document_title: Pint glass

question_text: what does the m number mean on a pint glass

text: Pint glass

text: Current shapes[edit]

text: The common shapes of pint glass are:

text:
Conical (or sleevers) glasses are shaped, as the name suggests, as an inverted truncated cone around 6 inches (15 cm) tall and tapering by about 1 inch (25 mm) in diameter over its height. Also called a "shaker pint" in the United States, as the glass can be used as one half of a Boston shaker. The most common size found in the US holds 16 oz to the rim.
The nonik (or nonic, pronounced "no-nick") a variation on the conical design, where the glass bulges out a couple of inches from the top; this is partly for improved grip, partly to prevent the glasses from sticking together when stacked, and partly to give strength and stop the rim from becoming chipped or "nicked".[1] This design was invented by Hugo Pick, of Albert Pick & Co., who was awarded two US patents: design patent 44,616 (September 2, 1913) and patent 1,107,700 (August 18, 1914) – though the design patent was invalidated – and which was commercialized as Nonik (for "no-nick").[2][3] The design was preceded by many other bulged glass designs, dating to the mid-19th century, which differed in having a severe bulge and different purposes (a stop for a jar cover, or placement in a soda glass holder), rather than the shallow bulge of this design.[2] The original motivation for the glass was to reduce breakage when stacking (40% greater crushing strength and curved surface where rim touches), reduce breakage when tipped over (due to the bulge protecting the rim from impact), improve grip, and facilitate cleaning (due to shallow curves, compared to more severe curves). In the United Kingdom, this style was popularized after World War II, with Ravenhead glass introducing a Nonik glass in 1948.[4]
Jug glasses, or "dimple mugs", are shaped more like a large mug with a handle. They are moulded with a grid pattern of thickened glass on the outside, somewhat resembling the segmentation of a Mills bomb. The dimples prevent the glass slipping out of the fingers in a washing-up bowl, and the design of the glass emphasises strength, helping to withstand frequent manual washing. These design features became less important when manual washing was superseded by machine washing from the 1960s onwards. Dimpled glasses are now rarer than the other types and are regarded as more traditional.[5] This sort of glass is also known as a "Handle" or "Jug" due to the handle on the glass.
Tulip is a more modern glass having a taller shape, usually flaring out towards the top; these designs are more commonly associated with continental lagers or promotional campaigns by breweries, and are frequently etched or marked with the beer's label.
Can-shaped glasses are shaped like a standard beer or beverage can, with straight cylindrical sides and an inverted lip. They are less prone to tipping over than a conical glass, and without the need for a heavy base for stability, they are around 40% lighter.

text: History[edit]

text: Pint glasses became popular in the United Kingdom in the early/mid-20th century, replacing tankards (pewter, ceramic, and glass). This change is notably lamented by George Orwell in his 1946 essay "The Moon Under Water".

text: Older styles[edit]

text: Older styles include:

text:
Decorative Toby jugs, although these would not have been for everyday use. Mid 1700s onwards.
Pewter tankards. 1500s to 1900s
Ceramic tankards with strap handles. Late 1800s to early 1900s.
10-sided glass tankards. 1920s and 1930s.[6]

text:
A wooden tankard found on board the 16th century carrack Mary Rose.

Pewter tankard

Glass tankard

text: United Kingdom law[edit]

text: In the United Kingdom, draught beer must be sold in Imperial measure (see Pint § Effects of metrication). United Kingdom law requires certain steps be taken to ensure that a pint of beer is indeed a pint. Though this can be achieved using "metered dispense" (calibrated pumps), the more common solution is to use certified one-pint glasses.[citation needed] Until recently these had a crown stamp indicating that the certification had been done by an agency of the Crown. The number etched upon the glasses stands for the manufacturing company or site. Most pint glasses used in the United Kingdom today have actually been produced in France.[7]

text: Under the EU Measuring Instruments Directive (Directive 2004/22/EC), the certification of measuring instruments and devices used in trade (including beer mugs, weighbridges, petrol pumps and the like) can be done by third parties anywhere within the EU with governments taking "only the legislative and enforcement (market surveillance) functions" and "ensuring that the system of third party assessment ... has sufficient technical competence and independence"[8] (or, in simple language, calibration services were privatised). Glasses that have been certified by authorised firms anywhere within the EU have the letters CE etched on with the certifying agency's identification number.[9][10] Conservatives campaigning to have dual markings of crown and CE were informed by EU Commissioner Günter Verheugen that "a Crown stamp look-alike could naturally be affixed to the glass, as long as it is done in such a way that it is not confused with the CE marking".[11]

text: Selling beer in unmeasured glasses without using some other form of calibrated measure is illegal. Half-pint, one-third pint and two-thirds pint (schooners) glasses are also available, and are subject to the same laws.

text: Although the glass must be accurately-calibrated, industry guidelines only require a pint to be at least 95% liquid, allowing 5% of the pint to consist of the foamy 'head'.[12][13] The Campaign for Real Ale (CAMRA) has described this practice as selling a short measure, and says that it costs drinkers £1m a day in beer they have paid for but not received. The British Beer and Pub Association has issued guidelines for bar staff to give a 'top up' to any drinker who is unsatisfied with the measure they receive.[14]

text: CAMRA recommends the use of "lined" or "oversized" glasses in pubs. These have a line near the top (usually labelled "pint to line") to which the beer should be poured, with the head forming above it. In the past a number of breweries supplied these glasses to their pubs; this is now rarely the case and lined glasses are found mostly at enthusiasts' events such as beer festivals, serious cask ale pubs, and breweries' own bars.[citation needed]

text: Other countries[edit]

text: Beer in Australia is formally measured in metric units, but draught beer is commonly ordered and sold in glasses approximating imperial measures, including a 570 ml pint. (In the state of South Australia, "pint" refers to a 425 ml (¾ pint) glass, known as a schooner in the rest of Australia.) As in the UK, certified glassware must be used; the capacity of the beer glass is defined by either the brim or, where present, the capacity line.[15] There are no legally prescribed sizes for beer volumes, but the stated capacities, which are a legal requirement, must be formally tested by the hotelliers and breweries.

text: In Canada, Federal law mandates a standard imperial pint.[16] However, this law is rarely enforced, and establishments typically sell US pints or other measures as "pints."[17]

text: The Republic of Ireland uses the imperial 20 fl oz pint measure (≈568 ml)[18], where legal metrology marks are used to show that a glass has passed inspection by the National Standards Authority of Ireland, a state-run body which enforces a number of standard rulings. Starting in 2006, the NSAI "pint" mark, a circle featuring two wavy lines, between which "PINT" is written, with a year mark (last two digits), and a three digit batch code either side; has begun to be phased out with a European standard "PINT"/CE logo stamp[citation needed]. Smaller Pint glasses have been used in pubs and nightclubs though.[citation needed]

text: In Israel, although officially defined as 568ml,[19] pubs use the term rather arbitrarily and the "pints" served constitute a wide range of volumes (360ml–440ml). In the past, the custom was to serve beer in 330ml or 500ml in the original beer manufacture's glass. After the reform in the alcohol taxes in July 2012 the tax rate doubled.[20] Each liter of beer is charged with 4.2nis tax. In order to avoid raising prices at the pubs, and as a result, the loss of customers, a new "magic" appeared, called "pint".[21] The customers don't really know the vague term of a pint,[22] and it varies from place to place. Some of the places didn't even change the menu, and it's served as 500 ml.

text: In the United States, a pint is 16 US fluid ounces (473 mL). However, the typical conical "pint" glass holds 16 oz. to its rim. With a half inch of foam, the actual liquid fill is roughly 14 oz. Recently (as of 2008), some restaurants have replaced 16-ounce pint glasses (473 mL) with 14 ouncers (415 mL) to which customers have objected.[23] In response to this, legislation has been introduced in the state of Michigan (known for its craft brewing culture) to require bars to serve 16-ounce pints.[24]

text: Nucleated pint glasses[edit]

text: It is increasingly common to find pint glasses which contain markings on the base; very often these glasses are branded to one particular beer. The markings themselves are formed from small pits which aid in nucleation, allowing the gas within it to be released more easily, thus preserving the head. Without the aid of these pits a regular pint glass will keep a head for only 3 or 4 minutes before appearing 'flat'.[25] The markings come in a variety of styles ranging from a simple circular or square hatched pattern to more complicated branding messages.

text: Collecting[edit]

text: Pint glass collecting is an increasingly popular way for individuals to commemorate their visits to popular tourist destinations, most notably to microbreweries or sports arenas. These destinations often sell pint glasses adorned with their logos, which are either screen-printed or engraved on the side of the glass. Brewery enthusiasts may travel thousands of miles to see where their favorite beer is made or to sample new local and fresh beers, and collectors often display their collections (which sometimes total in the hundreds) in display cases or on shelves.

text: Beer festivals frequently have commemorative pint glasses made specially for the event.

text: Use as weapon[edit]

text: As with other glass objects such as glass bottles, pint glasses can be used as a weapon, either smashing an intact glass in a victim's face or smashing the glass and then slashing with the shards. Such attacks, called "glassing", are a significant problem in the United Kingdom, with more than 87,000 glassing attacks per year,[26] resulting in over 5,000 injuries.[27] This has led to less-dangerous alternatives being used, either plastic glasses and bottles at large events or violence-prone venues, or treated glass, primarily tempered glass, which has been used in Australia.[28]


document_title: Human hair color

question_text: what percentage of the population is naturally blonde

root

text: Human hair color

text: Genetics and biochemistry of hair color[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: Two types of pigment give hair its color: eumelanin and pheomelanin. Pheomelanin colors hair orange and red. All humans have some pheomelanin in their hair. Eumelanin, which has two subtypes of black or brown, determines the darkness of the hair color. A low concentration of brown eumelanin results in blond hair, whereas a higher concentration of brown eumelanin results in brown hair. High amounts of black eumelanin result in black hair, while low concentrations result in white hair.

tag: p

text: Pheomelanin is more bio-chemically stable than black eumelanin, but less bio-chemically stable than brown eumelanin, so it breaks down more slowly when oxidized. This is why bleach gives darker hair a reddish tinge during the artificial coloring process. As the pheomelanin continues to break down, the hair will gradually become red, then orange, then yellow, and finally white.

text: The genetics of hair colors are not yet firmly established. According to one theory, at least two gene pairs control human hair color.

text: One phenotype (brown/blonde) has a dominant brown allele and a recessive blond allele. A person with a brown allele will have brown hair; a person with no brown alleles will be blond. This explains why two brown-haired parents can produce a blond-haired child. However, this can only be possible if both parent are heterozygous in hair color- meaning that both of them have one dominant brown hair allele and one recessive allele for blond hair, but as dominant traits mask recessive ones the parents both have brown hair. The possibility of which trait may appear in an offspring can be determined with a Punnett square.

text: The other gene pair is a non-red/red pair, where the non-red allele (which suppresses production of pheomelanin) is dominant and the allele for red hair is recessive. A person with two copies of the red-haired allele will have red hair.

text: The two-gene model does not account for all possible shades of brown, blond, or red (for example, platinum blond versus dark blond/light brown), nor does it explain why hair color sometimes darkens as a person ages. Several gene pairs control the light versus dark hair color in a cumulative effect. A person's genotype for a multifactorial trait can interact with the environment to produce varying phenotypes (see quantitative trait locus).

text: Natural hair colors[edit]

text: Natural hair color can be black, blond, brown, red, or white; all natural hair colors including grey, white and lightest blond, are shades of brown.

text: Image gallery[edit]

text:
Black hair

Natural black hair

Deepest brunette hair

Dark brown hair

Medium brown hair

Lightest brown hair

Natural brown hair

Light brown hair

Chestnut brown hair

Light chestnut brown hair

Auburn hair

Copper hair

Red hair

Titian hair

Strawberry blond hair

Light blonde hair

Dark blond hair

Golden blond hair

Medium blond hair

Grey hair

White hair

White hair caused by albinism

tag: ul

text: Black hair[edit]

text: Black hair is the darkest hair color. It has large amounts of eumelanin and is less dense than other hair colors.[2]

text: Brown hair[edit]

text: Brown hair is characterized by higher levels of eumelanin and lower levels of pheomelanin. Of the two types of eumelanin (black and brown), brown-haired people have brown eumelanin; they also usually have medium-thick strands of hair. Brown-haired girls or women are often known as brunette.

text: Chestnut hair is a hair color which is a reddish shade of brown hair. In contrast to auburn hair, the reddish shade of chestnut is darker. Chestnut hair is common among the native peoples of Northern, Central, Western, and Eastern Europe.

text: Blond hair[edit]

text: Blond (or blonde for women) hair ranges from nearly white (platinum blond, tow-haired) to a dark golden blonde. Strawberry blond, a mixture of blond and red hair, is a much rarer type containing the most pheomelanin.[citation needed]

text: Blond hair can have almost any proportion of pheomelanin and eumelanin, but has only small amounts of both. More pheomelanin creates a more golden or strawberry blond color, and more eumelanin creates an ash or sandy blond color. Many children born with blond hair develop darker hair as they age, with the majority of natural blonds developing a hair color of a dark blond hue by the time they reach middle age. Pregnancy hormones hasten this process. Natural light blond hair is rare in adulthood, with claims of the world's population ranging from 2% naturally blond[3][self-published source] to 16% in the US.[4] Blond hair is most commonly found in Northern and Western Europeans and their descendants but can be found spread around most of Europe. Studies in 2012 showed that naturally blond hair of Melanesians is caused by a recessive mutation in tyrosinase-related protein 1 (TYRP1). In the Solomon Islands, 26% of the population carry the gene; however, it is absent outside of Oceania.[5]

text: Auburn hair[edit]

text: Auburn hair ranges along a spectrum of light to dark red-brown shades. The chemicals which cause auburn hair are eumelanin (brown) and pheomelanin (red), with a higher proportion of red-causing pheomelanin than is found in average brown hair. It is most commonly found in individuals of Northern and Western European descent.

text: Red hair[edit]

text: Red hair ranges from light strawberry blond shades to titian, copper and less commonly "true" red. It is caused by a variation in the Mc1r gene and is recessive.[6] Red hair has the highest amounts of pheomelanin, around 67%, and usually low levels of eumelanin. At 1–2% of the population, it is the least common hair color in the world. It is most prominently found in the British Isles. Scotland has the highest proportion of redheads; 13 percent of the population has red hair and approximately 40 percent carries the recessive redhead gene.[7][8][9]

text: Gray and white hair [edit]

text: Gray or white hair—sometimes colloquially called "salt and pepper" when it is 'peppered' throughout dark hair—is not caused by a true gray or white pigment, but is due to a lack of pigmentation and melanin. The clear hairs appear as gray or white because of the way light is reflected from the hairs. Gray hair color typically occurs naturally as people age (see Aging or achromotrichia below). For some people this can happen at a very young age, even as young as 10.[medical citation needed]

text: In some cases, gray hair may be caused by thyroid deficiencies, Waardenburg syndrome or a vitamin B12 deficiency.[10] At some point in the human life cycle, cells that are located in the base of the hair's follicles slow, and eventually stop producing pigment.[11] Piebaldism is a rare autosomal dominant disorder of melanocyte development, which may cause a congenital white forelock.[12]:867

text: Caucasian people often begin to grow gray hairs in their mid-thirties while Asian people begin graying in their late thirties, but most African people retain their original hair color until their mid-forties.[13][14]

text: Graying is a gradual process; according to a study by L'Oreal, overall, of those between 45 and 65 years old, 74 per cent had some grey hair, covering an average of 27 per cent of their head ,and approximately 1 in 10 people had no gray hairs even after the age of 60.[15][16]

text: Conditions affecting hair color[edit]

text: Aging or achromotrichia[edit]

text: Children born with some hair colors may find it gradually darkens as they grow. Many blond, light brown, or red haired infants experience this. This is caused by genes being turned off and on during early childhood and puberty.[17]

text: Changes in hair color typically occur naturally as people age, eventually turning the hair gray and then white. This is called achromotrichia. Achromotrichia normally begins in the early to mid-twenties in men and late twenties in women. More than 60 percent of Americans have some gray hair by age 40. The age at which graying begins seems almost entirely due to genetics. Sometimes people are born with gray hair because they inherit the trait.[18]

text: The order in which graying happens is usually: nose hair, hair on the head, beard, body hair, eyebrows.[19]

text: In non-balding individuals hair may grow faster once it turns gray.[20]

text: Several genes appear to be responsible for the process of graying. Bcl2 and Bcl-w[21] were the first two discovered, then in 2016, the IRF4 (interferon regulatory factor 4) gene was announced after a study of 6,000 people living in five Latin American countries. However, it found that environmental factors controlled about 70% of cases of hair graying.[22]

text: The change in hair color occurs when melanin ceases to be produced in the hair root and new hairs grow in without pigment. The stem cells at the base of hair follicles produce melanocytes, the cells that produce and store pigment in hair and skin. The death of the melanocyte stem cells causes the onset of graying. It remains unclear why the stem cells of one hair follicle may die well over a decade before those in adjacent follicles less than a millimeter apart.

text: Graying of hair may be triggered by the accumulation of hydrogen peroxide. Abnormally low levels of the enzyme catalase, which breaks down hydrogen peroxide and relieves oxidative stress in patients suffering from vitiligo. Since vitiligo can cause eyelashes to turn white, the same process is believed to be involved in hair on the head (and elsewhere) due to aging.[23][unreliable source?]

text: The anti-cancer drug imatinib has recently been shown to reverse the graying process.[24] However, it is expensive and has potentially severe and deadly side effects, so it is not practical to use to alter a person's hair color. Nevertheless, if the mechanism of action of imatinib on melanocyte stem cells can be discovered, it is possible that a safer and less expensive substitute drug might someday be developed. It is not yet known whether imatinib has an effect on catalase, or if its reversal of the graying process is due to something else.[25]

text: Stress[edit]

text: Anecdotes report that stress, both chronic and acute, may induce achromotrichia earlier in individuals than it otherwise would have.[26] Proponents point to survivors of disasters, such as Titanic survivor Harold Bride, or high-level politicians such as Bill Clinton or Barack Obama. There is some evidence for chronic stress causing premature achromotrichia,[27] but no definite link has been established. It is known that the stress hormone cortisol accumulates in human hair over time, but whether this has any effect on hair color has not yet been resolved.[28]

text: Medical conditions[edit]

text: Albinism is a genetic abnormality in which little or no pigment is found in human hair, eyes, and skin. The hair is often white or pale blond. However, it can be red, darker blond, light brown, or rarely, even dark brown.

text: Vitiligo is a patchy loss of hair and skin color that may occur as the result of an auto-immune disease. In a preliminary 2013 study, researchers treated the buildup of hydrogen peroxide which causes this with a light-activated pseudo-catalase. This produced significant media coverage that further investigation may someday lead to a general non-dye treatment for grey hair.[29]

text: Malnutrition is also known to cause hair to become lighter, thinner, and more brittle. Dark hair may turn reddish or blondish due to the decreased production of melanin. The condition is reversible with proper nutrition.

text: Werner syndrome and pernicious anemia can also cause premature graying.

text: A 2005 uncontrolled study demonstrated that people 50–70 years of age with dark eyebrows but gray hair are significantly more likely to have type II diabetes than those with both gray eyebrows and hair.[30]

text: Artificial factors[edit]

text: A 1996 British Medical Journal study found that tobacco smoking may cause premature graying. Smokers were found to be four times more likely to begin graying prematurely, compared to nonsmokers.[31]

text: Gray hair may temporarily darken after inflammatory processes, after electron-beam-induced alopecia, and after some chemotherapy regimens. Much remains to be learned about the physiology of human graying.[32]

text: There are no special diets, nutritional supplements, vitamins, nor proteins that have been proven to slow, stop, or in any way affect the graying process, although many have been marketed over the years. However, French scientists treating leukemia patients with a new cancer drug noted an unexpected side effect: some of the patients' hair color was restored to their pre-gray color.[25]

text: Changes after death[edit]

text: The hair color of mummies or buried bodies can change. Hair contains a mixture of black-brown-yellow eumelanin and red pheomelanin. Eumelanin is less chemically stable than pheomelanin and breaks down faster when oxidized. It is for this reason that Egyptian mummies have reddish hair. The color of hair changes faster under extreme conditions. It changes more slowly under dry oxidizing conditions (such as in burials in sand or in ice) than under wet reducing conditions (such as burials in wood or plaster coffins).[33]

text: Hair coloring[edit]

text: Hair color can be changed by a chemical process. Hair coloring is classed as "permanent" or "semi-permanent".

text: Permanent hair color means that the hair's structure has been chemically altered until it is eventually cut away. This does not mean that the synthetic color will remain permanently. During the process, the natural color is removed, one or more shades, and synthetic color has been put in its place. All pigments wash out of the cuticle. Natural color stays in much longer and artificial will fade the fastest (depending on the color molecules and the form of the dye pigments).

text: Permanent hair color gives the most flexibility because it can make hair lighter or darker as well as changing tone and color, but there are negatives. Constant (monthly or six-weekly) maintenance is essential to match new hair growing in to the rest of the hair, and to remedy fading. A one-color permanent dye creates a flat, uniform color across the whole head, which can look unnatural and harsh, especially in a fair shade. To combat this, the modern trend is to use multiple colors—usually one color as a base with added highlights or lowlights in other shades.

text: Semi-permanent color washes out over a period of time—typically four to six weeks, so root regrowth is less noticeable. The final color of each strand is affected by its original color and porosity, so there will be subtle variations in color across the head—more natural and less harsh than a permanent dye. However, this means that gray and white hair will not dye to the same color as the rest of the head (in fact, some white hair will not absorb the color at all). A few gray and white hairs will blend in sufficiently not to be noticeable, but as they become more widespread, there will come a point where a semi-permanent alone will not be enough. The move to 100% permanent color can be delayed by using a semi-permanent as a base color, with permanent highlights.

text: Semi-permanent hair color cannot lighten hair.[34] Hair can only be lightened using chemical lighteners, such as bleach. Bleaching is always permanent because it removes the natural pigment.

text: "Rinses" are a form of temporary hair color, usually applied to hair during a shampoo and washed out again the next time the hair is washed.


document_title: Alpine lake

question_text: what is the definition of an alpine lake

text: Alpine lake

text: Alpine lakes are classified as lakes or reservoirs at high altitudes, usually starting around 5,000 feet (1524 metres) in elevation above sea level[1] or above the tree line.[2]

text: Alpine lakes are usually clearer than lakes at lower elevations due to the colder water which decreases the speed and amount of algae and moss growth in the water. Often these lakes are surrounded by varieties of pine trees, aspens, and other high altitude trees.[citation needed]

text: Famous alpine lakes[edit]

text:
Lake Sevan, Armenia
Crater Lake, USA
Heaven Lake, North Korea/China
Issyk Kul, Kyrgyzstan
Lake Tahoe, USA
Lake Titicaca, Peru/Bolivia (Largest natural alpine lake in the world)
Yellowstone Lake, USA
Lake Saiful Muluk, Pakistan
Tenaya Lake, USA
Lake Baikal, Russia
Changu Lake, India 14,000 feet ASL


document_title: Samhain

question_text: the christian church used which holiday to take attention away from samhain

text: Samhain

text: Etymology[edit]

text: In Modern Irish the name is Samhain [ˈsˠaunʲ], in Scottish Gaelic Samhainn/Samhuinn [ˈsaũ.iɲ], and in Manx Gaelic Sauin. These are also the names of November in each language, shortened from Mí na Samhna (Irish), Mì na Samhna (Scottish Gaelic) and Mee Houney (Manx). The night of 31 October (Halloween) is Oíche Shamhna (Irish), Oidhche Shamhna (Scottish Gaelic) and Oie Houney (Manx), all meaning "Samhain night". 1 November, or the whole festival, may be called Lá Samhna (Irish), Là Samhna (Scottish Gaelic) and Laa Houney (Manx), all meaning "Samhain day".

text: These names all come from the Old Irish samain, samuin or samfuin [ˈsaṽɨnʲ] all referring to 1 November (latha na samna: 'samhain day'), and the festival and royal assembly held on that date in medieval Ireland (oenach na samna: 'samhain assembly'). Its meaning is glossed as 'summer's end', and the frequent spelling with f suggests analysis by popular etymology as sam ('summer') and fuin ('end'). The Old Irish sam is from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) *semo-; cognates include Welsh haf, Breton hañv, English summer and Old Norse sumar, all meaning 'summer', and the Sanskrit sáma ('season').[6][7]

text: In 1907, Whitley Stokes suggested an etymology from Proto-Celtic *samani ('assembly'), cognate to Sanskrit sámana, and Gothic samana.[8] J. Vendryes concludes that samain is unrelated to *semo- ('summer'), remarking that the Celtic 'end of summer' was in July, not November, as evidenced by Welsh gorffennaf ('July').[9] We would therefore be dealing with an Insular Celtic word for 'assembly', *samani or *samoni, and a word for 'summer', saminos (from *samo-: 'summer') alongside samrad, *samo-roto-.

text: Coligny calendar[edit]

text: The Gaulish month name SAMON[IOS] "(pertaining to) Summer" on the Coligny calendar is likely related to the word Samhain.[10] A festival of some kind may have been held during the 'three nights of Samonios' (Gaulish trinux[tion] samo[nii]). The Gaulish calendar seems to have split the year into two-halves: the first beginning with the month SAMON[IOS] and the second beginning with the month GIAMONIOS, which is related to the word for winter, PIE *g'hei-men- (Latin hiems, Latvian ziema, Lithuanian žiema, Slavic zima, Greek kheimon, Hittite gimmanza), cf. Old Irish gem-adaig ('winter's night'). Samonios may represent the beginning of the summer season and Giamonios (the seventh month) the beginning of the winter season. The lunations marking the middle of each half-year may also have been marked by festivals.[citation needed]

text: History[edit]

text: Samain or Samuin was the name of the feis or festival marking the beginning of winter in Gaelic Ireland. It is attested in some of the earliest Old Irish literature, from the 10th century onward. It was one of four Gaelic seasonal festivals: Samhain (~1 November), Imbolc (~1 February), Bealtaine (~1 May) and Lughnasadh (~1 August). Samhain and Bealtaine, at the witherward side of the year from each other, are thought to have been the most important. Sir James George Frazer wrote in The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion that 1 May and 1 November are of little importance to European crop-growers, but of great importance to herdsmen. It is at the beginning of summer that cattle are driven to the upland summer pastures and the beginning of winter that they are led back. Thus, Frazer suggests that halving the year at 1 May and 1 November dates from a time when the Celts were mainly a pastoral people, dependent on their herds.[11]

text: Some Neolithic passage tombs in Ireland are aligned with the sunrise around the times of Samhain and Imbolc. These include the Mound of the Hostages (Dumha na nGiall) at the Hill of Tara,[12] and Cairn L at Slieve na Calliagh.[13]

text: In medieval Ireland the festival marked the end of the season for trade and warfare and was a time for tribal gatherings. These gatherings are a popular setting for early Irish tales.[14]

text: In Irish mythology[edit]

text: Irish mythology was originally a spoken tradition, but much of it was eventually written down in the Middle Ages by Christian monks,[15][16] who Christianized it to some extent. Nevertheless, these tales may shed some light on what Samhain meant and how it was marked in ancient Ireland.

text: Irish mythology tells us that Samhain was one of the four seasonal festivals of the year, and the 10th-century tale Tochmarc Emire ('The Wooing of Emer') lists Samhain as the first of these four "quarter days".[14] The tales say it was marked by great gatherings where they held meetings, feasted, drank alcohol,[17] and held contests.[14]

text: According to Irish mythology, Samhain (like Bealtaine) was a time when the 'doorways' to the Otherworld opened, allowing supernatural beings and the souls of the dead to come into our world; but while Bealtaine was a summer festival for the living, Samhain "was essentially a festival for the dead".[18] The Boyhood Deeds of Fionn says that the sídhe (fairy mounds or portals to the Otherworld) "were always open at Samhain".[19] It tells us that the High King of Ireland hosted a great gathering at Tara each Samhain. Each year the fire-breather Aillen emerges from the Otherworld and burns down the palace of Tara after lulling everyone to sleep with his music. One Samhain, the young Fionn mac Cumhaill is able to stay awake and slays Aillen with a magical spear, for which he is made leader of the fianna. Acallam na Senórach ('Colloquy of the Elders') tells how three female werewolves emerge from the cave of Cruachan (an Otherworld portal) each Samhain and kill livestock. When Cas Corach plays his harp, they take on human form, and the fianna warrior Caílte then slays them with a spear.[20]

text: Some tales may suggest that offerings or sacrifices were made at Samhain. In the Lebor Gabála Érenn (or 'Book of Invasions'), each Samhain the people of Nemed had to give two-thirds of their children, their corn and their milk to the monstrous Fomorians. The Fomorians seem to represent the harmful or destructive powers of nature; personifications of chaos, darkness, death, blight and drought.[21][22] This tribute paid by Nemed's people may represent a "sacrifice offered at the beginning of winter, when the powers of darkness and blight are in the ascendant".[23] According to the later Dindsenchas and the Annals of the Four Masters—which were written by Christian monks—Samhain in ancient Ireland was associated with a god or idol called Crom Cruach. The texts claim that a first-born child would be sacrificed at the stone idol of Crom Cruach in Magh Slécht. They say that King Tigernmas, and three-fourths of his people, died while worshiping Crom Cruach there one Samhain.[24]

text: The legendary kings Diarmait mac Cerbaill and Muirchertach mac Ercae each die a threefold death on Samhain, which involves wounding, burning and drowning, and of which they are forewarned. In the tale Togail Bruidne Dá Derga ('The Destruction of Dá Derga's Hostel'), king Conaire Mór also meets his death on Samhain after breaking his geasa (prohibitions or taboos). He is warned of his impending doom by three undead horsemen who are messengers of Donn, god of the dead.[25] The Boyhood Deeds of Fionn tells how each Samhain the men of Ireland went to woo a beautiful maiden who lives in the fairy mound on Brí Eile (Croghan Hill). It says that each year someone would be killed "to mark the occasion", by persons unknown.[26] Some academics suggest that these tales recall human sacrifice,[27] and argue that several ancient Irish bog bodies (such as Old Croghan Man) appear to have been kings who were ritually killed,[28] some of them around the time of Samhain.[29]

text: In the Echtra Neraí ('The Adventure of Nera'),[30] King Ailill of Connacht sets his retinue a test of bravery on Samhain night. He offers a prize to whoever can make it to a gallows and tie a band around a hanged man's ankle. Each challenger is thwarted by demons and runs back to the king's hall in fear. However, Nera succeeds, and the dead man then asks for a drink. Nera carries him on his back and they stop at three houses. They enter the third, where the dead man drinks and spits it on the householders, killing them. Returning, Nera sees a fairy host burning the king's hall and slaughtering those inside. He follows the host through a portal into the Otherworld. Nera learns that what he saw was only a vision of what will happen the next Samhain unless something is done. He is able to return to the hall and warns the king.

text: The tale Aided Chrimthainn maic Fidaig ('The Killing of Crimthann mac Fidaig') tells how Mongfind kills her brother, king Crimthann of Munster, so that one of her sons might become king. Mongfind offers Crimthann a poisoned drink at a feast, but he asks her to drink from it first. Having no other choice but to drink the poison, she dies on Samhain eve. The Middle Irish writer notes that Samhain is also called Féile Moingfhinne (the Festival of Mongfind or Mongfhionn), and that "women and the rabble make petitions to her" at Samhain.[31][32]

text: Many other events in Irish mythology happen or begin on Samhain. The invasion of Ulster that makes up the main action of the Táin Bó Cúailnge ('Cattle Raid of Cooley') begins on Samhain. As cattle-raiding typically was a summer activity, the invasion during this off-season surprised the Ulstermen.[33] The Second Battle of Magh Tuireadh also begins on Samhain.[34] The Morrígan and The Dagda meet and have sex before the battle against the Fomorians; in this way the Morrígan acts as a sovereignty figure and gives the victory to the Dagda's people, the Tuatha Dé Danann. In Aislinge Óengusa ('The Dream of Óengus') it is when he and his bride-to-be switch from bird to human form, and in Tochmarc Étaíne ('The Wooing of Étaín') it is the day on which Óengus claims the kingship of Brú na Bóinne.[27]

text: Several sites in Ireland are especially linked to Samhain. Each Samhain a host of otherworldly beings was said to emerge from Oweynagat ("cave of the cats"), at Rathcroghan in County Roscommon.[35] The Hill of Ward (or Tlachtga) in County Meath is thought to have been the site of a great Samhain gathering and bonfire;[17] the Iron Age ringfort is said to have been where the goddess or druid Tlachtga gave birth to triplets and where she later died.

text: In The Stations of the Sun: A History of the Ritual Year in Britain (1996), Ronald Hutton writes: "No doubt there were [pagan] religious observances as well, but none of the tales ever portrays any". The only historic reference to pagan religious rites is in the work of Geoffrey Keating (died 1644), but his source is unknown. Hutton says it may be that no religious rites are mentioned because, centuries after Christianization, the writers had no record of them.[14] Hutton suggests Samhain may not have been particularly associated with the supernatural. He says that the gatherings of royalty and warriors on Samhain may simply have been an ideal setting for such tales, in the same way that many Arthurian tales are set at courtly gatherings at Christmas or Pentecost.[36]

text: Historic customs[edit]

text: Samhain was one of the four main festivals of the Gaelic calendar, marking the end of the harvest and beginning of winter.[17] Samhain customs are mentioned in several medieval texts. In Serglige Con Culainn ('Cúchulainn's Sickbed'), it is said that the festival of the Ulaid at Samhain lasted a week: Samhain itself, and the three days before and after. It involved great gatherings at which they held meetings, feasted, drank alcohol, and held contests.[14] The Togail Bruidne Dá Derga notes that bonfires were lit at Samhain and stones cast into the fires.[37] It is mentioned in Geoffrey Keating's Foras Feasa ar Éirinn, which was written in the early 1600s but draws on earlier medieval sources, some of which are unknown. He claims that the feis of Tara was held for a week every third Samhain, when the nobles and ollams of Ireland met to lay down and renew the laws, and to feast.[38] He also claims that the druids lit a sacred bonfire at Tlachtga and made sacrifices to the gods, sometimes by burning them in the fire. He adds that all other fires were doused and then re-lit from this bonfire.[39]

text: Traditionally, Samhain was a time to take stock of the herds and food supplies. Cattle were brought down to the winter pastures after six months in the higher summer pastures.[17] It was also the time to choose which animals would need to be slaughtered for the winter. This custom is still observed by many who farm and raise livestock[1][40] because it is when meat will keep since the freeze has come and also since summer grass is gone and free foraging is no longer possible. It is thought that some of the rituals associated with the slaughter have been transferred to other winter holidays. On St. Martin's Day (11 November) in Ireland, an animal – usually a rooster, goose or sheep – would be slaughtered and some of its blood sprinkled on the threshold of the house. It was offered to Saint Martin, who may have taken the place of a god or gods,[41] and it was then eaten as part of a feast. This custom was common in parts of Ireland until the 19th century,[42] and was found in some other parts of Europe. At New Year in the Hebrides, a man dressed in a cowhide would circle the township sunwise. A bit of the hide would be burnt and everyone would breathe in the smoke.[41] These customs were meant to keep away bad luck, and similar customs were found in other Celtic regions.[41]

text: As at Bealtaine, bonfires were lit on hilltops at Samhain and there were rituals involving them.[17] However, by the modern era, they only seem to have been common in parts of the Scottish Highlands, on the Isle of Man, in north and mid Wales, and in parts of Ulster.[43] F. Marian McNeill says that a force-fire (or need-fire) was the traditional way of lighting them, but notes that this method gradually died out.[40] Likewise, only certain kinds of wood were traditionally used, but later records show that many kinds of flammable material were burnt.[44] It is suggested that the fires were a kind of imitative or sympathetic magic – they mimicked the Sun, helping the "powers of growth" and holding back the decay and darkness of winter.[40][41][45] They may also have served to symbolically "burn up and destroy all harmful influences".[45] Accounts from the 18th and 19th centuries suggest that the fires (as well as their smoke and ashes) were deemed to have protective and cleansing powers.[46] In Moray, boys asked for bonfire fuel from each house in the village. When the fire was lit, "one after another of the youths laid himself down on the ground as near to the fire as possible so as not to be burned, and in such a position as to let the smoke roll over him. The others ran through the smoke and jumped over him". When the bonfire burnt down, they scattered the ashes, vying with each other who should scatter them most.[46] Sometimes, two bonfires would be built side by side, and the people – sometimes with their livestock – would walk between them as a cleansing ritual. The bones of slaughtered cattle were said to have been cast upon bonfires. In the pre-Christian Gaelic world, cattle were the main form of wealth and were the center of agricultural and pastoral life.

text: People also took flames from the bonfire back to their homes. In parts of Scotland, torches of burning fir or turf were carried sunwise around homes and fields to protect them.[43] In some places, people doused their hearth fires on Samhain night. Each family then solemnly re-lit its hearth from the communal bonfire, thus bonding the community together.[1][40] The 17th century writer Geoffrey Keating claimed that this was an ancient tradition, instituted by the druids.[14] Dousing the old fire and bringing in the new may have been a way of banishing evil, which was done at New Year festivals in many countries.[41]

text: The bonfires were also used in divination rituals. In 18th century Ochtertyre, a ring of stones—one for each person—was laid round the fire, perhaps on a layer of ashes. Everyone then ran round it with a torch, "exulting". In the morning, the stones were examined and if any was mislaid it was said that the person it represented would not live out the year. A similar custom was observed in north Wales[46] and in Brittany.[47] James Frazer says that this may come from "an older custom of actually burning them" (i.e. human sacrifice) or may have always been symbolic.[48] Divination has likely been a part of the festival since ancient times,[17] and it has survived in some rural areas.[49] At household festivities throughout the Gaelic regions and Wales, there were many rituals intended to divine the future of those gathered, especially with regard to death and marriage.[17][50] Apples and hazelnuts were often used in these divination rituals or games. In Celtic mythology, apples were strongly associated with the Otherworld and immortality, while hazelnuts were associated with divine wisdom.[51] One of the most common games was apple bobbing. Another involved hanging a small wooden rod from the ceiling at head height, with a lit candle on one end and an apple hanging from the other. The rod was spun round and everyone took turns to try to catch the apple with their teeth.[52] Apples were peeled in one long strip, the peel tossed over the shoulder, and its shape was said to form the first letter of the future spouse's name.[53] Two hazelnuts were roasted near a fire; one named for the person roasting them and the other for the person they desired. If the nuts jumped away from the heat, it was a bad sign, but if the nuts roasted quietly it foretold a good match.[54][55] Items were hidden in food—usually a cake, barmbrack, cranachan, champ or sowans—and portions of it served out at random. A person's future was foretold by the item they happened to find; for example a ring meant marriage and a coin meant wealth.[56] A salty oatmeal bannock was baked; the person ate it in three bites and then went to bed in silence without anything to drink. This was said to result in a dream in which their future spouse offers them a drink to quench their thirst.[57] Egg whites were dropped in water, and the shapes foretold the number of future children. Children would also chase crows and divine some of these things from the number of birds or the direction they flew.[1][40][44]

text: As noted earlier, Samhain was seen as a liminal time, when the boundary between this world and the Otherworld could more easily be crossed.[58] This meant the aos sí, the 'spirits' or 'fairies', could more easily come into our world. Many scholars see the aos sí as remnants of the pagan gods and nature spirits.[59][60] At Samhain, it was believed that the aos sí needed to be propitiated to ensure that the people and their livestock survived the winter. As such, offerings of food and drink would be left outside for the aos sí.[61][62] Portions of the crops might also be left in the ground for them.[63] One custom—described a "blatant example" of a "pagan rite surviving into the Christian epoch"—was observed in the Outer Hebrides until the early 19th century. On 31 October, the locals would go down to the shore. One man would wade into the water up to his waist, where he would pour out a cup of ale and ask 'Seonaidh' ('Shoney'), whom he called "god of the sea", to bestow blessings on them.[43] People also took special care not to offend the aos sí and sought to ward-off any who were out to cause mischief. They stayed near to home or, if forced to walk in the darkness, turned their clothing inside-out or carried iron or salt to keep them at bay.[17] The dead were also honored at Samhain. The beginning of winter may have been seen as the most fitting time to do so, as it was a time of 'dying' in nature.[64] The souls of the dead were thought to revisit their homes seeking hospitality. Places were set at the dinner table and by the fire to welcome them.[1][65] The belief that the souls of the dead return home on one night of the year and must be appeased seems to have ancient origins and is found in many cultures throughout the world.[66] James Frazer suggests "It was perhaps a natural thought that the approach of winter should drive the poor, shivering, hungry ghosts from the bare fields and the leafless woodlands to the shelter of the cottage".[67] However, the souls of thankful kin could return to bestow blessings just as easily as that of a wronged person could return to wreak revenge.[68]

text: Mumming and guising was a part of Samhain from at least the 16th century and was recorded in parts of Ireland, Scotland, Mann and Wales.[69] It involved people going from house to house in costume (or in disguise), usually reciting songs or verses in exchange for food.[69] It is suggested that it evolved from a tradition whereby people impersonated the aos sí, or the souls of the dead, and received offerings on their behalf.[69] Impersonating these spirits or souls was also believed to protect oneself from them.[70] S. V. Peddle suggests the guisers "personify the old spirits of the winter, who demanded reward in exchange for good fortune".[71] McNeill suggests that the ancient festival included people in masks or costumes representing these spirits and that the modern custom came from this.[72] In Ireland, costumes were sometimes worn by those who went about before nightfall collecting for a Samhain feast.[69]

text: In parts of southern Ireland during the 19th century, the guisers included a hobby horse known as the Láir Bhán (white mare). A man covered in a white sheet and carrying a decorated horse skull (representing the Láir Bhán) would lead a group of youths, blowing on cow horns, from farm to farm. At each they recited verses, some of which "savoured strongly of paganism", and the farmer was expected to donate food. If the farmer donated food he could expect good fortune from the 'Muck Olla'; not doing so would bring misfortune.[73] This is akin to the Mari Lwyd (grey mare) procession in Wales, which takes place at Midwinter. In Wales the white horse is often seen as an omen of death.[74] In some places, young people cross-dressed.[69] In Scotland, young men went house-to-house with masked, veiled, painted or blackened faces,[44][75] often threatening to do mischief if they were not welcomed.[69] This was common in the 16th century in the Scottish countryside and persisted into the 20th.[76] It is suggested that the blackened faces comes from using the bonfire's ashes for protection.[72] Elsewhere in Europe, costumes, mumming and hobby horses were part of other yearly festivals. However, in the Celtic-speaking regions they were "particularly appropriate to a night upon which supernatural beings were said to be abroad and could be imitated or warded off by human wanderers".[69]

text: Hutton writes: "When imitating malignant spirits it was a very short step from guising to playing pranks". Playing pranks at Samhain is recorded in the Scottish Highlands as far back as 1736 and was also common in Ireland, which led to Samhain being nicknamed "Mischief Night" in some parts.[69] Wearing costumes at Halloween spread to England in the 20th century, as did the custom of playing pranks, though there had been mumming at other festivals.[69] At the time of mass transatlantic Irish and Scottish immigration, which popularised Halloween in North America, Halloween in Ireland and Scotland had a strong tradition of guising and pranks.[77] Trick-or-treating may have come from the custom of going door-to-door collecting food for Samhain feasts, fuel for Samhain bonfires and/or offerings for the aos sí. Alternatively, it may have come from the All Saints/All Souls custom of collecting soul cakes.

text: The "traditional illumination for guisers or pranksters abroad on the night in some places was provided by turnips or mangel wurzels, hollowed out to act as lanterns and often carved with grotesque faces".[69] They were also set on windowsills. By those who made them, the lanterns were variously said to represent the spirits or supernatural beings,[78] or were used to ward off evil spirits.[75][79][80] These were common in parts of Ireland and the Scotland into the 20th century.[69] They were also found in Somerset (see Punkie Night). In the 20th century they spread to other parts of England and became generally known as jack-o'-lanterns.[69]

text: Celtic Revival[edit]

text: During the late 19th and early 20th century Celtic Revival, there was an upswell of interest in Samhain and the other Celtic festivals. Sir John Rhys put forth that it had been the "Celtic New Year". He inferred it from contemporary folklore in Ireland and Wales, which he felt was "full of Hallowe'en customs associated with new beginnings". He visited Mann and found that the Manx sometimes called 31 October "New Year's Night" or Hog-unnaa. The Tochmarc Emire, written in the Middle Ages, reckoned the year around the four festivals at the beginning of the seasons, and put Samhain at the beginning of those. However, Hutton says that the evidence for it being the Celtic or Gaelic New Year's Day is flimsy.[81] Rhys's theory was popularised by Sir James George Frazer, though at times he did acknowledge that the evidence is inconclusive. Frazer also put forth that Samhain had been the pagan Celtic festival of the dead and that it had been Christianized as All Saints and All Souls.[81] Since then, Samhain has been popularly seen as the Celtic New Year and an ancient festival of the dead. The calendar of the Celtic League, for example, begins and ends at Samhain.[82]

text: Related festivals[edit]

text: In the Brythonic branch of the Celtic languages, Samhain is known as the 'calends of winter'. The Brythonic lands of Wales, Cornwall and Brittany held festivals on 31 October similar to the Gaelic one. In Wales it is Calan Gaeaf, in Cornwall it is Allantide or Kalan Gwav and in Brittany it is Kalan Goañv.[27]

text: The Manx celebrate Hop-tu-Naa on 31 October, which is a celebration of the original New Year's Eve. The term is Manx Gaelic in origin, possibly from Shogh ta'n Oie, meaning "this is the night". Traditionally, children carve turnips rather than pumpkins and carry them around the neighborhood singing traditional songs relating to hop-tu-naa.[citation needed]

text: Allhallowtide[edit]

text: The Roman Catholic holy day of All Saints (or All Hallows) was introduced in the year 609, but was originally celebrated on 13 May.[83] In 835, Louis the Pious switched it to 1 November in the Carolingian Empire, at the behest of Pope Gregory IV.[83] However, from the testimony of Pseudo-Bede, it is known that churches in what are now England and Germany were already celebrating All Saints on 1 November at the beginning of the 8th century.[83][84][85] Thus, Louis merely made official the custom of celebrating it on 1 November. James Frazer suggests that 1 November was chosen because it was the date of the Celtic festival of the dead (Samhain) – the Celts had influenced their English neighbours, and English missionaries had influenced the Germans. However, Ronald Hutton points out that, according to Óengus of Tallaght (d. ca. 824), the 7th/8th century church in Ireland celebrated All Saints on 20 April. He suggests that the 1 November date was a Germanic rather than a Celtic idea.[83] In the 11th century, 2 November became established as All Souls' Day. This created the three-day observance known as Allhallowtide: All Hallows' Eve (31 October), All Hallows' Day (1 November), and All Souls' Day (2 November).

text: It is widely believed that many of the modern secular customs of All Hallows' Eve (or Halloween) were influenced by the festival of Samhain.[86][87]

text: Neopaganism[edit]

text: Samhain and Samhain-based festivals are held by some Neopagans. As there are many kinds of Neopaganism, their Samhain celebrations can be very different despite the shared name. Some try to emulate the historic festival as much as possible. Other Neopagans base their celebrations on sundry unrelated sources, Gaelic culture being only one of the sources.[5][88][89] Folklorist Jenny Butler[90] describes how Irish pagans pick some elements of historic Samhain celebrations and meld them with references to the Celtic past, making a new festival of Samhain that is inimitably part of neo-pagan culture.

text: Neopagans usually celebrate Samhain on 31 October – 1 November in the Northern Hemisphere and 30 April – 1 May in the Southern Hemisphere, beginning and ending at sundown.[91][92][93][94] Some Neopagans celebrate it at the astronomical midpoint between the autumn equinox and winter solstice (or the full moon nearest this point). In the Northern Hemisphere, this midpoint is when the ecliptic longitude of the Sun reaches 225 degrees.[95] In 2015, this is on 7 November, at 17:44 GMT.[96]

text: Celtic Reconstructionism[edit]

text: Like other Reconstructionist traditions, Celtic Reconstructionist Pagans emphasise historical accuracy. They base their celebrations and rituals on traditional lore as well as research into the beliefs of the polytheistic Celts.[89][97]

text: Celtic Reconstructionist Pagans (or CRs) often celebrate Samhain on the date of first frost, or when the last of the harvest is in and the ground is dry enough to have a bonfire.[98] Some follow the old tradition of building two bonfires, which celebrants and livestock then walk or dance between as a ritual of purification.[1][40] For CRs, it is a time when the dead are especially honoured. Though CRs make offerings at all times of the year, Samhain is a time when more elaborate offerings are made to specific ancestors.[98] This may involve making a small shrine. Often there will be a meal, where a place for the dead is set at the table and they are invited to join. Traditional tales may be told and traditional songs, poems and dances performed. A western-facing door or window may be opened and a candle left burning on the windowsill to guide the dead home. Divination for the coming year is often done, whether in all solemnity or as games for the children. The more mystically inclined may also see this as a time for deeply communing with their deities, especially those seen as being particularly linked with this festival.[1][40][89][97][98]

text: Wicca[edit]

text: Wiccans celebrate a variation of Samhain as one of the yearly Sabbats of the Wheel of the Year. It is deemed by most Wiccans to be the most important of the four "greater Sabbats". Samhain is seen by some Wiccans as a time to celebrate the lives of those who have died, and it often involves paying respect to ancestors, family members, elders of the faith, friends, pets and other loved ones who have died. In some rituals the spirits of the dead are invited to attend the festivities. It is seen as a festival of darkness, which is balanced at the opposite point of the wheel by the spring festival of Beltane, which Wiccans celebrate as a festival of light and fertility.[99]

text: Wiccans believe that at Samhain the veil between this world and the afterlife is at its thinnest point of the whole year, making it easier to communicate with those who have left this world.[100]


document_title: List of Miss America titleholders

question_text: when was the last time miss texas won miss america

text: List of Miss America titleholders

text: Winners[edit]

text:
Year
Crowned
Winner
State/District
City
Age [1]
Awards
Talent
Notes

1921
Sept. 8, 1921
Gorman, MargaretMargaret Gorman
 District of Columbia
Washington
16
Inter-City Beauty, Amateur

Actually crowned "The Most Beautiful Bathing Girl in America"; was not titled "Miss America" in 1922, when she returned to defend her title

1922
Sept. 7, 1922
Campbell, MaryMary Campbell
 Ohio
Columbus
16

Only person to win twice; also was 1st Runner-up at 1924 pageant

1923
Sept. 7, 1923
17

1924
Sept. 6, 1924
Malcomson, RuthRuth Malcomson
 Pennsylvania
Philadelphia
18

1925
Sept. 11, 1925
Lanphier, FayFay Lanphier
 California
Oakland
19

1926
Sept. 10, 1926
Smallwood, NormaNorma Smallwood
 Oklahoma
Tulsa
18
Bather's Revue Winner,
Evening Gown Award

1927
Sept. 9, 1927
Delander, LoisLois Delander
 Illinois
Joliet
17

1928

No pageants were held

1929

1930

1931

1932

1933
Sept. 9, 1933
Bergeron, MarianMarian Bergeron
 Connecticut
West Haven
15

Prior to the organization's change in age requirements, she became the youngest winner in history at the age of 15½. She held title for two years, since no competition was held in 1934. To date, she is the only representative from a New England state to win.

1934

No pageant was held

1935
Sept. 7, 1935
Leaver, HenriettaHenrietta Leaver
 Pennsylvania
Pittsburgh
17

Vocal / Tap dance
"Living In a Great Big Way"

1936
Sept. 12, 1936
Coyle, RoseRose Coyle
 Pennsylvania
Philadelphia
22
Preliminary Talent
Vocal / tap dance
"I Can't Escape From You" & "Truckin'"

1937
Sept. 11, 1937
Cooper, BetteBette Cooper
 New Jersey
Bertrand Island
17
Evening Gown Award
Vocal
"When the Poppies Bloom Again"

1938
Sept. 10, 1938
Meseke, MarilynMarilyn Meseke
 Ohio
Marion
21

Tap dance
"The World Is Waiting for the Sunrise"
Held the title of Miss Ohio twice (1931 & 1938); was 14 when she won the title Miss Ohio 1931 (no Miss America competition in 1931)

1939
Sept. 9, 1939
Donnelly, PatriciaPatricia Donnelly
 Michigan
Detroit
19

Vocal / Bass Fiddle
"To You" & "Ol' Man Mose"

1940
Sept. 7, 1940
Burke, Frances MarieFrances Marie Burke
 Pennsylvania
Philadelphia
19
Preliminary Swimsuit
Vocal / dance
"I Can't Love You Anymore"

1941
Sept. 6, 1941
LaPlanche, RosemaryRosemary LaPlanche
 California
Los Angeles
18
Preliminary Swimsuit
Dance
Placed 1st runner-up at Miss America 1940 (Pageant now no longer allows contestants to compete for Miss America more than once)

1942
Sept. 12, 1942
Dennison, Jo-CarrollJo-Carroll Dennison
 Texas
Tyler
18
Preliminary Swimsuit,
Preliminary Talent
Vocal / dance
"Deep in the Heart of Texas"

1943
Sept. 11, 1943
Bartel, JeanJean Bartel
 California
Los Angeles
19
Preliminary Swimsuit,
Preliminary Talent
Vocal
"Night and Day"

1944
Sept. 9, 1944
Ramey, VenusVenus Ramey
 District of Columbia
Washington
19
Preliminary Swimsuit,
Preliminary Talent
Vocal / dance
"Take It Easy"

1945
Sept. 8, 1945
Myerson, BessBess Myerson
 New York
New York City
21
Preliminary Swimsuit,
Preliminary Talent
Piano & flute
"Piano Concerto In A Minor" by Edvard Grieg & "Summertime"
First Jewish-American Miss America
First Miss New York crowned

1946
Sept. 7, 1946
Buferd, MarilynMarilyn Buferd
 California
Los Angeles
21
Preliminary Swimsuit,
Preliminary Talent (tie)
Dramatic monologue
Accent on Youth

1947
Sept. 6, 1947
Walker, Barbara JoBarbara Jo Walker
 Tennessee
Memphis
21
Preliminary Talent
Art display & vocal medley
"One Kiss" & "Un Bel Di" from Madama Butterfly

1948
Sept. 11, 1948
Shopp, BeBeBeBe Shopp
 Minnesota
Hopkins
18
Preliminary Swimsuit
Vibraharp
"Caprice Viennois" by Fritz Kreisler

1949
Sept. 10, 1949
Mercer, JacqueJacque Mercer
 Arizona
Litchfield Park
18
Preliminary Swimsuit (tie),
Preliminary Talent
Dramatic reading
Romeo and Juliet

1951
[nb 1]
Sept. 9, 1950
Betbeze, YolandeYolande Betbeze
 Alabama
Mobile
21
Preliminary Swimsuit
Classical vocal
"Caro Nome" from Rigoletto
She is the reason for the creation of Miss USA and Miss Universe pageants[citation needed]

1952
Sept. 8, 1951
Hutchins, Colleen KayColleen Kay Hutchins
 Utah
Salt Lake City
25
Preliminary Talent
Dramatic monologue
"Elizabeth the Queen" by Maxwell Anderson

1953
Sept. 6, 1952
Langley, Neva JaneNeva Jane Langley
 Georgia
Macon
19
Preliminary Swimsuit,
Preliminary Talent
Classical piano
"Toccata"

1954
Sept. 12, 1953
Ay, Evelyn MargaretEvelyn Margaret Ay
 Pennsylvania
Ephrata
20
Preliminary Swimsuit
Poetry recitation
"Footsteps" from Leaves from a Grass-House by Don Blanding
Last winner crowned before pageant is presented on television

1955
Sept. 11, 1954
Meriwether, LeeLee Meriwether
 California
San Francisco
19
Preliminary Swimsuit
Dramatic monologue
Riders to the Sea
Became an actress (Batman)

1956
Sept. 10, 1955
Ritchie, SharonSharon Ritchie
 Colorado
Denver
18

Recitation
"The Murder of Lidice" by Edna St. Vincent Millay

1957
Sept. 8, 1956
McKnight, MarianMarian McKnight
 South Carolina
Manning
19

Comedy sketch
"The Monroe Doctrine"

1958
Sept. 7, 1957
Van Derbur, MarilynMarilyn Van Derbur
 Colorado
Denver
20

Organ
"Tea for Two" & "Tenderly"

1959
Sept. 6, 1958
Mobley, Mary AnnMary Ann Mobley
 Mississippi
Brandon
21
Preliminary Talent
Vocal medley & dance
"Un Bel Di" & "There'll Be Some Changes Made"
Became an actress (Diff'rent Strokes) and TV hostess

1960
Sept. 12, 1959
Mead, Lynda LeeLynda Lee Mead
Natchez
20

Original dramatic act
"Schizophrenia"

1961
Sept. 10, 1960
Fleming, NancyNancy Fleming
 Michigan
Montague
18
Preliminary Swimsuit,
Preliminary Talent (tie)
Presentation of dress design

1962
Sept. 9, 1961
Fletcher, MariaMaria Fletcher
 North Carolina
Asheville
19
Preliminary Swimsuit
Tap dance to her vocal recording
"Somebody Loves Me"
First Miss North Carolina crowned

1963
Sept. 8, 1962
Mayer, JacquelynJacquelyn Mayer
 Ohio
Sandusky
20

Broadway Vignette
"Wishing Upon a Star," "My Favorite Things" & The White Cliffs of Dover

1964
Sept. 7, 1963
Axum, DonnaDonna Axum
 Arkansas
El Dorado
21
Preliminary Swimsuit
Vocal medley
"Quando me'n vo'" & "I Love Paris"

1965
Sept. 12, 1964
Van Dyke, Vonda KayVonda Kay Van Dyke
 Arizona
Phoenix
21
Miss Congeniality
Ventriloquism & singing
"Together (Wherever We Go)"
Only Miss Congeniality award winner to be also crowned Miss America

1966
Sept. 11, 1965
Bryant, Deborah IreneDeborah Irene Bryant
 Kansas
Overland Park
19
Preliminary Swimsuit
Dramatic interpretation
"The Miserable Miserliness of Midas Moneybags"

1967
Sept. 10, 1966
Jayroe, Jane AnneJane Anne Jayroe
 Oklahoma
Laverne
19
Preliminary Talent
Vocal / orchestra conducting
"1-2-3"

1968
Sept. 9, 1967
Barnes, Debra DeneDebra Dene Barnes
 Kansas
Moran
20
Preliminary Swimsuit
Piano solo
"Born Free"

1969
Sept. 7, 1968
Ford, Judith AnneJudith Anne Ford
 Illinois
Belvidere
18
Preliminary Swimsuit,
Preliminary Talent
Acrobatic dance & trampoline
"The Blue Danube"

1970
Sept. 6, 1969
Eldred, Pamela AnnePamela Anne Eldred
 Michigan
West Bloomfield
21
Preliminary Swimsuit
Ballet
"Love Theme" from Romeo & Juliet

1971
Sept. 12, 1970
George, Phyllis AnnPhyllis Ann George
 Texas
Denton
21
Preliminary Swimsuit
Piano medley
Promises, Promises & "Raindrops Keep Fallin' on My Head"
Became presenter of The NFL Today and First Lady of Kentucky

1972
Sept. 11, 1971
Schaefer, Laurie LeaLaurie Lea Schaefer
 Ohio
Bexley
22
Preliminary Swimsuit
Semi-classical vocal
"And This Is My Beloved"

1973
Sept. 9, 1972
Meeuwsen, Terry AnneTerry Anne Meeuwsen
 Wisconsin
De Pere
23
Preliminary Swimsuit,
Preliminary Talent
Vocal
"He Touched Me" from Drat! The Cat!
Co-host of The 700 Club

1974
Sept. 8, 1973
King, Rebecca AnnRebecca Ann King
 Colorado
Denver
23

Vocal
"If I Ruled the World"

1975
Sept. 7, 1974
Cothran, ShirleyShirley Cothran
 Texas
Fort Worth
21
Preliminary Swimsuit
Flute medley
"Bumble Boogie" & "Swingin' Shepherd Blues"

1976
Sept. 6, 1975
Godin, Tawny ElaineTawny Elaine Godin
 New York
Yonkers
18

Original piano composition
"Images in Pastels"

1977
Sept. 11, 1976
Benham, Dorothy KathleenDorothy Kathleen Benham
 Minnesota
Edina
20
Preliminary Swimsuit,
Preliminary Talent
Classical vocal
"Adele's Laughing Song" from Die Fledermaus

1978
Sept. 10, 1977
Perkins, SusanSusan Perkins
 Ohio
Columbus
23
Preliminary Talent
Vocal
"Good Morning Heartache"

1979
Sept. 9, 1978
Barker, KyleneKylene Barker
 Virginia
Galax
22

Gymnastics routine
"Gonna Fly Now" & "Feels So Good"

1980
Sept. 8, 1979
Prewitt, CherylCheryl Prewitt
 Mississippi
Ackerman
22
Preliminary Swimsuit
Vocal / Piano
"Don't Cry Out Loud"

1981
Sept. 6, 1980
Powell, Susan CarolSusan Carol Powell
 Oklahoma
Elk City
21
Preliminary Talent (tie)
Classical vocal
"The Telephone Aria"

1982
Sept. 12, 1981
Ward, Grace ElizabethGrace Elizabeth Ward
 Arkansas
Cabot
20
Preliminary Swimsuit
Vocal
"After You've Gone"

1983
Sept. 18, 1982
Maffett, DebraDebra Maffett
 California
Anaheim
25
Preliminary Swimsuit,
Preliminary Talent
Popular vocal
"Come In From the Rain"
Competed for Miss Texas title several times prior to competing and winning Miss California on her first attempt

1984
Sept. 17, 1983
Williams, Vanessa LynnVanessa Lynn Williams
 New York
Millwood
20
Preliminary Swimsuit,
Preliminary Talent
Popular vocal
"Happy Days Are Here Again"
First African American Miss America

Resigned on July 23, 1984 due to backlash from nude photos unauthorized to be published in Penthouse magazine

July 23, 1984
Charles, SuzetteSuzette Charles
 New Jersey
Mays Landing
21
Preliminary Talent
Popular vocal
"Kiss Me In the Rain"
Seven-week reign - the shortest served by any Miss America

1985
Sept. 8, 1984
Wells, SharleneSharlene Wells
 Utah
Salt Lake City
20
Preliminary Swimsuit
Spanish vocal & Paraguyan harp
"Mis Noches Sin Ti"
The first foreign-born, bilingual Miss America, having been born in Asunción, Paraguay[2]

1986
Sept. 14, 1985
Akin, SusanSusan Akin
 Mississippi
Meridian
21
Preliminary Swimsuit
Vocal
"You're My World"

1987
Sept. 13, 1986
Cash, KellyeKellye Cash
 Tennessee
Memphis
21
Preliminary Swimsuit,
Preliminary Talent
Piano / Vocal
"I'll Be Home"
Grandniece of singer, Johnny Cash

1988
Sept. 19, 1987
Rafko, Kaye Lani RaeKaye Lani Rae Rafko
 Michigan
Monroe
24
Preliminary Swimsuit
Hawaiian-Tahitian dance
President of Gabby's Ladder, a bereavement program for children and their families

1989
Sept. 10, 1988
Carlson, GretchenGretchen Carlson
 Minnesota
Anoka
22
Preliminary Talent
Classical violin
"Zigeunerweisen"
Former news anchor of Fox & Friends

1990
Sept. 16, 1989
Turner, DebbyeDebbye Turner
 Missouri
Mexico
23
Preliminary Swimsuit
Marimba medley
"Flight of the Bumblebee," "Csárdás" & "Can-Can"
Medical Reporter and Anchor for CBS's The Early Show
First Miss Missouri crowned

1991
Sept. 8, 1990
Vincent, MarjorieMarjorie Vincent
 Illinois
Oak Park
25
Preliminary Talent
Classical piano
"Fantaisie-Impromptu"
First Miss America winner of Haitian descent

1992
Sept. 14, 1991
Sapp, Carolyn SuzanneCarolyn Suzanne Sapp
 Hawaii
Kona
24
Preliminary Swimsuit
Vocal
"Ain't Misbehavin'"

1993
Sept. 19, 1992
Cornett, LeanzaLeanza Cornett
 Florida
Jacksonville
21

Vocal
"A New Life" from Jekyll & Hyde
Married (and separated from) Mark Steines[3]

1994
Sept. 18, 1993
Aiken, Kimberly ClariceKimberly Clarice Aiken
 South Carolina
Columbia
18

Vocal
"Summertime"

1995
Sept. 17, 1994
Whitestone, HeatherHeather Whitestone
 Alabama
Birmingham
21
Preliminary Swimsuit,
Preliminary Talent
Ballet en Pointe
"Via Dolorosa"
First deaf Miss America

1996
Sept. 16, 1995
Smith, ShawntelShawntel Smith
 Oklahoma
Muldrow
24

Vocal
"The Woman in the Moon" from A Star Is Born
Executive vice president of administration of PBH Holdings.

1997
Sept. 14, 1996
Holland, Tara DawnTara Dawn Holland
 Kansas
Overland Park
23
Preliminary Swimsuit
Classical vocal
"Où Va la Jeune Hindoue" from Lakmé
Video of her crowning was shown at beginning of 2006 film Little Miss Sunshine

1998
Sept. 13, 1997
Shindle, KatherineKatherine Shindle
 Illinois
Evanston
21
Preliminary Talent
Vocal
"Don't Rain on My Parade"
Performed in Legally Blonde on Broadway
President of the Actors' Equity Association

1999
Sept. 19, 1998
Johnson, NicoleNicole Johnson
 Virginia
Roanoke
24

Vocal
"That's Life"
Diabetes awareness advocate

2000
Sept. 18, 1999
French, Heather ReneeHeather Renee French
 Kentucky
Maysville
24
Preliminary Swimsuit
Vocal
"As If We Never Said Goodbye" from Sunset Boulevard
First Miss Kentucky crowned

2001
Oct. 14, 2000
Baraquio, Angela PerezAngela Perez Baraquio
 Hawaii
Honolulu
24
Preliminary Swimsuit
Hula
"Theme" from Mutiny on the Bounty
First Filipino American and Asian American Miss America

2002
Sept. 22, 2001
Harman, KatieKatie Harman
 Oregon
Gresham
21
Preliminary Talent
Classical vocal
"O mio babbino caro"
First Miss Oregon crowned

2003
Sept. 21, 2002
Harold, ErikaErika Harold
 Illinois
Urbana
22

Classical vocal
"Habanera"

2004
Sept. 20, 2003
Dunlap, ErickaEricka Dunlap
 Florida
Orlando
21

Vocal
"If I Could"
Finished in third place on The Amazing Race 15 with her then-husband, Brian Kleinschmidt

2005
Sept. 18, 2004
Downs, DeidreDeidre Downs
 Alabama
Birmingham
24

Vocal
"I'm Afraid This Must Be Love"
Won Miss Alabama on her fifth try

2006
Jan. 21, 2006
Berry, JenniferJennifer Berry
 Oklahoma
Tulsa
22
Preliminary Talent
Ballet en Pointe
"Within"
Won Miss Oklahoma on her fifth try

2007
Jan. 29, 2007
Nelson, LaurenLauren Nelson
Lawton
20
Preliminary Lifestyle & Fitness
Vocal
"You'll Be in My Heart"

2008
Jan. 26, 2008
Haglund, KirstenKirsten Haglund
 Michigan
Farmington Hills
19
Preliminary Lifestyle & Fitness
Vocal
"Over the Rainbow"
Grandmother competed at Miss America as Miss Detroit

2009
Jan. 24, 2009
Stam, KatieKatie Stam
 Indiana
Seymour
22
Preliminary Lifestyle & Fitness
Vocal
"Via Dolorosa"
First Miss Indiana crowned

2010
Jan. 30, 2010
Cameron, CaressaCaressa Cameron
 Virginia
Fredericksburg
22
Preliminary Talent
Vocal
"Listen" from Dreamgirls

2011
Jan. 15, 2011
Scanlan, TeresaTeresa Scanlan
 Nebraska
Gering
17
Preliminary Talent
Piano
"White Water Chopped Sticks" by Calvin Jones
Youngest Miss America winner since 1933
First Miss Nebraska crowned

2012
Jan. 14, 2012
Kaeppeler, LauraLaura Kaeppeler
 Wisconsin
Kenosha
23
Preliminary Talent
Operatic vocal
"Il Bacio" by Luigi Arditi

2013
Jan. 12, 2013
Hagan, MalloryMallory Hagan
 New York
Brooklyn
23

Tap dance
"Get Up Offa That Thing" by James Brown

2014
Sept. 15, 2013
Davuluri, NinaNina Davuluri
Fayetteville
24

Bollywood Fusion dance
"Dhoom Tana" from the film Om Shanti Om
First Indian American winner
First to perform a Bollywood dance at Miss America pageant

2015
Sept. 14, 2014
Kazantsev, KiraKira Kazantsev
Manhattan
23

Vocal with plastic cup percussion
"Happy" by Pharrell Williams

2016
Sept. 13, 2015
Cantrell, BettyBetty Cantrell
 Georgia
Warner Robins
20
Preliminary Talent
Classical vocal
"Tu? Tu? Piccolo Iddio!" from Madama Butterfly

2017
Sept. 11, 2016
Savvy Shields
 Arkansas
Fayetteville
21
Preliminary Talent
Jazz dance, "They Just Keep Moving the Line" from the NBC show Smash

2018
Sept. 10, 2017
Cara Mund
 North Dakota
Bismarck
23

Jazz Dance, “The Way You Make Me Feel” by Michael Jackson
First Miss North Dakota crowned

text: Winners by state[edit]

text:
State
Number of
Titles Won
Year(s) Won

Miss New York
6
1945, 1976, 1984,8 2013, 2014, 2015

Miss Oklahoma
19262, 1967, 1981, 1996, 2006, 2007

Miss California
1925, 1941, 1943, 1946, 1955, 1983

Miss Ohio
19221, 19231, 1938, 1963, 1972, 1978

Miss Michigan
5
1939, 1961, 1970, 1988, 2008

Miss Illinois
1927, 1969, 1991, 1998, 2003

Miss Pennsylvania
19243, 19354, 19363, 19403, 1954

Miss Mississippi
4
1959, 1960, 1980, 1986

Miss Arkansas
3
1964, 1982, 2017

Miss Virginia
1979, 1999, 2010

Miss Alabama
1951, 1995, 2005

Miss Kansas
1966, 1968, 1997

Miss Minnesota
1948, 1977, 1989

Miss New Jersey
19325, 19376, 1984

Miss Texas
1942, 1971, 1975

Miss Colorado
1956, 1958, 1974

Miss Georgia
2
1953, 2016

Miss Wisconsin
1973, 2012

Miss Florida
1993, 2004

Miss Hawaii
1992, 2001

Miss South Carolina
1957, 1994

Miss Tennessee
19477, 1987

Miss Utah
1952, 1985

Miss Arizona
1949, 1965

Miss District of Columbia
1921, 1944

Miss North Dakota
1
2018

Miss Nebraska
2011

Miss Indiana
2009

Miss Oregon
2002

Miss Kentucky
2000

Miss Missouri
1990

Miss North Carolina
1962

Miss Connecticut
1933

text:
1 Competed as Miss Columbus, Ohio 2 Competed as Miss Tulsa, Oklahoma 3 Competed as Miss Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
4 Competed as Miss Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
5 Competed as Miss Greater Camden, New Jersey
6 Competed as Miss Bertrand Island, New Jersey
7 Competed as Miss Memphis, Tennessee
8 The initial 1984 winner was forced to resign and give her title seven weeks prior to the end of her reign

text: There have been no Miss America winners from the following eighteen states and two U.S. territories:

text:
Miss Alaska
Miss Delaware
Miss Idaho
Miss Iowa
Miss Louisiana
Miss Maine
Miss Maryland

Miss Massachusetts
Miss Montana
Miss Nevada
Miss New Hampshire
Miss New Mexico
Miss Puerto Rico
Miss Rhode Island

Miss South Dakota
Miss Vermont
Miss Virgin Islands
Miss Washington
Miss West Virginia
Miss Wyoming

text: Notes[edit]

text: Jump up ^ No "Miss America 1950" was officially crowned. Since majority of titleholder's reign occurs during year following coronation, the organization began referring to titleholder using upcoming year.

tag: ol