document_title: Social justice

question_text: when was the term social justice first used

text: Social justice

text: History[edit]

text: The different concepts of justice, as discussed in ancient Western philosophy, were typically centered upon the community.

text:
Plato

Plato wrote in The Republic that it would be an ideal state that "every member of the community must be assigned to the class for which he finds himself best fitted."[19] In an article for J.N.V University, author D.R. Bhandari says, "Justice is, for Plato, at once a part of human virtue and the bond, which joins man together in society. It is the identical quality that makes good and social. Justice is an order and duty of the parts of the soul, it is to the soul as health is to the body. Plato says that justice is not mere strength, but it is a harmonious strength. Justice is not the right of the stronger but the effective harmony of the whole. All moral conceptions revolve about the good of the whole-individual as well as social".[20]

Aristotle

Aristotle believed rights existed only between free people, and the law should take "account in the first instance of relations of inequality in which individuals are treated in proportion to their worth and only secondarily of relations of equality." Reflecting this time when slavery and subjugation of women was typical, ancient views of justice tended to reflect the rigid class systems that still prevailed. On the other hand, for the privileged groups, strong concepts of fairness and the community existed. Distributive justice was said by Aristotle to require that people were distributed goods and assets according to their merit.[21]

Socrates

Socrates (through Plato's dialogue Crito) is attributed with developing the idea of a social contract, whereby people ought to follow the rules of a society, and accept its burdens because they have accepted its benefits.[22] During the Middle Ages, religious scholars particularly, such as Thomas Aquinas continued discussion of justice in various ways, but ultimately connected being a good citizen to the purpose of serving God.

text: After the Renaissance and Reformation, the modern concept of social justice, as developing human potential, began to emerge through the work of a series of authors. Baruch Spinoza in On the Improvement of the Understanding (1677) contended that the one true aim of life should be to acquire "a human character much more stable than [one's] own", and to achieve this "pitch of perfection... The chief good is that he should arrive, together with other individuals if possible, at the possession of the aforesaid character."[23] During the enlightenment and responding to the French and American Revolutions, Thomas Paine similarly wrote in The Rights of Man (1792) society should give "genius a fair and universal chance" and so "the construction of government ought to be such as to bring forward... all that extent of capacity which never fails to appear in revolutions."[24]

text: The first modern usage of the specific term "social justice" is typically attributed to Catholic thinkers from the 1840s, including the Jesuit Luigi Taparelli in Civiltà Cattolica, based on the work of St. Thomas Aquinas. He argued that rival capitalist and socialist theories, based on subjective Cartesian thinking, undermined the unity of society present in Thomistic metaphysics as neither were sufficiently concerned with moral philosophy. Writing in 1861, the influential British philosopher and economist, John Stuart Mill stated in Utilitarianism his view that "Society should treat all equally well who have deserved equally well of it, that is, who have deserved equally well absolutely. This is the highest abstract standard of social and distributive justice; towards which all institutions, and the efforts of all virtuous citizens, should be made in the utmost degree to converge."[25]

text: In the later 19th and early 20th century, social justice became an important theme in American political and legal philosophy, particularly in the work of John Dewey, Roscoe Pound and Louis Brandeis. One of the prime concerns was the Lochner era decisions of the US Supreme Court to strike down legislation passed by state governments and the Federal government for social and economic improvement, such as the eight-hour day or the right to join a trade union. After the First World War, the founding document of the International Labour Organization took up the same terminology in its preamble, stating that "peace can be established only if it is based on social justice". From this point, the discussion of social justice entered into mainstream legal and academic discourse. In the late 20th century, a number of liberal and conservative thinkers, notably Friedrich von Hayek rejected the concept by stating that it did not mean anything, or meant too many things.[26] However the concept remained highly influential, particularly with its promotion by philosophers such as John Rawls.

text: Contemporary theory[edit]

text: Philosophical perspectives[edit]

text: Cosmic values[edit]

text: Hunter Lewis' work promoting natural healthcare and sustainable economies advocates for conservation as a key premise in social justice. His manifesto on sustainability ties the continued thriving of human life to real conditions, the environment supporting that life, and associates injustice with the detrimental effects of unintended consequences of human actions. Quoting classical Greek thinkers like Epicurus on the good of pursuing happiness, Hunter also cites ornithologist, naturalist, and philosopher Alexander Skutch in his book Moral Foundations:

text: The common feature which unites the activities most consistently forbidden by the moral codes of civilized peoples is that by their very nature they cannot be both habitual and enduring, because they tend to destroy the conditions which make them possible.[27]

text: Pope Benedict XVI cites Teilhard de Chardin in a vision of the cosmos as a 'living host'[28] embracing an understanding of ecology that includes humanity's relationship to others, that pollution affects not just the natural world but interpersonal relations as well. Cosmic harmony, justice and peace are closely interrelated:

text: If you want to cultivate peace, protect creation.[29]

text: John Rawls[edit]

text: Political philosopher John Rawls draws on the utilitarian insights of Bentham and Mill, the social contract ideas of John Locke, and the categorical imperative ideas of Kant. His first statement of principle was made in A Theory of Justice where he proposed that, "Each person possesses an inviolability founded on justice that even the welfare of society as a whole cannot override. For this reason justice denies that the loss of freedom for some is made right by a greater good shared by others."[30] A deontological proposition that echoes Kant in framing the moral good of justice in absolutist terms. His views are definitively restated in Political Liberalism where society is seen "as a fair system of co-operation over time, from one generation to the next".[31]

text: All societies have a basic structure of social, economic, and political institutions, both formal and informal. In testing how well these elements fit and work together, Rawls based a key test of legitimacy on the theories of social contract. To determine whether any particular system of collectively enforced social arrangements is legitimate, he argued that one must look for agreement by the people who are subject to it, but not necessarily to an objective notion of justice based on coherent ideological grounding. Obviously, not every citizen can be asked to participate in a poll to determine his or her consent to every proposal in which some degree of coercion is involved, so one has to assume that all citizens are reasonable. Rawls constructed an argument for a two-stage process to determine a citizen's hypothetical agreement:

text:
The citizen agrees to be represented by X for certain purposes, and, to that extent, X holds these powers as a trustee for the citizen.
X agrees that enforcement in a particular social context is legitimate. The citizen, therefore, is bound by this decision because it is the function of the trustee to represent the citizen in this way.

text: This applies to one person who represents a small group (e.g., the organiser of a social event setting a dress code) as equally as it does to national governments, which are ultimate trustees, holding representative powers for the benefit of all citizens within their territorial boundaries. Governments that fail to provide for welfare of their citizens according to the principles of justice are not legitimate. To emphasise the general principle that justice should rise from the people and not be dictated by the law-making powers of governments, Rawls asserted that, "There is ... a general presumption against imposing legal and other restrictions on conduct without sufficient reason. But this presumption creates no special priority for any particular liberty."[32] This is support for an unranked set of liberties that reasonable citizens in all states should respect and uphold — to some extent, the list proposed by Rawls matches the normative human rights that have international recognition and direct enforcement in some nation states where the citizens need encouragement to act in a way that fixes a greater degree of equality of outcome. According to Rawls, the basic liberties that every good society should guarantee are:

text:
Freedom of thought;
Liberty of conscience as it affects social relationships on the grounds of religion, philosophy, and morality;
Political liberties (e.g., representative democratic institutions, freedom of speech and the press, and freedom of assembly);
Freedom of association;
Freedoms necessary for the liberty and integrity of the person (namely: freedom from slavery, freedom of movement and a reasonable degree of freedom to choose one's occupation); and
Rights and liberties covered by the rule of law.

text: Thomas Pogge[edit]

text: Thomas Pogge's arguments pertain to a standard of social justice that creates human rights deficits. He assigns responsibility to those who actively cooperate in designing or imposing the social institution, that the order is foreseeable as harming the global poor and is reasonably avoidable. Pogge argues that social institutions have a negative duty to not harm the poor.[33][34]

text: Pogge speaks of "institutional cosmopolitanism" and assigns responsibility to institutional schemes[35] for deficits of human rights. An example given is slavery and third parties. A third party should not recognize or enforce slavery. The institutional order should be held responsible only for deprivations of human rights that it establishes or authorizes. The current institutional design, he says, systematically harms developing economies by enabling corporate tax evasion,[36] illicit financial flows, corruption, trafficking of people and weapons. Joshua Cohen disputes his claims based on the fact that some poor countries have done well with the current institutional design.[37] Elizabeth Kahn argues that some of these responsibilities[vague] should apply globally.[38]

text: United Nations[edit]

text: The United Nations’ 2006 document Social Justice in an Open World: The Role of the United Nations, states that "Social justice may be broadly understood as the fair and compassionate distribution of the fruits of economic growth..."[39]:16

text: The term "social justice" was seen by the U.N. "as a substitute for the protection of human rights [and] first appeared in United Nations texts during the second half of the 1960s. At the initiative of the Soviet Union, and with the support of developing countries, the term was used in the Declaration on Social Progress and Development, adopted in 1969."[39]:52

text: The same document reports, "From the comprehensive global perspective shaped by the United Nations Charter and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, neglect of the pursuit of social justice in all its dimensions translates into de facto acceptance of a future marred by violence, repression and chaos."[39]:6 The report concludes, "Social justice is not possible without strong and coherent redistributive policies conceived and implemented by public agencies."[39]:16

text: The same UN document offers a concise history: "[T]he notion of social justice is relatively new. None of history’s great philosophers—not Plato or Aristotle, or Confucius or Averroes, or even Rousseau or Kant—saw the need to consider justice or the redress of injustices from a social perspective. The concept first surfaced in Western thought and political language in the wake of the industrial revolution and the parallel development of the socialist doctrine. It emerged as an expression of protest against what was perceived as the capitalist exploitation of labour and as a focal point for the development of measures to improve the human condition. It was born as a revolutionary slogan embodying the ideals of progress and fraternity. Following the revolutions that shook Europe in the mid-1800s, social justice became a rallying cry for progressive thinkers and political activists.... By the mid-twentieth century, the concept of social justice had become central to the ideologies and programmes of virtually all the leftist and centrist political parties around the world..."[39]:11–12

text: Religious perspectives[edit]

text: Hinduism[edit]

text: The present-day Jāti hierarchy is undergoing changes for a variety of reasons including 'social justice', which is a politically popular stance in democratic India. Institutionalized affirmative action has promoted this. The disparity and wide inequalities in social behaviour of the jātis – exclusive, endogamous communities centred on traditional occupations – has led to various reform movements in Hinduism. While legally outlawed, the caste system remains strong in practice.[40]

text: Islam[edit]

text: The Quran contains numerous references to elements of social justice. For example, one of Islam's Five Pillars is Zakāt, or alms-giving. Charity and assistance to the poor – concepts central to social justice – are and have historically been important parts of the Islamic faith.

text: In Muslim history, Islamic governance has often been associated with social justice. Establishment of social justice was one of the motivating factors of the Abbasid revolt against the Umayyads.[41] The Shi'a believe that the return of the Mahdi will herald in "the messianic age of justice" and the Mahdi along with the Isa (Jesus) will end plunder, torture, oppression and discrimination.[42]

text: For the Muslim Brotherhood the implementation of social justice would require the rejection of consumerism and communism. The Brotherhood strongly affirmed the right to private property as well as differences in personal wealth due to factors such as hard work. However, the Brotherhood held Muslims had an obligation to assist those Muslims in need. It held that zakat (alms-giving) was not voluntary charity, but rather the poor had the right to assistance from the more fortunate.[43] Most Islamic governments therefore enforce the zakat through taxes.

text: Though monetary donations are the most practiced way of zakat, Islam is deeply rooted in the tenets of volunteerism and social activism. Areas of one's communities which require assistance and beneficiaries must be a Muslim's foci if need be, rather than strictly her or his personal or superficial wants. For example, the ecological well-being of the planet (i.e.: animal rights, global warming, natural resources degradation); locally, nationally, globally, is a campaign to which every Muslim must adhere. Many Muslims practice this today by ensuring that they produce minimal waste, give to charity what they no longer need, and spend time in prayer and meditation upon the bounties of nature so as to more mindfully approach all that is provided by nature, and ultimately, Allah.[44] Other areas of society in need may be the safety and security of minority populations, i.e.: women or persons of color, children, the elderly, the developmentally or physically disabled, animals, et al.[44]

text: Judaism[edit]

text: In To Heal a Fractured World: The Ethics of Responsibility, Rabbi Jonathan Sacks states that social justice has a central place in Judaism. One of Judaism’s most distinctive and challenging ideas is its ethics of responsibility reflected in the concepts of simcha ("gladness" or "joy"), tzedakah ("the religious obligation to perform charity and philanthropic acts"), chesed ("deeds of kindness"), and tikkun olam ("repairing the world").[citation needed]

text: Christianity[edit]

text: Methodism[edit]

text: From its founding, Methodism was a Christian social justice movement. Under John Wesley's direction, Methodists became leaders in many social justice issues of the day, including the prison reform and abolition movements. Wesley himself was among the first to preach for slaves rights attracting significant opposition.[45][46][47]

text: Today, social justice plays a major role in the United Methodist Church. The Book of Discipline of the United Methodist Church says, "We hold governments responsible for the protection of the rights of the people to free and fair elections and to the freedoms of speech, religion, assembly, communications media, and petition for redress of grievances without fear of reprisal; to the right to privacy; and to the guarantee of the rights to adequate food, clothing, shelter, education, and health care."[48] The United Methodist Church also teaches population control as part of its doctrine.[49]

text: Catholicism[edit]

text: Catholic social teaching consists of those aspects of Roman Catholic doctrine which relate to matters dealing with the respect of the individual human life. A distinctive feature of Catholic social doctrine is its concern for the poorest and most vulnerable members of society. Two of the seven key areas[50] of "Catholic social teaching" are pertinent to social justice:

text:
Life and dignity of the human person: The foundational principle of all "Catholic Social Teaching" is the sanctity of all human life and the inherent dignity of every human person, from conception to natural death. Human life must be valued above all material possessions.
Preferential option for the poor and vulnerable: Catholics believe Jesus taught that on the Day of Judgement God will ask what each person did to help the poor and needy: "Amen, I say to you, whatever you did for one of these least brothers of mine, you did for me."[51] The Catholic Church believes that through words, prayers and deeds one must show solidarity with, and compassion for, the poor. The moral test of any society is "how it treats its most vulnerable members. The poor have the most urgent moral claim on the conscience of the nation. People are called to look at public policy decisions in terms of how they affect the poor."[52]

text: Even before it was propounded in the Catholic social doctrine, social justice appeared regularly in the history of the Catholic Church:

text:
Pope Leo XIII, who studied under Taparelli, published in 1891 the encyclical Rerum novarum (On the Condition of the Working Classes; lit. "On new things"), rejecting both socialism and capitalism, while defending labor unions and private property. He stated that society should be based on cooperation and not class conflict and competition. In this document, Leo set out the Catholic Church's response to the social instability and labor conflict that had arisen in the wake of industrialization and had led to the rise of socialism. The Pope advocated that the role of the State was to promote social justice through the protection of rights, while the Church must speak out on social issues in order to teach correct social principles and ensure class harmony.
The encyclical Quadragesimo anno (On Reconstruction of the Social Order, literally "in the fortieth year") of 1931 by Pope Pius XI, encourages a living wage,[53] subsidiarity, and advocates that social justice is a personal virtue as well as an attribute of the social order, saying that society can be just only if individuals and institutions are just.
Pope John Paul II added much to the corpus of the Catholic social teaching, penning three encyclicals which focus on issues such as economics, politics, geo-political situations, ownership of the means of production, private property and the "social mortgage", and private property. The encyclicals Laborem exercens, Sollicitudo rei socialis, and Centesimus annus are just a small portion of his overall contribution to Catholic social justice. Pope John Paul II was a strong advocate of justice and human rights, and spoke forcefully for the poor. He addresses issues such as the problems that technology can present should it be misused, and admits a fear that the "progress" of the world is not true progress at all, if it should denigrate the value of the human person. He argued in Centesimus annus that private property, markets, and honest labor were the keys to alleviating the miseries of the poor and to enabling a life that can express the fullness of the human person.
Pope Benedict XVI's encyclical Deus caritas est ("God is Love") of 2006 claims that justice is the defining concern of the state and the central concern of politics, and not of the church, which has charity as its central social concern. It said that the laity has the specific responsibility of pursuing social justice in civil society and that the church's active role in social justice should be to inform the debate, using reason and natural law, and also by providing moral and spiritual formation for those involved in politics.
The official Catholic doctrine on social justice can be found in the book Compendium of the Social Doctrine of the Church, published in 2004 and updated in 2006, by the Pontifical Council Iustitia et Pax.

text: The Catechism (§ 1928–1948) contain more detail of the Church's view of social justice.[54]

text: Criticism[edit]

text: Many authors criticize the idea that there exists an objective standard of social justice. Moral relativists deny that there is any kind of objective standard for justice in general. Non-cognitivists, moral skeptics, moral nihilists, and most logical positivists deny the epistemic possibility of objective notions of justice. Political realists believe that any ideal of social justice is ultimately a mere justification for the status quo.[citation needed]

text: Many other people accept some of the basic principles of social justice, such as the idea that all human beings have a basic level of value, but disagree with the elaborate conclusions that may or may not follow from this. One example is the statement by H. G. Wells that all people are "equally entitled to the respect of their fellowmen."[55]

text: On the other hand, some scholars reject the very idea of social justice as meaningless, religious, self-contradictory, and ideological, believing that to realize any degree of social justice is unfeasible, and that the attempt to do so must destroy all liberty. Perhaps the most complete rejection of the concept of social justice comes from Friedrich Hayek of the Austrian School of economics:

text: There can be no test by which we can discover what is 'socially unjust' because there is no subject by which such an injustice can be committed, and there are no rules of individual conduct the observance of which in the market order would secure to the individuals and groups the position which as such (as distinguished from the procedure by which it is determined) would appear just to us. [Social justice] does not belong to the category of error but to that of nonsense, like the term 'a moral stone'.[56]

text: Ben O'Neill of the University of New South Wales argues that, for proponents of "social justice":[57]

text: the notion of "rights" is a mere term of entitlement, indicative of a claim for any possible desirable good, no matter how important or trivial, abstract or tangible, recent or ancient. It is merely an assertion of desire, and a declaration of intention to use the language of rights to acquire said desire.

text: In fact, since the program of social justice inevitably involves claims for government provision of goods, paid for through the efforts of others, the term actually refers to an intention to use force to acquire one's desires. Not to earn desirable goods by rational thought and action, production and voluntary exchange, but to go in there and forcibly take goods from those who can supply them!

text: Janusz Korwin-Mikke states, "Either 'social justice' has the same meaning as 'justice' – or not. If so – why use the additional word 'social?' We lose time, we destroy trees to obtain paper necessary to print this word. If not, if 'social justice' means something different from 'justice' – then 'something different from justice' is by definition 'injustice.'"[58]

text: Sociologist Carl L. Bankston has argued that a secular, leftist view of social justice entails viewing the redistribution of goods and resources as based on the rights of disadvantaged categories of people, rather than on compassion or national interest. Bankston maintains that this secular version of social justice became widely accepted due to the rise of demand-side economics and to the moral influence of the civil rights movement.[59]

text: Social justice movements[edit]

text:
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text: Social justice is also a concept that is used to describe the movement towards a socially just world, e.g., the Global Justice Movement. In this context, social justice is based on the concepts of human rights and equality, and can be defined as "the way in which human rights are manifested in the everyday lives of people at every level of society".[60]

text: A number of movements are working to achieve social justice in society. These movements are working towards the realization of a world where all members of a society, regardless of background or procedural justice, have basic human rights and equal access to the benefits of their society.[61]

text: Liberation theology[edit]

text: Liberation theology[62] is a movement in Christian theology which conveys the teachings of Jesus Christ in terms of a liberation from unjust economic, political, or social conditions. It has been described by proponents as "an interpretation of Christian faith through the poor's suffering, their struggle and hope, and a critique of society and the Catholic faith and Christianity through the eyes of the poor",[63] and by detractors as Christianity perverted by Marxism and Communism.[64]

text: Although liberation theology has grown into an international and inter-denominational movement, it began as a movement within the Catholic Church in Latin America in the 1950s–1960s. It arose principally as a moral reaction to the poverty caused by social injustice in that region.[65] It achieved prominence in the 1970s and 1980s. The term was coined by the Peruvian priest, Gustavo Gutiérrez, who wrote one of the movement's most famous books, A Theology of Liberation (1971). According to Sarah Kleeb, "Marx would surely take issue," she writes, "with the appropriation of his works in a religious context...there is no way to reconcile Marx's views of religion with those of Gutierrez, they are simply incompatible. Despite this, in terms of their understanding of the necessity of a just and righteous world, and the nearly inevitable obstructions along such a path, the two have much in common; and, particularly in the first edition of [A Theology of Liberation], the use of Marxian theory is quite evident."[66]

text: Other noted exponents are Leonardo Boff of Brazil, Carlos Mugica of Argentina, Jon Sobrino of El Salvador, and Juan Luis Segundo of Uruguay.[67][68]

text: Health care[edit]

text: Social justice has more recently made its way into the field of bioethics. Discussion involves topics such as affordable access to health care, especially for low income households and families. The discussion also raises questions such as whether society should bear healthcare costs for low income families, and whether the global marketplace is the best way to distribute healthcare. Ruth Faden of the Johns Hopkins Berman Institute of Bioethics and Madison Powers of Georgetown University focus their analysis of social justice on which inequalities matter the most. They develop a social justice theory that answers some of these questions in concrete settings.

text: Social injustices occur when there is a preventable difference in health states among a population of people. These social injustices take the form of health inequities when negative health states such as malnourishment, and infectious diseases are more prevalent in impoverished nations.[69] These negative health states can often be prevented by providing social and economic structures such as primary healthcare which ensures the general population has equal access to health care services regardless of income level, gender, education or any other stratifying factors. Integrating social justice with health inherently reflects the social determinants of health model without discounting the role of the bio-medical model.[70]

text: Human rights education[edit]

text: The Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action affirm that "Human rights education should include peace, democracy, development and social justice, as set forth in international and regional human rights instruments, in order to achieve common understanding and awareness with a view to strengthening universal commitment to human rights."[71]


document_title: The Star-Spangled Banner

question_text: when did it become law to stand for the national anthem

root

text: The Star-Spangled Banner

text: Early history[edit]

text: Francis Scott Key's lyrics[edit]

text: On September 3, 1814, following the Burning of Washington and the Raid on Alexandria, Francis Scott Key and John Stuart Skinner set sail from Baltimore aboard the ship HMS Minden, flying a flag of truce on a mission approved by President James Madison. Their objective was to secure an exchange of prisoners, one of whom was Dr. William Beanes, the elderly and popular town physician of Upper Marlboro and a friend of Key's who had been captured in his home. Beanes was accused of aiding the arrest of British soldiers. Key and Skinner boarded the British flagship HMS Tonnant on September 7 and spoke with Major General Robert Ross and Vice Admiral Alexander Cochrane over dinner while the two officers discussed war plans. At first, Ross and Cochrane refused to release Beanes, but relented after Key and Skinner showed them letters written by wounded British prisoners praising Beanes and other Americans for their kind treatment.

tag: p

text: Because Key and Skinner had heard details of the plans for the attack on Baltimore, they were held captive until after the battle, first aboard HMS Surprise and later back on HMS Minden. After the bombardment, certain British gunboats attempted to slip past the fort and effect a landing in a cove to the west of it, but they were turned away by fire from nearby Fort Covington, the city's last line of defense.

text: During the rainy night, Key had witnessed the bombardment and observed that the fort's smaller "storm flag" continued to fly, but once the shell and Congreve rocket[5] barrage had stopped, he would not know how the battle had turned out until dawn. On the morning of September 14, the storm flag had been lowered and the larger flag had been raised.

text: During the bombardment, HMS Terror and HMS Meteor provided some of the "bombs bursting in air".

text: Key was inspired by the American victory and the sight of the large American flag flying triumphantly above the fort. This flag, with fifteen stars and fifteen stripes, had been made by Mary Young Pickersgill together with other workers in her home on Baltimore's Pratt Street. The flag later came to be known as the Star-Spangled Banner and is today on display in the National Museum of American History, a treasure of the Smithsonian Institution. It was restored in 1914 by Amelia Fowler, and again in 1998 as part of an ongoing conservation program.

text: Aboard the ship the next day, Key wrote a poem on the back of a letter he had kept in his pocket. At twilight on September 16, he and Skinner were released in Baltimore. He completed the poem at the Indian Queen Hotel, where he was staying, and titled it "Defence of Fort M'Henry".

text: Much of the idea of the poem, including the flag imagery and some of the wording, is derived from an earlier song by Key, also set to the tune of "The Anacreontic Song". The song, known as "When the Warrior Returns",[6] was written in honor of Stephen Decatur and Charles Stewart on their return from the First Barbary War.  Absent elaboration by Francis Scott Key prior to his death in 1843, some have speculated in modern times about the meaning of phrases or verses. According to British historian Robin Blackburn, the words "the hireling and slave" allude to the thousands of ex-slaves in the British ranks organised as the Corps of Colonial Marines, who had been liberated by the British and demanded to be placed in the battle line "where they might expect to meet their former masters."[7] Nevertheless, Professor Mark Clague, a professor of musicology at the University of Michigan, argues that the "middle two verses of Key's lyric vilify the British enemy in the War of 1812" and "in no way glorifies or celebrates slavery."[8] Clague writes that "For Key ... the British mercenaries were scoundrels and the Colonial Marines were traitors who threatened to spark a national insurrection."[8] This harshly anti-British nature of Verse 3 led to its omission in sheet music in World War I, when Britain and the U.S. were allies.[8] Responding to the assertion of writer Jon Schwarz of The Intercept that the song is a "celebration of slavery,"[9] Clague said that: "The reference to slaves is about the use, and in some sense the manipulation, of black Americans to fight for the British, with the promise of freedom. The American forces included African-Americans as well as whites. The term 'freemen,' whose heroism is celebrated in the fourth stanza, would have encompassed both."[10]

text: Others suggest that "Key may have intended the phrase as a reference to the British Navy’s practice of impressment (kidnapping sailors and forcing them to fight in defense of the crown), or as a semi-metaphorical slap at the British invading force as a whole (which included a large number of mercenaries)."[11]

text: John Stafford Smith's music[edit]

text: Key gave the poem to his brother-in-law Judge Joseph H. Nicholson who saw that the words fit the popular melody "The Anacreontic Song", by English composer John Stafford Smith. This was the official song of the Anacreontic Society, an 18th-century gentlemen's club of amateur musicians in London. Nicholson took the poem to a printer in Baltimore, who anonymously made the first known broadside printing on September 17; of these, two known copies survive.

text: On September 20, both the Baltimore Patriot and The American printed the song, with the note "Tune: Anacreon in Heaven". The song quickly became popular, with seventeen newspapers from Georgia to New Hampshire printing it. Soon after, Thomas Carr of the Carr Music Store in Baltimore published the words and music together under the title "The Star Spangled Banner", although it was originally called "Defence of Fort M'Henry". Thomas Carr's arrangement introduced the raised fourth which became the standard deviation from "The Anacreontic Song".[12] The song's popularity increased, and its first public performance took place in October, when Baltimore actor Ferdinand Durang sang it at Captain McCauley's tavern. Washington Irving, then editor of the Analectic Magazine in Philadelphia, reprinted the song in November 1814.

text: By the early 20th century, there were various versions of the song in popular use. Seeking a singular, standard version, President Woodrow Wilson tasked the U.S. Bureau of Education with providing that official version. In response, the Bureau enlisted the help of five musicians to agree upon an arrangement. Those musicians were Walter Damrosch, Will Earhart, Arnold J. Gantvoort, Oscar Sonneck and John Philip Sousa. The standardized version that was voted upon by these five musicians premiered at Carnegie Hall on December 5, 1917, in a program that included Edward Elgar's Carillon and Gabriel Pierné's The Children's Crusade. The concert was put on by the Oratorio Society of New York and conducted by Walter Damrosch.[13] An official handwritten version of the final votes of these five men has been found and shows all five men's votes tallied, measure by measure.[14]

text: National anthem[edit]

text: The song gained popularity throughout the 19th century and bands played it during public events, such as July 4th celebrations.

text: A plaque displayed at Fort Meade, South Dakota, claims that the idea of making "The Star Spangled Banner" the national anthem began on their parade ground in 1892. Colonel Caleb Carlton, Post Commander, established the tradition that the song be played "at retreat and at the close of parades and concerts." Carlton explained the custom to Governor Sheldon of South Dakota who "promised me that he would try to have the custom established among the state militia." Carlton wrote that after a similar discussion, Secretary of War, Daniel E. Lamont issued an order that it "be played at every Army post every evening at retreat." [15]

text: In 1899, the US Navy officially adopted "The Star-Spangled Banner".[16] In 1916, President Woodrow Wilson ordered that "The Star-Spangled Banner" be played at military[16] and other appropriate occasions. The playing of the song two years later during the seventh-inning stretch of Game One of the 1918 World Series, and thereafter during each game of the series is often cited as the first instance that the anthem was played at a baseball game,[17] though evidence shows that the "Star-Spangled Banner" was performed as early as 1897 at opening day ceremonies in Philadelphia and then more regularly at the Polo Grounds in New York City beginning in 1898. In any case, the tradition of performing the national anthem before every baseball game began in World War II.[18]

text: On April 10, 1918, John Charles Linthicum, U.S. Congressman from Maryland, introduced a bill to officially recognize "The Star-Spangled Banner" as the national anthem.[19] The bill did not pass.[19] On April 15, 1929, Linthicum introduced the bill again, his sixth time doing so.[19] On November 3, 1929, Robert Ripley drew a panel in his syndicated cartoon, Ripley's Believe it or Not!, saying "Believe It or Not, America has no national anthem".[20]

text: In 1930, Veterans of Foreign Wars started a petition for the United States to officially recognize "The Star-Spangled Banner" as the national anthem.[21] Five million people signed the petition.[21] The petition was presented to the United States House Committee on the Judiciary on January 31, 1930.[22] On the same day, Elsie Jorss-Reilley and Grace Evelyn Boudlin sang the song to the Committee to refute the perception that it was too high pitched for a typical person to sing.[23] The Committee voted in favor of sending the bill to the House floor for a vote.[24] The House of Representatives passed the bill later that year.[25] The Senate passed the bill on March 3, 1931.[25] President Herbert Hoover signed the bill on March 4, 1931, officially adopting "The Star-Spangled Banner" as the national anthem of the United States of America.[1] As currently codified, the United States Code states that "[t]he composition consisting of the words and music known as the Star-Spangled Banner is the national anthem."[26]

text: Modern history[edit]

text: Performances[edit]

text: This section may contain indiscriminate, excessive, or irrelevant examples. Please improve the article by adding more descriptive text and removing less pertinent examples. See Wikipedia's guide to writing better articles for further suggestions. (November 2012)

tag: table

text: The song is notoriously difficult for nonprofessionals to sing because of its wide range – a 12th. Humorist Richard Armour referred to the song's difficulty in his book It All Started With Columbus.

text: In an attempt to take Baltimore, the British attacked Fort McHenry, which protected the harbor. Bombs were soon bursting in air, rockets were glaring, and all in all it was a moment of great historical interest. During the bombardment, a young lawyer named Francis Off Key [sic] wrote "The Star-Spangled Banner", and when, by the dawn's early light, the British heard it sung, they fled in terror.

text: Professional and amateur singers have been known to forget the words, which is one reason the song is sometimes pre-recorded and lip-synced.[citation needed] Other times the issue is avoided by having the performer(s) play the anthem instrumentally instead of singing it. The pre-recording of the anthem has become standard practice at some ballparks, such as Boston's Fenway Park, according to the SABR publication The Fenway Project.[27]

text: "The Star-Spangled Banner" is traditionally played at the beginning of public sports events and orchestral concerts in the United States, as well as other public gatherings. The National Hockey League and Major League Soccer both require venues in both the U.S. and Canada to perform both the Canadian and American national anthems at games that involve teams from both countries (with the "away" anthem being performed first) .[28][better source needed] It is also usual for both American and Canadian anthems (done in the same way as the NHL and MLS) to be played at Major League Baseball and National Basketball Association games involving the Toronto Blue Jays and the Toronto Raptors (respectively), the only Canadian teams in those two major U.S. sports leagues, and in All Star Games on the MLB, NBA, and NHL. The Buffalo Sabres of the NHL, which play in a city on the Canada–US border and have a substantial Canadian fan base, play both anthems before all home games regardless of where the visiting team is based.[29]

text: Two especially unusual performances of the song took place in the immediate aftermath of the United States September 11 attacks. On September 12, 2001, the Queen broke with tradition and allowed the Band of the Coldstream Guards to perform the anthem at Buckingham Palace, London, at the ceremonial Changing of the Guard, as a gesture of support for Britain's ally.[30] The following day at a St. Paul's Cathedral memorial service, the Queen joined in the singing of the anthem, an unprecedented occurrence.[31]

text: 200th anniversary celebrations[edit]

text: The 200th anniversary of the "Star-Spangled Banner" occurred in 2014 with various special events occurring throughout the United States. A particularly significant celebration occurred during the week of September 10–16 in and around Baltimore, Maryland. Highlights included playing of a new arrangement of the anthem arranged by John Williams and participation of President Obama on Defender's Day, September 12, 2014, at Fort McHenry.[32] In addition, the anthem bicentennial included a youth music celebration[33] including the presentation of the National Anthem Bicentennial Youth Challenge winning composition written by Noah Altshuler.

text: Adaptations[edit]

text: The first popular music performance of the anthem heard by the mainstream U.S. was by Puerto Rican singer and guitarist José Feliciano. He created a nationwide uproar when he strummed a slow, blues-style rendition of the song[34] at Tiger Stadium in Detroit before game five of the 1968 World Series, between Detroit and St. Louis.[35] This rendition started contemporary "Star-Spangled Banner" controversies. The response from many in the Vietnam War-era U.S. was generally negative. Despite the controversy, Feliciano's performance opened the door for the countless interpretations of the "Star-Spangled Banner" heard in the years since.[36] One week after Feliciano's performance, the anthem was in the news again when American athletes Tommie Smith and John Carlos lifted controversial raised fists at the 1968 Olympics while the "Star-Spangled Banner" played at a medal ceremony.

text: Marvin Gaye gave a soul-influenced performance at the 1983 NBA All-Star Game and Whitney Houston gave a soulful rendition before Super Bowl XXV in 1991, which was released as a single that charted at number 20 in 1991 and number 6 in 2001 (along with José Feliciano, the only times the anthem has been on the Billboard Hot 100). In 1993, Kiss did an instrumental rock version as the closing track on their album, Alive III. Another famous instrumental interpretation is Jimi Hendrix's version, which was a set-list staple from autumn 1968 until his death in September 1970, including a famous rendition at the Woodstock music festival in 1969. Incorporating sonic effects to emphasize the "rockets' red glare", and "bombs bursting in air", it became a late-1960s emblem. Roseanne Barr gave a controversial performance of the anthem at a San Diego Padres baseball game at Jack Murphy Stadium on July 25, 1990. The comedian belted out a screechy rendition of the song, and afterward she attempted a gesture of ball players by spitting and grabbing her crotch as if adjusting a protective cup. The performance offended some, including the sitting U.S. President, George H. W. Bush.[37] Sufjan Stevens has frequently performed the "Star-Spangled Banner" in live sets, replacing the optimism in the end of the first verse with a new coda that alludes to the divisive state of the nation today. David Lee Roth both referenced parts of the anthem and played part of a hard rock rendition of the anthem on his song, "Yankee Rose" on his 1986 solo album, Eat 'Em and Smile. Steven Tyler also caused some controversy in 2001 (at the Indianapolis 500, to which he later issued a public apology) and again in 2012 (at the AFC Championship Game) with a cappella renditions of the song with changed lyrics.[38] A version of Aerosmith's Joe Perry and Brad Whitford playing part of the song can be heard at the end of their version of "Train Kept A-Rollin'" on the Rockin' the Joint album. The band Boston gave an instrumental rock rendition of the anthem on their Greatest Hits album. The band Crush 40 made a version of the song as opening track from the album Thrill of the Feel (2000).

text: In March 2005, a government-sponsored program, the National Anthem Project, was launched after a Harris Interactive poll showed many adults knew neither the lyrics nor the history of the anthem.[39]

text: Lyrics[edit]

text:
O say can you see, by the dawn's early light,
What so proudly we hailed at the twilight's last gleaming,
Whose broad stripes and bright stars through the perilous fight,
O'er the ramparts we watched, were so gallantly streaming?
And the rockets' red glare, the bombs bursting in air,
Gave proof through the night that our flag was still there;
O say does that star-spangled banner yet wave
O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave?

On the shore dimly seen through the mists of the deep,
Where the foe's haughty host in dread silence reposes,
What is that which the breeze, o'er the towering steep,
As it fitfully blows, half conceals, half discloses?
Now it catches the gleam of the morning's first beam,
In full glory reflected now shines in the stream:
'Tis the star-spangled banner, O long may it wave
O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave.

And where is that band who so vauntingly swore
That the havoc of war and the battle's confusion,
A home and a country, should leave us no more?
Their blood has washed out their foul footsteps' pollution.
No refuge could save the hireling and slave
From the terror of flight, or the gloom of the grave:
And the star-spangled banner in triumph doth wave,
O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave.

O thus be it ever, when freemen shall stand
Between their loved homes and the war's desolation.
Blest with vict'ry and peace, may the Heav'n rescued land
Praise the Power that hath made and preserved us a nation!
Then conquer we must, when our cause it is just,
And this be our motto: 'In God is our trust.'
And the star-spangled banner in triumph shall wave
O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave![40]

text: Additional Civil War period lyrics[edit]

text: In indignation over the start of the American Civil War, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr.[41] added a fifth stanza to the song in 1861, which appeared in songbooks of the era.[42]

text:
When our land is illumined with Liberty's smile,
If a foe from within strike a blow at her glory,
Down, down with the traitor that dares to defile
The flag of her stars and the page of her story!
By the millions unchained who our birthright have gained,
We will keep her bright blazon forever unstained!
And the Star-Spangled Banner in triumph shall wave
While the land of the free is the home of the brave.

text: Alternative lyrics[edit]

text: In a version hand-written by Francis Scott Key in 1840, the third line reads "Whose bright stars and broad stripes, through the clouds of the fight".[43]

text: References in film, television, literature[edit]

text: Several films have their titles taken from the song's lyrics. These include two films titled Dawn's Early Light (2000[44] and 2005);[45] two made-for-TV features titled By Dawn's Early Light (1990[46] and 2000);[47] two films titled So Proudly We Hail (1943[48] and 1990);[49] a feature (1977)[50] and a short (2005)[51] titled Twilight's Last Gleaming; and four films titled Home of the Brave (1949,[52] 1986,[53] 2004,[54] and 2006).[55] A 1936 short titled "The Song of a Nation" from Warner Brothers shows a version of the origin of the song. [56]

text: Customs and federal law[edit]

text: When the National Anthem was first recognized by law in 1932, there was no prescription as to behavior during its playing. On June 22, 1942, the law was revised indicating that those in uniform should salute during its playing, while others should simply stand at attention, men removing their hats. (The same code also required that women should place their hands over their hearts when the flag is displayed during the playing of the Anthem, but not if the flag was not present.) On December 23, 1942 the law was again revised instructing men and women to stand at attention and face in the direction of the music when it was played. That revision also directed men and women to place their hands over their hearts only if the flag was displayed. Those in uniform were required to salute. On July 7, 1976, the law was simplified. Men and women were instructed to stand with their hands over their hearts, men removing their hats, irrespective of whether or not the flag was displayed and those in uniform saluting. On August 12, 1998, the law was rewritten keeping the same instructions, but differentiating between "those in uniform" and "members of the Armed Forces and veterans" who were both instructed to salute during the playing whether or not the flag was displayed. Because of the changes in law over the years and confusion between instructions for the Pledge of Allegence versus the National Anthem, throughout most of the 20th century many people simply stood at attention or with their hands folded in front of them during the playing of the Anthem, and when reciting the Pledge they would hold their hand (or hat) over their heart. After 9/11, the custom of placing the hand over the heart during the playing of the Anthem became nearly universal. [57][58][59]

text: Since 1998, federal law (viz., the United States Code 36 U.S.C. § 301) states that during a rendition of the national anthem, when the flag is displayed, all present including those in uniform should stand at attention; Non-military service individuals should face the flag with the right hand over the heart; Members of the Armed Forces and veterans who are present and not in uniform may render the military salute; Military service persons not in uniform should remove their headdress with their right hand and hold the headdress at the left shoulder, the hand being over the heart; and Members of the Armed Forces and veterans who are in uniform should give the military salute at the first note of the anthem and maintain that position until the last note. The law further provides that when the flag is not displayed, all present should face toward the music and act in the same manner they would if the flag were displayed. Military law requires all vehicles on the installation to stop when the song is played and all individuals outside to stand at attention and face the direction of the music and either salute, in uniform, or place the right hand over the heart, if out of uniform. The law was amended in 2008, and since allows military veterans to salute out of uniform, as well.[60][61]

text: The text of 36 U.S.C. § 301 is suggestive and not regulatory in nature. Failure to follow the suggestions is not a violation of law. This behavioral requirement for the national anthem is subject to the same First Amendment controversies that surround the Pledge of Allegiance.[62] For example, Jehovah's Witnesses do not sing the national anthem, though they are taught that standing is an "ethical decision" that individual believers must make based on their "conscience."[63][64][65]

text: Protests[edit]

text: 1968 Olympics Black Power Salute[edit]

text: The 1968 Olympics Black Power salute was a political demonstration conducted by African-American athletes Tommie Smith and John Carlos during their medal ceremony at the 1968 Summer Olympics in the Olympic Stadium in Mexico City. After having won gold and bronze medals respectively in the 200 meter running event, they turned on the podium to face their flags, and to hear the American national anthem, "The Star-Spangled Banner". Each athlete raised a black-gloved fist, and kept them raised until the anthem had finished. In addition, Smith, Carlos, and Australian silver medalist Peter Norman all wore human rights badges on their jackets. In his autobiography, Silent Gesture, Smith stated that the gesture was not a "Black Power" salute, but a "human rights salute". The event is regarded as one of the most overtly political statements in the history of the modern Olympic Games.[66]

text: 2016 protests[edit]

text: Politically motivated protests of the national anthem began in the National Football League (NFL) after San Francisco 49ers quarterback (QB) Colin Kaepernick sat during the anthem, as opposed to the tradition of standing, before his team's third preseason game of 2016. Kaepernick also sat during the first two preseason games, but he went unnoticed.[67]

text: NAACP call to remove the national anthem[edit]

text: In November 2017, the California Chapter of the NAACP called on Congress to remove The Star-Spangled Banner as the national anthem. Alice Huffman, California NAACP president said “it’s racist; it doesn’t represent our community, it’s anti-black.”[68] The third stanza of the anthem, which is rarely sung and few know, contains the words, "No refuge could save the hireling and slave, From the terror of flight, or the gloom of the grave:", which some interpret as racist. The organization was still seeking a representative to sponsor the legislation in Congress at the time of their announcement.

text: Translations[edit]

text: As a result of immigration to the United States and the incorporation of non-English speaking people into the country, the lyrics of the song have been translated into other languages. In 1861, it was translated into German.[69] The Library of Congress also has record of a Spanish-language version from 1919.[70] It has since been translated into Hebrew[71] and Yiddish by Jewish immigrants,[72] Latin American Spanish (with one version popularized during immigration reform protests in 2006),[73] French by Acadians of Louisiana,[74] Samoan,[75] and Irish.[76] The third verse of the anthem has also been translated into Latin.[77]

text: With regard to the indigenous languages of North America, there are versions in Navajo[78][79][80] and Cherokee.[81]

text: Media[edit]

text:
The Star-Spangled Banner (1915)

A 1915 recording of the Star-Spangled Banner as sung by Margaret Woodrow Wilson, daughter of Woodrow Wilson

The Star-Spangled Banner (1942)

Fred Waring and His Pennsylvanians sing The Star-Spangled Banner in 1942

The Star-Spangled Banner (1953)

A 1953 instrumental recording by the United States Marine Corps band

The Star Spangled Banner (circa 2000)

An instrumental recording by the United States Navy Band.

Problems playing these files? See media help.

text:
Play media

(1944)

Play media

(1940)


document_title: List of top international association football goal scorers by country

question_text: who has the most international goals of all time

text: List of players[edit]

text:
#
Country
Name
International goals
Caps
Goals per match
Ref

1
 Iran
Ali Daei
109
149
0.73
[1]

2
 Hungary
Ferenc Puskás
84
89
0.94
[2]

3
 Portugal
Cristiano Ronaldo
81
149
0.54
[3]

4
 Japan
Kunishige Kamamoto
80
84
0.95
[4][5]

5
 Zambia
Godfrey Chitalu
79
111
0.71
[6]

6
 Iraq
Hussein Saeed
78
137
0.57
[7]

7
 Brazil
Pelé
77
92
0.84
[8][9]

8
 Kuwait
Bashar Abdullah
75
133
0.56
[10]

9
 Malawi
Kinnah Phiri
71
115
0.61
[11]

 Saudi Arabia
Majed Abdullah
71
116
0.60
[12]

 Thailand
Kiatisuk Senamuang
71
134
0.53
[13]

 Germany
Miroslav Klose
71
137
0.52
[14]

13
 Trinidad and Tobago
John, SternStern John
70
115
0.61
[15]

 Egypt
Hassan, HossamHossam Hassan
70
178
0.38
[16]

15
 Guatemala
Ruiz, CarlosCarlos Ruiz
68
132
0.52
[17]

 Republic of Ireland
Keane, RobbieRobbie Keane
68
146
0.46
[18]

17
 Ivory Coast
Drogba, DidierDidier Drogba
65
105
0.62
[19]

18
 Sweden
Ibrahimović, ZlatanZlatan Ibrahimović
62
116
0.53
[20]

19
 Argentina
Messi, LionelLionel Messi
61
123
0.50
[21]

20
 Spain
Villa, DavidDavid Villa
59
98
0.61
[22]

21
 South Korea
Cha Bum-kun
58
134
0.43
[23]

22
 Honduras
Pavón, CarlosCarlos Pavón
57
101
0.56
[24]

 United States
Dempsey, ClintClint Dempsey / Landon Donovan
57 / 57
141 / 157
0.40 / 0.36
[25]

24
 India
Chhetri, SunilSunil Chhetri
56
97
0.58
[26]

 Cameroon
Eto'o, SamuelSamuel Eto'o
56
118
0.48
[27]

26
 Czech Republic
Koller, JanJan Koller
55
91
0.60
[28]

 Singapore
Ahmad, FandiFandi Ahmad
55
101
0.54
[29]

 East Germany
Streich, JoachimJoachim Streich
55
102
0.54
[30]

29
 England
Rooney, WayneWayne Rooney
53
119
0.44

[31]

30
 Denmark
Poul Nielsen / Jon Dahl Tomasson
52 / 52
38 / 112
1.37 / 0.46
[32][33]

 Maldives
Ashfaq, AliAli Ashfaq
52
78
0.65
[34]

 Bosnia and Herzegovina
Džeko, EdinEdin Džeko
52
89
0.60
[35]

 Poland
Robert Lewandowski
52
93
0.56
[36]

 United Arab Emirates
Talyani, Adnan AlAdnan Al Talyani
52
161
0.32
[37].

35
 Vietnam
Vinh, Lê CôngLê Công Vinh
51
83
0.61
[38]

 Ghana
Asamoah Gyan
51
106
0.49
[39]

 Turkey
Şükür, HakanHakan Şükür
51
112
0.46
[40]

 France
Henry, ThierryThierry Henry
51
123
0.41
[41]

39
 Uruguay
Suárez, LuisLuis Suárez
50
97
0.52
[42][43]

 Philippines
Younghusband, PhilPhil Younghusband
50
97
0.52
[44]

 Netherlands
Persie, Robin vanRobin van Persie
50
102
0.49
[38]

 Australia
Cahill, TimTim Cahill
50
104
0.49
[45]

43
 Mexico
Hernández, JavierJavier Hernández
49
101
0.48
[46]

44
 Bulgaria
Dimitar Berbatov / Hristo Bonev
48 / 48
78 / 96
0.62 / 0.50
[47]

 Ukraine
Andriy Shevchenko
48
111
0.43
[48]

46
 Costa Rica
Fonseca, RolandoRolando Fonseca
47
113
0.42
[49]

47
 Croatia
Šuker, DavorDavor Šuker
45
69
0.65
[50]

48
 Austria
Polster, ToniToni Polster
44
95
0.46
[51]

49
 Oman
Al-Dhabit, HaniHani Al-Dhabit
43
102
0.42
[52]

 Panama
Tejada, LuisLuis Tejada
43
105
0.41
[53]

51
 Morocco
Faras, AhmedAhmed Faras
42
77
0.55
[54]

 Antigua and Barbuda
Peter Byers
42
82
0.52
[55]

  Switzerland
Frei, AlexanderAlexander Frei
42
84
0.50
[56]

 Soviet Union
Blokhin, OlehOleh Blokhin
42
112
0.38
[57]

55
 China PR
Hao Haidong
41
107
0.38
[58]

56
 Qatar
Soria, SebastiánSebastián Soria
40
119
0.33
[59]

 Malta
Mifsud, MichaelMichael Mifsud
40
127
0.31
[60]

58
 El Salvador
Díaz Arce, RaúlRaúl Díaz Arce
39
72
0.54
[61]

 Angola
Akwá
39
78
0.50
[62]

 Chile
Sánchez, AlexisAlexis Sánchez
39
121
0.32
[63]

 Bahrain
Ismail Abdul-Latif
39
112
0.35
[64]

62
 Yugoslavia /  Serbia
Bobek, StjepanStjepan Bobek
38
63
0.60
[65]

 Indonesia
Pamungkas, BambangBambang Pamungkas
38
86
0.44
[66]

 Estonia
Oper, AndresAndres Oper
38
134
0.28
[67]

 Zimbabwe
Ndlovu, PeterPeter Ndlovu
38
unk
unk
[68]

66
 Nigeria
Yekini, RashidiRashidi Yekini
37
58
0.64
[69]

 Hong Kong
Chan Siu Ki
37
67
0.55
[70]

68
 Tunisia
Jemâa, IssamIssam Jemâa
36
84
0.43
[71]

 Northern Ireland
Healy, DavidDavid Healy
36
95
0.38
[72]

70
 Italy
Riva, LuigiLuigi Riva
35
42
0.83
[73]

 Jamaica
Shelton, LutonLuton Shelton
35
75
0.47
[74]

 Romania
Adrian Mutu / Hagi, GheorgheGheorghe Hagi
35 / 35
77 / 125
0.45 / 0.28
[75][76]

 Slovenia
Zahovič, ZlatkoZlatko Zahovič
35
80
0.44
[77]

74
 Czechoslovakia
Antonín Puč
34
60
0.57
[78]

 Uzbekistan
Shatskikh, MaksimMaksim Shatskikh
34
61
0.56
[79]

 Kenya
Oliech, DennisDennis Oliech
34
72
0.47
[80]

 Algeria
Tasfaout, AbdelhafidAbdelhafid Tasfaout
34
79
0.43
[81]

 Burkina Faso
Dagano, MoumouniMoumouni Dagano
34
83
0.41
[82]

79
 Norway
Juve, JørgenJørgen Juve
33
45
0.73
[83]

 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Samuel, ShandelShandel Samuel
33
63
0.52
[84]

 Belgium
Romelu Lukaku
33
66
0.50

 Israel
Spiegler, MordechaiMordechai Spiegler
33
83
0.40
[85]

 Peru
Paolo Guerrero
33
85
0.39

84
 Bermuda
Goater, ShaunShaun Goater
32
36
0.89

 Syria
Rafe, RajaRaja Rafe
32
77
0.42

 South Africa
McCarthy, BenniBenni McCarthy
32
80
0.40
[86]

 Cyprus
Konstantinou, MichalisMichalis Konstantinou
32
84
0.38
[87]

 Paraguay
Santa Cruz, RoqueRoque Santa Cruz
32
111
0.29
[88]

 Finland
Litmanen, JariJari Litmanen
32
137
0.23
[89]

90
 Ecuador
Delgado, AgustínAgustín Delgado
31
70
0.44
[90]

 Macedonia
Pandev, GoranGoran Pandev
31
92
0.34
[91]

92
 Scotland
Denis Law / Dalglish, KennyKenny Dalglish
30 / 30
55 / 102
0.55 / 0.29
[92][93]

 Togo
Adebayor, EmmanuelEmmanuel Adebayor
30
77
0.38
[94]

 Jordan
Abdel-Fattah, HassanHassan Abdel-Fattah
30
88
0.34
[95]

 Russia
Kerzhakov, AleksandrAleksandr Kerzhakov
30
91
0.32
[96]

96
 Cuba
Lester Moré
29
69
0.42
[97]

 Wales
Bale, GarethGareth Bale
29
69
0.42
[98]

 Colombia
Falcao, RadamelRadamel Falcao
29
71
0.40
[99]

 Greece
Anastopoulos, NikosNikos Anastopoulos
29
73
0.39
[100]

 Senegal
Camara, HenriHenri Camara
29
99
0.29
[101]

 Latvia
Māris Verpakovskis
29
104
0.28
[102]

102
 New Zealand
Coveny, VaughanVaughan Coveny
28
64
0.44
[103]

 Yemen
Al-Nono, AliAli Al-Nono
28
unk
unk
[104]

 Guinea
Feindouno, PascalPascal Feindouno
28
unk
unk
[105]

105
 Solomon Islands
Commins Menapi
27
35
0.77
[106]

 Mozambique
Tico-Tico
27
unk
unk
[107]

 Sri Lanka
Jayasuriya, KasunKasun Jayasuriya
27
unk
unk
[108]

108
 Georgia
Arveladze, ShotaShota Arveladze
26
60
0.43
[109]

 Iceland
Eiður Guðjohnsen
26
88
0.30
[110]

110
 Armenia
Mkhitaryan, HenrikhHenrikh Mkhitaryan
25
70
0.36

 Mali
Keita, SeydouSeydou Keita
25
102
0.24
[111]

112
 Montenegro
Jovetić, StevanStevan Jovetić
24
48
0.50
[112]

 Botswana
Ramatlhakwane, JeromeJerome Ramatlhakwane
24
58
0.31
[113]

 Tanzania
Ngasa, MrishoMrisho Ngasa
24
100
0.24
[114]

 Rwanda
Karekezi, OlivierOlivier Karekezi
24
unk
unk
[115]

116
 Gabon
Aubameyang, Pierre-EmerickPierre-Emerick Aubameyang /
Nzue Nguema, ThéodoreThéodore Nzue Nguema
23 / 23
55 / 77
0.41 / 0.30
[116][117]

 Malaysia
Sali, SafeeSafee Sali
23
74
0.31
[118]

 Slovakia
Vittek, RóbertRóbert Vittek
23
81
0.28
[119]

 Venezuela
Arango, JuanJuan Arango
23
129
0.18
[120]

120
 Belize
McCaulay, DeonDeon McCaulay
22
42
0.52
[121]

 Canada
De Rosario, DwayneDwayne De Rosario
22
81
0.27
[122]

122
 Ethiopia
Kebede, GetanehGetaneh Kebede
21
40
0.52

 Grenada
Charles, RickyRicky Charles
21
50
0.42

 Benin
Omotoyossi, RazakRazak Omotoyossi / Sessègnon, StéphaneStéphane Sessègnon
21 / 21
55 / 68
0.38 / 0.31

 Fiji
Masi, EsalaEsala Masi
21
unk
unk

126
 New Caledonia
Kaï, BertrandBertrand Kaï
20
31
0.64

 Sudan
Haytham Tambal
20
41
0.49
[123]

 Bolivia
Botero, JoaquínJoaquín Botero
20
48
0.42
[124]

 Lebanon
Antar, RodaRoda Antar
20
58
0.34
[125]

 Belarus
Romaschenko, MaksimMaksim Romaschenko
20
63
0.32
[126]

text: Other countries' players[edit]

text:
Country
Name
International goals
Caps
Goals per match
Ref

 Afghanistan
Balal Arezou
9
22
0.41

 Albania
Erjon Bogdani
18
74
0.24

 American Samoa
Ramin Ott
3
14
0.21

 Andorra
Ildefons Lima
11
111
0.10

 Anguilla
Richard O'Connor
5
6
0.83

 Azerbaijan
Gurban Gurbanov
14
68
0.21

 Bahamas
Lesly St. Fleur
6
11
0.54
[127]

 Bangladesh
Jahid Hasan Ameli
15
64
0.23

 Barbados
Norman Forde
16
69
0.23
[128]

 Bhutan
Chencho Gyeltshen
10
28
0.36
[129]

 Brunei
Shahrazen Said
8
18
0.44
[130]

 Cambodia
Chan Vathanaka
13
37
0.35

 Cape Verde
Héldon Ramos
15
47
0.32
[131]

 Cayman Islands
Mark Ebanks
5
9
0.55
[132]

 Central African Republic
Hilaire Momi
6
24
0.25
[133]

 Comoros
El Fardou Ben Nabouhane
4
12
0.33
[134]

 Congo
Thievy Bifouma
12
24
0.50

 Cook Islands
Taylor Saghabi
6
10
0.60
[135]

 Curaçao
Felitciano Zschusschen
9
13
0.69
[136]

 DR Congo
Dieumerci Mbokani
18
40
0.45
[137]

 Djibouti
Ahmed Daher
4
14
0.29

 Dominica
Kurlson Benjamin
14
23
0.61
[138]

 Dominican Republic
Jonathan Faña
19
37
0.52

 Eritrea
Berhane Aregai
4
8
0.50
[139]

 Faroe Islands
Rógvi Jacobsen
10
53
0.18

 Gibraltar
Lee Casciaro / Jake Gosling / Liam Walker
2
18/11/22
0.11/0.18/0.10

 Guam
Jason Cunliffe
17
40
0.42
[140]

 Guinea-Bissau
Cícero Semedo
6
14
0.43
[141]

 Guyana
Nigel Codrington
17
33
0.51
[142]

 Haiti
Golman Pierre
18
23
0.79

 Kazakhstan
Ruslan Baltiev
13
73
0.18
[143]

 Kosovo
Elba Rashani / Albert Bunjaku
3
4/6
0.75/0.50

 Kyrgyzstan
Anton Zemlianukhin
12
25
0.47
[144]

 Laos
Visay Phaphouvanin
18
51
0.35
[145]

 Liechtenstein
Mario Frick
16
125
0.13
[146]

 Lithuania
Tomas Danilevicius
19
72
0.26
[147]

 Luxembourg
Leon Mart
16
24
0.67
[148]

 Macau
Chan Kin Seng
17
27
0.63
[149]

 Madagascar
Faneva Imà Andriatsima
11
29
0.38
[150]

 Mauritania
Cheikh Moulaye Ahmed
10
37
0.27
[151]

 Mauritius
Kersley Appou
10
24
0.42
[152]

 Moldova
Serghei Cleșcenco
11
69
0.16
[153]

 Mongolia
Donorovyn Lümbengarav
8
35
0.29
[154]

 Montserrat
Jaylee Hodgson
4
7
0.57
[155]

 Myanmar
Soe Myat Min
19
57
0.33
[156]

 Namibia
Rudolf Bester
13
46
0.28
[157]

   Nepal
Nirajan Rayamajhi
12
19
0.63
[158]

 Nicaragua
Juan Barrera
12
44
0.27
[159]

 Niger
Moussa Maâzou
11
43
0.26
[160]

 North Korea
Jong Il-gwan
17
57
0.28

 Pakistan
Muhammad Essa
11
37
0.23
[161]

 Palestine
Fahed Attal
14
40
0.35
[162]

 Puerto Rico
Héctor Ramos
11
27
0.41
[163]

 Saint Lucia
Titus Elva
14
24
0.58
[164]

 Samoa
Desmond Fa'aiuaso
7
12
0.58
[165]

 San Marino
Andy Selva
8
74
0.11
[166]

 São Tomé and Príncipe
Luis Leal
4
10
0.40

 Seychelles
Philip Zialor
11
28
0.39
[167]

 Sierra Leone
Umaru Bangura
4
43
0.10

 South Sudan
James Moga
6
17
0.36

 Suriname
Stefano Rijssel
10
31
0.32
[168]

 Swaziland
Felix Badenhorst
11
24
0.46
[169]

 Tahiti
Teaonui Tehau
16
26
0.62
[170]

 Tajikistan
Manuchekhr Dzhalilov
15
23
0.64

 Timor-Leste
Murilo de Almeida
6
7
0.86
[171]

 Tonga
Unaloto Feao
7
17
0.41
[172]

 Turkmenistan
Çariýar Muhadow
13
?
?
[173]

 Turks and Caicos Islands
Gavin Glinton
4
10
0.40

 Vanuatu
Richard Iwai
19
32
0.59
[174]

text: Notes[edit]

text: Number is a count of nations. Seven nations (Benin, Bulgaria, Denmark, Gabon, Romania, Scotland, and the United States) have a pair of players tied for national leader. These are counted as one nation each.

tag: ul


document_title: 2018 Commonwealth Games medal table

question_text: how many gold medals won by india in 2018 commonwealth games

text: 2018 Commonwealth Games medal table

text: Firsts[edit]

text: The Solomon Islands won its first ever Commonwealth Games medal, a bronze won by Jenly Tegu Wini in the women's 58 kg weightlifting event.[1]

text: The Cook Islands won its first ever Commonwealth Games medal, a bronze won by Taiki Paniani and Aidan Zittersteijn in the men's pairs lawn bowls event.[2]

text: Vanuatu won its first ever Commonwealth Games medal, a bronze won by para athlete Friana Kwevira in the women's javelin throw (F46) event.[3]

text: Dominica won its first ever Commonwealth Games medal when Thea LaFond won a bronze medal in the women's triple jump event.[4][5] A few days later, Dominica won its first ever silver medal when Yordanys Duranona Garcia came second in the men's triple jump event.

text: British Virgin Islands won its first ever Commonwealth Games medal when Kyron McMaster won the men's 400m hurdles.[6][7]

text: Saint Lucia won its first ever Commonwealth Games gold medal when Levern Spencer won the women's high jump event.

text: Medal table[edit]

text: The ranking in this table is consistent with International Olympic Committee convention in its published medal tables. By default, the table is ordered by the number of gold medals the athletes from a nation have won (in this context, a "nation" is an entity represented by a Commonwealth Games Association). The number of silver medals is taken into consideration next and then the number of bronze medals. If nations are still tied, equal ranking is given and they are listed alphabetically by their three-letter country code. Australia tops the medal table rank with 80 gold, second England with 45 gold and third India with 26 gold.

text: *   Host nation (Australia)

text:
2018 Commonwealth Games medal table

Rank
CGA
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total

1
 Australia (AUS)*
80
59
59
198

2
 England (ENG)
45
45
46
136

3
 India (IND)
26
20
20
66

4
 Canada (CAN)
15
40
27
82

5
 New Zealand (NZL)
15
16
15
46

6
 South Africa (RSA)
13
11
13
37

7
 Wales (WAL)
10
12
14
36

8
 Scotland (SCO)
9
13
22
44

9
 Nigeria (NGR)
9
9
6
24

10
 Cyprus (CYP)
8
1
5
14

11
 Jamaica (JAM)
7
9
11
27

12
 Malaysia (MAS)
7
5
12
24

13
 Singapore (SGP)
5
2
2
9

14
 Kenya (KEN)
4
7
6
17

15
 Uganda (UGA)
3
1
2
6

16
 Botswana (BOT)
3
1
1
5

17
 Samoa (SAM)
2
3
0
5

18
 Trinidad and Tobago (TTO)
2
1
0
3

19
 Namibia (NAM)
2
0
0
2

20
 Northern Ireland (NIR)
1
7
4
12

21
 Bahamas (BAH)
1
3
0
4

22
 Papua New Guinea (PNG)
1
2
0
3

23
 Fiji (FIJ)
1
1
2
4

24
 Pakistan (PAK)
1
0
4
5

25
 Grenada (GRN)
1
0
1
2

26
 Bermuda (BER)
1
0
0
1

 Guyana (GUY)
1
0
0
1

 British Virgin Islands (IVB)
1
0
0
1

 Saint Lucia (LCA)
1
0
0
1

30
 Bangladesh (BAN)
0
2
0
2

31
 Sri Lanka (SRI)
0
1
5
6

32
 Cameroon (CMR)
0
1
2
3

33
 Dominica (DMA)
0
1
1
2

34
 Isle of Man (IOM)
0
1
0
1

 Mauritius (MRI)
0
1
0
1

 Nauru (NRU)
0
1
0
1

37
 Malta (MLT)
0
0
2
2

 Vanuatu (VAN)
0
0
2
2

39
 Cook Islands (COK)
0
0
1
1

 Ghana (GHA)
0
0
1
1

 Norfolk Island (NFI)
0
0
1
1

 Seychelles (SEY)
0
0
1
1

 Solomon Islands (SOL)
0
0
1
1

Total (43 CGAs)
275
276
289
840


document_title: First Lady of the United States

question_text: who changed the role of the first lady

question_tokens: who changed the role of the first lady

text: First Lady of the United States

text: Origins of the title[edit]

text: The use of the title First Lady to describe the spouse or hostess of an executive began in the United States. In the early days of the republic, there was not a generally accepted title for the wife of the president. Many early first ladies expressed their own preference for how they were addressed, including the use of such titles as "Lady", "Mrs. President", and "Mrs. Presidentress"; Martha Washington was often referred to as "Lady Washington." One of the earliest uses of the term "First Lady" was applied to her in an 1838 newspaper article that appeared in the St. Johnsbury Caledonian, the author, "Mrs. Sigourney", discussing how Martha Washington had not changed, even after her husband George became president, wrote that "The first lady of the nation still preserved the habits of early life. Indulging in no indolence, she left the pillow at dawn, and after breakfast, retired to her chamber for an hour for the study of the scriptures and devotion".[3]

text: Dolley Madison was reportedly referred to as "First Lady" in 1849 at her funeral in a eulogy delivered by President Zachary Taylor; however, no written record of this eulogy exists, nor did any of the newspapers of her day refer to her by that title.[4] Sometime after 1849, the title began being used in Washington, D.C., social circles. One of the earliest known written examples comes from November 3, 1863, diary entry of William Howard Russell, in which he referred to gossip about "the First Lady in the Land," referring to Mary Todd Lincoln. The title first gained nationwide recognition in 1877, when newspaper journalist Mary C. Ames referred to Lucy Webb Hayes as "the First Lady of the Land" while reporting on the inauguration of Rutherford B. Hayes. The frequent reporting on Lucy Hayes' activities helped spread use of the title outside Washington. A popular 1911 comedic play about Dolley Madison by playwright Charles Nirdlinger, titled The First Lady in the Land, popularized the title further. By the 1930s, it was in wide use. Use of the title later spread from the United States to other nations.

text: When Edith Wilson took control of her husband's schedule in 1919 after he had a debilitating stroke, one Republican senator labeled her "the Presidentress who had fulfilled the dream of the suffragettes by changing her title from First Lady to Acting First Man."[5]

text: The wife of the Vice President of the United States is sometimes referred to as the Second Lady of the United States, but this title is much less common.

text: Non-spouses in the role[edit]

text: Several women (at least thirteen) who were not presidents' wives have served as First Lady, as when the president was a bachelor or widower, or when the wife of the president was unable to fulfill the duties of the First Lady herself. In these cases, the position has been filled by a female relative or friend of the president, such as Martha Jefferson Randolph during Jefferson's presidency, Emily Donelson and Sarah Yorke Jackson during Jackson's, Mary Elizabeth (Taylor) Bliss during Taylor's, Mary Harrison McKee during Benjamin Harrison's presidency, upon her mother's death, Harriet Lane during Buchanan's, and Rose Cleveland prior to Cleveland's marriage. Ivanka Trump temporarily took over the duties of First Lady during the beginning of the presidency of Donald Trump as his wife stayed in New York to finish their sons school year. Melania Trump took over her role of First Lady in June of 2017.

text: Role[edit]

text: The position of the First Lady is not an elected one and carries only ceremonial duties. Nonetheless, first ladies have held a highly visible position in American society.[6] The role of the First Lady has evolved over the centuries. She is, first and foremost, the hostess of the White House.[6] She organizes and attends official ceremonies and functions of state either along with, or in place of, the president. Lisa Burns identifies four successive main themes of the first ladyship: as public woman (1900–1929); as political celebrity (1932–1961); as political activist (1964–1977); and as political interloper (1980–2001).[7]

text: Martha Washington created the role and hosted many affairs of state at the national capital (New York and Philadelphia). This socializing became known as "the Republican Court" and provided elite women with an opportunity to play backstage political role.[8] Both Martha Washington and Abigail Adams were treated as if they were "ladies" of the British royal court.[6]

text: Dolley Madison popularized the First Ladyship by engaging in efforts to assist orphans and women, by dressing in elegant fashions and attracting newspaper coverage, and by risking her life to save iconic treasures during the War of 1812. Madison set the standard for the ladyship and her actions were the model for nearly every First Lady until Eleanor Roosevelt in the 1930s.[6] She traveled widely and spoke to many groups, often voicing personal opinions to the left of the president's. She authored a weekly newspaper column and hosted a radio show.[9] Jacqueline Kennedy led an effort to redecorate and restore the White House.[10]

text: Many first ladies became significant fashion trendsetters.[6] Some have exercised a degree of political influence by virtue of being an important adviser to the president.[6]

text: Over the course of the 20th century, it became increasingly common for first ladies to select specific causes to promote, usually ones that are not politically divisive. It is common for the First Lady to hire a staff to support these activities. Lady Bird Johnson pioneered environmental protection and beautification.[11] Pat Nixon encouraged volunteerism and traveled extensively abroad; Betty Ford supported women's rights; Rosalynn Carter aided those with mental disabilities; Nancy Reagan founded the Just Say No drug awareness campaign; Barbara Bush promoted literacy; Hillary Clinton sought to reform the healthcare system in the U.S.; Laura Bush supported women's rights groups, and encouraged childhood literacy.[6] Michelle Obama became identified with supporting military families and tackling childhood obesity;[12] and Melania Trump has stated that she wants to use her position to help children, including prevention of cyberbullying and supporting children whose lives are affected by drugs.[13]

text: Near the end of her husband's presidency, Clinton became the first First Lady to run for political office. During the campaign, her daughter, Chelsea, took over much of the First Lady's role. Victorious, Clinton served as U.S. Senator from New York from 2001 to 2009, when she resigned in order to become President Obama's Secretary of State. Clinton was the Democratic Party nominee for President in the 2016 election, but lost to Donald Trump.

text: Office of the First Lady[edit]

text: The Office of the First Lady of the United States is accountable to the First Lady for her to carry out her duties as hostess of the White House, and is also in charge of all social and ceremonial events of the White House. The First Lady has her own staff that includes a chief of staff, press secretary, White House Social Secretary, Chief Floral Designer, etc. The Office of the First Lady is an entity of the White House Office, a branch of the Executive Office of the President.[14] When First Lady Hillary Clinton decided to pursue a run for Senator of New York, she set aside her duties as first lady[15] and moved to Chappaqua, New York to establish state residency.[16] She resumed her duties as First Lady after winning her senatorial campaign,[17] and retained her duties as both first lady and U.S. Senator for the seventeen-day overlap before Bill Clinton's term came to an end.[18]

text: Despite the significant responsibilities usually handled by the First Lady, the First Lady does not receive a salary. This has been criticized by both Ronald Reagan and Barack Obama.[19]

text: Exhibitions and collections[edit]

text: Established in 1912, the First Ladies Collection has been one of the most popular attractions at the Smithsonian Institution. The original exhibition opened in 1914 and was one of the first at the Smithsonian to prominently feature women. Originally focused largely on fashion, the exhibition now delves deeper into the contributions of first ladies to the presidency and American society. In 2008, "First Ladies at the Smithsonian" opened at the National Museum of American History as part of its reopening year celebration. That exhibition served as a bridge to the museum's expanded exhibition on first ladies' history that opened on November 19, 2011. "The First Ladies" explores the unofficial but important position of first lady and the ways that different women have shaped the role to make their own contributions to the presidential administrations and the nation. The exhibition features 26 dresses and more than 160 other objects, ranging from those of Martha Washington to Michelle Obama, and includes White House china, personal possessions and other objects from the Smithsonian's unique collection of first ladies' materials.[20]

text: First Lady and fashion[edit]

text: Some first ladies have garnered attention for their dress and style. Jacqueline Kennedy, for instance, became a global fashion icon: her style was copied by commercial manufacturers and imitated by many young women, and she was named to the International Best Dressed List Hall of Fame in 1965.[21][22] Michelle Obama has also received significant attention for her fashion choices: style writer Robin Givhan praised her in The Daily Beast, arguing that the First Lady's style has helped to enhance the public image of the office.[23]

text: Living former First Ladies[edit]

text: As of January 2018, there are five living former First Ladies, as seen below.

text:
Rosalynn Carter
served 1977–81
born 1927 (age 90)
wife of Jimmy Carter

Barbara Bush
served 1989–93
born 1925 (age 92)
wife of George H. W. Bush

Hillary Clinton
served 1993–2001
born 1947 (age 70)
wife of Bill Clinton

Laura Bush
served 2001–09
born 1946 (age 71)
wife of George W. Bush

Michelle Obama
served 2009–17
born 1964 (age 53)
wife of Barack Obama