document_title: Grease (film)

question_text: where did the race in grease take place

question_tokens: where did the race in grease take place

text: Grease (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: In the summer of 1958, Danny Zuko (John Travolta) and vacationing Sandy Olsson (Olivia Newton-John) met at the beach and fell in love. When the summer comes to an end, Sandy, who is going back to Australia, frets that they may never meet again, but Danny tells her that their love is "only the beginning", and they will stay friends. The film moves to the start of the new school year at Rydell High School ("Grease"). Danny, a greaser, is a member of the T-Birds, consisting of his best friend Kenickie (Jeff Conaway), Doody (Barry Pearl), Sonny (Michael Tucci), and Putzie (Kelly Ward). The Pink Ladies, a sassy, popular clique of girls, also arrive, consisting of Rizzo (Stockard Channing), Frenchy (Didi Conn), Marty (Dinah Manoff), and Jan (Jamie Donnelly).

text: After her parents unexpectedly decide to move from Australia, Sandy enrolls at Rydell and is befriended by Frenchy, who considers dropping out of high school to become a beautician by going to a beauty school. Unaware of each other's presence at Rydell, Danny and Sandy tell their curious groups the accounts of events during the pair's brief romance, without initially mentioning the other's name. Sandy's version emphasizes the romance of the affair, and the truth and purity, while Danny's version is more sexual (and therefore presumably less honest) ("Summer Nights" song).

text: When Sandy finally tells everyone it was Danny Zuko, Rizzo arranges a surprise reunion for the two at a pep rally, where Sandy is cheering along with high-achiever and resident swot, Patty Simcox (Susan Buckner). At the rally, Sandy catches the eye of a muscly member of the football team (Lorenzo Lamas). When Sandy and Danny are reunited, they are initially elated, but Danny soon slips back into his greaser attitude, which offends Sandy. At the same rally, Kenickie reveals his new car, a dilapidated used jalopy, and announces he has entered it into a "pinks" street race at Thunder Road.

text: Frenchy invites Sandy to her house for a sleepover. Sandy vomits at trying her first cigarette, drinking a dessert wine, and getting her ears pierced by Frenchy. While she recovers in the bathroom, Rizzo makes fun of her innocent and virtuous nature ("Look At Me, I'm Sandra Dee"). The T-Birds arrive in Kenickie's car, and Rizzo departs with Kenickie, leaving the other T-Birds stranded. Sandy laments over her feelings towards Danny, despite his earlier behavior ("Hopelessly Devoted to You"). As Kenickie and Rizzo start making love, the condom Kenickie is using breaks. The two are also interrupted by Leo Balmudo (Dennis C. Stewart), leader of the T-Birds' rival gang, the Scorpions, and his tall and brash girlfriend Cha-Cha (Annette Charles).

text: The next day, the T-Birds are looking over Kenickie's car, and although they are initially skeptical of its potential, Danny and Kenickie explain the modifications they could add to make it a hot-rodding sex machine ("Greased Lightnin'"). In an attempt to impress Sandy, Danny approaches Coach Calhoun (Sid Caesar) in an effort to become a high school athlete. Danny's pride and lack of experience lead to him picking fights with the jocks when he tries to play basketball, wrestling or baseball, so Calhoun suggests cross-country running, in which Danny excels. Danny's running proves to impress Sandy, prompting the two to reconcile for a date at the Frosty Palace; when the other greasers arrive, Danny and Sandy promptly leave in discomfort. Kenickie and a noticeably distressed Rizzo get into an argument and break up, while Putzie and Jan arrange to go to the dance. Left alone, Frenchy—who dropped out of Rydell to enroll in beauty school, only to quit when she turned her own hair bright pink—is visited by a guardian angel (Frankie Avalon) who advises her to return to Rydell ("Beauty School Dropout").

text: The school dance arrives, broadcast live on television and hosted by DJ Vince Fontaine (Edd Byrnes), who flirts with Marty. Rizzo and Kenickie attempt to spite one another by bringing Leo and Cha-Cha as their dates, while Danny and Sandy arrive together. Danny and Sandy dance well and appear to be on their way to winning the competition, but a drunken Sonny pulls Sandy off the floor partway through. Cha-Cha joins Danny for the rest of the dance, and the two win ("Born to Hand Jive"). During the last dance ("Blue Moon"), Putzie leads Sonny and Doody in a mooning of the national TV audience, which Principal McGee (Eve Arden) vows to put on their permanent records.

text: Danny apologizes to Sandy and tries to make it up to her by taking her to a drive-in theater. She's unmoved by his pleas for forgiveness until he gives Sandy his ring, which she gleefully accepts. Moments later, Danny tries to aggressively make out with her, causing Sandy to angrily throw his ring at him and depart, leaving Danny distraught ("Sandy"). Meanwhile, because she skipped a period, Rizzo quietly admits she may be pregnant to Marty, who in turn tells Sonny, and the rumor spreads like wildfire through the drive-in, reaching Kenickie just as Rizzo is walking past. He attempts to talk to Rizzo about it, telling her he doesn't run away from his mistakes. Rizzo tells him it was someone else's mistake, a response that angers Kenickie. At school the next day, word of Rizzo's pregnancy fears reaches Patty Simcox, who has spread the gossip to her clique and sneers at Rizzo as they walk by. A visibly hurt Rizzo, who thanks Sandy for her offer of help, sings to herself about how her sins are not as bad as they could be ("There Are Worse Things I Could Do").

text: On the day of the race, Kenickie asks Danny to be on standby in case he decides to back out. Moments before the race is set to begin, Kenickie suffers a concussion when he bends over to pick up a penny for good luck and Putzie opens the car door on Kenickie's head, and Danny takes the helm of the car. Leo and Danny run a tight race, with Leo attempting to shred Danny's tires with bladed hubcaps (in a sequence paying homage to Ben-Hur); Danny eventually wins when Leo skids out. Sandy watches from afar and concludes that she still loves Danny. She decides to change her attitude and image to impress him and asks Frenchy for help ("Look At Me, I'm Sandra Dee (Reprise)").

text: On the last day of school, a sobbing Principal McGee and her equally nostalgic assistant Blanche (Dody Goodman), in a speech over the intercom, tell the students that they could be future leaders. The school hosts a carnival where Sonny and Putzie learn that, because they either never took or failed physical education, they have to take summer school with Coach Calhoun in order to get their diplomas.

text: Kenickie approaches Rizzo and demands to talk to her, only to have her reveal she is not pregnant after all. Overjoyed, they reunite. Danny shows up wearing a Letterman's sweater and reveals he is now a letterman for the cross-country team, to the T-Birds' dismay. Danny confesses it is a decision he has made in an effort to clean up his image so that he can be together with Sandy, telling the T-Birds that they too will have to grow up and stop following people all the time. The group is subsequently stunned when Sandy appears seconds later sporting a new hairstyle, dressed in black leather, and smoking a cigarette. In song, the two admit they love each other and reunite ("You're the One That I Want") and Sandy also tells Danny that if she was willing to change for him then it is only fair that he do the same for her by being faithful and more mature.

text: The gang realizes that high school is now over, and worries that they'll never see each other again. Danny insists, "Nah, that'll never happen," and everyone celebrates their friendship ("We Go Together"). As the song nears its conclusion, Danny and Sandy depart in a red hot rod, which takes flight, and the pair wave goodbye to their friends.

text: Cast[edit]

text: Principal cast[edit]

text:
John Travolta as Danny Zuko, who lives a double life as leader of the greaser gang the T-Birds and as Sandy's love interest
Olivia Newton-John as Sandy Olsson, an Australian expatriate and ingénue, new member of the Pink Ladies (at the end of the film) and Danny's girlfriend
Stockard Channing as Betty Rizzo, Danny's former fling and the cynical leader of the Pink Ladies clique
Jeff Conaway as Kenickie, Danny's best friend, Rizzo's love interest and the owner of Greased Lightnin'
Barry Pearl as Doody, a member of the T-Birds and Frenchy's love interest
Michael Tucci as Sonny LaTierri, a trouble-making wannabe womanizer, a member of the T-Birds and Marty's love interest
Kelly Ward as Putzie, a member of the T-Birds and Jan's boyfriend
Didi Conn as Frenchy, Sandy's closest friend in the Pink Ladies and Doody's girlfriend
Jamie Donnelly as Jan, a member of the Pink Ladies and Putzie's girlfriend
Dinah Manoff as Marty Maraschino, a member of the Pink Ladies whose attractiveness regularly draws the attention of men and Sonny's girlfriend

text: School staff/others[edit]

text:
Eve Arden as Principal Greta McGee, who shows discomfort at the goings-on at Rydell High.
Dody Goodman as Secretary Blanche Hodel, who enjoys even the wilder antics at the school.
Sid Caesar as Coach Vince Calhoun, the tough-talking gym teacher and coach of all the school's perennially losing sports teams
Eddie Deezen as Eugene Felsnick, the class nerd
Susan Buckner as Patty Simcox, the head cheerleader and a rival for Danny's affections
Lorenzo Lamas as Tom Chisum, a popular jock who competes for Sandy's affections
Dennis C. Stewart as Leo "Craterface" Balmudo, head of the Scorpions, a rival greaser gang
Annette Charles as Charlene "Cha-Cha" DiGregorio, Leo's girlfriend
Joan Blondell as Vi, a waitress at the Frosty Palace
Ellen Travolta as Waitress
Frankie Avalon as Teen Angel
Edd Byrnes as Vince Fontaine, on-air personality at KZAZ radio and television
Sha-Na-Na as Johnny Casino and the Gamblers, a rock and roll band
Alice Ghostley as Mrs. Murdock, a rogue auto shop teacher who helps build Greased Lightnin' for the T-Birds
Darrell Zwerling as Mr. Lynch
Dick Patterson as Mr. Rudie
Fannie Flagg as Nurse Wilkins
Michael Biehn (uncredited) as Mike, a jock at Rydell high

text: Production[edit]

text: Casting[edit]

text: John Travolta had previously worked with producer Robert Stigwood on Saturday Night Fever, had a nascent singing career at the time (including the top-10 hit "Let Her In" in 1976), and had previously appeared as Doody in a touring production of the stage version of Grease. He made a number of casting recommendations that Stigwood ultimately accepted, including suggesting Randal Kleiser (who had never directed a theatrical feature before this but had directed Travolta in the 1976 telefilm The Boy in the Plastic Bubble) as director, and Olivia Newton-John, then known almost exclusively as a country music singer, as Sandy.[4] Newton-John had done little acting before this film, with only one film credit (the unreleased 1970 film Toomorrow, which predated her singing breakthrough) to her name up to that time. Before accepting the role, Newton-John requested a screen test for Grease to avoid another career setback.[5] The screen test was done with the drive-in movie scene. Newton-John, who is native to England and lived most of her life in Australia, was unable to perform with a convincing American accent, and thus her character was rewritten to be Australian. Before Newton-John was hired, Allan Carr was considering numerous names such as Ann-Margret, Susan Dey and Marie Osmond for the lead role; Newton-John agreed to a reduced asking price in exchange for star billing.[5] In a case of life imitating art, Newton-John's own musical career would undergo a transformation similar to that of the Sandy Olsson character; her next album after Grease, the provocatively titled Totally Hot, featured a much more sexual and pop-oriented approach, with Newton-John appearing on the album cover in similar all-leather attire and teased hair.[6]

text: Jeff Conaway, like Travolta, had previously appeared in the stage version of Grease; he had played Danny Zuko during the show's run on Broadway.[7] Jamie Donnelly reprised her role as Jan from the Broadway show, the only cast member to do so; as her hair had begun to gray by this point, she had to dye her hair to resemble her stage character.[8] Kelly Ward had previously appeared as a similar sarcastic supporting character in The Boy in the Plastic Bubble with Travolta under Kleiser; the role was substantially rewritten from the musical. Whereas "Rump" in the musical sang lead on two songs and was particularly known for his mooning, the renamed "Putzie" did not sing and shares the mooning scene with two of the other T-Birds, Sonny and Doody.

text: Lorenzo Lamas was a last-minute replacement for Steven Ford, who developed stage fright shortly before filming and backed out. His role contained no spoken dialogue and required Lamas to dye his hair blond to avoid looking like most of the other T-Birds (although Conaway and Ward were also blonds).[8]

text: Henry Winkler was once considered for a lead in the film. Winkler, who was playing Arthur Fonzarelli on Happy Days, was originally chosen to play Danny. His lack of singing experience and fear of being typecast after Happy Days and the film The Lords of Flatbush led him to decline the role.[citation needed] Adult film star Harry Reems was originally signed to play Coach Calhoun; however, executives at Paramount nixed the idea due to Reems' previous work in adult films, and producers cast Sid Caesar instead.[9] Caesar was one of several veterans of 1950s television (Eve Arden, Frankie Avalon, Joan Blondell, Edd Byrnes, Alice Ghostley, Dody Goodman) to be cast in supporting roles. Coincidentally, Frankie Avalon and Randal Kleiser had both appeared in 1966's Fireball 500, the latter as an extra.

text: Filming locations[edit]

text: The opening beach scene was shot at Malibu's Leo Carrillo State Beach, making explicit reference to From Here to Eternity. The exterior Rydell scenes, including the basketball, baseball and track segments, were shot at Venice High School in Venice, California, while the Rydell interiors, including the high school dance, were filmed at Huntington Park High School. The sleepover was shot at a private house in East Hollywood. The Paramount Pictures studio lot was the location of the scenes that involve Frosty Palace and the musical numbers "Greased Lightning" and "Beauty School Dropout". The drive-in movie scenes were shot at the Burbank Pickwick Drive-In (it was closed and torn down in 1989 and a shopping center took its place). The race was filmed at the Los Angeles River, between the First and Seventh Street Bridges, where many other films have been shot.[10] The final scene where the carnival took place used John Marshall High School.[11] And due to budget cuts a short scene was filmed at Hazard Park in Los Angeles.

text: Post-production[edit]

text: Scenes inside the Frosty Palace contain obvious blurring of various Coca-Cola signs.[12] Prior to the film's release, producer Allan Carr had made a product-placement deal with Coca-Cola's main competitor Pepsi (for example, a Pepsi logo can be seen in the animated opening sequence). When Carr saw the footage of the scene with Coca-Cola products and signage, he ordered director Randal Kleiser to either reshoot the scene with Pepsi products or remove the Coca-Cola logos from the scene. As reshoots were deemed too expensive and time-consuming, optical mattes were used to cover up or blur out the Coca-Cola references. The 'blurring' covered up trademarked menu signage and a large wall poster, but a red cooler with the logo could not be sufficiently altered so was left unchanged. According to Kleiser, "We just had to hope that Pepsi wouldn't complain. They didn't."[13][14]

text: In the 2010 sing-along version (see below), the blurred Coke poster has been digitally removed. In its place is more of the wavy wall design that surrounded it.[citation needed]

text: John Wilson did the animated title sequence for the start of the film.[citation needed]

text: Release and reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: Grease was originally released to North American theaters on June 16, 1978 and was an immediate box office success. In its opening weekend, the film grossed $8,941,717 in 862 theaters in the United States and Canada, ranking at No. 2 (behind Jaws 2) at the box office.[15] Grease has grossed $188,755,690 domestically and $206,200,000 internationally, totaling $394,955,690 worldwide. Globally, it was the highest-grossing musical ever, eclipsing the 13-year-old record held by The Sound of Music, but has since been overtaken by Les Misérables, Mamma Mia! and the 2017 release of Beauty and the Beast. Grease is now the fourth highest-grossing live action musical.[16]

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: Grease received mostly positive reviews from movie critics[17] and is considered by many as one of the best films of 1978.[18][19][20][21]

text: Vincent Canby on its initial release in June 1978 called the film "terrific fun", describing it as a "contemporary fantasy about a 1950s teen-age musical—a larger, funnier, wittier and more imaginative-than-Hollywood movie with a life that is all its own"; Canby pointed out that the film was "somewhat in the manner of Close Encounters of the Third Kind, which recalls the science-fiction films of the '50s in a manner more elegant and more benign than anything that was ever made then, Grease is a multimillion-dollar evocation of the B-picture quickies that Sam Katzman used to turn out in the '50s (Don't Knock the Rock, 1956) and that American International carried to the sea in the 1960s (Beach Party, 1963)."[22]

text: Grease was voted the best musical ever on Channel 4's 100 greatest musicals in 2004.[23] The film holds a 75% "Certified Fresh" rating on the review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes based on 61 critic reviews with an average rating of 6.6/10 and with a consensus that reads, "Grease is a pleasing, energetic musical with infectiously catchy songs and an ode to young love that never gets old."[24] It holds a score of 70/100 on similar website Metacritic.[17]

text: Grease premiered for the first time on American television in 1981 on ABC-TV. It was re-released to theaters in 1998 to mark the 20th anniversary. The film was also ranked number 21 on Entertainment Weekly's list of the 50 Best High School Movies.[25][26]

text: Home video[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Grease was first released in the US on VHS by Paramount Home Video in 1982, with reissues in 1989 and 1994; the last VHS release was on June 23, 1998 and titled the 20th Anniversary Edition following a theatrical re-release that March. On September 17, 2002, it was released on DVD for the first time. On September 19, 2006, it was re-released on DVD as the Rockin' Rydell Edition, which came with a black Rydell High T-Bird jacket cover, a white Rydell "R" letterman's sweater cover or the Target-exclusive Pink Ladies cover. It was released on Blu-ray Disc on May 5, 2009.

text: Awards[edit]

text:
Year
Nominee/work
Award
Result

1978
Grease
Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy
Nominated

John Travolta
Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy
Nominated

Olivia Newton-John
Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy
Nominated

"Grease"
Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song
Nominated

"You're the One That I Want"
Nominated

1979
CIC
Golden Screen Award
Won

Stockard Channing
People's Choice Award for Favorite Motion Picture Supporting Actress
Won

Grease
People's Choice Award for Favorite Musical Motion Picture
Won

Grease
People's Choice Award for Favorite Overall Motion Picture
Won

"Hopelessly Devoted to You"
Academy Award for Best Original Song
Nominated

2006
Grease
Satellite Award for Best Classic DVD
Nominated

2008
"You're the One That I Want"
TV Land Award for Movie Dance Sequence You Reenacted in Your Living Room
Nominated

text: American Film Institute Recognition[edit]

text:
AFI's 100 Years...100 Passions: No. 97
AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs: No. 70 for "Summer Nights"
AFI's Greatest Movie Musicals: No. 20

text: Sequels and spin-offs[edit]

text: The sequel, Grease 2 (1982), stars Maxwell Caulfield and Michelle Pfeiffer. While only a few cast members from the original movie such as Dody Goodman, Sid Caesar, Eddie Deezen, Didi Conn, Dennis Stewart and Eve Arden reprise their respective roles. Dick Patterson returned, playing a different character. It was not as successful, grossing just $15 million on its $13 million budget. Patricia Birch, the original movie's choreographer, directed the ill-fated sequel. It would be the only movie that she would direct.

text: On July 8, 2010, a sing-along version of Grease was released to select theaters around the U.S.[27] A trailer was released in May 2010, with cigarettes digitally removed from certain scenes, implying heavy editing; however, Paramount confirmed these changes were done only for the film's advertising,[28] and the rating for the film itself changed from its original PG to that of PG-13 for "sexual content including references, teen smoking and drinking, and language."[29] The movie was shown for two weekends only; additional cities lobbied by fans from the Paramount official website started a week later and screened for one weekend.[30]

text: On March 12, 2013, Grease and Grease 2 were packaged together in a Double Feature DVD set from Warner Home Video.

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text: The soundtrack album ended 1978 as the second-best selling album of the year in the United States, exceeded only by another soundtrack album, from the film Saturday Night Fever, which also starred Travolta.[3] The song "Hopelessly Devoted to You" was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Music—Original Song. The song "You're the One That I Want" was released as a single prior to the film's release and became an immediate chart-topper, despite not being in the stage show or having been seen in the film at that time.[31] Additionally, the dance number to "You're the One That I Want" was nominated for TV Land's award for "Movie Dance Sequence You Reenacted in Your Living Room" in 2008.[32] In the United Kingdom, the two Travolta/Newton-John duets, "You're the One That I Want" and "Summer Nights", were both number one hits and as of 2011 are still among the 20 best-selling singles of all time (at Nos. 6 and 19 respectively).[33] The movie's title song was also a number-one hit single for Frankie Valli.[34]

text: The song "Look at Me, I'm Sandra Dee" references Sal Mineo in the original stage version. Mineo was stabbed to death a year before filming, so the line was changed to refer to Elvis Presley instead. The references to Troy Donohue, Doris Day, Rock Hudson and Annette Funicello are from the original stage version. Coincidentally, this scene as well as the scene before and the scene after it were filmed on August 16, 1977, the date of Elvis Presley's death.[35]

text: Some of the songs were not present in the film; songs that appear in the film but not in the soundtrack are "La Bamba" by Ritchie Valens, "Whole Lotta Shaking Going On" by Jerry Lee Lewis, "Alma Mater", "Alma Mater Parody", and "Rydell Fight Song". "Alone at a Drive-in Movie (instrumental)", "Mooning", and "Freddy My Love" are not present in the film, although all three are listed in the end credits in-addition to being on the soundtrack. (Both "Mooning" and "Rock'n'Roll Party Queen," the latter of which was played in the film as background music, were written in the musical for a character named Roger that was written out of the film, replaced by the non-singing Putzie. In general, all of the songs in the musical that were performed by characters other than Danny, Rizzo, Sandy or Johnny Casino were either taken out of the film or given to other characters, including Marty Maraschino's number "Freddy My Love," Kenickie's "Greased Lightnin'," and Doody's "Those Magic Changes.")

text: The songs appear in the film in the following order:

text:
"Love is a Many-Splendored Thing"
"Grease"
"Alma Mater"
"Summer Nights" – Danny, Sandy, Pink Ladies and T-Birds
"Rydell Fight Song" – Rydell Marching Band
"Look at Me, I'm Sandra Dee" – Rizzo and Pink Ladies
"Hopelessly Devoted to You" – Sandy
"Greased Lightnin'" – Danny and T-Birds
"La Bamba"
"It's Raining on Prom Night"
"Whole Lotta Shakin' Goin' On"
"Beauty School Dropout" – Teen Angel and Female Angels
"Rock n' Roll Party Queen"
"Rock n' Roll is Here to Stay" – Johnny Casino and the Gamblers
"Those Magic Changes" – Johnny Casino and the Gamblers; Danny sings along onscreen
"Tears on My Pillow" – Johnny Casino and the Gamblers
"Hound Dog" – Johnny Casino and the Gamblers
"Born to Hand Jive" – Johnny Casino and the Gamblers
"Blue Moon" – Johnny Casino and the Gamblers
"Sandy" – Danny
"There Are Worse Things I Could Do" – Rizzo
"Look at Me, I'm Sandra Dee (Reprise)" – Sandy
"Alma Mater Parody" (instrumental)
"You're the One That I Want" – Danny, Sandy, Pink Ladies, and T-Birds
"We Go Together" – Cast
"Grease (Reprise)"

tag: ol

text: Television[edit]

text: On August 17, 2009, a television series inspired by the film premiered in Venezuela. The series was produced and directed by Vladimir Perez. The show will explore and expand on the characters and story from the film.[36][37]


question_text: what is the maximum data rate for the 802.11a standard select one

question_tokens: what is the maximum data rate for the 802.11a standard select one

root

text: IEEE 802.11

text: General description[edit]

text: The 802.11 family consists of a series of half-duplex over-the-air modulation techniques that use the same basic protocol. 802.11-1997 was the first wireless networking standard in the family, but 802.11b was the first widely accepted one, followed by 802.11a, 802.11g, 802.11n, and 802.11ac. Other standards in the family (c–f, h, j) are service amendments that are used to extend the current scope of the existing standard, which may also include corrections to a previous specification.[1]

tag: p

text: 802.11b and 802.11g use the 2.4 GHz ISM band, operating in the United States under Part 15 of the U.S. Federal Communications Commission Rules and Regulations. Because of this choice of frequency band, 802.11b and g equipment may occasionally suffer interference from microwave ovens, cordless telephones, and Bluetooth devices. 802.11b and 802.11g control their interference and susceptibility to interference by using direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) and orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) signaling methods, respectively. 802.11a uses the 5 GHz U-NII band, which, for much of the world, offers at least 23 non-overlapping channels rather than the 2.4 GHz ISM frequency band offering only three non-overlapping channels, where other adjacent channels overlap—see list of WLAN channels. Better or worse performance with higher or lower frequencies (channels) may be realized, depending on the environment. 802.11n can use either the 2.4 GHz or the 5 GHz band; 802.11ac uses only the 5 GHz band.

text: The segment of the radio frequency spectrum used by 802.11 varies between countries. In the US, 802.11a and 802.11g devices may be operated without a license, as allowed in Part 15 of the FCC Rules and Regulations. Frequencies used by channels one through six of 802.11b and 802.11g fall within the 2.4 GHz amateur radio band. Licensed amateur radio operators may operate 802.11b/g devices under Part 97 of the FCC Rules and Regulations, allowing increased power output but not commercial content or encryption.[2]

text: History[edit]

text: 802.11 technology has its origins in a 1985 ruling by the U.S. Federal Communications Commission that released the ISM band[1] for unlicensed use.[3]

text: In 1991 NCR Corporation/AT&T (now Nokia Labs and LSI Corporation) invented a precursor to 802.11 in Nieuwegein, the Netherlands. The inventors initially intended to use the technology for cashier systems. The first wireless products were brought to the market under the name WaveLAN with raw data rates of 1 Mbit/s and 2 Mbit/s.

text: Vic Hayes, who held the chair of IEEE 802.11 for 10 years, and has been called the "father of Wi-Fi", was involved in designing the initial 802.11b and 802.11a standards within the IEEE.[4]

text: In 1999, the Wi-Fi Alliance was formed as a trade association to hold the Wi-Fi trademark under which most products are sold.[5]

text: Protocol[edit]

text:
[hide]

v
t
e

802.11 network PHY standards

802.11
protocol
Release
date[6]
Fre-
quency
Band-
width
Stream data rate[7]
Allowable
MIMO streams
Modulation
Approximate
range[citation needed]

Indoor
Outdoor

(GHz)
(MHz)
(Mbit/s)

802.11-1997
Jun 1997
2.4
22
1, 2
N/A
DSSS, FHSS
20 m (66 ft)
100 m (330 ft)

a
Sep 1999
5
20
6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48, 54
N/A
OFDM
35 m (115 ft)
120 m (390 ft)

3.7[A]

5,000 m (16,000 ft)[A]

b
Sep 1999
2.4
22
1, 2, 5.5, 11
N/A
DSSS
35 m (115 ft)
140 m (460 ft)

g
Jun 2003
2.4
20
6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48, 54
N/A
OFDM
38 m (125 ft)
140 m (460 ft)

n
Oct 2009
2.4/5
20
Up to 288.8[B]
4
MIMO-OFDM
70 m (230 ft)
250 m (820 ft)[8]

40
Up to 600[B]

ac
Dec 2013
5
20
Up to 346.8[B]
8
35 m (115 ft)[9]

40
Up to 800[B]

80
Up to 1733.2[B]

160
Up to 3466.8[B]

0.054-0.79[C]
6-8
Up to 568.9[10]
4

ad
Dec 2012
60
2,160
Up to 6,757[11]
(6.7 Gbit/s)
N/A
OFDM, single carrier,
low-power single carrier
3.3 m (11 ft)[12]

ah
Dec 2016
0.9

Up to 347 [13]

aj
Est. Jul 2017
45/60

ax
Est. Dec 2018
2.4/5

Up to 10.53 Gbit/s

MIMO-OFDM

ay
Est. Nov 2019
60
8000
Up to 100,000 (100 Gbit/s)
4
OFDM, single carrier,
60

az
Est. Mar 2021
60

802.11 Standard rollups

802.11-2007
Mar 2007
2.4, 5

Up to 54

DSSS, OFDM

802.11-2012
Mar 2012
2.4, 5

Up to 150[B]

DSSS, OFDM

802.11-2016
Dec 2016
2.4, 5, 60

Up to 866.7 or 6,757[B]

DSSS, OFDM

A1 A2 IEEE 802.11y-2008 extended operation of 802.11a to the licensed 3.7 GHz band. Increased power limits allow a range up to 5,000 m. As of 2009[update], it is only being licensed in the United States by the FCC.
B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 Based on short guard interval; standard guard interval is ~10% slower. Rates vary widely based on distance, obstructions, and interference.
C1 IEEE 802.11af about using white space spectrum for WiFi based on the PHY layer of 802.11ac

tag: table

text: 802.11-1997 (802.11 legacy)[edit]

text: The original version of the standard IEEE 802.11 was released in 1997 and clarified in 1999, but is now obsolete. It specified two net bit rates of 1 or 2 megabits per second (Mbit/s), plus forward error correction code. It specified three alternative physical layer technologies: diffuse infrared operating at 1 Mbit/s; frequency-hopping spread spectrum operating at 1 Mbit/s or 2 Mbit/s; and direct-sequence spread spectrum operating at 1 Mbit/s or 2 Mbit/s. The latter two radio technologies used microwave transmission over the Industrial Scientific Medical frequency band at 2.4 GHz. Some earlier WLAN technologies used lower frequencies, such as the U.S. 900 MHz ISM band.

text: Legacy 802.11 with direct-sequence spread spectrum was rapidly supplanted and popularized by 802.11b.

text: 802.11a (OFDM waveform)[edit]

text: Originally described as clause 17 of the 1999 specification, the OFDM waveform at 5.8 GHz is now defined in clause 18 of the 2012 specification, and provides protocols that allow transmission and reception of data at rates of 1.5 to 54 Mbit/s. It has seen widespread worldwide implementation, particularly within the corporate workspace. While the original amendment is no longer valid, the term 802.11a is still used by wireless access point (cards and routers) manufacturers to describe interoperability of their systems at 5 GHz, 54 Mbit/s.

text: The 802.11a standard uses the same data link layer protocol and frame format as the original standard, but an OFDM based air interface (physical layer). It operates in the 5 GHz band with a maximum net data rate of 54 Mbit/s, plus error correction code, which yields realistic net achievable throughput in the mid-20 Mbit/s.[14]

text: Since the 2.4 GHz band is heavily used to the point of being crowded, using the relatively unused 5 GHz band gives 802.11a a significant advantage. However, this high carrier frequency also brings a disadvantage: the effective overall range of 802.11a is less than that of 802.11b/g. In theory, 802.11a signals are absorbed more readily by walls and other solid objects in their path due to their smaller wavelength, and, as a result, cannot penetrate as far as those of 802.11b. In practice, 802.11b typically has a higher range at low speeds (802.11b will reduce speed to 5.5 Mbit/s or even 1 Mbit/s at low signal strengths). 802.11a also suffers from interference,[15] but locally there may be fewer signals to interfere with, resulting in less interference and better throughput.

text: The 802.11b standard has a maximum raw data rate of 11 Mbit/s, and uses the same media access method defined in the original standard. 802.11b products appeared on the market in early 2000, since 802.11b is a direct extension of the modulation technique defined in the original standard. The dramatic increase in throughput of 802.11b (compared to the original standard) along with simultaneous substantial price reductions led to the rapid acceptance of 802.11b as the definitive wireless LAN technology.

text: Devices using 802.11b experience interference from other products operating in the 2.4 GHz band. Devices operating in the 2.4 GHz range include microwave ovens, Bluetooth devices, baby monitors, cordless telephones, and some amateur radio equipment.

text: In June 2003, a third modulation standard was ratified: 802.11g. This works in the 2.4 GHz band (like 802.11b), but uses the same OFDM based transmission scheme as 802.11a. It operates at a maximum physical layer bit rate of 54 Mbit/s exclusive of forward error correction codes, or about 22 Mbit/s average throughput.[16] 802.11g hardware is fully backward compatible with 802.11b hardware, and therefore is encumbered with legacy issues that reduce throughput by ~21% when compared to 802.11a.[citation needed]

text: The then-proposed 802.11g standard was rapidly adopted in the market starting in January 2003, well before ratification, due to the desire for higher data rates as well as to reductions in manufacturing costs. By summer 2003, most dual-band 802.11a/b products became dual-band/tri-mode, supporting a and b/g in a single mobile adapter card or access point. Details of making b and g work well together occupied much of the lingering technical process; in an 802.11g network, however, activity of an 802.11b participant will reduce the data rate of the overall 802.11g network.

text: Like 802.11b, 802.11g devices suffer interference from other products operating in the 2.4 GHz band, for example wireless keyboards.

text: In 2003, task group TGma was authorized to "roll up" many of the amendments to the 1999 version of the 802.11 standard. REVma or 802.11ma, as it was called, created a single document that merged 8 amendments (802.11a, b, d, e, g, h, i, j) with the base standard. Upon approval on March 8, 2007, 802.11REVma was renamed to the then-current base standard IEEE 802.11-2007.[17]

text: 802.11n is an amendment that improves upon the previous 802.11 standards by adding multiple-input multiple-output antennas (MIMO). 802.11n operates on both the 2.4 GHz and the 5 GHz bands. Support for 5 GHz bands is optional. It operates at a maximum net data rate from 54 Mbit/s to 600 Mbit/s. The IEEE has approved the amendment, and it was published in October 2009.[18][19] Prior to the final ratification, enterprises were already migrating to 802.11n networks based on the Wi-Fi Alliance's certification of products conforming to a 2007 draft of the 802.11n proposal.

text: In May 2007, task group TGmb was authorized to "roll up" many of the amendments to the 2007 version of the 802.11 standard.[20] REVmb or 802.11mb, as it was called, created a single document that merged ten amendments (802.11k, r, y, n, w, p, z, v, u, s) with the 2007 base standard. In addition much cleanup was done, including a reordering of many of the clauses.[21] Upon publication on March 29, 2012, the new standard was referred to as IEEE 802.11-2012.

text: IEEE 802.11ac-2013 is an amendment to IEEE 802.11, published in December 2013, that builds on 802.11n.[22] Changes compared to 802.11n include wider channels (80 or 160 MHz versus 40 MHz) in the 5 GHz band, more spatial streams (up to eight versus four), higher-order modulation (up to 256-QAM vs. 64-QAM), and the addition of Multi-user MIMO (MU-MIMO). As of October 2013, high-end implementations support 80 MHz channels, three spatial streams, and 256-QAM, yielding a data rate of up to 433.3 Mbit/s per spatial stream, 1300 Mbit/s total, in 80 MHz channels in the 5 GHz band.[23] Vendors have announced plans to release so-called "Wave 2" devices with support for 160 MHz channels, four spatial streams, and MU-MIMO in 2014 and 2015.[24][25][26]

text: This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (November 2013)

text: IEEE 802.11ad is an amendment that defines a new physical layer for 802.11 networks to operate in the 60 GHz millimeter wave spectrum. This frequency band has significantly different propagation characteristics than the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands where Wi-Fi networks operate. Products implementing the 802.11ad standard are being brought to market under the WiGig brand name. The certification program is now being developed by the Wi-Fi Alliance instead of the now defunct WiGig Alliance.[27] The peak transmission rate of 802.11ad is 7 Gbit/s.[28]

text: TP-Link announced the world's first 802.11ad router in January 2016.[29]

text: IEEE 802.11af, also referred to as "White-Fi" and "Super Wi-Fi",[30] is an amendment, approved in February 2014, that allows WLAN operation in TV white space spectrum in the VHF and UHF bands between 54 and 790 MHz.[31][32] It uses cognitive radio technology to transmit on unused TV channels, with the standard taking measures to limit interference for primary users, such as analog TV, digital TV, and wireless microphones.[32] Access points and stations determine their position using a satellite positioning system such as GPS, and use the Internet to query a geolocation database (GDB) provided by a regional regulatory agency to discover what frequency channels are available for use at a given time and position.[32] The physical layer uses OFDM and is based on 802.11ac.[33] The propagation path loss as well as the attenuation by materials such as brick and concrete is lower in the UHF and VHF bands than in the 2.4 and 5 GHz bands, which increases the possible range.[32] The frequency channels are 6 to 8 MHz wide, depending on the regulatory domain.[32] Up to four channels may be bonded in either one or two contiguous blocks.[32] MIMO operation is possible with up to four streams used for either space–time block code (STBC) or multi-user (MU) operation.[32] The achievable data rate per spatial stream is 26.7 Mbit/s for 6 and 7 MHz channels, and 35.6 Mbit/s for 8 MHz channels.[10] With four spatial streams and four bonded channels, the maximum data rate is 426.7 Mbit/s for 6 and 7 MHz channels and 568.9 Mbit/s for 8 MHz channels.[10]

text: IEEE 802.11ah defines a WLAN system operating at sub-1 GHz license-exempt bands, with final approval slated for September 2016.[31][34] Due to the favorable propagation characteristics of the low frequency spectra, 802.11ah can provide improved transmission range compared with the conventional 802.11 WLANs operating in the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands. 802.11ah can be used for various purposes including large scale sensor networks,[35] extended range hotspot, and outdoor Wi-Fi for cellular traffic offloading, whereas the available bandwidth is relatively narrow. The protocol intends consumption to be competitive with low power Bluetooth, at a much wider range.[36]

text: IEEE 802.11ai is an amendment to the 802.11 standard that added new mechanisms for a faster initial link setup time.[37]

text: IEEE 802.11aj is a rebanding of 802.11ad for use in the 45 GHz unlicensed spectrum available in some regions of the world (specifically China).[37]

text: IEEE 802.11aq is an amendment to the 802.11 standard that will enable pre-association discovery of services. This extends some of the mechanisms in 802.11u that enabled device discovery to further discover the services running on a device, or provided by a network.[37]

text: IEEE 802.11ax is the successor to 802.11ac, and will increase the efficiency of WLAN networks. Currently in development, this project has the goal of providing 4x the throughput of 802.11ac.[38]

text: This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (March 2015)

text: IEEE 802.11ay is a standard that is being developed. It is an amendment that defines a new physical layer for 802.11 networks to operate in the 60 GHz millimeter wave spectrum. It will be an extension of the existing 11ad, aimed to extend the throughput, range and use-cases. The main use-cases include: indoor operation, out-door back-haul and short range communications. The peak transmission rate of 802.11ay is 20 Gbit/s.[39] The main extensions include: channel bonding (2, 3 and 4), MIMO and higher modulation schemes.

text: IEEE 802.11-2016 is a revision based on IEEE 802.11-2012, incorporating 5 amendments (11ae, 11aa, 11ad, 11ac, 11af). In addition, existing MAC and PHY functions have been enhanced and obsolete features were removed or marked for removal. Some clauses and annexes have been renumbered.[40]

text: Common misunderstandings about achievable throughput[edit]

text: Across all variations of 802.11, maximum achievable throughputs are given either based on measurements under ideal conditions or in the layer-2 data rates. This, however, does not apply to typical deployments in which data is being transferred between two endpoints, of which at least one is typically connected to a wired infrastructure and the other endpoint is connected to an infrastructure via a wireless link.

text: This means that, typically, data frames pass an 802.11 (WLAN) medium, and are being converted to 802.3 (Ethernet) or vice versa. Due to the difference in the frame (header) lengths of these two media, the application's packet size determines the speed of the data transfer. This means applications that use small packets (e.g., VoIP) create dataflows with high-overhead traffic (i.e., a low goodput). Other factors that contribute to the overall application data rate are the speed with which the application transmits the packets (i.e., the data rate) and, of course, the energy with which the wireless signal is received. The latter is determined by distance and by the configured output power of the communicating devices.[41][42]

text: The same references apply to the attached graphs that show measurements of UDP throughput. Each represents an average (UDP) throughput (please note that the error bars are there, but barely visible due to the small variation) of 25 measurements. Each is with a specific packet size (small or large) and with a specific data rate (10 kbit/s – 100 Mbit/s). Markers for traffic profiles of common applications are included as well. These figures assume there are no packet errors, which if occurring will lower transmission rate further.

text: Channels and frequencies[edit]

text: 802.11b, 802.11g, and 802.11n-2.4 utilize the 2.400–2.500 GHz spectrum, one of the ISM bands. 802.11a and 802.11n use the more heavily regulated 4.915–5.825 GHz band. These are commonly referred to as the "2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands" in most sales literature. Each spectrum is sub-divided into channels with a center frequency and bandwidth, analogous to the way radio and TV broadcast bands are sub-divided.

text: The 2.4 GHz band is divided into 14 channels spaced 5 MHz apart, beginning with channel 1, which is centered on 2.412 GHz. The latter channels have additional restrictions or are unavailable for use in some regulatory domains.

text: The channel numbering of the 5.725–5.875 GHz spectrum is less intuitive due to the differences in regulations between countries. These are discussed in greater detail on the list of WLAN channels.

text: Channel spacing within the 2.4 GHz band[edit]

text: In addition to specifying the channel center frequency, 802.11 also specifies (in Clause 17) a spectral mask defining the permitted power distribution across each channel. The mask requires the signal be attenuated a minimum of 20 dB from its peak amplitude at ±11 MHz from the centre frequency, the point at which a channel is effectively 22 MHz wide. One consequence is that stations can use only every fourth or fifth channel without overlap.

text: Availability of channels is regulated by country, constrained in part by how each country allocates radio spectrum to various services. At one extreme, Japan permits the use of all 14 channels for 802.11b, and 1–13 for 802.11g/n-2.4. Other countries such as Spain initially allowed only channels 10 and 11, and France allowed only 10, 11, 12, and 13; however, they now allow channels 1 through 13.[43][44] North America and some Central and South American countries allow only 1 through 11.

text: Since the spectral mask defines only power output restrictions up to ±11 MHz from the center frequency to be attenuated by −50 dBr, it is often assumed that the energy of the channel extends no further than these limits. It is more correct to say that, given the separation between channels, the overlapping signal on any channel should be sufficiently attenuated to minimally interfere with a transmitter on any other channel. Due to the near-far problem a transmitter can impact (desense) a receiver on a "non-overlapping" channel, but only if it is close to the victim receiver (within a meter) or operating above allowed power levels.

text: Confusion often arises over the amount of channel separation required between transmitting devices. 802.11b was based on DSSS modulation and utilized a channel bandwidth of 22 MHz, resulting in three "non-overlapping" channels (1, 6, and 11). 802.11g was based on OFDM modulation and utilized a channel bandwidth of 20 MHz. This occasionally leads to the belief that four "non-overlapping" channels (1, 5, 9, and 13) exist under 802.11g, although this is not the case as per 17.4.6.3 Channel Numbering of operating channels of the IEEE Std 802.11 (2012), which states "In a multiple cell network topology, overlapping and/or adjacent cells using different channels can operate simultaneously without interference if the distance between the center frequencies is at least 25 MHz."[45] and section 18.3.9.3 and Figure 18-13.

text: This does not mean that the technical overlap of the channels recommends the non-use of overlapping channels. The amount of interference seen on a configuration using channels 1, 5, 9, and 13 can have very small difference from a three-channel configuration,[46] and in the paper entitled "Effect of adjacent-channel interference in IEEE 802.11 WLANs" by Villegas this is also demonstrated.[47]

text: Although the statement that channels 1, 5, 9, and 13 are "non-overlapping" is limited to spacing or product density, the concept has some merit in limited circumstances. Special care must be taken to adequately space AP cells, since overlap between the channels may cause unacceptable degradation of signal quality and throughput.[48] If more advanced equipment such as spectral analyzers are available, overlapping channels may be used under certain circumstances. This way, more channels are available.[47]

text: Regulatory domains and legal compliance[edit]

text: IEEE uses the phrase regdomain to refer to a legal regulatory region. Different countries define different levels of allowable transmitter power, time that a channel can be occupied, and different available channels.[49] Domain codes are specified for the United States, Canada, ETSI (Europe), Spain, France, Japan, and China.

text: Most Wi-Fi certified devices default to regdomain 0, which means least common denominator settings, i.e., the device will not transmit at a power above the allowable power in any nation, nor will it use frequencies that are not permitted in any nation.[citation needed]

text: The regdomain setting is often made difficult or impossible to change so that the end users do not conflict with local regulatory agencies such as the United States' Federal Communications Commission.

text: Layer 2 – Datagrams[edit]

text: The datagrams are called frames. Current 802.11 standards specify frame types for use in transmission of data as well as management and control of wireless links.

text: Frames are divided into very specific and standardized sections. Each frame consists of a MAC header, payload, and frame check sequence (FCS). Some frames may not have a payload.

text: The first two bytes of the MAC header form a frame control field specifying the form and function of the frame. This frame control field is subdivided into the following sub-fields:

text:
Protocol Version: Two bits representing the protocol version. Currently used protocol version is zero. Other values are reserved for future use.
Type: Two bits identifying the type of WLAN frame. Control, Data, and Management are various frame types defined in IEEE 802.11.
Subtype: Four bits providing additional discrimination between frames. Type and Subtype are used together to identify the exact frame.
ToDS and FromDS: Each is one bit in size. They indicate whether a data frame is headed for a distribution system. Control and management frames set these values to zero. All the data frames will have one of these bits set. However communication within an Independent Basic Service Set (IBSS) network always set these bits to zero.
More Fragments: The More Fragments bit is set when a packet is divided into multiple frames for transmission. Every frame except the last frame of a packet will have this bit set.
Retry: Sometimes frames require retransmission, and for this there is a Retry bit that is set to one when a frame is resent. This aids in the elimination of duplicate frames.
Power Management: This bit indicates the power management state of the sender after the completion of a frame exchange. Access points are required to manage the connection, and will never set the power-saver bit.
More Data: The More Data bit is used to buffer frames received in a distributed system. The access point uses this bit to facilitate stations in power-saver mode. It indicates that at least one frame is available, and addresses all stations connected.
Protected Frame: The Protected Frame bit is set to one if the frame body is encrypted by a protection mechanism such as Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP), Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA), or Wi-FI Protected Access II (WPA2).
Order: This bit is set only when the "strict ordering" delivery method is employed. Frames and fragments are not always sent in order as it causes a transmission performance penalty.

tag: ul

text: The next two bytes are reserved for the Duration ID field. This field can take one of three forms: Duration, Contention-Free Period (CFP), and Association ID (AID).

text: An 802.11 frame can have up to four address fields. Each field can carry a MAC address. Address 1 is the receiver, Address 2 is the transmitter, Address 3 is used for filtering purposes by the receiver.[dubious – discuss]

text: The remaining fields of the header are:

text:
The Sequence Control field is a two-byte section used for identifying message order as well as eliminating duplicate frames. The first 4 bits are used for the fragmentation number, and the last 12 bits are the sequence number.
An optional two-byte Quality of Service control field that was added with 802.11e.

text: The payload or frame body field is variable in size, from 0 to 2304 bytes plus any overhead from security encapsulation, and contains information from higher layers.

text: The Frame Check Sequence (FCS) is the last four bytes in the standard 802.11 frame. Often referred to as the Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC), it allows for integrity check of retrieved frames. As frames are about to be sent, the FCS is calculated and appended. When a station receives a frame, it can calculate the FCS of the frame and compare it to the one received. If they match, it is assumed that the frame was not distorted during transmission.[50]

text: Management frames[edit]

text: Management frames allow for the maintenance of communication. Some common 802.11 subtypes include:

text:
Authentication frame: 802.11 authentication begins with the Wireless network interface card (WNIC) sending an authentication frame to the access point containing its identity. With an open system authentication, the WNIC sends only a single authentication frame, and the access point responds with an authentication frame of its own indicating acceptance or rejection. With shared key authentication, after the WNIC sends its initial authentication request it will receive an authentication frame from the access point containing challenge text. The WNIC sends an authentication frame containing the encrypted version of the challenge text to the access point. The access point ensures the text was encrypted with the correct key by decrypting it with its own key. The result of this process determines the WNIC's authentication status.
Association request frame: Sent from a station it enables the access point to allocate resources and synchronize. The frame carries information about the WNIC, including supported data rates and the SSID of the network the station wishes to associate with. If the request is accepted, the access point reserves memory and establishes an association ID for the WNIC.
Association response frame: Sent from an access point to a station containing the acceptance or rejection to an association request. If it is an acceptance, the frame will contain information such an association ID and supported data rates.
Beacon frame: Sent periodically from an access point to announce its presence and provide the SSID, and other parameters for WNICs within range.
Deauthentication frame: Sent from a station wishing to terminate connection from another station.
Disassociation frame: Sent from a station wishing to terminate connection. It's an elegant way to allow the access point to relinquish memory allocation and remove the WNIC from the association table.
Probe request frame: Sent from a station when it requires information from another station.
Probe response frame: Sent from an access point containing capability information, supported data rates, etc., after receiving a probe request frame.
Reassociation request frame: A WNIC sends a reassociation request when it drops from range of the currently associated access point and finds another access point with a stronger signal. The new access point coordinates the forwarding of any information that may still be contained in the buffer of the previous access point.
Reassociation response frame: Sent from an access point containing the acceptance or rejection to a WNIC reassociation request frame. The frame includes information required for association such as the association ID and supported data rates.

text: Information Elements[edit]

text: 2. In terms of ICT, an Information Element (IE) is a part of management frames in the IEEE 802.11 wireless LAN protocol. IEs are a device's way to transfer descriptive information about itself inside management frames. There are usually several IEs inside each such frame, and each is built of TLVs mostly defined outside the basic IEEE 802.11 specification.

text: The common structure of an IE is as follows:

text: Whereas the OUI (organizationally unique identifier) is used only when necessary to the protocol being used, and the data field holds the TLVs relevant to that IE.

text: Control frames[edit]

text: Control frames facilitate in the exchange of data frames between stations. Some common 802.11 control frames include:

text:
Acknowledgement (ACK) frame: After receiving a data frame, the receiving station will send an ACK frame to the sending station if no errors are found. If the sending station doesn't receive an ACK frame within a predetermined period of time, the sending station will resend the frame.
Request to Send (RTS) frame: The RTS and CTS frames provide an optional collision reduction scheme for access points with hidden stations. A station sends a RTS frame as the first step in a two-way handshake required before sending data frames.
Clear to Send (CTS) frame: A station responds to an RTS frame with a CTS frame. It provides clearance for the requesting station to send a data frame. The CTS provides collision control management by including a time value for which all other stations are to hold off transmission while the requesting station transmits.

text: Data frames[edit]

text: Data frames carry packets from web pages, files, etc. within the body.[51] The body begins with an IEEE 802.2 header, with the Destination Service Access Point (DSAP) specifying the protocol; however, if the DSAP is hex AA, the 802.2 header is followed by a Subnetwork Access Protocol (SNAP) header, with the Organizationally Unique Identifier (OUI) and protocol ID (PID) fields specifying the protocol. If the OUI is all zeroes, the protocol ID field is an EtherType value.[52] Almost all 802.11 data frames use 802.2 and SNAP headers, and most use an OUI of 00:00:00 and an EtherType value.

text: Similar to TCP congestion control on the internet, frame loss is built into the operation of 802.11. To select the correct transmission speed or Modulation and Coding Scheme, a rate control algorithm may test different speeds. The actual packet loss rate of an Access points vary widely for different link conditions. There are variations in the loss rate experienced on production Access points, between 10% and 80%, with 30% being a common average.[53] It is important to be aware that the link layer should recover these lost frames. If the sender does not receive an Acknowledgement (ACK) frame, then it will be resent.

text: Standards and amendments[edit]

text: Within the IEEE 802.11 Working Group,[31] the following IEEE Standards Association Standard and Amendments exist:

text:
IEEE 802.11-1997: The WLAN standard was originally 1 Mbit/s and 2 Mbit/s, 2.4 GHz RF and infrared (IR) standard (1997), all the others listed below are Amendments to this standard, except for Recommended Practices 802.11F and 802.11T.
IEEE 802.11a: 54 Mbit/s, 5 GHz standard (1999, shipping products in 2001)
IEEE 802.11b: Enhancements to 802.11 to support 5.5 Mbit/s and 11 Mbit/s (1999)
IEEE 802.11c: Bridge operation procedures; included in the IEEE 802.1D standard (2001)
IEEE 802.11d: International (country-to-country) roaming extensions (2001)
IEEE 802.11e: Enhancements: QoS, including packet bursting (2005)
IEEE 802.11F: Inter-Access Point Protocol (2003) Withdrawn February 2006
IEEE 802.11g: 54 Mbit/s, 2.4 GHz standard (backwards compatible with b) (2003)
IEEE 802.11h: Spectrum Managed 802.11a (5 GHz) for European compatibility (2004)
IEEE 802.11i: Enhanced security (2004)
IEEE 802.11j: Extensions for Japan (2004)
IEEE 802.11-2007: A new release of the standard that includes amendments a, b, d, e, g, h, i, and j. (July 2007)
IEEE 802.11k: Radio resource measurement enhancements (2008)
IEEE 802.11n: Higher-throughput improvements using MIMO (multiple-input, multiple-output antennas) (September 2009)
IEEE 802.11p: WAVE—Wireless Access for the Vehicular Environment (such as ambulances and passenger cars) (July 2010)
IEEE 802.11r: Fast BSS transition (FT) (2008)
IEEE 802.11s: Mesh Networking, Extended Service Set (ESS) (July 2011)
IEEE 802.11T: Wireless Performance Prediction (WPP)—test methods and metrics Recommendation cancelled
IEEE 802.11u: Improvements related to HotSpots and 3rd-party authorization of clients, e.g., cellular network offload (February 2011)
IEEE 802.11v: Wireless network management (February 2011)
IEEE 802.11w: Protected Management Frames (September 2009)
IEEE 802.11y: 3650–3700 MHz Operation in the U.S. (2008)
IEEE 802.11z: Extensions to Direct Link Setup (DLS) (September 2010)
IEEE 802.11-2012: A new release of the standard that includes amendments k, n, p, r, s, u, v, w, y, and z (March 2012)
IEEE 802.11aa: Robust streaming of Audio Video Transport Streams (June 2012)
IEEE 802.11ac: Very High Throughput <6 GHz;[54] potential improvements over 802.11n: better modulation scheme (expected ~10% throughput increase), wider channels (estimate in future time 80 to 160 MHz), multi user MIMO;[55] (December 2013)
IEEE 802.11ad: Very High Throughput 60 GHz (December 2012) — see WiGig
IEEE 802.11ae: Prioritization of Management Frames (March 2012)
IEEE 802.11af: TV Whitespace (February 2014)
IEEE 802.11ah: Sub-1 GHz license exempt operation (e.g., sensor network, smart metering) (December 2016)
IEEE 802.11ai: Fast Initial Link Setup (December 2016)
IEEE 802.11-2016: A new release of the standard that includes amendments ae, aa, ad, ac, and af (December 2016)

text: In process[edit]

text:
IEEE 802.11aj: China Millimeter Wave (~ December 2017)
IEEE 802.11ak: General Links (~ December 2017)
IEEE 802.11aq: Pre-association Discovery (~ August 2017)
IEEE 802.11ax: High Efficiency WLAN (~ July 2019)
IEEE 802.11ay: Enhancements for Ultra High Throughput in and around the 60 GHz Band (~ November 2019)
IEEE 802.11az: Next Generation Positioning (~ March 2021)
IEEE 802.11ba: Wake Up Radio (~ July 2020)

text: 802.11F and 802.11T are recommended practices rather than standards, and are capitalized as such.

text: 802.11m is used for standard maintenance. 802.11ma was completed for 802.11-2007, 802.11mb for 802.11-2012, and 802.11mc for 802.11-2016.

text: Standard vs. amendment[edit]

text: Both the terms "standard" and "amendment" are used when referring to the different variants of IEEE standards.[56]

text: As far as the IEEE Standards Association is concerned, there is only one current standard; it is denoted by IEEE 802.11 followed by the date that it was published. IEEE 802.11-2016 is the only version currently in publication, superseding previous releases. The standard is updated by means of amendments. Amendments are created by task groups (TG). Both the task group and their finished document are denoted by 802.11 followed by a non-capitalized letter, for example, IEEE 802.11a and IEEE 802.11b. Updating 802.11 is the responsibility of task group m. In order to create a new version, TGm combines the previous version of the standard and all published amendments. TGm also provides clarification and interpretation to industry on published documents. New versions of the IEEE 802.11 were published in 1999, 2007, 2012, and 2016.[57]

text: Nomenclature[edit]

text: Various terms in 802.11 are used to specify aspects of wireless local-area networking operation, and may be unfamiliar to some readers.

text: For example, Time Unit (usually abbreviated TU) is used to indicate a unit of time equal to 1024 microseconds. Numerous time constants are defined in terms of TU (rather than the nearly equal millisecond).

text: Also the term "Portal" is used to describe an entity that is similar to an 802.1H bridge. A Portal provides access to the WLAN by non-802.11 LAN STAs.

text: Community networks[edit]

text: With the proliferation of cable modems and DSL, there is an ever-increasing market of people who wish to establish small networks in their homes to share their broadband Internet connection.

text: Many hotspot or free networks frequently allow anyone within range, including passersby outside, to connect to the Internet. There are also efforts by volunteer groups to establish wireless community networks to provide free wireless connectivity to the public.

text: Security[edit]

text: In 2001, a group from the University of California, Berkeley presented a paper describing weaknesses in the 802.11 Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) security mechanism defined in the original standard; they were followed by Fluhrer, Mantin, and Shamir's paper titled "Weaknesses in the Key Scheduling Algorithm of RC4". Not long after, Adam Stubblefield and AT&T publicly announced the first verification of the attack. In the attack, they were able to intercept transmissions and gain unauthorized access to wireless networks.

text: The IEEE set up a dedicated task group to create a replacement security solution, 802.11i (previously this work was handled as part of a broader 802.11e effort to enhance the MAC layer). The Wi-Fi Alliance announced an interim specification called Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) based on a subset of the then current IEEE 802.11i draft. These started to appear in products in mid-2003. IEEE 802.11i (also known as WPA2) itself was ratified in June 2004, and uses the Advanced Encryption Standard AES, instead of RC4, which was used in WEP. The modern recommended encryption for the home/consumer space is WPA2 (AES Pre-Shared Key), and for the enterprise space is WPA2 along with a RADIUS authentication server (or another type of authentication server) and a strong authentication method such as EAP-TLS.

text: In January 2005, the IEEE set up yet another task group "w" to protect management and broadcast frames, which previously were sent unsecured. Its standard was published in 2009.[58]

text: In December 2011, a security flaw was revealed that affects some wireless routers with a specific implementation of the optional Wi-Fi Protected Setup (WPS) feature. While WPS is not a part of 802.11, the flaw allows an attacker within the range of the wireless router to recover the WPS PIN and, with it, the router's 802.11i password in a few hours.[59][60]

text: In late 2014, Apple announced that its iOS 8 mobile operating system would scramble MAC addresses[61] during the pre-association stage to thwart retail footfall tracking made possible by the regular transmission of uniquely identifiable probe requests.

text: Non-standard 802.11 extensions and equipment[edit]

text: Many companies implement wireless networking equipment with non-IEEE standard 802.11 extensions either by implementing proprietary or draft features. These changes may lead to incompatibilities between these extensions.[citation needed]


question_text: when was the last time nebraska voted democrat

text:
Presidential elections in Nebraska

No. of elections
38

Voted Democrat
7

Voted Republican
31

Voted other
0

Voted for winning candidate
24

Voted for losing candidate
14

text: Following is a table of United States presidential elections in Nebraska, ordered by year. Since its admission to statehood in 1867, Nebraska has participated in every U.S. presidential election. Since 1992 Nebraska has split its electoral votes between congressional districts.[1]

text: Winners of the state are in bold.

text:
Year
Winner (nationally)
Votes
Percent
Loser (nationally)
Votes
Percent
Other national
candidates[a]
Votes
Percent
Electoral
Votes
Notes

2016
Donald Trump
485,819
60.30
Hillary Clinton
273,858
34.00
-
-
?
5

2012
Barack Obama
302,081
38.03
Mitt Romney
475,064
59.80
-

5

2008
Barack Obama
333,319
41.60
John McCain
452,979
56.53
-

5
Electoral votes split, four to McCain, one to Obama.

2004
George W. Bush
512,814
65.90
John Kerry
254,328
32.68
-

5

2000
George W. Bush
433,862
62.25
Al Gore
231,780
33.25
-

5

1996
Bill Clinton
236,761
34.95
Bob Dole
363,467
53.65
Ross Perot
71,278
10.52
5

1992
Bill Clinton
217,344
29.40
George H. W. Bush
344,346
46.58
Ross Perot
174,687
23.63
5

1988
George H. W. Bush
398,447
60.15
Michael Dukakis
259,646
39.20
-

5

1984
Ronald Reagan
460,054
70.55
Walter Mondale
187,866
28.81
-

5

1980
Ronald Reagan
419,937
65.53
Jimmy Carter
166,851
26.04
John B. Anderson
44,993
7.02
5

1976
Jimmy Carter
233,692
38.46
Gerald Ford
359,705
59.19
-

5

1972
Richard Nixon
406,298
70.50
George McGovern
169,991
29.50
-

5

1968
Richard Nixon
321,163
59.82
Hubert Humphrey
170,784
31.81
George Wallace
44,904
8.36
5

1964
Lyndon B. Johnson
307,307
52.61
Barry Goldwater
276,847
47.39
-

5

1960
John F. Kennedy
232,542
37.93
Richard Nixon
380,553
62.07
-

6

1956
Dwight D. Eisenhower
378,108
65.51
Adlai Stevenson II
199,029
34.49
-

6

1952
Dwight D. Eisenhower
421,603
69.15
Adlai Stevenson II
188,057
30.85
-

6

1948
Harry S. Truman
224,165
45.85
Thomas E. Dewey
264,774
54.15
Strom Thurmond
-
-
6

1944
Franklin D. Roosevelt
233,246
41.42
Thomas E. Dewey
329,880
58.58
-

6

1940
Franklin D. Roosevelt
263,677
42.81
Wendell Willkie
352,201
57.19
-

7

1936
Franklin D. Roosevelt
347,445
57.14
Alf Landon
247,731
40.74
-

7

1932
Franklin D. Roosevelt
359,082
62.98
Herbert Hoover
201,177
35.29
-

7

1928
Herbert Hoover
345,745
63.19
Al Smith
197,959
36.18
-

8

1924
Calvin Coolidge
218,585
47.09
John W. Davis
137,289
29.58
Robert M. La Follette Sr.
106,701
22.99
8

1920
Warren G. Harding
247,498
64.66
James M. Cox
119,608
31.25
-

8

1916
Woodrow Wilson
158,827
55.28
Charles E. Hughes
117,771
40.99
-

8

1912
Woodrow Wilson
109,008
43.69
Theodore Roosevelt
72,681
29.13
William H. Taft
54,226
21.74
8

1908
William H. Taft
126,997
47.60
William Jennings Bryan
131,099
49.14
-

8

1904
Theodore Roosevelt
138,558
61.38
Alton B. Parker
52,921
23.44
-

8

1900
William McKinley
121,835
50.46
William Jennings Bryan
114,013
47.22
-

8

1896
William McKinley
103,064
46.18
William Jennings Bryan
115,007
51.53
-

8

1892
Grover Cleveland
24,943
12.46
Benjamin Harrison
87,213
43.56
James B. Weaver
83,134
41.53
8

1888
Benjamin Harrison
108,425
53.51
Grover Cleveland
80,552
39.75
-

5

1884
Grover Cleveland
54,391
40.53
James G. Blaine
76,912
57.31
-

5

1880
James A. Garfield
54,979
62.87
Winfield S. Hancock
28,523
32.62
James B. Weaver
3,950
4.52
3

1876
Rutherford B. Hayes
31,915
64.7
Samuel J. Tilden
17,413
35.3
-

3

1872
Ulysses S. Grant
18,329
70.68
Horace Greeley
7,603
29.32
-

3

1868
Ulysses S. Grant
9,772
63.9
Horatio Seymour
5,519
36.1
-

3


document_title: Wipro

question_text: who become the ceo of it wipro company in 2016

text: Wipro

text: History[edit]

text: Early formative years[edit]

text: The company was incorporated on 29 December 1945 in Amalner, Maharashtra by Mohamed Premji as 'Western India Vegetable Products Limited', later abbreviated to 'Wipro'. It was initially set up as a manufacturer of vegetable and refined oils in Amalner, Maharashtra, India under the trade names of Kisan, Sunflower, and Camel.[1][7][8]

text: In 1966, after Mohamed Premji’s death, his son Azim Premji returned home from Stanford University and took over Wipro as its chairman at the age of 21.[9][10]

text: During the 1970s and 1980s, the company shifted its focus to new business opportunities in the IT and computing industry, which was at a nascent stage in India at the time. On 7 June 1977, the name of the company changed from Western India Vegetable Products Limited, to Wipro Products Limited.[7]

text: The year 1980 marked the arrival of Wipro in the IT domain. In 1982, the name was changed from Wipro Products Limited to Wipro Limited.[11] Meanwhile, Wipro continued to expand in the consumer products domain with the launch of "Ralak" a Tulsi based family soap and "Wipro Jasmine", a toilet soap. In 1988 Premji took a loan of 1 million dollar from Sonkar and Sons to set up the project. Later the entire loan amount was waived.[7]

text: In 1988, Wipro diversified its product line into heavy-duty industrial cylinders and mobile hydraulic cylinders.[7] A joint venture company with the United States' General Electric in the name of Wipro GE Medical Systems Pvt. Ltd. was set up in 1989 for the manufacture, sales, and service of diagnostic and imaging products.[12] Later, in 1991, tipping systems and Eaton hydraulic products were launched. The Wipro Fluid Power division, in 1992, developed expertise to offer standard hydraulic cylinders for construction equipment and truck tipping systems. The market saw the launch of the "Santoor" talcum powder and "Wipro Baby Soft" range of baby toiletries in 1990.[12]

text: In 1995, Wipro set up an overseas design centre, Odyssey 21, for undertaking projects and product developments in advanced technologies for overseas clients. Wipro Infotech and Wipro Systems were amalgamated with Wipro in April that year.[12] Five of Wipro's manufacturing and development facilities secured the ISO 9001 certification during 1994–95. In 1999, Wipro acquired Wipro Acer.[13] Wipro became a more profitable, diversified corporation with new products such as the Wipro SuperGenius personal computers (PCs). In 1999, the product was the one Indian PC range to obtain US-based National Software Testing Laboratory (NSTL) certification for the Year 2000 (Y2K) compliance in hardware for all models.[14]

text: Wipro Limited joined hands with a global telecom major KPN (Royal Dutch telecom) to form a joint venture company "Wipro Net Limited" to provide internet services in India.[10] The year 2000 was the year Wipro launched solutions for convergent networks targeted at Internet and telecom solution providers in the names of Wipro OSS Smart and Wipro WAP Smart.[15] In the same year, Wipro got listed on New York Stock Exchange.[16] In early 2000 Wipro Vice Chairman Vivek Paul and Azim Premji approached KPMG Consulting Vice Chairman Keyur Patel and CEO Rand Blazer to form a mega-outsourcing joint venture between the two organizations.

text: In February 2002, Wipro became the first software technology and services company in India to be certified for ISO 14001 certification.[17] Wipro also achieved ISO 9000 certification to become the first software company to get SEI People Capability Maturity Model (PCMM) Level 5 in 2002.[18][19] Wipro Consumer Care and Lighting Group entered the market of compact fluorescent lamps, with the launch of a range of CFL, under the brand name of Wipro Smartlite.[20] As the company grew, a study revealed that Wipro was the fastest wealth creator for 5 years (1997–2002).[21][22] The same year witnessed the launch of Wipro’s own laptops with Intel's Centrino mobile processor.[23] Wipro also entered into an exclusive agreement with the owners of Chandrika for marketing of their soap in select states in India.[24][25] It set up a wholly owned subsidiary company viz. Wipro Consumer Care Limited to manufacture consumer care and lighting products.[26] In 2004 Wipro joined the billion dollar club.[27] It also partnered with Intel for i-shiksha.[28][29] The year 2006 saw Wipro acquire cMango Inc., a US-based technology infrastructure Consulting firm[30][31] Enabler, and a Europe-based retail solutions provider.[32] In 2007, Wipro signed a large deal with Lockheed Martin.[33][34] It also entered into a definitive agreement to acquire Oki Techno Centre Singapore Pte Ltd (OTCS)[34][35] and signed an R&D partnership contract with Nokia Siemens Networks in Germany.[36][37]

text: In 2008 Wipro’s entered the clean energy business with Wipro Eco Energy.[38][39] In April 2011, Wipro signed an agreement with Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC) for the acquisition of their global oil and gas information technology practice of the commercial business services business unit.[40][41] In 2012 Wipro acquired Australian Trade Promotions Management firm Promax Applications Group (PAG) for $35 million.[42][43] In 2012 Wipro employed more than 70,000 H-1B visa professional temporary workers in the United States.[44]

text: In 2012 Wipro Ltd. announced the demerger of its consumer care, lighting, furniture, infrastructure Engineering (hydraulics and water and medical diagnostic business into a separate company to be named Wipro Enterprises Ltd.[45] The merger became effective from 31 March 2013.[46][47] The demerged companies together contributed about 10% of the revenues of Wipro Limited in previous financial year.[48][49]

text: In 2014, Wipro signed a 10-year $1.2 billion contract with ATCO, a Canadian Energy & Utilities corporation based out of Calgary, Alberta. This was the largest deal in Wipro's history.[50]

text: In October 2016, Wipro announced that it was buying Appirio, an Indianapolis-based cloud services company for $500 million.[51][52][53]

text: Wipro Group of Companies[edit]

text: Western India Products Limited[edit]

text: Wipro Limited is a global provider of comprehensive IT solutions and services, including Systems Integration, Consulting, Information Systems outsourcing, IT-enabled services, R&D services.[54]

text: Wipro entered into the technology business in 1981 and has over 140,000 employees and clients across 54 countries.[55] IT revenues were at $7.1 billion for the year ended 31 March 2015, with a repeat business ratio of over 95%.[56][57]

text: Wipro Consumer Care & Lighting[edit]

text: Wipro Consumer Care and Lighting (WCCLG), a business unit of Wipro Limited operates in the FMCG segment dealing in consumable commodities. Established in 1945, its first product was vegetable oil, later sold under the brand name "Sunflower Vanaspati". It sells personal care products, such as Wipro Baby Soft and Wipro Safewash, toilet soaps Santoor and Chandrika as well as Yardley.[58] It sells lighting products, including Smartlite CFL,[59] LED, and emergency lights.[60]

text: Through product sales and acquisitions, Wipro Consumer Care and Lighting has grown steadily in the FMCG segment.[61][62][63]

text: Wipro Infrastructure Engineering[edit]

text: Wipro Infrastructure Engineering is the hydraulics business division of Wipro Limited and has been in the business of manufacturing hydraulic cylinders, truck cylinders, and their components and solutions since 1976. This division delivers hydraulic cylinders to international OEMs and represents the Kawasaki, Sun Hydraulics[64] and Teijin Seiki range of hydraulic products in India.[65] It has entered into partnerships Kawasaki[66][67] and aerospace giant EADS.[68] In 2010 Wipro Infrastructure Engineering was the second largest independent manufacturer of hydraulic cylinders in the world.[69]

text: Wipro GE Medical Systems[edit]

text: Wipro GE Medical Systems Limited is Wipro’s joint venture with GE Healthcare South Asia. It is engaged in the research and development of advanced solutions to cater to patient and customer needs in healthcare. This partnership, which began in 1990,[70] today includes gadgets and equipment for diagnostics, healthcare IT solutions and services to help healthcare professionals combat cancer, heart disease, and other ailments. There is complete adherence to Six Sigma quality standards in all products.[71][72][73]

text: Sustainability at Wipro[edit]

text: Wipro has been ranked 1st in the 2010 Asian Sustainability Rating (ASR) of Indian companies[74] and is a member of the NASDAQ Global Sustainability Index[75] as well as the Dow Jones Sustainability Index.[76]

text: In November 2012 Guide to Greener Electronics, Greenpeace ranked Wipro first with a score of 7.1/10.[77]

text: Listing and shareholding[edit]

text: This section appears to contradict itself. Please see the talk page for more information. (July 2017)

text: Listing: Wipro's equity shares are listed on Bombay Stock Exchange where it is a constituent of the BSE SENSEX index,[78] and the National Stock Exchange of India where it is a constituent of the S&P CNX Nifty.[79] The American Depositary Shares of the company are listed at the NYSE since October 2000.[80]

text: Shareholding: On 30 September 2013, 73.51% of the equity shares of the company were owned by the promoters: Azim Premji, his family members, partnership firms in which he is a partner and Trusts formed by him/his family. The remaining 26.49% shares are owned by others.

text:
Shareholders (as on 20-January-2016)
Shareholding

Promoter group led by Azim Premji
73.36%

Foreign Institutional Investors (FII)
10.68%

Indian Public
4.99%

Bodies Corporate
2.50%

Mutual Funds/UTI
1.90%

NRI
1.11%

Trusts/Others
0.77%

American Depositary Shares
2.30%

Total
100%

text: Employees[edit]

text: At the end of December 31, 2015, its employee strength was 170,664.[81] Abid Ali Neemuchwala was appointed as Wipro's CEO after T. K. stepped down in early 2016.[82]

text: Awards and recognitions[edit]

text:
In March 2017, Wipro was recognized as one of the world’s most ethical companies by US-based Ethisphere Institute for the sixth consecutive year.[83][84][85][86]
In May 2016, it was ranked 755th on the Forbes Global 2000 list.[87]
Wipro won Gold Award for ‘Integrated Security Assurance Service (iSAS)’ under the ‘Vulnerability Assessment, Remediation and Management’ category of the 11th Annual 2015 Info Security PG’s Global Excellence Awards.[88]
Wipro won 7 awards, including Best Managed IT Services and Best System Integrator in the CIO Choice Awards 2015, India[89]
In 2014, Wipro was ranked 52nd among India's most trusted brands according to the Brand Trust Report, a study conducted by Trust Research Advisory.[90]
Wipro was ranked 2nd in the Newsweek 2012 Global 500 Green companies.[91]
Wipro received the 'NASSCOM Corporate Award for Excellence in Diversity and Inclusion, 2012', in the category 'Most Effective Implementation of Practices & Technology for Persons with Disabilities'.[92]
In 2012, it was awarded the highest rating of Stakeholder Value and Corporate Rating 1 (SVG 1) by ICRA Limited.[93]
It received National award for excellence in Corporate Governance from the Institute of Company Secretaries of India during the year 2004.[94]


document_title: Eric van der Woodsen

question_text: who does eric end up with in gossip girl

text: Eric van der Woodsen

text: Novel series[edit]

text: Erik is described as similar to every van der Woodsen: tall, thin, and blonde. The older brother of Serena van der Woodsen, Erik van der Woodsen is not featured in the books very often. A junior at Brown University, Serena has said he has "at least six or seven different girlfriends he sleeps with routinely." On a trip to Sun Valley, Erik and Serena’s best friend Blair Waldorf dated briefly.

text: Very close to his sister, Erik threw her a giant sweet sixteenth birthday bash and drove her up to Hanover on her first day of school there. Aside from his brief appearances, Erik remained a relatively quiet secondary character throughout the series, however he did have a bigger part in the Gossip Girl prequel, Gossip Girl: It Had to Be You.

text: TV series[edit]

text: Characterization[edit]

text: In contrast to the novels, Eric's character is more complex in the show, showing a mature understanding of family and relationships but faces the same troubles as most teenagers have. Alessandra Stanley of The New York Times mentions his character's deviation from the novels from "an object of female lust" to one of "...psychotherapy." But notes his strong bond with Serena, stating how he "is misunderstood by all but his caring, if troubled, sister." [1] Despite his mature persona, Eric is no stranger to the problems that most teens face as his stay at the Ostroff Center, a rehabilitation facility, is a result of his constant loneliness and his mother's many unstable marriages. Connor Paolo notes that Eric's lack of a father figure contributed to his suicide attempt.[2]

text: Season 1[edit]

text: At the beginning of the season, Eric has been living at the Ostroff Center, a high-class mental facility. Serena frequently visits him after coming back. As well as trying to convince the doctors and her mother Lilly to let him out. They let Eric out temporarily, during the Ivy League Mixer, where he develops a friendship with Jenny Humphrey. After Blair Waldorf humiliates his sister, telling the whole school she was attending the Ostroff Center during her absence having mistakenly seeing photos of Serena entering the center, Eric tells Blair he was the one attending the mental center and shows her the scars on his wrists from his suicide attempt.

text: At Blair's annual sleepover, Blair dares Jenny to break into the Ostroff Center and take Eric out for the night. Jenny and Blair succeed and they take him to a bar downtown. Lily is made aware of his disappearance and begins to panic. She quickly informs Rufus, whose son, Dan, is on a date with Serena, after she cannot get hold of her. They contact the couple to make sure Eric is alright and to bring him home. Later, Lily realizes that Eric is ready to come out of the medical center. He is present during Thanksgiving dinner at the Humphrey's apartment when Lily and Rufus reveal they had a previous relationship years ago. Due to his mother's engagement to billionaire Bart Bass, he develops a close friendship with Chuck Bass, whom he soon sees as a brother.

text: He tries to warn Jenny about her new boyfriend Asher Hornsby (Jesse Swenson) but she mistakes this for Eric being in love with her. In the same episode, Dan and Georgina Sparks see Asher making out with someone outside of school. The news becomes public on Gossip Girl, and Jenny denies the rumor by saying she lost her virginity to Asher, which Eric knows is untrue. During a dinner with his family, Georgina outs him to back at Serena. Eric's homosexuality upsets Lily, who blames herself for Eric getting institutionalized. Serena comforts him, and learns that Eric already came out to Chuck before her because he knew Chuck wouldn't judge him. He also explains that he had a relationship with someone while at the Ostroff Center, but now believed that it was over. At Asher and Jenny's party, Eric helps Blair dethrone Jenny by revealing that Asher was indeed gay, and that they were involved. Asher denies this, but Blair sends a Gossip Girl blast with Eric and Asher's emails. He and Lilly later reconcile.

text: Season 2[edit]

text: During summer 2008, Eric is staying with his sister and grandmother in The Hamptons. He receives a call from Jenny who tells him, she needs help to get in the Vitamin White Party. She apologizes to him about the incident with Asher and they become friends again. Eric introduces Tinsley Mortimer to Jenny to extend her contacts in the fashion industry.

text: After the school year starts, although Serena complains about Lily's new marriage and their new house rules, Eric thinks they should give the marriage a chance. Later, Eric introduces Jonathan Whitney (Matt Doyle) as his new boyfriend. They break up after Bart tells Eric that Jonathan has been cheating on him. Eric lodges Jenny secretly in the Bass-van der Woodsen penthouse and goes with her to make the paperwork to divorce her parents.

text: Eric then discovers that Bart hired his private detective, Andrew Tyler, to do research about his, Lily's, and Serena's past. He discovers that Lily was also institutionalized at a French sanatorium and that she didn't tell him so that she could be strong for him. Bart's actions convince Lily to celebrate Thanksgiving with the Humphreys.

text: After Bart's death, Eric comes back with Jonathan and tries to convince Chuck to go back to their penthouse. Chuck and Eric officially go from close friends to brothers after Lily adopts her late husband's son.

text: Season 3[edit]

text: During summer 2009, Eric is in his grandmother's house with Jenny, Dan, and Rufus while Lily is in Montecito taking care of his and Serena's grandmother, CeCe. He observes Jenny's speech to the rest of Constance that end the school hierarchy.

text: During Jenny's gradual transformation as an Upper East Side Queen, he falls victim to Jenny and her cronies when a battle over the steps that Jonathan inadvertently started and ends with Eric being splattered with yogurt. The Halloween party that followed after had Jonathan being egged at the club opening, enraging Eric, who tells Jenny he wants nothing to do with her. Eric sabotages Jenny's Cotillion by falsely sending a text to Graham Collins, the date Jenny wants using her phone which claims that Jonathan will be taking her to Cotillion. He joins forces with Blair, whom Jenny also offends publicly, in making Kira Abernathy, a Constance student whom Jenny regularly ignores, a threat to Jenny's reign as Queen. Blair gives Kira a makeover and Eric blackmails Graham into becoming Kira's escort instead of Jenny. Jenny soon endures public humiliation but manages to gain their respect by taking Nate as her escort for Cotillion. These events cause Jonathan to break up with Eric as he claims Eric has changed now that he's resorted to scheming with Blair. After Cotillion, Jenny leaves with the other Upper East Side Queen Bees and leaves unaware that Eric has been responsible for her public embarrassment.

text: At Thanksgiving, Jenny discovers that Eric was the one behind her public embarrassment at Cotillion which sets her getting her revenge on him. Eric teams up with Kira and attempts to ruin Jenny by buying one of his accomplices the same bag as her and have the girls turn against her. This fails as Jenny reveals two identical bags handing them over to his accomplices, falsely apologizing for her actions but claiming that one of the girls whom Erica bought a bag for spoiled her surprise. Eric and Jenny then to a truce after Serena's car accident.

text: It is revealed in "Inglourious Bassterds" that Eric was in Japan and ends up meeting a potential love-interest named Elliot (Luke Kleintank) during a game of assassin on Nate's birthday.[3] On the day of Blair's maid's, Dorota, wedding, Eric wonders if Elliot is gay and discovers that he has a girlfriend during the wedding reception. Elliot then confides in Eric that he is bisexual, indicating that Eric still has a chance with him when Elliot tells him that his girlfriend left out of jealousy.[4]

text: Eric's relationship with his father, William, is also observed when he coldly rejects him for not being there for him.[2] He informs him that he is gay and had been institutionalized.

text: His friendship with Jenny is once again tested when she reveals that she aided his father's escape from the police. He coldly states that no one is forcing Jenny to stay and that she can leave if she wants to. Eric is the first to discover that Jenny lost her virginity to Chuck and tries to comfort a dismayed Jenny, who is sent away to finish high school in Hudson.

text: Season 4[edit]

text: In "The Undergraduates", Chuck tries to make amends with Rufus and Eric, by coming to Fashion Week with his new girlfriend, Eva. Eric, however, informs Rufus of Chuck's season 1 assault on Jenny and says that his brother has been given too many chances to redeem himself, signaling the end of their once-close bond.

text: When Jenny returns to the Upper East Side briefly for an interview with Tim Gunn, Eric attempts to help her make a good impression and keep her away from both Chuck and Blair. Later, he and Dan scheme against Blair and Chuck to get Jenny to come back for their parents' anniversary. The plan fails when Blair and Chuck sign a treaty and come to a truce. After Dan steals the treaty from Nate, Eric backs out of the plan. Eric unknowingly leads his parents to Blair's party where Dan's plan is about to go through, thinking Dan had abandoned the plan.

text: Eric is present when Serena is admitted to the Ostroff Center. He is proud of her for going, but does not believe her when she denies overdosing. He is also present when Serena confronts Lily.

text: Pepe angry at his mother for what happened to Ben Donovan and Bass Industries. When man from the Empire calls saying the judge from Ben's case was there, Eric calls Serena, which makes her determined to take Lily down.

text: In "Damien Darko", it is revealed that Eric and Elliot broke up and he has been lying to his mother about being with Elliot when he has really been with Damien. When Jonathan goes with Eric to the W party, Eric ditches Jonathan to meet up with Damien. However, earlier Ben had seen Eric with Damien and called Serena. When they walk in on Eric and Damien, the two pretend to be couple and Ben lectures Eric about making bad choices. Eric promises not to see Damien anymore. Rufus confronts Eric, asking if he bought drugs from Damien and Eric says he bought some pills, but realizes it was stupid and promises to stop. But while he keeps that promise, when Damien calls Eric after Ben warns him away from Serena's family, Eric agrees to hang out with him.

text: Season 5[edit]

text: Rufus reveals in the season 5 premiere "Yes, Then Zero" that Jenny and Eric have moved to London to attend Saint Martins. During the episode "Memoirs of an Invisible Dan", it's mentioned that in Dan's semi-autobiographical novel Inside Nate and Eric's literary counterparts were meshed together.

text: Season 6[edit]

text: Eric returns briefly for the series finale.

text: Reception[edit]

text: TV Line's Michael Ausiello had reported that Connor Paolo had originally been offered to become a series regular for the show's second season but kindly declined. “I’m very happy with my position on the show and I have no interest in changing it,” and that he may not be ready to face the same challenges as his other castmates stating that “Watching Blake [Lively] and Penn [Badgley] and the things they have to deal with as [a full-time cast members]… because they are on the posters and they are the face of the show, is not something I’m totally ready for right now.”