document_title: Currency Act

question_text: who was involved in the currency act of 1764

text: Currency Act

text: Economic climate of the colonies[edit]

text: From their origin, the colonies struggled with the development of an effective medium of exchange for goods and services. After depleting the vast majority of their monetary resources through imports, the first settlers strained to keep money in circulation. They could not find a suitable medium of exchange in which the value did not depreciate. The colonists generally employed three main types of currency. The first was commodity money, using the staple of a given region as a means of exchange. The second was specie, or gold or silver money. Lastly, paper money (or fiat money), issued in the form of a bill of exchange or a bank note, mortgaged on the value of the land that an individual owned.[2]

text: Each year, the supply of specie in the colonies decreased due to international factors. The dearth of specie rendered it ineffective as a means of exchange for day-to-day purchases. Colonists frequently adopted a barter system to acquire the goods and services they required. Essentially, this method proved to be ineffective and a commodity system was adopted in its place. Tobacco was used as a monetary substitute in Virginia as early as 1619.[2] A major shortcoming of this system was that the quality of the substitutes was inconsistent. The poorer qualities ended up in circulation while the finer qualities were inevitably exported. This commodity system became increasingly ineffective as colonial debts increased.

text: In 1690, Massachusetts became the first colony to issue paper currency. This currency was employed as a means to finance its share of the debt from King William’s War. Other colonies quickly followed suit, and by 1715 ten of the thirteen had resorted to the issuance of paper currency. Economist Stanley Finkelstein highlights the advantage of paper currency, “that unless it is backed by specie it is cost free currency.” The paper currency depreciated quickly because the colonies printed more than what was taxed out of circulation. By 1740, Rhode Island bills of exchange were only four percent of face value and those of Massachusetts were eleven percent.[3] The money supply was growing at a much faster rate than that of the overall colonial economy, which led to hyperinflation and the corresponding reduction in purchasing power per unit of money. British merchants were forced to accept this depreciated currency as a repayment of debts. This led to the Currency Act of 1751.[4]

text: Act of 1751[edit]

text: The first Act, the Currency Act of 1751 (24 Geo. II c. 53), restricted the emission of paper money and the establishment of new public banks by the colonies of New England.[5] These colonies had issued paper fiat money known as "bills of credit" to help pay for military expenses during the French and Indian Wars. Because more paper money was issued than what was taxed out of circulation, the currency depreciated in relation to the British pound sterling. The resultant inflation was harmful to merchants in Great Britain, who were forced to accept the depreciated currency from colonists for payment of debts.[6]

text: The Act limited the future emission of bills of credit to certain circumstances. It allowed the existing bills to be used as legal tender for public debts (i.e. paying taxes), but disallowed their use for private debts (e.g. for paying merchants).[7]

text: Act of 1764[edit]

text: The Currency Act of 1764 (4 Geo. III c. 34) extended the 1751 Act to all of the British colonies of North America. Unlike the earlier Act, this statute did not prohibit the colonies from issuing paper money, but it did forbid them from designating future currency emissions as legal tender for public and private debts. This tight money policy created financial difficulties in the colonies, where gold and silver were in short supply.[8] Benjamin Franklin, a colonial agent in London, lobbied for repeal of the Act over the next several years,[9] as did other agents. The act arose when Virginia farmers continued to import during the French and Indian War. Virginia issued 250,000 pounds in bills of credit to finance both public and private debts. This legislation differed from the 1751 act in that it prohibited the colonists from designating paper currency for use as payment for any debts, public or private. Parliament did not, however, prohibit the colonists from issuing paper money.[10] The Act was put into place as a hedge against risks associated with economic fluctuations and uncertainty.

text: The colonial government of the Province of New York insisted that the Currency Act prevented it from providing funds for British troops in compliance with the Quartering Act. As a result, in 1770, Parliament gave permission (10 Geo. Ill c. 35) for New York to issue £120,000 in paper currency for public but not private debts.[11] Parliament extended these concessions to the other colonies in 1773 (13 Geo. III c. 57) by amending the Currency Act of 1764, permitting the colonies to issue paper currency as legal tender for public debts.[8] According to historian Jack Sosin, the British government had made its point:

text: After nine years, the colonial agents had secured a paper currency for the provinces. But the Americans had tacitly, if not implicitly, acknowledged the authority of Parliament. And in the final analysis this was all the imperial government wanted.[12]

text: Legacy[edit]

text: The Currency Acts created tension between the colonies and the mother country, and were a contributing factor in the coming of the American Revolution. In all of the colonies except Delaware, the Acts were considered to be a "major grievance".[13] When the First Continental Congress met in 1774, it issued a Declaration of Rights, which outlined colonial objections to certain Acts of Parliament. Congress called on Parliament to repeal the Currency Act of 1764, one of seven Acts labeled "subversive of American rights".[14]

text: However, according to historians Jack Greene and Richard Jellison, the currency debate was no longer really a "live issue" in 1774, due to the 1773 amendment of the Act. The controversy's most important impact was psychological, in that it helped convince many colonists that Parliament did not understand or care about their problems. Colonial leaders came to believe that they, rather than Parliament, were better suited to legislate for the colonies.[15]


document_title: Students for a Democratic Society

question_text: where did students for a democratic society start

root

text: Students for a Democratic Society

text: Origins[edit]

text: SDS developed from the Student League for Industrial Democracy (SLID), the youth branch of a socialist educational organization known as the League for Industrial Democracy (LID). LID descended from the Intercollegiate Socialist Society, started in 1905. Early in 1960, the SLID changed its name into SDS at the behest of its then acting Director, Aryeh Neier.[1] The phrase “industrial democracy” sounded too narrow and too labor oriented, making it more difficult to recruit students. Moreover, because the LID's leadership did not correspond to the expectations and the mood on the campuses, the SLID felt the need to dissociate itself from its parent organization. SDS held its first meeting in 1960 on the University of Michigan campus at Ann Arbor, Michigan, where Alan Haber was elected president. Its political manifesto, known as the Port Huron Statement, was adopted at the organization's first convention in 1962,[2] based on an earlier draft by staff member Tom Hayden.

tag: p

text: The Port Huron Statement criticized the political system of the United States for failing to achieve international peace and critiqued Cold War foreign policy, the threat of nuclear war, and the arms race. In domestic matters, it criticized racial discrimination, economic inequality, big businesses, trade unions and political parties. In addition to its critique and analysis of the American system, the manifesto also suggested a series of reforms: it proclaimed a need to reshape into two genuine political parties to attain greater democracy, for stronger power for individuals through citizen's lobbies, for more substantial involvement by workers in business management, and for an enlarged public sector with increased government welfare, including a "program against poverty." The manifesto provided ideas of what and how to work for and to improve, and also advocated nonviolent civil disobedience as the means by which student youth could bring forth a "participatory democracy." Kirkpatrick Sale described the manifesto as "nothing less than an ideology, however raw and imperfect and however much would have resisted this word."[3]

text: The manifesto also presented SDS's break with the left-wing policies of the postwar years. Firstly, it was written with the same overall vision all along the document and reflected their view that all problems in every area were linked to each other and their willingness not to lead single-issue struggles but a broad struggle on all fronts at the same time. Then, it expressed SDS's willingness to work with groups whatever may be their political inclination and announced their rejection of anti-communism, a definitely new radical view contrasting with much of the American Left which had developed a policy of anti-communism. Without being Marxist or pro-communism, they denounced anti-communism as being a social problem and an obstruction to democracy. They also criticized the United States for its exaggerated paranoia and exclusive condemnation of the Soviet Union, and blamed this for being the reason for failing to achieve disarmament and to assure peace.

text: The Port Huron Convention opened with a symbol of this break with the policy of the past years: the delegate of the Communist Progressive Youth Organizing Committee asked to attend the conference as an observer. The people from the Young People's Socialist League objected while most of the SDSers insisted on letting him sit. He eventually sat. Later in the meeting, Michael Harrington, an LID member, became agitated over the manifesto because he found the stand they took toward the Soviet Union and authoritarian regimes in general was insufficiently critical, and because, according to him, they deliberately wrote sections to pique the liberals. Surprisingly, Roger Hagan, a liberal, defended the SDS and its policy. After lively debates between the two, the draft finally remained more or less unchanged. Some two weeks later, a meeting between the LID and SDS was held where the LID expressed its discontent about the manifesto. As a result, Haber and Hayden, at this time respectively the National secretary and the new President of the organization, were summoned to a hearing on the 6 July 1962. There, Hayden clashed with Michael Harrington (as he later would with Irving Howe[4]) over the perceived potential for totalitarianism among other things. Harrington denounced the seating of the PYOC member, SDS’s tolerance for communism and their lack of clarity in their condemnation of communist totalitarianism and authoritarianism, and he reproached SDS for providing only a mild critique of the Soviet Union and for blaming the cold war mostly on the United States. Hayden then asked him to read the manifesto more carefully, especially the section on values. Hayden later wrote:

text: The tension between SDS and the LID was greatly increased when SDS called for a national demonstration to take place during the spring of 1965. The LID was very concerned about "Communist" participation but SDS refused to restrict who could attend and what signs they could use. The rift opened even further when, at the 1965 SDS National Convention, the clause excluding communists from membership was deleted from the SDS constitution. During the summer of 1965 delegates from SDS and the LID met in Chicago and New York. The League for Industrial Democracy, SDS's sponsoring organization, objected to the removal of the exclusion clause in the SDS constitution,[6] as SDS benefited from LID's non-profit status, which excluded political activity. By mutual agreement the relationship was severed October 4, 1965.[7]

text: Early years: 1962–1965[edit]

text: This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (May 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: In the academic year 1962–1963, the President was Tom Hayden, the Vice President was Paul Booth and the National Secretary was Jim Monsonis. There were nine chapters with, at most, about 1000 members. The national office (NO) in New York City consisted of a few desks, some broken chairs, a couple of file cabinets and a few typewriters. As a student group with a strong belief in decentralization and a distrust for most organizations, the SDS did not have a strong central bureaucracy. The three stalwarts at the office, Don McKelvey, Steve Max, and the National Secretary, Jim Monsonis, worked long hours for little pay to service the local chapters, and to help establish new ones. Even during the Cuban Missile Crisis in October, little could be accomplished. Most activity was oriented toward civil rights issues and the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) played a key role in inspiring SDS.

text: By the end of the academic year, there were over 200 delegates at the annual convention at Pine Hill, New York, from 32 different colleges and universities. It was then decided to give more power to the chapters, who would then send delegates to the National Council (NC), which would meet quarterly to handle the ongoing activities. Also, in the spirit of participatory democracy, a consensus was reached to elect new officers each year. Lee Webb of Boston University was chosen as National Secretary, and Todd Gitlin of Harvard University was made president. Some continuity was preserved by retaining Paul Booth as Vice President. The search began for something to challenge the idealistic, budding activists.

text: It was at this time that the Black Power Movement was first gaining some momentum (although Stokely Carmichael would make the movement more mainstream in 1966). The movement made it impolitic for white activists, such as those in SDS, to presume to lead protests for black civil rights. Instead, SDS would try to organize white unemployed youths through a newly established program they called the Economic Research and Action Project (ERAP). This "into the ghetto" move was a practical failure, but the fact that it existed at all drew many young idealists to SDS.

text: At the summer convention in 1964 there was a split between those who were campus-oriented, and the ERAP supporters. Most of the old guard were ERAP supporters, but the campus activists were growing. Paul Potter was elected president, and by the end of summer there were ten ERAP programs in place, with about 125 student volunteers. C. Clark Kissinger of Shimer College in Illinois was elected as National Secretary, and he put the NO on a much more business-like basis. He and his assistant, Helen Garvey, mailed out the literature list, the newsletters and the news of chapter's activities to a growing membership list. Kissinger also worked to smooth the relationship with the LID.

text: A small faction of SDS that was interested in change through conventional electoral politics established a program called the Political Education Project (PEP). Its Director was Jim Williams of the University of Louisville, and Steve Max served as its Associate Director. This was never very large, and it was opposed by the mainstream SDSers, who were mostly opposed to such traditional, old-fashioned activity, and were looking for something new that "worked". The landslide victory of Lyndon B. Johnson in the November presidential election played its part, as well, and PEP soon withered away. A Peace Research and Education Project (PREP) headed by Paul Booth, Swarthmore, met a similar fate. Meanwhile, the local chapters got into all sorts of projects, from University reform, community-university relations, and now, in a small way, the issue of the draft and Vietnam War. With the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, the SDS broke with the pro-labor ideas in the Port Huron Statement and decided that it was best to shift the focus of civil rights away from the southern states and more towards urban cities in the north.[8]

text: Then, on October 1, the University of California, Berkeley exploded into the dramatic and prolonged agony that was the free speech movement. Led by a charismatic Friends of SNCC student activist named Mario Savio, upwards of three thousand students surrounded a police car in which a student was being taken away, arrested for setting up an informational card table for the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) in defiance of the University's ban on politics. The sit-down prevented the police car from moving for 32 hours. The demonstrations, meetings and strikes that resulted all but shut the university down. Hundreds of students were arrested.[9]

text: From protest to resistance: 1965–1968[edit]

text: In February 1965, United States President Johnson dramatically escalated the war in Vietnam by bombing North Vietnam in Operation Flaming Dart and introducing ground troops directly involved in fighting the Viet Cong in the South. Campus chapters of SDS all over the country started to lead small, localized demonstrations against the war and the NO became the focal group that organized the march against the war in Washington on April 17. Endorsements came from nearly all of the other peace groups and leading personalities, there was significant increase in income and by the end of March there were 52 chapters. The media began to cover the organization and the New Left. However, the call for the march and the openness of the organization in allowing other groups, even communist front groups, or communists themselves, to join in caused great strains with the LID and some other old left organizations.

text: The first teach-in against the war was held in the University of Michigan. Soon hundreds more, all over the country, were held. The demonstration in Washington, D.C. attracted about 25,000 anti-war protesters and SDS became the leading student group against the war on most U.S. campuses.

text: Representing its move into the heartland, the 1965 summer convention was held at Kewadin, a small camp in Northern Michigan. Moreover, its National Office, which had been located in Manhattan, was moved to Chicago at about the same time. The rapid growth of the membership rate during the preceding year brought with it a new breed with a new style:

text:
“
"For the first time at an SDS meeting people smoked marijuana; Pancho Villa mustaches, those droopy Western‑movie addenda that eventually became a New Left cliché, made their first appearance in quantity; blue workshirts, denim jackets, and boots were worn by both men and women. These were people generally raised outside of the East, many from the Midwest and Southwest, and their ruralistic dress reflected a different tradition, one more aligned to the frontier, more violent, more individualistic, more bare‑knuckled and callus‑handed, than that of the early SDSers. They were non‑Jewish, nonintellectual, nonurban, from a nonprofessional class, and often without any family tradition of political involvement, much less radicalism. They tended to be not only ignorant of the history of the left and its current half‑life in New York City, but downright uninterested: ..."[10]
”

text: The convention elected an Akron, Ohio student, Carl Oglesby, President and Jeff Shero, from the increasingly influential University of Texas chapter in Austin, as Vice President—in preference to "old guard" candidates.[11] The convention voted to remove the anti-communist exclusion clauses from the SDS constitution,[12] failed to provide for any national program,[13] and increased the reliance on local initiatives at the chapters. As a result, the National Office's leadership fell into ineffectual chaos. The League for Industrial Democracy, SDS's nominal sponsoring organization, was disappointed with removal of the exclusion clause from the SDS constitution, as SDS was covered under LID's non-profit status which excluded political activity. By mutual agreement the relationship was severed October 4, 1965.[14]

text: On November 27, 1965 there was a major anti-war demonstration in Washington, D.C. at which Carl Oglesby, the new SDS president, made a very successful speech, addressed to the liberal crowd,[15] and in circuitous terms alleged that the United States government was imperialist in nature. The speech received a standing ovation, substantial press coverage, and resulted in greatly increased national prominence for SDS.[3][16]

text: The unexpected influx of substantial numbers of new members and chapters combined with the ousting of the previous leadership, the "old guard", resulted in a crisis which dogged SDS until its final breakup; despite repeated attempts to do so, consensus was never reached on what form the organization should take or what role it should play. A final attempt by the old guard at a "rethinking conference" to establish a coherent new direction for the organization failed. The conference, held on the University of Illinois campus at Champaign-Urbana over Christmas vacation, 1965, was attended by about 360 people from 66 chapters, many of whom were new to SDS. Despite a great deal of discussion, no substantial decisions were made.[17][18]

text: Nationally, the SDS continued to use the draft as an important issue for students, and over the rest of the academic year began to attack university complicity in it, as the universities had begun to supply students' class rankings, used to determine who was to be drafted. The University of Chicago's administration building was taken over in a three-day sit-in in May. Rank protests and sit-ins spread to many other universities.

text: The summer convention of 1966 was moved even farther west, this time to Clear Lake, Iowa. The "prairie people" continued to increase their influence. Nick Egleson was chosen as President, and Carl Davidson was elected Vice President. Greg Calvert, recently a History Instructor at Iowa State University, was chosen as National Secretary. It was at this convention that members of Progressive Labor Party (PL) first participated. PL was a Maoist group that had turned to SDS as fertile ground for recruiting new members sympathetic to its long-term strategy of organizing the industrial working class.[19] SDSers of that time were nearly all anti-communist, but they also refused to be drawn into actions that smacked of red-baiting, which they viewed as mostly irrelevant and old hat. PL soon began to organize a Worker Student Alliance. By 1968 and 1969 they would profoundly affect SDS, particularly at national gatherings of the membership, forming a well-groomed, disciplined faction which followed the Progressive Labor Party line.[citation needed]

text: The 1966 convention also marked an even greater turn towards organization around campus issues by local chapters, with the NO cast in a strictly supporting role. Campus issues ranged from bad food, powerless student "governments," various in loco parentis manifestations, on-campus recruiting for the military and, again, ranking for the draft. Campuses around the country were in a state of unprecedented ferment and activism. Despite the absence of a politically effective campus SDS chapter, Berkeley again became a center of particularly dramatic radical upheaval over the university's repressive anti-free-speech actions, and an effective student strike with very wide support occurred. Even Harvard endured an upheaval engendered by a visit there of United States Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara.

text: At this time many in SDS turned to a more anarchist-influenced politics and organized activities aimed at the country’s burgeoning countercultural community. These efforts were especially successful at the large and active University of Texas chapter in Austin where The Rag, an underground newspaper founded by SDS leaders Thorne Dreyer and Carol Neiman was, according to historian Abe Peck, the first underground paper in the country to incorporate the “participatory democracy, community organizing and synthesis of politics and culture that the New Left of the midsixties was trying to develop.” [20] And SDS' now legendary “Gentle Thursday” events on the UT campus helped to galvanize the Austin cultural community and turn it into a potent political force.[21] Austin's Gentle Thursday inspired similar activities at a number of other universities including Penn State and Iowa State. Austin, also a center of civil-rights and anti-war activities, was in 1967 the scene of an SDS-generated free speech movement (the University Freedom Movement) that mobilized thousands of students in massive demonstrations and other activities.[22]

text: The Winter and Spring of 1967 saw an escalation of the militancy of the protests at many campuses. SDSers and self-styled radicals were even elected into the student government at a few places. Demonstrations against Dow Chemical Company and other campus recruiters were widespread, and ranking and the draft issues grew in scale. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) (mainly through its secret COINTELPRO) and other law enforcement agencies were often exposed as having spies and informers in the chapters. Harassment by the authorities was also on the rise. The National Office became distinctly more effective in this period, and the three officers actually visited most of the chapters. New Left Notes, as well, became a potent vehicle for promoting some coherence and solidarity among the chapters. The Anti-War movement began to take hold among university students.

text: The 1967 convention took an egalitarian turn by eliminating the Presidential and Vice-Presidential offices and replacing them with a National Secretary (20-year-old Mike Spiegel), an Education Secretary (Texan Bob Pardun of the Austin chapter), and an Inter‑organizational Secretary (former VP Carl Davidson). A clear direction for a national program was not set but they did manage to pass strong resolutions on the draft, resistance within the Army itself, and they made a call for immediate withdrawal from Vietnam.

text: It was also acknowledged that male chauvinism was rampant in the organization, and that women who attended the 1966 convention were pelted with tomatoes after requesting a plank for women's liberation.[23] The 1962 Port Huron Statement even glorified housewives, stating they should work with doctors, professors and laborers in order to expand the organization.[24] At the 1967 convention women's liberation resolution on the issue of male chauvinism was passed by conference attendees, for the first time.

text: This resolution on women's liberation, drafted in the Women’s Liberation Workshop, had two goals. They were to “free women to participate in other meaningful activities” and to “relieve our brothers of the burden of male chauvinism.” For the first goal, they had three specific subgoals. The first was the creation of communal childcare centers, so mothers at home could have free time to pursue their interests. The second was the acknowledgment of the right of women to choose when to have children. They said that free distribution of birth control information and competent medical abortion should be provided for all women. The third called for the even distribution of household chores between all adult members, male and female. For the second goal, to rid SDS of male chauvinism, they had four specific subgoals. The first was that the male SDS members should first work on their personal chauvinism first, and try and remove that from their work and social relationships. The second is for women to participate in all levels of SDS work, “from licking stamps to assuming leadership positions.” The third is for leaders to be aware of the power they hold in creating the dynamic of the leader/subordinate relationship, and to be responsible for not abusing that power. The fourth mentions that all programs created by the SDS must include a section on women’s right. The New Left Notes reprinted the statement, however, it was accompanied by a caricature of a woman dressed in a baby-doll dress, holding a sign with the slogan “We want our rights and we want them now![25]

text: That fall saw a great escalation of the anti-war actions of the New Left. The school year started with a large demonstration against university complicity in the war in allowing Dow recruiters on campus at the University of Wisconsin in Madison on October 17. Peaceful at first, the demonstrations turned to a sit-in that was violently dispersed by the Madison police and riot squad, resulting in many injuries and arrests. A mass rally and a student strike then closed the university for several days. A coordinated series of demonstrations against the draft led by members of the Resistance, the War Resisters League, and SDS added fuel to the fire of resistance. After conventional civil rights tactics of peaceful pickets seemed to have failed, the Oakland, California Stop the Draft Week ended in mass hit and run skirmishes with the police. The huge (100,000 people) October 21 March on the Pentagon saw hundreds arrested and injured. Night-time raids on draft offices began to spread.

text: Climax and split: 1968–1970[edit]

text: In the spring of 1968, National SDS activists led an effort on the campuses called "Ten Days of Resistance" and local chapters cooperated with the Student Mobilization Committee in rallies, marches, sit-ins and teach-ins, which culminated in a one-day strike on April 26. About a million students stayed away from classes that day, the largest student strike in the history of the United States. It was largely ignored by the New York City-based national media, which focused on the student shutdown of Columbia University in New York, led by an inter-racial alliance of Columbia SDS chapter activists and Student Afro Society activists. As a result of the mass media publicity given to Columbia SDS activists such as Columbia SDS chairperson Mark Rudd during the Columbia Student Revolt, the organization was put on the map politically and "SDS" became a household name in the United States for a few years. Membership in SDS chapters around the United States increased dramatically during the 1968-69 academic year.

text: Also in 1968, an SDS organizer at the University of Washington told a meeting about white college men working with poor white men, and "[h]e noted that sometimes after analyzing societal ills, the men shared leisure time by 'balling a chick together.' He pointed out that such activities did much to enhance the political consciousness of poor white youth. A woman in the audience asked, 'And what did it do for the consciousness of the chick?'" (Hole, Judith, and Ellen Levine, Rebirth of Feminism, 1971, pg. 120).[26] After the meeting, a handful of women formed Seattle's first women's liberation group.[26]

text: Led by the Worker-Student Alliance and rival Joe Hill caucuses, SDS in San Francisco played a major role in the Third World Student Strike at San Francisco State College. This strike, the longest student strike in U.S. history, led to the creation of Black and other ethnic studies programs on campuses across the country.[27]

text: SDS members from Austin, Texas participated in a mass demonstration in San Antonio, Texas in April 1969 at the "Kings River Parade". San Antonio SNCC members called the demonstration to protest the killing of Bobby Joe Phillips by San Antonio Police Officers.

text: In the summer of 1969, the ninth SDS national convention was held at the Chicago Coliseum with some 2000 people attending. Many factions of the movement were present, and set up their literature tables all around the edges of the cavernous hall. The Young Socialist Alliance, Wobblies, Spartacists, Marxists and Maoists of various sorts, all together with various law-enforcement spies and informers contributed to the air of impending expectations.

text: Each delegate was given the convention issue of the newspaper New Left Notes, which contained a manifesto, "You don't need a Weatherman to know which way the wind blows", a line taken from Bob Dylan's "Subterranean Homesick Blues". This manifesto had been first presented at the Spring, 1969, SDS National Council Meeting in Austin, Texas. The document had been written by an 11-member committee that included Mark Rudd, Bernardine Dohrn and John Jacobs, and represented the position of the Revolutionary Youth Movement (RYM) wing of SDS, most of which later turned into the Weather Underground Organization. It has been noted that the Weather Underground was an off-branch of SDS for a number of reasons. The New Left Notes issue was full of the language of the Old Left of the 1930s; and was thus impenetrable and irrelevant to the majority of SDSers.

text: According to Kirkpatrick Sale's account of the convention, the RYM and allied groups battled Progressive Labor (PL) members and the WSA faction of SDS for control of the organization throughout the convention. The Black Panther representatives attacked PL and at the same time proved itself inclined towards sexism by advocating "pussy power." The entire convention fell into something approaching chaos, or worse, farce.

text: The RYM and the National Office faction, led by Bernardine Dohrn, led 500 to 1000 people out of the Colosseum and, later that evening, holding a 1000-person meeting in another site near the National Office. There, the Weatherman faction carried the day, electing their slate of officers. The 500-600 people remaining in the meeting hall, dominated by PL, declared itself the "Real SDS", electing PL and WSA members as officers. By the next day, there were two SDS organizations, which RYM termed "SDS-RYM" and "SDS-WSA."[28]

text: In the fall of 1969, many of the SDS-RYM chapters also split up or disintegrated. The Weatherman faction evolved into a small underground organization that first took to street confrontations and then to a bombing campaign. The Weathermen held one final national convention in Flint, Michigan, from December 27–31, 1969. It was at this convention, more popularly known as the "Flint War Council," that the decision was made to disband what remained of SDS-RYM.[29] SDS-RYM was fully defunct by 1970, while SDS-WSA continued its activity.

text: Also in 1969, the New Left was present at a Counter-Inaugural to Richard Nixon’s first inauguration, at which the antiwar leader Dave Dellinger, serving as master of ceremonies, incorrectly announced, “The women have asked all the men to leave the stage.”[30] After that, SDS activist Marilyn Salzman Webb attempted to speak about women's oppression, and SDS men heckled her, shouting, "Take her off the stage and fuck her!" and so forth until she was drowned out.[30][31][32][33] Later Webb received a threatening phone call which she thought was from Cathy Wilkerson, but that was not confirmed, and it may have been from a government agent.[32] In any case, the call contributed to driving apart outspoken feminists in the national SDS and people who put anti-racist and anti-war work before feminism and went toward the Weathermen.[32]

text: SDS-WSA: 1969 to 1974[edit]

text: SDS-Worker-Student Alliance (SDS-WSA) continued to function nationwide, with a focus on (a) fighting racism; and (b) supporting workers' struggles and strikes, including the 1969 General Electric strike and 1970 Postal Workers' strikes. The WSA organized a support demonstration for the post office strikers, which greatly worried Richard Nixon's administration. This is the entry from H.R. Haldeman’s diary:

text:
“
"Saturday, March 21, 1970.
P in early, to EOB, to work on briefing books. Had to spend quite a little time on postal problem. The settlement didn’t work, because rank and file won’t go back, have rejected leaders, and now SDS types involved, at least in New York." - [34]

”

text: Now calling itself simply SDS, SDS-WSA continued to publish the newspaper New Left Notes. It held a convention in Boston in 1971, at which a striking General Motors worker was a featured speaker.

text: In 1972, SDS-WSA demonstrated at the Democratic National Convention in Miami against Democratic presidential candidate George McGovern's retreating from his original stronger campaign positions against the Vietnam War. Several hundred SDS members staged a sit-in at the Doral Hotel as McGovern and his staff met upstairs with protesting members of Grassroots McGovern Volunteers and sympathizers angry over the same issues.

text: In Newark, New Jersey, SDS-WSA demonstrated against Anthony Imperiale and his North Ward Citizens' Council which was opposing the construction of Kawaida Towers, a building complex sponsored by a community organization led by Black nationalist and poet Amiri Baraka (formerly Leroy Jones) (New York Times January 3, 1973, p. 84)

text: SDS joined with PLP and others to protest the writings of Arthur Jensen, William Shockley, and Richard Herrnstein, all of whom promoted the notion that there might be a genetic component to the observed below-average performance of black people on IQ tests. In October 1973, SDS-WSA, PLP, and others organized a convention at the Loeb Student Center of New York University dedicated to opposing academic racism. SDS circulated a petition entitled "A Resolution Against Racism" that was published in the New York Times on October 28, 1973 (p. 211). Out of this convention the Committee Against Racism (CAR) was formed to continue the fight against racism. CAR later changed its name to International Committee Against Racism (InCAR), when some chapters were formed in Canada.

text: In 1974, National SDS(-WSA) voted to dissolve as a separate organization and reform as chapters of InCAR. However, individual chapters of SDS continued to exist for some time. A chapter at Purdue University was active as late as 1976.

text: All references to contemporary activities of SDS in sources such as the New York Times after early 1970 are to SDS-WSA. For example, SDS confronted Indiana Senator Vance Hartke at an antiwar rally in New York City in 1971 (New York Times July 3, 1971, p. 3 and July 4, 1971, p. 3). SDS denounced liberal Democrats as having been the authors of the Vietnam War in the first place. SDS demonstrated against the Republican National Convention in Miami Beach, Florida in August 1972 (New York Times August 21, 1972, p. 20; August 22, 1972, pp. 1,36; August 23, 1972, pp. 1, 28).

text: Unlike SDS-RYM and the Weathermen, SDS-WSA strongly opposed bombing and terrorism. In 1971, SDS-WSA published a pamphlet titled Who Are The Bombers?.[35] It warned readers against police agents sent into the anti-Vietnam War movement to foment violence to justify police attacks. It also sharply criticized the Weathermen, which had begun its campaign of bombings.

text: On June 26, 1972, the US Supreme Court gave a unanimous opinion, in the case Healy v. James, stating that members of the SDS had been unconstitutionally deprived of their First Amendment right to freedom of assembly when a group was denied permission to form on the campus of Central Connecticut State College in New Britain, Connecticut.[36]

text: A few early SDS leaders went on to careers as Democratic Party politicians, including Tom Hayden, a former member of the legislature of the state of California and well known as the former husband of actress Jane Fonda, a prolific author, and a former candidate for offices such as Governor of California, Mayor of Los Angeles, and US Senator.

text: The New SDS: 2006 and later[edit]

text: A new incarnation of SDS was founded on January 16, 2006, Martin Luther King Jr. Day, and by 2010 had grown to over 150 chapters around the United States.[37] It has held five national conventions to date, including the fifth in 2010 in Milwaukee, Wisconsin.[38]

text: Cultural references[edit]

text: In the 1971 film The Andromeda Strain, when Mrs. Jeremy Stone (Susan Brown) informs her husband (Arthur Hill) that unexpected visitors have arrived, he responds, "The SDS, no doubt" before learning that the visitors are Air Force personnel. In the 1994 film Forrest Gump, Jenny (Robin Wright) introduces her boyfriend to Forrest (Tom Hanks) as Wesley (Geoffrey Blake), the president of the Berkeley chapter of SDS.[39]


document_title: The Fool on the Hill

question_text: what is the meaning of the song fool on the hill

text: The Fool on the Hill

text: Composition[edit]

text: The song's lyrics describe the titular "fool", a solitary figure who is not understood by others, but is actually wise. McCartney said the song relates to someone like Maharishi Mahesh Yogi:

text: 'Fool on the Hill' was mine and I think I was writing about someone like Maharishi. His detractors called him a fool. Because of his giggle he wasn't taken too seriously ... I was sitting at the piano at my father's house in Liverpool hitting a D 6th chord, and I made up 'Fool on the Hill.'[2]

text: Alistair Taylor, in the book Yesterday, reports a mysterious incident involving a man who inexplicably appeared near him and McCartney during a walk on Primrose Hill and then disappeared again, soon after McCartney and Taylor had conversed about the existence of God; this allegedly prompted the writing of the song.[4]

text: McCartney played the song for John Lennon during a writing session for "With a Little Help from My Friends", and Lennon told him to write it down. McCartney did not; he was sure he would not forget it.[2] In his 1980 interview with Playboy magazine, Lennon said, "Now that's Paul. Another good lyric. Shows he's capable of writing complete songs."[3]

text: Musical structure[edit]

text: The song involves alternations of D major and D minor in a similar manner to Cole Porter's alternations of C minor and C major in "Night and Day".[5] Thus the D major tonality that begins with an Em7 chord on "Nobody wants to know him" moves through a ii7–V7–I6–vi7–ii7–V7 progression till the shift to the Dm tone and key on "but the fool". Other highlights are the inspired use in the Dm section of a minor sixth (B♭) melody note on the word "sun" (with a Dm♯5 chord) and a major ninth (E melody note) on the word "world" (with a Dm chord).[6]

text: Recording[edit]

text: McCartney recorded a solo demo version of the song on 6 September 1967.[7] This version was later released on the Anthology 2 compilation.[8] Recording began in earnest on 25 September, with significant overdubs by the Beatles on 26 September. Mark Lewisohn said that the 26 September version was "almost a re-make".[9] A take from 25 September – noticeably slower, somewhat heavier and with slightly different vocals – is also included on Anthology 2.[8] After another session on 27 September where McCartney added another vocal,[10] the song sat for a month before flutes were added on 20 October.[11]

text: Ray Thomas of the Moody Blues has said that he and bandmate Mike Pinder contributed harmonicas to the song alongside Lennon and George Harrison.[12]

text: Personnel[edit]

text:
Paul McCartney – vocals, piano, acoustic guitar, recorder, bass, penny whistle[13]
John Lennon – harmonica, Jew's harp
George Harrison – acoustic guitar, harmonica
Ringo Starr – drums, maracas, zill
Christopher Taylor – flute
Richard Taylor – flute
Jack Ellory – flute

tag: ul

text: Personnel per Ian MacDonald.[14] Flautists also documented by Mark Lewisohn.[15]

text: Critical reaction[edit]

text: Richie Unterberger of AllMusic said that "The Fool on the Hill" was the best of the new songs on Magical Mystery Tour aside from "I Am the Walrus".[16] Tim Riley, a music critic who has contributed to NPR, was not impressed, and unfavourably compared the subject of this song to fools in Shakespeare. Riley wrote, "Possibilities in this song outweigh its substance—it's the most unworthy Beatles standard since 'Michelle.'"[17] In 2012, the song was ranked the 420th best classic rock song of all time by New York's Q104.3.[18]. Robert Christgau, of Esquire Magazine in May 1968, wrote it "shows signs of becoming a favorite of the Simon & Garfunkel crowd and the transcendental meditators, who deserve it. A callow rendering of the outcast-visionary theme, it may be the worst song the Beatles have ever recorded."[19]

text: Performance history[edit]

text: The Beatles were no longer performing regular concerts when they released "The Fool on the Hill" on record. McCartney performed it live with Wings on their 1979 tour of the UK.[20] He also included it on his 1989–1990 world tour.[21] The performances on this tour incorporated sound bites from Martin Luther King, Jr.'s I Have a Dream speech.[22] A live version from this tour is found on the album Tripping the Live Fantastic.[23] The song surfaced again for McCartney's 2001–2002 tours, and another live version appeared on the Back in the US album.

text: Sérgio Mendes & Brasil '66 version[edit]

text:
"The Fool on the Hill"

Single by Sérgio Mendes & Brasil '66

from the album Fool on the Hill

Released
1968 (1968)

Genre
Bossa nova

Length
3:15

Label
A&M Records

Songwriter(s)

John Lennon
Paul McCartney

Producer(s)
Sérgio Mendes

text: Sérgio Mendes & Brasil '66 recorded "Fool on the Hill", using their approach of marrying a simple bossa nova rhythm with a string accompaniment.[24] The lead vocal was by Lani Hall. Released as a single, it was a big hit, reaching No. 6 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart.[25] It also spent six weeks at No. 1 on the easy listening chart.[26] It was included on Mendes' album Fool on the Hill.

text: Other versions[edit]

text: Music service Allmusic lists more than 100 cover versions of the song.[27]

text:
Year
Artist
Release
Notes

1968
Eddie Fisher
(single)
Charted on the Record World magazine Non-Rock survey, the first version of the song to make the US singles charts and the last US chart single by Fisher

1968
Bobbie Gentry
Local Gentry

1968
Corry Brokken
Das war ein harter Tag: Beatles-Lieder auf deutsch
In German: "Der Mann, den ich will". Recorded in 1968, but not released until 1995, on a German compilation album Das war ein harter Tag: Beatles-Lieder auf deutsch.[28] Interestingly, it uses an arrangement similar to Sergio Mendes' version.

1969
The Four Tops
The Four Tops Now!

1969
Dorothy Ashby
Dorothy's Harp

1969
Petula Clark
Just Pet

1969
Roslyn Kind
Give Me You

1969
Stone the Crows
Stone the Crows

1969
Vera Lynn
B-side of single Goodnight[29]
Also on double album The Singles Collection (2007)

1970
Shirley Bassey
(single)
Reached number 48 on the UK Singles chart.[30]

1971
Ron Goodwin
Ron Goodwin in Concert
Orchestral version. Goodwin's orchestration gives the opening penny whistle solo to the violas of the orchestra.

1971
The Chopsticks
All of a Sudden

1976
Helen Reddy
All This and World War II

1977
Björk Guðmundsdóttir
Björk[31]
Sung in Icelandic.

1981
Sarah Vaughan
Songs of the Beatles

1981
John Paul Young
The Singer

1982
John Williams
The Portrait of John Williams
Classical guitar version

1984
Sky
Fool on The Hill
Also on 2015 reissue edition of Cadmium.

2007
Beatallica
Masterful Mystery Tour
Merged with Metallica's "Fuel" to create "Fuel on the Hill"

2007
Aretha Franklin
Rare & Unreleased Recordings from the Golden Reign of the Queen of Soul
Recorded in 1969 during the sessions for This Girl's in Love with You.

2009
Mark Mallman
Minnesota Beatle Project, Vol. 1

2014
Eurythmics
The Night That Changed America: A Grammy Salute to The Beatles
This performance was the first and only reunion of Eurythmics founding members Annie Lennox and David A. Stewart after the duo's disbanding in 2005.


document_title: Exploration of Mars

question_text: when did we first put a rover on mars

question_tokens: when did we first put a rover on mars

text: Exploration of Mars

text: Current status[edit]

text: Engineering interplanetary journeys is complicated and the exploration of Mars has experienced a high failure rate, especially the early attempts. Roughly two-thirds of all spacecraft destined for Mars failed before completing their missions and some failed before their observations could begin. Some missions have met with unexpected success, such as the twin Mars Exploration Rovers, which operated for years beyond their specification.[2] As of 16 October 2017, two scientific rovers were on the surface of Mars beaming signals back to Earth (Opportunity of the Mars Exploration Rover mission and Curiosity of the Mars Science Laboratory mission), with six orbiters surveying the planet: Mars Odyssey, Mars Express, Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, Mars Orbiter Mission, MAVEN, and the Trace Gas Orbiter, which have contributed massive amounts of information about Mars. No sample return missions have been attempted for Mars and an attempted return mission for Mars' moon Phobos (Fobos-Grunt) failed.[3]

text: On 24 January 2014, NASA reported that current studies on the planet Mars by the Curiosity and Opportunity rovers will search for evidence of ancient life, including a biosphere based on autotrophic, chemotrophic and/or chemolithoautotrophic microorganisms, as well as ancient water, including fluvio-lacustrine environments (plains related to ancient rivers or lakes) that may have been habitable.[1][4][5][6] The search for evidence of habitability, taphonomy (related to fossils), and organic carbon on the planet Mars is now a primary NASA objective.[1]

text: Martian system[edit]

text: Mars has long been the subject of human interest. Early telescopic observations revealed color changes on the surface that were attributed to seasonal vegetation and apparent linear features were ascribed to intelligent design. Further telescopic observations found two moons, Phobos and Deimos, polar ice caps and the feature now known as Olympus Mons, the solar system's tallest mountain. The discoveries piqued further interest in the study and exploration of the red planet. Mars is a rocky planet, like Earth, that formed around the same time, yet with only half the diameter of Earth, and a far thinner atmosphere, it has a cold and desert-like surface.[7]

text: Launch windows[edit]

text:
Opportunities 2013–2020[8]

Year
Launch
Spacecraft (launched or planned)

2013
Nov 2013
MAVEN, Mars Orbiter Mission

2016
Jan 2016 – Apr 2016
ExoMars TGO

2018
Apr 2018 – May 2018
InSight

2020
Jul 2020 – Sep 2020
ExoMars rover, Mars 2020, Mars Hope,
2020 Chinese Mars Mission, Mangalyaan 2

text: The minimum-energy launch windows for a Martian expedition occur at intervals of approximately two years and two months (specifically 780 days, the planet's synodic period with respect to Earth).[9] In addition, the lowest available transfer energy varies on a roughly 16-year cycle.[9] For example, a minimum occurred in the 1969 and 1971 launch windows, rising to a peak in the late 1970s, and hitting another low in 1986 and 1988.[9]

text: Past and current missions[edit]

text:
Launches to Mars

Decade

1960s

13

1970s

11

1980s

2

1990s

8

2000s

8

2010s

5

text: Starting in 1960, the Soviets launched a series of probes to Mars including the first intended flybys and hard (impact) landing (Mars 1962B).[10] The first successful fly-by of Mars was on 14–15 July 1965, by NASA's Mariner 4.[11] On November 14, 1971 Mariner 9 became the first space probe to orbit another planet when it entered into orbit around Mars.[12] The amount of data returned by probes increased dramatically as technology improved.[10]

text: The first to contact the surface were two Soviet probes: Mars 2 lander on November 27 and Mars 3 lander on December 2, 1971—Mars 2 failed during descent and Mars 3 about twenty seconds after the first Martian soft landing.[13] Mars 6 failed during descent but did return some corrupted atmospheric data in 1974. [14] The 1975 NASA launches of the Viking program consisted of two orbiters, each with a lander that successfully soft landed in 1976. Viking 1 remained operational for six years, Viking 2 for three. The Viking landers relayed the first color panoramas of Mars.[15]

text: The Soviet probes Phobos 1 and 2 were sent to Mars in 1988 to study Mars and its two moons, with a focus on Phobos. Phobos 1 lost contact on the way to Mars. Phobos 2, while successfully photographing Mars and Phobos, failed before it was set to release two landers to the surface of Phobos.[16]

text: Roughly two-thirds of all spacecraft destined for Mars have failed without completing their missions, and it has a reputation as a difficult space exploration target.[17]

text: Missions that ended prematurely after Phobos 1 & 2 (1988) include (see Probing difficulties section for more details):

text:
Mars Observer (launched in 1992)
Mars 96 (1996)
Mars Climate Orbiter (1999)
Mars Polar Lander with Deep Space 2 (1999)
Nozomi (2003)
Beagle 2 (2003)
Fobos-Grunt with Yinghuo-1 (2011)
Schiaparelli lander (2016)

text: Following the 1993 failure of the Mars Observer orbiter, the NASA Mars Global Surveyor achieved Mars orbit in 1997. This mission was a complete success, having finished its primary mapping mission in early 2001. Contact was lost with the probe in November 2006 during its third extended program, spending exactly 10 operational years in space. The NASA Mars Pathfinder, carrying a robotic exploration vehicle Sojourner, landed in the Ares Vallis on Mars in the summer of 1997, returning many images.[18]

text: Phoenix landed on the north polar region of Mars on May 25, 2008.[19] Its robotic arm dug into the Martian soil and the presence of water ice was confirmed on June 20, 2008.[20][21] The mission concluded on November 10, 2008 after contact was lost.[22] In 2008, the price of transporting material from the surface of Earth to the surface of Mars was approximately US$309,000 per kilogram.[23]

text: Rosetta came within 250 km of Mars during its 2007 flyby. [24] Dawn flew by Mars in February 2009 for a gravity assist on its way to investigate Vesta and Ceres. [25]

text: Recent missions[edit]

text: NASA's Mars Odyssey orbiter entered Mars orbit in 2001.[26] Odyssey's Gamma Ray Spectrometer detected significant amounts of hydrogen in the upper metre or so of regolith on Mars. This hydrogen is thought to be contained in large deposits of water ice.[27]

text: The Mars Express mission of the European Space Agency (ESA) reached Mars in 2003. It carried the Beagle 2 lander, which was not heard from after being released and was declared lost in February 2004. Beagle 2 was located in January 2015 by HiRise camera on NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) having landed safely but failed to fully deploy its solar panels and antenna.[28][29] In early 2004 the Mars Express Planetary Fourier Spectrometer team announced the orbiter had detected methane in the Martian atmosphere. ESA announced in June 2006 the discovery of aurorae on Mars.[30]

text: In January 2004, the NASA twin Mars Exploration Rovers named Spirit (MER-A) and Opportunity (MER-B) landed on the surface of Mars. Both have met or exceeded all their targets. Among the most significant scientific returns has been conclusive evidence that liquid water existed at some time in the past at both landing sites. Martian dust devils and windstorms have occasionally cleaned both rovers' solar panels, and thus increased their lifespan.[31] Spirit Rover (MER-A) was active until 2010, when it stopped sending data because it had fallen into a sand dune.[3]

text: On 10 March 2006, the NASA Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) probe arrived in orbit to conduct a two-year science survey. The orbiter began mapping the Martian terrain and weather to find suitable landing sites for upcoming lander missions. The MRO snapped the first image of a series of active avalanches near the planet's north pole, scientists said March 3, 2008.[32]

text: The Mars Science Laboratory mission was launched on November 26, 2011 and it delivered the Curiosity rover, on the surface of Mars on August 6, 2012 UTC. It is larger and more advanced than the Mars Exploration Rovers, with a velocity of up to 90 meters per hour (295 feet per hour).[33] Experiments include a laser chemical sampler that can deduce the make-up of rocks at a distance of 7 meters.[34]

text: MAVEN was successfully launched aboard an Atlas V launch vehicle at the beginning of the first launch window on November 18, 2013. Following the first engine burn of the Centaur second stage, the vehicle coasted in low Earth orbit for 27 minutes before a second Centaur burn of five minutes to insert it into a heliocentric Mars transit orbit.

text: On September 22, 2014, MAVEN reached Mars and was inserted into an areocentric elliptic orbit 6,200 km (3,900 mi) by 150 km (93 mi) above the planet's surface.

text: The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) launched its Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM) on November 5, 2013. It was successfully inserted into Mars orbit on 24 September 2014. India's ISRO is the fourth space agency to reach Mars, after the Soviet space program, NASA and ESA.[35] India became the first country to successfully get a spacecraft into Mars orbit on its maiden attempt.[36]

text: The ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter arrived at Mars in 2016 and deployed the Schiaparelli EDM lander, a test lander that had partial success. Crash-landed on surface, but transmitted data during descent.[37]

text: Overview of missions[edit]

text: The following entails a brief overview of Mars exploration, oriented towards orbiters and flybys; see also Mars landing and Mars rover.

text: Early Soviet missions[edit]

text: Between 1960 and 1969, the Soviet Union launched nine probes intended to reach Mars. They all failed: three at launch; three failed to reach near-Earth orbit; one during the burn to put the spacecraft into trans-Mars trajectory; and two during the interplanetary orbit.

text: The Mars 1M programs (sometimes dubbed Marsnik in Western media) was the first Soviet unmanned spacecraft interplanetary exploration program, which consisted of two flyby probes launched towards Mars in October 1960, Mars 1960A and Mars 1960B (also known as Korabl 4 and Korabl 5 respectively). After launch, the third stage pumps on both launchers were unable to develop enough pressure to commence ignition, so Earth parking orbit was not achieved. The spacecraft reached an altitude of 120 km before reentry.

text: Mars 1962A was a Mars fly-by mission, launched on October 24, 1962 and Mars 1962B an intended first Mars lander mission, launched in late December of the same year (1962). Both failed from either breaking up as they were going into Earth orbit or having the upper stage explode in orbit during the burn to put the spacecraft into trans-Mars trajectory.[3]

text: The first success[edit]

text:
Selected Soviet Mars probes

Spacecraft
Orbiter or flyby outcome
Lander outcome

Mars 1
Failure
Failure

Mars 2
Success
Failure

Mars 3
Partial success
Partial success

Mars 4
Failure
N/A

Mars 5
Partial success
N/A

Mars 6
Success
Failure

Mars 7
Success
Failure

Phobos 1
Failure
Not deployed

Phobos 2
Partial success
Not deployed

text: Mars 1 (1962 Beta Nu 1), an automatic interplanetary spacecraft launched to Mars on November 1, 1962, was the first probe of the Soviet Mars probe program to achieve interplanetary orbit. Mars 1 was intended to fly by the planet at a distance of about 11,000 km and take images of the surface as well as send back data on cosmic radiation, micrometeoroid impacts and Mars' magnetic field, radiation environment, atmospheric structure, and possible organic compounds.[38][39] Sixty-one radio transmissions were held, initially at two-day intervals and later at 5 day intervals, from which a large amount of interplanetary data was collected. On 21 March 1963, when the spacecraft was at a distance of 106,760,000 km from Earth, on its way to Mars, communications ceased due to failure of its antenna orientation system.[38][39]

text: In 1964, both Soviet probe launches, of Zond 1964A on June 4, and Zond 2 on November 30, (part of the Zond program), resulted in failures. Zond 1964A had a failure at launch, while communication was lost with Zond 2 en route to Mars after a mid-course maneuver, in early May 1965.[3]

text: In 1969, and as part of the Mars probe program, the Soviet Union prepared two identical 5-ton orbiters called M-69, dubbed by NASA as Mars 1969A and Mars 1969B. Both probes were lost in launch-related complications with the newly developed Proton rocket.[40]

text: The USSR intended to have the first artificial satellite of Mars beating the planned American Mariner 8 and Mariner 9 Mars orbiters. In May 1971, one day after Mariner 8 malfunctioned at launch and failed to reach orbit, Cosmos 419 (Mars 1971C), a heavy probe of the Soviet Mars program M-71, also failed to launch. This spacecraft was designed as an orbiter only, while the next two probes of project M-71, Mars 2 and Mars 3, were multipurpose combinations of an orbiter and a lander with small skis-walking rovers that would be the first planet rovers outside the Moon. They were successfully launched in mid-May 1971 and reached Mars about seven months later. On November 27, 1971 the lander of Mars 2 crash-landed due to an on-board computer malfunction and became the first man-made object to reach the surface of Mars. On 2 December 1971, the Mars 3 lander became the first spacecraft to achieve a soft landing, but its transmission was interrupted after 14.5 seconds.[41]

text: The Mars 2 and 3 orbiters sent back a relatively large volume of data covering the period from December 1971 to March 1972, although transmissions continued through to August. By 22 August 1972, after sending back data and a total of 60 pictures, Mars 2 and 3 concluded their missions. The images and data enabled creation of surface relief maps, and gave information on the Martian gravity and magnetic fields.[42]

text: In 1973, the Soviet Union sent four more probes to Mars: the Mars 4 and Mars 5 orbiters and the Mars 6 and Mars 7 fly-by/lander combinations. All missions except Mars 7 sent back data, with Mars 5 being most successful. That is not to say much about the fourth missions, Mars 5 died less than three weeks after entering orbit. Mars 5 transmitted just 60 images before a loss of pressurization in the transmitter housing ended the mission. Mars 6 lander transmitted data during descent, but failed upon impact. Mars 4 flew by the planet at a range of 2200 km returning one swath of pictures and radio occultation data, which constituted the first detection of the nightside ionosphere on Mars.[43] Mars 7 probe separated prematurely from the carrying vehicle due to a problem in the operation of one of the onboard systems (attitude control or retro-rockets) and missed the planet by 1,300 kilometres (8.7×10−6 au).[citation needed]

text: Mariner program[edit]

text: In 1964, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory made two attempts at reaching Mars. Mariner 3 and Mariner 4 were identical spacecraft designed to carry out the first flybys of Mars. Mariner 3 was launched on November 5, 1964, but the shroud encasing the spacecraft atop its rocket failed to open properly, dooming the mission. Three weeks later, on November 28, 1964, Mariner 4 was launched successfully on a 7½-month voyage to Mars..[citation needed]

text: Mariner 4 flew past Mars on July 14, 1965, providing the first close-up photographs of another planet. The pictures, gradually played back to Earth from a small tape recorder on the probe, showed impact craters. It provided radically more accurate data about the planet; a surface atmospheric pressure of about 1% of Earth's and daytime temperatures of −100 °C (−148 °F) were estimated. No magnetic field[44][45] or Martian radiation belts[46] were detected. The new data meant redesigns for then planned Martian landers, and showed life would have a more difficult time surviving there than previously anticipated.[47][48][49][50]

text: NASA continued the Mariner program with another pair of Mars flyby probes, Mariner 6 and 7. They were sent at the next launch window, and reached the planet in 1969. During the following launch window the Mariner program again suffered the loss of one of a pair of probes. Mariner 9 successfully entered orbit about Mars, the first spacecraft ever to do so, after the launch time failure of its sister ship, Mariner 8. When Mariner 9 reached Mars in 1971, it and two Soviet orbiters (Mars 2 and Mars 3, see Mars probe program below) found that a planet-wide dust storm was in progress. The mission controllers used the time spent waiting for the storm to clear to have the probe rendezvous with, and photograph, Phobos. When the storm cleared sufficiently for Mars' surface to be photographed by Mariner 9, the pictures returned represented a substantial advance over previous missions. These pictures were the first to offer more detailed evidence that liquid water might at one time have flowed on the planetary surface. They also finally discerned the true nature of many Martian albedo features. For example, Nix Olympica was one of only a few features that could be seen during the planetary duststorm, revealing it to be the highest mountain (volcano, to be exact) on any planet in the entire Solar System, and leading to its reclassification as Olympus Mons.[citation needed]

text: Viking program[edit]

text: The Viking program launched Viking 1 and 2 spacecraft to Mars in 1975; The program consisted of two orbiters and two landers – these were the first two spacecraft to successfully land and operate on Mars.

text:
Viking 1 lander site (1st color, July 21, 1976).

Viking 2 lander site (1st color, September 5, 1976).

Viking 2 lander site (September 25, 1977).

(False color image) Frost at Viking 2 site (May 18, 1979).

Martian sunset over Chryse Planitia at Viking 1 site (August 20, 1976).

text: The primary scientific objectives of the lander mission were to search for biosignatures and observe meteorologic, seismic and magnetic properties of Mars. The results of the biological experiments on board the Viking landers remain inconclusive, with a reanalysis of the Viking data published in 2012 suggesting signs of microbial life on Mars.[51][52]

text:
Flood erosion at Dromore crater.

Tear-drop shaped islands at Oxia Palus.

Streamlined islands in Lunae Palus.

Scour patterns located in Lunae Palus.

text: The Viking orbiters revealed that large floods of water carved deep valleys, eroded grooves into bedrock, and traveled thousands of kilometers. Areas of branched streams, in the southern hemisphere, suggest that rain once fell.[53][54][55]

text: Mars Pathfinder[edit]

text: Mars Pathfinder was a U.S. spacecraft that landed a base station with a roving probe on Mars on July 4, 1997. It consisted of a lander and a small 10.6 kilograms (23 lb) wheeled robotic rover named Sojourner, which was the first rover to operate on the surface of Mars.[56][57] In addition to scientific objectives, the Mars Pathfinder mission was also a "proof-of-concept" for various technologies, such as an airbag landing system and automated obstacle avoidance, both later exploited by the Mars Exploration Rovers.[56]

text: Mars Global Surveyor[edit]

text: After the 1992 failure of NASA's Mars Observer orbiter, NASA retooled and launched Mars Global Surveyor (MGS). Mars Global Surveyor launched on November 7, 1996, and entered orbit on September 12, 1997. After a year and a half trimming its orbit from a looping ellipse to a circular track around the planet, the spacecraft began its primary mapping mission in March 1999. It observed the planet from a low-altitude, nearly polar orbit over the course of one complete Martian year, the equivalent of nearly two Earth years. Mars Global Surveyor completed its primary mission on January 31, 2001, and completed several extended mission phases.[citation needed]

text: The mission studied the entire Martian surface, atmosphere, and interior, and returned more data about the red planet than all previous Mars missions combined. The data has been archived and remains available publicly.[58]

text: Among key scientific findings, Global Surveyor took pictures of gullies and debris flow features that suggest there may be current sources of liquid water, similar to an aquifer, at or near the surface of the planet. Similar channels on Earth are formed by flowing water, but on Mars the temperature is normally too cold and the atmosphere too thin to sustain liquid water. Nevertheless, many scientists hypothesize that liquid groundwater can sometimes surface on Mars, erode gullies and channels, and pool at the bottom before freezing and evaporating.[citation needed]

text: Magnetometer readings showed that the planet's magnetic field is not globally generated in the planet's core, but is localized in particular areas of the crust. New temperature data and closeup images of the Martian moon Phobos showed that its surface is composed of powdery material at least 1 metre (3 feet) thick, caused by millions of years of meteoroid impacts. Data from the spacecraft's laser altimeter gave scientists their first 3-D views of Mars' north polar ice cap.[citation needed] On November 5, 2006 MGS lost contact with Earth.[59] NASA ended efforts to restore communication on January 28, 2007.[60]

text: Mars Odyssey and Mars Express[edit]

text: In 2001, NASA's Mars Odyssey orbiter arrived at Mars. Its mission is to use spectrometers and imagers to hunt for evidence of past or present water and volcanic activity on Mars. In 2002, it was announced that the probe's gamma-ray spectrometer and neutron spectrometer had detected large amounts of hydrogen, indicating that there are vast deposits of water ice in the upper three meters of Mars' soil within 60° latitude of the south pole.[citation needed]

text: On June 2, 2003, the European Space Agency's Mars Express set off from Baikonur Cosmodrome to Mars. The Mars Express craft consists of the Mars Express Orbiter and the stationary lander Beagle 2. The lander carried a digging device and the smallest mass spectrometer created to date, as well as a range of other devices, on a robotic arm in order to accurately analyze soil beneath the dusty surface to look for biosignatures and biomolecules.[citation needed]

text: The orbiter entered Mars orbit on December 25, 2003, and Beagle 2 entered Mars' atmosphere the same day. However, attempts to contact the lander failed. Communications attempts continued throughout January, but Beagle 2 was declared lost in mid-February, and a joint inquiry was launched by the UK and ESA. The Mars Express Orbiter confirmed the presence of water ice and carbon dioxide ice at the planet's south pole, while NASA had previously confirmed their presence at the north pole of Mars.[citation needed]

text: The lander's fate remained a mystery until it was located intact on the surface of Mars in a series of images from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.[61][62] The images suggest that two of the spacecraft's four solar panels failed to deploy, blocking the spacecraft's communications antenna. Beagle 2 is the first British and first European probe to achieve a soft landing on Mars.[citation needed]

text: MER and Phoenix[edit]

text: NASA's Mars Exploration Rover Mission (MER), started in 2003, is an ongoing robotic space mission involving two rovers, Spirit (MER-A) and Opportunity, (MER-B) exploring the Martian surface geology.[citation needed] The mission's scientific objective is to search for and characterize a wide range of rocks and soils that hold clues to past water activity on Mars. The mission is part of NASA's Mars Exploration Program, which includes three previous successful landers: the two Viking program landers in 1976; and Mars Pathfinder probe in 1997.[citation needed]

text: Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter[edit]

text: The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) is a multipurpose spacecraft designed to conduct reconnaissance and exploration of Mars from orbit. The $720 million USD spacecraft was built by Lockheed Martin under the supervision of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, launched August 12, 2005, and entered Mars orbit on March 10, 2006.[64]

text: The MRO contains a host of scientific instruments such as the HiRISE camera, CTX camera, CRISM, and SHARAD. The HiRISE camera is used to analyze Martian landforms, whereas CRISM and SHARAD can detect water, ice, and minerals on and below the surface. Additionally, MRO is paving the way for upcoming generations of spacecraft through daily monitoring of Martian weather and surface conditions, searching for future landing sites, and testing a new telecommunications system that enable it to send and receive information at an unprecedented bitrate, compared to previous Mars spacecraft. Data transfer to and from the spacecraft occurs faster than all previous interplanetary missions combined and allows it to serve as an important relay satellite for other missions.[citation needed]

text: Rosetta and Dawn swingbys[edit]

text: The ESA Rosetta space probe mission to the comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko flew within 250 km of Mars on February 25, 2007, in a gravitational slingshot designed to slow and redirect the spacecraft.[65]

text: The NASA Dawn spacecraft used the gravity of Mars in 2009 to change direction and velocity on its way to Vesta, and tested out Dawn's cameras and other instruments on Mars.[66]

text: Fobos-Grunt[edit]

text: In November 8, 2011, Russia's Roscosmos launched an ambitious mission called Fobos-Grunt. It consisted of a lander aimed to retrieve a sample back to Earth from Mars' moon Phobos, and place the Chinese Yinghuo-1 probe in Mars' orbit. The Fobos-Grunt mission suffered a complete control and communications failure shortly after launch and was left stranded in low Earth orbit, later falling back to Earth.[67] The Yinghuo-1 satellite and Fobos-Grunt underwent destructive re-entry on January 15, 2012, finally disintegrating over the Pacific Ocean.[68][69][70]

text: Curiosity rover[edit]

text: The NASA Mars Science Laboratory mission with its rover named Curiosity, was launched on November 26, 2011,[71][72] and landed on Mars on August 6, 2012 on Aeolis Palus in Gale Crater. The rover carries instruments designed to look for past or present conditions relevant to the past or present habitability of Mars.[73][74][75][76]

text: MAVEN[edit]

text: NASA's MAVEN is an orbiter mission to study the upper atmosphere of Mars.[77] It will also serve as a communications relay satellite for robotic landers and rovers on the surface of Mars. MAVEN was launched 18 November 2013 and reached Mars on 22 September 2014.[citation needed]

text: Mars Orbiter Mission[edit]

text: The Mars Orbiter Mission, also called Mangalyaan, was launched on 5 November 2013 by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO).[78] It was successfully inserted into Martian orbit on 24 September 2014. The mission is a technology demonstrator, and as secondary objective, it will also study the Martian atmosphere. This is India's first mission to Mars, and with it, ISRO became the fourth space agency to successfully reach Mars after the Soviet Union, NASA (USA) and ESA (Europe). It also made ISRO the second space agency to reach Mars orbit on its first attempt (the first national one, after the international ESA), and also the first Asian country to successfully send an orbiter to Mars. It was completed in a record low budget of $71 million,[79][80] making it the least-expensive Mars mission to date.[81]

text: Trace Gas Orbiter and EDM[edit]

text:
The ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter is an atmospheric research orbiter built in collaboration between ESA and Roscosmos. It was injected into Mars orbit on 19 October 2016 to gain a better understanding of methane (CH
4) and other trace gases present in the Martian atmosphere that could be evidence for possible biological or geological activity.[82]

text: Future missions[edit]

text:
In August 2012, NASA selected InSight, a $425 million lander mission, with a drill and seismometer to determine the interior structure of Mars.[83][84][85] Two flyby CubeSats called MarCO will be launched with InSight to provide real-time telemetry during the entry and landing of InSight. The CubeSats will separate from the Atlas V booster after launch and travel on their own trajectories to Mars.[86][87][88] The launch has been rescheduled from March 2016 to May 2018.[89]
As part of the ExoMars program, ESA and the Russian Federal Space Agency plan to send the ExoMars rover in 2020 to search for past or present microscopic life on Mars.[90]
The Mars 2020 rover mission by NASA will be launched in 2020, and it is based on the Mars Science Laboratory design. The scientific payload will be focused on astrobiology.[91]
The 2020 Chinese Mars Mission is planned to comprise an orbiter, a lander and a small rover.
The United Arab Emirates will send an orbiter to Mars, the Emirates Mars Mission, in 2020.[92][93]
The ISRO plans to send a follow up mission to its Mars Orbiter Mission in the 2021–2022 timeframe; it is called Mangalyaan 2. This mission will consist of an orbiter, and probably a rover.[94]

text: Proposals[edit]

text:
The Finnish-Russian Mars MetNet concept would use multiple small meteorological stations on Mars to establish a widespread observation network to investigate the planet's atmospheric structure, physics and meteorology.[95] The MetNet precursor or demonstrator was considered for a piggyback launch on Fobos-Grunt,[96] and on the two proposed to fly on the 2016 and 2020 ExoMars spacecraft.[95]
The Mars-Grunt is a Russian mission concept to bring a sample of Martian soil to Earth.[97]
A ESA-NASA team produced a three-launch architecture concept for a Mars sample return, which uses a rover to cache small samples, a Mars ascent stage to send it into orbit, and an orbiter to rendezvous with it above Mars and take it to Earth.[98] Solar-electric propulsion could allow a one launch sample return instead of three.[99]
The Mars Scout Program's SCIM would involve a probe grazing the upper atmosphere of Mars to collect dust and air for return to Earth.[100]
On 10 Nov 2014, China unveiled a prototype model of a Mars rover based on its lunar rover Yutu at an annual air show at Zhuhai. The CASC also said that a mission including an orbiter, lander and the rover (2020 Chinese Mars Mission) will be sent in 2020.[101]
Japan is working on a mission concept called MELOS rover that would look for biosignatures of extant life on Mars.[102]

text: Other future mission concepts include polar probes, Martian aircraft and a network of small meteorological stations.[98] Longterm areas of study may include Martian lava tubes, resource utilization, and electronic charge carriers in rocks.[103][104] Micromissions are another possibility, such as piggybacking a small spacecraft on an Ariane 5 rocket and using a lunar gravity assist to get to Mars.[105]

text: Human mission proposals[edit]

text: Many people have long advocated a human mission to Mars, perhaps eventually leading to the permanent colonization of Mars, as the next logical step for a human space program after lunar exploration. Aside from the prestige such a mission would bring, advocates argue that humans would easily be able to outperform robotic explorers, justifying the expense. Aerospace engineer Bob Zubrin is one of the proponents of such missions. Some critics contend unmanned robots can perform better than humans at a fraction of the expense. If life exists on Mars, a human mission could contaminate it by introducing earthly microbes, so robotic exploration would be preferable.[106]

text: NASA[edit]

text: Human exploration by the United States was identified as a long-term goal in the Vision for Space Exploration announced in 2004 by then US President George W. Bush.[107] The planned Orion spacecraft would be used to send a human expedition to Earth's moon by 2020 as a stepping stone to a Mars expedition. On September 28, 2007, NASA administrator Michael D. Griffin stated that NASA aims to put a person on Mars by 2037.[108]

text: On December 2, 2014, NASA's Advanced Human Exploration Systems and Operations Mission Director Jason Crusan and Deputy Associate Administrator for Programs James Reuthner announced tentative support for the Boeing "Affordable Mars Mission Design" including radiation shielding, centrifugal artificial gravity, in-transit consumable resupply, and a lander which can return.[109][110] Reuthner suggested that if adequate funding was forthcoming, the proposed mission would be expected in the early 2030s.[111]

text: On October 8, 2015, NASA published its official plan for human exploration and colonization of Mars. They called it "Journey to Mars". The plan operates through three distinct phases leading up to fully sustained colonization.[112]

text:
The first stage, already underway, is the "Earth Reliant" phase. This phase continues utilizing the International Space Station until 2024; validating deep space technologies and studying the effects of long duration space missions on the human body.
The second stage, "Proving Ground," moves away from Earth reliance and ventures into cislunar space for most of its tasks. This is when NASA plans to capture an asteroid (planned for 2020), test deep space habitation facilities, and validate capabilities required for human exploration of Mars. Finally, phase three is the transition to independence from Earth resources.
The last stage, the "Earth Independent" phase, includes long term missions on the lunar surface which leverage surface habitats that only require routine maintenance, and the harvesting of Martian resources for fuel, water, and building materials. NASA is still aiming for human missions to Mars in the 2030s, though Earth independence could take decades longer.[113]

text: On August 28, 2015, NASA funded a year long simulation to study the effects of a year long Mars mission on six scientists. The scientists lived in a bio dome on a Mauna Loa mountain in Hawaii with limited connection to the outside world and were only allowed outside if they were wearing spacesuits.[114][115]

text: NASAs human Mars exploration plans have evolved through the NASA Mars Design Reference Missions, a series of design studies for human exploration of Mars.

text: Zubrin[edit]

text: Mars Direct, a low-cost human mission proposed by Robert Zubrin, founder of the Mars Society, would use heavy-lift Saturn V class rockets, such as the Ares V, to skip orbital construction, LEO rendezvous, and lunar fuel depots. A modified proposal, called "Mars to Stay", involves not returning the first immigrant explorers immediately, if ever (see Colonization of Mars).[107][108][116][116] [117]

text: Probing difficulties[edit]

text:
Mars Spacecraft 1988–1999

Spacecraft
Outcome

Phobos 1
Failure

Phobos 2
Failure

Mars Observer
Failure

Mars 96
Failure

Mars Pathfinder
Success

Mars Global Surveyor
Success

Mars Climate Orbiter
Failure

Mars Polar Lander
Failure

Deep Space 2
Failure

Nozomi
Failure

text: The challenge, complexity and length of Mars missions have led to many mission failures.[118] The high failure rate of missions launched from Earth attempting to explore Mars is informally called the "Mars Curse" or "Martian Curse".[119] The phrase "Galactic Ghoul"[120] or "Great Galactic Ghoul", referring to a fictitious space monster that subsists on a diet of Mars probes, was coined in 1997 by Time Magazine journalist Donald Neff, and is sometimes facetiously used to "explain" the recurring difficulties.[121][122][123][124]

text: Two Soviet probes were sent to Mars in 1988 as part of the Phobos program. Phobos 1 operated normally until an expected communications session on 2 September 1988 failed to occur. The problem was traced to a software error, which deactivated attitude thrusters causing the spacecrafts' solar arrays to no longer point at the Sun, depleting Phobos 1 batteries. Phobos 2 operated normally throughout its cruise and Mars orbital insertion phases on January 29, 1989, gathering data on the Sun, interplanetary medium, Mars, and Phobos. Shortly before the final phase of the mission, during which the spacecraft was to approach within 50 m of Phobos' surface and release two landers, one a mobile 'hopper', the other a stationary platform, contact with Phobos 2 was lost. The mission ended when the spacecraft signal failed to be successfully reacquired on March 27, 1989. The cause of the failure was determined to be a malfunction of the on-board computer.[citation needed]

text: Just a few years later in 1992 Mars Observer, launched by NASA, failed as it approached Mars. Mars 96, an orbiter launched on November 16, 1996 by Russia failed, when the planned second burn of the Block D-2 fourth stage did not occur.[125]

text: Following the success of Global Surveyor and Pathfinder, another spate of failures occurred in 1998 and 1999, with the Japanese Nozomi orbiter and NASA's Mars Climate Orbiter, Mars Polar Lander, and Deep Space 2 penetrators all suffering various fatal errors. The Mars Climate Orbiter was noted for mixing up U.S. customary units with metric units, causing the orbiter to burn up while entering Mars' atmosphere.[126]

text: The European Space Agency has also attempted to land two probes on the Martian surface; Beagle 2, a British-built lander that failed to deploy its solar arrays properly after touchdown in December 2003, and Schiaparelli, which was flown along the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter. Contact with the Schiaparelli EDM lander was lost 50 seconds before touchdown.[127] It was later confirmed that the lander struck the surface at a high velocity, possibly exploding.[128]

text: Timeline of Mars exploration[edit]

text: Totals[edit]

text:
Mission type
Success rate
Total attempts
Success
Partial success
Launch failure
Failed en route
Failed to orbit/land

Flyby
45%
11
5
0
4
2
0

Orbiter
50%
23
10
2
5
3
3

Lander
53%
15
7
1
0
3
4

Rover
66%
6
4
0
0
0
2

Total
53%
55
26
3
9
8
9

text: Yearly statistics[edit]

text: This chart lists launches to Mars, two other considerations are how long the mission lasts. For example, there were not many missions launched in the late 1970s, but this was a time where the Viking program had two orbiters and two landers active at Mars, and one lander remained active until 1982. Another consideration is size and effort of each mission.

text:
failure
  partial success
  success
  in transit
  scheduled

text: Timeline[edit]

text:
Mission (1960–1969)
Launch
Arrival at Mars
Termination
Elements
Outcome
Mission budget, bn USD
Launch mass, t
Mass of orbiter / lander / rover, t

 Mars 1M No.1
10 October 1960

10 October 1960
Flyby
Failure (at launch)

0.66[130]

 Mars 1M No.2
14 October 1960

14 October 1960
Flyby
Failure (at launch)

0.66[130]

 Mars 2MV-4 No.1
24 October 1962

24 October 1962
Flyby
Failure (broke up shortly after launch)

0.88[130]

 Mars 1
1 November 1962

21 March 1963
Flyby
Partial success: some data collected, but lost contact before reaching Mars, flyby at approx. 193,000 km

0.89[130]

 Mars 2MV-3 No.1
4 November 1962

19 January 1963
Lander
Failure (failed to leave Earth's orbit)

0.90[130]
0.26[130]

 Mariner 3
5 November 1964

5 November 1964
Flyby
Failure during launch ruined trajectory

0.26[130]

 Mariner 4
28 November 1964
14 July 1965
21 December 1967
Flyby
Success (21 images returned)[10]
0.08[131]
0.26[130]

 Zond 2
30 November 1964

May 1965
Flyby (intended lander)
Failure (communication lost three months before reaching Mars)

0.98[130]

 Mariner 6
25 February 1969
31 July 1969
August 1969
Flyby
Success

0.41[130]

 Mariner 7
27 March 1969
5 August 1969
August 1969
Flyby
Success

0.41[130]

 Mars 2M No.521
27 March 1969

27 March 1969
Orbiter
Failure (at launch)

3.55[130]
2.10[130]

 Mars 2M No.522
2 April 1969

2 April 1969
Orbiter
Failure (at launch)

3.55[130]
2.10[130]

Mission (1970–1989)
Launch
Arrival at Mars
Termination
Elements
Outcome
Mission budget, bn USD
Launch mass, t
Mass of orbiter / lander / rover, t

 Mariner 8
8 May 1971

8 May 1971
Orbiter
Failure (at launch)

1.00[130]
0.60[130]

 Kosmos 419
10 May 1971

12 May 1971
Orbiter
Failure (at launch)

3.80[130]
2.50[130]

 Mariner 9
30 May 1971
14 November 1971
27 October 1972
Orbiter
Success (first successful orbit)

1.00[130]
0.52[130]

 Mars 2
19 May 1971
27 November 1971
22 August 1972
Orbiter
Success

4.65[130]
2.50[130]

27 November 1971
Lander, rover[56]
Failure. Crashed on surface of Mars

0.85[130]

 Mars 3
28 May 1971
2 December 1971
22 August 1972
Orbiter
Success

4.65[130]
2.50[130]

2 December 1971
Lander, rover[56]
Partial success. First successful landing; landed softly but ceased transmission within 15 seconds

0.85[130]

 Mars 4
21 July 1973
10 February 1974
10 February 1974
Orbiter
Partial success (could not enter orbit, made a close flyby)

3.55[130]
2.40[130]

 Mars 5
25 July 1973
2 February 1974
21 February 1974
Orbiter
Partial success. Entered orbit and returned data, but failed within 9 days[132]

3.55[130]
2.40[130]

 Mars 6
5 August 1973
12 March 1974
12 March 1974
Lander
Partial success. Data returned during descent but not after landing on Mars

4.55[130]
0.85[130]

 Mars 7
9 August 1973
9 March 1974
9 March 1974
Lander
Failure. Landing probe separated prematurely; entered heliocentric orbit

4.55[130]
0.85[130]

 Viking 1
20 August 1975
20 July 1976
17 August 1980
Orbiter
Success
0.5[133]
3.53[130]
2.33[133]

13 November 1982
Lander
Success
0.61[133]

 Viking 2
9 September 1975
3 September 1976
25 July 1978
Orbiter
Success
0.5[133]
3.53[130]
2.33[133]

11 April 1980
Lander
Success
0.61[133]

 Phobos 1
7 July 1988

2 September 1988
Orbiter
Partial success. Returned some data. Contact lost while en route to Mars[134]

6.22[133]

Lander
Failure. Not deployed

0.09 [133]

 Phobos 2
12 July 1988
29 January 1989
27 March 1989
Orbiter
Partial success: entered orbit and returned some data. Contact lost just before deployment of landers

6.22[133]

Landers
Failure. Not deployed

0.07 [133]

Mission (1990–1999)
Launch
Arrival at Mars
Termination
Elements
Outcome
Mission budget, bn USD
Launch mass, t
Mass of orbiter / lander / rover, t

 Mars Observer
25 September 1992
24 August 1993
21 August 1993
Orbiter
Failure. Lost contact just before arrival
0.8[135]
2.5[130]

 Mars Global Surveyor
7 November 1996
11 September 1997
5 November 2006
Orbiter
Success

1.1[130]
0.74[130]

 Mars 96
16 November 1996

17 November 1996
Orbiter, lander, penetrator
Failure (at launch)

6.83[130]
2.59[130]

 Mars Pathfinder
4 December 1996
4 July 1997
27 September 1997
Lander
Success

0.89[130]
0.36[130]

 Sojourner
Rover
Success

 Nozomi (Planet-B)
3 July 1998

9 December 2003
Orbiter
Failure. Complications while en route; Never entered orbit[136]

0.54[130]
0.26[130]

 Mars Climate Orbiter
11 December 1998
23 September 1999
23 September 1999
Orbiter
Failure. Crashed on surface due to metric-imperial mix-up

0.63[130]
0.54[130]

 Mars Polar Lander
3 January 1999
3 December 1999
3 December 1999
Lander
Failure. Crash-landed on surface due to improper hardware testing

0.58[130]
0.29[130]

 Deep Space 2 (DS2)
Hard landers

Mission (2000–2009)
Launch
Arrival at Mars
Termination
Elements
Outcome
Mission budget, bn USD
Launch mass, t
Mass of orbiter / lander / rover, t

 2001 Mars Odyssey
7 April 2001
24 October 2001
Currently operational
Orbiter
Success
0.3[137]
0.73[138]
0.33[138]

 Mars Express
2 June 2003
25 December 2003
Currently operational
Orbiter
Success
0.3[139]
1.12[140]
0.60[140]

 Beagle 2
6 February 2004
Lander
Failure. Landed safely but failed to fully deploy. Could not return any data.[141]

0.06[140]

 MER-A Spirit
10 June 2003
4 January 2004
22 March 2011
Rover
Success

 MER-B Opportunity
7 July 2003
25 January 2004
Currently operational
Rover
Success
0.4[142]

 Rosetta
2 March 2004
25 February 2007
30 September 2016
Flyby/Gravity assist en route to comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko
Success (successful Mars flyby).
1.8[143]

 Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter
12 August 2005
10 March 2006
Currently operational
Orbiter
Success
0.7[144]

 Phoenix
4 August 2007
25 May 2008
10 November 2008
Lander
Success
0.4[145]

 Dawn
27 September 2007
17 February 2009
Currently operational
Flyby – gravity assist to Vesta
Success (successful Mars flyby).
0.4[146]

Mission (2010–2019)
Launch
Arrival at Mars
Termination
Elements
Outcome
Mission budget, bn USD
Launch mass, t
Mass of orbiter / lander / rover, t

 Fobos-Grunt
8 November 2011

8 November 2011
Phobos lander, sample return
Failure. Failed to leave Earth orbit.[147] Fell back to Earth.[148]
0.2[149]
13.5[150]
2.30[150]

 Yinghuo-1

8 November 2011
Orbiter

0.12[150]

 MSL Curiosity
26 November 2011
6 August 2012
Currently operational
Rover
Success
2.5[151]
3.89[152]
2.91[152]

 Mars Orbiter Mission
5 November 2013
24 September 2014
Currently operational
Orbiter
Success[153]
0.07[154]
1.34[155]
0.50[156]

 MAVEN
18 November 2013
22 September 2014
Currently operational
Orbiter
Success[78]
0.7[157]
2.45[158]
0.81[158]

  ExoMars TGO
March 14, 2016
October 19, 2016
Currently operational
Orbiter
Success[159]
1.2[160]
4.33[161]
1.43[162]

 Schiaparelli
October 19, 2016
Lander
Partial success. Crash-landed on surface, but transmitted data during descent.[163][161][164]
0.60

text: Planned missions[edit]

text:
Name
Estimated launch
Elements
Notes

 InSight
5 May 2018 [89]
Lander
Study interior structure of Mars.

 Mars Cube One
2 probes, flyby
To provide telemetry during atmospheric entry and landing of InSight.

  ExoMars
2020
Surface platform
Meteorological tests, and deployment of rover.

Rover
Search for the existence of past or present life on Mars.

 Mars 2020
2020
Rover
Astrobiology objectives; rover is based on the Curiosity rover.[165]

 Mars Hope
2020
Orbiter
Atmospheric studies; would become the first Arab probe to Mars.[93]

 Mars Global Remote Sensing Orbiter and Small Rover
2020
Orbiter, rover
Technology demonstration; science [166][167]

text: Proposals under study[edit]

text:
Name
Proposed launch
Elements
Notes

 Mars MetNet precursor
2018 or later[95]
Single impact lander test
Precursor for multi-lander network.[168]

 Mars MetNet
after precursor[95]
Multi-lander network
Simultaneous meteorological measurements at multiple locations.[95][168]

 Mars Geyser Hopper
2018
Lander
Would have the ability to fly or "hop" at least twice from its landed location to reposition itself close to a CO2 geyser site.

 Northern Light
2018
Lander, rover
Mission designed by Canadian organisations and Thoth Technology Inc.[169]

 Mangalyaan 2
2018–2020[170]
Orbiter, lander
Mars orbiter and lander launched by a GSLV launcher.[171][172]

 Icebreaker Life
2018 or 2020
Stationary lander
Based on the 2008 Phoenix lander, would perform astrobiology tests on sub-surface ice.[173]

 PADME
2020
Orbiter
Would study Phobos and Deimos [174][175]

 Inspiration Mars Foundation
2021
Manned flyby
Private mission to send two humans around Mars on a free return trajectory, without landing.[176]

 Martian Moons Exploration
2022[177]
Lander, sample return
Sample return from Phobos and remote sensing of Deimos; will also observe the atmosphere of Mars[178]

 Mars 2022
2022
Orbiter[179]
Communications relay, mapping

 Phootprint
2024
Lander and ascent stage
Mars moon sample return mission.[180][181]

 Fobos-Grunt (repeat mission)
2024
Lander, ascent stage
Phobos sample return.[182]

 Mars Orbiter
2027
Orbiter
First South Korean Mars exploration.

 MELOS
2020s
Rover
A rover; may include a small aircraft[183]

 Mars-Grunt
2020s
Orbiter, lander, ascent stage
Single launch Mars sample return.

 BOLD
2020s
6 impact landers
The Biological Oxidant and Life Detection would perform astrobiology tests on sub-surface soil.[184][185]

 Mars Lander
2030
Lander
First South Korean Mars landing mission.[186][187]

text: Undeveloped concepts[edit]

text:
Mars 4NM and Mars 5NM – projects intended by the Soviet Union for heavy Marsokhod (in 1973 according to initial plan of 1970) and Mars sample return (planned for 1975) missions by launching on N1 (rocket) that has never flown successfully.[188]
Mars 5M (Mars-79) – double-launching Soviet sample return mission planned to 1979 but cancelled due to complexity and technical problems
Voyager-Mars – USA, 1970s – Two orbiters and two landers, launched by a single Saturn V rocket.

text:
Vesta – the multiaimed Soviet mission, developed in cooperation with European countries for realisation in 1991–1994 but canceled due to the Soviet Union disbanding, included the flyby of Mars with delivering the aerostat and small landers or penetrators followed by flybys of 1 Ceres or 4 Vesta and some other asteroids with impact of penetrator on the one of them.
Mars Aerostat – Russian/French balloon part for cancelled Vesta mission and then for failed Mars 96 mission,[189] originally planned for the 1992 launch window, postponed to 1994 and then to 1996 before being cancelled.[190]
Mars Together, combined U.S. and Russian mission study in the 1990s. To be launched by a Molinya with possible U.S. orbiter or lander.[191][192]
Mars Environmental Survey – set of 16 landers planned for 1999–2009
Mars-98 – Russian mission including an orbiter, lander, and rover, planned for 1998 launch opportunity as repeat of failured Mars 96 mission and cancelled due to lack of funding

text:
Mars Surveyor 2001 Lander – October 2001 – Mars lander (refurbished, became Phoenix lander)
Kitty Hawk – Mars airplane micromission, proposed for December 17, 2003, the centennial of the Wright brothers' first flight.[193] Its funding was eventually given to the 2003 Mars Network project.[194]
NetLander – 2007 or 2009 – Mars netlanders
Beagle 3 – 2009 British lander mission meant to search for life, past or present.
Mars Telecommunications Orbiter – September 2009 – Mars orbiter for telecommunications

text:
Sky-Sailor – 2014 – Plane developed by Switzerland to take detailed pictures of Mars surface
Mars Astrobiology Explorer-Cacher – 2018 rover
Red Dragon – Derivative of a Dragon 2 capsule by SpaceX, designed to land by aerobraking and retropropulsion. Planned for 2018, then 2020. Cancelled in favor of an unspecified new landing method on future larger spacecraft.
Tumbleweed rover.[195]
Mars One, orbiters, lander, rover.