participate for all other Sports. In September 2010, the Big East informally spoke with Villanova about joining for football. The school conducted several feasibility studies but a scheduled April 12, 2011 Board of Trustees vote was never taken after several Big East Football (now the American Athletic Conference) schools objected to their use of Talen Energy Stadium, then known as PPL Park, as an unacceptable venue for future games. The stadium currently holds only 18,500 but is expandable at the discretion of the Philadelphia Union soccer organization.

text: Men's lacrosse[edit]

text: The Villanova Wildcats men's lacrosse team represents Villanova University in National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I men's lacrosse. Villanova currently competes as a member of the Big East Conference and plays their home games at Villanova Stadium in Villanova, Pennsylvania. Coach Michael Corrado has taken the team to its only two NCAA appearances in history during his 6-year tenure and the school is poised for greater success in upcoming seasons.

text: Villanova rose as high as #7 ranking and qualified for an at-large bid in the 2011 NCAA Tournament where they lost to the University of Denver in the first round. During the regular season, the Wildcats drew over 6500 fans to a Big East match-up with Syracuse setting a new on-campus record for Lacrosse. Brian Karalunas became the first USILA First Team All-American in Villanova history.

text: [6] Through 2009, Villanova men's lacrosse was a member of the Colonial Athletic Association and won the CAA tournament for their first title in 2009.[7] The fourth-seeded Wildcats were the lowest-seeded championship team in conference history.[8] That season, Villanova also made their first NCAA tournament appearance, where they were routed in the first round by first-seeded Virginia, 18–6.[9]

text: The 2004 team finished 13-3 playing against the stiff competition of the CAA.

text: Track and field[edit]

text: Villanova University's Track and field team has a history of athletic success that has spanned from championships in both incarnations of the Big East Conference to NCAA championships.[10]

text: The men's team has produced 69 NCAA championships, 36 indoor and 33 outdoor. The team has had 8 NCAA team championships—4 cross country, 3 indoor ('68, '71, '79), 1 outdoor ('57). Prior to NCAA sponsoring Indoor T&F in 1965, Villanova won 6 ICAAAA Indoor T&F Championships ('57, '58, '60, '62, '63, '64). Villanova has produced 28 athletes who have made appearances in the Olympics, 10 of whom have medaled (7 Gold medals, 3 Silver medals). The men's team has also won 112 Penn Relays Championships, which stands as the most wins by any school. The men's current coaches include head coach, Marcus O'Sullivan, and assistant head coach, Anthony Williams.[10]

text: The women's team has also had a multitude of success, producing 10 Big East team Championships and 7 NCAA team Championships. They have also produced 7 Olympians including Vicki Huber, Sonia O'Sullivan, Kim Certain, Kate Fonshell, Jen Rhines, Carmen Douma, and Carrie Tollefson. The Women's team has won 28 Penn Relays Championships, which is the most wins by any women's program. The current women's coaches include head coach, Gina Procaccio, and assistant head coach, Anthony Williams.[10]

text: At least one Villanova athlete has competed in every Summer Olympics since 1948, winning a total of 13 medals (9 gold, 4 silver).[11]

text: Cross country[edit]

text: Villanova Men's and Women's Cross Country teams have a successful history of Big East and NCAA National Championships. Villanova won both the Men's and Women's Big East Cross Country Team Titles in 2011.

text: The 2011 women's Cross Country team finished as national runner-up led by Sheila Reid individual title. In 2010 and 2009, the women's cross country team won the NCAA Women's Cross Country Championship under Coach Gina Procaccio. The 2010 victory was led by individual national champion Sheila Reid of Villanova who repeated her NCAA individual crown in 2011.

text: The Wildcats hold the NCAA Division I record for the most NCAA Team and Individual Women's Cross Country Champions with 9 NCAA Team Championships ('89, '90, '91, '92, '93, '94, '98, '09, '10) and 9 NCAA individual champions, 7 of which coincided.

text: NCAA Individual Cross Country Champions

text:
Vicki Huber 1989
Sonia O'Sullivan 1990, 1991
Carole Zajac 1992, 1993
Jennifer Rhines 1994
Carrie Tollefson 1997
Sheila Reid 2010, 2011

text: The 2011 Villanova Men's Cross Country team finished 13th in the Team competition at NCAA meet.[12] Villanova has won 4 NCAA Men's Cross Country Team Championships covering 1966, 1967, 1968 and 1970.

text: NCAA Individual Cross Country Champions

text:
Victor Zwolak 1963
Patrick Tiernan 2016

text: Swimming and diving[edit]

text: In its history, Villanova Swimming and Diving has produced several Olympians. Most recently Maddy Crippen competed in the 400m individual medley at the 2000 Olympics. At the 2008 Olympics, Villanova was represented by Kristina Lennox-Silva. Lennox competed for Puerto Rico and swam the 400m freestyle and 200m butterfly.

text: NCAA team championships[edit]

text: Villanova has 21 NCAA team national championships.[13]

text:
Men's (12)

Basketball (3): 1985, 2016, 2018
Cross Country (4): 1966, 1967, 1968, 1970
Football (1): 2009
Indoor Track & Field (3): 1968, 1971, 1979
Outdoor Track & Field (1): 1957

Women's (9)

Cross Country (9): 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1998, 2009, 2010

see also:

Big East Conference NCAA team championships
List of NCAA schools with the most NCAA Division I championships

text: Conference realignment[edit]

text: In December 2012 the presidents of seven Big East schools which do not sponsor FBS football (also sometimes referred to as the "Catholic 7"), including Villanova, voted unanimously to leave the Big East and form a new conference. The new conference, which kept the Big East name, officially began on July 1, 2013.

text: Notable non varsity sports[edit]

text: Rugby[edit]

text:
Villanova Ruby Football Club

University
Villanova University

Association
USA Rugby

Conference
Keystone Conference

text: The Villanova Rugby Football Club regained its official sanctioning by the University in 2010, after losing this status and being classified as a recreational sport during the 1990s.[14] The college rugby team has been able to develop a roster of over 50 players, due in part to the growing popularity of rugby at the high school level,[14] and the Wildcats are supported by a network of rugby alumni that contribute towards the cost of the rugby program.[15] The Wildcats are led by head coach Jack Foley, a former Villanova RFC athlete, USA 7's player, and a head coach at various programs since 1998. Recently, the Wildcats played at the 2013 Collegiate Rugby Championship, the highest profile competition in college rugby, which was broadcast live on NBC from PPL Park in Philadelphia. Currently, Villanova competes in the D1-AA Keystone Conference for both 15's and 7's rugby. The team also schedules out of conference games, such as its preseaon wins over Columbia, UPenn, and Lehigh in the fall of 2016.[16] Following its regular spring sevens schedule, the team also competes in the annual Philadelphia Cup at PPL Park which runs concurrent with the CRC. Winning the Philadelphia Cup guarantees the Wildcats a spot in the CRC for the next year.


document_title: Transformer types

question_text: two examples where low voltage transformers are used

question_tokens: two examples where low voltage transformers are used

text: Transformer types

text: Power transformers[edit]

text: Laminated core[edit]

text: This is the most common type of transformer, widely used in electric power transmission and appliances to convert mains voltage to low voltage to power electronic devices. They are available in power ratings ranging from mW to MW. The insulated laminations minimizes eddy current losses in the iron core.

text: Small appliance and electronic transformers may use a split bobbin, giving a high level of insulation between the windings. The rectangular cores are made up of stampings, often in E-I shape pairs, but other shapes are sometimes used. Shields between primary and secondary may be fitted to reduce EMI (electromagnetic interference), or a screen winding is occasionally used.

text: Small appliance and electronics transformers may have a thermal cut-out built into the winding, to shut-off power at high temperatures to prevent further overheating.

text: Toroidal[edit]

text: Doughnut shaped toroidal transformers save space compared to E-I cores, and may reduce external magnetic field. These use a ring shaped core, copper windings wrapped round this ring (and thus threaded through the ring during winding), and tape for insulation.

text: Toroidal transformers have a lower external magnetic field compared to rectangular transformers, and can be smaller for a given power rating. However, they cost more to make, as winding requires more complex and slower equipment.

text: They can be mounted by a bolt through the center, using washers and rubber pads or by potting in resin.

text: Autotransformer[edit]

text: An autotransformer has one winding that is tapped at some point along the winding. Voltage is applied across a portion of the winding, and a higher (or lower) voltage is produced across another portion of the same winding. The equivalent power rating of the autotransfomer is lower than the actual load power rating. It is calculated by: load VA × (|Vin – Vout|)/Vin.[1] For example, an auto transformer that adapts a 1000 VA load rated at 120 Volts to a 240 Volt supply has an equivalent rating of at least: 1,000VA × (240V – 120V) / 240V = 500VA. However, the actual rating (shown on the tally plate) must be at least 1000 VA.

text: For voltage ratios that don't exceed about 3:1, an autotransformer is cheaper, lighter, smaller, and more efficient than an isolating (two-winding) transformer of the same rating.[2] Large three-phase autotransformers are used in electric power distribution systems, for example, to interconnect 33 kV and 66 kV sub-transmission networks.[citation needed]

text: Variable autotransformer[edit]

text: By exposing part of the winding coils of an autotransformer, and making the secondary connection through a sliding carbon brush, an autotransformer with a near-continuously variable turns ratio can be obtained, allowing for wide voltage adjustment in very small increments.

text: Induction regulator[edit]

text: The induction regulator is similar in design to a wound-rotor induction motor but it is essentially a transformer whose output voltage is varied by rotating its secondary relative to the primary—i.e., rotating the angular position of the rotor. It can be seen as a power transformer exploiting rotating magnetic fields. The major advantage of the induction regulator is that unlike variacs, they are practical for transformers over 5 kVA. Hence, such regulators find widespread use in high-voltage laboratories. [3]

text: Polyphase transformer[edit]

text: For polyphase systems, multiple single-phase transformers can be used, or all phases can be connected to a single polyphase transformer. For a three phase transformer, the three primary windings are connected together and the three secondary windings are connected together.[4] Examples of connections are wye-delta, delta-wye, delta-delta and wye-wye. A vector group indicates the configuration of the windings and the phase angle difference between them. If a winding is connected to earth (grounded), the earth connection point is usually the center point of a wye winding. If the secondary is a delta winding, the ground may be connected to a center tap on one winding (high leg delta) or one phase may be grounded (corner grounded delta). A special purpose polyphase transformer is the zigzag transformer. There are many possible configurations that may involve more or fewer than six windings and various tap connections.

text: Grounding transformer[edit]

text: Grounding or earthing transformers let three wire (delta) polyphase system supplies accommodate phase to neutral loads by providing a return path for current to a neutral. Grounding transformers most commonly incorporate a single winding transformer with a zigzag winding configuration but may also be created with a wye-delta isolated winding transformer connection.

text: Phase-shifting transformer[edit]

text: This is a specialized type of transformer which can be configured to adjust the phase relationship between input and output. This allows power flow in an electric grid to be controlled, e.g. to steer power flows away from a shorter (but overloaded) link to a longer path with excess capacity.

text: Variable-frequency transformer[edit]

text: A variable-frequency transformer is a specialized three-phase power transformer which allows the phase relationship between the input and output windings to be continuously adjusted by rotating one half. They are used to interconnect electrical grids with the same nominal frequency but without synchronous phase coordination.

text: Leakage or stray field transformers[edit]

text: A leakage transformer, also called a stray-field transformer, has a significantly higher leakage inductance than other transformers, sometimes increased by a magnetic bypass or shunt in its core between primary and secondary, which is sometimes adjustable with a set screw. This provides a transformer with an inherent current limitation due to the loose coupling between its primary and the secondary windings. In this case, it is short-circuit inductance which is actually acting as a current limiting parameter. The output and input currents are low enough to prevent thermal overload under all load conditions—even if the secondary is shorted.

text: Uses[edit]

text: Leakage transformers are used for arc welding and high voltage discharge lamps (neon lights and cold cathode fluorescent lamps, which are series connected up to 7.5 kV AC). It acts then both as a voltage transformer and as a magnetic ballast.

text: Other applications are short-circuit-proof extra-low voltage transformers for toys or doorbell installations.

text: Resonant transformer[edit]

text: A resonant transformer is a transformer in which one or both windings has a capacitor across it and functions as a tuned circuit. Used at radio frequencies, resonant transformers can function as high Q factor bandpass filters. The transformer windings have either air or ferrite cores and the bandwidth can be adjusted by varying the coupling (mutual inductance). One common form is the IF (intermediate frequency) transformer, used in superheterodyne radio receivers. They are also used in radio transmitters.

text: Resonant transformers are also used in electronic ballasts for gas discharge lamps, and high voltage power supplies. They are also used in some types of switching power supplies.[5] Here the short-circuit inductance value is an important parameter that determines the resonance frequency of the resonant transformer. Often only secondary winding has a resonant capacitor (or stray capacitance) and acts as a serial resonant tank circuit. When the short-circuit inductance of the secondary side of the transformer is Lsc and the resonant capacitor (or stray capacitance) of the secondary side is Cr, The resonance frequency ωs of 1' is as follows

text: The transformer is driven by a pulse or square wave for efficiency, generated by an electronic oscillator circuit. Each pulse serves to drive resonant sinusoidal oscillations in the tuned winding, and due to resonance a high voltage can be developed across the secondary.

text: Applications:

text:
Intermediate frequency (IF) transformer in superheterodyne radio receiver
Tank transformers in radio transmitters
Tesla coil
CCFL inverter
Oudin coil (or Oudin resonator; named after its inventor Paul Oudin)
D'Arsonval apparatus
Ignition coil or induction coil used in the ignition system of a petrol engine
Electrical breakdown and insulation testing of high voltage equipment and cables. In the latter case, the transformer's secondary is resonated with the cable's capacitance.

text: Constant voltage transformer[edit]

text: By arranging particular magnetic properties of a transformer core, and installing a ferro-resonant tank circuit (a capacitor and an additional winding), a transformer can be arranged to automatically keep the secondary winding voltage relatively constant for varying primary supply without additional circuitry or manual adjustment. Ferro-resonant transformers run hotter than standard power transformers, because regulating action depends on core saturation, which reduces efficiency. The output waveform is heavily distorted unless careful measures are taken to prevent this. Saturating transformers provide a simple rugged method to stabilize an AC power supply.

text: Ferrite core[edit]

text: Ferrite core power transformers are widely used in switched-mode power supplies (SMPSs). The powder core enables high-frequency operation, and hence much smaller size-to-power ratio than laminated-iron transformers.

text: Ferrite transformers are not used as power transformers at mains frequency since laminated iron cores cost less than an equivalent ferrite core.

text: Planar transformer[edit]

text: Manufacturers etch spiral patterns on a printed circuit board to form the "windings" of a planar transformer, replacing the turns of wire used to make other types. Some planar transformers are commercially sold as discrete components. Other planar transformers are one of many components on a printed circuit board. A planar transformer can be thinner than other transformers, which is useful for low-profile applications or when several printed circuit boards are stacked.[6] Almost all planar transformers use a ferrite planar core.

text: Oil cooled transformer[edit]

text: Large transformers used in power distribution or electrical substations have their core and coils immersed in oil, which cools and insulates. Oil circulates through ducts in the coil and around the coil and core assembly, moved by convection. The oil is cooled by the outside of the tank in small ratings, and by an air-cooled radiator in larger ratings. Where a higher rating is required, or where the transformer is in a building or underground, oil pumps circulate the oil, and an oil-to-water heat exchanger may also be used.[7] Some transformers may contain PCBs where or when its use was permitted. For example, until 1979 in South Africa.[8][9] substitute fire-resistant liquids such as silicone oils are now used instead.

text: Cast resin transformer[edit]

text: Cast-resin power transformers encase the windings in epoxy resin. These transformers simplify installation since they are dry, without cooling oil, and so require no fire-proof vault for indoor installations. The epoxy protects the windings from dust and corrosive atmospheres. However, because the molds for casting the coils are only available in fixed sizes, the design of the transformers is less flexible, which may make them more costly if customized features (voltage, turns ratio, taps) are required.[10][11]

text: Isolating transformer[edit]

text: An isolation transformer links two circuits magnetically, but provides no metallic conductive path between the circuits. An example application would be in the power supply for medical equipment, when it is necessary to prevent any leakage from the AC power system into devices connected to a patient. Special purpose isolation transformers may include shielding to prevent coupling of electromagnetic noise between circuits, or may have reinforced insulation to withstand thousands of volts of potential difference between primary and secondary circuits.

text: Instrument transformer[edit]

text: Instrument transformers are typically used to operate instruments from high voltage lines or high current circuits, safely isolating measurement and control circuitry from the high voltages or currents. The primary winding of the transformer is connected to the high voltage or high current circuit, and the meter or relay is connected to the secondary circuit. Instrument transformers may also be used as an isolation transformer so that secondary quantities may be used without affecting the primary circuitry.[12]

text: Terminal identifications (either alphanumeric such as H1, X1, Y1, etc. or a colored spot or dot impressed in the case) indicate one end of each winding, indicating the same instantaneous polarity and phase between windings. This applies to both types of instrument transformers. Correct identification of terminals and wiring is essential for proper operation of metering and protective relay instrumentation.

text: Current transformer[edit]

text: A current transformer (CT) is a series connected measurement device designed to provide a current in its secondary coil proportional to the current flowing in its primary. Current transformers are commonly used in metering and protective relays in the electrical power industry.

text: Current transformers are often constructed by passing a single primary turn (either an insulated cable or an uninsulated bus bar) through a well-insulated toroidal core wrapped with many turns of wire. The CT is typically described by its current ratio from primary to secondary. For example, a 1000:1 CT provides an output current of 1 amperes when 1000 amperes flow through the primary winding. Standard secondary current ratings are 5 amperes or 1 ampere, compatible with standard measuring instruments. The secondary winding can be single ratio or have several tap points to provide a range of ratios. Care must be taken to make sure the secondary winding is not disconnected from its low-impedance load while current flows in the primary, as this may produce a dangerously high voltage across the open secondary and may permanently affect the accuracy of the transformer.

text: Specially constructed wideband CTs are also used, usually with an oscilloscope, to measure high frequency waveforms or pulsed currents within pulsed power systems. One type provides a voltage output that is proportional to the measured current. Another, called a Rogowski coil, requires an external integrator in order to provide a proportional output.

text: A current clamp uses a current transformer with a split core that can be easily wrapped around a conductor in a circuit. This is a common method used in portable current measuring instruments but permanent installations use more economical types of current transformer.

text: Voltage transformer or potential transformer[edit]

text: Voltage transformers (VT), also called potential transformers (PT), are a parallel connected type of instrument transformer, used for metering and protection in high-voltage circuits or phasor phase shift isolation. They are designed to present negligible load to the supply being measured and to have an accurate voltage ratio to enable accurate metering. A potential transformer may have several secondary windings on the same core as a primary winding, for use in different metering or protection circuits. The primary may be connected phase to ground or phase to phase. The secondary is usually grounded on one terminal.

text: There are three primary types of voltage transformers (VT): electromagnetic, capacitor, and optical. The electromagnetic voltage transformer is a wire-wound transformer. The capacitor voltage transformer uses a capacitance potential divider and is used at higher voltages due to a lower cost than an electromagnetic VT. An optical voltage transformer exploits the electrical properties of optical materials.[13] Measurement of high voltages is possible by the potential transformers.

text: Combined instrument transformer[edit]

text: A combined instrument transformer encloses a current transformer and a voltage transformer in the same transformer. There are two main combined current and voltage transformer designs: oil-paper insulated and SF6 insulated.[14] One advantage of applying this solution is reduced substation footprint, due to reduced number of transformers in a bay, supporting structures and connections as well as lower costs for civil works, transportation and installation.[15]

text: Pulse transformer[edit]

text: A pulse transformer is a transformer that is optimised for transmitting rectangular electrical pulses (that is, pulses with fast rise and fall times and a relatively constant amplitude). Small versions called signal types are used in digital logic and telecommunications circuits, often for matching logic drivers to transmission lines. Medium-sized power versions are used in power-control circuits such as camera flash controllers. Larger power versions are used in the electrical power distribution industry to interface low-voltage control circuitry to the high-voltage gates of power semiconductors. Special high voltage pulse transformers are also used to generate high power pulses for radar, particle accelerators, or other high energy pulsed power applications.[16]

text: To minimize distortion of the pulse shape, a pulse transformer needs to have low values of leakage inductance and distributed capacitance, and a high open-circuit inductance. In power-type pulse transformers, a low coupling capacitance (between the primary and secondary) is important to protect the circuitry on the primary side from high-powered transients created by the load. For the same reason, high insulation resistance and high breakdown voltage are required. A good transient response is necessary to maintain the rectangular pulse shape at the secondary, because a pulse with slow edges would create switching losses in the power semiconductors.

text: The product of the peak pulse voltage and the duration of the pulse (or more accurately, the voltage-time integral) is often used to characterise pulse transformers. Generally speaking, the larger this product, the larger and more expensive the transformer.

text: Pulse transformers by definition have a duty cycle of less than 0.5; whatever energy stored in the coil during the pulse must be "dumped" out before the pulse is fired again.

text: RF transformer[edit]

text: There are several types of transformer used in radio frequency (RF) work. Laminated steel is not suitable for RF.

text: Air-core transformer[edit]

text: These are used for high frequency work. The lack of a core means very low inductance. All current excites current and induces secondary voltage which is proportional to the mutual inductance.[17] Such transformers may be nothing more than a few turns of wire soldered onto a printed circuit board.

text: Ferrite-core transformer[edit]

text: Ferrite-core transformers are widely used in impedance matching transformers for RF, especially for baluns (see below) for TV and radio antennas. Many only have one or two turns.

text: Transmission-line transformer[edit]

text: For radio frequency use, transformers are sometimes made from configurations of transmission line, sometimes bifilar or coaxial cable, wound around ferrite or other types of core. This style of transformer gives an extremely wide bandwidth but only a limited number of ratios (such as 1:9, 1:4 or 1:2) can be achieved with this technique.

text: The core material increases the inductance dramatically, thereby raising its Q factor. The cores of such transformers help improve performance at the lower frequency end of the band. RF transformers sometimes used a third coil (called a tickler winding) to inject feedback into an earlier (detector) stage in antique regenerative radio receivers.

text: In RF and microwave systems, a quarter-wave impedance transformer provides a way of matching impedances between circuits over a limited range of frequencies, using only a length of transmission line. The line may be coaxial cable, waveguide, stripline or microstripline.

text: Balun[edit]

text: Baluns are transformers designed specifically to connect between balanced (non-grounded) and unbalanced (grounded) circuits. These are sometimes made from configurations of transmission line and sometimes bifilar or coaxial cable and are similar to transmission line transformers in construction and operation. Baluns can be designed to not only interface between balanced and unbalanced loads, but to additionally provide impedance matching between those load types.

text: IF transformer[edit]

text: Ferrite-core transformers are widely used in (intermediate frequency) (IF) stages in superheterodyne radio receivers. They are mostly tuned transformers, containing a threaded ferrite slug that is screwed in or out to adjust IF tuning. The transformers are usually canned (shielded) for stability and to reduce interference.

text: Audio transformer[edit]

text: Audio transformers are those specifically designed for use in audio circuits to carry audio signal. They can be used to block radio frequency interference or the DC component of an audio signal, to split or combine audio signals, or to provide impedance matching between high impedance and low impedance circuits, such as between a high impedance tube (valve) amplifier output and a low impedance loudspeaker, or between a high impedance instrument output and the low impedance input of a mixing console. Audio transformers that operate with loudspeaker voltages and current are larger than those that operate at microphone or line level, which carry much less power. Bridge transformers connect 2-wire and 4-wire communication circuits.

text: Being magnetic devices, audio transformers are susceptible to external magnetic fields such as those generated by AC current-carrying conductors. "Hum" is a term commonly used to describe unwanted signals originating from the "mains" power supply (typically 50 or 60 Hz).[18] Audio transformers used for low-level signals, such as those from microphones, often include magnetic shielding to protect against extraneous magnetically coupled signals.

text: Audio transformers were originally designed to connect different telephone systems to one another while keeping their respective power supplies isolated, and are still commonly used to interconnect professional audio systems or system components, to eliminate buzz and hum. Such transformers typically have a 1:1 ratio between the primary and the secondary. These can also be used for splitting signals, balancing unbalanced signals, or feeding a balanced signal to unbalanced equipment. Transformers are also used in DI boxes to convert high-impedance instrument signals (e.g., bass guitar) to low impedance signals to enable them to connect to a microphone input on the mixing console.

text: A particularly critical component is the output transformer of a valve amplifier. Valve circuits for quality reproduction have long been produced with no other (inter-stage) audio transformers, but an output transformer is needed to couple the relatively high impedance (up to a few hundred ohms depending upon configuration) of the output valve(s) to the low impedance of a loudspeaker. (The valves can deliver a low current at a high voltage; the speakers require high current at low voltage.) Most solid-state power amplifiers need no output transformer at all.

text: Audio transformers affect the sound quality because they are non-linear. Harmonic distortion is added to the original signal, especially odd-order harmonics with an emphasis on third-order harmonics. When the incoming signal amplitude is very low there is not enough level to energize the magnetic core (see coercivity and magnetic hysteresis). When the incoming signal amplitude is very high the transformer saturates and adds ringing harmonics.[19] Another non-linearity comes from limited frequency response. For good low-frequency response a relatively large magnetic core is required; high power handling increases the required core size. Good high-frequency response requires carefully designed and implemented windings without excessive leakage inductance or stray capacitance. All this makes for an expensive component.

text: Early transistor audio power amplifiers often had output transformers, but they were eliminated as advances in semiconductors allowed the design of amplifiers with sufficiently low output impedance to drive a loudspeaker directly.

text: Loudspeaker transformer[edit]

text: In the same way that transformers create high voltage power transmission circuits that minimize transmission losses, loudspeaker transformers can power many individual loudspeakers from a single audio circuit operated at higher than normal loudspeaker voltages. This application is common in public address applications. Such circuits are commonly referred to as constant-voltage speaker systems. Such systems are also known by the nominal voltage of the loudspeaker line, such as 25-, 70- and 100-volt speaker systems (the voltage corresponding to the power rating of a speaker or amplifier). A transformer steps up the output of the system's amplifer to the distribution voltage. At the distant loudspeaker locations, a step-down transformer matches the speaker to the rated voltage of the line, so the speaker produces rated nominal output when the line is at nominal voltage. Loudspeaker transformers commonly have multiple primary taps to adjust the volume at each speaker in steps.

text: Output transformer[edit]

text: Valve (tube) amplifiers almost always use an output transformer to match the high load impedance requirement of the valves (several kilohms) to a low impedance speaker

text: Small signal transformer[edit]

text: Moving coil phonograph cartridges produce a very small voltage. For this to be amplified with a reasonable signal-noise ratio usually requires a transformer to convert the voltage to the range of the more common moving-magnet cartridges.

text: Microphones may also be matched to their load with a small transformer, which is mumetal shielded to minimise noise pickup. These transformers are less widely used today, as transistorized buffers are now cheaper.

text: Interstage and coupling transformers[edit]

text: In a push–pull amplifier, an inverted signal is required and can be obtained from a transformer with a center-tapped winding, used to drive two active devices in opposite phase. These phase splitting transformers are not much used today.

text: Other types[edit]

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text: Transactor[edit]

text: A transactor is a combination of a transformer and a reactor. A transactor has an iron core with an air-gap, which limits the coupling between windings.[20]

text: Hedgehog[edit]

text: Hedgehog transformers are occasionally encountered in homemade 1920s radios. They are homemade audio interstage coupling transformers.

text: Enamelled copper wire is wound round the central half of the length of a bundle of insulated iron wire (e.g., florists' wire), to make the windings. The ends of the iron wires are then bent around the electrical winding to complete the magnetic circuit, and the whole is wrapped with tape or string to hold it together.

text: Variometer and variocoupler[edit]

text: A variometer is a type of continuously variable air-core RF inductor with two windings.[21] One common form consisted of a coil wound on a short hollow cylindrical form, with a second smaller coil inside, mounted on a shaft so its magnetic axis can be rotated with respect to the outer coil. The two coils are connected in series. When the two coils are collinear, with their magnetic fields pointed in the same direction, the two magnetic fields add, and the inductance is maximum. If the inner coil is rotated so its axis is at an angle to the outer coil, the magnetic fields do not add and the inductance is less. If the inner coil is rotated so it is collinear with the outer coil but their magnetic fields point in opposite directions, the fields cancel each other out and the inductance is very small or zero. The advantage of the variometer is that inductance can be adjusted continuously, over a wide range. Variometers were widely used in 1920s radio receivers. One of their main uses today is as antenna matching coils to match longwave radio transmitters to their antennas.

text: The vario-coupler was a device with similar construction, but the two coils were not connected but attached to separate circuits. So it functioned as an air-core RF transformer with variable coupling. The inner coil could be rotated from 0° to 90° angle with the outer, reducing the mutual inductance from maximum to near zero.

text: The pancake coil variometer was another common construction used in both 1920s receivers and transmitters. It consists of two flat spiral coils suspended vertically facing each other, hinged at one side so one could swing away from the other to an angle of 90° to reduce the coupling. The flat spiral design served to reduce parasitic capacitance and losses at radio frequencies.

text: Pancake or "honeycomb" coil vario-couplers were used in the 1920s in the common Armstrong or "tickler" regenerative radio receivers. One coil was connected to the detector tube's grid circuit. The other coil, the "tickler" coil was connected to the tube's plate (output) circuit. It fed back some of the signal from the plate circuit into the input again, and this positive feedback increased the tube's gain and selectivity.

text: Rotary transformer[edit]

text: A rotary (rotatory) transformer is a specialized transformer that couples electrical signals between two parts that rotate in relation to each other—as an alternative to slip rings, which are prone to wear and contact noise. They are commonly used in helical scan magnetic tape applications.

text: Variable differential transformer[edit]

text: A variable differential transformer is a rugged non-contact position sensor. It has two oppositely-phased primaries which nominally produce zero output in the secondary, but any movement of the core changes the coupling to produce a signal.

text: Resolver and synchro[edit]

text: The two-phase resolver and related three-phase synchro are rotary position sensors which work over a full 360°. The primary is rotated within two or three secondaries at different angles, and the amplitudes of the secondary signals can be decoded into an angle. Unlike variable differential transformers, the coils, and not just the core, move relative to each other, so slip rings are required to connect the primary.

text: Resolvers produce in-phase and quadrature components which are useful for computation. Synchros produce three-phase signals which can be connected to other synchros to rotate them in a generator/motor configuration.


document_title: Burzahom archaeological site

question_text: what material was used to build the roofs of houses in burzahom

text: Burzahom archaeological site

text: Location[edit]

text: The Burzahom site is a prehistoric settlement in the village of the same name in the Srinagar District. It is 16 kilometres (9.9 mi) to the northeast of Srinagar on the Naseem-Shalimar road. The elevation of the site is 1,800 metres (5,900 ft) above sea-level.[3][4] It is the northernmost excavated Neolithic site of India. The site is on an ancient Pleistocene lake bed.[5] The location is in a high terrace which is part of the floodplain of the Jhelum river and has Karewa soil (clay) formation. The site has a commanding view of the Dal lake which is about 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) away. In the Kashmiri language 'Burzahom' means "birch", a tree species (that generally grows in the elevation range of 3,000 to 4,200 metres (9,800 to 13,800 ft) in the Himalayas), which is found in the excavated housing area in the form of roofing material, and thus confirming the existence of the tree even in the pre-historic Neolithic times.[6]

text: History[edit]

text: The first excavation at the Burzahom site was a limited exercise in 1936, carried out by the Yale–Cambridge Expedition headed by Helmut de Terra and Dr. Thomson Paterson. The Frontier Circle of the Archaeological Survey of India made detailed investigations of the site between 1960 and 1971; these were carried out by T.N. Khazanchi and his associates.[3][7]

text: The extensive excavations done at this site, unearthing stratified cultural deposits, were the first of their type in Kashmir. In 1944, Mortimer Wheeler, Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India had conducted the first stratified archaeological excavations on the lines of geological model at other sites. Based on a similar model the Burzahom site has been named as the Northern Neolithic Culture in view of its distinctive structural features with profusion of tools made of bones and stones and tools representing the ritualistic practices.[8]

text: Gufkral represents another related site in the area, near the town of Tral. Also, Hariparigam, and Awantipura, in the same area, are related.

text: Skeletal remains of Neolithic people found at Burzahom are similar to those found in Harappa of the Indus Valley Civilization. Some historians have stated that the Vedic Aryan culture extended into Kashmir, but archaeological investigation at Burzahom does not support the "Aryans in Kashmir" theory[9]

text: The management and protection of the Burzahom site, including the buffer zones, are under the jurisdiction of the Archaeological Survey of India and the State Department of Archaeology conforming to the Ancient Monuments and Sites Remains Act 1958 (Amended in 2010).[10]

text: This site was nominated on 15 April 2014 for inscription as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and is yet to be approved.[10]

text: Discovery[edit]

text: The excavation at Burzahom was carried out in both vertical (depth wise) and horizontal directions; the depth provided the stratification features while the phasing of each stratification was provided by the horizontal excavations. Four periods of continuous occupational sequence at the site were documented over a period of 11 years of investigations from 1960 to 1971.[11] These are: Periods I and II of the Neolithic (Period I is called aceramic and Period II is called ceramic) origin, particularly characterized by dwelling pits (the largest measuring 2.74 metres (9 ft 0 in) at the top to 4.75 metres (15.6 ft) at the base at a depth of 3.95 metres (13.0 ft)); Period III of the Megalithic sequence noted by the free standing large stone Menhirs installed at the site by shifting boulders manually from the hills; and Period IV of the early Modern Period.[10][12] The skeletal remains of the Neolithic humans found at Burzahom are similar to those found in Harappa of the Indus Valley Civilization.

text: Burzahom's ceramic industry was mostly of hunting based culture and is different from the Chinese Neolithic pottery.[13] The economy of the people was found to be based on hunting and gathering with a nascent stage of cultivation practices.[14] Pottery made in Burzahom showed close affinity to those found in the Swat valley in Pakistan, particularly in respect of its shapes and decorations of the black ware pottery. The burial practices and type of tools recovered from the site were inferred as having close resemblance to those found in the North Chinese Neolithic culture.[15]

text: Period I[edit]

text: The remarkable find during this period was of pits which were inferred as dwelling units; these were in circular or oval shape dug in compact natural Karewa soil formation. Some of the deep pits had steps and ladder access to the bottom level. In some of the pits the stratification revealed ash and charcoal layers, which denoted human occupancy. Post holes on the sides of pits at the surface level denoted the presence of superstructures covered with thatch made of birch. Shallow pits of circular shape of 60–91 centimetres (24–36 in) diameter adjoining the housing pits were found to contain bones of animals and also tools made of bones (of antlers used for making tools) and stones (harpoons, needles with or without eyes, awls).[3][10]

text: Carbon dating established that the Neolithic culture of this site was traceable to the 3rd millennium BC, the earliest occupation at the site was dated to before 2,357 BC.[16]

text: The pottery found at the site were in an early stage of hand crafting, of the coarse variety, in steel-grey, dull red, brown, and buff colours with mat prints at the bottom; they were in the shape of bowl, vase and stem.[3] The antiquities did not reveal any signs of burials sites.[10]

text: Late Kot-Diji type pots were found belonging to Period Ib.

text: Period II[edit]

text: In the Period II, the finds excavated revealed that people had moved out from pit dwelling to structures built at the ground level. However, the pits and its associated chambers formed the base floor of the superstructure, which was made up by filling the pits and covering it with mud plaster, and occasionally painted in red ochre. Post-holes around the pits revealed that the superstructures were made of wood built over compacted Karewa soil floors.[3][10]

text: This period also brought out, for the first time, the burial customs of the Neolithic people. Both human and animal skeletons were found in deep oval shaped pits, located either below the floors of the dwelling units or in its precincts. These pits were filled with ash, stones and potsherds. Some of the human skulls found here had trepanning (bored hole) marks. In many pits, bones of dogs and antlered deer were found along with human skeletons. The skeletons of humans were found in the burial pits in a sitting position along with bones of animals.[3][10]

text: Pottery finds showed better finish compared to the earlier Period I. The pots were of polished black ware, mostly handmade, in the form of a dish with stand, a high-necked jar, and so forth. Also found was a wheel turned red ware pot which contained 950 beads made from carnelian and agate (inferred as items for sale), which was thought to belong to the later part of this period.[3][10] A very impressive painted pottery ware recovered from this period was a globular red ware pot made on a turntable; the painting on the pot was of a wild goat of black colour with long horns and hanging ears.[10][17] Another pottery item which is of interest is a polished black ware in globular shape jar with a long neck and flaring mouth.[18]

text: An interesting find of this period is of two standalone finished flat stone slabs. The carving on one is not distinct. The other stone slab is 48–27 centimetres (19–11 in) which depicts, on one polished side, sketches of hunting scenes such as a hunter spearing (with a Ker) an antlered deer and another hunter in the process of releasing an arrow, and a sketch of the movement of the Sun, at two levels. The carved figures are distinctly visible.[3][10][18][7]

text: Agricultural practices were noted during the Periods I and II and crops grown were inferred as wheat, barley and lentil; finding lentils established a link of the Neolithic people with Central Asia, crossing over the Himalayas.[10]

text: The people who resided here were characterized as "long headed dolichocranic". Two female skulls, different from the male skulls, were also reported. The finds did not indicate of any external ethnic intrusions during the entire Neolithic period but showed more affinity to the Harappan people.[16]

text: Burzahom represents the southernmost extent of what is known as Northern Neolithic culture of Asia.

text: Period III[edit]

text: Some Megalithic Period Menhirs are next to Neolithic pits, suggesting a gradual transition between the two phases. The Menhirs, boulders formed due the varying temperatures, were brought down from the hills with great effort by the people and installed to mark notable events of the community. These are rough in shape, huge and of considerable weight and height, and are "free-standing". Craftsmanship was superior during this period with finds of wheel made durable hard red ware, copper objects, and tools made of bone and stone. Structures made of rubble were also found.[3][7][10] Finds of a few copper arrowheads indicated knowledge of metallurgy.[19][12]

text: Period IV[edit]

text: Period IV (dated to the 3rd–4th century AD), the last phase of human occupation at Burzahom, was related to the early Historical Period. The structures built were superior compared to the earlier period, and were made from mud-bricks. Pottery was also superior, of red ware type with slips and wheel turned. Some iron antiquaries were also found.[3]

text: Preservation[edit]

text: The site is maintained in the form that has been excavated, representing the natural setting of the Neolithic people. The exposed pits and the layout are well protected.[10]