document_title: Noli Me Tángere (novel)

question_text: rizal finished all the chapters of the novel noli me tangere in

question_tokens: rizal finished all the chapters of the novel noli me tangere in

text: Noli Me Tángere (novel)

text: Title[edit]

text: Rizal entitled this novel as such drawing inspiration from "Touch Me Not" — the technical name of a particularly painful type of cancer (back in his time, it is unknown what is the modern name of said disease). He proposed to probe all the cancers of Filipino society that everyone else felt too painful to touch. [1]

text: Early English translations of the novel used titles like An Eagle Flight (1900) and The Social Cancer (1912), disregarding the symbolism of the title, but the more recent translations were published using the original Latin title. It has also been noted[citation needed] by the Austro-Hungarian writer Ferdinand Blumentritt that "Noli Me Tángere" was a name used by ophthalmologists for cancer of the eyelids; that as an ophthalmologist himself Rizal was influenced by this fact is suggested in the novel's dedication, "To My household".

text: Background[edit]

text: José Rizal, a Filipino nationalist and medical doctor, conceived the idea of writing a novel that would expose the ills of Philippine society after reading Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin. He preferred that the prospective novel express the way Filipino culture was perceived to be backward, anti-progress, anti-intellectual, and not conducive to the ideals of the Age of Enlightenment. He was then a student of medicine in the Universidad Central de Madrid.

text: In a reunion of Filipinos at the house of his friend Pedro A. Paterno in Madrid on 2 January 1884, Rizal proposed the writing of a novel about the Philippines written by a group of Filipinos. His proposal was unanimously approved by the Filipinos present at the time, among whom were Pedro, Maximino Viola and Antonio Paterno, Graciano López Jaena, Evaristo Aguirre, Eduardo de Lete, Julio Llorente and Valentin Ventura. However, this project did not materialize. The people who agreed to help Rizal with the novel did not write anything. Initially, the novel was planned to cover and describe all phases of Filipino life, but almost everybody wanted to write about women. Rizal even saw his companions spend more time gambling and flirting with Spanish women. Because of this, he pulled out of the plan of co-writing with others and decided to draft the novel alone.

text: Plot[edit]

text: Crisóstomo Ibarra, the mestizo son of recently deceased Don Rafael Ibarra, is returning to San Diego in Laguna after seven years of study in Europe. Capitan Tiago, a family friend, bids him to spend his first night in Manila where Tiago hosts a reunion party at his riverside home on Anloague Street. Crisóstomo obliges. At dinner he encounters old friends, Manila high society, the new curate of San Diego, and Padre Dámaso, San Diego’s old curate at the time Ibarra left for Europe. Dámaso treats Crisóstomo with hostility, surprising the young man who took the friar to be a friend of his father.

text: Crisóstomo excuses himself early and is making his way back to his hotel when Lieutenant Guevarra, another friend of his father, catches up with him. As the two of them walk to Crisóstomo’s stop, and away from the socialites at the party who may possibly compromise them if they heard, Guevarra reveals to the young man the events leading up to Rafael’s death and Dámaso’s role in it. Crisóstomo, who has been grieving from the time he learned of his father’s death, decides to forgive and not seek revenge. Guevarra nevertheless warns the young man to be careful.

text: The following day Crisóstomo returns to Capitan Tiago’s home in order to meet with his childhood sweetheart, Tiago’s daughter María Clara. The two flirt and reminisce in the azotea, a porch overlooking the river. María reads back to Crisóstomo his farewell letter wherein he explained to her Rafael’s wish for Crisóstomo to set out, to study in order to become a more useful citizen of the country. Seeing Crisóstomo agitated at the mention of his father, however, María playfully excuses herself, promising to see him again at her family’s San Diego home during the town fiesta.

text: As the days progress Crisóstomo carries out his plan to serve his country as his father wanted. He intends to use his family wealth to build a school, believing his paisanos would benefit from a more modern education than what is offered in the schools run by the government, whose curriculum was heavily tempered by the teachings of the friars. Enjoying massive support, and even by the Spanish authorities, Crisóstomo’s preparations for his school advance quickly in only a few days. He receives counsel from Don Anastacio, a revered local philosopher, who refers him to a progressive schoolmaster who lamented the friars’ influence on public education and wished to introduce reforms. The building was planned to begin construction with the cornerstone to be laid in a ceremony during San Diego’s town fiesta.

text: One day, taking a break, Crisóstomo, María, and their friends get on a boat and go on a picnic along the shores of the Laguna de Bay, away from the town center. It is then discovered that a crocodile had been lurking on the fish pens owned by the Ibarras. Elias, the boat’s pilot, jumps into the water with a bolo knife drawn. Sensing Elias is in danger, Ibarra jumps in as well, and they subdue the animal together. Crisóstomo mildly scolds the pilot for his rashness, while Elias proclaims himself in Crisóstomo’s debt.

text: On the day of the fiesta, Elias warns Crisóstomo of a plot to kill him at the cornerstone-laying. The ceremony involved the massive stone being lowered into a trench by a wooden derrick. Crisóstomo being the principal sponsor of the project is to lay the mortar using a trowel at the bottom of the trench. As he prepares to do so, however, the derrick fails and the stone falls into the trench, bringing the derrick down with it in a mighty crash. When the dust clears, a pale, dust-covered Crisóstomo stands stiffly by the trench, having narrowly missed the stone. In his place beneath the stone is the would-be assassin. Elias has disappeared.

text: The festivities continue at Crisóstomo’s insistence. Later that day, he hosts a luncheon to which Padre Dámaso invites himself. Over the meal the old friar berates Crisóstomo, his learning, his journeys, and the schoolbuilding project. The other guests hiss for discretion, but Dámaso ignores them and continues in an even louder voice, insulting the memory of Rafael in front of Crisóstomo. At the mention of his father, Crisóstomo strikes the friar unconscious and holds a dinner knife to his neck. In an impassioned speech Crisóstomo narrates to the astonished guests everything he heard from Lieutenant Guevarra, who was an officer of the local police, about Dámaso’s schemes that resulted in the death of Rafael. As Crisóstomo is about to stab Dámaso, however, María Clara stays his arm and pleads for mercy.

text: Crisóstomo is excommunicated from the church, but has his excommunication lifted through the intercession of the sympathetic governor general. However, upon his return to San Diego, María has turned sickly and refuses to see him. The new curate who Crisóstomo met at Tiago’s dinner, Padre Bernardo Salvi, is seen hovering around the house. Crisóstomo then meets the inoffensive Linares, a fellow Spaniard who, unlike Crisóstomo, had been born in Spain. Tiago presents Linares as María’s new suitor.

text: Sensing Crisóstomo’s influence with the government, Elias takes Crisóstomo into confidence and one moonlit night, they secretly sail out into the lake. Elias tells him about a revolutionary group, poised for open, violent clash with the government. This group has reached out to Elias in a bid for him to join them in their imminent uprising. Elias tells Crisóstomo that he managed to delay the group’s plans by offering to speak to Crisóstomo first, that Crisóstomo may use his influence to effect the reforms Elias and his group wish to see.

text: In their conversation Elias narrates his family’s history, how his grandfather in his youth worked as a bookkeeper in a Manila office but was accused of arson by the Spaniard owner when the office burned down. He was prosecuted and upon release was shunned by the community as a dangerous lawbreaker. His wife turned to prostitution to support the family but eventually they were driven into the hinterlands.

text: Crisóstomo sympathizes with Elias but insists that he could do nothing, and that the only change he was capable of was through his schoolbuilding project. Rebuffed, Elias advises Crisóstomo to avoid any association with him in the future for his own safety.

text: Heartbroken and desperately needing to speak to María, Crisóstomo turns his focus more towards his school. One evening, though, Elias returns with more information – a rogue uprising was planned for that same night, and the instigators had used Crisóstomo’s name in vain to recruit malcontents. The authorities know of the uprising and are prepared to spring a trap on the rebels.

text: In panic and ready to abandon his project, Crisóstomo enlists Elias in sorting out and destroying documents in his study that may implicate him. Elias obliges, but comes across a name familiar to him: Don Pedro Eibarramendia. Crisóstomo tells him that Pedro was his great-grandfather, and that they had to shorten his long family name. Elias tells him Eibarramendia was the same Spaniard who accused his grandfather of arson, and was thus the author of the misfortunes of Elias and his family. Frenzied, he raises his bolo to smite Crisóstomo, but regains his senses and leaves the house very upset.

text: The uprising follows through, and many of the rebels are either captured or killed. They point to Crisóstomo as instructed and Crisóstomo is arrested. The following morning the instigators are found dead – Elias killed them. Elias furthermore sneaks back into the Ibarra mansion during the night and sorts through documents and valuables, then burns down the house.

text: Some time later Capitan Tiago hosts a dinner at his riverside house in Manila to celebrate María Clara’s engagement with Linares. Present at the party were Padre Dámaso, Padre Salvi, Lieutenant Guevarra, and other family friends. They were discussing the events that happened in San Diego and Crisóstomo’s fate.

text: Salvi, who lusted after María Clara all along, says that he has requested to be transferred to the Convent of the Poor Clares in Manila under the pretense of recent events in San Diego being too great for him to bear. A despondent Guevarra outlines how the court came to condemn Crisóstomo. In a signed letter he wrote to a certain woman before leaving for Europe, Crisóstomo spoke about his father, an alleged rebel who died in prison. Somehow this letter fell into the hands of an enemy, and Crisóstomo's handwriting was imitated to create the bogus orders used to recruit the malcontents to the San Diego uprising. Guevarra remarks that the penmanship on the orders was similar to Crisóstomo's penmanship seven years before, but not at the present day. And Crisóstomo had only to deny that the signature on the original letter was his, and the charge of sedition founded on those bogus letters would fail. But upon seeing the letter, which was the farewell letter he wrote to María Clara, Crisóstomo apparently lost the will to fight the charges and owned the letter as his.

text: Guevarra then approaches María, who had been listening to his explanation. Privately but sorrowfully, he congratulates her for her common sense in yielding Crisóstomo’s farewell letter. Now, the old officer tells her, she can live a life of peace. María is devastated.

text: Later that evening Crisóstomo, having escaped from prison with the help of Elias, climbs up the azotea and confronts María in secret. María, distraught, does not deny giving up his farewell letter, but explains she did so only because Salvi found Dámaso's old letters in the San Diego parsonage, letters from María's mother who was then pregnant with María. It turns out that Dámaso was María's father. Salvi promised not to divulge Dámaso's letters to the public in exchange for Crisóstomo’s farewell letter. Crisóstomo forgives her, María swears her undying love, and they part with a kiss.

text: Crisóstomo and Elias escape on Elias's boat. They slip unnoticed through the Estero de Binondo and into the Pasig River. Elias tells Crisóstomo that his treasures and documents are buried in the middle of the forest owned by the Ibarras in San Diego. Wishing to make restitution, Crisóstomo offers Elias the chance to escape with him to a foreign country, where they will live as brothers. Elias declines, stating that his fate is with the country he wishes to see reformed and liberated.

text: Crisóstomo then tells him of his own desire for revenge and revolution, to lengths that even Elias was unwilling to go. Elias tries to reason with him, but sentries catch up with them at the mouth of the Pasig River and pursue them across Laguna de Bay. Elias orders Crisóstomo to lie down and to meet with him in a few days at the mausoleum of Crisóstomo's grandfather in San Diego, as he jumps into the water in an effort to distract the pursuers. Elias is shot several times.

text: The following day news of the chase were in the newspapers. It is reported that Crisóstomo Ibarra, the fugitive, had been killed by sentries in pursuit. At the news María remorsefully demands of Dámaso that her wedding with Linares be called off and that she be entered into the cloister, or the grave.

text: Seeing her resolution, Dámaso admits the true reason he ruined the Ibarra family and her relationship with Crisóstomo - because he was a mere mestizo and Dámaso wanted María to be as happy as she could be, and that was possible only if she were to marry a full-blooded peninsular Spaniard. María would not hear of it and repeated her ultimatum, the cloister or the grave. Knowing fully why Salvi had earlier requested to be assigned as chaplain in the Convent of the Poor Clares, Dámaso pleads with María to reconsider, but to no avail. Weeping, Dámaso consents, knowing the horrible fate that awaits his daughter within the convent but finding it more tolerable than her suicide.

text: A few nights later in the forest of the Ibarras, a boy pursues his mother through the darkness. The woman went insane with the constant beating of her husband and the loss of her other son, an altar boy, in the hands of Padre Salvi. Basilio, the boy, catches up with Sisa, his mother, inside the Ibarra mausoleum in the middle of the forest, but the strain had already been too great for Sisa. She dies in Basilio's embrace.

text: Basilio weeps for his mother, but then looks up to see Elias staring at them. Elias was dying himself, having lost a lot of blood and having had no food or nourishment for several days as he made his way to the mausoleum. He instructs Basilio to burn their bodies and if no one comes, to dig inside the mausoleum. He will find treasure, which he is to use for his own education.

text: As Basilio leaves to fetch the wood, Elias sinks to the ground and says that he will die without seeing the dawn of freedom for his people, and that those who see it must welcome it and not forget them that died in the darkness.

text: Publication history[edit]

text: Rizal finished the novel in December 1886. At first, according to one of Rizal's biographers, Rizal feared the novel might not be printed, and that it would remain unread. He was struggling with financial constraints at the time and thought it would be hard to pursue printing the novel.

text: Financial aid came from a friend named Máximo Viola; this helped him print the book at Berliner Buchdruckerei-Aktiengesellschaft in Berlin. Rizal was initially hesitant, but Viola insisted and ended up lending Rizal ₱300 for 2,000 copies. The printing was finished earlier than the estimated five months. Viola arrived in Berlin in December 1886, and by March 21, 1887, Rizal had sent a copy of the novel to his friend, Blumentritt.[2]

text: The book was banned by Spanish authorities in the Philippines, although copies were smuggled into the country. The first Philippine edition (and the second published edition) was finally printed in 1899 in Manila by Chofre y Compania in Escolta.

text: Recent English editions[edit]

text: On August 21, 2007, a 480-page English-language version of Noli me tangere was released to major Australian book stores. An Australian edition of the novel was published by Penguin Classics (an imprint by Penguin Books) to represent the company's "commitment to publish the major literary classics of the world."[3] American writer Harold Augenbraum, who first read Noli in 1992, translated the novel. A writer well-acquainted with translating other Hispanophone literary works, Augenbraum proposed to translate the novel after being asked for his next assignment in the publishing company. Intrigued by the novel and knowing more about it, Penguin nixed their plan of adapting existing English versions and instead translated it on their own.[3]

text: Reaction and legacy[edit]

text: This novel and its sequel, El filibusterismo (nicknamed El fili), were banned by Spanish authorities in the Philippines because of their allegations of corruption and abuse by the colonial government and the Catholic Church. Copies of the book were nevertheless smuggled in and hidden, and when Rizal returned to the Philippines after completing medical studies, he quickly ran afoul of the local government. A few days after his arrival, Rizal was summoned to Malacañan Palace by Governor-General Emilio Terrero, who told him of the charge that Noli me tangere contained subversive elements. After a discussion, Terrero was appeased but still unable to offer resistance to pressure from the Church against the book. The persecution can be discerned from Rizal's letter to Leitmeritz:

text:
“
My book made a lot of noise; everywhere, I am asked about it. They wanted to anathematize me ['to excommunicate me'] because of it... I am considered a German spy, an agent of Bismarck, they say I am a Protestant, a freemason, a sorcerer, a damned soul and evil. It is whispered that I want to draw plans, that I have a foreign passport and that I wander through the streets by night...
”

text: Rizal was exiled to Dapitan in Mindanao, then later arrested for "inciting rebellion" based largely on his writings. Rizal was executed by firing squad at the Luneta outside Manila's walls on December 30, 1896 at the age of thirty-five, at the park that now bears his name.

text: Influence on Filipino nationalism[edit]

text: Rizal depicted nationality by emphasizing the positive qualities of Filipinos: the devotion of a Filipina and her influence on a man's life, the deep sense of gratitude, and the solid common sense of the Filipinos under the Spanish regime.

text: The work was instrumental in creating a unified Filipino national identity and consciousness, as many natives previously identified with their respective regions. It lampooned, caricatured and exposed various elements in colonial society. Two characters in particular have become classics in Filipino culture: María Clara, who has become a personification of the ideal Filipino woman, loving and unwavering in her loyalty to her spouse; and the priest Father Dámaso, who reflects the covert fathering of illegitimate children by members of the Spanish clergy.[citation needed]

text: The book indirectly influenced the Philippine Revolution of independence from the Spanish Empire, even though Rizal actually advocated direct representation to the Spanish government and an overall larger role for the Philippines within Spain's political affairs. In 1956, Congress passed Republic Act 1425, more popularly known as the Rizal Law, which requires all levels in Philippine schools to teach the novel as part of their curriculum. Noli me tangere is being taught to third year secondary school students, while its sequel El filibusterismo is being taught for fourth year secondary school students. The novels are incorporated to their study and survey of Philippine literature.[4] Both of Rizal's novels were initially banned from Catholic educational institutions given its negative portrayal of the Church, but this taboo has been largely superseded as religious schools conformed to the Rizal Law.[citation needed]

text: Major characters[edit]

text: Crisóstomo Ibarra[edit]

text: Juan Crisóstomo Ibarra y Magsalin, commonly referred to the novel as Ibarra or Crisóstomo, is the novel's protagonist. The mestizo (mixed-race) son of Filipino businessman Don Rafael Ibarra, he studied in Europe for seven years.[5] Ibarra is also María Clara's fiancé.

text: María Clara[edit]

text: María Clara de los Santos y Alba, commonly referred to as María Clara, is Ibarra's fiancée and the most beautiful and widely celebrated girl in San Diego.[6] She was raised by Capitán Tiago de los Santos, and his cousin, Isabel. In the later parts of the novel, she was revealed to be an illegitimate daughter of Father Dámaso, the comer curate of the town, and Doña Pía Alba, Capitán Tiago's wife, who had died giving birth to María Clara.[7]

text: At the novel's end, a heartbroken yet resolved María Clara entered the Beaterio de Santa Clara (a nunnery) after learning the truth of her parentage and mistakenly believing her lover Crisóstomo to have been killed. In the epilogue, Rizal stated that it is unknown if María Clara is still living within the walls of the convent or she is already dead.[8]

text: Kapitán Tiago[edit]

text: Don Santiago de los Santos, known by his nickname Tiago and political title Kapitán Tiago is it is said that Kapitán Tiago is the richest man in the region of Binondo and he possessed real properties in Pampanga and Laguna de Bay. He is also said to be a good Catholic, a friend of the Spanish government and thus was considered a Spaniard by the colonial elite. Capitán Tiago never attended school, so he became the domestic helper of a Dominican friar who gave him an informal education. He later married Pía Alba from Santa Cruz.[6]

text: Padre Dámaso[edit]

text: Dámaso Verdolagas, or Padre Dámaso is a Franciscan friar and the former parish curate of San Diego. He is notorious for speaking with harsh words, highhandedness, and his cruelty during his ministry in the town.[9] An enemy of Crisóstomo's father, Don Rafael Ibarra, Dámaso is revealed to be María Clara's biological father.[7] Later, he and María Clara had bitter arguments whether she would marry Alfonso Linares de Espadaña (which he preferred) or to enter the nunnery (her desperate alternative).[10] At the end of the novel, he is again reassigned to a distant town and later found dead in his bed.[8]

text: Elías[edit]

text: Elías is Ibarra's mysterious friend and ally. Elías made his first appearance as a pilot during a picnic of Ibarra and María Clara and her friends.[11]

text: The 50th chapter of the novel explores the past of Elías and history of his family. About sixty years before the events of Noli me Tangere, Elias's grandfather Ingkong in his youth worked as a bookkeeper in a Manila office. One night the office burned down, and Don Pedro Eibarramendia, the Spaniard owner, accused him of arson. Ingkong was prosecuted and upon release was shunned by the community as a dangerous lawbreaker. His wife Impong turned to prostitution to support themselves but eventually they were driven into the hinterlands. There Impong bore her first son, Balat.

text: Driven to depression, Ingkong hangs himself deep in the forest. Impong was sickly for lack of nourishment in the forest and was not strong enough to cut down his corpse and bury him, and Balat was then still very young. The stench led to their discovery, and Impong was accused of killing her husband. She and her son fled to another province where she bore another son. Balat grew up to be a bandit.

text: Eventually Balat's legend grew, but so did the efforts to capture him, and when he finally fell he was cut limb by limb and his head was deposited in front of Impong's house. Seeing the head of her son, Impong died of shock. Impong's younger son, knowing their deaths would somehow be imputed upon him, fled to the province of Tayabas where he met and fell in love with a rich young heiress.

text: They have an affair and the lady got pregnant. But before they could marry, his records were dug up. Then the father, who disapproved of him from the start, had him imprisoned. The lady gave birth to Elias and his twin sister but died while they were children. Elias and his sister were well cared for, with Elias even going to Ateneo and his sister going to La Concordia, but as they wanted to become farmers they eventually returned to Tayabas.

text: He and his sister grew up not knowing about their father, being told that their father had long died. Elias grew up to be a young abusive brat who took particular joy in berating an elderly servant who, nevertheless, always submitted to his whims. His sister was more refined and eventually was betrothed to a fine young man. But before they could marry, Elias ran afoul with a distant relative. The relative struck back by telling him about his true parentage. The verbal scuffle mounted to the point where records were dug up, and Elias and his sister, as well as a good part of town, learned the truth. The elderly servant who Elias frequently abused was their father.

text: The scandal caused the engagement of Elias' sister to break off. Depressed, the girl disappeared one day and was eventually found dead along the shore of the lake. Elias himself lost face before his relatives and became a wanderer from province to province. Like his uncle Balat he became a fugitive and his legend grew, but by degrees he became the gentler, more reserved, and more noble character first introduced in the novel.

text: Pilosopo Tacio[edit]

text: Filosofo Tacio, known by his Tagalized name Pilosopo Tasyo. Tasyo was enrolled in a philosophy course and was a talented student, but his mother was a rich but superstitious matron. Like many Filipino catholics under the sway of the friars, she believed that too much learning condemned souls to hell. She then made Tasyo choose between leaving college or becoming a priest. Since he was in love, he left college and married.

text: Tasyo lost his wife and mother within a year. Seeking consolation and in order to free himself from the cockpit and the dangers of idleness, he took up his studies once more. But he became so addicted to his studies and the purchase of books that he entirely neglected his fortune and gradually ruined himself. Persons of culture called him Don Anastacio, or Pilosopo Tasyo, while the great crowd of the ignorant knew him as Tasyo el Loco on account of his peculiar ideas and his eccentric manner of dealing with others.

text: Seeking for reforms from the government, he expresses his ideals in paper written in a cryptographic alphabet similar from hieroglyphs and Coptic figures[12] hoping "that the future generations may be able to decipher it."[13]

text: Doña Victorina[edit]

text: Doña Victorina de los Reyes de Espadaña, commonly known as Doña Victorina, is an ambitious Filipina who classifies herself as a Spanish and mimics Spanish ladies by putting on heavy make-up.[9] The novel narrates Doña Victorina's younger days: she had lots of admirers, but she spurned them all because none of them were Spaniards. Later on, she met and married Don Tiburcio de Espadaña, an official of the customs bureau ten years her junior.[14] However, their marriage is childless.

text: Her husband assumes the title of medical "doctor" even though he never attended medical school; using fake documents and certificates, Tiburcio illegally practices medicine. Tiburcio's usage of the title Dr. consequently makes Victorina assume the title Dra. (doctora, female doctor).[14] Apparently, she uses the whole name Doña Victorina de los Reyes de de Espadaña, with double de to emphasize her marriage surname.[14] She seems to feel that this awkward titling makes her more "sophisticated."

text: Sisa, Crispín, and Basilio[edit]

text: Sisa, Crispín, and Basilio represent a Filipino family persecuted by the Spanish authorities:

text:
Narcisa or Sisa is the deranged mother of Basilio and Crispín. Described as beautiful and young, although she loves her children very much, she can not protect them from the beatings of her husband, Pedro.
Crispín is Sisa's 7-year-old son. An altar boy, he was unjustly accused of stealing money from the church. After failing to force Crispín to return the money he allegedly stole, Father Salví and the head sacristan killed him. It is not directly stated that he was killed, but a dream of Basilio's suggests that Crispín died during his encounter with Padre Salví and his minion.
Basilio is Sisa's 10-year-old son. An acolyte tasked with ring the church's bells for the Angelus, he faced the dread of losing his younger brother and the descent of his mother into insanity. At the end of the novel, a dying Elías requested Basilio to cremate him and Sisa in the woods in exchange for a chest of gold located nearby. He will later play a major role in El Filibusterismo.

text: Due to their tragic but endearing story, these characters are often parodied in modern Filipino popular culture.

text: Salomé is Elías' sweetheart. She lived in a little house by the lake, and though Elías would like to marry her, he tells her that it would do her or their children no good to be related to a fugitive like himself. In the original publication of Noli, the chapter that explores the identity of Elías and Salomé was omitted, classifying her as a total non-existing character. This chapter, entitled Elías y Salomé was probably the 25th chapter of the novel. However, recent editions and translations of Noli provides the inclusion of this chapter, either on the appendix or renamed as Chapter X (Ex).

text: Other characters[edit]

text: There are a number of secondary and minor characters in Noli Me Tángere. Items indicated inside the parenthesis are the standard Filipinization of the Spanish names in the novel.

text:
Padre Hernándo de la Sibyla – a Dominican friar. He is described as short and has fair skin. He is instructed by an old priest in his order to watch Crisóstomo Ibarra.
Padre Bernardo Salví – the successor of Padre Dámaso as the Franciscan curate of San Diego, and who secretly lusts after María Clara. He is described to be very thin and sickly. It is also hinted that his surname, "Salvi" is the shorter form of "Salvi" ("salvation"), or "Salvi" is short for "salvaje" ("savage", "wild") hinting at the fact that he is willing to kill an innocent child, Crispín, who he accused of stealing money worth 2 onzas.
El Alférez (Alperes) – the unnamed chief of the local Guardia Civil and husband of Doña Consolación. He is the sworn enemy of the priests in the town's power struggle.
Doña Consolación – wife of the Alférez, nicknamed as la musa de los guardias civiles ("The muse of the Civil Guard") or la Alféreza. She was a former laundrywoman who passes herself as a peninsular, and is best remembered for her abusive treatment of Sisa.
Don Tiburcio de Espadaña – A Spanish quack doctor who is weak and submissive to his pretentious wife, Doña Victorina.
Tenyente Guevarra - a close friend of Don Rafael Ibarra. He reveals to Crisóstomo how Don Rafael Ibarra's death came about.
Alfonso Linares – A distant nephew of Tiburcio de Espadaña, the would-be fiancé of María Clara. Although he presented himself as a practitioner of law, it was later revealed that he is, like Don Tiburcio, a fraud. He later died from medications Don Tiburcio had given him.
Tíya Isabel – Capitán Tiago's cousin, who helped raise María Clara and served as a surrogate mother figure.
Governor-General (Gobernador-Heneral) – Unnamed in the novel, he is the most powerful colonial official in the Philippines. He harbours great disdain for the friars and corrupt officials, and sympathises with Ibarra.
Don Filipo Lino – vice mayor of the town of San Diego, leader of the liberals.
Padre Manuel Martín – he is the linguist curate of a nearby town who delivers the sermon during San Diego's fiesta.
Don Rafael Ibarra – the deceased father of Crisóstomo Ibarra. Though he was the richest man in San Diego, he was also the most virtuous and generous.
Doña Pía Alba – wife of Capitán Tiago and mother of María Clara, she had died giving birth to her daughter. In reality, she was raped by Padre Dámaso.
Don Pedro Eibarramendia - Crisóstomo Ibarra's Basque great-grandfather who falsely accused Elias's grandfather and ruined his family. The surname was later shortened to Ibarra, hence Elias does not realize the relationship at first.
Albino - a seminarian who follows Crisóstomo Ibarra in a picnic with María Clara's friends.

text: Translations[edit]

text: Many English and Tagalog translations have been made of Noli Me Tángere, as well as a few other languages. The copyrights of the original text have expired, and the copyrights of some translators have also expired, so certain translations are in the public domain and have been put online by Project Gutenberg.

text: English[edit]

text:
Friars and Filipinos (1900) by Frank Ernest Gannett. Available freely via Project Gutenberg.[15]
The Social Cancer (1912) by Charles Derbyshire. Available freely via Project Gutenberg.[16]
"Noli Me Tángere": A Complete English Translation of Noli Me Tángere from the Spanish of Dr. José Rizal (1956) by Senator Camilo Osías.[17]
The Lost Eden (1961) by Leon Ma. Guerrero.[18]
Noli Me Tángere (1997) by María Soledad Locsin.[19]
Noli Me Tángere (2006) by Harold Augenbraum. Published by Penguin Classics.[20]
Noli Me Tángere: A Shortened Version in Modern English Translated with an Introduction and Notes (2016) by Nicholas Tamblyn. [21]

text: Tagalog[edit]

text:
Noli Me Tángere (also titled Huwag Akong Salangin Nino Man/Nobody Dare Touch Me) (1906) by Dr. Pascual H. Poblete. Available freely via Project Gutenberg.[22]
Noli Me Tángere (1997) by Virgilio Almario.[23]
Noli Me Tángere (1999) by Ofelia Jamilosa-Silapan, Tagalog translation of the English translation by León Ma. Guerrero.

text: Other languages[edit]

text:
Au Pays des Moines (In the Land of Monks) (1899, French) by Henri Lucas and Ramon Sempau. Available freely via Project Gutenberg.[24]
N'y touchez pas! (Don't touch it!) (1980, French) Translation by Jovita Ventura Castro, Collection UNESCO, Connaissance de l'Orient, Gallimard, Paris.
Noli me tángere (1987, German) by Annemarie del Cueto-Mörth. Published by Insel Verlag.
Noli me tángere (2003, Italian) by Vasco Caini. Published by Debatte editore, Livorno, Italy, ISBN 88-86705-26-3.
Noli me Tángere: Filippijnsche roman (Noli Me Tángere: Filipino Novel) (1912, Dutch) by Abraham Anthony Fokker, published by Soerabaijasch Handelsblad. Available freely via Project Gutenberg.[25]

text: Adaptations[edit]

text: The Noli has been adapted for literature, theater, television, and film.

text:
1915: Noli Me Tángere, a silent film adaptation by Edward M. Gross.[26]
1930: Noli Me Tángere, another silent film adaptation, directed by José Nepomuceno under Malayan Movies.[27]
1951: National Artist for Cinema Gerardo de León directed a motion picture titled Sisa, starring Anita Linda in the role of the titular character.
1957: Noli Me Tángere: The Opera, an opera in Filipino (Tagalog) composed by National Artist for Music Felipe Padilla de Leon with libretto by National Artist for Visual Arts Guillermo Tolentino. World premiere in 1957 at Far Eastern University Auditorium.[28] Staged in 1974 at Cultural Center of the Philippines (CCP) Main Theater. Staged in 1987 by Fides Cuyugan-Asensio's Music Theater Foundation at the CCP.[29] Staged in 2011 (Nov) and 2012 (July-Aug) by Dulaang Unibersidad ng Pilipinas at Guerrero Theater, University of the Philippines.[30][31] Staged in 2013, one night only, by Far Eastern University as part of its 85th anniversary at Far Eastern University Auditorium.[32] Staged in 2014, produced by J&S Productions at Newport Performing Arts Theater, Resorts World Manila. Staged in 2017, produced by J&S Productions at Tanghalang Nicanor Abelardo, CCP.[33]

text: International stagings: In 1988, Music Theater Foundation's 1987 production was toured in the USA with reduced performers in 1988 in Chicago, Detroit, St. Louis and Los Angeles.[34] The first documented staging by a local group in the USA was in 2012, produced by KGB Productions and staged by da Corneto Opera Company at Harris Theater for Music and Dance, Chicago, performed in Filipino with English supertitles.[35] Staged in 2013 in New York, produced by Edwin Josue at the Sylvia and Danny Kaye Playhouse, Hunter College.[36] Staged in 2014 in Washington, DC, produced by Edwin Josue at Eisenhower Theater, Kennedy Center.[37] Staged in 2016 in Richmond, Virginia, produced by Capitol Opera Richmond at Henrico Theatre.[38] To be staged in June 2017 in Boston, produced by KGB Productions and staged by Opera Brittenica, venue TBA.[39]

text:
1961: Noli Me Tángere, a faithful film adaptation of the novel, was directed by Gerardo de León for Bayanihan-Arriva Productions, featuring Eddie del Mar[40] in the role of Crisóstomo Ibarra.[41] Released for the birth centenary of José Rizal, the motion picture was awarded the Best Picture in the 10th FAMAS Awards.
1979: Kanser (Noli Me Tangere), play in Filipino (Tagalog) written by Jomar Fleras. World premiere in 1979 at Cultural Center of the Philippines by theater group Bulwagang Gantimpala.[42] It has been staged annually by Gantimpala Theater (the group's new name) since 1989.[43] In 2015, it was adapted into a sung-through musical by Gantimpala Theater with music composed by Joed Balsamo.[44]
1992: Noli Me Tángere, a 13-episode TV series by Eddie S. Romero. This adaptation features Joel Torre in the role of Crisóstomo Ibarra, Chin Chin Gutierrez as María Clara, and Tetchie Agbayani as Sisa.
1995: Noli Me Tángere, a Filipino (Tagalog) musical adaptation of the novel staged by theater company Tanghalang Pilipino with libretto (book and lyrics) by National Artist for Literature Bienvenido Lumbera and music by Ryan Cayabyab. It premiered in 1995 at the Cultural Center of the Philippines, directed by Nonon Padilla. It went on to tour Japan. It starred John Arcilla and Audie Gemora alternating as Crisóstomo Ibarra, Monique Wilson as María Clara, and Regine Velasquez as Sisa. Bernardo Bernardo and Bodjie Pascua alternated as Padre Dámaso, and Nanette Inventor and Sheila Francisco as Dona Victorina. It was restaged in 2005, directed by Paul Morales, and in 2011, directed by Audie Gemora. In 2014, it was staged in Los Angeles, directed by Olga Natividad.[45]
Several excerpts from Noli Me Tángere were dramatized in the 1998 film José Rizal, with Joel Torre as Crisóstomo Ibarra and Monique Wilson as María Clara.
1998: Sisa, a remake of the 1951 film of the same name. Written and directed by Mario O'Hara.[46]
2005: Noli Me Tángere 2, a modern literary adaptation of the novel written by Roger Olivares.[47]
2008–2009: Noli at Fili: Dekada 2000, a stage adaptation of Noli Me Tángere and El Filibusterismo by the Philippine Educational Theater Association, set in the present day, in the fictional town of Maypajo in the province of San Lorenzo. Written by Nicanor G. Tiongson and directed by Soxie Topacio.[47][48]

text: In popular culture[edit]

text:
A series of streets in the Sampaloc area of Manila are named after the characters Ibarra, Sisa and Basilio.
A street in Makati city is named 'Ibarra Street,' located between Matanzas and Guernica streets.
A restaurant serving Filipino cuisine at Greenbelt in Makati is called Restaurante Pia y Dámaso,[49] after María Clara's biological parents.
A restaurant chain called Crisóstomo features dishes from Filipino history and culture such as "Atcharra ni Ibarra". Its sister restaurant is called Elías.


document_title: Mexican Train

question_text: how many dominoes do you need for mexican train

root

text: Mexican Train

text: Equipment[edit]

text: A double-twelve set of dominoes is marketed as the standard for Mexican Train, and accommodates up to 8 players. Other sets are commonly used as well. The following alternate sets are common, depending on the number of people playing:

tag: p

text:
Double-Six (2 players)
Double-Nine (2–4 players)[1]
Double-Twelve (5–8 players)[1]
Double-Fifteen (9–12 players)
Double-Eighteen (13+ players)

tag: ul

text: In addition to dominoes, the game also requires:

text:
One token or marker for each player
A special spacer, known as the "station" or "hub", used to evenly space the trains around the central domino (optional).
Pencil and paper to keep score

text: Many sets of dominoes include a station and special train-shaped tokens for markers, and packaged games with a central "station" and custom tokens are available. However, the station piece is not strictly needed, and anything from coins to poker chips to even pieces of candy or slips of paper can be used as markers.

text: Objective[edit]

text: The object of all Trains games is to be the first player to place all of their dominoes. Dominoes may be placed onto the player's train, onto the Mexican train if available, or on the trains of other players under special circumstances.The middle tile counts as the start of your multiple tile train.

text: Setup[edit]

text: At the start of each round, the dominoes are placed face side down, shuffled, and drawn by players to form their hands. Using the double-nine set, players draw dominoes as follows:

text:
2–4 players: 10 dominoes each
5–6 players: 9 dominoes each
7–8 players: 7 dominoes each

text: Any remaining dominoes are placed to one side, forming the "boneyard".

text: Gameplay[edit]

text: With a standard double-twelve set the double twelve is placed in the station. In each successive round the next lower double is used until all doubles are used. The double-blank is the final round.

text: Play continues to the left.[1][2] Each person lays one legally placed domino per turn, or two if the player's first domino is a double. If they are unable to, they must draw a domino from the boneyard. If they are able to lay that domino, they must do so immediately.[1] Otherwise, their turn is over and play continues to the left, each player trying to place all their dominoes by playing matching dominoes one at a time, end to end.[1][2]

text: A train can be as long as the players can make it; it only ends when all dominoes that could match its endpoint have already been played. As a result, trains can become quite long, especially with an extended domino set. It is acceptable to "bend" the train 90° or 180° to keep the train on the playing surface, as long as it does not interfere with the endpoints of other trains.

text: Public Trains[edit]

text: All trains begin the game as "public", and all players may play on it. When a player plays a domino on their train it then becomes "private". When a player draws a domino and is unable play it, they must mark their train as "public" by placing a marker on their train.[1] If a player is deemed to have made a strategic error the highest score of that round is added to theirs.

text: Players have the option, whether they can play on their own train or not, of playing a domino on any train currently marked "public". When a player with a "public" train adds a domino to it, it becomes "private" again and may not be played on except by the train's owner.[2]

text: The Mexican Train[edit]

text: The Mexican Train is an additional train that anyone may play on during their turn. They can start the train by playing a domino matching the engine (i.e. the double played at the beginning of the round) or add to the train. Mexican trains can be added as long as a space remains.

text: Playing doubles[edit]

text: When a double is played, it is placed perpendicular to the train. Subsequently, adding a domino to the double is called "finishing", "satisfying the double" or "covering the double".

text: The player who played the double must take another turn. This additional turn follows exactly the same rules as any normal turn. They may play anywhere they like, and do not have to "finish the double" on this turn. They may play elsewhere and, provided they make a legal play, do not have to mark their train for not finishing the double (unless the double was played on their own train). Blanks are wild. Like any other turn, if they cannot play they must draw a domino and mark their train as "public".[2]

text: If a double remains unfinished after it has been played, the train becomes a "public" train. No other train can be added to by any player until someone "finishes the double". Play passes to the next player who can legally play on this train (if the train is theirs, or if they can legally play on "public" trains). If they cannot "finish the double", they must draw a domino, and if they cannot play it on the double, their own train becomes "public". Play continues like this until someone "finishes the double". Single and double blanks are considered wilds.

text: Branching on doubles as in Chicken Foot is allowed as an option (see Variations below).[2]

text: Scoring[edit]

text: At the end of each round, the player going out receives 0 points, while all other players receive the sum of all pips (dots) on their dominoes. The person with the fewest points after all thirteen rounds have been played is the winner. In the case of a tie, the person with the most 0-point rounds is the winner. (If this is still a tie, the person with the lowest round total other than 0 is the winner).

text: Partnerships[edit]

text: With four, six or eight players, the game can be played in teams of two, with partners sitting opposite each other. Rules are identical except that a player's train and their partner's train are considered one and the same (they will usually extend from opposite sides of the station), and thus a player can play on their own end or their partner's, and neither end becomes public until neither partner can play a tile. Scoring is also handled in pairs, with the player who went out scoring zero for their team (even though their partner will have dominoes remaining) and other teams summing their scores for a team score.

text: Elements of strategy[edit]

text:
It is generally in a player's best interest to keep their train private. By making a train public, the player allows other players to break an impasse in extending the train, but the player loses all other options except to attempt to play on the endpoint of their own train.
While public trains offer additional options, the player's own private train should be considered first. Trains usually are public because their owners cannot play on them; if that train's endpoint does not change, its owner has no options until they draw a domino they can play on it.
A player may choose to dump unmatched tiles on public trains first, before starting their own train, to trick the other players into believing that the player cannot start a train.
If one or more players played on a public train and the endpoint value has changed, play another tile that will change the endpoint value back to its original value or to a value the player is thought not to have.
It is sometimes advantageous to play a double on one's own train and intentionally leave it unfinished. If the value of the double has been heavily played elsewhere, other players may be unable to finish it, which will cause many players to have to mark their own trains. This is a good defensive play when subsequent players are low on dominoes; they are unlikely to have a matching domino, and must draw and mark their trains until someone can finish the double.
Because a player playing an unfinished double on someone else's train does not have to mark their own train as public, it is recommended that players play doubles on public trains whenever possible. Not only does this remove a major disadvantage to playing an unfinished double, it does not change the endpoint value of the train meaning its owner probably will not be able to play, and other players do have to mark their trains if they cannot finish the double. However double on another player's train gives that player and everyone else (if public) more options.

text: Variations[edit]

text: There are a number of other versions of the rules for Mexican Train, varying the number of dominoes drawn by each player, the rules for playing doubles, or the number of tiles that can be played during one turn. For example:

text: Fast Game variation: After the starting double has been placed, turns are ignored, and each player focuses on making their own train as long as possible. Once everyone has made as long of a train as they can, play reverts to turns, using the rules listed above. This speeds up the game, but eliminates some of the strategies of playing doubles.

text: Delayed First Turn variation: Similar to the Fast Game variation listed above, instead of simultaneously, each person takes turns playing as many dominoes on their train as possible. Any player that is unable to play on their first turn draws a domino, and may then begin their first turn or pass. When a player who has passed finally starts their train, they may play as many dominoes as they can string together. After starting their train, players are only permitted to play one domino at a time as usual, unless playing a double. This version allows a player to save their "first turn" string of dominoes for when they have a chance, instead of being stuck with all dominoes from the beginning.

text: Branching Doubles variation: Once a double has been satisfied, players may continue to branch off of the double in two more directions, meaning the double will have a matching endpoint on all four sides. Often, players like to angle these branches at a 45-degree angle to accommodate for more room. This variant gives players more choice and speeds up the game.

text: Swan Drive variation: A player who can play on their own train may also play one tile on each subsequent public train in clockwise order. Each public train must be played on in order to continue in this manner, and only one tile per train may be played (unless a double must be finished). Once a player cannot play on the next public train, or has looped around to their own train, their turn ends. While playing on each public train, the player may choose to play on the Mexican train or skip it when he comes to it, making the placement of the train somewhat strategical. This version makes for a much faster game.


document_title: Consequences of the attack on Pearl Harbor

question_text: who declared war on the united states four days after pearl harbor

question_tokens: who declared war on the united states four days after pearl harbor

text: Consequences of the attack on Pearl Harbor

text: American public opinion prior to the attack[edit]

text: Prior to the attack, public opinion in the United States had not been unanimous. When polled in January 1940, 60% of Americans were in favor of helping the United Kingdom in the war.[1] A majority of Americans believed that the safety of the United States was contingent on the UK winning the war, and an even larger majority believed that the UK would lose the war if the United States stopped sending war materials to the United Kingdom.[1] Despite this, the same poll reported that 88% of Americans would not support entering the war against Germany and Italy.[1]

text: Americans were more unsure on the prospect of conflict with Japan around the same timeframe. In a February Gallup poll, a majority of Americans believed that the United States should intervene in Japan's conquest of the Dutch East Indies and Singapore.[1] However, in the same poll, only 39% supported going to war with Japan, while 46% opposed the prospect.[1]

text: Public support for assisting the United Kingdom rose through 1940, reaching about 65% by May 1941.[2] However, opinions on the prospect of becoming involved against Germany and Italy still remained quite high with 80% disapproval.[1]

text: American response[edit]

text: On December 7, 1941, the Japanese launched a surprise attack on the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor. After two hours of bombing, 18 U.S. ships were sunk or damaged, 188 U.S. aircraft were destroyed, and 2,403 men were killed.

text: The day after the attack, President Franklin D. Roosevelt addressed a joint session of the 77th United States Congress. Roosevelt called December 7 "a date which will live in infamy". Congress declared war on the Empire of Japan amid outrage at the attack, the deaths of thousands of Americans, and the late delivery of the note from the Japanese government breaking off relations with the U.S. government. Pacifist Representative Jeannette Rankin, a Republican from Montana, cast the only dissenting vote. Roosevelt signed the declaration of war later the same day. Continuing to intensify its military mobilization, the U.S. government finished converting to a war economy, a process begun by provision of weapons and supplies to the Soviet Union and the British Empire. Japanese Americans from the West Coast were sent to internment camps for the duration of the war.

text: The attack on Pearl Harbor immediately galvanized a divided nation into action. Public opinion had been moving towards support for entering the war during 1941, but considerable opposition remained until the attack. Overnight, Americans united against the Empire of Japan in response to calls to "Remember Pearl Harbor." A poll taken between December 12–17, 1941, showed that 97% of respondents supported a declaration of war against Japan.[3] Further polling showed a dramatic increase in support for every able-bodied man serving in the military, up to 70% in December 1941.[4] American solidarity in the war effort probably made possible the unconditional surrender position later taken by the Allied Powers. Some historians, among them Samuel Eliot Morison, believe the attack doomed Imperial Japan to defeat simply because it awakened the "sleeping giant", regardless of whether the fuel depots or machine shops had been destroyed or even if the carriers had been caught in port and sunk. U.S. industrial and military capacity, once mobilized, was able to pour overwhelming resources into both the Pacific and Atlantic theaters. Others, such as Clay Blair, Jr.,[5] and Mark Parillo[6] believe Japanese trade protection was so incompetent that American submarines alone might have strangled Japan into defeat.

text: The closest friend Roosevelt had in the developing Allied alliance, Sir Winston Churchill, stated that his first thought regarding American assistance to the United Kingdom was that "We have won the war"[7] very soon after Pearl Harbor had been attacked.

text: Perceptions of treachery in the attack before a declaration of war sparked fears of sabotage or espionage by Japanese sympathizers residing in the U.S., including citizens of Japanese descent and was a factor in the subsequent Japanese internment in the western United States. Other factors included misrepresentations of intelligence information suggesting sabotage, notably by General John DeWitt, commanding general of Western Defense Command on the Pacific Coast, who had personal feelings against Japanese Americans.[8] In February 1942, Roosevelt signed United States Executive Order 9066, requiring all Japanese Americans to submit themselves for internment.

text: Propaganda made repeated use of the attack, because its effect was enormous and impossible to counter.[9] "Remember Pearl Harbor!" became the watchwords of the war.[10]

text: The American government understated the damage inflicted, in hopes of preventing the Japanese from learning it, but the Japanese had, through surveillance, a good estimate.[11]

text: Japanese views[edit]

text: On December 8, 1941, Japan declared war on the United States and the British Empire. The Japanese document discussed world peace and the disruptive actions of the United States and the United Kingdom. The document claimed all avenues for averting war had been exhausted by the Government of Japan.

text: Although the Imperial Japanese government had made some effort to prepare their population for war via anti-U.S. propaganda, it appears most Japanese were surprised, apprehensive, and dismayed by the news they were now at war with the U.S., a country many of them admired. Nevertheless, the people at home and overseas thereafter generally accepted their government's account of the attack and supported the war effort until their nation's surrender in 1945.[12]

text: Japan's national leadership at the time appeared to have believed war between the U.S. and Japan had long been inevitable. In any case, Japanese-American relationships had already significantly deteriorated since Japan's invasion of China beginning in the early 1930s, of which the United States strongly disapproved. In 1942, Saburō Kurusu, former Japanese ambassador to the United States, gave an address in which he talked about the "historical inevitability of the war of Greater East Asia."[13] He said war had been a response to Washington's longstanding aggression toward Japan. For example, provocations against Japan included the San Francisco School incident, Naval Limitations Treaty, other unequal treaties, the Nine Power Pact, constant economic pressure against Japan, culminating in the "belligerent" scrap metal and oil embargo in 1941 by the United States and Allied countries to contain and/or reverse the actions of the Empire of Japan especially in Indochina during her expansion of influence and interests throughout Asia. In light of Japan's dependence on imported oil, the trade embargoes were especially significant. These pressures directly influenced Japan to go into alliance with Germany and Italy through the Tripartite Pact. According to Kurusu, because of these reasons, the Allies had already provoked war with Japan long before the attack at Pearl Harbor, and the United States was already preparing for war with Japan. Kurusu also states the United States was also looking for world domination, beyond just Asia, with "sinister designs".[13] Some of this view seems to have been shared by Adolf Hitler, when he called it one of the reasons Germany declared war on the United States. He also had mentioned European imperialism toward Japan many years before. Therefore, according to Kurusu, Japan had no choice but to defend itself and so should rapidly continue to militarize, bring Germany and Italy closer as allies and militarily combat the United States, Britain, and the Netherlands.

text: Japan's leaders also saw themselves as justified in their conduct, believing that they were building the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. They also explained Japan had done everything possible to alleviate tension between the two nations. The decision to attack, at least for public presentation, was reluctant and forced on Japan. Of the Pearl Harbor attack itself, Kurusu said it came in direct response to a virtual ultimatum from the U.S. government, the Hull note, and so the surprise attack was not treacherous. Since the Japanese-American relationship already had hit its lowest point, there was no alternative; in any case, had an acceptable settlement of differences been reached, the Carrier Striking Task Force could have been called back.

text: Germany and Italy declare war[edit]

text: On December 11, 1941, Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy declared war on the United States, and the United States reciprocated, formally entering the war in Europe.

text: German dictator Adolf Hitler and Italian dictator Benito Mussolini were under no obligation to declare war on the United States under the mutual defense terms of the Tripartite Pact until the US counterattacked Japan. However, relations between the European Axis Powers and the United States had deteriorated since 1937. On December 4, 1941, the Germans learned of the U.S. military's contingency planning to get troops in Continental Europe by 1943; this was Rainbow Five, made public by sources unsympathetic to Roosevelt's New Deal, and published by the Chicago Tribune on that date.[14] Moreover, with Roosevelt's initiation of a Neutrality Patrol, which in fact also escorted British ships, as well as orders to U.S. Navy destroyers first to actively report U-boats, then "shoot on sight", American neutrality was honored more in the breach than observance.[15]

text: Having been unaware of Japanese plans, Hitler was initially furious that the United States had been dragged into the war at a time when he had not yet acquired full control of continental Europe — on the very day of the Pearl Harbor attack, Hitler himself had issued his Nacht und Nebel decree, concerning the suppression of resistance activities within Nazi-occupied lands. Hitler, who had previously declared the Japanese "Honorary Aryans" claimed that "this is what happens when your allies are not Anglo-Saxons".[16][citation needed] However, he decided war with the United States was unavoidable, and the Pearl Harbor attack, the publication of Rainbow Five, and Roosevelt's post-Pearl Harbor address, which focused on European affairs as well as the situation with Japan, probably contributed to the declaration. Hitler expected the United States would soon declare war on Germany in any event.[17] He disastrously underestimated American military production capacity, the United States' own ability to fight on two fronts, and the time his own Operation Barbarossa would require. Similarly, the Nazis may have hoped the declaration of war, a showing of solidarity with Japan, would result in closer collaboration with the Japanese in Eurasia, particularly against the Soviet Union — something that would not materialize, due to existing relations between Moscow and Tokyo at that time, as well as information submitted in mid-September 1941 by the Soviets' top spy in Japan, Richard Sorge, that the Japanese armed forces were not likely to abrogate any treaties between Japan and the Soviets unless:

text:
Moscow had been captured by the Axis
The Kwantung Army was three times the size of the Soviets' Far Eastern forces
A civil war had started in Siberia.[18]

tag: ol

text: The decision to declare war on the United States allowed the United States to enter the European war in support of the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union without much public opposition.[19][20][21][22][23]

text: Even as early as mid-March 1941,[24] President Roosevelt was quite acutely aware of Hitler's hostility towards the United States, and the destructive potential it presented, in reference to Hitler's statement of a "new order in Europe" during the Führer's own Berlin Sportpalast speech of January 30, 1941, the eighth anniversary of the Nazis' Machtergreifung:[25]

text: ...Nazi forces are not seeking mere modifications in colonial maps or in minor European boundaries. They openly seek the destruction of all elective systems of government on every continent, including our own. They seek to establish systems of government based on the regimentation of all human beings by a handful of individual rulers who seize power by force.

text: Yes, these men and their hypnotized followers call this a "New Order." It is not new, and it is not order. For order among nations presupposes something enduring, some system of justice under which individuals over a long period of time are willing to live. Humanity will never permanently accept a system imposed by conquest, and based on slavery. These modern tyrants find it necessary to their plans to eliminate all democracies — eliminate them one by one. The nations of Europe, and indeed we, ourselves, did not appreciate that purpose. We do now.[26]

text: Author Ian Kershaw records Hitler's initial reaction to the attack, when he was first informed about it on the evening of 7 December at Führer Headquarters: "We can't lose the war at all. We now have an ally which has never been conquered in 3,000 years".[27] Well before the attack, in 1928 Hitler had confided in the text of his then-unpublished Zweites Buch that while the Soviet Union was the most important immediate foe that the Third Reich had to defeat, the United States was the most important long-term challenge to Nazi aims.[28]

text: Hitler awarded Imperial Japanese ambassador to Nazi Germany Hiroshi Ōshima the Grand Cross of the Order of the German Eagle in Gold (1st class) after the attack, praising Japan for striking hard and without first declaring war.[29]

text: Churchill reaction[edit]

text: The war had been going poorly for the British Empire for more than two years, and Prime Minister Winston Churchill was deeply concerned about the future. He was at his country estate, Chequers, with a few friends and his family. At dinner he seemed depressed, holding his face in his hands for minutes at a time. Just after dinner he heard of the attack. Churchill immediately, and correctly, analysed the consequences of the attack for the course of the war.

text: So, we had won after all! …We had won the war. England would live; Britain would live; the Commonwealth of Nations and the Empire would live. How long the war would last or in what fashion it would end no man could tell, nor did I at this moment care…We should not be wiped out. Our history would not come to an end. We might not even have to die as individuals. Hitler’s fate was sealed. Mussolini’s fate was sealed. As for the Japanese, they would be ground to powder. All the rest was merely the proper application of overwhelming force.[30]

text: Canadian response[edit]

text: As a result of the Japanese attack on the Americans, William Lyon Mackenzie King, the Prime Minister of the Dominion of Canada advised George VI, King of Canada, that a state of war should exist between Canada and Japan.

text: In the late evening of December 7, 1941, the Canadian Prime Minister, W. L. Mackenzie King, announced the Cabinet's decision to declare war on Japan. The King approved Canada's declaration of war in the following proclamation issued on December 8, 1941.

text: Whereas by and with the advice of our Privy Council for Canada we have signified our approval of the issue of a proclamation in the Canada Gazette declaring that a state of war with Japan exists and has existed in Canada as and from the 7th day of December 1941.

text: Now, therefore, we do hereby declare and proclaim that a state of war with Japan exists and has existed as and from the seventh day of December 1941.

text: Of all which our loving subjects and all others whom these presents may concern are hereby required to take notice and to govern themselves accordingly.[31]

text: Canada remained focused on the European theatre however, and following VE Day was still in the process of transitioning its military force for a campaign in east Asia and the western Pacific when VJ Day arrived.

text: Investigations and blame[edit]

text: President Roosevelt appointed the Roberts Commission, headed by U.S. Supreme Court Justice Owen Roberts, to investigate and report facts and findings with respect to the attack on Pearl Harbor. It was the first of many official investigations (nine in all). Both the Fleet commander, Rear Admiral Husband E. Kimmel, and the Army commander, Lieutenant General Walter Short (the Army had been responsible for air defense of Hawaii, including Pearl Harbor, and for general defense of the islands against hostile attack), were relieved of their commands shortly thereafter. They were accused of "dereliction of duty" by the Roberts Commission for not making reasonable defensive preparations. None of the investigations conducted during the War, nor the Congressional investigation afterward, provided enough reason to reverse those actions. The decisions of the Navy and War Departments to relieve both was controversial at the time and has remained so. However, neither was court-martialed as would normally have been the result of dereliction of duty. On May 25, 1999, the U.S. Senate voted to recommend both officers be exonerated on all charges, citing "denial to Hawaii commanders of vital intelligence available in Washington".

text: A Joint Congressional Committee was also appointed, on September 14, 1945, to investigate the causes of the attack and subsequent disaster, and was convened on November 15, 1945.[32]

text: Rise of anti-Japanese sentiment and historical significance[edit]

text: The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor coupled with their alliance with the Nazis and the ensuing war in the Pacific fueled anti-Japanese sentiment, racism, xenophobia, and anti-Axis sentiment in the Allied nations like never before. Japanese, Japanese-Americans and Asians having a similar physical appearance were regarded with deep seated suspicion, distrust and hostility. The attack was viewed as having been conducted in an extremely underhanded way and also as a very "treacherous" or "sneaky attack". Suspicions were further fueled by the Niihau Incident, as historian Gordon Prange stated "the rapidity with which the three resident Japanese went over to the pilot's cause" which troubled the Hawaiians. "The more pessimistic among them cited the Niihau Incident as proof that no one could trust any Japanese, even if an American citizen, not to go over to Japan if it appeared expedient."[33]

text: The attack, the subsequent declarations of war, and fear of "Fifth Columnists" resulted in internment of Japanese, German, and Italian populations in the United States and others, for instance the Japanese American internment, German American internment, Italian American internment, and Japanese Canadian internment. The attack resulted in the United States fighting the Germans and Italians among others in Europe and Japan in the Pacific.

text: The consequences were world-changing. Prime Minister Winston Churchill knew that the survival of the British Empire depended on American aid, and since 1940 had frequently asked Roosevelt to declare war. Churchill aide John Colville stated that the prime minister and American Ambassador John Gilbert Winant, who also supported the British, "sort of danced around the room together" as the United States would now enter the war, making a British victory likely.[34] Churchill later wrote, "Being saturated and satiated with emotion and sensation, I went to bed and slept the sleep of the saved and thankful."[35] By opening the Pacific War, which ended in the unconditional surrender of Japan, it broke the power of an Asian check on Soviet expansion. The Allied victory in this war and subsequent U.S. emergence as a dominant world power, eclipsing Britain, have shaped international politics ever since.

text: Pearl Harbor is generally regarded as an extraordinary event in American history, remembered as the first time since the War of 1812 that America was attacked in strength on its territory by another country – with only the September 11 attacks almost 60 years later being of a similarly catastrophic scale. It was the first decisive defeat for the United States in World War II. It has become synonymous with "surprise attack" ever since in American parlance. The U.S. mistakes of intelligence collection, sharing, and analysis leading to the Japanese success at Pearl Harbor did not, in the end, lead to lessons learned.[36]

text: Perception of the attack today[edit]

text: Some Japanese today feel they were compelled to fight because of threats to their national interests and an embargo imposed by the United States, the United Kingdom and the Netherlands. The most important embargo was on oil on which its Navy and much of the economy was dependent.[37] For example, Japan Times, an English-language newspaper owned by one of the major news organizations in Japan (Asahi Shimbun), ran numerous columns in the early 2000s echoing Kurusu's comments in reference to the Pearl Harbor attack.[38]

text: In putting the Pearl Harbor attack into context, Japanese writers repeatedly contrast the thousands of U.S. non-combatants killed there with the hundreds of thousands of Japanese civilians killed in U.S. air attacks on Japan later in the war, even without mentioning the 1945 atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by the United States.

text: However, in spite of the perceived inevitability of the war by many Japanese, many also believe the Pearl Harbor attack, although a tactical victory, was actually part of a seriously flawed strategy for engaging in war with the U.S. As one columnist wrote, "The Pearl Harbor attack was a brilliant tactic, but part of a strategy based on the belief that a spirit as firm as iron and as beautiful as cherry blossoms could overcome the materially wealthy United States. That strategy was flawed, and Japan's total defeat would follow."[39] In 1991, the Japanese Foreign Ministry released a statement saying Japan had intended to make a formal declaration of war to the United States at 1 p.m. Washington time, 25 minutes before the attack at Pearl Harbor was scheduled to begin. This officially acknowledged something that had been publicly known for years. Diplomatic communications had been coordinated well in advance with the attack, but had failed delivery at the intended time. It appears the Japanese government was referring to the "14-part message", which did not actually break off negotiations, let alone declare war, but did officially raise the possibility of a break in relations. However, because of various delays, the Japanese ambassador was unable to deliver this message until well after the attack had begun.

text: Imperial Japanese military leaders appear to have had mixed feelings about the attack. Fleet Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto was unhappy about the botched timing of the breaking off of negotiations. He is on record as having said, in the previous year, "I can run wild for six months ... after that, I have no expectation of success."[40] The reports of American reactions, terming it a "sneak attack" and "infamous behavior", confirmed that the effect on American morale had been the opposite of intended.[41]

text: The Prime Minister of Japan during World War II, Hideki Tōjō later wrote, "When reflecting upon it today, that the Pearl Harbor attack should have succeeded in achieving surprise seems a blessing from Heaven."

text: Yamamoto had said, regarding the imminent war with the United States, "Should hostilities once break out between Japan and the United States, it is not enough that we take Guam and the Philippines, nor even Hawaii and San Francisco. We would have to march into Washington and sign the treaty in the White House. I wonder if our politicians (who speak so lightly of a Japanese-American war) have confidence as to the outcome and are prepared to make the necessary sacrifices?"[42]

text: Revisionism controversies[edit]

text: There are some revisionists in Japan who claim that the Attack on Pearl Harbor was a legitimate attack. These historical perspectives are often claimed by Japanese Shintoist and nationalists and have been criticized from both inside and outside Japan.

text:
An exhibit at the Yasukuni Shrine Museum (Yūshūkan) asserts that the attack on Pearl Harbor was a trick by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt and denies that Japan committed any atrocities.[43][44][45]
In 2006, Henry Hyde, chairman of the United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs, sent a letter to House Speaker Dennis Hastert on April 26 to show concern about Junichiro Koizumi visits to Yasukuni Shrine. He pointed out that this Shrine honors Hideki Tōjō and other convicted Class-A war criminals who were involved in the Pearl Harbor attack.[46]
In May 2007, the Japan Ministry of Education distributed an animated DVD Hokori (Pride) which was created by Junior Chamber International Japan (JC). Japanese Communist Party Diet member Yuko Ishii introduced and criticized it to the House of Representatives of Japan in May 17, and revealed that its contents glamorized Class-A war criminals and had the main character Yuta tell his girlfriend Kokoro that the battle was a "self-defense attack" and "Asian colonial liberation" against American imperialism.[47]
On October 31, 2008, Toshio Tamogami, former chief of staff of Japan's Air Self-Defense Force, published an essay which argued that Franklin D. Roosevelt, who had allegedly been manipulated by the Comintern, drew Japan into the attack on Pearl Harbor. Following the essay's publication, Defense Minister Yasukazu Hamada removed Tamogami from his post and ordered him to retire, since the essay's viewpoint contradicted the government position.[48][49] Tamogami, on November 3, 2008, confirmed that the essay accurately expressed his views on the war and Japan's role in it.[50]

text: While not specifically directed at revisionism, but more as a likely result of Prime Minister Shinzo Abe's controversial visits to the Yasukuni Shrine, where some 1,600 war criminals were enshrined after their executions, by February 2015 some concern within the Imperial House of Japan — which normally does not issue such statements — over the issue was voiced by Crown Prince Naruhito.[51] Naruhito stated on his 55th birthday (February 23, 2015) that it was "important to look back on the past humbly and correctly", in reference to Japan's role in World War II-era war crimes, and that he was concerned about the ongoing need to "correctly pass down tragic experiences and the history behind Japan to the generations who have no direct knowledge of the war, at the time memories of the war are about to fade".[52]

text: Analysis[edit]

text: Tactical implications[edit]

text: The attack was notable for its considerable destruction, as putting most of the U.S. battleships out of commission was regarded—in both navies and by most military observers worldwide—as a tremendous success for Japan. Influenced by the earlier Battle of Taranto, which pioneered the all-aircraft naval attack but resulted in far less damage and casualties, the Japanese struck against Pearl Harbor on a much larger scale than did the British at Taranto.[53]

text: The attack was a great shock to all the Allies in the Pacific Theater, and it was initially believed Pearl Harbor changed the balance of power, similar to how Taranto did the Mediterranean, both in the attackers' favor. Three days later, with the sinking of Prince of Wales and Repulse off the coast of Malaya, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill exclaimed, "In all the war I never received a more direct shock. As I turned and twisted in bed the full horror of the news sank in upon me. There were no British or American capital ships in the Indian Ocean or the Pacific except the American survivors of Pearl Harbor who were hastening back to California. Over this vast expanse of waters Japan was supreme and we everywhere were weak and naked."[54]

text: However, Pearl Harbor did not have as crippling an effect on American operations as initially thought. Unlike the close confines of the Mediterranean, the vast expanses of the Pacific limited the tactical value of battleships as a fleet in being. Furthermore, unlike new fast battleships such as the Iowa class, the slow battleships were incapable of operating with carrier task forces, so once repaired they were relegated to delivering pre-invasion bombardments during the island hopping offensive against Japanese-held islands. These Pearl Harbor veterans were later part of a force that defeated IJN battleships at the Battle of Surigao Strait, an engagement very lopsided in the USN's favor in any case.[55][56] A major flaw of Japanese strategic thinking was a belief that the ultimate Pacific battle would be between battleships of both sides, in keeping with the doctrine of Captain Alfred Mahan. Seeing the decimation of battleships at the hands of aircraft, Yamamoto (and his successors) hoarded his battleships for a "decisive battle" that never happened, only committing a handful to the forefront of the Battles of Midway and Guadalcanal.

text: One of the main Japanese objectives was to destroy the three American aircraft carriers stationed in the Pacific, but they were not present: Enterprise was returning from Wake, Lexington from Midway, and Saratoga was under refit at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard. Had Japan sunk the American carriers, the U.S. would have sustained significant damage to the Pacific Fleet's ability to conduct offensive operations for a year or so (given no further diversions from the Atlantic Fleet). As it was, the elimination of the battleships left the U.S. Navy with no choice but to place its faith in aircraft carriers and submarines—particularly the large numbers under construction of the U.S. Navy's Essex-class aircraft carriers, eleven of which had been ordered before the attack—the very weapons with which the U.S. Navy halted and eventually reversed the Japanese advance.

text: Battleships[edit]

text: Despite the perception of this battle as a devastating blow to America, only three ships were permanently lost to the U.S. Navy. These were the battleships Arizona, Oklahoma, and the old battleship Utah (then used as a target ship); nevertheless, much usable material was salvaged from them, including the two aft main turrets from Arizona. The majority of each battleship's crews survived; there were exceptions as heavy casualties resulted from Arizona's magazine exploding and the Oklahoma capsizing. Four ships sunk during the attack were later raised and returned to duty, including the battleships California, West Virginia and Nevada. California and West Virginia had an effective torpedo-defense system which held up remarkably well, despite the weight of fire they had to endure, resulting in most of their crews being saved. Maryland and Tennessee suffered relatively light damage, as did Pennsylvania, which was in drydock at the time.

text: Chester Nimitz said later, "It was God's mercy that our fleet was in Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941." Nimitz believed if Kimmel had discovered the Japanese approach to Pearl Harbor, he would have sortied to meet them. With the American carriers absent and Kimmel's battleships at a severe disadvantage to the Japanese carriers, the likely result would have been the sinking of the American battleships at sea in deep water, where they would have been lost forever with tremendous casualties (up to twenty thousand dead), instead of in Pearl Harbor, where the crews could easily be rescued, and six battleships ultimately restored to duty.[57] This was also the reaction of Joseph Rochefort, head of HYPO, when he remarked the attack was cheap at the price.

text: Many of the surviving battleships were extensively refitted, including the replacement of their outdated secondary battery of anti-surface 5"/51 caliber guns with more useful turreted dual-purpose 5"/38 caliber guns, allowing them to better cope with the new tactical reality.[58] Addition of modern radar to the salvaged vessels would give them a marked qualitative advantage over those of the IJN.[55][56]

text: The repaired U.S. battleships primarily provided fire support for amphibious landings. Their low speed was a liability to their deployment in the vast expanses of the Pacific, for instance they could not accompany the fleet carriers that had become the dominant combatants. Six of the Standard Type vessels participated in the last battleship versus battleship engagement in naval history, the Battle of Surigao Strait, where none of them were hit. During active duty, being well protected by escorts and air cover, none of the Pearl Harbor battleships suffered serious damage save for Pennsylvania which was permanently crippled by a torpedo in the closing stages of the war; on September 2, 1945, West Virginia was among the Allied fleet in Tokyo Bay when the Japanese officially surrendered.

text: Carriers[edit]

text: The attack on Pearl Harbor failed to sight, or destroy, any of the Pacific Fleet's three aircraft carriers; they had been designated as primary targets along with the battleships.[59] The carriers Lexington and Enterprise were ferrying additional fighters to American bases on the islands of Wake and Midway while Saratoga was under refit at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard.[60] At the time of the Japanese attack, the US was expecting imminent war with Japan, beginning in any of several places, such as the Philippines or Allied bases in Borneo.[61] Nagumo's hesitation, and failure to find and destroy the American carriers, may have been a product of his lack of faith in the attack plan, and of the fact he was a gunnery officer, not an aviator. In addition, Yamamoto's targeting priorities, placing battleships first in importance, reflected an out-of-date Mahanian doctrine, and an inability to extrapolate from history, given the damage German submarines did to British trade in World War I. In the end, Japan achieved surprisingly little for all her daring and apparent success.[62]

text: Shore installations[edit]

text: Tank farms, containing 140 million U.S. gallons (530 million liters) of bunker oil, were unscathed, providing a ready source of fuel for American fleets at the submarine base. About this missed opportunity, Admiral Chester Nimitz would later say, "Had the Japanese destroyed the oil, it would have prolonged the war another two years."[63] These were vital to the initial phase of the war, and to commerce raiding throughout, and illustrate the deficiencies of Japanese planning for the attack. The Navy Yard, critical to ship maintenance, and repair of ships damaged in the attack was untouched. The engineering and initial repair shops, as well as the torpedo store, were intact. Other items of base infrastructure and operation, such as power generation, continued to operate normally. Also critical to the way the Pacific War was actually fought was the cryptanalysis unit, Station HYPO, located in the basement of the old Administration Building. It was undamaged and even benefited by gaining staff from unemployed ship's bands.[64]

text: The Army Air Force's loss of aircraft must be balanced against the fact that many of them were obsolete, such as the P-40's predecessor, the P-36. Japan might have achieved a good deal more with not much additional effort or loss.[65]

text: Charts[edit]

text:
Capital ships prior to attack[66]

Location
Battleships
Aircraft carriers

 United States

Atlantic
6 (+2*)
4 (+1*)

Pacific
9
3

 Empire of Japan

Pacific
10 (+1*)
10

*Plus ships completed but not yet commissioned.
US: North Carolina, Washington and Hornet
Japan: Yamato

Capital ships after attack

Location
Battleships
Aircraft carriers

 United States

Atlantic
6 (+2*)
4 (+1*)

Pacific
1 (+6**)
3

 Empire of Japan

Pacific
10 (+1*)
9

**Ships which can be repaired:
California,West Virginia, Nevada, Maryland, Tennessee, Pennsylvania.

Capital ships 12/1942

Location
Battleships
Aircraft carriers

 United States

Atlantic
4
1

Pacific
12 (+3**)
3

 Empire of Japan

Pacific
10
6

**Ships which can be repaired:
California,West Virginia, Nevada
US ships lost:
Lexington, Yorktown, Wasp, Hornet
US ships gained:
Essex, North Carolina, Washington, South Dakota, Indiana, Massachusetts, Alabama
Japanese ships lost:
Shoho, Akagi, Kaga, Soryu, Hiryu, Hiei, Kirishima
Japanese ships gained: Yamato, Musashi, Junyo, Hiyo.

tag: table

text: Of the 22 Japanese ships that took part in the attack, only one survived the war. As of 2006, the only U.S. ships in Pearl Harbor during the attack still remaining afloat are the Coast Guard Cutter Taney and the yard tug Hoga. Both remained active over 50 years after the attack and have been designated museum ships.

text: Strategic implications[edit]

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text: A common view is that the Japanese fell victim to victory disease because of the perceived ease of their first victories. It has also been stated by the Japanese military commanders and politicians who visited and lived in the United States, that their leadership (mostly military personnel) took the war with the United States relatively lightly, compared to them. For instance, Admiral Yamamoto and General Tadamichi Kuribayashi expressed concerns about the greater industrial power of the United States.

text: The politics of a "Europe First" strategy, loss of air cover over Pearl Harbor, and subsequent loss of the Philippines, meant the U.S. Army and Army Air Forces[67][unreliable source] were unable to play a significant role in the Pacific War for several months. Japan was temporarily free of worries about the major rival Pacific naval power, which was at least part of the intention for the attack. Because Australian, New Zealand, Dutch and most British forces were already in Europe, Japan conquered nearly all of Southeast Asia and the Southwest Pacific, and extended her reach far into the Indian Ocean, without significant interference. The various Japanese advances were a nearly complete tactical success.

text: In the long term, the attack on Pearl Harbor was a grand strategic blunder for Japan. Indeed, Admiral Yamamoto, who conceived it, predicted even success here could not win a war with the United States, because American productive capacity was too large. It spurred the United States into a determination to fight to complete victory. The war resulted in the destruction of the Japanese armed forces, the occupation of the home islands (a state never before achieved in Japan's history), and the occupation of Okinawa and the Ryukyu Islands by the United States until 1972, while the Soviet Russian re-annexation of the Kurile Islands and Sakhalin Island's southern part, and the restoration of Formosa (Taiwan) to China, and the loss of Korea have not been reversed to this day.