document_title: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

question_text: the first line of http request message is called ____

question_tokens: the first line of http request message is called -- -- -- --

text: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

text: Technical overview[edit]

text: HTTP functions as a request–response protocol in the client–server computing model. A web browser, for example, may be the client and an application running on a computer hosting a website may be the server. The client submits an HTTP request message to the server. The server, which provides resources such as HTML files and other content, or performs other functions on behalf of the client, returns a response message to the client. The response contains completion status information about the request and may also contain requested content in its message body.

text: A web browser is an example of a user agent (UA). Other types of user agent include the indexing software used by search providers (web crawlers), voice browsers, mobile apps, and other software that accesses, consumes, or displays web content.

text: HTTP is designed to permit intermediate network elements to improve or enable communications between clients and servers. High-traffic websites often benefit from web cache servers that deliver content on behalf of upstream servers to improve response time. Web browsers cache previously accessed web resources and reuse them when possible to reduce network traffic. HTTP proxy servers at private network boundaries can facilitate communication for clients without a globally routable address, by relaying messages with external servers.

text: HTTP is an application layer protocol designed within the framework of the Internet protocol suite. Its definition presumes an underlying and reliable transport layer protocol,[4] and Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is commonly used. However HTTP can be adapted to use unreliable protocols such as the User Datagram Protocol (UDP), for example in HTTPU and Simple Service Discovery Protocol (SSDP).

text: HTTP resources are identified and located on the network by Uniform Resource Locators (URLs), using the Uniform Resource Identifiers (URI's) schemes http and https. URIs and hyperlinks in HTML documents form inter-linked hypertext documents.

text: HTTP/1.1 is a revision of the original HTTP (HTTP/1.0). In HTTP/1.0 a separate connection to the same server is made for every resource request. HTTP/1.1 can reuse a connection multiple times to download images, scripts, stylesheets, etc after the page has been delivered. HTTP/1.1 communications therefore experience less latency as the establishment of TCP connections presents considerable overhead.

text: History[edit]

text: The term hypertext was coined by Ted Nelson in 1965 in the Xanadu Project, which was in turn inspired by Vannevar Bush's 1930s vision of the microfilm-based information retrieval and management "memex" system described in his 1945 essay "As We May Think". Tim Berners-Lee and his team at CERN are credited with inventing the original HTTP along with HTML and the associated technology for a web server and a text-based web browser. Berners-Lee first proposed the "WorldWideWeb" project in 1989—now known as the World Wide Web. The first version of the protocol had only one method, namely GET, which would request a page from a server.[5] The response from the server was always an HTML page.[6]

text: The first documented version of HTTP was HTTP V0.9 (1991). Dave Raggett led the HTTP Working Group (HTTP WG) in 1995 and wanted to expand the protocol with extended operations, extended negotiation, richer meta-information, tied with a security protocol which became more efficient by adding additional methods and header fields.[7][8] RFC 1945 officially introduced and recognized HTTP V1.0 in 1996.

text: The HTTP WG planned to publish new standards in December 1995[9] and the support for pre-standard HTTP/1.1 based on the then developing RFC 2068 (called HTTP-NG) was rapidly adopted by the major browser developers in early 1996. By March 1996, pre-standard HTTP/1.1 was supported in Arena,[10] Netscape 2.0,[10] Netscape Navigator Gold 2.01,[10] Mosaic 2.7,[citation needed] Lynx 2.5,[citation needed] and in Internet Explorer 2.0.[citation needed] End-user adoption of the new browsers was rapid. In March 1996, one web hosting company reported that over 40% of browsers in use on the Internet were HTTP 1.1 compliant.[citation needed] That same web hosting company reported that by June 1996, 65% of all browsers accessing their servers were HTTP/1.1 compliant.[11] The HTTP/1.1 standard as defined in RFC 2068 was officially released in January 1997. Improvements and updates to the HTTP/1.1 standard were released under RFC 2616 in June 1999.

text: In 2007, the HTTPbis Working Group was formed, in part, to revise and clarify the HTTP/1.1 specification. In June 2014, the WG released an updated six-part specification obsoleting RFC 2616:

text:
RFC 7230, HTTP/1.1: Message Syntax and Routing
RFC 7231, HTTP/1.1: Semantics and Content
RFC 7232, HTTP/1.1: Conditional Requests
RFC 7233, HTTP/1.1: Range Requests
RFC 7234, HTTP/1.1: Caching
RFC 7235, HTTP/1.1: Authentication

text: HTTP/2 was published as RFC 7540 in May 2015.

text:
Year
HTTP Version

1991
0.9

1996
1.0

1997
1.1

2015
2.0

text: HTTP session[edit]

text: An HTTP session is a sequence of network request-response transactions. An HTTP client initiates a request by establishing a Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) connection to a particular port on a server (typically port 80, occasionally port 8080; see List of TCP and UDP port numbers). An HTTP server listening on that port waits for a client's request message. Upon receiving the request, the server sends back a status line, such as "HTTP/1.1 200 OK", and a message of its own. The body of this message is typically the requested resource, although an error message or other information may also be returned.[1]

text: HTTP authentication[edit]

text: HTTP provides multiple authentication schemes such as basic access authentication and digest access authentication which operate via a challenge-response mechanism whereby the server identifies and issues a challenge before serving the requested content.

text: HTTP provides a general framework for access control and authentication, via an extensible set of challenge-response authentication schemes, which can be used by a server to challenge a client request and by a client to provide authentication information.[12]

text: Authentication realms[edit]

text: The HTTP Authentication specification also provides an arbitrary, implementation specific construct for further dividing resources common to a given root URI. The realm value string, if present, is combined with the canonical root URI to form the protection space component of the challenge. This in effect allows the server to define separate authentication scopes under one root URI[12]

text: Request methods[edit]

text: HTTP defines methods (sometimes referred to as verbs) to indicate the desired action to be performed on the identified resource. What this resource represents, whether pre-existing data or data that is generated dynamically, depends on the implementation of the server. Often, the resource corresponds to a file or the output of an executable residing on the server. The HTTP/1.0 specification[13] defined the GET, POST and HEAD methods and the HTTP/1.1 specification[14] added 5 new methods: OPTIONS, PUT, DELETE, TRACE and CONNECT. By being specified in these documents their semantics are well known and can be depended on. Any client can use any method and the server can be configured to support any combination of methods. If a method is unknown to an intermediate it will be treated as an unsafe and non-idempotent method. There is no limit to the number of methods that can be defined and this allows for future methods to be specified without breaking existing infrastructure. For example, WebDAV defined 7 new methods and RFC 5789 specified the PATCH method.

text: All general-purpose HTTP servers are required to implement at least the GET and HEAD methods,[22] and, whenever possible, also the OPTIONS method.[citation needed]

text: Safe methods[edit]

text: Some of the methods (for example, HEAD, GET, OPTIONS and TRACE) are, by convention, defined as safe, which means they are intended only for information retrieval and should not change the state of the server. In other words, they should not have side effects, beyond relatively harmless effects such as logging, caching, the serving of banner advertisements or incrementing a web counter. Making arbitrary GET requests without regard to the context of the application's state should therefore be considered safe. However, this is not mandated by the standard, and it is explicitly acknowledged that it cannot be guaranteed.

text: By contrast, methods such as POST, PUT, DELETE and PATCH are intended for actions that may cause side effects either on the server, or external side effects such as financial transactions or transmission of email. Such methods are therefore not usually used by conforming web robots or web crawlers; some that do not conform tend to make requests without regard to context or consequences.

text: Despite the prescribed safety of GET requests, in practice their handling by the server is not technically limited in any way. Therefore, careless or deliberate programming can cause non-trivial changes on the server. This is discouraged, because it can cause problems for web caching, search engines and other automated agents, which can make unintended changes on the server. For example, a website might allow deletion of a resource through a URL such as http://example.com/article/1234/delete, which, if arbitrarily fetched, even using GET, would simply delete the article.[23]

text: One example of this occurring in practice was during the short-lived Google Web Accelerator beta, which prefetched arbitrary URLs on the page a user was viewing, causing records to be automatically altered or deleted en masse. The beta was suspended only weeks after its first release, following widespread criticism.[24][23]

text: Idempotent methods and web applications[edit]

text: Methods PUT and DELETE are defined to be idempotent, meaning that multiple identical requests should have the same effect as a single request (note that idempotence refers to the state of the system after the request has completed, so while the action the server takes (e.g. deleting a record) or the response code it returns may be different on subsequent requests, the system state will be the same every time[citation needed]). Methods GET, HEAD, OPTIONS and TRACE, being prescribed as safe, should also be idempotent, as HTTP is a stateless protocol.[1]

text: In contrast, the POST method is not necessarily idempotent, and therefore sending an identical POST request multiple times may further affect state or cause further side effects (such as financial transactions). In some cases this may be desirable, but in other cases this could be due to an accident, such as when a user does not realize that their action will result in sending another request, or they did not receive adequate feedback that their first request was successful. While web browsers may show alert dialog boxes to warn users in some cases where reloading a page may re-submit a POST request, it is generally up to the web application to handle cases where a POST request should not be submitted more than once.

text: Note that whether a method is idempotent is not enforced by the protocol or web server. It is perfectly possible to write a web application in which (for example) a database insert or other non-idempotent action is triggered by a GET or other request. Ignoring this recommendation, however, may result in undesirable consequences, if a user agent assumes that repeating the same request is safe when it isn't.

text: Security[edit]

text: The TRACE method can be used as part of a class of attacks known as cross-site tracing; for that reason, common security advice is for it to be disabled in the server configuration.[25] Microsoft IIS supports a proprietary "TRACK" method, which behaves similarly, and which is likewise recommended to be disabled.[25]

text: Summary table[edit]

text:
HTTP Method
RFC
Request Has Body
Response Has Body
Safe
Idempotent
Cacheable

GET
RFC 7231
Optional
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

HEAD
RFC 7231
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes

POST
RFC 7231
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes

PUT
RFC 7231
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No

DELETE
RFC 7231
No
Yes
No
Yes
No

CONNECT
RFC 7231
Yes
Yes
No
No
No

OPTIONS
RFC 7231
Optional
Yes
Yes
Yes
No

TRACE
RFC 7231
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
No

PATCH
RFC 5789
Yes
Yes
No
No
No

text: Status codes[edit]

text: In HTTP/1.0 and since, the first line of the HTTP response is called the status line and includes a numeric status code (such as "404") and a textual reason phrase (such as "Not Found"). The way the user agent handles the response primarily depends on the code and secondarily on the other response header fields. Custom status codes can be used since, if the user agent encounters a code it does not recognize, it can use the first digit of the code to determine the general class of the response.[26]

text: The standard reason phrases are only recommendations and can be replaced with "local equivalents" at the web developer's discretion. If the status code indicated a problem, the user agent might display the reason phrase to the user to provide further information about the nature of the problem. The standard also allows the user agent to attempt to interpret the reason phrase, though this might be unwise since the standard explicitly specifies that status codes are machine-readable and reason phrases are human-readable. HTTP status code is primarily divided into five groups for better explanation of request and responses between client and server as named: Informational 1XX, Successful 2XX, Redirection 3XX, Client Error 4XX and Server Error 5XX.

text: Persistent connections[edit]

text: In HTTP/0.9 and 1.0, the connection is closed after a single request/response pair. In HTTP/1.1 a keep-alive-mechanism was introduced, where a connection could be reused for more than one request. Such persistent connections reduce request latency perceptibly, because the client does not need to re-negotiate the TCP 3-Way-Handshake connection after the first request has been sent. Another positive side effect is that in general the connection becomes faster with time due to TCP's slow-start-mechanism.

text: Version 1.1 of the protocol also made bandwidth optimization improvements to HTTP/1.0. For example, HTTP/1.1 introduced chunked transfer encoding to allow content on persistent connections to be streamed rather than buffered. HTTP pipelining further reduces lag time, allowing clients to send multiple requests before waiting for each response. Another addition to the protocol was byte serving, where a server transmits just the portion of a resource explicitly requested by a client.

text: HTTP session state[edit]

text: HTTP is a stateless protocol. A stateless protocol does not require the HTTP server to retain information or status about each user for the duration of multiple requests. However, some web applications implement states or server side sessions using for instance HTTP cookies or hidden variables within web forms.

text: Encrypted connections[edit]

text: The most popular way of establishing an encrypted HTTP connection is HTTP Secure.[27] Two other methods for establishing an encrypted HTTP connection also exist: Secure Hypertext Transfer Protocol, and using the HTTP/1.1 Upgrade header to specify an upgrade to TLS. Browser support for these two is, however, nearly non-existent.[28][29][30]

text: Message format[edit]

text: The client and server communicate by sending plain-text (ASCII) messages. The client sends requests to the server and the server sends responses.

text: Request message[edit]

text: The request message consists of the following:

text:
A request line (e.g., GET /images/logo.png HTTP/1.1, which requests a resource called /images/logo.png from the server).
Request header fields (e.g., Accept-Language: en).
An empty line.
An optional message body.

text: The request line and other header fields must each end with <CR><LF> (that is, a carriage return character followed by a line feed character). The empty line must consist of only <CR><LF> and no other whitespace.[31] In the HTTP/1.1 protocol, all header fields except Host are optional.

text: A request line containing only the path name is accepted by servers to maintain compatibility with HTTP clients before the HTTP/1.0 specification in RFC 1945.[32]

text: Response message[edit]

text: The response message consists of the following:

text:
A status line which includes the status code and reason message (e.g., HTTP/1.1 200 OK, which indicates that the client's request succeeded).
Response header fields (e.g., Content-Type: text/html).
An empty line.
An optional message body.

text: The status line and other header fields must all end with <CR><LF>. The empty line must consist of only <CR><LF> and no other whitespace.[31] This strict requirement for <CR><LF> is relaxed somewhat within message bodies for consistent use of other system linebreaks such as <CR> or <LF> alone.[33]

text: Example session[edit]

text: Below is a sample conversation between an HTTP client and an HTTP server running on www.example.com, port 80. As mentioned in the previous sections, all the data is sent in a plain-text (ASCII) encoding, using a two-byte CR LF ('\r\n') line ending at the end of each line.

text: Client request[edit]

text: A client request (consisting in this case of the request line and only one header field) is followed by a blank line, so that the request ends with a double newline, each in the form of a carriage return followed by a line feed. The "Host" field distinguishes between various DNS names sharing a single IP address, allowing name-based virtual hosting. While optional in HTTP/1.0, it is mandatory in HTTP/1.1.

text: Server response[edit]

text: The ETag (entity tag) header field is used to determine if a cached version of the requested resource is identical to the current version of the resource on the server. Content-Type specifies the Internet media type of the data conveyed by the HTTP message, while Content-Length indicates its length in bytes. The HTTP/1.1 webserver publishes its ability to respond to requests for certain byte ranges of the document by setting the field Accept-Ranges: bytes. This is useful, if the client needs to have only certain portions[34] of a resource sent by the server, which is called byte serving. When Connection: close is sent, it means that the web server will close the TCP connection immediately after the transfer of this response.

text: Most of the header lines are optional. When Content-Length is missing the length is determined in other ways. Chunked transfer encoding uses a chunk size of 0 to mark the end of the content. Identity encoding without Content-Length reads content until the socket is closed.

text: A Content-Encoding like gzip can be used to compress the transmitted data.

text: Similar protocols[edit]

text: The Gopher protocol was a content delivery protocol that was displaced by HTTP in the early 1990s. The SPDY protocol is an alternative to HTTP developed at Google, it is superseded by the new HTTP protocol, HTTP/2.


document_title: List of Richmond Football Club captains

question_text: who is the captain of richmond football club

root

text: List of Richmond Football Club captains

text: This is a list of all captains of the Richmond Football Club, an Australian rules football club in the Australian Football League.

tag: p

text:
Dates
Captain(s)
Notes

1908
Charlie Pannam

1909
Dick Condon
John Lawson

1910
Billy Schmidt

1911
Len Incigneri

1912
Ted Ohlsen

1913
Hugh James

1914
Charlie Ricketts

1914–1916
Bill Thomas

1917
Percy Maybury

1918
Clarrie Hall

1919
Bill Thomas

1920–1925
Dan Minogue
1920 Premiership Captain
1921 Premiership Captain

1926
Mel Morris

1927–1928
Alan Geddes

1929
Cyril Lilburne

1930
Alan Geddes

1931
Maurie Hunter

1932–1940
Percy Bentley
1932 Premiership Captain
1934 Premiership Captain

1941–1949
Jack Dyer
1943 Premiership Captain

1950–1951
Bill Morris

1952–1957
Des Rowe

1958–1959
Roy Wright

1960–1962
Ron Branton

1963–1966
Neville Crowe

1967
Fred Swift
1967 Premiership Captain

1968–1971
Roger Dean
1969 Premiership Captain

1972–1975
Royce Hart
1973 Premiership Captain
1974 Premiership Captain

1976–1977
Francis Bourke

1978
Kevin Sheedy

1979
Kevin Bartlett

1980
Bruce Monteath
1980 Premiership Captain

1981
Bryan Wood

1982
David Cloke

1983–1984
Barry Rowlings

1985–1987
Mark Lee

1988–1992
Dale Weightman

1993
Jeff Hogg

1994–1996
Tony Free

1997–2000
Matthew Knights

2001–2004
Wayne Campbell

2005–2008
Kane Johnson

2009–2012
Chris Newman

2013–
Trent Cotchin
2017 Premiership Captain

tag: table


question_text: the fellowship of the ring director's cut length

question_tokens: the fellowship of the ring director 's cut length

text: Plot[edit]

text: In the Second Age of Middle-earth, the lords of Elves, Dwarves, and Men are given Rings of Power. Unbeknownst to them, the Dark Lord Sauron forges the One Ring in Mount Doom, infusing into it a great part of his power to dominate, through it and at a distance, the other Rings, so he might conquer Middle-earth. A final alliance of men and elves battles Sauron’s forces in Mordor, where Prince Isildur of Gondor severs Sauron's finger, and the Ring with it, thereby destroying his physical form. Unfortunately, the Ring's influence corrupts Isildur, and, rather than destroy the Ring, Isildur takes it for himself. Isildur is later killed by Orcs, and the Ring is lost for 2,500 years, until it is found by Gollum, who owns it for five centuries. The Ring is then found by a Hobbit named Bilbo Baggins.

text: Sixty years later, Bilbo celebrates his 111th birthday in the Shire, reuniting with his old friend, Gandalf the Grey. Bilbo reveals that he intends to leave the Shire for one last adventure, and he leaves his inheritance, including the Ring, to his nephew, Frodo. Although Bilbo has begun to become corrupted by the Ring and tries to keep it for himself, Gandalf intervenes. Gandalf, suspicious of the Ring, tells Frodo to keep it secret and to keep it safe. Gandalf then investigates the Ring, discovers its true identity, and returns to warn Frodo. Gandalf also learns that Gollum was tortured by Orcs, and that Gollum uttered two words during his torture: "Shire" and "Baggins." Gandalf instructs Frodo to leave the Shire, accompanied by his gardener Samwise Gamgee. Gandalf rides to Isengard to meet with fellow wizard Saruman the White, but learns that he has joined forces with Sauron, who has unleashed the Ringwraiths to find Frodo. After a brief battle, Saruman imprisons Gandalf. Frodo and Sam are joined by fellow Hobbits, Merry and Pippin, and they evade the Ringwraiths, arriving in Bree, where they are meant to meet Gandalf. However, Gandalf never arrived, and they are instead aided by a ranger named Strider, a friend of Gandalf's, who escorts them to Rivendell.

text: The Hobbits are ambushed by the Ringwraiths, and one stabs Frodo with a cursed Morgul blade. Arwen, an elf and Strider’s lover, comes to Frodo’s aid and successfully takes him to Rivendell, where he is healed. Frodo meets Gandalf, who escaped Isengard on the back of a giant Eagle. Arwen’s father, Lord Elrond, holds a council that decides the Ring must be destroyed in Mount Doom. While the members argue, Frodo volunteers to take the Ring, accompanied by Gandalf, Sam, Merry, Pippin, elf Legolas, dwarf Gimli, Boromir of Gondor, and Strider, who is revealed to be Aragorn, Isildur’s heir and the rightful King of Gondor. Bilbo gives Frodo his sword, Sting. The Fellowship of the Ring sets off, but Saruman’s magic forces them to travel through the Mines of Moria, much to Gandalf's displeasure.

text: The Fellowship discovers that the dwarves within Moria have been slain, and they are attacked by Orcs and a cave troll. They defeat them, but are confronted by an ancient demon called a Balrog. Gandalf casts the Balrog into a vast chasm, but it drags Gandalf down into the darkness with it. The rest of the Fellowship, now commanded by Aragorn, reaches Lothlórien, home to elves Galadriel and Celeborn. Galadriel privately informs Frodo that only he can complete the quest, and that one of his friends will try to take the Ring. Meanwhile, Saruman creates an army of Uruk-hai to track down and kill the Fellowship.

text: The Fellowship leaves Lothlórien by river to Parth Galen. Frodo wanders off and is confronted by Boromir, who tries to take the Ring in desperation. Afraid of the Ring corrupting his friends, Frodo decides to travel to Mordor alone. The Fellowship is then ambushed by the Uruk-hai. Merry and Pippin are taken captive, and Boromir is mortally wounded by the Uruk chieftain. After slaying the chieftain, Aragorn watches Boromir die peacefully. Sam follows Frodo, accompanying him to keep his promise to Gandalf to protect Frodo, while Aragorn, Legolas, and Gimli go to rescue Merry and Pippin.

text: Cast[edit]

text: Before filming began on 11 October 1999, the principal actors trained for six weeks in sword fighting (with Bob Anderson), riding and boating. Jackson hoped such activities would allow the cast to bond so chemistry would be evident on screen as well as getting them used to life in Wellington.[8] They were also trained to pronounce Tolkien's verses properly.[9] After the shoot, the nine cast members playing the Fellowship got a tattoo of the English word "nine" written in Tengwar, with the exception of John Rhys-Davies, whose stunt double got the tattoo instead.[10] The film is noted for having an ensemble cast,[11] and some of the cast and their respective characters include:

text:
Elijah Wood as Frodo Baggins: a young hobbit who inherits the One Ring from his uncle Bilbo. Wood was the first actor to be cast on 7 July 1999.[12] Wood was a fan of the book, and he sent in an audition dressed as Frodo, reading lines from the novel.[13] Wood was selected from 150 actors who auditioned,[14] including Jake Gyllenhaal.[15]
Ian McKellen as Gandalf the Grey: an Istari wizard and mentor to Frodo. Sean Connery was approached for the role, but did not understand the plot,[13] while Patrick Stewart turned it down as he disliked the script.[16] Before being cast, McKellen had to sort his schedule with 20th Century Fox as there was a two-month overlap with X-Men.[14] He enjoyed playing Gandalf the Grey more than his transformed state in the next two films,[10] and based his accent on Tolkien. Unlike his on-screen character, McKellen did not spend much time with the actors playing the Hobbits; instead he worked with their scale doubles.[8]
Sean Astin as Samwise "Sam" Gamgee: a hobbit gardener and Frodo's best friend. Astin, who had recently become a father, bonded with the 18-year-old Wood in a protective manner, which mirrored Sam's relationship with Frodo.[8]
Viggo Mortensen as Aragorn II Elessar: a Dúnedain ranger, the descendant of Isildur, and heir to Gondor's throne. Daniel Day-Lewis was offered the part at the beginning of pre-production, but turned it down.[17] Nicolas Cage also received an offer, declining because of "family obligations",[18] while Vin Diesel, a fan of the book, auditioned for Aragorn. Stuart Townsend was cast in the role, before being replaced during filming when Jackson realised he was too young.[13] Russell Crowe was considered as a replacement, but he turned it down after taking what he thought to be a similar role in Gladiator.[13] Day-Lewis was offered the role for a second time, but declined again.[17] Executive Producer Mark Ordesky saw Mortensen in a play. Mortensen's son, a fan of the book, convinced him to take the role.[8] Mortensen read the book on the plane, received a crash course lesson in fencing from Bob Anderson and began filming the scenes on Weathertop.[19] Mortensen became a hit with the crew by patching up his costume[20] and carrying his "hero" sword around with him off-camera.[8]
Billy Boyd as Peregrin "Pippin" Took: a hobbit who travels with the Fellowship on their journey to Mordor.
Dominic Monaghan as Meriadoc "Merry" Brandybuck: a distant cousin of Frodo. Monaghan was cast as Merry after auditioning for Frodo.[13]
John Rhys-Davies as Gimli: a dwarf warrior who accompanies the Fellowship to Mordor after they set out from Rivendell and a descendant of Durin's Folk. Billy Connolly, who was considered for the part of Gimli, later portrayed Dáin II Ironfoot in Peter Jackson's The Hobbit film trilogy.[13] Rhys-Davies wore heavy prosthetics to play Gimli, which limited his vision, and eventually developed eczema around his eyes.[8]
Orlando Bloom as Legolas Greenleaf: a prince of the elves' Woodland Realm and a skilled archer. Bloom initially auditioned for Faramir, who appears in the second film, a role which went to David Wenham.[13]
Sean Bean as Boromir: a prince of the Stewards of Gondor who journeys with the Fellowship towards Mordor. Bruce Willis, a fan of the book, expressed interest in the role, while Liam Neeson was sent the script, but passed.[13]
Ian Holm as Bilbo Baggins: Frodo's uncle who gives him the Ring after he decides to retire to Rivendell. Holm previously played Frodo in a 1981 radio adaption of The Lord of the Rings, and was cast as Bilbo after Jackson remembered his performance.[13] Sylvester McCoy, who would later play Radagast the Brown in The Hobbit, was contacted about playing the role, and was kept in place as a potential Bilbo for six months before Jackson went with Holm.[21]
Liv Tyler as Arwen Undomiel: a beautiful half-elf princess of Rivendell and Aragorn's lover. The filmmakers approached Tyler after seeing her performance in Plunkett & Macleane, and New Line Cinema leaped at the opportunity of having one Hollywood star in the film. Actress Helena Bonham Carter had expressed interest in the role.[13] Peter Jackson wanted to cast Uma Thurman as Arwen, but Thurman pulled out due to pregnancy, Tyler came to shoot on short occasions, unlike the rest of the actors. She was one of the last actors to be cast, on 25 August 1999.[22]
Cate Blanchett as Galadriel: the elven co-ruler of Lothlórien alongside her husband Celeborn. Peter Jackson wanted to cast Lucy Lawless as Galadriel, but she declined due to pregnancy.[23]
Christopher Lee as Saruman the White: the fallen head of the Istari Order who succumbs to Sauron's will through his use of the palantír. Lee was a major fan of the book, and read it once a year. He had also met J. R. R. Tolkien.[19] He originally auditioned for Gandalf, but was judged too old.[13]
Hugo Weaving as Elrond: the elven Lord of Rivendell who leads the Council of Elrond, which ultimately decides to destroy the Ring. David Bowie expressed interest in the role, but Jackson stated, "To have a famous, beloved character and a famous star colliding is slightly uncomfortable."[14]
Sala Baker as Sauron: the Dark Lord of Mordor and the Ring's true master who manifests as an Eye after the destruction of his physical form. Originally hired as one of the several stunt performers for the film trilogy, Baker ended up landing the role. In addition, he went on to play several Orcs as well.
Andy Serkis as Gollum voice and motion capture: a wretched hobbit-like creature whose mind was poisoned over centuries by the Ring.
David Weatherley as Barliman Butterbur, proprietor in Bree
Lawrence Makoare as Lurtz: the commander of Saruman's Orc forces;
Marton Csokas as Celeborn: the elven co-ruler of Lothlórien alongside his wife Galadriel;
Craig Parker as Haldir: the leader of the Galadhrim warriors guarding the border of Lothlórien;
Mark Ferguson as Ereinion Gil-galad, the last Elven-King of Noldor;
Peter McKenzie as Elendil the Tall: the last High King of Arnor and Gondor;
Harry Sinclair as Isildur: Elendil's son and Aragorn's ancestor who originally defeated Sauron.
Peter Jackson as Albert Dreary: a man of Bree.

tag: ul

text: Comparison with the source material[edit]

text: Jackson, Walsh and Boyens made numerous changes to the story, for purposes of pacing and character development. Jackson said his main desire was to make a film focused primarily on Frodo and the Ring, the "backbone" of the story.[24] The prologue condenses Tolkien's backstory, in which The Last Alliance's seven-year siege of the Barad-dûr is a single battle, where Sauron is shown to explode, though Tolkien only said his spirit flees.[25]

text: Events from the book are condensed or omitted altogether at the beginning of the film. The time between Gandalf leaving the Ring to Frodo and returning to reveal its inscription, which is 17 years in the book, is compressed for timing reasons.[26] Frodo also spends a few months preparing to move to Buckland, on the eastern border of the Shire. This move is omitted, and associated events, including the involvement of Merry and Pippin, are changed and combined with him setting out for Bree. Characters such as Tom Bombadil and the incidents in the Old Forest and the Barrow Downs are left out to simplify the plot and increase the threat of the Ringwraiths. Such sequences are left out to make time to introduce Saruman, who doesn't appear in the book until Gandalf's account at the Council of Elrond. While some characters are left out, some are referenced such as Tom, Bert, and William to show how The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings series intertwine. Saruman's role is enhanced: he is to blame for the blizzard on Caradhras, a role taken from Sauron and/or Caradhras itself in the book. Gandalf's capture by Saruman is also expanded with a fight sequence.

text: The role of Barliman Butterbur at the Prancing Pony is largely removed for time and dramatic flow. In the film Pippin is seen to identify Frodo explicitly with the phrase "why there's Baggins over there" whereas in the book Pippin is only telling the tale of Bilbo's disappearance when Strider tells Frodo to create a distraction, which he does by singing a song.

text: The events at Weathertop were also altered. The location of the fight against the Ringwraiths was changed to the ruins on top of the hill rather than a campsite at its base. When Frodo was stabbed in the book, the party spent two weeks travelling to Rivendell, but in the film this is shortened to less than a week, with Frodo's condition worsening at a commensurately greater rate. Arwen was given a greater role in the film, accompanying Frodo all the way to Rivendell, while in the book Frodo faced the Ringwraiths alone at the Ford of Bruinen. The character of Glorfindel was omitted entirely and his scenes were also given to Arwen. She was tacitly credited with the river rising against the Ringwraiths, which was the work of her father Elrond with aid from Gandalf in the book.

text: A significant new addition is Aragorn's self-doubt, which causes him to hesitate to claim the kingship of Gondor. This element is not present in the book, where Aragorn intends to claim the throne at an appropriate time. In the book Narsil is reforged immediately when he joins the Fellowship, but this event is held over until Return of the King in film to symbolically coincide with his acceptance of his title. These elements were added because Peter Jackson believed that each character should be forced to grow or change over the course of the story.

text: Elrond's character gained an adversarial edge; he expresses doubts in the strength of Men to resist Sauron's evil after Isildur's failure to destroy the ring as depicted in the prologue. Jackson also shortens the Council of Elrond by spreading its exposition into earlier parts of the film. Elrond's counsellor, Erestor—who suggested the Ring be given to Tom Bombadil—was completely absent from this scene. Gimli's father, Glóin, was also deemed unnecessary. In addition, the movie makes it seem by chance that the Fellowship is made of nine companions, whereas in the book Elrond suggests there be nine in the fellowship in response to the nine Nazgûl.

text: The tone of the Moria sequence was altered. In the book, following the defeat on the Caradhras road, Gandalf advocates the Moria road against the resistance of the rest of the Fellowship (save Gimli), suggesting "there is a hope that Moria is still free...there is even a chance that Dwarves are there," though no one seems to think this likely. Frodo proposes they take a company vote, but the discovery of Wargs on their trail forces them to accept Gandalf's proposal. They only realise the Dwarves are all dead once they reach Balin's tomb. The filmmakers chose instead for Gandalf to resist the Moria plan as a foreshadowing device. Gandalf says to Gimli he would prefer not to enter Moria, and Saruman is shown to be aware of Gandalf's hesitance, revealing an illustration of the Balrog in one of his books. The corpses of the dwarves are instantly shown as the Fellowship enter Moria.[27] One detail that many critics commented upon is the fact that, in the novel, Pippin tosses a mere pebble into the well in Moria ("They then hear what sounds like a hammer tapping in the distance"), whereas in the film, he knocks an entire skeleton in ("Next, the skeleton ... falls down the well, also dragging down a chain and bucket. The noise is incredible."[28])[29][30][31][32]

text: In terms of dramatic structure, the book simply ends; there is no climax, because Tolkien wrote the "trilogy" as a single story published in three volumes. Jackson's version incorporates the first chapter of '"The Two Towers" and makes its events, told in real time instead of flashback, simultaneous with the Breaking of the Fellowship. This finale is played as a climactic battle, into which he introduces the Uruk-hai referred to as Lurtz in the script. In the book, Boromir is unable to tell Aragorn which hobbits were kidnapped by the orcs before he dies. From there, Aragorn deduces Frodo's intentions when he notices that a boat is missing and Sam's pack is gone. In the film, Aragorn and Frodo have a scene together in which Frodo's intentions are explicitly stated.

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: Peter Jackson began working with Christian Rivers to storyboard the series in August 1997, as well as getting Richard Taylor and Weta Workshop to begin creating his interpretation of Middle-earth.[33] Jackson told them to make Middle-earth as plausible and believable as possible, to think of Middle-earth in a historical manner.[34]

text: In November,[34] Alan Lee and John Howe became the film trilogy's primary conceptual designers, having had previous experience as illustrators for the book and various other tie-ins. Lee worked for the Art Department creating places such as Rivendell, Isengard, Moria and Lothlórien, giving Art Nouveau and geometry influences to the Elves and Dwarves respectively.[34][35] Though Howe contributed with Bag End and the Argonath,[34][35] he focused working on armour having studied it all his life.[36] Weta and the Art Department continued to design, with Grant Major turning the Art Department's designs into architecture, and Dan Hennah scouting locations.[34] On 1 April 1999, Ngila Dickson joined the crew as costume designer. She and 40 seamstresses would create 19,000 costumes, 40 per version for the actor and their doubles, ageing and wearing them out for impression of age.[20]

text: Filming locations[edit]

text: Filming took place in various locations across New Zealand. A list of filming locations, sorted by appearance order in the film:[37][38]

text:
Fictional
location
Specific location
in New Zealand
General area
in New Zealand.

Mordor (Prologue)
Whakapapa skifield
Tongariro National Park

Hobbiton
Matamata
Waikato

Gardens of Isengard
Harcourt Park
Upper Hutt

The Shire woods
Otaki Gorge Road
Kapiti Coast District

Bucklebury Ferry
Keeling Farm, Manakau
Horowhenua

Forest near Bree
Takaka Hill
Nelson

Trollshaws
Waitarere Forest
Horowhenua

Flight to the Ford
Tarras
Central Otago

Ford of Bruinen
Arrow River, Skippers Canyon
Queenstown and Arrowtown

Rivendell
Kaitoke Regional Park
Upper Hutt

Eregion
Mount Olympus
Nelson

Dead Marshes
Kepler Mire
Southland

Dimrill Dale
Lake Alta
The Remarkables

Dimrill Dale
Mount Owen
Nelson

Lothlórien
Paradise
Glenorchy

River Anduin
Upper Waiau River
Fiordland National Park

River Anduin
Rangitikei River
Rangitikei District

River Anduin
Poets' Corner
Upper Hutt

Parth Galen
Paradise
Glenorchy

Amon Hen
Mavora Lakes, Paradise and Closeburn
Southern Lakes

text: Special effects[edit]

text: The Fellowship of the Ring makes extensive use of digital, practical and make-up special effects throughout. One noticeable illusion that appears in almost every scene involves setting a proper scale so that the characters are all the correct height. Elijah Wood, who plays Frodo, is 5 ft 6 in (1.68 m) tall in real life, but the character of Frodo Baggins is barely four feet in height. Many different tricks were used to depict the hobbits (and Gimli the Dwarf) as being of diminutive stature. (In a happy coincidence, John-Rhys Davies – who played Gimli – is as tall compared to the Hobbit actors as his character needed to be compared to theirs, so he did not need to be filmed separately as a third variation of height, and is quite taller than Orlando Bloom, who played Legolas.) Large- and small-scale doubles were used in certain scenes, while entire duplicates of certain sets (including Bag End in Hobbiton) were built at two different scales, so that the characters would appear to be the appropriate size. At one point in the film, Frodo runs along a corridor in Bag End, followed by Gandalf. Elijah Wood and Ian McKellen were filmed in separate versions of the same corridor, built at two different scales, and a fast camera pan conceals the edit between the two. Forced perspective was also employed, so that it would look as though the short Hobbits were interacting with taller Men and Elves. Even the simple use of kneeling down, to the filmmakers' surprise, turned out to be an effective method in creating the illusion.

text: For the battle between the Last Alliance and Sauron's forces that begins the film, an elaborate CGI animation system, called MASSIVE, was developed by Stephen Regelous; it allowed thousands of individual animated "characters" in the program to act independently. This helped give the illusion of realism to the battle sequences. The "Making of" Lord of the Rings DVD reports some interesting initial problems: in the first execution of a battle between groups of characters, the wrong groups attacked each other. In another early demo, some of the warriors at the edge of the field could be seen running away. They were initially moving in the wrong direction, and had been programmed to keep running until they encountered an enemy.

text: The digital creatures were important due to Jackson's requirement of biological plausibility. Their surface was scanned from large maquettes before numerous digital details of their skeletons and muscles were added. In the case of the Balrog, Gray Horsfield created a system that copied recorded imagery of fire.

text: Score[edit]

text: The musical score for The Lord of the Rings films was composed by Howard Shore. It was performed by the 100-strong New Zealand Symphony Orchestra, the London Philharmonic Orchestra, the London Voices, The London Oratory School Schola, and the Maori Samoan Choir, and featured several vocal soloists. Shore wrote almost four hours of finalised music for the film (of which just over three hours are used as underscore), featuring a number of non-orchestral instruments, and a large number (49-62) of leitmotives.

text: Two original songs, "Aníron" and the end title theme "May It Be", were composed and sung by Enya, who allowed her label, Reprise Records, to release the soundtrack to this and its two sequels. In addition to these songs, Shore composed "In Dreams", which was sung by Edward Ross of the London Oratory School Schola.

text: Release[edit]

text: A special behind-the-scenes trailer was released in 2000. Two teasers were shown before Spy Kids and Pearl Harbor (film). The final trailer was with the television premiere of Angel, Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, and on the DVD and VHS of Rush Hour 2.

text: Home media[edit]

text: The Fellowship of the Ring was released on VHS and DVD in August 2002.

text: Theatrical and extended release[edit]

text: In November 2002, an extended edition was released on VHS and DVD, with 30 minutes of new material, added special effects and music, plus 20 minutes of fan-club credits, totalling to 228 minutes.[39][40] The DVD set included four commentaries and over three hours of supplementary material.

text: In August 2006, a limited edition of The Fellowship of the Ring was released on DVD. The set included both the film's theatrical and extended editions on a double-sided disc along with all-new bonus material.

text: Blu-ray edition[edit]

text: The theatrical Blu-ray version of The Lord of the Rings was released in the United States in April 2010. There were two separate sets: one with digital copies and one without.[41] The individual Blu-ray disc of The Fellowship of the Ring was released in September 2010 with the same special features as the complete trilogy release, except there was no digital copy.[42]

text: The extended Blu-ray editions were released in the US in June 2011.[43] This version has a runtime of 238 minutes[40][44] (the extended editions include the names of all fan club members at the time of their release; the additional 9 minutes in the Blu-ray version are because of expanded member rolls, not any additional story material).

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: The Fellowship of the Ring was released on 19 December 2001 in 3,359 cinemas where it grossed $47.2 million on its opening weekend. The world premiere was held at the Odeon Leicester Square in London. It went on to make $314.7 million in North America and $555.9 million in the rest of the world for a worldwide total of $870.7 million.[45] Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold over 54 million tickets in the US in its initial theatrical run.[46]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: The Fellowship of the Ring was acclaimed by film critics and was one of 2001's best reviewed films.[47] The film holds a 91% approval rating on aggregate review site Rotten Tomatoes based on 227 reviews and an average score of 8.2/10. The site's main consensus reads "Full of eye-popping special effects, and featuring a pitch-perfect cast, The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring brings J.R.R. Tolkien's classic to vivid life".[48] The film holds a score of 92 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 34 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim".[49]

text: Roger Ebert gave the film three out of four stars and stating that while it is not "a true visualization of Tolkien's Middle-earth", it is "a work for, and of, our times. It will be embraced, I suspect, by many Tolkien fans and take on aspects of a cult. It is a candidate for many Oscars. It is an awesome production in its daring and breadth, and there are small touches that are just right".[50] USA Today also gave the film three out of four stars and wrote, "this movie version of a beloved book should please devotees as well as the uninitiated".[51] In his review for The New York Times, Elvis Mitchell wrote, "The playful spookiness of Mr. Jackson's direction provides a lively, light touch, a gesture that doesn't normally come to mind when Tolkien's name is mentioned".[52] Entertainment Weekly magazine gave the film an "A" rating and Lisa Schwarzbaum wrote, "The cast take to their roles with becoming modesty, certainly, but Jackson also makes it easy for them: His Fellowship flows, never lingering for the sake of admiring its own beauty ... Every detail of which engrossed me. I may have never turned a page of Tolkien, but I know enchantment when I see it".[53]

text: In her review for The Washington Post, Rita Kempley praised the cast, in particular, "Mortensen, as Strider, is a revelation, not to mention downright gorgeous. And McKellen, carrying the burden of thousands of years' worth of the fight against evil, is positively Merlinesque".[54] Time magazine's Richard Corliss praised Jackson's work: "His movie achieves what the best fairy tales do: the creation of an alternate world, plausible and persuasive, where the young — and not only the young — can lose themselves. And perhaps, in identifying with the little Hobbit that could, find their better selves".[55] In his review for The Village Voice, J. Hoberman wrote, "Peter Jackson's adaptation is certainly successful on its own terms".[56] Rolling Stone magazine's Peter Travers wrote, "It's emotion that makes Fellowship stick hard in the memory... Jackson deserves to revel in his success. He's made a three-hour film that leaves you wanting more".[57] However, in his review for The Guardian, Peter Bradshaw wrote, "there is a strange paucity of plot complication, an absence of anything unfolding, all the more disconcerting because of the clotted and indigestible mythic back story that we have to wade through before anything happens at all".[58]

text: In CinemaScore polls conducted during the opening weekend, cinema audiences gave the film an average grade of "A−" on an A+ to F scale.[59]

text: Accolades[edit]

text: In 2002, the film won four Academy Awards from thirteen nominations.[60] The winning categories were for Best Cinematography, Best Visual Effects, Best Makeup, and Best Original Score. It was also nominated for Best Actor in a Supporting Role (Ian McKellen), Best Art Direction, Best Director, Best Film Editing, Best Original Song (Enya, Nicky Ryan and Roma Ryan for "May It Be"), Best Picture, Best Sound (Christopher Boyes, Michael Semanick, Gethin Creagh and Hammond Peek), Best Costume Design and Best Adapted Screenplay.

text: As of January 2014[update], it is the 31st highest-grossing film worldwide, with US$871,530,324 in worldwide theatrical box office receipts.[3]

text: The film won the 2002 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation. It also won Empire readers' Best Film award, as well as five BAFTAs, including Best Film, the David Lean Award for Best Direction, the Audience Award (voted for by the public), Best Special Effects, and Best Make-up. The film was nominated for an MTV Movie Award for Best Fight between Gandalf and Saruman.

text: In June 2008, AFI revealed its "10 Top 10"—the ten best films in ten "classic" American film genres—after polling over 1,500 people from the creative community. The Fellowship of the Ring was acknowledged as the second best film in the fantasy genre.[61][62] The film was also listed as the 50th best film in the 2007 list AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition).


document_title: List of countries by tax rates

question_text: who has the highest corporate taxes in the world

text: List of countries by tax rates

text: Tax rates by countries[edit]

text:
Country
Corporate tax
Individual (min)
Individual (max)[1](Highest possible local income taxes - central govt in brackets)
VAT or GST or Sales tax
(also see VAT rates)
Further reading

 Afghanistan
20%[2]
0%[3]
20%[3]
0%[4]
Taxation in Afghanistan

 Albania
15%[5]
0%[6]
23%[6]
7000600000000000000♠6% (tourism services)[7]
7001200000000000000♠20% (others)[8]
Taxation in Albania

 Algeria
19%–26%[9]
0%[10]
35%[10]
7000900000000000000♠9% (basic items)[11]
7001190000000000000♠19% (others)[11]
Taxation in Algeria

 American Samoa
15%–44%[12][13]
4%[14][13]
6%[13]
0%[15][13]
Taxation in American Samoa

 Andorra
10%[16]
10%[17]
10%[17]
5000000000000000000♠0%, 7000100000000000000♠1% or 7000250000000000000♠2.5% (reduced rates)
7000450000000000000♠4.5% (standard rate)
7000950000000000000♠9.5% (banking services)[18]
Taxation in Andorra

 Angola
30%[19]
0%[19]
17%[19]
7001100000000000000♠10%[19]
Taxation in Angola

 Anguilla
0%[20]
0%[20]
0%[20]
0%[20]
Taxation in Anguilla

 Argentina
35%[21]
9%[21]
35%[21]
7001210000000000000♠21%[21]
Taxation in Argentina

 Armenia
20%[22]
24.4%[22]
36%[22]
7001200000000000000♠20%[22]
Taxation in Armenia

 Aruba
25%[23]
7%[23]
58.95%[23]
1.5% (turnover tax)[23]
Taxation in Aruba

 Australia
28.5%–30%[24][Note 1]
0%[24]
49%[25][Note 2]
5000000000000000000♠0% (essential items)
7001100000000000000♠10% (others)[24]
Taxation in Australia

 Austria
25%[26]
0%[26]
55%[26]
7001100000000000000♠10% (basic items)
7001130000000000000♠13% (tourism services)
7001200000000000000♠20% (others)[26]
Taxation in Austria

 Azerbaijan
20%[27]
14%[27]
25%[27]
7001180000000000000♠18%[27]
Taxation in Azerbaijan

 Bahamas[28]
0%[29]
0%
0% (8.8% social security tax)
0%–7.5%[30]
Taxation in Bahamas

 Bangladesh[31]
35%[32]
0%
25%
7001150000000000000♠15%[8]
Taxation in Bangladesh

 Barbados[33]
25%
25%
38%
7001175000000000000♠17.5%[8] (hotel accommodation 7.5%)
Taxation in Barbados

 Bahrain
0%[34]
0%
0%
5%
Taxation in Bahrain

 Belarus[35]
18%
13%
17%
7001200000000000000♠20%[8] or 10%
Taxation in Belarus

 Belgium[31]
33.99%[36]
25%
64% (55%)
7001210000000000000♠21%[8] – 12% (restaurants) – 6% (essential and selected goods)
Taxation in Belgium

 Belize
N/A
0%
25%
7001125000000000000♠12.5%
Taxation in Belize

 Benin[citation needed]
35%
10%
35%
7001180000000000000♠18%[8]
Taxation in Benin

 Bermuda
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Bermuda

 Bhutan
30%
0%
25%[37]
N/A
Taxation in Bhutan

 Bolivia
25%
0%
25%
7001130000000000000♠13%[8] (VAT) – multiple rates (ICE: Consumption of specific products)
Taxation in Bolivia

 Bosnia and Herzegovina
10%[38]
N/A
10% FBiH, 0–15% RS[38]
7001170000000000000♠17% FBiH and RS[8][38]
Taxation in Bosnia and Herzegovina

 Botswana
22%
0%
25%
7001120000000000000♠12%
Taxation in Botswana

 Brazil[31]
34%
0% [39]
27.5%
7001170000000000000♠17% to 25% [40]
Taxation in Brazil

 Brunei
20%
0%
0%
N/A[8]
Taxation in Brunei

 Bulgaria
10% (+5% on distribution of profit)
10%
10%
7001200000000000000♠20%[8]
Taxation in Bulgaria

 Burkina Faso
27.5%
0%
25%
7001180000000000000♠18%[8]
Taxation in Burkina Faso

 Burundi[41]
35%
0%
35%
7001180000000000000♠18%[8]
Taxation in Burundi

 Cambodia
20%
0%
20%
7001100000000000000♠10%[8]
Taxation in Cambodia

 Cameroon[35]
31.5%
10%
35%
7001192500000000000♠19.25%
Taxation in Cameroon

 Canada
13%[42]
19% (15% fed + (4%–11% provincial))[43] (0% on the first $11,474 of income) [44]
58.75% in Quebec (33% federal)[45][46]
7000500000000000000♠5% (federal GST) + 0%–15% (provincial taxes)[47]
Taxation in Canada

 Cape Verde
25%
16.5%
27.5%
7001150000000000000♠15%[8]
Taxation in Cape Verde

 Cayman Islands
0%[48]
0%[48]
0%[48]
0%[48][49][Note 3]
Taxation in the Cayman Islands

 Central African Republic
30%[50]
N/A
50%[50]
7001190000000000000♠19%[8]
Taxation in the Central African Republic

 Chad
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Chad

 Chile[51]
24%[52] (on distributed profits, deductible from personal income taxes[53][54])
0%
40%
7001190000000000000♠19%[8]
Taxation in Chile

 China[31]
25%
0%
45%[55][56]
7001170000000000000♠17% with many exceptions[8]
Taxation in China

 Colombia[35]
34% + 0%–6% Surtax for 2017, 33% + 0%–4% Surtax for 2018, and then 33% [57]
0% [58]
33% for labor income, and 35% for non-labor income[58]
7001190000000000000♠19%[8] (5% or 0%)
Taxation in Colombia

 Comoros
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Comoros

 Cook Islands
20-30 %
18.5 %
30 %
15 %
Taxation in Cook Islands

 Democratic Republic of the Congo
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo

 Congo
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in the Republic of the Congo

 Costa Rica
30%
0%
25%
7001130000000000000♠13%[59]
Taxation in Costa Rica

 Croatia[35]
12% for less than 3 mil kn, 18% for more
12%
40%
7001250000000000000♠25%[60] (0% on books and some foods)
Taxation in Croatia

 Cuba[61]
30%
15%
50%
7000250000000000000♠2.5% to 20%[8]
Taxation in Cuba

 Curaçao
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Curaçao

 Cyprus[31]
12.5%
0%
35%
7001190000000000000♠19%[8] (5% or 0% for certain goods)
Taxation in Cyprus

 Czech Republic[62][63]
19%[36]
15% (minus 24,840 CZK per year)
22% (+7% for income above 4x of average wage)
7001210000000000000♠21%[64] (15% or 10% for certain goods)
Taxation in the Czech Republic

 Denmark[65]
22%
29.68% (2015)[66] (first USD $7,760 pro anno is deductible)
60.02% [66]
7001250000000000000♠25%
Taxation in Denmark

 Djibouti
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Djibouti

 Dominica
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Dominica

 Dominican Republic
27%
0%
25%
18%
Taxation in Dominican Republic

 Timor-Leste
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in East Timor

 Ecuador
24%
0%
35%
7001120000000000000♠12% (standard), 15% (luxury goods), 0% (exports)
Taxation in Ecuador

 Egypt[67]
22.5% (Corporate Taxes) 5% (Distribution of Profit Taxes)
0% (Up to 7.2K EGP per year)
22.5% (more than 200K EGP per year)
7001140000000000000♠14% (standard), 10% (professional services), 0% (exports)
Taxation in Egypt

 El Salvador
30%
0%
30%
7001130000000000000♠13%
Taxation in El Salvador

 Equatorial Guinea
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Equatorial Guinea

 Eritrea
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Eritrea

 Estonia[31]
0% (20% on distribution of profit)
20% (0% on dividents to residents)
20%
7001200000000000000♠20% or 9%
Taxation in Estonia

 Ethiopia
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Ethiopia

 Falkland Islands
26%
0%
26%
0%
Taxation in Falkland islands

 F.S. Micronesia
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Micronesia

 Fiji
20% [68]
0%
20%
9%
Taxation in Fiji

 Finland
20%[69]
7.71%
(7.71% social security,[70] no national[71] or municipal[72] taxes for income no more than 2 930 €)

54.25% (31.75%) [73]
7001240000000000000♠24%
14% (food and fodder)
10% (e.g. medicines, public transport)
Taxation in Finland

 France
15% (profit < €38120) - 33.00% (profit > €38120)
0% up to €9700
45% (+ tax on high incomes: 4% over €500,000)[74]
20%, 10% (restaurants, transportation, tourism), 5.5% (utilities), 2.1% (press)
Taxation in France

 Gabon
35%
5%
35%
7001180000000000000♠18%
Taxation in Gabon

 Gambia
31%
0%
30%
N/A
Taxation in Gambia

 Germany
29.65%[32]
14% (first €8,354 pro anno is deductible)
47.475% (45% income tax + 5.5% solidarity surcharge based on the total tax bill)
7001190000000000000♠19% or 7% (e.g. food)
Taxation in Germany

 Georgia[35]
15%
5%
20%
7001180000000000000♠18%
Taxation in Georgia

 Ghana
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Ghana

 Gibraltar
10%
17%
40%
0%
Taxation in Gibraltar

 Greece
29% (+29% paid in advance & returned after 1 year)
22%
(€1,900 tax deducted if income <€21,000)
45%
7001240000000000000♠24%,[8] 13% (Health, Tourism), and 6% (Theater tickets, books, medicine). For some islands away from the mainland the rates are 17%, 9% and 4%.
Taxation in Greece

 Grenada
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Grenada

 Guatemala[35]
25%
5%
7%
7001120000000000000♠12%
Taxation in Guatemala

 Guinea
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Guinea

 Guinea-Bissau
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Guinea-Bissau

 Guyana[75]
30%
N/A
33⅓%
7001160000000000000♠16% or 0%
Taxation in Guyana

 Guernsey
0%[76]
0%
20%
0% [77]
Taxation in Guernsey

 Haiti
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Haiti

 Honduras
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Honduras

 Hong Kong[78]
16.5%[79]
0%
15%
0%. The idea to levy GST was proposed and dropped in 2006.
Taxation in Hong Kong

 Hungary
9%
46.15% (17.8% social contribution tax, occasional training contribution 2.4%, 5.7% healthcare, social security 8.1%, income tax 12.15%, )
46.15% (17.8% social contribution tax, occasional training contribution 2.4%, 5.7% healthcare, social security 8.1%, income tax 12.15%, )
7001270000000000000♠27%, 18% (milk, egg, pork, chicken meat, internet service, restaurant services), 5% (medicines, books)
Taxation in Hungary

 Iceland[35]
20%
0%
46%
7001240000000000000♠24% or 11%
Taxation in Iceland

 India
25%[80]
0%
30%[81]
7001280000000000000♠28%. 18%, 12%, 5%, 0%. GST rates in India.[82][83]
Taxation in India

 Indonesia
25%
5%
30%
7001100000000000000♠10%
Taxation in Indonesia

 Iran
25%
0%
35%
0%–9% – depending on item
Taxation in Iran

 Iraq
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Iraq

 Ireland
12.5%
20% (first €1,650 pro anno is deductible)
52% (40% Income Tax + 12% social insurance contributions on income above €70,000, 9% social security contributions between €18,000 and €70,000)
7001230000000000000♠23% Goods
9%–13.5% Services
0% certain items of food
Taxation in Ireland

 Isle of Man
0%
10%
20%
20%, 5% on Home Renovations
Taxation in Isle of Man

 Israel

Annual profit >10B ILS: 6%. Annual profit <10B ILS: 7.5% - 24%.[84]

11.5%
50%
7001170000000000000♠17% on all the products and services (except for vegetables and fruits).
Taxation in Israel

 Italy
27.9% (24% + 3.9% municipal)
23%- 0% on the first 8.500 euro income
43% +4% (special added tax)
7001220000000000000♠22% or 10% or 4% (food, books)
Taxation in Italy

 Ivory Coast
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Ivory Coast

 Jamaica
33.3% Large companies 25% Small Private companies
0%
25% on income over J$1,500,000
GCT 7001165000000000000♠16.5%, SCT varies up to 20%
Taxation in Jamaica

 Japan[85]
32.11%[86]
15.105% (5.105% national + 10% local)
55.945% (45.945% national)
7000800000000000000♠8% (consumption) To go up to 10% in October 2019
Taxation in Japan

 Jersey[31]
0%
0%
20% [87]
5%[88]
Taxation in Jersey

 Jordan[35]
20%
0%
14%
7001160000000000000♠16% (GST)
Taxation in Jordan

 Kazakhstan[35]
20%[32][2]
10%
10% (for residents), 15% (for non-residents)
7001120000000000000♠12%
Taxation in Kazakhstan

 Kenya
30%[32]
10%
30% citizens, 35% foreigners
16%/12% (electricity & fuel) VAT, 0%/exempt FOOD + 12.5% Withholding tax, 5% contractor Withholding tax
Taxation in Kenya

 Kiribati
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Kiribati

 Kuwait
0%
0%
0%
0%
Taxation in Kuwait

 South Korea[35]
24.2%[32]
6% + 1.8%[89]
42%[90] + 11.4%[89]
7001100000000000000♠10%
Taxation in South Korea

 North Korea[91]
25%
0%
20%
2% to 4%
Taxation in North Korea

 Kyrgyzstan
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Kyrgyzstan

 Laos
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Laos

 Latvia
0% / 20% (flat tax rate) [92]
23% (flat tax rate)[93]
23%
7001210000000000000♠21%[94]
Taxation in Latvia

 Lebanon[35]
15%
2%
20%
7001100000000000000♠10%
Taxation in Lebanon

 Lesotho
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Lesotho

 Liberia
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Liberia

 Libya
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Libya

 Liechtenstein[95][96]
12.5%
3%[97]
24%[98]
2.5%-7000800000000000000♠8.0%, (lodging services 3.8%)[99]
Taxation in Liechtenstein

 Lithuania[citation needed]
15%[100]
31.2%
42.77%
7001210000000000000♠21%
Taxation in Lithuania

 Luxembourg
29.22%
6%
52.45% total: 40%[101] + 12.45% social security charges[102]
7001170000000000000♠17%
Taxation in Luxembourg

 Macau[31]
12%
0%
12%
0% [103]
Taxation in Macau

 Macedonia[31]
10%
10% (flat tax rate)
10%
7001180000000000000♠18% or 5%
Taxation in Macedonia

 Madagascar
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Madagascar

 Malawi
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Malawi

 Malaysia[31]
18–24%
0%
28%. On top of that, additional 11% for Employees Provident Fund,[104] from Employee, 12%–13% from Employer;[105] Additional 1.2% for SOCSO[106] from Employee, and 1.4% from Employer
6% GST [107]
Taxation in Malaysia

 Maldives[108]
8%-7001150000000000000♠15%[109]
0%
15%
7000600000000000000♠6% Since January 1, 2012 (Increased from 3.5% set on October 2, 2011)[110]
Taxation in Maldives

 Mali
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Mali

 Malta
0–10% (35%[32] pre rebate)
0%
35%
7001180000000000000♠18%
Taxation in Malta

 Marshall Islands
N/A
0%, 8% on employees of resident companies
12% on employees of resident companies[111]
2–4%
Taxation in Marshall Islands

 Mauritania
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Mauritania

 Mauritius
15%
15% (flat tax rate)
15%
7001150000000000000♠15%
Taxation in Mauritius

 Mexico[31]
30%[112]
1.92%
35% + reduction of deductions (topes)
7001160000000000000♠16%
Taxation in Mexico

 Moldova[31]
12%
7%
18%
7001200000000000000♠20%
Taxation in Moldova

 Monaco
33.33%
0%[113]
0%
7001196000000000000♠19.6%-5.5%[114]
Taxation in Monaco

 Mongolia
10%
10%
10%
10%
Taxation in Mongolia

 Montenegro
9%[115][116]
9% (first EUR 720)[116]
15%[116]
7001110000000000000♠11% (2015) [117]
Taxation in Montenegro

 Montserrat
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Montserrat

 Morocco
10%–31%[32][118]
0%
7%–20%[118]
N/A
Taxation in Morocco

 Mozambique
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Mozambique

 Myanmar
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Myanmar

 Namibia
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Naminia

 Nauru
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Nauru

   Nepal
20%
15%, 1% Social Security Tax Mandatory
25%[119]
7001130000000000000♠13%[120]
Taxation in Nepal

 Netherlands
20% on first €250,000 profit.
25% on €250,001+ profit

36.55% (first €21.103 pro anno is deductible)
51.95% [121] + reduction of deductions (arbeidskorting and general korting)
7001210000000000000♠21% (6% for essential and selected goods)
Taxation in the Netherlands

 New Zealand
28%
10.5%[122]
33%[123]
7001150000000000000♠15% GST
Taxation in New Zealand

 New Caledonia[124]
30%
0%
25% on local income of non-residents
40%[125]

N/A
Taxation in New Caledonia

 Nicaragua
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Nicaragua

 Niger
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Niger

 Nigeria
30%
7%
24%
5%
Taxation in Nigeria

 Niue
N/A
N/A
N/A
12.5 %
Taxation in Niue

 Norfolk Island
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Norfolk Island

 Norway[126]
23% for 2018[127]
0%
23% + 8.2% + top tax (from 1.4% to 15.4%) minus deductions for 2018 [127]
7001250000000000000♠25% or 15% (food and drink in shops) or 10% (transportation, cinema, hotel rooms)
Taxation in Norway

 Oman
15%[128][129]
0%
0%
5%
Taxation in Oman

 Pakistan
35%
7.5%
35%
5000000000000000000♠0% or 17% (basic food items)
Taxation in Pakistan

 Palau
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Palau

 Palestine
15%
5%
15%
7001145000000000000♠14.5% (VAT)
Taxation in Palestine

 Panama
25%
0%
27%
7000700000000000000♠7% (except for: essential goods 0%, alcohol and hotels 10%, tobacco 15%)
Taxation in Panama

 Papua New Guinea
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Papua New Guinea

 Paraguay
10%
8%
10%
10%
Taxation in Paraguay

 Peru[35]
30%
0%
30%
7001180000000000000♠18% (16% VAT + 2% Municipal Promotional Tax) 0–118% ISC Impuesto Selectivo al Consumo (To some products like liquor, cigarettes, etc.)
Taxation in Peru

 Philippines
30%
0%
35%
7001120000000000000♠12% or 0% (Senior citizens and persons with disability are exempted from paying the VAT.)
Taxation in the Philippines

 Pitcairn Islands
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Pitcairn Islands

 Poland[36]
19% (15% for SME)[36]
0%
32% (or optional 19% flat rate for self-employed)
7001230000000000000♠23% or 8% or 5%
Taxation in Poland

 Portugal[31]
23%
14.5%
48%
7001230000000000000♠23%, 13%, 6%
Madeira, Açores: 15%, 9%, 4%

Taxation in Portugal

 Puerto Rico
20%[130]
0% (16% Proposed from March 2015)
33.34%
11.5%
Taxation in Puerto Rico

 Qatar[31]
10%
0%
0%
0%
Taxation in Qatar

 Romania
10% (1% revenue for micro-entities[131])
10% (flat tax rate)[131]
10% (+ 25% CAS (social security) + 10% CASS (health insurance) for employed persons or only +10% CASS calculated from the minimum wage if you earn more than the monthly minimum wage x12 months for the self-employed persons, ex you pay a maximum of 2280 RON as CASS contribution in 2018 if you earn over 22800 RON for the whole year)[131]
7001190000000000000♠19% or 9% (food, medicines, books, newspapers, hotel ...), or 5%[35]
Taxation in Romania

 Russia[31]
20%[2]
13% (flat)
47% (35% for non-residents; 13% – standard income tax; insurance deductions: 26% – pension fund charges,
2.9% – social security charges (1.8% – for non-citizens), 5.1% – medicare;
totaling: 34% + 13% = 47%) [132]

7001180000000000000♠18% or 10% (books, certain items of food, children goods; for several types of purchase such as house or flat freeing of this tax is possible)
Taxation in Russia

 Rwanda
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Rwanda

 Saint Kitts and Nevis
0 %
0 %
0 %
N/A
Taxation in Saint Kitts and Nevis

 Saint Lucia
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Saint Lucia

 Saint Pierre and Miquelon
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Saint Pierre and Miquelon

 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

 Samoa
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Samoa

 San Marino
17%
12%
50%
17% on imported goods. There is no VAT registration inside San Marino.
Taxation in San Marino

 São Tomé and Príncipe
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in São Tomé and Príncipe

 Sark
0%[133]
0%
0% – There are taxes on property and personal capital (max £6,500).
0% – There is no VAT on Sark. Import duty is levied on some goods brought onto the island.
Taxation in Sark

 Saudi Arabia[134]
20%
0% (foreigners)
Zakat 2.5% on capital assets (natives)
0% (foreigners)
Zakat 2.5% on capital assets (natives)
5%
Taxation in Saudi Arabia

 Senegal[35]
25%
0%
50%
7001200000000000000♠20%
Taxation in Senegal

 Serbia[135]
15%[136]
10%
25% (additional contributions for state health, pension and unemployment funds)[137]
20%[138] or 8% or 0%
(reduced rates are for certain goods)

Taxation in Serbia

 Seychelles
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Seychelles

 Sierra Leone
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Sierra Leone

 Singapore
17%[139]
0%
22% (Compulsory pension deduction of 20% from Salary)
7000700000000000000♠7% (GST)
Taxation in Singapore

 Sint Maarten
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Sint Maarten

 Slovakia
22%[140]
0%
25%[141]
7001200000000000000♠20%[citation needed] 10% on medication and books
Taxation in Slovakia

 Slovenia[31]
19%
16%
50%
7001220000000000000♠22% or 9.5%
Taxation in Slovenia

 Solomon Islands
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Solomon Islands

 Somalia
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Somalia

 South Africa
28%[142]
18%
45%
14% (7001150000000000000♠15% from 1 April 2018) [143]
Taxation in South Africa

 South Sudan
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in South Sudan

 Spain[31]
25%
0% (below €12,000)
45%
21%, 10% & 4%
Taxation in Spain

 Sri Lanka[31]
15% – 30%[32]
0%
15% (If annual income is more than 2.5m LKR)
5000000000000000000♠0% or 8% or 12%
Taxation in Sri Lanka

 Sudan
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Sudan

 Suriname
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Suriname

 Swaziland
27.5%
33%
33%
7001140000000000000♠14%
Taxation in Swaziland

 Sweden
22%[144]
29.19% (first USD $2,690 pro anno is deductible)
60.15% (25% national)[145][146]
7001250000000000000♠25% or 12% or 6%[147]
Taxation in Sweden

  Switzerland[35]
17.92%[32]
0%
13.2% (federal)
7000770000000000000♠7.7% or 3.8% or 2.5%
Taxation in Switzerland

 Syria[31]
22%
5%
15%
N/A
Taxation in Syria

 Taiwan[31]
17%[148]
6%
45%
7000500000000000000♠5% VAT
Various rates of Gross receipts tax on a few industries, such as financial services.[149]
Taxation in Taiwan

 Tajikistan
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Tajikistan

 Tanzania
30%
15%
30%
18%
Taxation in Tanzania

 Thailand
20%
0%
35%
7%
Taxation in Thailand

 Togo
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Togo

 Tokelau
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Tokelau

 Tonga
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Tonga

 Trinidad and Tobago
25%
0%
25%
12.5%
Taxation in Trinidad & Tobago

 Tunisia[35]
30%
0%
35%
7001180000000000000♠18% or 12% or 6%
Taxation in Tunisia

 Turkey[31]
20%
15%
35%
7001180000000000000♠18% or 8%(e.g. clothing) or 1%(certain food)[8]
Taxation in Turkey

 Turkmenistan
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Turkmenistan

 Turks and Caicos Islands
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Turks and Caicos Islands

 Tuvalu
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Tuvalu

 Uganda
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Uganda

 Ukraine
18%
18%
18% [150]
20% or 7% or 0%
Taxation in Ukraine

 United Arab Emirates
0%[151]
0%[152]
0%[152]
5%
Taxation in United Arab Emirates

 United Kingdom[153]
7001190000000000000♠19% [154]
20%
(plus personal allowance of £11,000 for people earning less than £100,000 – tapered down to zero by £123,000)[155]

45% [156] (on income over £150,000)
7001200000000000000♠20% Standard Rate;
5% Reduced Rate for home energy and renovations;
0% Zero Rate for life necessities – groceries, water, prescription medications, medical equipment and supplies, public transport, children clothing, books and periodicals.[157]
Taxation in the United Kingdom

 United States
21% + 0–12% State/Local[32]
0% (federal) + 0% (state) +
0%–3% (local)
54.4% in San Francisco (37% federal)
[158][159]

5000000000000000000♠0%-11.725% (state and local)
Taxation in the United States

 Uruguay[35]
25%
0%
30%
7001220000000000000♠22% (basic) or 11% (minimum) or 0% (extent)
Taxation in Uruguay

 Uzbekistan[35]
8%
7.5%
22%
0–7001200000000000000♠20%
Taxation in Uzbekistan

 Vanuatu
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Vanuatu

 Venezuela[35]
34%
6%
34%
7%–9%-7001120000000000000♠12%
Taxation in Venezuela

 Vietnam[31]
20%
5%
35%[160]
7001100000000000000♠10%
Taxation in Vietnam

 British Virgin Islands
0%[161]
0%
0%
N/A
Taxation in the British Virgin Islands

 U.S. Virgin Islands
50%–500%

N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in United States Virgin Islands

 Yemen
20%[162]
10%
15%
2%
Taxation in Yemen

 Zambia
35%
10%
30%
7001160000000000000♠16%
Taxation in Zambia

 Zimbabwe
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Taxation in Zimbabwe

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Businesses with annual turnover above A$2 million pay 30%, all other business pay the lower 28.5% rate.
Jump up ^ Includes 2% Medicare levy, plus temporary 2% 'deficit levy' due to expire in 2017.
Jump up ^ While there is no sales tax or GST, the Cayman Islands impose various import duties on goods imported to the island nation.

tag: ol