document_title: African Footballer of the Year

question_text: who was named african footballer of the year 2014

text: African Footballer of the Year

text: Winners[edit]

text: France Football award (1970–1994)[edit]

text: The award by France Football magazine was awarded to the best African footballer between 1970 and 1994. The award was discontinued in 1995 after the European Footballer of the Year (Ballon d'Or) was opened to players of non-European nationality, the award being given to George Weah that year. It had already been replaced by an official award given out by the Confederation of African Football since 1992.

text:
Year
Rank
Player
Team
Points

1970
1st
 Salif Keïta
 Saint-Étienne
54

2nd
 Laurent Pokou
 ASEC Abidjan
28

 Ali Abo Greisha
 Ismaily

1971
1st
 Ibrahim Sunday
 Asante Kotoko
29

2nd
 Robert Mensah
 Asante Kotoko
15

3rd
 François Ndoumbé
 Canon Yaoundé
13

1972
1st
 Chérif Souleymane
 Hafia
21

2nd
 Bwanga Tshimen
 TP Mazembe
16

3rd
 Petit Sory
 Hafia
14

1973
1st
 Bwanga Tshimen
 TP Mazembe
49

2nd
 Kazadi Mwamba
 TP Mazembe
44

3rd
 Laurent Pokou
 ASEC Abidjan
41

1974
1st
 Paul Moukila
 CARA Brazzaville
57

2nd
 Lobilo Boba
 Vita Club
32

3rd
 Hassan Shehata
 Zamalek
28

1975
1st
 Ahmed Faras
 Mohammédia
28

2nd
 Roger Milla
 Tonnerre Yaoundé
24

 Mamadou Aliou Kéïta
 Hafia

1976
1st
 Roger Milla
 Tonnerre Yaoundé
33

2nd
 Papa Camara
 Hafia
32

3rd
 Ali Bencheikh
 MC Alger
27

1977
1st
 Tarak Dhiab
 Espérance Tunis
45

2nd
 Papa Camara
 Hafia
33

3rd
 Segun Odegbami
 Shooting Stars
29

1978
1st
 Karim Abdul Razak
 Asante Kotoko
58

2nd
 Ali Bencheikh
 MC Alger
33

3rd
 Thomas N'Kono
 Canon Yaoundé
29

1979
1st
 Thomas N'Kono
 Canon Yaoundé
55

2nd
 Adolf Armah
 Hearts of Oak
23

3rd
 Kerfalla Bangoura
 Horoya
15

1980
1st
 Jean Manga-Onguéné
 Canon Yaoundé
64

2nd
 Segun Odegbami
 Shooting Stars
41

3rd
 Théophile Abega
 Canon Yaoundé
18

1981
1st
 Lakhdar Belloumi
 GC Mascara
78

2nd
 Thomas N'Kono
 Canon Yaoundé
54

3rd
 Ali Fergani
 JS Kabylie
26

1982
1st
 Thomas N'Kono
 Espanyol
83

2nd
 Salah Assad
 Mulhouse
54

3rd
 Lakhdar Belloumi
 GC Mascara
36

1983
1st
 Mahmoud El Khatib
 Al Ahly
98

2nd
 Opoku Nti
 Asante Kotoko
89

3rd
 Rafiou Moutairou
 OC Agaza
19

1984
1st
 Théophile Abega
 Toulouse
124

2nd
 Joseph-Antoine Bell
 El Mokawloon
65

 Ibrahim Youssef
 Zamalek

1985
1st
 Mohamed Timoumi
 AS FAR
113

2nd
 Rabah Madjer
 Porto
45

3rd
 Ibrahim Youssef
 Zamalek
39

1986
1st
 Ezzaki Badou
 Mallorca
125

2nd
 Aziz Bouderbala
 Sion
88

3rd
 Roger Milla
 Montpellier
80

1987
1st
 Rabah Madjer
 Porto
130

2nd
 Youssouf Falikou Fofana
 Monaco
63

3rd
 François Omam-Biyik
 Laval
52

1988
1st
 Kalusha Bwalya
 Cercle Brugge
111

2nd
 Roger Milla
 Montpellier
68

3rd
 Youssouf Falikou Fofana
 Monaco
40

1989
1st
 George Weah
 Monaco
133

2nd
 Joseph-Antoine Bell
 Bordeaux
105

3rd
 Kalusha Bwalya
 PSV
49

1990
1st
 Roger Milla
 Saint-Pierroise
209

2nd
 Tahar Chérif El-Ouazzani
 Aydınspor
64

3rd
 Rabah Madjer
 Porto
60

 François Omam-Biyik
 Rennes

1991
1st
 Abedi Pele
 Marseille
152

2nd
 George Weah
 Monaco
106

3rd
 François Omam-Biyik
 Cannes
52

1992
1st
 Abedi Pele
 Marseille
198

2nd
 George Weah
 Paris Saint-Germain
161

3rd
 Tony Yeboah
 Eintracht Frankfurt
64

1993
1st
 Abedi Pele
 Marseille
119

2nd
 Tony Yeboah
 Eintracht Frankfurt
117

3rd
 Rashidi Yekini
 Vitória de Setúbal
104

1994
1st
 George Weah
 Paris Saint-Germain
148

2nd
 Emmanuel Amunike
 Sporting CP
133

3rd
 Daniel Amokachi
 Everton
99

text: CAF award (1992–present)[edit]

text:
Year
Rank
Player
Team
Points

1992
1st
 Abedi Pele
 Marseille
–

1993
1st
 Rashidi Yekini
 Vitória de Setúbal
–

1994
1st
 Emmanuel Amunike
 Sporting CP
48

2nd
 George Weah
 Paris Saint-Germain
44

 Rashidi Yekini
 Olympiacos

1995
1st
 George Weah
 Milan
–

2nd
 Emmanuel Amunike
 Sporting CP
–

3rd
 Daniel Amokachi
 Everton
–

1996
1st
 Nwankwo Kanu
 Internazionale
–

2nd
 George Weah
 Milan
–

3rd
 Daniel Amokachi
 Beşiktaş
–

1997
1st
 Victor Ikpeba
 Monaco
56

2nd
 Japhet N'Doram
 Monaco
40

3rd
 Taribo West
 Internazionale
35

1998
1st
 Mustapha Hadji
 Deportivo La Coruña
76

2nd
 Jay-Jay Okocha
 Paris Saint-Germain
74

3rd
 Sunday Oliseh
 Ajax
58

1999
1st
 Nwankwo Kanu
 Arsenal
46

2nd
 Samuel Kuffour
 Bayern Munich
44

3rd
 Ibrahima Bakayoko
 Marseille
42

2000
1st
 Patrick M'Boma
 Parma
123

2nd
 Lauren
 Mallorca
36

3rd
 Samuel Eto'o
 Mallorca
29

2001
1st
 El Hadji Diouf
 Lens
93

2nd
 Samuel Kuffour
 Bayern Munich
66

3rd
 Samuel Eto'o
 Mallorca
34

2002
1st
 El Hadji Diouf
 Liverpool
93

2nd
 Papa Bouba Diop
 Lens
46

3rd
 Mido
 Ajax
42

2003
1st
 Samuel Eto'o
 Mallorca
–

2nd
 Didier Drogba
 Marseille
–

3rd
 Jay-Jay Okocha
 Bolton Wanderers
–

2004
1st
 Samuel Eto'o
 Barcelona
116

2nd
 Didier Drogba
 Chelsea
90

3rd
 Jay-Jay Okocha
 Bolton Wanderers
68

2005
1st
 Samuel Eto'o
 Barcelona
108

2nd
 Didier Drogba
 Chelsea
106

3rd
 Michael Essien
 Chelsea
50

2006
1st
 Didier Drogba
 Chelsea
79

2nd
 Samuel Eto'o
 Barcelona
76

3rd
 Michael Essien
 Chelsea
36

2007
1st
 Frédéric Kanouté
 Sevilla
–

2nd
 Michael Essien
 Chelsea
–

3rd
 Didier Drogba
 Chelsea
–

2008
1st
 Emmanuel Adebayor
 Arsenal
74

2nd
 Mohamed Aboutrika
 Al-Ahly
53

3rd
 Michael Essien
 Chelsea
36

2009
1st
 Didier Drogba
 Chelsea
92

2nd
 Samuel Eto'o
 Internazionale
69

3rd
 Michael Essien
 Chelsea
43

2010
1st
 Samuel Eto'o
 Internazionale
–

2nd
 Asamoah Gyan
 Sunderland
–

3rd
 Didier Drogba
 Chelsea
–

2011
1st
 Yaya Touré
 Manchester City
–

2nd
 Seydou Keita
 Barcelona
–

3rd
 André Ayew
 Marseille
–

2012
1st
 Yaya Touré
 Manchester City
–

2nd
 Didier Drogba
 Shanghai Shenhua
–

3rd
 Alex Song
 Barcelona
–

2013
1st
 Yaya Touré
 Manchester City
373

2nd
 John Obi Mikel
 Chelsea
265

3rd
 Didier Drogba
 Galatasaray
236

2014
1st
 Yaya Touré
 Manchester City
175

2nd
 Pierre-Emerick Aubameyang
 Borussia Dortmund
120

3rd
 Vincent Enyeama
 Lille
105

2015
1st
 Pierre-Emerick Aubameyang
 Borussia Dortmund
143

2nd
 Yaya Touré
 Manchester City
136

3rd
 André Ayew
 Swansea City
112

2016
1st
 Riyad Mahrez
 Leicester City
361

2nd
 Pierre-Emerick Aubameyang
 Borussia Dortmund
313

3rd
 Sadio Mané
 Liverpool
186

2017
1st
 Mohamed Salah
 Liverpool
625

2nd
 Sadio Mané
 Liverpool
507

3rd
 Pierre-Emerick Aubameyang
 Borussia Dortmund
311

text: Wins By Country[edit]

text:
Nation
Winners
Runners-up
Third places

 Cameroon
11
8
11

 Ivory Coast
8
6
7

 Ghana
6
7
7

 Nigeria
5
6
7

 Morocco
4
1
0

 Algeria
3
4
5

 Liberia
3
4
–

 Egypt
2
2
4

 Mali
2
2
–

 Senegal
2
1
1

 Guinea
1
3
2

 DR Congo
1
3
–

 Gabon
1
2
1

 Zambia
1
–
1

 Togo
1
–
1

 Tunisia
1
–
–

 Congo
1
–
–

 Chad
–
1
–

text: Wins By Club[edit]

text:
Club
Winners
Runners-up
Third places

 Olympique Marseille
4
1
2

 Manchester City
4
1
–

 Chelsea
2
4
6

 AS Monaco
2
3
1

 Barcelona
2
2
1

 Asante Kotoko
2
2
–

 Canon Yaoundé
2
1
3

 RCD Mallorca
2
1
2

 Inter Milan
2
1
1

 Liverpool
2
1
1

 Arsenal
2
–
–

 Paris SG
1
3
–

 Hafia Conacry
1
2
2

 TP Mazembe
1
2
–

 Borussia Dortmund
1
2
–

 Sporting CP
1
2
–

 Al Ahly
1
1
1

 FC Porto
1
1
1

 Tonnerre Yaoundé
1
1
–

 RC Lens
1
1
–

 Milan
1
1
–

 Sporting CP
1
1
–

 GC Mascara
1
–
1

 Vitória de Setúbal
1
–
1

 Cercle Brugge
1
–
–

 CARA Brazzaville
1
–
–

 Leicester City
1
–
–

 AS Saint-Étienne
1
–
–

 Toulouse FC
1
–
–

 Parma
1
–
–

 FAR Rabat
1
–
–

 SCC Mohammédia
1
–
–

 JS Saint-Pierroise
1
–
–

 Deportivo de La Coruña
1
–
–

 Espanyol
1
–
–

 Sevilla
1
–
–

 Espérance ST
1
–
–

 Bayern Munich
–
2
–

 MC Alger
–
1
1

 ASEC Mimosas
–
1
1

 Montpellier
–
1
1

 Eintracht Frankfurt
–
1
1

 Shooting Stars
–
1
1

 Shanghai Shenhua
–
1
–

 Vita Club
–
1
–

 El Mokawloon
–
1
–

 Sunderland
–
1
–

 Girondins Bordeaux
–
1
–

 FC Mulhouse
–
1
–

 Hearts of Oak
–
1
–

 FC Sion
–
1
–

 Aydınspor
–
1
–

 JS Kabylie
–
–
2

 Bolton Wanderers
–
–
2

 Everton FC
–
–
2

 Ajax Amsterdam
–
–
2

 Ismaily SC
–
–
1

 Zamalek SC
–
1
2

 AS Cannes
–
–
1

 Stade Lavallois
–
–
1

 Lille OSC
–
–
1

 Stade Rennais
–
–
1

 Olympiacos
–
–
1

 Horoya AC
–
–
1

 PSV Eindhoven
–
–
1

 OC Agaza
–
–
1

 Beşiktaş
–
–
1

 Galatasaray
–
–
1

 Swansea City
–
–
1


document_title: Lithium

question_text: what is the main mineral in lithium batteries

question_tokens: what is the main mineral in lithium batteries

root

text: Lithium

text: Properties[edit]

text: Atomic and physical[edit]

text: Like the other alkali metals, lithium has a single valence electron that is easily given up to form a cation.[5] Because of this, lithium is a good conductor of heat and electricity as well as a highly reactive element, though it is the least reactive of the alkali metals. Lithium's low reactivity is due to the proximity of its valence electron to its nucleus (the remaining two electrons are in the 1s orbital, much lower in energy, and do not participate in chemical bonds).[5]

tag: p

text: Lithium metal is soft enough to be cut with a knife. When cut, it possesses a silvery-white color that quickly changes to gray as it oxidizes to lithium oxide.[5] While it has one of the lowest melting points among all metals (180 °C), it has the highest melting and boiling points of the alkali metals.[6]

text: Lithium has a very low density (0.534 g/cm3), comparable with pine wood. It is the least dense of all elements that are solids at room temperature; the next lightest solid element (potassium, at 0.862 g/cm3) is more than 60% denser. Furthermore, apart from helium and hydrogen, it is less dense than any liquid element, being only two thirds as dense as liquid nitrogen (0.808 g/cm3).[7] Lithium can float on the lightest hydrocarbon oils and is one of only three metals that can float on water, the other two being sodium and potassium.

text: Lithium's coefficient of thermal expansion is twice that of aluminium and almost four times that of iron.[8] Lithium is superconductive below 400 μK at standard pressure[9] and at higher temperatures (more than 9 K) at very high pressures (>20 GPa).[10] At temperatures below 70 K, lithium, like sodium, undergoes diffusionless phase change transformations. At 4.2 K it has a rhombohedral crystal system (with a nine-layer repeat spacing); at higher temperatures it transforms to face-centered cubic and then body-centered cubic. At liquid-helium temperatures (4 K) the rhombohedral structure is prevalent.[11] Multiple allotropic forms have been identified for lithium at high pressures.[12]

text: Lithium has a mass specific heat capacity of 3.58 kilojoules per kilogram-kelvin, the highest of all solids.[13][14] Because of this, lithium metal is often used in coolants for heat transfer applications.[13]

text: Chemistry and compounds[edit]

text: Lithium reacts with water easily, but with noticeably less vigor than other alkali metals. The reaction forms hydrogen gas and lithium hydroxide in aqueous solution.[5] Because of its reactivity with water, lithium is usually stored in a hydrocarbon sealant, often petroleum jelly. Though the heavier alkali metals can be stored in more dense substances, such as mineral oil, lithium is not dense enough to be fully submerged in these liquids.[15] In moist air, lithium rapidly tarnishes to form a black coating of lithium hydroxide (LiOH and LiOH·H2O), lithium nitride (Li3N) and lithium carbonate (Li2CO3, the result of a secondary reaction between LiOH and CO2).[16]

text: When placed over a flame, lithium compounds give off a striking crimson color, but when it burns strongly the flame becomes a brilliant silver. Lithium will ignite and burn in oxygen when exposed to water or water vapors.[17] Lithium is flammable, and it is potentially explosive when exposed to air and especially to water, though less so than the other alkali metals. The lithium-water reaction at normal temperatures is brisk but nonviolent because the hydrogen produced does not ignite on its own. As with all alkali metals, lithium fires are difficult to extinguish, requiring dry powder fire extinguishers (Class D type). Lithium is one of the few metals that react with nitrogen under normal conditions.[18][19]

text:
Lithium has a diagonal relationship with magnesium, an element of similar atomic and ionic radius. Chemical resemblances between the two metals include the formation of a nitride by reaction with N2, the formation of an oxide (Li
2O) and peroxide (Li
2O
2) when burnt in O2, salts with similar solubilities, and thermal instability of the carbonates and nitrides.[16][20] The metal reacts with hydrogen gas at high temperatures to produce lithium hydride (LiH).[21]

text:
Other known binary compounds include halides (LiF, LiCl, LiBr, LiI), sulfide (Li
2S), superoxide (LiO
2), and carbide (Li
2C
2). Many other inorganic compounds are known in which lithium combines with anions to form salts: borates, amides, carbonate, nitrate, or borohydride (LiBH
4). Lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH
4) is commonly used as a reducing agent in organic synthesis.

text: Multiple organolithium reagents are known in which there is a direct bond between carbon and lithium atoms, effectively creating a carbanion. These are extremely powerful bases and nucleophiles. In many of these organolithium compounds, the lithium ions tend to aggregate into high-symmetry clusters by themselves, which is relatively common for alkali cations.[22] LiHe, a very weakly interacting van der Waals compound, has been detected at very low temperatures.[23]

text: Isotopes[edit]

text: Naturally occurring lithium is composed of two stable isotopes, 6Li and 7Li, the latter being the more abundant (92.5% natural abundance).[5][15][24] Both natural isotopes have anomalously low nuclear binding energy per nucleon (compared to the neighboring elements on the periodic table, helium and beryllium); lithium is the only low numbered element that can produce net energy through nuclear fission. The two lithium nuclei have lower binding energies per nucleon than any other stable nuclides other than deuterium and helium-3.[25] As a result of this, though very light in atomic weight, lithium is less common in the Solar System than 25 of the first 32 chemical elements.[3] Seven radioisotopes have been characterized, the most stable being 8Li with a half-life of 838 ms and 9Li with a half-life of 178 ms. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are shorter than 8.6 ms. The shortest-lived isotope of lithium is 4Li, which decays through proton emission and has a half-life of 7.6 × 10−23 s.[26]

text: 7Li is one of the primordial elements (or, more properly, primordial nuclides) produced in Big Bang nucleosynthesis. A small amount of both 6Li and 7Li are produced in stars, but are thought to be "burned" as fast as produced.[27] Additional small amounts of lithium of both 6Li and 7Li may be generated from solar wind, cosmic rays hitting heavier atoms, and from early solar system 7Be and 10Be radioactive decay.[28] While lithium is created in stars during stellar nucleosynthesis, it is further burned. 7Li can also be generated in carbon stars.[29]

text: Lithium isotopes fractionate substantially during a wide variety of natural processes,[30] including mineral formation (chemical precipitation), metabolism, and ion exchange. Lithium ions substitute for magnesium and iron in octahedral sites in clay minerals, where 6Li is preferred to 7Li, resulting in enrichment of the light isotope in processes of hyperfiltration and rock alteration. The exotic 11Li is known to exhibit a nuclear halo. The process known as laser isotope separation can be used to separate lithium isotopes, in particular 7Li from 6Li.[31]

text: Nuclear weapons manufacture and other nuclear physics applications are a major source of artificial lithium fractionation, with the light isotope 6Li being retained by industry and military stockpiles to such an extent that it has caused slight but measurable change in the 6Li to 7Li ratios in natural sources, such as rivers. This has led to unusual uncertainty in the standardized atomic weight of lithium, since this quantity depends on the natural abundance ratios of these naturally-occurring stable lithium isotopes, as they are available in commercial lithium mineral sources.[32]

text: Both stable isotopes of lithium can be laser cooled and were used to produce the first quantum degenerate Bose-Fermi mixture.[33]

text: Occurrence[edit]

text: Astronomical[edit]

text: Though it was synthesized in the Big Bang, lithium (together with beryllium and boron), is markedly less abundant in the universe than other elements. This is a result of the comparatively low stellar temperatures necessary to destroy lithium, along with a lack of common processes to produce it.[34]

text: According to modern cosmological theory, lithium—in both stable isotopes (lithium-6 and lithium-7)—was one of the 3 elements synthesized in the Big Bang.[35] Though the amount of lithium generated in Big Bang nucleosynthesis is dependent upon the number of photons per baryon, for accepted values the lithium abundance can be calculated, and there is a "cosmological lithium discrepancy" in the Universe: older stars seem to have less lithium than they should, and some younger stars have much more.[36] The lack of lithium in older stars is apparently caused by the "mixing" of lithium into the interior of stars, where it is destroyed,[37] while lithium is produced in younger stars. Though it transmutes into two atoms of helium due to collision with a proton at temperatures above 2.4 million degrees Celsius (most stars easily attain this temperature in their interiors), lithium is more abundant than current computations would predict in later-generation stars.[15]

text: Lithium is also found in brown dwarf substellar objects and certain anomalous orange stars. Because lithium is present in cooler, less-massive brown dwarfs, but is destroyed in hotter red dwarf stars, its presence in the stars' spectra can be used in the "lithium test" to differentiate the two, as both are smaller than the Sun.[15][39][40] Certain orange stars can also contain a high concentration of lithium. Those orange stars found to have a higher than usual concentration of lithium (such as Centaurus X-4) orbit massive objects—neutron stars or black holes—whose gravity evidently pulls heavier lithium to the surface of a hydrogen-helium star, causing more lithium to be observed.[15]

text: Terrestrial[edit]

text:
Lithium mine production (2016), reserves and resources in tonnes according to USGS[41]

Country
Production
Reserves[note 1]
Resources

 Argentina
5,700
2,000,000
9,000,000

 Australia
14,300
1,600,000
2,000,000+

 Austria
-
-
100,000+

 Bolivia
-
-
9,000,000

 Brazil
200
48,000
200,000

 Canada (2010)
480
180,000
2,000,000

 Chile
12,000
7,500,000
7,500,000+

 DR Congo
-
-
1,000,000

 Mexico
-
-
200,000

 People's Republic of China
2,000
3,200,000
7,000,000

 Portugal
200
60,000
N/A

 Russia
-
-
1,000,000

 Serbia
-
-
1,000,000

 United States
W[note 2]
38,000
6,900,000

 Zimbabwe
900
23,000
100,000+

World total
32,500
14,000,000
46,900,000

tag: table

text: Although lithium is widely distributed on Earth, it does not naturally occur in elemental form due to its high reactivity.[5] The total lithium content of seawater is very large and is estimated as 230 billion tonnes, where the element exists at a relatively constant concentration of 0.14 to 0.25 parts per million (ppm),[42][43] or 25 micromolar;[44] higher concentrations approaching 7 ppm are found near hydrothermal vents.[43]

text: Estimates for the Earth's crustal content range from 20 to 70 ppm by weight.[16] In keeping with its name, lithium forms a minor part of igneous rocks, with the largest concentrations in granites. Granitic pegmatites also provide the greatest abundance of lithium-containing minerals, with spodumene and petalite being the most commercially viable sources.[16] Another significant mineral of lithium is lepidolite.[45] A newer source for lithium is hectorite clay, the only active development of which is through the Western Lithium Corporation in the United States.[46] At 20 mg lithium per kg of Earth's crust,[47] lithium is the 25th most abundant element.

text: According to the Handbook of Lithium and Natural Calcium, "Lithium is a comparatively rare element, although it is found in many rocks and some brines, but always in very low concentrations. There are a fairly large number of both lithium mineral and brine deposits but only comparatively few of them are of actual or potential commercial value. Many are very small, others are too low in grade."[48]

text: The US Geological Survey estimates that in 2010, Chile had the largest reserves by far (7.5 million tonnes)[49] and the highest annual production (8,800 tonnes). One of the largest reserve bases[note 1] of lithium is in the Salar de Uyuni area of Bolivia, which has 5.4 million tonnes. Other major suppliers include Australia, Argentina and China.[41][50] As of 2015 Czech Geological Survey considered the entire Ore Mountains in the Czech Republic as lithium province. Five deposits are registered, one near Cínovec (cs) is considered as potentially economic deposit with 160 000 tonnes of lithium.[51]

text: In June 2010, The New York Times reported that American geologists were conducting ground surveys on dry salt lakes in western Afghanistan believing that large deposits of lithium are located there. "Pentagon officials said that their initial analysis at one location in Ghazni Province showed the potential for lithium deposits as large as those of Bolivia, which now has the world's largest known lithium reserves."[52] These estimates are "based principally on old data, which was gathered mainly by the Soviets during their occupation of Afghanistan from 1979–1989". Stephen Peters, the head of the USGS's Afghanistan Minerals Project, said that he was unaware of USGS involvement in any new surveying for minerals in Afghanistan in the past two years. 'We are not aware of any discoveries of lithium,' he said."[53]

text: Lithia ("lithium brine") is associated with tin mining areas in Cornwall, England and an evaluation project from 400-metre deep test boreholes is under consideration. If successful the hot brines will also provide geothermal energy to power the lithium extraction and refining process.[54]

text: Biological[edit]

text: Lithium is found in trace amount in numerous plants, plankton, and invertebrates, at concentrations of 69 to 5,760 parts per billion (ppb). In vertebrates the concentration is slightly lower, and nearly all vertebrate tissue and body fluids contain lithium ranging from 21 to 763 ppb.[43] Marine organisms tend to bioaccumulate lithium more than terrestrial organisms.[55] Whether lithium has a physiological role in any of these organisms is unknown.[43]

text: History[edit]

text: Petalite (LiAlSi4O10) was discovered in 1800 by the Brazilian chemist and statesman José Bonifácio de Andrada e Silva in a mine on the island of Utö, Sweden.[56][57][58][59] However, it was not until 1817 that Johan August Arfwedson, then working in the laboratory of the chemist Jöns Jakob Berzelius, detected the presence of a new element while analyzing petalite ore.[60][61][62][63] This element formed compounds similar to those of sodium and potassium, though its carbonate and hydroxide were less soluble in water and more alkaline.[64] Berzelius gave the alkaline material the name "lithion/lithina", from the Greek word λιθoς (transliterated as lithos, meaning "stone"), to reflect its discovery in a solid mineral, as opposed to potassium, which had been discovered in plant ashes, and sodium, which was known partly for its high abundance in animal blood. He named the metal inside the material "lithium".[5][58][63]

text: Arfwedson later showed that this same element was present in the minerals spodumene and lepidolite.[65][58] In 1818, Christian Gmelin was the first to observe that lithium salts give a bright red color to flame.[58][66] However, both Arfwedson and Gmelin tried and failed to isolate the pure element from its salts.[58][63][67] It was not isolated until 1821, when William Thomas Brande obtained it by electrolysis of lithium oxide, a process that had previously been employed by the chemist Sir Humphry Davy to isolate the alkali metals potassium and sodium.[15][67][68][69][70] Brande also described some pure salts of lithium, such as the chloride, and, estimating that lithia (lithium oxide) contained about 55% metal, estimated the atomic weight of lithium to be around 9.8 g/mol (modern value ~6.94 g/mol).[71] In 1855, larger quantities of lithium were produced through the electrolysis of lithium chloride by Robert Bunsen and Augustus Matthiessen.[58][72] The discovery of this procedure led to commercial production of lithium in 1923 by the German company Metallgesellschaft AG, which performed an electrolysis of a liquid mixture of lithium chloride and potassium chloride.[58][73][74]

text: The production and use of lithium underwent several drastic changes in history. The first major application of lithium was in high-temperature lithium greases for aircraft engines and similar applications in World War II and shortly after. This use was supported by the fact that lithium-based soaps have a higher melting point than other alkali soaps, and are less corrosive than calcium based soaps. The small demand for lithium soaps and lubricating greases was supported by several small mining operations, mostly in the US.

text: The demand for lithium increased dramatically during the Cold War with the production of nuclear fusion weapons. Both lithium-6 and lithium-7 produce tritium when irradiated by neutrons, and are thus useful for the production of tritium by itself, as well as a form of solid fusion fuel used inside hydrogen bombs in the form of lithium deuteride. The US became the prime producer of lithium between the late 1950s and the mid 1980s. At the end, the stockpile of lithium was roughly 42,000 tonnes of lithium hydroxide. The stockpiled lithium was depleted in lithium-6 by 75%, which was enough to affect the measured atomic weight of lithium in many standardized chemicals, and even the atomic weight of lithium in some "natural sources" of lithium ion which had been "contaminated" by lithium salts discharged from isotope separation facilities, which had found its way into ground water.[32][75]

text: Lithium was used to decrease the melting temperature of glass and to improve the melting behavior of aluminium oxide when using the Hall-Héroult process.[76][77] These two uses dominated the market until the middle of the 1990s. After the end of the nuclear arms race, the demand for lithium decreased and the sale of Department of Energy stockpiles on the open market further reduced prices.[75] In the mid 1990s, several companies started to extract lithium from brine which proved to be a less expensive than underground or open-pit mining. Most of the mines closed or shifted their focus to other materials because only the ore from zoned pegmatites could be mined for a competitive price. For example, the US mines near Kings Mountain, North Carolina closed before the beginning of the 21st century.

text: The development of lithium ion batteries increased the demand for lithium and became the dominant use in 2007.[78] With the surge of lithium demand in batteries in the 2000s, new companies have expanded brine extraction efforts to meet the rising demand.[79][80]

text: Production[edit]

text: Lithium production has greatly increased since the end of World War II. The metal is separated from other elements in igneous minerals. The metal is produced through electrolysis from a mixture of fused 55% lithium chloride and 45% potassium chloride at about 450 °C.[81]

text: As of 2015, most of the world's lithium production is in South America, where lithium-containing brine is extracted from underground pools and concentrated by solar evaporation. The standard extraction technique is to evaporate water from brine. Each batch takes from 18 to 24 months.[82]

text: In 1998, the price of lithium was about 95 USD/kg (or 43 USD/lb).[83]

text: Reserves[edit]

text: Worldwide identified reserves in 2008 were estimated by the US Geological Survey (USGS) to be 13 million tonnes,[41] though an accurate estimate of world lithium reserves is difficult.[84][85] One reason for this is that most lithium classification schemes are developed for solid ore deposits, whereas brine is a fluid that is problematic to treat with the same classification scheme due to varying concentrations and pumping effects.[86] The world has been estimated to contain about 15 million tonnes of lithium reserves, while 65 million tonnes of known resources are reasonable. A total of 75% of everything can typically be found in the ten largest deposits of the world.[87] Another study noted that 83% of the geological resources of lithium are located in six brine, two pegmatite, and two sedimentary deposits.[88]

text: Deposits are found in South America throughout the Andes mountain chain. Chile is the leading producer, followed by Argentina. Both countries recover lithium from brine pools. According to USGS, Bolivia's Uyuni Desert has 5.4 million tonnes of lithium.[89][90]

text: In the US, lithium is recovered from brine pools in Nevada.[13] Half the world's known reserves are located in Bolivia along the central eastern slope of the Andes. In 2009, Bolivia negotiated with Japanese, French, and Korean firms to begin extraction.[89] A deposit discovered in 2013 in Wyoming's Rock Springs Uplift is estimated to contain 228,000 tons. Additional deposits in the same formation were estimated to be as much as 18 million tons.[91]

text: Opinions differ about potential growth. A 2008 study concluded that "realistically achievable lithium carbonate production will be sufficient for only a small fraction of future PHEV and EV global market requirements", that "demand from the portable electronics sector will absorb much of the planned production increases in the next decade", and that "mass production of lithium carbonate is not environmentally sound, it will cause irreparable ecological damage to ecosystems that should be protected and that LiIon propulsion is incompatible with the notion of the 'Green Car'".[50]

text: According to a 2011 study by Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and the University of California, Berkeley, the currently estimated reserve base of lithium should not be a limiting factor for large-scale battery production for electric vehicles because an estimated 1 billion 40 kWh Li-based batteries could be built with current reserves[92] - about 10 kg of lithium per car.[93] Another 2011 study at the University of Michigan and Ford Motor Company found enough resources to support global demand until 2100, including the lithium required for the potential widespread transportation use. The study estimated global reserves at 39 million tons, and total demand for lithium during the 90-year period analyzed at 12–20 million tons, depending on the scenarios regarding economic growth and recycling rates.[94]

text: On June 9, 2014, the Financialist stated that demand for lithium was growing at more than 12% a year. According to Credit Suisse, this rate exceeds projected availability by 25%. The publication compared the 2014 lithium situation with oil, whereby "higher oil prices spurred investment in expensive deepwater and oil sands production techniques"; that is, the price of lithium will continue to rise until more expensive production methods that can boost total output receive the attention of investors.[95]

text: Pricing[edit]

text: After the 2007 financial crisis, major suppliers such as Sociedad Química y Minera (SQM) dropped lithium carbonate pricing by 20%.[96] Prices rose in 2012. A 2012 Business Week article outlined the oligopoly in the lithium space: "SQM, controlled by billionaire Julio Ponce, is the second-largest, followed by Rockwood, which is backed by Henry Kravis’s KKR & Co., and Philadelphia-based FMC". Global consumption may jump to 300,000 metric tons a year by 2020 from about 150,000 tons in 2012, to match the demand for lithium batteries that has been growing at about 25% a year, outpacing the 4% to 5% overall gain in lithium production.[97]

text: Extraction[edit]

text: Lithium salts are extracted from water in mineral springs, brine pools, and brine deposits.

text: Lithium is present in seawater, but commercially viable methods of extraction have yet to be developed.[82]

text: Another potential source of lithium is the leachates of geothermal wells, which are carried to the surface.[98] Recovery of lithium has been demonstrated in the field; the lithium is separated by simple filtration.[99] The process and environmental costs are primarily those of the already-operating well; net environmental impacts may thus be positive.[100]

text: Uses[edit]

text: Ceramics and glass[edit]

text: Lithium oxide is widely used as a flux for processing silica, reducing the melting point and viscosity of the material and leading to glazes with improved physical properties including low coefficients of thermal expansion. Worldwide, this is one of the largest use for lithium compounds.[101][102] Glazes containing lithium oxides are used for ovenware. Lithium carbonate (Li2CO3) is generally used in this application because it converts to the oxide upon heating.[103]

text: Electrical and electronics[edit]

text: Late in the 20th century, lithium became an important component of battery electrolytes and electrodes, because of its high electrode potential. Because of its low atomic mass, it has a high charge- and power-to-weight ratio. A typical lithium-ion battery can generate approximately 3 volts per cell, compared with 2.1 volts for lead-acid or 1.5 volts for zinc-carbon cells. Lithium-ion batteries, which are rechargeable and have a high energy density, should not be confused with lithium batteries, which are disposable (primary) batteries with lithium or its compounds as the anode.[104][105] Other rechargeable batteries that use lithium include the lithium-ion polymer battery, lithium iron phosphate battery, and the nanowire battery.

text: Lubricating greases[edit]

text: The third most common use of lithium is in greases. Lithium hydroxide is a strong base and, when heated with a fat, produces a soap made of lithium stearate. Lithium soap has the ability to thicken oils, and it is used to manufacture all-purpose, high-temperature lubricating greases.[13][106][107]

text: Metallurgy[edit]

text: Lithium (e.g. as lithium carbonate) is used as an additive to continuous casting mould flux slags where it increases fluidity,[108][109] a use which accounts for 5% of global lithium use (2011).[41] Lithium compounds are also used as additives (fluxes) to foundry sand for iron casting to reduce veining.[110]

text: Lithium (as lithium fluoride) is used as an additive to aluminium smelters (Hall–Héroult process), reducing melting temperature and increasing electrical resistance,[111] a use which accounts for 3% of production (2011).[41]

text: When used as a flux for welding or soldering, metallic lithium promotes the fusing of metals during the process[112] and eliminates the forming of oxides by absorbing impurities.[113] Alloys of the metal with aluminium, cadmium, copper and manganese are used to make high-performance aircraft parts (see also Lithium-aluminium alloys).[114]

text: Silicon nano-welding[edit]

text: Lithium has been found effective in assisting the perfection of silicon nano-welds in electronic components for electric batteries and other devices.[115]

text: Other chemical and industrial uses[edit]

text: Pyrotechnics[edit]

text: Lithium compounds are used as pyrotechnic colorants and oxidizers in red fireworks and flares.[13][117]

text: Air purification[edit]

text: Lithium chloride and lithium bromide are hygroscopic and are used as desiccants for gas streams.[13] Lithium hydroxide and lithium peroxide are the salts most used in confined areas, such as aboard spacecraft and submarines, for carbon dioxide removal and air purification. Lithium hydroxide absorbs carbon dioxide from the air by forming lithium carbonate, and is preferred over other alkaline hydroxides for its low weight.

text: Lithium peroxide (Li2O2) in presence of moisture not only reacts with carbon dioxide to form lithium carbonate, but also releases oxygen.[118][119] The reaction is as follows:

text: Some of the aforementioned compounds, as well as lithium perchlorate, are used in oxygen candles that supply submarines with oxygen. These can also include small amounts of boron, magnesium, aluminum, silicon, titanium, manganese, and iron.[120]

text: Optics[edit]

text: Lithium fluoride, artificially grown as crystal, is clear and transparent and often used in specialist optics for IR, UV and VUV (vacuum UV) applications. It has one of the lowest refractive indexes and the furthest transmission range in the deep UV of most common materials.[121] Finely divided lithium fluoride powder has been used for thermoluminescent radiation dosimetry (TLD): when a sample of such is exposed to radiation, it accumulates crystal defects which, when heated, resolve via a release of bluish light whose intensity is proportional to the absorbed dose, thus allowing this to be quantified.[122] Lithium fluoride is sometimes used in focal lenses of telescopes.[13][123]

text: The high non-linearity of lithium niobate also makes it useful in non-linear optics applications. It is used extensively in telecommunication products such as mobile phones and optical modulators, for such components as resonant crystals. Lithium applications are used in more than 60% of mobile phones.[124]

text: Organic and polymer chemistry[edit]

text: Organolithium compounds are widely used in the production of polymer and fine-chemicals. In the polymer industry, which is the dominant consumer of these reagents, alkyl lithium compounds are catalysts/initiators.[125] in anionic polymerization of unfunctionalized olefins.[126][127][128] For the production of fine chemicals, organolithium compounds function as strong bases and as reagents for the formation of carbon-carbon bonds. Organolithium compounds are prepared from lithium metal and alkyl halides.[129]

text: Many other lithium compounds are used as reagents to prepare organic compounds. Some popular compounds include lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH4), lithium triethylborohydride, n-Butyllithium and tert-butyllithium are commonly used as extremely strong bases called superbase.

text: Military applications[edit]

text: Metallic lithium and its complex hydrides, such as Li[AlH4], are used as high-energy additives to rocket propellants.[15] Lithium aluminum hydride can also be used by itself as a solid fuel.[130]

text: The Mark 50 torpedo stored chemical energy propulsion system (SCEPS) uses a small tank of sulfur hexafluoride gas, which is sprayed over a block of solid lithium. The reaction generates heat, creating steam to propel the torpedo in a closed Rankine cycle.[131]

text: Lithium hydride containing lithium-6 is used in thermonuclear weapons, where it serves as fuel for the fusion stage of the bomb.[132]

text: Nuclear[edit]

text: Lithium-6 is valued as a source material for tritium production and as a neutron absorber in nuclear fusion. Natural lithium contains about 7.5% lithium-6 from which large amounts of lithium-6 have been produced by isotope separation for use in nuclear weapons.[133] Lithium-7 gained interest for use in nuclear reactor coolants.[134]

text: Lithium deuteride was the fusion fuel of choice in early versions of the hydrogen bomb. When bombarded by neutrons, both 6Li and 7Li produce tritium — this reaction, which was not fully understood when hydrogen bombs were first tested, was responsible for the runaway yield of the Castle Bravo nuclear test. Tritium fuses with deuterium in a fusion reaction that is relatively easy to achieve. Although details remain secret, lithium-6 deuteride apparently still plays a role in modern nuclear weapons as a fusion material.[135]

text: Lithium fluoride, when highly enriched in the lithium-7 isotope, forms the basic constituent of the fluoride salt mixture LiF-BeF2 used in liquid fluoride nuclear reactors. Lithium fluoride is exceptionally chemically stable and LiF-BeF2 mixtures have low melting points. In addition, 7Li, Be, and F are among the few nuclides with low enough thermal neutron capture cross-sections not to poison the fission reactions inside a nuclear fission reactor.[note 3][136]

text: In conceptualized (hypothetical) nuclear fusion power plants, lithium will be used to produce tritium in magnetically confined reactors using deuterium and tritium as the fuel. Naturally occurring tritium is extremely rare, and must be synthetically produced by surrounding the reacting plasma with a 'blanket' containing lithium where neutrons from the deuterium-tritium reaction in the plasma will fission the lithium to produce more tritium:

text: Lithium is also used as a source for alpha particles, or helium nuclei. When 7Li is bombarded by accelerated protons 8Be is formed, which undergoes fission to form two alpha particles. This feat, called "splitting the atom" at the time, was the first fully man-made nuclear reaction. It was produced by Cockroft and Walton in 1932.[137][138]

text: In 2013, the US Government Accountability Office said a shortage of lithium-7 critical to the operation of 65 out of 100 American nuclear reactors “places their ability to continue to provide electricity at some risk”. The problem stems from the decline of US nuclear infrastructure. The equipment needed to separate lithium-6 from lithium-7 is mostly a cold war leftover. The US shut down most of this machinery in 1963, when it had a huge surplus of separated lithium, mostly consumed during the twentieth century. The report said it would take five years and $10 million to $12 million to reestablish the ability to separate lithium-6 from lithium-7.[139]

text: Reactors that use lithium-7 heat water under high pressure and transfer heat through heat exchangers that are prone to corrosion. The reactors use lithium to counteract the corrosive effects of boric acid, which is added to the water to absorb excess neutrons.[139]

text: Medicine[edit]

text: Lithium is useful in the treatment of bipolar disorder.[140] Lithium salts may also be helpful for related diagnoses, such as schizoaffective disorder and cyclic major depression. The active part of these salts is the lithium ion Li+.[140] They may increase the risk of developing Ebstein's cardiac anomaly in infants born to women who take lithium during the first trimester of pregnancy.[141]

text: Lithium has also been researched as a possible treatment for cluster headaches.[142]

text: Biological role[edit]

text: Primary food sources of lithium are grains and vegetables, and, in some areas, drinking water also contains significant amounts.[143] Human intake varies depending on location and diet.

text: Lithium was first detected in human organs and fetal tissues in the late 19th century. In humans there are no defined lithium deficiency diseases, but low lithium intakes from water supplies were associated with increased rates of suicides, homicides and the arrest rates for drug use and other crimes. The biochemical mechanisms of action of lithium appear to be multifactorial and are intercorrelated with the functions of several enzymes, hormones and vitamins, as well as with growth and transforming factors. Evidence now appears to be sufficient to accept lithium as essential; a provisional RDA of 1,000 µg/day is suggested for a 70 kg adult.[143][144]

text: Precautions[edit]

text:
NFPA 704
fire diamond

3
2
2
W

Fire diamond hazard sign for lithium metal[145]

text: Lithium is corrosive and requires special handling to avoid skin contact. Breathing lithium dust or lithium compounds (which are often alkaline) initially irritate the nose and throat, while higher exposure can cause a buildup of fluid in the lungs, leading to pulmonary edema. The metal itself is a handling hazard because contact with moisture produces the caustic lithium hydroxide. Lithium is safely stored in non-reactive compounds such as naphtha.[146]

text: Regulation[edit]

text: Some jurisdictions limit the sale of lithium batteries, which are the most readily available source of lithium for ordinary consumers. Lithium can be used to reduce pseudoephedrine and ephedrine to methamphetamine in the Birch reduction method, which employs solutions of alkali metals dissolved in anhydrous ammonia.[147][148]

text: Carriage and shipment of some kinds of lithium batteries may be prohibited aboard certain types of transportation (particularly aircraft) because of the ability of most types of lithium batteries to fully discharge very rapidly when short-circuited, leading to overheating and possible explosion in a process called thermal runaway. Most consumer lithium batteries have built-in thermal overload protection to prevent this type of incident, or are otherwise designed to limit short-circuit currents. Internal shorts from manufacturing defect or physical damage can lead to spontaneous thermal runaway.[149][150]


document_title: Fundamental rights in India

question_text: right to property according to the constitution of india is a

text: Fundamental rights in India

text: Genesis[edit]

text: The development of constitutionally guaranteed fundamental human rights in India was inspired by historical examples such as England's Bill of Rights (1689), the United States Bill of Rights (approved on 17 September 1787, final ratification on 15 December 1791) and France's Declaration of the Rights of Man (created during the revolution of 1789, and ratified on 26 August 1789).[2]

text: In 1919, the Rowlatt Act gave extensive powers to the British government and police, and allowed indefinite arrest and detention of individuals, warrant-less searches and seizures, restrictions on public gatherings, and intensive censorship of media and publications. The public opposition to this act eventually led to mass campaigns of non-violent civil disobedience throughout the country demanding guaranteed civil freedoms, and limitations on government power. Indians, who were seeking independence and their own government, were particularly influenced by the independence of Ireland and the development of the Irish constitution. Also, the directive principles of state policy in Irish constitution were looked upon by the people of India as an inspiration for the independent India's government to comprehensively tackle complex social and economic challenges across a vast, diverse nation and population.

text: In 1928, the Nehru Commission composing of representatives of Indian political parties proposed constitutional reforms for India that apart from calling for dominion status for India and elections under universal suffrage, would guarantee rights deemed fundamental, representation for religious and ethnic minorities, and limit the powers of the government. In 1931, the Indian National Congress (the largest Indian political party of the time) adopted resolutions committing itself to the defence of fundamental civil rights, as well as socio-economic rights such as the minimum wage and the abolition of untouchability and serfdom.[3] Committing themselves to socialism in 1936, the Congress leaders took examples from the Constitution of the Soviet Union, which inspired the fundamental duties of citizens as a means of collective patriotic responsibility for national interests and challenges.

text: Task of developing a constitution for the nation was undertaken by the Constituent Assembly of India, composing of elected representatives. The Constituent Assembly first met on 9 December 1946 under the presidency of Dr. Sachidanand later Dr. Rajendra Prasad was made its president. While members of Congress composed of a large majority, Congress leaders appointed persons from diverse political backgrounds to responsibilities of developing the constitution and national laws.[4] Notably, Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar became the chairperson of the drafting committee, while Jawaharlal Nehru and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel became chairpersons of committees and sub-committees responsible for different subjects. A notable development during that period having significant effect on the Indian constitution took place on 10 December 1948 when the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and called upon all member states to adopt these rights in their respective constitutions.

text: The fundamental rights were included in the First Draft Constitution (February 1948), the Second Draft Constitution (17 October 1948) and final Third Draft Constitution (26 November 1949), prepared by the Drafting Committee.

text: Significance and characteristics[edit]

text: The fundamental rights were included in the constitution because they were considered essential for the development of the personality of every individual and to preserve human dignity. The writers of the constitution regarded democracy of no avail if civil liberties, like freedom of speech and religion were not recognised and protected by the State.[5] According to them, "democracy" is, in essence, a government by opinion and therefore, the means of formulating public opinion should be secured to the people of a democratic nation. For this purpose, the constitution guaranteed to all the citizens of India the freedom of speech and expression and various other freedoms in the form of the fundamental rights.[6]

text:
Rights

Theoretical distinctions

Claim rights and liberty rights
Individual and group rights
Natural and legal rights
Negative and positive rights

Human rights

Civil and political
Economic, social and cultural
Three generations

Rights by beneficiary

Animals
Authors
Children
Consumers
Creditors
Elders
Fathers
Fetuses
Gun owners
Humans
Natives
Intersex
Kings
LGBT
Men
Minorities
Mothers
Patients
Plants
Prisoners
Students
Victims
Women
Workers
Youth
Disabled persons

Other groups of rights

Civil liberties
Digital
Linguistic
Property
Reproductive
Self-determination of people
Water and sanitation

v
t
e

text: All people, irrespective of race, religion, caste or sex, have been given the right to petition directly the Supreme Court or the High Courts for the enforcement of their fundamental rights. It is not necessary that the aggrieved party has to be the one to do so. Poverty stricken people may not have the means to do so and therefore, in the public interest, anyone can commence litigation in the court on their behalf. This is known as "Public interest litigation".[7] In some cases, High Court judges have acted suo moto on their own on the basis of newspaper reports.

text: These fundamental rights help not only in protection but also the prevention of gross violations of human rights. They emphasise on the fundamental unity of India by guaranteeing to all citizens the access and use of the same facilities, irrespective of background. Some fundamental rights apply for persons of any nationality whereas others are available only to the citizens of India. The right to life and personal liberty is available to all people and so is the right to freedom of religion. On the other hand, freedoms of speech and expression and freedom to reside and settle in any part of the country are reserved to citizens alone, including non-resident Indian citizens.[8] The right to equality in matters of public employment cannot be conferred to overseas citizens of India.[9]

text: Fundamental rights primarily protect individuals from any arbitrary state actions, but some rights are enforceable against individuals.[10] For instance, the Constitution abolishes untouchability and also prohibits begar. These provisions act as a check both on state action as well as the action of private individuals. However, these rights are not absolute or uncontrolled and are subject to reasonable restrictions as necessary for the protection of general welfare. They can also be selectively curtailed. The Supreme Court has ruled[11] that all provisions of the Constitution, including fundamental rights can be amended. However, the Parliament cannot alter the basic structure of the constitution. Since the fundamental rights can be altered only by a constitutional amendment, their inclusion is a check not only on the executive branch but also on the Parliament and state legislatures.[12]

text: A state of national emergency has an adverse effect on these rights. Under such a state, the rights conferred by Article 19 (freedoms of speech, assembly and movement, etc.) remain suspended. Hence, in such a situation, the legislature may make laws that go against the rights given in Article 19. Also, the President may by order suspend the right to move court for the enforcement of other rights as well.

text: Right to equality[edit]

text: Right to equality is an important and meaningful right provided for in Articles 14, 15, 16, 17 and 18 of the constitution. It is the principal foundation of all other rights and liberties, and guarantees the following:

text:
Equality before law: Article 14 of the constitution guarantees that all people shall be equally protected by the laws of the country. It means that the State[5] will treat people in the same circumstances alike. This article also means that individuals, whether citizens of India or otherwise shall be treated differently if the circumstances are different.
Social equality and equal access to public areas: Article 15 of the constitution states that no person shall be discriminated on the basis of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth. Every person shall have equal access to public places like public parks, museums, wells, bathing ghats and temples etc. However, the State may make any special provision for women and children. Special provisions may be made for the advancements of any socially or educationally backward class or scheduled castes or scheduled tribes.
Equality in matters of public employment: Article 16 of the constitution lays down that the State cannot discriminate against anyone in the matters of employment. All citizens can apply for government jobs. There are some exceptions. The Parliament may enact a law stating that certain jobs can be filled only by applicants who are domiciled in the area. This may be meant for posts that require knowledge of the locality and language of the area. The State may also reserve posts for members of backward classes, scheduled castes or scheduled tribes which are not adequately represented in the services under the State to bring up the weaker sections of the society. Also, there a law may be passed that requires that the holder of an office of any religious institution shall also be a person professing that particular religion. According to the Citizenship (Amendment) Bill, 2003, this right shall not be conferred to Overseas citizens of India.[9]
Abolition of untouchability: Article 17 of the constitution abolishes the practice of untouchability. Practice of untouchability is an offence and anyone doing so is punishable by law. The Untouchability Offences Act of 1955 (renamed to Protection of Civil Rights Act in 1976) provided penalties for preventing a person from entering a place of worship or from taking water from a tank or well.

tag: ul

text: Abolition of Titles: Article 18 of the constitution prohibits the State from conferring any titles. "Citizens of India cannot accept titles from a foreign State. The British government had created an aristocratic class known as Rai Bahadurs and Khan Bahadurs in India – these titles were also abolished. However, Military and academic distinctions can be conferred on the citizens of India. The awards of Bharat Ratna and Padma Vibhushan cannot be used by the recipient as a title and do not, accordingly, come within the constitutional prohibition".[13] The Supreme Court, on 15 December 1995, upheld the validity of such awards.

text: Right to freedom[edit]

text: The Constitution of India contains the right to freedom, given[14] in articles 19, 20, 21, 21A, and 22, and with the view of guaranteeing individual rights that were considered vital by the framers of the constitution. It is a cluster of four main laws. The right to freedom in Article 19 guarantees the following six freedoms:

text:
Freedom of speech and expression, on which the State can impose reasonable restrictions in the interests of the sovereignty and integrity of India, the security of the State, friendly relations with foreign States, public order, decency or morality or in relation to contempt of court, defamation or incitement to an offence.[15]
Freedom to assemble peacefully without arms on which the State can impose reasonable restrictions in the interest of public order and the sovereignty and integrity of India.
The Freedom to form associations or unions or co-operative societies on which the State can impose reasonable restrictions in the interest of public order, morality and the sovereignty and integrity of India.
Freedom to move freely throughout the territory of India though reasonable restrictions can be imposed on this right in the interest of the general public, for example, restrictions may be imposed on movement and travelling, so as to control epidemics.
Freedom to reside and settle in any part of the territory of India, subject to reasonable restrictions by the State in the interest of the general public or for the protection of the scheduled tribes because certain safeguards as are envisaged here seem to be justified to protect indigenous and tribal peoples from exploitation and coercion.[16] Article 370 restricts citizens from other Indian states and Kashmiri women who marry men from other states from purchasing land or property in Jammu & Kashmir.[17]

text: Freedom to practice any profession or to carry on any occupation, trade or business on which the State may impose reasonable restrictions in the interest of the general public. Thus, there is no right to carry on a business which is dangerous or immoral. Also, professional or technical qualifications may be prescribed for practising any profession or carrying on any trade.

text: Article 21A gives education to all children of the age of six to fourteen years in such manner as the State may, by law, determine.

text: The constitution also imposes restrictions on these rights. The government restricts these freedoms in the interest of the independence, sovereignty and integrity of India. In the interest of morality and public order, the government can also impose restrictions. However, the right to life and personal liberty cannot be suspended. The six freedoms are also automatically suspended or have restrictions imposed on them during a state of emergency.

text: Right to Information (RTI)

text: Right to Information has been given the status of a fundamental right under Article 19(1) of the Constitution in 2005. Article 19 (1) under which every citizen has freedom of speech and expression and have the right to know how the government works, what role does it play, what are its functions and so on.[18]

text: Right against exploitation[edit]

text: The right against exploitation, given in Articles 23 and 24, provides for two provisions, namely the abolition of trafficking in human beings and Begar (forced labour), and abolition of employment of children below the age of 14 years in dangerous jobs like factories, mines, etc. Child labour is considered a gross violation of the spirit and provisions of the constitution. Begar, practised in the past by landlords, has been declared a crime and is punishable by law. Trafficking in humans for the purpose of slave trade or prostitution is also prohibited by law. An exception is made in employment without payment for compulsory services for public purposes. Compulsory military conscription is covered by this provision.

text: Right to freedom of religion[edit]

text: Right to freedom of religion, covered in Articles 25, 26, 27 and 28, provides religious freedom to all citizens of India. The objective of this right is to sustain the principle of secularism in India. According to the Constitution, all religions are equal before the State and no religion shall be given preference over the other. Citizens are free to preach, practice and propagate any religion of their choice.

text: Religious communities can set up charitable institutions of their own. However, activities in such institutions that are not religious are performed according to the laws laid down by the government. Establishing a charitable institution can also be restricted in the interest of public order, morality and health. No person shall be compelled to pay taxes for the promotion of a particular religion. A State run institution cannot be impart education that is pro-religion. Also, nothing in this article shall affect the operation of any existing law or prevent the State from making any further law regulating or restricting any economic, financial, political or other secular activity that may be associated with religious practice, or providing for social welfare and reform.

text: Right to life[edit]

text: The constitution guarantees the right to life and personal liberty, which in turn cites specific provisions in which these rights are applied and enforced:

text:
Protection with respect to conviction for offences is guaranteed in the right to life and personal liberty. According to Article 20, no one can be awarded punishment which is more than what the law of the land prescribes at that time. This legal axiom is based on the principle that no criminal law can be made retrospective, that is, for an act to become an offence, the essential condition is that it should have been an offence legally at the time of committing it. Moreover, no person accused of any offence shall be compelled to be a witness against himself. "Compulsion" in this article refers to what in law is called "Duress" (injury, beating or unlawful imprisonment to make a person do something that he does not want to do). This article is known as a safeguard against self incrimination. The other principle enshrined in this article is known as the principle of double jeopardy, that is, no person can be convicted twice for the same offence, which has been derived from Anglo Saxon law. This principle was first established in the Magna Carta.
Protection of life and personal liberty is also stated under right to life and personal liberty. Article 21 declares that no citizen can be denied his life and liberty except by law. This means that a person's life and personal liberty can be disputed only if that person has committed a crime. However, the right to life does not include the right to die and hence, suicide or an attempt thereof, is an offence. (Attempted suicide being interpreted as a crime has seen many debates. The Supreme Court of India gave a landmark ruling in 1994. The court repealed section 309 of the Indian penal code, under which people attempting suicide could face prosecution and prison terms of up to one year.[19] In 1996 however another Supreme Court ruling nullified the earlier one.[20]) "Personal liberty" includes all the freedoms which are not included in Article 19 (that is, the six freedoms). The right to travel abroad is also covered under "personal liberty" in Article 21.[21]
In 2002, through the 86th Amendment Act, Article 21(A) was incorporated. It made the right to primary education part of the right to freedom, stating that the State would provide free and compulsory education to children from six to fourteen years of age.[22] Six years after an amendment was made in the Indian Constitution, the union cabinet cleared the Right to Education Bill in 2008.[23]
Rights of a person arrested under ordinary circumstances is laid down in the right to life and personal liberty. No one can be arrested without being told the grounds for his arrest. If arrested, the person has the right to defend himself by a lawyer of his choice. Also an arrested citizen has to be brought before the nearest magistrate within 24 hours. The rights of a person arrested under ordinary circumstances are not available to an enemy alien. They are also not available to persons detained under the Preventive Detention Act. Under preventive detention, the government can imprison a person for a maximum of three months. It means that if the government feels that a person being at liberty can be a threat to the law and order or to the unity and integrity of the nation, it can detain or arrest that person to prevent him from doing this possible harm. After three months such a case is brought before an advisory board for review.

text: Cultural and Educational rights[edit]

text: As India is a country of many languages, religions, and cultures, the Constitution provides special measures, in Articles 29 and 30, to protect the rights of the minorities. Any community that has a language and a script of its own has the right to conserve and develop it. No citizen can be discriminated against for admission in State or State aided institutions.

text: All minorities, or linguistic, can set up their own educational institutions to preserve and develop their own culture. In granting aid to institutions, the State cannot discriminate against any institution on the basis of the fact that it is administered by a minority institution. But the right to administer does not mean that the State cannot interfere in case of maladministration. In a precedent-setting judgement in 1980, the Supreme Court held that the State can certainly take regulatory measures to promote the efficiency and excellence of educational standards. It can also issue guidelines for ensuring the security of the services of the teachers or other employees of the institution. In another landmark judgement delivered on 31 October 2002, the Supreme Court ruled that in case of aided minority institutions offering professional courses, admission could be only through a common entrance test conducted by State or a university. Even an unaided minority institution ought not to ignore the merit of the students for admission.

text: Right to constitutional remedies[edit]

text: Right to constitutional remedies [Article 32 to 35] empowers the citizens to move to a court of law in case of any denial of the fundamental rights. For instance, in case of imprisonment, any citizen can ask the court to see if it is according to the provisions of the law of the country by lodging a PIL. If the court finds that it is not, the person will have to be freed. This procedure of asking the courts to preserve or safeguard the citizens' fundamental rights can be done in various ways. The courts can issue various kinds of writs. These writs are habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibition, quo warranto and certiorari. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar rightly declared Right to constitutional remedies as "the heart and soul" of Indian constitution. When a national or state emergency is declared, this right is suspended by the central government.

text: Article 32 is also called citizens right to protect and defend the constitution as it can be used by the citizens to enforce the constitution through the judiciary.

text: Right to Privacy[edit]

text: The right to privacy is protected as an intrinsic part of the right to life and personal liberty under Article 21 and as a part of the freedoms guaranteed by Part III of the Constitution. It protects the inner sphere of the individual from interference from both State, and non-State actors and allows the individuals to make autonomous life choices. On 24 August 2017 the Supreme Court[24] ruled that:

text: "Right to Privacy is an integral part of Right to Life and Personal Liberty guaranteed in Article 21 of the Constitution,"

text: Critical analysis[edit]

text: The fundamental rights have been revised for many reasons. Political groups have demanded that the right to work, the right to economic assistance in case of unemployment, old age, and similar rights be enshrined as constitutional guarantees to address issues of poverty and economic insecurity,[25] though these provisions have been enshrined in the Directive Principles of state policy.[26] The right to freedom and personal liberty has a number of limiting clauses, and thus have been criticised for failing to check the sanctioning of powers often deemed "excessive".[25] There is also the provision of preventive detention and suspension of fundamental rights in times of Emergency. The provisions of acts like the Maintenance of Internal Security Act (MISA), Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act and the National Security Act (NSA) are a means of countering the fundamental rights, because they sanction excessive powers with the aim of fighting internal and cross-border terrorism and political violence, without safeguards for civil rights.[25] The phrases "security of State", "public order" and "morality" are of wide implication. People of alternate sexuality are criminalised in India with prison term up to 10 years. The meaning of phrases like "reasonable restrictions" and "the interest of public order" have not been explicitly stated in the constitution, and this ambiguity leads to unnecessary litigation.[25] The freedom to assemble peaceably and without arms is exercised, but in some cases, these meetings are broken up by the police through the use of non-fatal methods.[27][28]

text: "Freedom of press" has not been included in the right to freedom, which is necessary for formulating public opinion and to make freedom of expression more legitimate.[25] Employment of child labour in hazardous job environments has been reduced, but their employment even in non-hazardous jobs, including their prevalent employment as domestic help violates the spirit and ideals of the constitution. More than 16.5 million children are employed and working in India.[29] India was ranked 88 out of 159 in 2005, according to the degree to which corruption is perceived to exist among public officials and politicians worldwide. But in 2014, India has improved marginally to a rank of 85.[30][31] The right to equality in matters regarding public employment shall not be conferred to overseas citizens of India, according to the Citizenship (Amendment) Bill, 2003.[9]

text: As per Article 19 of Part III of the Indian constitution, the fundamental rights of people such as freedom of speech and expression, gathering peaceably without arms and forming associations or unions shall not effect the interests of the sovereignty[32] and integrity of India but not unity of India. The words sovereignty and integrity are the qualities to be cultivated / emulated by Indian people as urged by the Indian constitution but not used related to territory of India. Article 1 of Part 1 of the Indian constitution, defines India (Bharat) as union of states. In nutshell, India is its people not its land as enshrined in its constitution.

text: Since speedy trial is not the constitutional right of the citizens, the cases involving violations of fundamental rights take inordinate time for resolution by the Supreme Court which is against the legal maxim 'justice delayed is justice denied'.[33]

text: Amendments[edit]

text: Changes to the fundamental rights require a constitutional amendment, which has to be passed by a special majority of both houses of Parliament. This means that an amendment requires the approval of two-thirds of the members present and voting. However, the number of members voting in support of the amendment shall not be less than the simple majority of the total members of a house – whether the Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha.

text: Fundamental rights not sacrosanct[edit]

text: While deciding the Golaknath case in February 1967, Supreme Court ruled that the Parliament has no power to curtail the fundamental rights. They were made permanent and sacrosanct reversing the Supreme Court's earlier decision which had upheld Parliament's power to amend all parts of the Constitution, including Part III related to Fundamental Rights. Up till the 24th constitutional amendment in 1971, the fundamental rights given to the people were permanent and can not be repealed or diluted by the Parliament. 24th constitutional amendment introduced a new Article 13(4) enabling Parliament to legislate on the subjects of Part III of the constitution using its constituent powers per Article 368 (1). In the year 1973, the 13 member constitutional bench of supreme court also upheld with majority the validity of 24th constitutional amendment. However it ruled that Basic structure of the constitution which is built on the basic foundation representing the dignity and freedom of the individual, can not be altered. This is of supreme importance and cannot be destroyed by any form of amendment to the constitution.[34] Many constitutional amendments to Part III of the constitution were made deleting or adding or diluting the fundamental rights before the judgement of Golaknath case (Constitutional amendments 1,4,7 and 16) and after the validity of 24th constitutional amendment is upheld by the Supreme Court (Constitutional amendments 25,42,44,50,77,81,85,86,93 and 97).

text: Validity of Article 31B[edit]

text: Articles 31A and Article 31B are added by First constitutional amendment in 1951. Article 31B says that any acts and regulations included in the Ninth Schedule of the constitution by the Parliament can override the fundamental rights and such laws can not be repealed or made void by the judiciary on the grounds of violating fundamental rights. Thus fundamental rights given in Part III are not equally applicable in each state /region and can be made different by making additions/deletions to Ninth Schedule by constitutional amendments. In 2007, Supreme Court ruled that there could not be any blanket immunity from judicial review for the laws inserted in the Ninth Schedule. Apex court also stated it shall examine laws included in the Ninth Schedule after 1973 for any incompatibility with the basic structure doctrine.[35]

text: Amendment to Article 31C[edit]

text: Section 4 of the 42nd Amendment, had changed Article 31C of the constitution to accord precedence to the Directive Principles (earlier applicable only to clauses b & c of Article 39) over the fundamental rights of individuals. In Minerva Mills v. Union of India case, supreme court ruled that the amendment to the Article 31C is not valid and ultra vires.

text: Right to property[edit]

text: The Constitution originally provided for the right to property under Articles 19 and 31. Article 19 guaranteed to all citizens the right to acquire, hold and dispose of property. Article 31 provided that "no person shall be deprived of his property save by authority of law." It also provided that compensation would be paid to a person whose property has been taken for public purposes.

text: The provisions relating to the right to property were changed a number of times. The Forty-Fourth Amendment of 1978 deleted the right to property from the list of fundamental rights[36] A new provision, Article 300-A, was added to the constitution, which provided that "no person shall be deprived of his property save by authority of law". Thus if a legislature makes a law depriving a person of his property, there would be no obligation on the part of the State to pay anything as compensation. The aggrieved person shall have no right to move the court under Article 32. Thus, the right to property is no longer a fundamental right, though it is still a constitutional right. If the government appears to have acted unfairly, the action can be challenged in a court of law by aggrieved citizens.[25]

text: The liberalisation of the economy and the government's initiative to set up special economic zones has led to many protests by farmers and have led to calls for the reinstatement of the fundamental right to private property.[37] The Supreme Court has sent a notice to the government questioning why the right should not be brought back but in 2010 the court rejected the PIL[38]

text: Right to education[edit]

text: The right to education at elementary level has been made one of the fundamental rights in 2002 under the Eighty-Sixth Amendment of 2002.[22] However this right was brought in to implementation after eight years in 2010. Article 21A – On 2 April 2010, India joined a group of few countries in the world, with a historic law making education a fundamental right of every child coming into force.[39] Making elementary education an entitlement for children in the 6–14 age group, the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act will directly benefit children who do not go to school at present. This act provides for appointment of teachers with the requisite entry and academic qualifications.

text: The former Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh announced the operationalisation of the Act. Children, who had either dropped out of schools or never been to any educational institution, will get elementary education as it will be binding on the part of the local and State governments to ensure that all children in the 6–14 age group get schooling. As per the Act, private educational institutions should reserve 25 per cent seats for children from the weaker sections of society. The Centre and the States have agreed to share the financial burden in the ratio of 55:45, while the Finance Commission has given Rs.250 billion to the States for implementing the Act. The Centre has approved an outlay of Rs.150 billion for 2010–2011.

text: The school management committee or the local authority will identify the drop-outs or out-of-school children aged above six and admit them in classes appropriate to their age after giving special training.

text:
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Constitution of India/Part III