document_title: 300: Rise of an Empire

question_text: who plays artemisia in 300 rise of an empire

text: 300: Rise of an Empire

text: Plot[edit]

text: Queen Gorgo of Sparta tells her men about the Battle of Marathon, in which King Darius of Persia was killed by General Themistocles of Athens ten years earlier. Darius's son, Xerxes, witnesses his father's death, and is advised to not continue the war, since only "the gods can defeat the Greeks". Darius's naval commander, Artemisia, claims that Darius' last words were in fact a challenge and sends Xerxes on a journey through the desert. Xerxes finally reaches a cave and bathes in an otherworldly liquid, emerging as the 8-feet tall "god-King". He returns to Persia and declares war on Greece to avenge his father.

text: As Xerxes's forces advance towards Thermopylae, Themistocles meets with the council and convinces them to provide him with a fleet to engage the Persians at the sea. Themistocles then travels to Sparta to ask King Leonidas for help, but is informed by Dilios that Leonidas is consulting the Oracle, and Gorgo is reluctant to side with Athens. Themistocles later reunites with his old friend Scyllas, who infiltrated the Persian troops and learned Artemisia was born Greek, but defected to Persia as her family was raped and murdered by Greek hoplites and she was taken as a sex slave, and subsequently left for dead in the streets. She was rescued and adopted by a Persian emissary. Her lust for vengeance gained the attention of King Darius and he made her a naval commander after she killed many of his enemies. Themistocles also learns that Leonidas has marched to fight the Persians with only 300 men.

text: Themistocles leads his fleet of fifty warships and several thousand men, which include Scyllas, Scyllas's son Calisto and Themistocles' right-hand man Aeskylos to the Aegean Sea, starting the Battle of Artemisium. They ram their ships into the Persian ships, charge them, slaughtering several soldiers before retreating from the sinking Persian ships. The following day, the Greeks feign a retreat and lead a group of Persian ships into a crevice, where they become stuck. The Greeks charge the Persian ships from the cliffs above and kill more Persians. Impressed with Themistocles' skills, Artemisia brings him onto her ship where she seduces him, in an attempt to lure him to the Persian side as her second-in-command. He refuses, causing her to push him aside and swear revenge on him.

text: The Persians spill tar into the sea and send suicide bombers to swim to and board the Greek ships with their flame bombs. Artemisia and her men fire flaming arrows and torches to ignite the tar, but an Athenian manages to kill one of the Persians, who falls into the tar carrying a torch, causing ships from both sides to explode. Themistocles is thrown into the sea by an explosion and nearly drowns before being rescued by Aeskylos, and stands by Scyllas's side as he succumbs to his injuries. Believing Themistocles to be dead, Artemisia and her forces withdraw. After recovering from his injuries, Themistocles learns that only a few hundred of his warriors and six of his ships survived the disastrous attack executed by Artemisia.

text: Daxos, an Arcadian general, tells Themistocles that Leonidas and his 300 men have been killed after Ephialtes betrays the Greeks to Xerxes. Themistocles returns to Athens and confronts Ephialtes. The deformed Spartan traitor reveals that Xerxes plans to attack and burn Athens to the ground. Ephialites is regretful of his actions, and is welcoming death. Themistocles spares him instead, so he can warn Xerxes that the Greek forces are gathering at Salamis. He then visits Gorgo in Sparta while she is mourning Leonidas's death to ask for her help, but she is too overcome with grief. Before leaving, Themistocles returns Leonidas's sword, which had been delivered to him by Ephialtes under Xerxes's orders, and urges Gorgo to avenge Leonidas.

text: In Athens, Xerxes's army is laying waste when Ephialtes arrives to deliver Themistocles' message. Upon learning he is alive, Artemisia leaves to ready her entire navy for battle. Xerxes suggests a more cautious plan but she still leaves for battle, ignoring Xerxes's advice. The remaining Greek ships charge into the Persians ships, and the two armies battle, beginning the decisive Battle of Salamis. Themistocles and Artemisia fight, which ends in a stalemate with both receiving severe injuries.

text: At this moment Gorgo, who had been narrating the tale to the Spartans, arrives at the battle along with ships from numerous Greek city states including Delphi, Thebes, Olympia, Arcadia, and Sparta, all of them uniting against the surrounded Persians. Daxos leads the Arcadian army while Themistocles urges Artemisia to surrender. Xerxes, watching the battle from a cliff, turns his back on her, acknowledging his naval defeat and continues the march of his army. Artemisia tries to kill Themistocles one last time but is killed as he stabs her through the stomach. While Dilios leads the Greek assault, Themistocles and Gorgo take a moment to silently acknowledge one another's alliance as the remaining Persians attempt a counter-attack. The three then charge at the opposing Persians with the whole Greek army.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Sullivan Stapleton as Themistocles
Eva Green as Artemisia

Caitlin Carmichael as 8-year-old Artemisia
Jade Chynoweth as 13-year-old Artemisia

Lena Headey as Queen Gorgo
Rodrigo Santoro as King Xerxes
Jack O'Connell as Calisto
Hans Matheson as Aeschylus[11]
Callan Mulvey as Scyllias
David Wenham as Dilios
Andrew Tiernan as Ephialtes
Yigal Naor as Darius I[12]
Andrew Pleavin as Daxos
Ben Turner as General Artaphernes
Ashraf Barhom as General Bandari
Peter Mensah as Artemisia's trainer / Persian messenger
Gerard Butler as King Leonidas (flashback)[13]

Additionally, a computer-generated facsimile is used to represent Leonidas in a separate scene.

Michael Fassbender as Stelios (flashback)

text: Production[edit]

text: In June 2008, producers Gianni Nunnari, Mark Canton, and Bernie Goldmann revealed that work had begun on a sequel to 300.[14] Legendary Pictures announced that Frank Miller, who wrote the 1998 comic book limited series on which the film 300 was based, was writing a follow-up graphic novel, and Zack Snyder, co-screenwriter and director of 300, was interested in directing the adaptation, but instead chose to develop and direct the Superman reboot Man of Steel.[15][16] Noam Murro directed instead, while Snyder produced. The film was centered on the Greek leader Themistocles, portrayed by Australian actor Sullivan Stapleton.[17] During pre-production, the film was titled 300: Battle of Artemisium (although this was widely misreported as "Battle of Artemisia");[18] the film was retitled 300: Rise of an Empire in September 2012.[19]

text: Principal photography commenced in early July 2012 at the Nu Boyana Film Studios in Sofia, Bulgaria.[20] On May 10, 2013, it was announced the film's release date would be pushed back from August 2, 2013, to March 7, 2014.[8]

text: Release[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: 300: Rise of an Empire grossed $106.6 million in North America and $231 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $337.6 million, against a production budget of $110 million.[6]

text: In North America, the film opened to number one in its first weekend with $45 million.[21] In its second weekend, the film dropped to number two, grossing an additional $19.2 million.[22] In its third weekend, the film dropped to number five, grossing $8.5 million.[23] In its fourth weekend, the film dropped to number nine, grossing $4.2 million.[24]

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: 300: Rise of an Empire received mixed reviews from critics. Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film an approval rating of 43% based on 180 reviews, with an average rating of 5/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "It's bound to hit some viewers as an empty exercise in stylish gore, and despite a gonzo starring performance from Eva Green, 300: Rise of an Empire is a step down from its predecessor."[25] On Metacritic, the film has a score of 48 out of 100 score, based on 34 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[26] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale.[27]

text: Todd Gilchrist of The Wrap gave the film a negative review, saying "Rise of an Empire lacks director Snyder's shrewd deconstruction of cartoonish hagiography, undermining the glorious, robust escapism of testosterone-fueled historical reenactment with an underdog story that's almost too reflective to be rousing."[28] Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter gave the film a negative review, saying "Although Gerard Butler's star has significantly fallen due to the 17 mediocre films he's made since 300, it must be admitted that he's missed here."[29] Scott Foundas of Variety gave the film a positive review, saying "This highly entertaining time-filler lacks the mythic resonances that made 300 feel like an instant classic, but works surprisingly well on its own terms."[13] Guy Lodge of Time Out gave the film three out of five stars, saying "It's flesh and carnage that the audience is here to see, and Murro delivers it by the glistening ton, pausing only for stray bits of backstory."[30] Kyle Smith of the New York Post gave the film two and a half stars out of four, saying "The film works as a high-tech boy-fantasy successor to Conan the Barbarian."[31] Soren Anderson of The Seattle Times gave the film three out of five stars, saying "Rise of an Empire is not great by any stretch of the imagination, but it's very impressive in its single-minded dedication to creating a moviegoing experience designed to totally engulf its audience."[32] James Rocchi of Film.com gave the film a zero out of ten, saying "Long on crimson spurts of blood but low on character, larded with production value but bereft of any other kind of it, 300: Rise of an Empire is a 3D joke."[33]

text: James Berardinelli of ReelViews gave the film two and a half stars out of four, saying "The lack of a creative driver behind the film leads to a level of fundamental dissatisfaction. The movie delivers all the necessary elements but their impact is dull."[34] Joe Neumaier of the New York Daily News gave the film one out of five stars, saying "The film winds up looking like an ashen video game. It's even more muddy in IMAX and 3-D."[35] Colin Covert of the Star Tribune gave the film two out of four stars, saying "300: Rise of an Empire plays like a collaboration between the Marquis de Sade and Michael Bay. Or maybe the History Channel and the Saw franchise."[36] Ann Hornaday of The Washington Post gave the film one out of four stars, saying "Rise of an Empire is no fun at all - even those famous six-pack abs from 300 seem to be missing a can or two in this desperate attempt to up an already dubious ante."[37] Drew Hunt of the Chicago Reader gave the film a negative review, saying "The slow-motion battle scenes are technically impressive and occasionally elegant, but there's enough machismo here to choke a thousand NFL locker rooms."[38] Richard Roeper gave the film three and a half stars out of four, calling the film "A triumph of production design, costumes, brilliantly choreographed battle sequences and stunning CGI."[39]

text: Scott Bowles of USA Today gave the film two out of four stars, saying "For anyone looking for a sense of script (forget plausibility), Empire is a Trojan horse."[40] Betsy Sharkey of the Los Angeles Times gave the film a positive review, saying "The spectacularly brutal fighting is the film's main calling card, and in that Rise of an Empire doesn't disappoint."[41] Nicolas Rapold of The New York Times gave the film a mixed review, saying "The naval collisions and melees play out in panel-like renderings that are bold and satisfying for the first half-hour but lack the momentum and bombastic je ne sais quoi of 300."[42] David Hiltbrand of The Philadelphia Inquirer gave the film two and a half stars out of four, saying "With its slo-mo ultraviolence, gushers of blood, impressive 3-D effects, homoerotic subtext, and self-important plot, this is a fan boy's fantasy, a four-star wonderment."[43] Tom Long of The Detroit News gave the film a D, saying "300: Rise of an Empire is a bloodbath and not much else."[44] Adam Nayman of The Globe and Mail gave the film one and a half stars out of four, saying "An extension of the 300 universe, like an add-on content pack for a video game."[45] Mark Jenkins of NPR gave the film a negative review, saying "If the movie's action recalls video games, the dramatically artificial lighting suggests 1980s rock videos. Indeed, Rise of an Empire is so campy that it might work better as a musical."[46] Stephen Whitty of the Newark Star-Ledger gave the film one and a half stars out of four, saying "There is much grinding of teeth, and mauling of history, and anachronistic use of gunpowder, until we plug our ears and desperately pray to the gods of Olympus, or the brothers of Warner, that they might make an end."[47]

text: Despite mixed reviews for the film as a whole, Eva Green's performance as the naval officer Artemisia received rave reviews, with some going so far as to say she was more interesting than the heroes, and saved the film. Ty Burr of The Boston Globe, in his positive review stated, "Rise of an Empire may strike some as an improvement on the first film, if only for two reasons: naval warfare and the glorious absurdity of Eva Green."[48] According to Rafer Guzman's Newsday review, "The one bright spot is Eva Green as Xerxes' machinator, Artemesia, a raccoon-eyed warrior princess... Green plays a snarling, insatiable, self-hating femme fatale and completely steals the show."[49] And perhaps most emphatically, Stephanie Zacharek writing for The Village Voice exclaimed, "Rise of an Empire might have been essentially more of the same, but for one distinction that makes it 300 times better than its predecessor: Mere mortals of Athens, Sparta, and every city from Mumbai to Minneapolis, behold the magnificent Eva Green, and tremble!" [50]

text: Historical accuracy[edit]

text: Paul Cartledge, a professor of Greek culture at Cambridge University, noted that the film contains historical errors. For example, Darius was not killed as depicted as neither Xerxes nor Darius was present at the Battle of Marathon. Artemisia, historically a queen and not an abused, orphaned slave, actually argued against sailing into the straits and survived the Persian Wars. The Spartan navy contributed a mere sixteen warships to the Greek fleet of 400 warships in the ending battle scene, not the huge armada shown.[51][52]

text: Home media[edit]

text: 300: Rise of an Empire was released on the iTunes Store on June 3, 2014, and was released on DVD and Blu-ray on June 24.[53]

text: Sequel[edit]

text: Snyder told Collider that more sequels could go beyond Ancient Greece to the Revolutionary War and a battle in China.[54]


document_title: List of most streamed songs on Spotify

question_text: who is the most played artist on spotify

root

text: List of most streamed songs on Spotify

text: This list of most-streamed songs on Spotify contains the top 100 songs with the most streams of all time, as derived from Spotify charts.[1] As of January 2018, six songs have exceeded 1 billion streams, with Ed Sheeran's "Shape of You" ranked in the top position.[2]

tag: p

text: Prior to February 2014, Spotify's most streamed song was "Radioactive" by Imagine Dragons;[3] it was overtaken by Avicii's "Wake Me Up", which became the first song to hit 200 million streams on February 27, 2014.[4] "Wake Me Up" held the streaming record for over a year before being surpassed on May 22, 2015 by Sheeran's "Thinking Out Loud",[5] which became the first song to hit 500 million streams on October 12, 2015.[6] A month later, however, it was surpassed by Major Lazer and DJ Snake's "Lean On", featuring MØ,[7] which held the streaming record for 11 months until Drake's "One Dance", featuring Wizkid and Kyla, overtook it on October 15, 2016.[8] "Shape of You" overtook "One Dance" on September 21, 2017.[2]

text: As of January 201, the artists with the most singles in the top 100 are Justin Bieber, with a total of 8 singles (3 solo and 5 featured), and The Chainsmokers and The Weeknd each with 5 singles.

text: As of January 2018, Ed Sheeran is the only artist to have 2 singles pass 1 billion streams on Spotify, with "Shape of You" and "Thinking Out Loud".

text: The fastest song to reach a billion streams on Spotify is "Shape of You", doing so in 153 days.[9]

text: Top songs[edit]

text: Globally[edit]

text: The following table lists the top 100 most streamed songs on Spotify, with streams rounded to millions, as well as the artist(s), the album it is currently published to Spotify on, and the date it was originally published to Spotify.

text: For a Spotify Playlist of the Top 100 (Updated Weekly), Click here.

text:
Rank
Song name
Artist(s)
Album
Streams (Millions)
Publication date

1.
"Shape of You"[10]
Ed Sheeran
÷ [11]
1,546
January 6, 2017

2.
"One Dance"[12]
Drake featuring Wizkid and Kyla
Views [13]
1,386
April 5, 2016

3.
"Closer"[14]
The Chainsmokers featuring Halsey
Collage EP [15]
1,193
July 29, 2016

4.
"Lean On"[16]
Major Lazer and DJ Snake featuring MØ
Peace Is the Mission [17]
1,072
March 2, 2015

5.
"Sorry"[18]
Justin Bieber
Purpose [19]
1,014
October 23, 2015

6.
"Thinking Out Loud"[20]
Ed Sheeran
× [21]
1,010
June 21, 2014

7.
"Love Yourself"[22]
Justin Bieber
Purpose [19]
991
November 9, 2015

8.
"Despacito (Remix)"[23]
Luis Fonsi and Daddy Yankee featuring Justin Bieber
Non-album single
979
April 17, 2017

9.
"Don't Let Me Down"[24]
The Chainsmokers featuring Daya
Collage EP [15]
964
February 5, 2016

10.
"I Took a Pill in Ibiza (Seeb Remix)"[25]
Mike Posner
At Night, Alone. [26]
952
July 24, 2015

11.
"Starboy"[27]
The Weeknd featuring Daft Punk
Starboy [27]
892
September 22, 2016

12.
"What Do You Mean?"[28]
Justin Bieber
Purpose [19]
885
August 28, 2015

13.
"Let Me Love You"[29]
DJ Snake featuring Justin Bieber
Encore [30]
885
August 5, 2016

14.
"Cold Water"[31]
Major Lazer featuring Justin Bieber and MØ
Non album single
865
July 21, 2016

15.
"Cheap Thrills"[32]
Sia
This Is Acting [33]
830
December 17, 2015

16.
"Cheerleader (Felix Jaehn Remix)"[34]
OMI
Me 4 U [35]
808
December 2, 2014

17.
"Photograph"[36]
Ed Sheeran
× [21]
807
June 21, 2014

18.
"Stressed Out"[37]
Twenty One Pilots
Blurryface [38]
803
November 10, 2015

19.
"Uptown Funk"[39]
Mark Ronson featuring Bruno Mars
Uptown Special [40]
801
November 10, 2014

20.
"7 Years"[41]
Lukas Graham
Lukas Graham [42]
793
September 18, 2015

21.
"Stitches"[43]
Shawn Mendes
Handwritten [44]
776
May 5, 2015

22.
"This Is What You Came For"[45]
Calvin Harris featuring Rihanna
Non-album single
770
April 29, 2016

23.
"Hello"[46]
Adele
25 [47]
770
October 23, 2015

24.
"Can't Feel My Face"[48]
The Weeknd
Beauty Behind the Madness [49]
769
June 8, 2015

25.
"Faded"[50]
Alan Walker
Non-album single
766
December 3, 2015

26.
"Work from Home"[51]
Fifth Harmony featuring Ty Dolla $ign
7/27 [52]
763
February 26, 2016

27.
"Despacito"[53]
Luis Fonsi featuring Daddy Yankee
Non-album single
762
January 13, 2017

28.
"Take Me to Church"[54]
Hozier
Hozier [55]
750
November 29, 2013

29.
"Work"[56]
Rihanna featuring Drake
ANTI [57]
750
January 27, 2016

30.
"Can't Stop the Feeling!"[58]
Justin Timberlake
TROLLS: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack [59]
738
May 6, 2016

31.
"Say You Won't Let Go"[60]
James Arthur
Back from the Edge [61]
735
September 9, 2016

32.
"See You Again"[62]
Wiz Khalifa featuring Charlie Puth
Furious 7: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack [63]
720
March 10, 2015

33.
"Something Just Like This"
The Chainsmokers and Coldplay
Memories...Do Not Open [64]
720
February 22, 2017

34.
"Treat You Better"[65]
Shawn Mendes
Illuminate [66]
719
June 3, 2016

35.
"Stay with Me"[67]
Sam Smith
In the Lonely Hour [68]
714
April 14, 2014

36.
"Light It Up (Remix)"[69]
Major Lazer featuring Nyla and Fuse ODG
Peace Is the Mission (Extended) [70]
709
November 5, 2015

37.
"Heathens"[71]
Twenty One Pilots
Suicide Squad: The Album [72]
693
June 16, 2016

38.
"Hotline Bling"[73]
Drake
Views [13]
691
July 31, 2015

39.
"Where Are Ü Now"[74]
Jack Ü with Justin Bieber
Skrillex and Diplo Present Jack Ü [75]
688
February 27, 2015

40.
"Let Her Go"[76]
Passenger
All the Little Lights [77]
680
July 24, 2012

41.
"Panda"[78]
Desiigner
New English [79]
679
February 22, 2016

42.
"HUMBLE."[80]
Kendrick Lamar
DAMN.[81]
679
March 30, 2017

43.
"All of Me"[82]
John Legend
Love in the Future [83]
677
August 12, 2013

44.
"Rockabye"[84]
Clean Bandit featuring Sean Paul and Anne-Marie
Non-album single
670
October 21, 2016

45.
"Unforgettable"
French Montana featuring Swae Lee
Jungle Rules
669
April 7, 2017

46.
"Me, Myself & I"[85]
G-Eazy and Bebe Rexha
When It's Dark Out [86]
668
October 14, 2015

47.
"Radioactive"[87]
Imagine Dragons
Night Visions [88]
666
September 4, 2012

48.
"Chandelier"[89]
Sia
1000 Forms of Fear [90]
665
March 17, 2014

49.
"The Hills"[91]
The Weeknd
Beauty Behind the Madness [49]
661
May 27, 2015

50.
"Sugar"[92]
Maroon 5
V [93]
660
August 29, 2014

51.
"I'm the One"
DJ Khaled featuring Justin Bieber, Quavo, Chance the Rapper and Lil Wayne
Grateful
659
April 28, 2017

52.
"Lush Life"
Zara Larsson
So Good
651
June 5, 2015

53.
"We Don't Talk Anymore"
Charlie Puth featuring Selena Gomez
Nine Track Mind
642
May 24, 2016

54.
"rockstar"
Post Malone featuring 21 Savage
Non-album single
642
September 15, 2017

55.
"Cake by the Ocean"
DNCE
DNCE
640
September 18, 2015

56.
"It Ain't Me"
Kygo and Selena Gomez
Stargazing
638
February 17, 2017

57.
"Love Me Like You Do"
Ellie Goulding
Fifty Shades of Grey: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack
636
January 7, 2015

58.
"Ride"
Twenty One Pilots
Blurryface [38]
632
April 12, 2016

59.
"I Don't Wanna Live Forever"
ZAYN and Taylor Swift
Fifty Shades Darker: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack
631
December 9, 2016

60.
"In the Name of Love"
Martin Garrix and Bebe Rexha
Non-album single
630
July 26, 2016

61.
"Too Good"
Drake featuring Rihanna
Views [13]
625
July 26, 2016

62.
"That's What I Like"
Bruno Mars
24K Magic
623
November 18, 2016

63.
"Counting Stars"
OneRepublic
Native
621
June 14, 2013

64.
"XO TOUR Llif3"[94]
Lil Uzi Vert
Luv Is Rage 2 [95]
613
February 26, 2017

65.
"i hate u, i love u"
gnash featuring Olivia O'Brien
us
609
February 17, 2016

66.
"Can't Hold Us"
Macklemore & Ryan Lewis featuring Ray Dalton
The Heist
603
August 16, 2011

67.
"Fast Car"
Jonas Blue featuring Dakota
Non-album single
601
December 4, 2015

68.
"Side to Side"
Ariana Grande featuring Nicki Minaj
Dangerous Woman
599
May 20, 2016

69.
"Rather Be"
Clean Bandit featuring Jess Glynne
New Eyes
597
January 17, 2014

70.
"Roses"
The Chainsmokers featuring Rozes
Bouquet
596
June 16, 2015

71.
"PILLOWTALK"
ZAYN
Mind of Mine
593
January 29, 2016

72.
"Sugar"
Robin Schulz featuring Francesco Yates
Sugar
589
July 17, 2015

73.
"Demons"
Imagine Dragons
Night Visions [88]
587
September 4, 2012

74.
"Congratulations"[96]
Post Malone featuring Quavo
Stoney [97]
582
January 31, 2017

75.
"Attention"
Charlie Puth
Non-album single
576
April 21, 2017

76.
"Trap Queen"
Fetty Wap
Fetty Wap
576
April 24, 2014

77.
"Starving"
Hailee Steinfield and Grey featuring Zedd
Haiz
573
July 19, 2016

78.
"I Feel It Coming"
The Weeknd featuring Daft Punk
Starboy [98]
571
November 25, 2016

79.
"New Rules"
Dua Lipa
Dua Lipa
570
June 2, 2017

80.
"Wake Me Up"[99]
Avicii
True
562
June 17, 2013

81.
"Firestone"
Kygo featuring Conrad Sewell
Cloud Nine
558
December 1, 2014

82.
"Needed Me"
Rihanna
ANTI [57]
553
January 28, 2016

83.
"Riptide"
Vance Joy
Dream Your Life Away
551
May 21, 2013

84.
"Happy"
Pharrell Williams
GIRL
550
November 21, 2013

85.
"Stay"
Zedd and Alessia Cara
Non-album single
550
February 23, 2017

86.
"Mi Gente"
J Balvin and Willy William
Non-album single
549
June 30, 2017

87.
"Middle"
DJ Snake featuring Bipolar Sunshine
Encore [30]
549
October 16, 2015

88.
"Want to Want Me"
Jason Derulo
Everything Is 4
547
March 9, 2015

89.
"Thunder"
Imagine Dragons
Evolve
546
April 27, 2017

90.
"Paris"
The Chainsmokers
Memories...Do Not Open [64]
546
January 13, 2017

91.
"Earned It"
The Weeknd
Beauty Behind the Madness [49]
540
January 13, 2015

92.
"24K Magic"
Bruno Mars
24K Magic
539
October 7, 2016

93.
"How Deep Is Your Love"
Calvin Harris and Disciples
Non-album single
537
July 15, 2015

94.
"Mask Off"
Future
Future
535
February 17, 2017

95.
"Perfect"
Ed Sheeran
÷ [11]
534
March 3, 2017

96.
"Havana"
Camila Cabello featuring Young Thug
Non-album single
531
August 3, 2017

97.
"Stole the Show"
Kygo featuring Parson James
Cloud Nine
528
March 25, 2017

98.
"Believer"
Imagine Dragons
Evolve
528
February 1, 2017

99.
"Call On Me (Ryan Riback Remix)"
Starley
Non-album single
526
October 13, 2016

100.
"Swalla"
Jason Derulo featuring Nicki Minaj and Ty Dolla $ign
Non-album single
525
February 24, 2017

As of January 9, 2018

tag: table

text: Artists With The Most Songs In The Spotify Global 100[edit]

text: This is a list of the Artists with the most songs in the Spotify Global 100. It includes an artist's solo and featured songs.

text: For a comprehensive spreadsheet, please click here

text:
Rank
Artist
Total Songs
Solo Top 10
Feat. Top 10
Solo Top 100
Feat. Top 100
1Bil+ Songs

1
Justin Bieber
8
2
1
3
5
1

2
Drake
5
1

4
1
1

3
The Chainsmokers
5
2

5

1

4
The Weeknd
5

5

5
Ed Sheeran
4
3

4

2

6
Imagine Dragons
4

4

7
Rihanna
4

2
2

8
DJ Snake
3
1

3

1

9
Major Lazer
3
1

3

1

10
Bruno Mars
3

2
1

text: In the United States[edit]

text: The following table lists the top 10 most streamed songs on Spotify in the United States, as well as the artist(s), the album it is currently published to Spotify on, and the date it was originally published to Spotify.

text: Streaming totals are derived from the official Kworb charts and are updated as soon as the information is available. Streams are rounded up to closest million.

text:
Rank
Song name
Artist(s)
Album
Streams (millions)
Publication date
Notes

1.
"One Dance"[12]
Drake featuring Wizkid and Kyla
Views [13]
421
April 5, 2016

2.
"Closer"[14]
The Chainsmokers featuring Halsey
Collage EP [15]
370
July 29, 2016

3.
"HUMBLE."[80]
Kendrick Lamar
DAMN. [81]
346
March 30, 2017
[A]

4.
"XO TOUR Llif3"[94]
Lil Uzi Vert
Luv Is Rage 2 [95]
323
March 24, 2017

5.
"Congratulations"[96]
Post Malone featuring Quavo
Stoney [97]
295
November 4, 2016

6.
"Starboy"[27]
The Weeknd featuring Daft Punk
Starboy [98]
290
September 22, 2016

7.
"Shape of You"[10]
Ed Sheeran
÷ [11]
287
January 6, 2017

8.
"Broccoli"[100]
DRAM featuring Lil Yachty
Big Baby D.R.A.M. [101]
282
April 6, 2016

9.
"No Role Modelz"[102]
J. Cole
2014 Forest Hills Drive [103]
259
August 4, 2015
[B]

10.
"Fake Love"[104]
Drake
More Life [105]
259
October 29, 2016

As of January 4, 2018

text: Historical most streamed Spotify songs[edit]

text: The following table lists the last 6 songs to become Spotify's most streamed song, from 2013 to the present.

text:
Song name
Publisher*
Streams**
Publication date
Date achieved
Days held
Ref(s)
Notes

"Shape of You"[10]
Ed Sheeran
1,318,000,000
January 6, 2017
September 21, 2017
110
[5]

"One Dance"[12]
Drake
882,000,000
May 6, 2016
October 15, 2016
340
[8]

"Lean On"[16]
Major Lazer
526,000,000
June 1, 2015
November 11, 2015
339
[7]

"Thinking Out Loud"[20]
Ed Sheeran
355,000,000
June 21, 2014
May 22, 2015
173
[5]

"Wake Me Up"[99]
Avicii
178,000,000
July 30, 2013
January 2014
480+
[3][4]
[C]

"Radioactive"[87]
Imagine Dragons
–
January 1, 2012
2013
–
[3]
[D]

As of January 9, 2018

text: *The artist or group whose Spotify page the song was published on.

text: **The approximate number of streams each song had when it became Spotify's most streamed song.


document_title: Cell damage

question_text: which term describes the replacement of damaged cells to mend a tissue

text: Cell damage

text: Causes[edit]

text:
Physical agents such as heat or radiation can damage a cell by literally cooking or coagulating their contents.
Impaired nutrient supply, such as lack of oxygen or glucose, or impaired production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) may deprive the cell of essential materials needed to survive.[3]

tag: ul

text: Targets[edit]

text: The most notable components of the cell that are targets of cell damage are the DNA and the cell membrane.

text:
DNA damage: In human cells, both normal metabolic activities and environmental factors such as ultraviolet light and other radiations can cause DNA damage, resulting in as many as one million individual molecular lesions per cell per day.[4]
Membrane damage: damage to the cell membrane disturbs the state of cell electrolytes, e.g. calcium, which when constantly increased, induces apoptosis.

text: Types of damage[edit]

text: Some cell damage can be reversed once the stress is removed or if compensatory cellular changes occur. Full function may return to cells but in some cases a degree of injury will remain.[citation needed]

text: Sub-lethal (reversible)[edit]

text: Cellular swelling[edit]

text: Cellular swelling (or cloudy swelling) may occur due to cellular hypoxia, which damages the sodium-potassium membrane pump; it is reversible when the cause is eliminated.[5] Cellular swelling is the first manifestation of almost all forms of injury to cells. When it affects many cells in an organ, it causes some pallor, increased turgor, and increase in weight of the organ. On microscopic examination, small clear vacuoles may be seen within the cytoplasm; these represent distended and pinched-off segments of the endoplasmic reticulum. This pattern of non-lethal injury is sometimes called hydropic change or vacuolar degeneration.[6] Hydropic degeneration is a severe form of cloudy swelling. It occurs with hypokalemia due to vomiting or diarrhea.

text: The ultrastructural changes of reversible cell injury include:

text:
Blebbing
Blunting
distortion of microvilli
loosening of intercellular attachments
mitochondrial changes
dilation of the endoplasmic reticulum

text: Fatty change[edit]

text: The cell has been damaged and is unable to adequately metabolize fat. Small vacuoles of fat accumulate and become dispersed within cytoplasm. Mild fatty change may have no effect on cell function; however more severe fatty change can impair cellular function. In the liver, the enlargement of hepatocytes due to fatty change may compress adjacent bile canaliculi, leading to cholestasis. Depending on the cause and severity of the lipid accumulation, fatty change is generally reversible. Fatty Change is also known as fatty degeneration, fatty metamorphosis, or fatty steatosis.

text: Lethal[edit]

text: Necrosis[edit]

text: Necrosis is characterised by cytoplasmic swelling, irreversible damage to the plasma membrane, and organelle breakdown leading to cell death.[7] The stages of cellular necrosis include pyknosis; clumping of chromosomes and shrinking of the nucleus of the cell, karyorrhexis; fragmentation of the nucleus and break up of the chromatin into unstructured granules, and karyolysis; dissolution of the cell nucleus.[8] Cytosolic components that leak through the damaged plasma membrane into the extracellular space can incur an inflammatory response.[9]

text: There are six types of necrosis:[10]

text:
Coagulative necrosis
Liquefactive necrosis
Caseous necrosis
Fat necrosis
Fibroid necrosis
Gangrenous necrosis

text: Apoptosis[edit]

text: Apoptosis is the programmed cell death of superfluous or potentially harmful cells in the body. It is an energy dependent process mediated by proteolytic enzymes called caspases, which trigger cell death through the cleaving of specific proteins in the cytoplasm and nucleus.[11] The dying cells shrink and condense into apoptotic bodies. The cell surface is altered so as to display properties which lead to rapid phagocytosis by macrophages or neighbouring cells.[11] Unlike necrotic cell death, neighbouring cells are not damaged by apoptosis as cytosolic products are safely isolated by membranes prior to undergoing phagocytosis.[9] In the average adult between 50 and 70 billion cells die each day due to apoptosis. Inhibition of apoptosis can result in a number of cancers, autoimmune diseases, inflammatory diseases, and viral infections. Hyperactive apoptosis can lead to neurodegenerative diseases, hematologic diseases, and tissue damage. Keshav Rathour

text: Repair[edit]

text: When a cell is damaged the body will try to repair or replace the cell to continue normal functions. If a cell dies the body will remove it and replace it with another functioning cell, or fill the gap with connective tissue to provide structural support for the remaining cells. The motto of the repair process is to fill a gap caused by the damaged cells to regain structural continuity. Normal cells try to regenerate the damaged cells but this cannot always happen. Asexual reproduction is what repairs cells

text: Regeneration[edit]

text: Regeneration of parenchyma cells, or the functional cells, of an organism. The body can make more cells to replace the damaged cells keeping the organ or tissue intact and fully functional.

text: Replacement[edit]

text: When a cell cannot be regenerated the body will replace it with stromal connective tissue to maintain tissue/organ function. Stromal cells are the cells that support the parenchymal cells in any organ. Fibroblasts, immune cells, pericytes, and inflammatory cells are the most common types of stromal cells.[12]

text: Biochemical changes in cellular injury[edit]

text: ATP (adenosine triphosphate) depletion is a common biological alteration that occurs with cellular injury. This change can happen despite the inciting agent of the cell damage. A reduction in intracellular ATP can have a number of functional and morphologic consequences during cell injury. These effects include:

text:
Failure of the ATP dependent pumps (Na+/K+ pump and Ca2+ pump), resulting in a net influx of Na+ and Ca2+ ions and osmotic swelling.
ATP-depleted cells begin to undertake anaerobic metabolism to derive energy from glycogen which is known as 'glycogenolysis'.
A consequent decrease in the intracellular pH of the cell arises, which mediates harmful enzymatic processes.
Early clumping of nuclear chromatin then occurs, known as 'pyknosis', and leads to eventual cell death.[13]

text: DNA damage and repair[edit]

text: DNA damage[edit]

text: DNA damage (or RNA damage in the case of some virus genomes) appears to be a fundamental problem for life. As noted by Haynes,[14] the subunits of DNA are not endowed with any peculiar kind of quantum mechanical stability, and thus DNA is vulnerable to all the "chemical horrors" that might befall any such molecule in a warm aqueous medium. These chemical horrors are DNA damages that include various types of modification of the DNA bases, single- and double-strand breaks, and inter-strand cross-links (see DNA damage (naturally occurring). DNA damages are distinct from mutations although both are errors in the DNA. Whereas DNA damages are abnormal chemical and structural alterations, mutations ordinarily involve the normal four bases in new arrangements. Mutations can be replicated, and thus inherited when the DNA replicates. In contrast, DNA damages are altered structures that cannot, themselves, be replicated.

text: Several different repair processes can remove DNA damages (see chart in DNA repair). However, those DNA damages that remain un-repaired can have detrimental consequences. DNA damages may block replication or gene transcription. These blockages can lead to cell death. In multicellular organisms, cell death in response to DNA damage may occur by a programmed process, apoptosis.[15] Alternatively, when a DNA polymerase replicates a template strand containing a damaged site, it may inaccurately bypass the damage and, as a consequence, introduce an incorrect base leading to a mutation. Experimentally, mutation rates increase substantially in cells defective in DNA mismatch repair[16][17] or in Homologous recombinational repair (HRR).[18]

text: In both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, DNA genomes are vulnerable to attack by reactive chemicals naturally produced in the intracellular environment and by agents from external sources. An important internal source of DNA damage in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes is reactive oxygen species (ROS) formed as byproducts of normal aerobic metabolism. For eukaryotes, oxidative reactions are a major source of DNA damage (see DNA damage (naturally occurring) and Sedelnikova et al.[19]). In humans, about 10,000 oxidative DNA damages occur per cell per day.[20] In the rat, which has a higher metabolic rate than humans, about 100,000 oxidative DNA damages occur per cell per day. In aerobically growing bacteria, ROS appear to be a major source of DNA damage, as indicated by the observation that 89% of spontaneously occurring base substitution mutations are caused by introduction of ROS-induced single-strand damages followed by error-prone replication past these damages.[21] Oxidative DNA damages usually involve only one of the DNA strands at any damaged site, but about 1–2% of damages involve both strands.[22] The double-strand damages include double-strand breaks (DSBs) and inter-strand crosslinks. For humans, the estimated average number of endogenous DNA DSBs per cell occurring at each cell generation is about 50.[23] This level of formation of DSBs likely reflects the natural level of damages caused, in large part, by ROS produced by active metabolism.

text: Repair of DNA damages[edit]

text: Five major pathways are employed in repairing different types of DNA damages. These five pathways are nucleotide excision repair, base excision repair, mismatch repair, non-homologous end joining and homologous recombinational repair (HRR) (see chart in DNA repair) and reference.[15] Only HRR can accurately repair double strand damages, such as DSBs. The HRR pathway requires that a second homologous chromosome be available to allow recovery of the information lost by the first chromosome due to the double-strand damage.

text: DNA damage appears to play a key role in mammalian aging, and an adequate level of DNA repair promotes longevity (see DNA damage theory of aging and reference.[24]). In addition, an increased incidence of DNA damage and/or reduced DNA repair cause an increased risk of cancer (see Cancer, Carcinogenesis and Neoplasm) and reference[24]). Furthermore, the ability of HRR to accurately and efficiently repair double-strand DNA damages likely played a key role in the evolution of sexual reproduction (see Evolution of sexual reproduction and reference.[25] In extant eukaryotes, HRR during meiosis provides the major benefit of maintaining fertility.[25]


document_title: Ploidy

question_text: where are haploid cells found in the human body

text: Ploidy

text: Etymology[edit]

text: The term ploidy is a back-formation from haploidy and diploidy. Ploid is a combination of Ancient Greek -παλτος (-paltos), -πλος (-plos), -πλόος (-plóos, "fold"), and -oid from Ancient Greek -ειδής (-eidḗs), -οειδής (-oeidḗs), from εἶδος (eîdos, “form, likeness”). The principle meaning of the Greek word ἁπλόος haplóos is "two-fold",[7] from ἅμα, which means, "at once, at the same time".[8] From this comes the secondary sense of "single", since folding double produces a unity. It is in this latter sense that it appears in modern genetics. διπλόος diplóos means "duplex" or "two-fold". Diploid therefore means "duplex-shaped" (compare 'humanoid', "human-shaped").

text: Eduard Strasburger, coined the terms haploid and diploid in 1905:

text: Schließlich wäre es vielleicht erwünscht, wenn den Bezeichnungen Gametophyt und Sporophyt, die sich allein nur auf Pflanzen mit einfacher und mit doppelter Chromosomenzahl anwenden lassen, solche zur Seite gestellt würden, welche auch für das Tierreich passen. Ich erlaube mir zu diesem Zwecke die Worte Haploid und Diploid, bezw. haploidische und diploidische Generation vorzuschlagen.[9][10]

text: Some authors suggest that Strasburger based the terms on Weismann's conception of the id (or germ plasm),[11][12][13] hence haplo-id and diplo-id. The two terms were brought into the English language from German through William Henry Lang's 1908 translation of an 1906 textbook by Strasburger and colleagues.[14][citation needed]

text: Technically, ploidy refers to the nucleus. Though at times authors may report the total ploidy of all nuclei present within the cell membrane of a syncytium,[15] usually the ploidy of the nuclei present will be described. For example, a fungal dikaryon with two haploid nuclei is distinguished from the diploid in which the chromosomes share a nucleus and can be shuffled together.[16] Nonetheless, because in most situations there is only one nucleus, it is commonplace to speak of the ploidy of a cell.

text: Case studies[edit]

text: It is also possible on rare occasions for the ploidy to increase in the germline, which can result in polyploid offspring and ultimately polyploid species. This is an important evolutionary mechanism in both plants and animals.[17] As a result, it becomes desirable to distinguish between the ploidy of a species or variety as it presently breeds and that of an ancestor. The number of chromosomes in the ancestral (non-homologous) set is called the monoploid number (x), and is distinct from the haploid number (n) in the organism as it now reproduces. Both numbers n, and x, apply to every cell of a given organism.[citation needed]

text: Common wheat is an organism where x and n differ. It has six sets of chromosomes, two sets from each of three different diploid species that are its distant ancestors. The somatic cells are hexaploid, with six sets of chromosomes, 2n = 6x = 42 (where the monoploid number x = 7 and the haploid number n = 21). The gametes are haploid for their own species, but triploid, with three sets of chromosomes, by comparison to a probable evolutionary ancestor, einkorn wheat.[citation needed]

text: Tetraploidy (four sets of chromosomes, 2n = 4x) is common in plants, and also occurs in amphibians, reptiles, and insects. For example, species of Xenopus (African toads) form a ploidy series, featuring diploid (X.tropicalis, 2n = 20), tetraploid (for example X.laevis, 4n = 36), octaploid (for example X.wittei, 8n = 72) and dodecaploid (for example X.ruwenzoriensis, 12n = 108) species.[18]

text: Over evolutionary time scales in which chromosomal polymorphisms accumulate, these changes become less apparent by karyotype - for example, humans are generally regarded as diploid, but the 2R hypothesis has confirmed two rounds of whole genome duplication in early vertebrate ancestors.

text: Ploidy can also differ with life cycle.[19][20] In some insects it differs by caste. In humans, only the gametes are haploid, but in the Australian bulldog ant, Myrmecia pilosula, a haplodiploid species, haploid individuals of this species have a single chromosome, and diploid individuals have two chromosomes.[21] In Entamoeba, the ploidy level varies from 4n to 40n in a single population.[22] Alternation of generations occurs in many plants.

text: Some studies suggest that selection is more likely to favor diploidy in host species and haploidy in parasite species.[23]

text: Haploid and monoploid[edit]

text: The nucleus of a eukaryotic cell is haploid if it has a single set of chromosomes, each one not being part of a pair. By extension a cell may be called haploid if its nucleus is haploid, and an organism may be called haploid if its body cells (somatic cells) are haploid. The number of chromosomes in a single set is called the haploid number, given the symbol n. If the number of chromosomes in the set is 1 (n=1) then the nucleus (or cell, organism) may be called monoploid.

text: Gametes (sperm and ova) are haploid cells. The haploid gametes produced by most organisms combine to form a zygote with n pairs of chromosomes, i.e. 2n chromosomes in total. The chromosomes in each pair, one of which comes from the sperm and one from the egg, are said to be homologous. Cells and organisms with pairs of homologous chromosomes are called diploid. For example, most animals are diploid and produce haploid gametes. During meiosis, sex cell precursors have their number of chromosomes halved by randomly "choosing" one member of each pair of chromosomes, resulting in haploid gametes. Because homologous chromosomes usually differ genetically, gametes usually differ genetically from one another.[citation needed]

text: All plants and many fungi and algae switch between a haploid and a diploid state, with one of the stages emphasized over the other. This is called alternation of generations. Most fungi and algae are haploid during the principal stage of their lifecycle, as are plants like mosses. Most animals are diploid, but male bees, wasps, and ants are haploid organisms because they develop from unfertilized, haploid eggs, while females (workers and queens) are diploid, making their system haplodiploid.

text: In some cases there is evidence that the n chromosomes in a haploid set have resulted from duplications of an originally smaller set of chromosomes. This "base" number – the number of apparently originally unique chromosomes in a haploid set – is called the monoploid number,[24] also known as basic or cardinal number,[25] or fundamental number.[26][27] As an example, the chromosomes of common wheat are believed to be derived from three different ancestral species, each of which had 7 chromosomes in its haploid gametes. The monoploid number is thus 7 and the haploid number is 3 × 7 = 21. In general n is a multiple of x. The somatic cells in a wheat plant have six sets of 7 chromosomes: three sets from the egg and three sets from the sperm which fused to form the plant, giving a total of 42 chromosomes. As a formula, for wheat 2n = 6x = 42, so that the haploid number n is 21 and the monoploid number x is 7. The gametes of common wheat are considered to be haploid, since they contain half the genetic information of somatic cells, but they are not monoploid, as they still contain three complete sets of chromosomes (n = 3x).[28]

text: In the case of wheat, the origin of its haploid number of 21 chromosomes from three sets of 7 chromosomes can be demonstrated. In many other organisms, although the number of chromosomes may have originated in this way, this is no longer clear, and the monoploid number is regarded as the same as the haploid number. Thus in humans, x = n = 23.

text: Diploid[edit]

text: Diploid cells have two homologous copies of each chromosome, usually one from the mother and one from the father. All or nearly all mammals are diploid organisms. The suspected tetraploid (possessing four chromosome sets) plains viscacha rat (Tympanoctomys barrerae) and golden vizcacha rat (Pipanacoctomys aureus)[29] have been regarded as the only known exceptions (as of 2004).[30] However, some genetic studies have rejected any polyploidism in mammals as unlikely, and suggest that amplification and dispersion of repetitive sequences best explain the large genome size of these two rodents.[31] All normal diploid individuals have some small fraction of cells that display polyploidy. Human diploid cells have 46 chromosomes (the somatic number, 2n) and human haploid gametes (egg and sperm) have 23 chromosomes (n). Retroviruses that contain two copies of their RNA genome in each viral particle are also said to be diploid. Examples include human foamy virus, human T-lymphotropic virus, and HIV.[32]

text: Homoploid[edit]

text: "Homoploid" means "at the same ploidy level", i.e. having the same number of homologous chromosomes. For example, homoploid hybridization is where the offspring have the same ploidy level as the two parental species. This contrasts with a common situation in plants where chromosome doubling accompanies, or happens soon after hybridization. Similarly, homoploid speciation contrasts with polyploid speciation.[citation needed]

text: Zygoidy and azygoidy[edit]

text: Zygoidy is the state where the chromosomes are paired and can undergo meiosis. The zygoid state of a species may be diploid or polyploid.[33][34] In the azygoid state the chromosomes are unpaired. It may be the natural state of some asexual species or may occur after meiosis. In diploid organisms the azygoid state is monoploid. (see below for dihaploidy)

text: Polyploidy[edit]

text: Polyploidy is the state where all cells have multiple sets of chromosomes beyond the basic set, usually 3 or more. Specific terms are triploid (3 sets), tetraploid (4 sets), pentaploid (5 sets), hexaploid (6 sets), heptaploid[1] or septaploid[2] (7 sets) octoploid (8 sets), nonaploid (9 sets), decaploid (10 sets), undecaploid (11 sets), dodecaploid (12 sets), tridecaploid (13 sets), tetradecaploid (14 sets) etc.[35][36][37][38] Some higher ploidies include hexadecaploid (16 sets), dotriacontaploid (32 sets), and tetrahexacontaploid (64 sets),[39] though Greek terminology may be set aside for readability in cases of higher ploidy (such as "16-ploid").[37] Polytene chromosomes of plants and fruit flies can be 1024-ploid.[40][41] Ploidy of systems such as the salivary gland, elaiosome, endosperm, and trophoblast can exceed this, up to 1048576-ploid in the silk glands of the commercial silkworm Bombyx mori.[15]

text: The chromosome sets may be from the same species or from closely related species. In the latter case, these are known as allopolyploids (or amphidiploids, which are allopolyploids that behave as if they were normal diploids). Allopolyploids are formed from the hybridization of two separate species. In plants, this probably most often occurs from the pairing of meiotically unreduced gametes, and not by diploid–diploid hybridization followed by chromosome doubling.[42] The so-called Brassica triangle is an example of allopolyploidy, where three different parent species have hybridized in all possible pair combinations to produce three new species.

text: Polyploidy occurs commonly in plants, but rarely in animals. Even in diploid organisms, many somatic cells are polyploid due to a process called endoreduplication where duplication of the genome occurs without mitosis (cell division).

text: The extreme in polyploidy occurs in the fern genus Ophioglossum, the adder's-tongues, in which polyploidy results in chromosome counts in the hundreds, or, in at least one case, well over one thousand.

text: It is also possible for polyploid organisms to revert to lower ploidy by means of haploidisation.

text: Variable or indefinite ploidy[edit]

text: Depending on growth conditions, prokaryotes such as bacteria may have a chromosome copy number of 1 to 4, and that number is commonly fractional, counting portions of the chromosome partly replicated at a given time. This is because under exponential growth conditions the cells are able to replicate their DNA faster than they can divide.

text: In ciliates, the macronucleus is called ampliploid, because only part of the genome is amplified.[43]

text: Polyploidy in bacteria and archaea[edit]

text: Polyploidy is a characteristic of the bacterium Deinococcus radiodurans [44] and of the archaeon Halobacterium salinarum.[45] These two species are highly resistant to ionizing radiation and desiccation, conditions that induce DNA double-strand breaks.[46][47] This resistance appears to be due to efficient homologous recombinational repair.

text: Mixoploidy[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Mixoploidy refers to the presence of two cell lines, one diploid and one polyploid, coexisting within the same organism. Though polyploidy in humans is not viable, mixoploidy has been found in live adults and children.[48] There are two types: diploid-triploid mixoploidy, in which some cells have 46 chromosomes and some have 69,[49] and diploid-tetraploid mixoploidy, in which some cells have 46 and some have 92 chromosomes. It is a major topic of cytology.

text: Dihaploidy and polyhaploidy[edit]

text: Dihaploid and polyhaploid cells are formed by haploidisation of polyploids, i.e., by halving the chromosome constitution.

text: Dihaploids (which are diploid) are important for selective breeding of tetraploid crop plants (notably potatoes), because selection is faster with diploids than with tetraploids. Tetraploids can be reconstituted from the diploids, for example by somatic fusion.

text: The term “dihaploid” was coined by Bender[50] to combine in one word the number of genome copies (diploid) and their origin (haploid). The term is well established in this original sense,[51][52] but it has also been used for doubled monoploids or doubled haploids, which are homozygous and used for genetic research.[53]

text: Euploidy[edit]

text: Euploidy is the state of a cell or organism having one or more than one set of the same set of chromosomes, possibly excluding the sex-determining chromosomes. For example, most human cells have 2 of each of the 23 homologous monoploid chromosomes, for a total of 46 chromosomes. A human cell with an extra set out of the 23 normal ones would be considered euploid. Euploid karyotypes would consequentially be a multiple of the haploid number, which in humans is 23. Aneuploidy is the state where one or more chromosomes of a normal set are missing or present in more than their usual number of copies. Unlike euploidy, aneuploid karyotypes will not be a multiple of the haploid number. In humans, examples of aneuploidy include having a single extra chromosome (such as Down syndrome), or missing a chromosome (such as Turner syndrome). Aneuploid karyotypes are given names with the suffix -somy (rather than -ploidy, used for euploid karyotypes), such as trisomy and monosomy.

text: Possible adaptive and ecological significance of variation in ploidy[edit]

text: A study comparing the karyotypes of endangered or invasive plants with those of their relatives found that being polyploid as opposed to diploid is associated with a 14% lower risk of being endangered, and a 20% greater chance of being invasive.[54] Polyploidy may be associated with increased vigor and adaptability.[55]