document_title: Workweek and weekend

question_text: when did the 5 day work week begin

question_tokens: when did the 5 day work week begin

root

text: Workweek and weekend

text: History[edit]

text:
Part of a series on

Organised labour

Labour movement[show]

Timeline

New Unionism
Proletariat

Social Movement Unionism

Socialism
Syndicalism

Anarcho-syndicalism

Labour rights[hide]

Child labour
Eight-hour day

Five-day work week
Annual leave
Collective bargaining
Minimum wage
Occupational safety and health

Trade unions[show]

Trade unions by country
Trade union federations
International comparisons

ITUC
IWA
WFTU

Strike action[show]

Chronological list of strikes

General strike
Secondary action

Sitdown strike
Work-to-rule

Labour parties[show]

Australian
British
Dutch
Irish
Israeli
New Zealand
Norwegian

List of Labour parties

Academic disciplines[show]

Industrial relations
Labour economics
Labour history
Labour law

v
t
e

tag: table

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (September 2013)

text: A continuous seven-day cycle that runs throughout history paying no attention whatsoever to the phases of the moon, having a fixed day of rest, was probably first practiced in Judaism, dated to the 6th century BC at the latest.[3][4]

tag: p

text: In Ancient Rome, every eight days there was a nundinae. It was a market day, during which children were exempted from school[5] and plebs ceased from work in the field and came to the city to sell the produce of their labor[6][7] or practice religious rites.[citation needed].

text: The French Revolutionary Calendar had ten-day weeks (called décades) and allowed décadi, one out of the ten days, as a leisure day.

text: In cultures with a four-day week, the three Sabbaths derives from the culture's main religious tradition: Friday (Muslim), Saturday (Jewish), and Sunday (Christian).

text: The present-day concept of the relatively longer 'week-end' first arose in the industrial north of Britain in the early part of nineteenth century[1] and was originally a voluntary arrangement between factory owners and workers allowing Saturday afternoon off from 2pm in agreement that staff would be available for work sober and refreshed on Monday morning.[2] The Oxford English Dictionary traces the first use of the term weekend to the British magazine Notes and Queries in 1879.[8]

text: In 1908, the first five-day workweek in the United States was instituted by a New England cotton mill so that Jewish workers would not have to work on the Sabbath from sundown Friday to sundown Saturday.[9] In 1926, Henry Ford began shutting down his automotive factories for all of Saturday and Sunday. In 1929, the Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America Union was the first union to demand a five-day workweek and receive it. After that, the rest of the United States slowly followed, but it was not until 1940, when a provision of the 1938 Fair Labor Standards Act mandating a maximum 40-hour workweek went into effect, that the two-day weekend was adopted nationwide.[9]

text: Over the succeeding decades, particularly in the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s, an increasing number of countries adopted either a Friday–Saturday or Saturday–Sunday weekend to harmonize with international markets. A series of workweek reforms in the mid-to-late 2000s and early 2010s brought much of the Arab World in synchronization with the majority of countries around the world, in terms of working hours, the length of the workweek, and the days of the weekend. The International Labour Organization (ILO) currently defines a workweek exceeding 48 hours as excessive. A 2007 study by the ILO found that at least 614.2 million people around the world were working excessive hours.[10]

text: Length[edit]

text: Actual workweek lengths have been falling in the developed world. Every reduction of the length of the workweek has been accompanied by an increase in real per-capita income.[11][verification needed] In the United States, the workweek length reduced slowly from before the Civil War to the turn of the 20th century. A rapid reduction took place from 1900 to 1920, especially between 1913 and 1919, when weekly hours fell by about eight percent.[12] In 1926, Henry Ford standardized on a five-day workweek, instead of the prevalent six days, without reducing employees' pay.[13] Hours worked stabilized at about 49 per week during the 1920s, and during the Great Depression fell below 40.[12] During the Depression, President Herbert Hoover called for a reduction in work hours in lieu of layoffs. Later, President Franklin Roosevelt signed the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938, which established a five-day, 40-hour workweek for many workers.[13] The proportion of people working very long weeks has since risen, and the full-time employment of women has increased dramatically.[14]

text: The New Economics Foundation has recommended moving to a 21-hour standard workweek to address problems with unemployment, high carbon emissions, low well-being, entrenched inequalities, overworking, family care, and the general lack of free time.[13][15][16][17][18][19] The Center for Economic and Policy Research states that reducing the length of the work week would slow climate change and have other environmental benefits.[20]

text: Around the world[edit]

text: (Countries listed alphabetically. Some countries have Saturday a normal school day. Some countries appear under the subsections for Muslim countries and the European Union.)

text:
Nation
Typical Hours
per Week
Working week
Typical hours worked
(Maximum per day)

Afghanistan
40
Sunday–Thursday
8

Albania
40
Monday–Friday
8

Algeria
40
Sunday–Thursday
8

Angola
40
Monday–Friday
8

Argentina
40
Monday–Friday
8

Armenia
40
Monday–Friday
8

Azerbaijan
40
Monday–Friday
8

Austria
38.5
Monday–Friday
7.7

Australia
38[21]
Monday–Friday
7.6

Bahrain
40
Sunday–Thursday
8 (6 during Ramadan for Muslim employees)[22]

Bangladesh
40
Government offices and Banks: Sunday-Thursday
Else: Saturday-Thursday

8

Benin
40
Monday–Friday
8

Belarus
40
Monday–Friday
8

Belgium
38
Monday–Friday
7.6

Brazil
44
Monday–Friday
8.5

Brunei Darussalam
40
Monday–Thursday and Saturday
8

Burundi
50
Monday–Friday
10

Bulgaria
40
Monday–Friday
8

Canada
40
Monday–Friday
8

Cameroon
50
Monday–Friday
10

Chile
45
Monday–Friday
9

China
42
Monday–Friday
8

Croatia
40
Monday–Friday
8

Colombia
48
Monday–Friday /
Monday–Saturday

8

Costa Rica
48
Monday–Friday
8

Czech Republic
40
Monday–Friday
8

Denmark
37
Monday–Friday
7.4

Djibouti
40
Saturday–Thursday
6.7

Dominican Republic
40
Monday-Friday
8

Egypt
40 (30 during Ramadan)
Sunday–Thursday
8 (6 during Ramadan)

Ethiopia
40
Monday–Friday
8

Estonia
40
Monday–Friday
8

Equatorial Guinea
48
Monday–Saturday
8

Finland
38
Monday–Friday
8

France
35
Monday–Friday
7

Gabon
40
Monday–Friday
8

Gambia
40
Monday–Friday
8

Germany
40
Monday–Friday
8

Ghana
40
Monday–Friday
8

Greece
40
Monday–Friday
8

Hungary
40
Monday–Friday
8

Hong Kong
40-48
Monday–Saturday
8 (many people work on Saturday either a half-day or full-day)

India
45-60
Government offices and IT industry: Monday-Friday
Else: Monday–Saturday Sometimes: Monday

9 (including 1 hour lunch break) most of the Businesses are open on Saturdays. So often it is Monday-Saturday.

Indonesia
40
Monday–Friday
8, many people work a 6-day week with 7-hour days.

Iran
44
Saturday-Thursday/Saturday-Wednesday
7.36, and 6 hours Thursdays

Iraq
40
Sunday–Thursday
8

Ireland
40
Monday–Friday
8

Israel
43
Sunday–Thursday
8.6. Some people have a partial six-day workweek, with work 8 hours a day from Sunday to Thursday and Friday being a half-day. The workweek was reduced to 42 hours in July 2017.

Italy
40
Monday–Friday
8

Côte d'Ivoire
40
Monday–Friday
8

Japan
40
Monday–Friday
8

Jordan
45
Sunday–Thursday
9

Kazakhstan
40
Monday–Friday
8

Kuwait
40
Sunday–Thursday
8

Kenya
40
Monday–Friday
8

Lao People’s Democratic Republic
40
Monday–Friday
8

Latvia
40
Monday–Friday
8

Lebanon
40
Monday-Friday
8, Most of the people have a six-day workweek, with Saturday as a partial workday.

Lesotho
40
Monday–Friday
8

Libya
40
Sunday–Thursday
8

Lithuania
40
Monday–Friday
8

Madagascar
40
Monday–Friday
8

Maldives
40
Sunday–Thursday
8

Malawi
40
Monday–Friday
8

Mali
40
Monday–Friday
8

Malta
40
Monday–Friday
8

Mauritania
40
Monday–Friday
8

Malaysia
40
Sunday–Thursday
(Johor, Kedah, Kelantan, and Terengganu)
Monday–Friday
(Except: Johor, Kedah, Kelantan, and Terengganu)
8

Mexico
48
Monday–Saturday
8

Mongolia
40
Monday–Friday
8

Morocco
44
Monday–Friday
8

Mozambique
40
Monday–Friday
8

Nepal
48
Sunday–Friday
7 (5 on Friday and 6 in Winter)

The Netherlands
40
Monday–Friday
8

New Zealand
40
Monday–Friday
8[23]

Nigeria
40
Monday–Friday
8

Norway
37.5
Monday–Friday
7.5

Oman
40 (30 during Ramadan)
Sunday–Thursday
8 (6 during Ramadan)

Pakistan
45 & 54
Monday–Friday
9 (including 1 hour lunch break) most of the Businesses are open on Saturdays. So often it is Monday-Saturday.

Palestine
40
Sunday–Thursday
8

Philippines
40
Monday–Friday
9 (including 1 hour lunch break)

Poland
40
Monday–Friday
8

Portugal
40
Monday–Friday
8

Qatar
40 (25 During Ramadan)
Sunday–Thursday
8 (5 during Ramadan) (Line staff work 48 hours of the week, Saturday-Thursday)

Romania
40
Monday–Friday
8

Russia
40
Monday–Friday
8

Rwanda
40
Monday–Friday
8

Saudi Arabia
40 (30 during Ramadan)
Sunday–Thursday
8 (6 during Ramadan for Muslim employees)[24]

Senegal
40
Monday–Friday
8

Singapore
44
Monday–Friday
9[25]

Slovakia (Slovak Republic)
40
Monday–Friday
8

Spain
40
Monday–Friday
8

Sri Lanka
40
Monday–Friday
8

South Africa
45
Monday–Friday
9[26]

South Korea
40
Monday–Friday
8

Sudan
40
Sunday–Thursday
8

Suriname
39.5
Monday–Friday
8; Monday–Thursday 7:00 – 15:00 / Friday 7:00 – 14.30

Swaziland
40
Monday–Friday
8

Sweden
40
Monday–Friday
8

Switzerland
42
Monday–Friday
8.4

Syria
40
Sunday–Thursday
8

Seychelles
40
Monday–Friday
8

Taiwan
40
Monday–Friday
8; The Labor Standards Act stipulates that a worker shall have one mandatory day off and one flexible rest day in every seven days. See One fixed day off and one flexible rest day policy.

Tanzania
40
Monday–Friday
9

Togo
40
Monday–Friday
8

Thailand
40
Monday–Friday
8

Trinidad and Tobago
40
Monday–Friday
8

Tunisia
40
Monday–Friday
8

Turkey
45
Monday–Friday
9

Ukraine
40
Monday–Friday
8

United Arab Emirates
40-45 (30 during Ramadan)
Sunday–Thursday (since September 2006[27])
8 to 9 (regular hours minus 2 hours during Ramadan for all employees)[28]

United Kingdom
40
Monday–Friday
8

United States
40[29]
Monday–Friday
8

Uganda
48
Monday–Saturday
8

Vietnam
40[30]
Monday–Friday
8

Yemen
40
Sunday–Thursday
8

Congo, Democratic Republic of
40
Monday–Friday
8

Zambia
40
Monday–Friday
8

Zimbabwe
40
Monday–Friday
8; Most people work half a day on Saturday

text: Australia[edit]

text: In Australia the working week begins on Monday and terminates on Friday. An eight-hour working day is the norm. Working three weekdays a fortnight, for example, would therefore be approximately twenty-four hours (including or excluding traditional breaks tallying up to two hours). Some people work overtime with extra pay on offer for those that do, especially for weekend work. Shops open seven days a week in most states with opening hours from 9am to 5.30pm on weekdays, with some states having two "late night trading" nights on Thursday and Friday, when trading ceases at 9pm. Many supermarkets and low end department stores remain open until midnight and some trade 24/7. Restaurants and cinemas can open at all hours, save for some public holidays. Bars generally trade seven days a week but there are local municipal restrictions concerning trading hours. Banks trade on Monday to Friday, with some branches opening on Saturdays (and in some cases Sundays) in high demand areas. The Post Office (Australia Post) trades Monday to Friday as per retail shops but some retail post offices may trade on Saturdays and Sundays in some shopping centres. A notable exception to the above is South Australia whereby retail establishments are restricted to trading between the hours of 11am-5pm on Sundays.

text: Brazil[edit]

text: As a general rule, Brazil adopts a 44-hour working week, which typically begins on Monday and ends on Friday, with a Saturday-Sunday weekend. Brazilian Law,[31] however, also allows for shorter Monday-to-Friday working hours so employees can work on Saturdays or Sundays, as long as the weekly 44-hour limit is respected and the employee gets at least one weekend day. This is usually the case for malls, supermarkets and shops. The law also grants labor unions the right to negotiate different work weeks, within certain limits, which then become binding for that union's labor category. Overtime is allowed, limited to two extra hours a day, with an increase in pay.

text: Chile[edit]

text: The working week in Chile averages 45 hours, most often worked on a Monday-Friday schedule, but is not uncommon to work on Saturdays. Retail businesses mostly operate Monday through Saturday, with larger establishments being open seven days a week.

text: China[edit]

text: In China, there is a five-day Monday-Friday working week, prior to which work on Saturday was standard. China began the two-day Saturday–Sunday weekend on May 1, 1995. Most government employees work 5 days a week (including officials and industrial management). Most manufacturing facilities operate on Saturdays as well. However, most shops, museums, cinemas and commercial establishments open on Saturdays, Sundays and holidays. Banks are also open throughout the weekend and on most public holidays.

text: During the period of public holidays, swapped holidays are common between the actual holiday and weekend, so a three-day or seven-day holiday periods are created. The nearby Saturday or Sunday may be changed to a normal working day. For example, on a three-day holiday period, if the actual holiday falls on a Tuesday, Monday will be swapped as a holiday, and citizens are required to work on the previous Saturday.

text: A number of provinces and municipalities across China, including Hebei, Jiangxi and Chongqing, have issued new policies, calling on companies to create 2.5-day weekends. Under the plan, government institutions, state-owned companies, joint-ventures and privately held companies are to be given incentives to allow their workers to take off at noon on Friday before coming back to the office on Monday.[32]

text: Hong Kong[edit]

text: In Hong Kong, a typical working week for local enterprises begins on Monday and ends at 1pm on Saturday, although most employees have alternate Saturdays off. After the introduction of the five-day working week for the majority of government departments in 2006, most multinational enterprises and large local companies followed suit, extended the working day from 9am to 6pm so as to adopt a five-day work week. Despite the aforementioned official hours, many employees work overtime, and in the case of the financial industry in particular, working 12-hour days on a chronic basis is not uncommon.

text: Most commercial establishments in the retail sector such as restaurants, shops and cinemas, as well as public venues such as museums and libraries are open on Saturdays, Sundays and most public holidays. For schools, lessons are not normally held on Saturdays, but students may be required to go school on Saturdays for extra-curricular activities or make-up classes.

text: Colombia[edit]

text: In general, Colombia has a 48-hour working week. Depending on the business, people work five days for max 8 hours per day, typically Monday to Friday, or six days for eight hours a day, Monday to Saturday.[33]

text: European Union members[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (March 2009)

text: In Europe, the standard full-time working week begins on Monday and ends on Saturday. Most retail shops are open for business on Saturday. In Ireland, Italy, Finland, Sweden, the Netherlands and the former socialist states of Europe, large shopping centres open on Sunday. In European countries such as Germany, there are laws regulating shop hours. With exceptions, shops must be closed on Sundays and from midnight until the early morning hours of every day.

text: Austria[edit]

text: The working week is Monday to Friday 8 hours per day. Shops are open on Saturday. By law, almost no shop is open on Sunday. However, exceptions have been made, for example for bakeries, petrol stations and shops at railway stations, especially in the largest cities (Vienna, Graz, Salzburg, Linz).

text: Belgium[edit]

text: The working week is Monday to Friday. Working time must not exceed 8 hours per day and 38 hours per week (on average, annualised).

text: Bulgaria[edit]

text: The working week is Monday to Friday, eight hours per day, forty hours per week. Most pharmacies, shops, bars, cafés, and restaurants will operate on Saturdays and Sundays.

text: Croatia[edit]

text: The working week is Monday to Friday, seven and a half hours per day (+ 30 minutes lunch break), 37.5 hours per week (or 40 hours per week if lunch breaks are included as working hours). Most pharmacies, shops, bars, cafés, and restaurants are open on Saturday and Sunday.

text: Czech Republic[edit]

text: In the Czech Republic, full-time employment is usually Monday to Friday, eight hours per day and forty hours per week. Many shops and restaurants are open on Saturday and Sunday, but employees still usually work forty hours per week.

text: Denmark[edit]

text: Denmark has an official 37-hour working week, with primary work hours between 6:00 and 18:00, Monday to Friday. In public institutions, a 30-minute lunch break every day is included as per collective agreements, so that the actual required working time is 34.5 hours. In private companies, the 30-minute lunch break is normally not included. The workday is usually 7.5 hours Monday to Thursday and 7 hours on Friday. Some small shops are closed Monday.[34]

text: Estonia[edit]

text: In Estonia, the working week begins on Monday and ends on Friday. Usually a working week is forty hours.

text: Finland[edit]

text: In Finland, the working week begins on Monday and ends on Friday. A full-time job is defined by law as being at least 32 and at most forty hours per week. In retail and restaurant occupations, among others, the weekly hours may be calculated as an average over three to ten weeks, depending on the employment contract. Banks and bureaus are closed on weekends. Most shops are open on Saturdays, while some are closed on Sundays.

text: France[edit]

text: The standard working week is Monday to Friday. Shops are also open on Saturday. Small shops may close on a weekday (generally Monday) to compensate workers for having worked on Saturday. By law, préfets may authorise a small number of specific shops to open on Sunday such as bars, cafés, restaurants, and bakeries, which are traditionally open every day but only during the morning on Sunday. Workers are not obliged to work on Sunday. School children have traditionally taken Wednesday off, or had only a half day, making up the time either with longer days for the rest of the week or sometimes a half day on Saturday. This practice was made much less common under new legislation rolled out over 2013–14.[35]

text: Greece[edit]

text: The standard working week is Monday to Friday. State jobs are from 07:00 until 15:00. Shops are open generally Mondays-Wednesdays from 09:30–15:00 and then from 17:30–21:00 and Tuesday-Thursday-Fridays 09:30-21:00. Saturdays generally 09:00-15:00. It is very rare for a shop to open on Sunday.

text: Hungary[edit]

text: In Hungary the working week begins on Monday and ends on Friday. Full-time employment is usually considered forty hours per week. For office workers, the work day usually begins between 8 and 9 o'clock and ends between 16:00 and 18:00, depending on the contract and lunch time agreements.

text: The forty-hour workweek of public servants includes lunch time. Their work schedule typically consists of 8.5 hours between Monday and Thursday (from 8:00 to 16:30) and 6 hours on Fridays (8:00–14:00).

text: Ireland[edit]

text: Ireland has a working week from Monday to Friday, with core working hours from 09:00 to 17:30. Retail stores are usually open until 21:00 every Thursday. Many grocery stores, especially in urban areas, are open until 21:00 or later, and some supermarkets and convenience stores may open around the clock. Shops are generally open all day Saturday and a shorter day Sunday (usually 10:00–12:00 to 17:00–19:00).

text: Italy[edit]

text: In Italy the 40-hour rule applies: Monday to Friday, 09:00 to 18:00, with a one-hour break for lunch. Sunday is always a holiday; Saturday is seldom a work day at most companies and universities, but it is generally a regular day for elementary, middle, and high schools.

text: In the past, shops had a break from 13:00 to 16:00 and they were generally open until 19:00/20:00. Working times for shops have been changed recently and now are at the owner's discretion; malls are generally open Tuesday to Sunday 09:00 to 20:00, 15:00 to 20:00 on Monday, with no lunchtime closing.[36]

text: Latvia[edit]

text: Latvia has a Monday to Friday working week capped at forty hours.[37] Shops are mostly open on weekends, many large retail chains having full working hours even on Sunday. Private enterprises usually hold hours from 9:00 to 18:00, however government institutions and others may have a shorter working day, ending at 17:00.

text: Luxembourg[edit]

text: The standard working week in Luxembourg is 40 hours per week with 8 hours per day.[38] Monday through Friday is the standard working week, though many shops and businesses open on Saturdays (though for somewhat restricted hours). Trading on Sundays is extremely restricted and generally limited to grocery stores opening on Sunday mornings.[39] However, shops are allowed to open in Luxembourg City during the first Sunday of the month[40], as well as in Luxembourg City and other larger towns on weekends towards the end of the year (Christmas shopping season)[41]. A few shopping malls located in the north of the country and in border towns (e.g. KNAUF[42], MASSEN[43] and Pall Center Pommerloch[44]) are also allowed to open almost every day of the year.

text: Netherlands[edit]

text: In the Netherlands, the standard working week is Monday to Friday (40 hours).[45] Shops are almost always open on Saturdays and often on Sundays. Coffeeshops have different opening times in every city; for instance, Leiden's coffeeshops are only open from 17:00 until 23:00.

text: Poland[edit]

text: The working week is Monday to Friday; 8 hours per day, 40 hours in total per week. Large malls are open on Saturday and Sunday; many small shops are closed on Sunday. SINCE 11 March 2018 all Malls and shops are close on Sunday trading is banned.

text: Under the new rules, trading will be banned on two Sundays a month.

text: The ban will be stepped up to three Sundays a month in 2019, while in 2020 trading will be prohibited on all Sundays except seven, including those in the run-up to Christmas and Easter.

text: March 11 will be the first Sunday on which trading is banned.

text: Bakeries, confectioners, petrol stations, florists, post offices, train stations and airports will be exempt from the ban.

text: Owners will be able to open their shops as long as they serve customers themselves.

text: Anyone infringing the new rules faces a fine of up to PLN 100,000 (EUR 23,900; USD 29,250). Repeat offenders may face a prison sentence

text: Portugal[edit]

text: The working week is Monday to Friday; 8 hours per day, 40 hours in total per week. Street shops are almost always open on Saturday mornings but shopping centres are typically open every day (including Saturdays and Sundays).

text: Romania[edit]

text: The working week is Monday to Friday; 8 hours per day, 40 hours in total per week. Shops are open on Saturday and Sunday. The weekend begins on Friday, and ends on Monday.

text: Slovakia[edit]

text: The working week is Monday to Friday; 8 hours per day, 40 hours in total per week. Large malls are open on Saturday and Sunday; many small shops are closed on Sunday. All shops are closed on public holidays.

text: Spain[edit]

text: The working week is Monday to Friday; 8 hours per day, 40 hours in total per week. The traditional opening hours are 9:00 to 13:00–14:00 and then 15:00–16:00 to 18:00 for most offices and workplaces. Most shops are open on Saturday mornings and many of the larger shopping malls are open all day Saturday and in some cities like Madrid, they are open most Sundays. Some restaurants, bars, and shops are closed Mondays, as Mondays are commonly a slow business day.[46]

text: Sweden[edit]

text: In Sweden, the standard working week is Monday to Friday, both for offices and industry workers. The standard workday is eight hours, although it may vary greatly between different fields and businesses. Most office workers have flexible working hours and can largely decide themselves on how to divide these over the week. The working week is regulated by Arbetstidslagen (Work time law) to a maximum of 40 hours per week.[47] The 40-hour-week is however easily bypassed by overtime. The law allows a maximum of 200 hours overtime per year.[48] There is however no overseeing government agency; the law is often cited as toothless.[citation needed]

text: Shops are almost always open on Saturdays and often on Sundays, supermarkets and shopping centres, so that employees there have to work. Traditionally, restaurants were closed on Mondays if they were opened during the weekend, but this has in recent years largely fallen out of practice. Many museums do however still remain closed on Mondays.

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: The traditional business working week is from Monday to Friday (35 to 40 hours depending on contract). In retail, and other fields such as healthcare, days off might be taken on any day of the week. Employers can make their employees work every day of a week, although the employer is required to allow each employee breaks of either a continuous period of 24 hours every week or a continuous period of 48 hours every two weeks.

text: Laws for shop opening hours differ between Scotland and the rest of the UK. In England, Wales, and Northern Ireland, many shops and services are open on Saturdays and increasingly so on Sundays as well. In England and Wales, stores' maximum Sunday opening hours vary according to the total floor space of the store.[49] In Scotland, however, there is no restriction in law on shop opening hours on a Sunday.

text: Under the EU Working Time Directive, workers cannot be forced to work for more than 48 hours per week on average. However, the UK allows individuals to opt out if they so choose. Individuals can choose to opt in again after opting out, even if opting out was part of their employment contract. It is illegal to dismiss them or treat them unfairly for so doing – but they may be required to give up to 3 months notice to give the employer time to prepare, depending on what their employment contract says.[50]

text: The minimum holiday entitlement is now 28 days per year, but that can include public holidays, depending on the employee's contract.[51] England & Wales have eight, Scotland has nine, and Northern Ireland has ten permanent public holidays each year.[52][53] The 28 days holiday entitlement means that if the government creates a one-off public holiday in a given year, it is not necessarily a day off and it does not add 1 day to employees' holiday entitlement – unless the employer says otherwise, which some do.

text: Belarus[edit]

text: The working week is Monday to Friday. Working time must not exceed 8 hours per day and 40 hours per week (on average, annualised).

text: India[edit]

text: The standard working week in India for most office jobs begins on Monday and ends on Saturday. The work schedule is 60 hours per week, Sunday being a rest day. However, most government offices and the software industry follow a five-day workweek.[54] All major industries along with services like transport, hospitality, healthcare etc. work in shifts.

text: Central government offices follow a five-day week. State governments follow half-day working on the first, third, and fifth Saturdays of each month and rest on the second and fourth Saturdays, except West Bengal's government which follows a Monday–Friday workweek. There is usually no half working day in the private sector and people work in two or three shifts of 8hours each.

text: Generally establishments other than those having pure desk jobs are open until late evening in most cities, offering more flexibility of time to visitors. Most stores are open for six or seven days a week. Retail shops in malls are open on all days. Doctors are mostly available in morning and evening in their clinics and at hospitals during the day. Doctors usually work twelve hour days, six-days a week. Senior doctors and surgeons work more. Most visiting doctors attached to hospitals visit on all days.

text: Many services are open till 8:00 pm or 9:00 pm. Most restaurants are open on all days. Small eateries open early and bigger ones open around 11:00 am. Most eateries close between 9:00 pm and 11:00 pm. Many highway restaurants called dhabas are open for 24 hours a day. Dhabas are available in large numbers on all major state and national highways; outside city or village limits. Some highway fuel stations are open for 24 hours. Overall India works longer hours in most areas than most of the world and offers more flexibility of time for visitors.

text: Muslim countries[edit]

text: Thursday–Friday weekend[edit]

text: Friday is the Muslim holiday when Jumu'ah prayers take place. Most of the Middle Eastern countries and some other predominantly Muslim countries used to consider Thursday and Friday as their weekend. However, this weekend arrangement is no longer observed (see below).

text: Friday weekend (One day weekend)[edit]

text: Three countries in the Muslim world have Friday as the only weekend day and have a six-day working week.

text:
In Iran, Thursday is half a day of work for most public offices and all schools are closed, but for most jobs, Thursday is a working day.
In Djibouti, many offices also tend to open early – around 7:00 or 8:00, then closing at 13:00 or 14:00, especially during the summer due to the afternoon heat.

tag: ul

text: Friday–Saturday weekend[edit]

text: Following reforms in a number of Arab states in the Persian Gulf in the 2000s and 2010s, the Thursday–Friday weekend was replaced by the Friday–Saturday weekend. This change provided for the Muslim offering of Friday prayers and afforded more work days to coincide with the working calendars of international financial markets.

text:
Algeria (2009)[55]
Afghanistan (2015)
Bahrain (2006)
Bangladesh
Egypt[56]
Iraq (2005–2006)[56]
Jordan (Week of January 8, 2000)[57][58]
Kuwait (2007)
Libya (2005–2006)
Malaysia (only in the states of Johor, Kelantan, Terengganu, and Kedah)
Maldives (2013)
Oman (2013)
Palestine
Qatar
Saudi Arabia (2013)[59][60][61]
Sudan (2008)
Syria (2005–2006)[62]
United Arab Emirates (2006)[27]
Yemen (2013)[63]

text: Saturday–Sunday weekend[edit]

text: Other countries with Muslim-majority populations or significant Muslim populations follow the Saturday–Sunday weekend, such as Indonesia, Lebanon (where it is officially unclear whether the population is majority-Muslim or majority-Christian, and in the event large segments of the population are not observant in either religion), Turkey, Tunisia and Morocco. While Friday is a working day, a long midday break is given to allow time for worship.

text:
Indonesia On Friday, due to prayer time for Muslims, the lunch break is extended up to 2 hours or more. Shopping malls are always open and very crowded on Saturday and Sunday. Thus, some banks offer weekend banking services, especially for branches located in or near shopping malls.
Lebanon The working week is Monday to Friday; 8 hours per day, 40 hours in total per week. Some institutions, however, also work 4 hours on Saturdays . Large malls are open on Saturday and Sunday; many small shops close on Sunday.
Malaysia (Federal Territories of Kuala Lumpur, Labuan and Putrajaya, Selangor, Perak, Penang, Perlis, Sarawak, Sabah, Pahang, Malacca, Negeri Sembilan except the states of Johor, Kelantan, Terengganu and Kedah, which have a Friday–Saturday weekend)
Mauritania (2014)[64]
Morocco The working week is Monday to Friday, 8 hours per day, 40 hours in total per week.
Pakistan follows the standard international 40-hour working week, from Monday to Friday, with Saturday and Sunday being the weekend.[65] However, in many schools and enterprises, Friday is usually considered a half-day.
Senegal The working week is Monday to Friday, with a large break on Friday afternoon.
Tunisia The working week is Monday to Friday; 8 hours per day, 40 hours in total per week.
Turkey Working above 45 hours is considered overtime, and the employer is required to pay 1.5x the hourly wage per hour.

text: Non-contiguous working week[edit]

text: Brunei Darussalam has a non-contiguous working week, consisting of Monday to Thursday plus Saturday. The days of rest are Friday (for Jumu'ah prayers) and Sunday.

text: Some non-government companies in Brunei adopted the working week of Monday to Friday, while the weekend starts on Saturday until Sunday. Depending on the company rules, employees may be required to work half-day on Saturday.

text: Israel[edit]

text: In Israel, the standard workweek is 43 hours as prescribed by law. The typical workweek is five days, Sunday to Thursday, with 8.6 hours a day as the standard, with anything beyond that considered overtime. A minority of jobs operate on a partial six-day Sunday-Friday workweek, with 8 hours of work per day for the first five days and three hours on Friday as the standard hours before overtime.[66][67][68] A six-day workweek with Friday as a partial workday used to be the standard in Israel.[69][70] Many Israelis work overtime hours, with a maximum of 12 overtime hours a week permitted by law. Most offices and businesses run on a five-day week, though many stores, post offices, banks, and schools are open and public transportation runs six days a week. Almost all businesses are closed during Saturday, and most public services except for emergency services, including almost all public transport, are unavailable on Saturdays. However, some shops, restaurants, cafes, places of entertainment, and factories are open on Saturdays, and a few bus and share taxi lines are active.[71][72][73] Employees who work Saturdays, particularly service industry workers, public sector workers, and pilots, are compensated with alternative days off.[74] In 2014, the average workweek was 45.8 hours for men and 37.1 hours for women.[75]

text: Japan[edit]

text: The standard business office working week in Japan begins on Monday and ends on Friday, 40 hours per week. This system became common between 1980 and 2000. Before then, most workers in Japan worked full-time from Monday to Friday and a half day on Saturday, 45–48 hours per week. Public schools and facilities (excluding city offices) are generally open on Saturdays for half a day.[76]

text: Mexico[edit]

text: Mexico has a 48-hour work week (8 hours × 6 days),[77] it is a custom in most industries and trades to work half day on Saturday. Most public employees work Monday to Friday as well in some office companies. Shops and retailers open on Saturday and Sunday in most large cities.

text: Mongolia[edit]

text: Mongolia has a Monday to Friday working week, with a normal maximum time of 40 hours. Most shops are also open on weekends, many large retail chains having full opening hours even on Sunday. Private enterprises conduct business from 9:00 to 18:00, and government institutions may have full working hours.

text: Nepal[edit]

text: Nepal follows the ancient Vedic calendar, which has the resting day on Saturday and the first day of the working week on Sunday.[78] Schools in Nepal are off on Saturdays, so it is common for pupils to go to school from Sunday to Friday.

text: In November 2012, the home ministry proposed a two-day holiday per week plan for all government offices except at those providing essential services like electricity, water, and telecommunications.[79] This proposal followed a previous proposal by the Nepali government, i.e. Load-shedding Reduction Work Plan 2069 BS, for a five working day plan for government offices as part of efforts to address the problem of load-shedding. The proposal has been discussed in the Administration Committee; it is not yet clear whether the plan includes private offices and educational institutions.

text: New Zealand[edit]

text: In New Zealand the working week is typically Monday to Friday 8:30 to 17:00, but it is not uncommon for many industries (especially construction) to work a half day on Saturday, normally from 8:00 or 9:00 to about 13:00. Supermarkets, malls, independent retailers, and increasingly, banks, remain open seven days a week.

text: Russia[edit]

text: In Russia the common working week begins on Monday and ends on Friday with 8 hours per day.

text: Federal law defines a working week duration of 5 or 6 days with no more than 40 hours worked. In all cases Sunday is a holiday. With a 5-day working week the employer chooses which day of the week will be the second day off. Usually this is a Saturday, but in some organizations (mostly government), it is Monday. Government offices can thereby offer Saturday service to people with a normal working schedule.

text: There are non-working public holidays in Russia; all of them fall on a fixed date. By law, if such a holiday coincides with an ordinary day off, the next work day becomes a day off. An official public holiday cannot replace a regular day off. Each year the government can modify working weeks near public holidays in order to optimize the labor schedule. For example, if a five-day week has a public holiday on Tuesday or Thursday, the calendar is rearranged to provide a reasonable working week.

text: Exceptions include occupations such as transit workers, shop assistants, and security guards. In many cases independent schemes are used. For example, the service industry often uses the X-through-Y scheme (Russian: X через Y) when every worker uses X days for work and the next Y days for rest.

text: Soviet Union[edit]

text: In the Soviet Union the standard working week was 41 hours: 8 hours, 12 min. Monday to Friday. Before the mid-1960s there was a 42-hour 6-day standard working week: 7 hours Monday to Friday and 6 hours on Saturday.

text: Singapore[edit]

text: In Singapore the common working week is 5-day work week, which runs from Monday to Friday beginning 8:30 a.m. and end at 5 p.m. – 6 p.m. Some companies work a half day on Saturdays. Shops, supermarkets and malls are open seven days a week and on most public holidays.

text: South Africa[edit]

text: In South Africa the working week traditionally was Monday to Friday with a half-day on Saturday and Sunday a public holiday. However, since 2013 there have been changes to the working week concept based on more than one variation. The week can be 5 days of work, or more. The maximum number of hours someone can work in a week remains 45.[80]

text: Thailand[edit]

text: In Thailand the working week is Monday to Saturday for a maximum of 44 to 48 hours per week (Saturday can be a half or full day).[citation needed]

text: However, government offices and some private companies have modernised through enacting the American and European standard of working Monday through Friday.[citation needed]

text: Currently, 50% of the luxury beach resorts in Phuket have a five-day working week. Of the remaining 50%, 23% have taken steps to reform their 6-day workweek through such measures as reducing the working week from 6 days to 5.5 days.[citation needed]

text: United States[edit]

text: The standard working week in the United States begins on Monday and ends on Friday, 40 hours per week, with Saturday and Sunday being weekend days. However, in practice, only 42% of employees work 40-hour weeks. The average workweek for full-time employees is 47 hours.[81] Most stores are open for business on Saturday and often on Sunday as well, except in a few places where prohibited by law (see Blue law). Increasingly, employers are offering compressed work schedules to employees. Some government and corporate employees now work a 9/80 work schedule (80 hours over 9 days during a two-week period)—commonly 9 hour days Monday to Thursday, 8 hours on one Friday, and off the following Friday. Jobs in healthcare, law enforcement, transportation, retail, and other service positions commonly require employees to work on the weekend or to do shift work.[82]

text: Vietnam[edit]

text: Vietnam has a standard 48-hour six-day workweek. Monday to Friday are full workdays and Saturday is a partial day. Work typically begins at 8:00 AM and lasts until 5:00 PM from Monday to Friday and until 12:00 PM on Saturdays. This includes a one-hour lunch break. Government offices and banks follow a five-day workweek from Monday to Friday..[83][84]


document_title: The Man in the High Castle

question_text: what do the films mean in high castle

question_tokens: what do the films mean in high castle

text: The Man in the High Castle

text: Synopsis[edit]

text: Briefly, The Man in the High Castle is a "fictional picture of a world divided by Germany and Japan, victors of the second World War".[1]

text: Background[edit]

text: In the novel's alternate history, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt was assassinated by Giuseppe Zangara in 1934 leading to the continuation of the Great Depression and U.S. isolationism during the opening of World War II. Adolf Hitler led Nazi Germany to conquer most of Europe and the Soviet Union, murdering Jews, Roma, Slavs, and other groups. Meanwhile, Imperial Japan occupied China, before taking control of India and Oceania. The Nazis then helped Italy conquer most of Africa. As Japan invaded the U.S. West Coast, Germany invaded the U.S. East Coast and most of South America. By 1947, the U.S. and the remaining Allies surrendered to the Axis, ending the war.

text: By the 1960s, Imperial Japan and Nazi Germany are the world's competing superpowers, with Japan establishing the "Pacific States of America" (P.S.A.) from the former Western United States, with the remaining Rocky Mountain States now a neutral buffer zone between the P.S.A. and the Nazi-occupied former Eastern United States. For unknown reasons, Canada remains independent.

text: Hitler, though still alive, is incapacitated from advanced syphilis, and Martin Bormann has become Chancellor of Germany, with Goebbels, Heydrich, Göring, Seyss-Inquart (who oversees the extermination of the peoples of Africa), and other Nazi leaders soon vying to take his place. The Nazis have drained the Mediterranean to make room for farmland, developed and used the hydrogen bomb, and designed rockets for extremely fast travel across the world as well as space, having colonized the Moon, Venus, and Mars. The novel is set mostly in San Francisco in the P.S.A.; here, Chinese residents first appear in the novel as second-class citizens and black people as slaves. The secondary setting of the novel is the Rocky Mountains States, namely the cities of Cañon City, Denver and Cheyenne.

text: Plot summary[edit]

text: In 1962, fifteen years after Imperial Japan and Nazi Germany have won World War II, Robert "Bob" Childan owns an Americana antique shop in San Francisco, California (located in the Japanese-occupied Pacific States of America), which is most commonly frequented by the Japanese, who make a fetish of romanticized American cultural artifacts. Childan is contacted by Nobusuke Tagomi, a high-ranking Japanese trade official, who is seeking a gift to impress a visiting Swedish industrialist named Baynes. Childan's store is stocked in part with antiques from the Wyndam-Matson Corporation, a metalworking company. Frank Frink (formerly Fink), a secretly Jewish–American veteran of World War II, has just been fired from the Wyndam-Matson factory, when he agrees to join a former coworker to begin a handcrafted jewelry business. Meanwhile, Frink's ex-wife, Juliana, works as a judo instructor in Cañon City, Colorado (in the neutral buffer zone of Mountain States), where she begins a sexual relationship with an Italian truck driver and ex-soldier, Joe Cinnadella. Throughout the book, many of these characters frequently make important decisions using prophetic messages they interpret from the I Ching. Many characters are also reading a widely banned yet extremely popular new novel, The Grasshopper Lies Heavy, which depicts an alternate history in which the Allies won World War II, a concept that amazes and intrigues its readers.

text: Frink reveals that the Wyndam-Matson Corporation has been supplying Childan with counterfeit antiques, which effectively works to blackmail Wyndam-Matson for money to finance Frink's new jewelry venture. Tagomi and Baynes meet, but Baynes repeatedly delays any real business as they await an expected third party from Japan. Suddenly, the public receives news of the death of the recently ill Chancellor of Germany, Martin Bormann. Childan tentatively, on consignment, takes some of Frink's "authentic" new metalwork and attempts to curry favor with a Japanese client, who surprisingly considers Frink's jewellery immensely spiritually alive. Juliana and Joe take a road trip to Denver, Colorado, and Joe impulsively decides they should go on a side-trip to meet the mysterious Hawthorne Abendsen, author of The Grasshopper Lies Heavy, who supposedly lives in a guarded fortress-like estate called the "High Castle" in Cheyenne, Wyoming. Soon, Joseph Goebbels is announced as the new German Chancellor.

text: Baynes and Tagomi finally meet their Japanese contact as two agents of the Nazi secret police, the Sicherheitsdienst (SD), close in to arrest Baynes, who is actually revealed to be a Nazi defector named Rudolf Wegener. Wegener warns his contact, a famed Japanese general, of Operation Dandelion, an upcoming Goebbels-approved plan for the Nazis to surprise-attack the Japanese Home Islands, in order to obliterate them in one swift stroke. As Frink is elsewhere exposed as a Jew and arrested, Wegener and Tagomi are confronted by the SD agents, both of whom Tagomi shoots dead with an antique American pistol. Back in Colorado, Joe abruptly changes his appearance and mannerisms before the trip to the High Castle, leading Juliana to deduce that he intends to actually murder Abendsen. Joe confirms this, revealing himself to be an undercover Swiss Nazi assassin. Juliana mortally wounds Joe and drives off to warn Abendsen of the threat to his life.

text: Wegener flies back to Germany where upon landing learns that Reinhard Heydrich (a member of the anti-Dandelion faction) has launched a coup against Goebbels, possibly installing himself as Chancellor. Meanwhile, Tagomi remains shaken by the shootout and goes to Childan to sell back the gun he used in the fight; however, instead, sensing the energy from one of Frink's jewelery items, Tagomi impulsively buys it from Childan, before undergoing a spiritually intense ambiguous moment where he momentarily perceives an alternative-history version of San Francisco. Later, Tagomi on a whim forces the German authorities to release Frink, whom Tagomi has never met and does not know is the maker of the jewelery. Juliana soon has her own spiritual experience when she arrives in Cheyenne. There, she discovers that Abendsen now lives in a normal house with his family, having left behind the High Castle due to a change of outlook; he no longer preoccupies himself with thoughts that he might soon be assassinated. After dodging many of Juliana's questions about his inspiration for his novel, Abendsen finally confesses that he in fact used the I Ching to guide his writing of The Grasshopper Lies Heavy. Before leaving, Juliana infers then that "Truth" wrote the book in order to reveal the "Inner Truth" that Japan and Germany really lost World War II.

text: The Grasshopper Lies Heavy[edit]

text: Several characters in The Man in the High Castle read the popular novel The Grasshopper Lies Heavy, by Hawthorne Abendsen, whose title is assumed or supposed to have come from the Bible[2]:70 verse "The grasshopper shall be a burden" (Ecclesiastes 12:5). Thus, The Grasshopper Lies Heavy constitutes a novel within a novel, wherein Abendsen writes of an alternative universe, where the Axis Powers lost World War II (1939–1947). For this reason, the Germans have banned the novel in the occupied U.S.,[2]:91 but it is widely read in the Pacific, and its publication is legal in the neutral countries.

text: The Grasshopper Lies Heavy postulates that President Roosevelt survives an assassination attempt but forgoes re-election in 1940, honoring George Washington's two-term limit. The next president, Rexford Tugwell, removes the Pacific Fleet from Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, saving it from Japanese attack, which ensures that the U.S. enters the conflict a well-equipped naval power.[2]:70 The United Kingdom retains most of its military-industrial strength, contributing more to the Allied war effort, leading to Rommel's defeat in North Africa; the British advance through the Caucasus to fight alongside the Soviets to victory in the Battle of Stalingrad; Italy reneges on its membership in the Axis Powers and betrays them; British tanks and the Red Army jointly conquer Berlin; at the end of the war, the Nazi leaders—including Adolf Hitler—are tried for their war crimes, wherein the Führer's last words are Deutsche, hier steh' ich ("Germans, here I stand"),[2]:131 in imitation of Martin Luther.

text: After the war, Winston Churchill remains the British Prime Minister, and, because of its military-industrial might, the British Empire does not collapse.[2]:169 The Soviet Union, crippled by war losses, collapses. The U.S. establishes strong business relations with Chiang Kai-shek's right-wing regime in China after vanquishing the Communist Mao Zedong in the Chinese Civil War.[2]:166 The British Empire becomes more racist and expansionist post-war, while the U.S. outlaws Jim Crow laws, resolving its racism by the 1950s. Both changes provoke racial-cultural tensions between the U.S. and the U.K., leading them to a Cold War for global hegemony between their two vaguely liberal, democratic, capitalist societies. Although the end of the novel is never depicted in the text, one character claims the book ends with the British Empire eventually defeating the U.S., becoming the sole world superpower.

text: Inspirations[edit]

text: Dick said he conceived The Man in the High Castle when reading Bring the Jubilee (1953), by Ward Moore, which occurs in an alternative nineteenth-century U.S. wherein the Confederate States of America won the American Civil War. In the acknowledgments to the book, he mentions other influences: The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich (1960), by William L. Shirer; Hitler: A Study in Tyranny (1962), by Alan Bullock; The Goebbels Diaries (1948), Louis P. Lochner, translator; Foxes of the Desert (1960), by Paul Carrell; and the 1950 translation of the I Ching by Richard Wilhelm.[3][2]

text: The acknowledgments have three references to traditional Japanese and Tibetan poetic forms; (i) volume one of the Anthology of Japanese Literature (1955), edited by Donald Keene, from which is cited the haiku on page 48; (ii) from Zen and Japanese Culture (1955), by Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki, from which is cited a waka on page 135; and (iii) the Tibetan Book of the Dead (1960), edited by Walter Evans-Wentz.

text: Nathanael West's Miss Lonelyhearts (1933)[4] is also mentioned in the text,[2]:118 written before the Roosevelt assassination divergence point that separates the world of The Man in the High Castle from ours. In this novella, "Miss Lonelyhearts" is a male newspaper journalist who writes anonymous advice as an agony aunt to forlorn readers during the height of the Great Depression; hence, "Miss Lonelyhearts" tries to find consolation in religion, casual sex, rural vacations, and work, none of which provide him with the sense of authenticity and engagement with the outside world that he needs. West's book is about the elusive quality of interpersonal relationships and quest for personal meaning at a time of political turmoil within the United States.

text: Philip Dick used the I Ching to make decisions crucial to the plot of The Man in the High Castle just as characters within the novel use the I Ching to guide decisions.[3]

text: Reception[edit]

text: This section needs expansion with: further, broader statements aimed at encyclopedic, balanced views. You can help by adding to it. (February 2014)

text: In The Religion of Science Fiction, Frederick A. Kreuziger explores the theory of history implied by Dick's creation of the two alternative realities:

text: Neither of the two worlds, however, the revised version of the outcome of WWII nor the fictional account of our present world, is anywhere near similar to the world we are familiar with. But they could be! This is what the book is about. The book argues that this world, described twice, although differently each time, is exactly the world we know and are familiar with. Indeed, it is the only world we know: the world of chance, luck, fate.[5]

text: Avram Davidson praised the novel as a "superior work of fiction", citing Dick's use of the I Ching as "fascinating". Davidson concluded that "It's all here— extrapolation, suspense, action, art, philosophy, plot, [and] character."[6]

text: The Man in the High Castle secured for Dick the 1963 Hugo Award for Best Novel.[7][8][9]

text: A new paperback edition of the novel was published in 1992 by Vintage Books.[10]

text: Adaptations[edit]

text: Audiobook[edit]

text: An unabridged The Man in the High Castle audiobook, read by George Guidall and running approximately 9.5 hours over seven audio cassettes, was released in 1997.[11] Another unabridged audiobook version was released in 2008 by Blackstone Audio, read by Tom Wyner and running approximately 8.5 hours over seven CDs.[12][13] A third unabridged audiobook recording was released in 2014 by Brilliance Audio, read by Jeff Cummings with a running time of 9 hours 58 minutes.[14]

text: Television[edit]

text: After a number of attempts to adapt the book to the screen, in October 2014 Amazon's film production unit began filming the pilot episode of The Man in the High Castle in Roslyn, Washington, for release through the Amazon Prime Web video streaming service.[15][16] The pilot episode was released by Amazon Studios on January 15, 2015,[17][18] and was Amazon's "most watched pilot ever" according to Amazon Studios' vice president, Roy Price.[19] On February 18, 2015, Amazon green-lit the series.[20] The show became available for streaming on November 20, 2015.[21]

text: The television series diverges from the novel in many significant respects. Both the Pacific States of America and the Eastern American puppet state appear to be mere provinces of the Japanese and German empires without any apparent autonomous (even quisling) government institutions whatsoever. The Rocky Mountain States become an anarchic Neutral Zone. World War II appears to have ended following the destruction of Washington, D.C. with an atomic bomb, rather than a land invasion as in the book. As for Hitler, while elderly, he is apparently mostly hale in his Season 1 finale appearance, though other characters elsewhere in the season do reference his supposed physical infirmity. In the novel, the Italian Empire is a minor power that controls North Africa and the Middle East; in the series, however, it is shown through maps that these territories are part of the Nazi Empire, suggesting that either the Italian Empire was annexed after the war or is self-governing within the Reich.

text: Characters from the book that do appear are in most cases far more fleshed out with deeper and sometimes rather different backstories than their novel originals. For instance, Wegener is a Standartenführer in the SS, rather than a naval captain (and oddly there are no German military or naval — as opposed to SS — personnel depicted anywhere in the first season). Rather than being a member of an organized internal resistance (and despite his relatively low rank) Wegener is a close personal confidante of Hitler and his disillusionment with the regime appears to be largely personal. Juliana and Frank are unmarried, but living together, rather than divorced and separated. Frank has a sister, nephew and niece, although they are killed early in the series, and this propels him into a more active role in relation to the resistance. Juliana also has a sister whose murder by the Kenpeitai early in the season instigates her search for the mysterious Man in the High Castle, as well as her having a mother and stepfather who are significant supporting characters. Joe Cinnadella is renamed Joe Blake and as he becomes closer to Juliana appears to have growing doubts about his role as a Nazi agent. Robert Childan is, however, a more minor character in Season 1 than the original, while Ed McCarthy has a rather more prominent and active role.

text: There are several major additional characters introduced by the television series and numerous narrative details and the plotline differ radically from the source novel. For example, the planned Nazi pre-emptive nuclear strike on Japan, "Operation Dandelion," is apparently being prevented only by Hitler's personal refusal to authorise it, leading Heydrich and the faction demanding pre-emptive war to plot the Führer's assassination. In addition, Hawthorne Abendsen does not appear in the first season of the television version and The Grasshopper Lies Heavy is a series of newsreel films depicting multiple alternative realities rather than a novel (although this idea may actually be borrowed from Dick's later novel Valis which features a mysterious film depicting yet another dystopian alternative history of the USA). As of the Season 1 finale, these films are being tracked down by SS agents like Blake for dispatch to Hitler for an as-yet-unknown purpose.

text: In season two we see a map on John Smith's wall of the world. From this map we can see that Japan controls the entirety of the Pacific Ocean and most of the Asian continent, including China, India and half of Russia. Japan is also shown to control Australia, New Zealand, western Canada, Alaska and, all pacific states in the USA. We also see that that the Japanese Empire controls the Yucatán Peninsula and South American countries like Chile. In contrast, Nazi Germany is shown as controlling all of Europe, Africa and the Middle East. The German Empire also controls all of the United States and Canada up to the Rockies in the west and South American countries like Brazil. Germany also controls the western parts of former USSR such as the Ukraine. There are also buffer zones between the empires. Neither empire seems to have invaded Mexico and this neutral zone continues up through the Rockies and through Canada. A similar neutral zone is seen dividing Russia in half.

text: Season two also shows two very different lifestyles in the Japanese controlled Pacific states and the German controlled east. The Germans have colonized the eastern states and are assimilating its inhabitants into Nazi beliefs. The Japanese Empire is occupying the pacific states versus colonizing them. There is enforced segregation between Japanese and Americans citizens. It is implied that Native Americans and Pacific Islanders were exterminated by the Germans.

text: Incomplete sequel[edit]

text: In a 1976 interview, Dick said he planned to write a sequel novel to The Man in the High Castle: "And so there's no real ending on it. I like to regard it as an open ending. It will segue into a sequel sometime."[22] Dick said that he had "started several times to write a sequel",[23] but progressed little, because he was too disturbed by his original research for The Man in the High Castle and could not mentally bear "to go back and read about Nazis again."[23] He suggested that the sequel would be a collaboration with another author:

text: Somebody would have to come in and help me do a sequel to it. Someone who had the stomach for the stamina to think along those lines, to get into the head; if you're going to start writing about Reinhard Heydrich, for instance, you have to get into his face. Can you imagine getting into Reinhard Heydrich's face?[23]

text: Two chapters of the proposed sequel were published in The Shifting Realities of Philip K. Dick,[24] a collection of his essays and other writings.

text: Dick's novel Radio Free Albemuth is rumored to have started as a sequel to The Man in the High Castle.[25] Dick described the plot of this early version of Radio Free Albemuth — then titled VALISystem A — writing:

text: ... a divine and loving ETI [extraterrestrial intelligence] ... help[s] Hawthorne Abendsen, the protagonist-author in [The Man in the High Castle], continue on in his difficult life after the Nazi secret police finally got to him... VALISystem A, located in deep space, sees to it that nothing, absolutely nothing, can prevent Abendsen from finishing his novel.[25]

text: The novel eventually evolved into a new story unrelated to The Man in the High Castle.[25] Dick ultimately abandoned the Albemuth book, unpublished during his lifetime, though portions were salvaged and used for 1981's VALIS.[25] The full book was published in 1985, three years after Dick's death.[26]


document_title: Balamory

question_text: who lives in the blue house in balamory

question_tokens: who lives in the blue house in balamory

text: Balamory

text: Characters[edit]

text: There are eight central characters in Balamory. Each character wears a distinctive colour of clothing like pink or yellow, and lives in a house of the same colour like Archie lives in a pink castle, with the exception of Penny Pocket (who shares the red house/shop with Suzie Sweet, and wears blue) and PC Plum (who lives in the white house but wears a police uniform). Each character also has one or more individual songs.

text:
Character
Actor
Job
House
Song(s)

Miss Hoolie
Julie Wilson Nimmo
Nursery teacher
Green house

Nursery Song:Everybody everyone
Day off song:What do you want to do today (Series 1–2)
Strike up the band (Series 3–4)

Archie the Inventor
Miles Jupp
Inventor
Pink castle

I'm Archie the Inventor (Series 1-4)
Great Inventions, Groovy Solutions (Series 3–4)

Josie Jump
Buki Akib (series 1-2)
Kasia Haddad (Series 3–4)
Fitness instructor
Yellow house

Josie Jump is My Name (Jump a Little Higher) (Series 1-4)
Cheer You Up (Series 3–4)

Edie McCredie
Juliet Cadzow
Bus driver
Blue garage/house

When I Honk My Horn (Series 1-4)
Let Me Take You on a Journey (Series 3–4)

PC Plum
Andrew Agnew
Policeman
Black and white police station

I'm PC Plum (Series 1–4)
Follow the Clue (Series 3–4)

Spencer the Painter
Rodd Christensen
Painter/Musician
Orange house

Climbing Up My Musical Ladder (Series 1–4)
If You Need a Little Rhythm (Series 3–4)

Suzie Sweet
Mary Riggans
Shop and café workers
Red shop

I'm Suzie Sweet, I'm Penny Pocket (Series 1–4)
Suzie's Cooking (Series 3–4)

Penny Pocket
Kim Tserkezie

I'm Suzie Sweet, I'm Penny Pocket (Series 1–4)
Sort It (Series 3–4)

text: The nursery teacher Miss Hoolie is the framing character and narrator for each episode. She introduces the programme and the problem which needs to be solved, provides a recap in the middle, and summarises the story at the end of the episode.

text: Archie the Inventor builds zany creations from household objects, such as boxes, bottles, yoghurt pots, string, and similar items that young children might typically use in craft projects. His inventions are intended to be useful, but sometimes backfire.

text: Josie Jump is the fitness instructor at the primary school next door to Miss Hoolie's nursery school. She plays and coaches all types of gymnastics, sports, and dance, and encourages the young viewers to exercise. She is also talented at storytelling through expressive movement and dance.

text: Edie McCredie drives the nursery school bus. She has travelled all over the world, and has a variety of photographs and souvenirs to talk about. She is also an expert driver and motor mechanic, and occasionally gets exasperated with other road users.

text: Police officer PC Plum aspires to be a master detective, but Balamory is a crime free village. He spends most of his time watching wildlife and using his detective skills, to figure out what the animals have been doing. He is also particularly interested in rules, regulations, and safety.

text: Spencer is officially responsible for painting the coloured houses of Balamory, but also paints pictures and creates music. His painter's ladder is musical, each rung sounding a different note. Spencer is also the only American to reside in Balamory and he is black.

text: Suzie Sweet and Penny Pocket together run the village shop and cafe. Suzie Sweet is an older, grandmotherly figure who loves to tell customers about the items in the shop. Penny Pocket is a young woman who uses a wheelchair; she has a talent for mathematics.

text: Episodes[edit]

text: A typical episode follows this general plan:

text: The opening credits show the town of "Balamory" with its brightly coloured houses. Miss Hoolie opens the nursery school, greets the nursery children, and talks about that day's weather.

text: One of the other characters (who will be the main character of that episode) tells Miss Hoolie about a problem. This character then sings "Which Coloured House Are We Going To?", asking the young viewers to guess which of the Balamory characters will be most helpful in solving the problem. The main character then proceeds to visit several other characters until the problem is solved. Miss Hoolie and the main character provide a summary of the story at each point, and a final recap at the end of the episode.

text: For example, in one episode Josie Jump has been asked to look after a neighbour's rabbit, but does not know what it needs. She is advised to visit PC Plum, who advises her to feed it vegetables. She then goes to the shop run by Pocket and Sweet to buy rabbit food, and finally brings the rabbit to Miss Hoolie's nursery for the children to feed and pat it.

text: Each episode of Balamory contains at least five songs:

text:
"What's the Story in Balamory?", the theme song
Miss Hoolie's opening song, either "Everybody, Everyone" if the nursery school is open, or one of the two "day off" songs otherwise
"Which Coloured House Are We Going To?", sung by the main character after presenting his or her problem
Character-specific songs, sung by the characters visited by the main character

text: Episode guide[edit]

text:
Series One
Series Two
Series Three
Series Four

text: Audience[edit]

text: The programme was aimed at pre schoolers. The programme's creator had intended it as a "soap opera for children".[1] The show can also be seen in a humorous light. The characters in Balamory are somewhat naive and light hearted, often appearing to be children trapped in adult bodies with adult roles. The storyline revolves around simple problems designed to challenge pre schoolers' minds.

text: Songs[edit]

text: There are many songs in Balamory, mainly sung by the actors. These songs are used consistently throughout the series, when corresponding characters or circumstances are introduced. In the run starting from September 2004, new songs were introduced. These songs are longer and take up more time in the episode, so the old versions were still often used.

text: In addition to the character specific songs mentioned in the "Characters" section, there are two general songs:

text:
"What's the Story in Balamory?" is the show's theme song, sung over the opening titles and played as an instrumental over the closing credits.
"Which Coloured House Are We Going To?" is sung by the main character of each episode after introducing that episode's problem.

text: Production[edit]

text: Very few episodes feature actors other than the main characters and the nursery children. Terry Wogan made a guest appearance in one episode (The Game Show) as a television director. This episode also featured Greg Hemphill (Julie Wilson Nimmo's husband in real life) and John Altman, who plays Nick Cotton in the BBC soap opera EastEnders. Celebrity chef Keith Floyd appeared in Suzie Sweet's song "Suzie's Cookin'".

text: Occasionally, the shots of children entering the nursery are cut down for repeats for time reasons.

text: Retirement[edit]

text: On 30 April 2005, the BBC announced that it would not order another season of the series, citing they wanted to experiment and create more new programme ideas. In that year, all the cast (except for two of them) performed a farewell touring show called "Balamory Live: Strike up the Band", a follow up to the "Balamory Live: What's The Story" tour from 2004.

text: By the time the programme was retired, many of the cast were also keen to move on. Miles Jupp, who played Archie, stated that his role caused some problems when he was performing stand up on the Edinburgh Fringe, due to parents assuming his show was child friendly, and bringing their children to see it. Julie Wilson Nimmo, who played Miss Hoolie, complained that she could not take her children to the local play area without being mobbed.[2]

text: Awards[edit]

text:
Nominated for Best Pre-school Live Action Series at the 2003 BAFTA Children's Awards.[3]
Awarded Best Pre-school Live Action Series at the 2004 BAFTA Children's Awards.[4]
Nominated for Best Pre-school Live Action Series at the 2005 BAFTA Children's Awards.[5]


document_title: hosts (file)

question_text: where is the host file located in windows server 2008 r2

text: hosts (file)

text: Purpose[edit]

text: The hosts file is one of several system facilities that assists in addressing network nodes in a computer network. It is a common part of an operating system's Internet Protocol (IP) implementation, and serves the function of translating human-friendly hostnames into numeric protocol addresses, called IP addresses, that identify and locate a host in an IP network.

text: In some operating systems, the contents of the hosts file is used preferentially to other name resolution methods, such as the Domain Name System (DNS), but many systems implement name service switches, e.g., nsswitch.conf for Linux and Unix, to provide customization. Unlike remote DNS resolvers, the hosts file is under the direct control of the local computer's administrator.[2]

text: File content[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The hosts file contains lines of text consisting of an IP address in the first text field followed by one or more host names. Each field is separated by white space – tabs are often preferred for historical reasons, but spaces are also used. Comment lines may be included; they are indicated by an octothorpe (#) in the first position of such lines. Entirely blank lines in the file are ignored. For example, a typical hosts file may contain the following:

text: This example only contains entries for the loopback addresses of the system and their host names, a typical default content of the hosts file. The example illustrates that an IP address may have multiple host names (localhost and loopback), and that a host name may be mapped to both IPv4 and IPv6 IP addresses, as shown on the first and second lines respectively.

text: Location in the file system[edit]

text: The location of the hosts file in the file system hierarchy varies by operating system. It is usually named hosts, without an extension.

text:
Operating System
Version(s)
Location

Unix, Unix-like, POSIX

/etc/hosts[3]

Microsoft Windows
3.1
%WinDir%\HOSTS

95, 98, ME
%WinDir%\hosts[4]

NT, 2000, XP,[5] 2003, Vista,
2008, 7, 2012, 8, 10
%SystemRoot%\System32\drivers\etc\hosts[6]

Windows Mobile, Windows Phone

Registry key under HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\Comm\Tcpip\Hosts

Apple Macintosh
9 and earlier
Preferences or System folder

Mac OS X 10.0–10.1.5[7]
(Added through NetInfo or niload)

Mac OS X 10.2 and newer
/etc/hosts (a symbolic link to /private/etc/hosts)[7]

Novell NetWare

SYS:etc\hosts

OS/2 & eComStation

"bootdrive":\mptn\etc\

Symbian
Symbian OS 6.1–9.0
C:\system\data\hosts

Symbian OS 9.1+
C:\private\10000882\hosts

MorphOS
NetStack
ENVARC:sys/net/hosts

AmigaOS
< 4
AmiTCP:db/hosts

4
DEVS:Internet/hosts

AROS

ENVARC:AROSTCP/db/hosts

Android

/etc/hosts (a symbolic link to /system/etc/hosts)

iOS
iOS 2.0 and newer
/etc/hosts (a symbolic link to /private/etc/hosts)

TOPS-20

<SYSTEM>HOSTS.TXT

Plan 9

/lib/ndb/hosts

BeOS

/boot/beos/etc/hosts[8]

Haiku

/boot/common/settings/network/hosts[8]

OpenVMS
UCX
UCX$HOST

TCPware
TCPIP$HOST

RISC OS
3.7, 5
!Boot.Resources.!Internet.files.Hosts

later boot sequence
!Boot.Choices.Hardware.Disabled.Internet.Files.Hosts[9]

text: History[edit]

text: The ARPANET, the predecessor of the Internet, had no distributed host name database. Each network node maintained its own map of the network nodes as needed and assigned them names that were memorable to the users of the system. There was no method for ensuring that all references to a given node in a network were using the same name, nor was there a way to read the hosts file of another computer to automatically obtain a copy.

text: The small size of the ARPANET kept the administrative overhead small to maintain an accurate hosts file. Network nodes typically had one address and could have many names. As local area TCP/IP computer networks gained popularity, however, the maintenance of hosts files became a larger burden on system administrators as networks and network nodes were being added to the system with increasing frequency.

text: Standardization efforts, such as the format specification of the file HOSTS.TXT in RFC 952, and distribution protocols, e.g., the hostname server described in RFC 953, helped with these problems, but the centralized and monolithic nature of hosts files eventually necessitated the creation of the distributed Domain Name System (DNS).

text: On some old systems a file named networks is present that has similar to hosts file functions containing names of networks.

text: Extended applications[edit]

text: In its function of resolving host names, the hosts file may be used to define any hostname or domain name for use in the local system.

text: Security issues[edit]

text: The hosts file may present an attack vector for malicious software. The file may be modified, for example, by adware, computer viruses, or trojan horse software to redirect traffic from the intended destination to sites hosting malicious or unwanted content.[10] The widespread computer worm Mydoom.B blocked users from visiting sites about computer security and antivirus software and also affected access from the compromised computer to the Microsoft Windows Update website.


document_title: History of laptops

question_text: when was the worlds first laptop computer introduced in the market and by whom

text: History of laptops

text: Portal R2E CCMC[edit]

text: The portable micro computer the “Portal" of the French company R2E Micral CCMC officially appeared in September 1980 at the Sicob show in Paris. The Portal was a portable microcomputer designed and marketed by the studies and developments department of the French firm R2E Micral in 1980 at the request of the company CCMC specializing in payroll and accounting. It was based on an Intel 8085 processor, 8-bit, clocked at 2 MHz. It was equipped with a central 64K byte Ram, a keyboard with 58 alpha numeric keys and 11 numeric keys (separate blocks), a 32-character screen, a floppy disk: capacity = 140 000 characters, of a thermal printer: speed = 28 characters / second, an asynchronous channel, a synchronous channel, a 220V power supply. Designed for an operating temperature of 15 ° C to 35 ° C, it weighed 12 kg and its dimensions were 45cm x 45cm x 15cm. It provided total mobility. Its operating system was Prologue.

text: Osborne 1[edit]

text: The Osborne 1 is considered the first true mobile computer by most historians. Adam Osborne founded Osborne Computer and formed the Osborne 1 in 1981. The Osborne 1 had a five-inch screen, incorporating a modem port, two 5 1/4 floppy drives, a big collection of bundled software applications, and a battery pack. The computer company was a failure and did not last for very long. Although it was large and heavy compared to today's laptops, with a tiny 5" CRT monitor, it had a near-revolutionary impact on business, as professionals were able to take their computer and data with them for the first time. This and other "luggables" were inspired by what was probably the first portable computer, the Xerox NoteTaker. The Osborne was about the size of a portable sewing machine, and could be carried on commercial aircraft. The Osborne 1 weighed close to 11 kg and was priced at $1795.

text: Bondwell 2[edit]

text: Although it wasn't released until 1985, well after the decline of CP/M as a major operating system, the Bondwell 2 is one of only a handful of CP/M laptops. It used a Z-80 CPU running at 4 MHz, had 64 KBs of RAM, and a 3.5" floppy disk drive built in, which was unusual for CP/M laptops. The flip-up LCD display's resolution was 640x200 pixels. Bondwell 2 also included MicroPro's complete line of CP/M software, including WordStar. The Bondwell 2 was capable of displaying bitmapped graphics. The price of the Bondwell 2 was listed at $995.

text: Compaq Portable[edit]

text: The Compaq Portable was the first portable computer created in 1982 which one of the first 100% IBM PC compatible systems. The first shipment was in March 1983 and was priced at $2,995. The Compaq Portable folded up into a luggable case the size of a portable sewing machine. The third model of this development, Compaq Portable II, featured high resolution graphics on its tube display. It was the first portable computer ready to be used on the shop floor, and for CAD and diagram display. It established Compaq as a major brand on the market.

text: Epson HX-20[edit]

text: Another significant machine announced in 1981, although first sold widely in 1983, was the Epson HX-20. A simple handheld computer, it featured a full-transit 68-key keyboard, rechargeable nickel-cadmium batteries, a small (120×32-pixel) dot-matrix LCD with 4 lines of text, 20 characters per line text mode, a 24 column dot matrix printer, a Microsoft BASIC interpreter, and 16 KB of RAM (expandable to 32 KB). Through at least the late 1980s Epson continued to release laptops such as the L3s.

text: Grid Compass[edit]

text: The first laptop in the modern form was the Grid Compass 1101, designed by Bill Moggridge in 1979–80, and released in 1983. Enclosed in a magnesium case, it introduced the now familiar clamshell design, in which the flat display folded shut against the keyboard. The computer could be run from batteries, and was equipped with a 320×200-pixel electroluminescent display and 384 kilobyte bubble memory. It was not IBM-compatible, and its high price (US$8,000–10,000) limited it to specialized applications. However, it was used heavily by the U.S. military, and by NASA on the Space Shuttle during the 1980s. The GRiD's manufacturer subsequently earned significant returns on its patent rights as its innovations became commonplace. GRiD Systems Corp. was later bought by the Tandy (now RadioShack) Corporation.

text: Dulmont Magnum/Kookaburra[edit]

text: Another contender for the first true laptop was the Dulmont Magnum, designed Barry Wilkinson and Terry Crews Engineering Manager at Dulmison in 1982 and released in Australia in 1983 It included an 80×8 display in a lid that closed against the keyboard. It was based on the MS-DOS operating system and applications stored in ROM (A:) and also supported removable modules in expansion slots (B: and C:) that could be custom programmed EPROM or standard word processing and spreadsheet applications. However, the Magnum had no nonvolatile memory, but could suspend and retain memory in RAM, including a RAM Disk (D:). A separate expansion box provided dual 5.25-inch floppy or 10 MB hard disk storage. Dulmont was eventually taken over by Time Office Computers, who marketed the Magnum internationally in 16 and 25 line LCD versions, and also introduced the brandname Kookaburra to emphasize its Australian origins.

text: Ampere[edit]

text: The Ampere,[1] a laptop with a sleek clamshell design by Ryu Oosake, was made in 1983. It offered a MC68008 microprocessor dedicated to running an APL interpreter residing in ROM. It was released as the Ampere WS-1.[2]

text: Tandy Model 100[edit]

text: The TRS-80 Model 100 was an early portable computer introduced in 1983. It was one of the first notebook-style computers, featuring a keyboard and LCD, battery-powered, in a package roughly the size and shape of a notepad or a large book.

text: It was made by Kyocera, and originally sold in Japan as the Kyotronic 85. Although a slow seller for Kyocera, the rights to the machine were purchased by Tandy Corporation, and the computer was sold through Radio Shack stores in the United States and Canada as well as affiliated dealers in other countries, becoming one of the company's most popular models, with over 6,000,000 units sold worldwide. The Olivetti M-10 and the NEC PC-8201 and PC-8300 were also built on the same Kyocera platform.

text: Sharp and Gavilan[edit]

text: Two other noteworthy early laptops were the Sharp PC-5000 and the Gavilan SC, announced in 1983 but first sold in 1984. The Gavilan was notably the first computer to be marketed as a "laptop". It was also equipped with a pioneering touchpad-like pointing device, installed on a panel above the keyboard. Like the GRiD Compass, the Gavilan and the Sharp were housed in clamshell cases, but they were partly IBM-compatible, although primarily running their own system software. Both had LCDs, and could connect to optional external printers. The Dulmont Magnum, launched internationally in 1984, was an Australian portable similar in layout to the Gavilan, which used the Intel 80186 processor.[3]

text: Kyotronic 85[edit]

text: The year 1983 also saw the launch of what was probably the biggest-selling early laptop, the Kyocera Kyotronic 85. Owing much to the design of the previous Epson HX-20, and although at first a slow seller in Japan, it was quickly licensed by Tandy Corporation, Olivetti, and NEC, who recognised its potential and marketed it respectively as the TRS-80 Model 100 line (or Tandy 100), Olivetti M-10, and NEC PC-8201.[4] The machines ran on standard AA batteries. The Tandy's built-in programs, including a BASIC interpreter, a text editor, and a terminal program, were supplied by Microsoft, and was written in part by Bill Gates himself. The computer was not a clamshell, but provided a tiltable 8 line × 40-character LCD screen above a full-travel keyboard. With its internal modem, it was a highly portable communications terminal. Due to its portability, good battery life (and ease of replacement), reliability (it had no moving parts), and low price (as little as US$300), the model was highly regarded, becoming a favorite among journalists. It weighed less than 2 kg with dimensions of 30×21.5×4.5 centimeters (12×8½×1¾ in). Initial specifications included 8 kilobytes of RAM (expandable to 24 KB) and a 3 MHz processor. The machine was in fact about the size of a paper notebook, but the term had yet to come into use and it was generally described as a "portable" computer.

text: Commodore SX-64[edit]

text: The Commodore SX-64, also known as the Executive 64, or VIC-64 in Europe, was a portable, briefcase or suitcase-size "luggable" version of the popular Commodore 64 home computer, and was the first full-color portable computer.[5]

text: The SX-64 featured a built-in five-inch composite monitor and a built-in 1541 floppy drive. It weighed 20 pounds. The machine was carried by its sturdy handle, which doubled as an adjustable stand. It was announced in January 1983 and released a year later, at $995 USD.[6]

text: Kaypro 2000[edit]

text: Possibly the first commercial IBM-compatible laptop was the Kaypro 2000, introduced in 1985. With its brushed aluminum clamshell case, it was remarkably similar in design to modern laptops. It featured a 25 line by 80 character LCD, a detachable keyboard, and a pop-up 90 mm (3.5-inch) floppy drive.

text: IBM PC Convertible[edit]

text: Also among the first commercial IBM-compatible laptops was the IBM PC Convertible, introduced in 1986. It had a CGA-compatible LCD and 2 floppy drives. It weighed 13 pounds (5.9 kg).

text: Toshiba T1100, T1000, and T1200[edit]

text: Toshiba launched the Toshiba T1100 in 1985, and has subsequently described it as "the world's first mass-market laptop computer".[7] It did not have a hard drive, and ran entirely from floppy disks. The CPU was a 4.77 MHz Intel 80C88, a variation of the popular Intel 8088, and the display was a monochrome, text-only 640x200 LCD. It was followed in 1987 by the T1000 and T1200. Although limited floppy-based DOS machines, with the operating system stored in ROM, the Toshiba models were small and light enough to be carried in a backpack, and could be run from lead-acid batteries. They also introduced the now-standard "resume" feature to DOS-based machines: the computer could be paused between sessions without having to be restarted each time.

text: US Air Force[edit]

text: The first laptops successful on a large scale came in large part due to a Request For Proposal (RFP) by the U.S. Air Force in 1987. This contract would eventually lead to the purchase of over 200,000 laptops. Competition to supply this contract was fiercely contested and the major PC companies of the time; IBM Corporation, To shins, Compaq, NEC, and Zenith Data Systems (ZDS), rushed to develop laptops in an attempt to win this deal. ZDS, which had earlier won a landmark deal with the IRS for its Z-171, was awarded this contract for its SupersPort series. The SupersPort series was originally launched with an Intel 8086 processor, dual floppy disk drives, a backlit, blue and white STN LCD screen, and a NiCd battery pack. Later models featured an Intel 80286 processor and a 20 MB hard disk drive. On the strength of this deal, ZDS became the world's largest laptop supplier in 1987 and 1988. ZDS partnered with Tottori Sanyo in the design and manufacturing of these laptops. This relationship is notable because it was the first deal between a major brand and an Asian original equipment manufacturer.

text: Hewlett-Packard Vectra Portable CS[edit]

text: In 1987, HP released a portable version of their Vectra CS computer.[8] It had the classic laptop configuration (keyboard and monitor closes up clam-shell style in order to carry), however, it was very heavy and fairly large. It had a full-size keyboard (with separate numeric keypad) and a large amber LCD screen. While it was offered with dual 3.5-inch floppy disk drives, the most common configuration was a 20 MB hard drive and a single floppy drive. It was one of the first machines with a 1.44 MB density 3.5-inch disk drive.

text: Cambridge Z88[edit]

text: Another notable computer was the Cambridge Z88, designed by Clive Sinclair, introduced in 1988. About the size of an A4 sheet of paper as well, it ran on standard batteries, and contained basic spreadsheet, word processing, and communications programs. It anticipated the future miniaturization of the portable computer, and as a ROM-based machine with a small display, can – like the TRS-80 Model 100 – also be seen as a forerunner of the personal digital assistant.

text: Compaq SLT/286[edit]

text: By the end of the 1980s, laptop computers were becoming popular among business people. The COMPAQ SLT/286 debuted in October 1988, being the first battery-powered laptop to support an internal hard disk drive and a VGA compatible LCD screen. It weighed 14 lbs.[9]

text: NEC UltraLite[edit]

text: The NEC UltraLite, released in mid-1989, was perhaps the first "notebook" computer, weighing just 2 kg (4.4 lbs). In lieu of a floppy or hard drive, it contained a 2 megabyte RAM drive, but this reduced its utility as well as its size. Although portable computers with clamshell LCD screens already existed before it, the Ultralite was the first computer in a notebook form-factor. It was significantly smaller than all portable computers that came before it. People can actually carry-it like a notebook and fold its clamshell LCD like a book cover over the rest of its body.

text: Apple[edit]

text: Macintosh Portable[edit]

text: The first Apple Computer machine designed to be used on the go was the 1989 Macintosh Portable (although an LCD screen had been an option for the transportable Apple IIc in 1984). Unlike the Compaq LTE laptop released earlier in the year the Macintosh Portable was actually a "luggable" not a laptop, but the Mac Portable was praised for its clear active matrix display and long battery life, but was a poor seller due to its bulk. In the absence of a true Apple laptop, several compatible machines such as the Outbound Laptop were available for Mac users; however, for copyright reasons, the user had to supply a set of Mac ROMs, which usually meant having to buy a new or used Macintosh as well.

text: Powerbook[edit]

text: The Apple PowerBook series, introduced in October 1991, pioneered changes that are now de facto standards on laptops, such as room for a palm rest, and the inclusion of a pointing device (a trackball). The following year, IBM released its ThinkPad 700C, featuring a similar design (though with a distinctive red TrackPoint pointing device).

text: Later PowerBooks featured optional color displays (PowerBook 165c, 1993), and first true touchpad (PowerBook 500 series, 1994), first 16-bit stereo audio, and first built-in Ethernet network adapter (PowerBook 500, 1994).

text: IBM RS/6000 N40[edit]

text: In 1994, IBM released the RS/6000 N40 laptop based on a PowerPC microprocessor running the AIX operating system, a variant of UNIX. It was manufactured by Tadpole Technology (now Tadpole Computer), who also manufactured laptops based on SPARC and Alpha microprocessors, the SPARCbook and ALPHAbook lines, respectively.

text: Windows 95 operating system[edit]

text: The summer of 1995 was a significant turning point in the history of notebook computing. In August of that year Microsoft introduced Windows 95. It was the first time that Microsoft had implemented the advanced power management specification with control in the operating system. Prior to this point each brand used custom BIOS, drivers and in some cases, ASICs, to optimize the battery life of its machines. This move by Microsoft was controversial in the eyes of notebook designers because it greatly reduced their ability to innovate; however, it did serve its role in simplifying and stabilizing certain aspects of notebook design.

text: Intel Pentium processor[edit]

text: Windows 95 also ushered in the importance of the CD-ROM drive in mobile computing, and initiated the shift to the Intel Pentium processor as the base platform for notebooks. The Gateway Solo was the first notebook introduced with a Pentium processor and a CD-ROM. Also featuring a removable hard disk drive and floppy drive, the Solo was the first three-spindle (optical, floppy, and hard disk drive) notebook computer, and was extremely successful within the consumer segment of the market. In roughly the same time period the Dell Latitude, Toshiba Satellite, and IBM ThinkPad were reaching great success with Pentium-based two-spindle (hard disk and floppy disk drive) systems directed toward the corporate market.

text: Improved technology[edit]

text: Early laptop displays were so primitive that PC Magazine in 1986 published an article discussing them with the headline "Is It On Yet?". It said of the accompanying montage of nine portable computers, "Pictured at the right are two screens and seven elongated smudges". The article stated that "LCD screens still look to many observers like Etch-a-Sketch toys, or gray chalk on a dirty blackboard", and predicted that until displays improved, "laptops will continue to be a niche rather than a mainstream direction".[10] As technology improved during the 1990s, the usefulness and popularity of laptops increased. Correspondingly prices went down. Several developments specific to laptops were quickly implemented, improving usability and performance. Among them were:

text:
Improved battery technology. The heavy lead-acid batteries were replaced with lighter and more efficient technologies, first nickel cadmium or NiCd, then nickel metal hydride (NiMH) and then Lithium-ion battery and lithium polymer.
Power-saving processors. While laptops in 1991 were limited to the 80286 processor because of the energy demands of the more powerful 80386, the introduction of the Intel 386SL processor, designed for the specific power needs of laptops, marked the point at which laptop needs were included in CPU design. The 386SL integrated a 386SX core with a memory controller and this was paired with an I/O chip to create the SL chipset. It was more integrated than any previous solution although its cost was higher. It was heavily adopted by the major notebook brands of the time. Intel followed this with the 486SL chipset which used the same architecture. However, Intel had to abandon this design approach as it introduced its Pentium series. Early versions of the mobile Pentium required TAB mounting (also used in LCD manufacturing) and this initially limited the number of companies capable of supplying notebooks. However, Intel did eventually migrate to more standard chip packaging. One limitation of notebooks has always been the difficulty in upgrading the processor which is a common attribute of desktops. Intel did try to solve this problem with the introduction of the MMC for mobile computing. The MMC was a standard module upon which the CPU and external cache memory could sit. It gave the notebook buyer the potential to upgrade his CPU at a later date, eased the manufacturing process somewhat, and was also used in some cases to skirt U.S. import duties as the CPU could be added to the chassis after it arrived in the U.S. Intel stuck with MMC for a few generations but ultimately could not maintain the appropriate speed and data integrity to the memory subsystem through the MMC connector. A more specialized power saving CPU variant for laptops is the PowerPC 603 family.[11] Derived from IBM's 601 series for laptops (while the 604 branch was for desktops), it found itself used on many low end Apple desktops before it was wildly used in laptops, starting with PowerBook models 5300, 2400, 500 upgrades. Ironically, what started out as a laptop processor was eventually used across all platforms in its follow up PPC 750.
Improved Liquid-crystal displays, in particular active-matrix TFT (Thin-film transistor) LCD technology. Early laptop screens were black and white, blue and white, or grayscale, STN (Super Twist Nematic) passive-matrix LCDs prone to heavy shadows, ghosting and blurry movement (some portable computer screens were sharper monochrome plasma displays, but these drew too much current to be powered by batteries). Color STN screens were used for some time although their viewing quality was poor. By about 1991, two new color LCD technologies hit the mainstream market in a big way; Dual STN and TFT. The Dual STN screens solved many of the viewing problems of STN at a very affordable price and the TFT screens offered excellent viewing quality although initially at a steep price. DSTN continued to offer a significant cost advantage over TFT until the mid-90s before the cost delta dropped to the point that DSTN was no longer used in notebooks. Improvements in production technology meant displays became larger, sharper, had higher native resolutions, faster response time and could display color with great accuracy, making them an acceptable substitute for a traditional CRT monitor.

text:
Improved storage technology. Early laptops and portables had only floppy disk drives. As thin, high-capacity hard disk drives with higher reliability and shock resistance and lower power consumption became available, users could store their work on laptop computers and take it with them. The 3.5" HDD was created initially as a response to the needs of notebook designers that needed smaller, lower power consumption products. With continuing pressure to shrink the notebook size even further, the 2.5" HDD was introduced. One Laptop Per Child (OLPC) and other new laptops use Flash RAM (non volatile, non mechanical memory device) instead of the mechanical hard disk.
Improved connectivity. Internal modems and standard serial, parallel, and PS/2 ports on IBM PC-compatible laptops made it easier to work away from home; the addition of network adapters and, from 1997, USB, as well as, from 1999, Wi-Fi, made laptops as easy to use with peripherals as a desktop computer. Many newer laptops are also available with built-in 3G Broadband wireless modems.
Other peripherals may include:

an integrated video camera for video communication
a fingerprint sensor for implementing a restriction of access to a sensitive data or the computer itself.

text: Netbooks[edit]

text: In June 2007, Asus announced the Eee PC 701 to be released in October, a small lightweight x86 Celeron-M ULV 353 powered laptop with 4 GB SDHC disk and a 7-inch screen.[12] Despite previous attempts to launch small lightweight computers such as ultra-portable PC, the Eee was the first success story largely due to its low cost, small size, low weight and versatility. The term 'Netbook' was later dubbed by Intel. Asus then extended the Eee line with models with features such as a 9-inch screen and other brands, including Acer, MSI and Dell followed suit with similar devices, often built on the fledgling low-power Intel Atom processor architecture.

text: Smartbooks[edit]

text: In 2009, Qualcomm introduced a new term "smartbook", which stands for a hybrid device between smartphone and laptop.[13]