document_title: Lord Howe Island

question_text: when did lord howe island became a world heritage site

question_tokens: when did lord howe island became a world heritage site

text: Lord Howe Island

text: History[edit]

text: 1788–1834: First European visits[edit]

text: It appears that, prior to European discovery and settlement, Lord Howe Island was uninhabited, and unknown to Polynesian peoples of the South Pacific.[18] The first reported European sighting of Lord Howe Island was on 17 February 1788 by Lieutenant Henry Lidgbird Ball, commander of the Armed Tender HMS Supply (the oldest and smallest of the First Fleet ships), which was on its way from Botany Bay with a cargo of nine male and six female convicts to found a penal settlement on Norfolk Island.[8] On the return journey of 13 March 1788 Ball observed Ball's Pyramid and sent a party ashore on Lord Howe Island to claim it as a British possession.[9] Numerous turtles and tame birds were captured and returned to Sydney.[19] Ball named Mount Lidgbird and Ball's Pyramid after himself and the main island after Richard Howe, First Earl Howe, who was First Lord of the Admiralty at the time.[9]

text: Many names on the island date from this time, and also from May of the same year when four ships of the First Fleet, HMS Supply, Charlotte, Lady Penrhyn and Scarborough, visited it. Much of the plant and animal life was first recorded in the journals and diaries of visitors like David Blackburn, Master of Supply, and Arthur Bowes Smyth,[20] surgeon of the Lady Penrhyn. Watercolour sketches of native birds including the Lord Howe woodhen (Gallirallus sylvestris), white gallinule (Porphyrio albus), and Lord Howe pigeon (Columba vitiensis godmanae), were made by artists including George Raper and John Hunter. As the latter two birds were soon hunted to extinction these paintings are their only remaining pictorial record.[21][22] Over the next three years the Supply returned to the island several times in search of turtles and the island was also visited by ships of the Second and Third Fleets.[23] Between 1789 and 1791 the Pacific whale industry was born with British and American whaling ships chasing sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus) along the equator to the Gilbert and Ellice archipelago, then south into Australian and New Zealand waters.[24] The American fleet numbered 675 ships and Lord Howe was located in a region known as the Middle Ground noted for sperm whales and southern right whales (Eubalaena australis).[25]

text: The island was subsequently visited by many government and whaling ships sailing between New South Wales and Norfolk Island and across the Pacific, including many from the American whaling fleet, so its reputation as a provisioning port preceded settlement,[10] some ships leaving goats and pigs on the island as food for future visitors. Between July and October 1791 the Third Fleet ships arrived at Sydney and within days the deckwork was being reconstructed for a future in the lucrative whaling industry. Whale oil was to become Australia's most profitable export until the 1830s, and it was the whaling industry that shaped Lord Howe Island's early history.[26]

text: 1834–1841: Settlement[edit]

text: Permanent settlement on Lord Howe was established in June 1834 when the British whaling barque Caroline, sailing from New Zealand and commanded by Captain John Blinkenthorpe, landed at what is now known as Blinky Beach. They left three men, George Ashdown, James Bishop and Chapman, who were employed by a Sydney whaling firm to establish a supply station. The men were initially to provide meat by fishing and by raising pigs and goats from feral stock. They landed with (or acquired from a visiting ship) their Māori wives and two Māori boys. Huts were built in an area now known as Old Settlement which had a supply of fresh water, and a garden was established west of Blinky Beach.[11][27]

text: This was a cashless society; the settlers bartered their stores of water, wood, vegetables, meat, fish and bird feathers for clothes, tea, sugar, tools, tobacco and other commodities not available on the island – but it was the whalers’ valuation that had to be accepted.[28][29] These first settlers eventually left the island when they were bought out for £350 in September 1841 by businessmen Owen Poole and Richard Dawson (later joined by John Foulis) whose employees and others then settled on the island.[30]

text: 1842–1860: Trading provisions[edit]

text: The new business was advertised and ships trading between Sydney and the New Hebrides (Vanuatu) would also put into the island. Rover's Bride, a small cutter, became the first regular trading vessel.[31] Between 1839 and 1859 between five and twelve ships made landfall each year, occasionally closer to 20 with seven or eight at a time laying off the reef.[32] In 1842 and 1844 the first children were born on the island. Then in 1847 Poole, Dawson and Foulis, bitter at failing to obtain a land lease from the New South Wales Government, abandoned the settlement although three of their employees remained.[33] One family, the Andrews, after finding some onions on the beach in 1848, cultivated them as the "Lord Howe red onion" which was popular in the Southern Hemisphere for about 30 years until the crop was attacked by smut disease.[34]

text: In 1849 there were just 11 people living on the island but it was not long before the island farms expanded.[34] In the 1850s gold was discovered on mainland Australia where crews would abandon their ships, preferring to dig for gold than to risk a life at sea. As a consequence many vessels avoided the mainland and Lord Howe Island experienced an increasing trade which peaked between 1855 and 1857.[35] In 1851 about 16 people were living on the island.[11] Vegetable crops now included potatoes, carrots, maize, pumpkin, taro, watermelon – even grapes, passionfruit and coffee.[27] Between 1851 and 1853 there were several aborted proposals by the NSW Government to establish a penal settlement on the island.[36]

text: From 1851 to 1854 Henry Denham captain of HMS Herald, which was on a scientific expedition to the southwest Pacific (1852–1856), completed the island's first hydrographic survey. On board were three Scottish biologists, William Milne (a gardener-botanist from the Edinburgh Botanic Garden), John Macgillivray (naturalist) who collected fish and plant specimens, and Assistant Surgeon and zoologist Denis Macdonald. Together these men established much basic information on the geology, flora and fauna of the island.[37]

text: In about 1853 a further three settlers arrived on the American whaling barque Belle, captained by Ichabod Handy.[38] As well as George Campbell (who died in 1856) and Jack Brian (who left the island in 1854), the third, Nathan Thompson, brought three women (called Botanga, Bogoroo, and a girl named Bogue) from the Gilbert Islands. When his first wife Botanga died he then married Bogue. Thompson was the first resident to build a substantial house in the 1860s from mainland cedar washed up on the beach.[39] Most of the residents with island ancestors have blood relations or are connected by marriage to Thompson and his second wife Bogue.[40]

text: In 1855 the island was officially designated as part of New South Wales by the Constitution Act.[41]

text: 1861–1890: Scientific expeditions[edit]

text: From the early 1860s whaling declined rapidly with the increasing use of petroleum, the onset of the Californian goldrush, and the American Civil War – with unfortunate consequences for the island. To explore alternative means of income Thompson, in 1867, purchased the Sylph which was the first local vessel to trade with Sydney (mainly pigs and onions). It anchored in deep water at what is now Sylph's Hole off Old Settlement Beach, but was eventually tragically lost at sea in 1873 which added to the woes of the island at this time.[42]

text: In 1869 the island was visited by a magistrate P. Cloete aboard the Thetis investigating a possible murder. He was accompanied by Charles Moore, director of the Botanic Gardens in Sydney, and his assistant William Carron who forwarded plant specimens to Ferdinand Mueller at the botanic gardens in Melbourne who, by 1875, had catalogued and published 195 species.[43] Also on the ship was William Fitzgerald, a surveyor, and Mr Masters from the Australian Museum. Together they surveyed the island with the findings published in 1870 when the population was listed as 35 people, their 13 houses built of split palm battens thatched on the roof and sides with palm leaves.[44] At about this time there began a downturn of trade with the demise of the whaling industry and sometimes six or twelve months passed without a vessel calling. With the provisions rotting in the storehouses the older families lost interest in market gardening.[45]

text: From 1860 to 1872 forty-three ships had collected provisions, but from 1873 to 1887 there were fewer than a dozen.[35] This prompted some activity from the mainland. In 1876 a government report on the island was submitted by surveyor William Fitzgerald based on a visit in the same year. He suggested that coffee be grown but the kentia palm was already catching world attention.[12] In 1878 the island was declared a Forest Reserve and Captain Richard Armstrong became the first resident government administrator. He encouraged schools, tree-planting and the palm trade, dynamited the north passage to the lagoon, and built roads. He also managed to upset the residents, and parliamentarian John Wilson was sent from the mainland in April 1882 to investigate the situation.[46] With Wilson was a team of scientists that included H. Wilkinson from the Mines Department, W. Condor from the Survey Department, J. Duff from the Sydney Botanical Gardens and A. Morton from the Australian Museum. J. Sharkey from the Government Printing Office took the earliest known photographs of the Island and its residents. A full account of the island appeared in the report from this visit,[47] which recommended that Armstrong be replaced. Meanwhile, the population had increased considerably and included 29 children; the report recommended that a schoolmaster be appointed.[48] This study sealed a lasting relationship with three scientific organisations, the Australian Museum, Sydney Royal Botanic Gardens and Kew Royal Botanic Gardens.

text: In 1883 the company Burns Philp started a regular shipping service and the number of tourists gradually increased. By 1932, with the regular tourist run of SS Morinda, tourism became the second biggest source of external income after palm sales to Europe.[11] Morinda was replaced by Makambo in 1932, and she in turn by other vessels. The service continues into the present day with the fortnightly Island Trader service from Port Macquarie.[49]

text: The palm trade began in the 1880s when the lowland kentia palm (Howea forsteriana) was first exported to Britain, Europe and America but the trade was only placed on a firm financial footing when the Lord Howe Island Kentia Palm Nursery was formed in 1906 (see below).

text: The first plane to appear on the island was in 1931 when Francis Chichester alighted on the lagoon in a de Havilland Gipsy Moth converted into a floatplane. It was damaged there in an overnight storm but repaired with the assistance of islanders and then took off successfully nine weeks later for a flight to Sydney.[50] After World War II, in 1947, tourists arrived on Catalina and then four-engined Sandringham flying boats of Ansett Flying Boat Services operating out of Rose Bay, Sydney, and landing on the lagoon, the journey taking about 3 1⁄2 hours. When Lord Howe Island Airport was completed in 1974, the seaplanes were eventually replaced with Qantaslink twin-engined turbo-prop Dash 8-200 aircraft.[51]

text: 21st century[edit]

text: In 2002, the Royal Navy destroyer HMS Nottingham struck Wolf Rock, a reef at Lord Howe Island, and almost sank.[52] In recent times tourism has increased and the government of New South Wales has been increasingly involved with issues of conservation.[11]

text: On 17 October 2011 a supply ship, M/V Island Trader, with twenty tons of fuel ran aground in the lagoon. The ship refloated at high tide with no loss of crew or cargo.[53]

text: The 2016 film The Shallows starring Blake Lively was largely filmed on the island.[54]

text: One of the most contentious issues amongst islanders in the 21st century is what to do about the rodent situation. Rodents have only been on the island since a ship ran aground in 1918 and have wiped out several endemic bird species and were thought to have done the same to the Lord Howe Island stick insect. There is a plan to drop 42 tonnes of rat bait across the island but the community is heavily divided.[55]

text: Demographics[edit]

text: As at the 2016 census, the resident population was 382 people,[56] and the number of tourists was not allowed to exceed 400.[57] Early settlers were European and American whalers and many of their offspring have remained on the island for more than six generations. Residents are now involved with the kentia palm industry, tourism, retail, some fishing and farming. In 1876 it was observed that on Sundays although there was a suspension of games and labour, there were no religious services.[45] Nowadays, in an area known locally as Church Paddock, there are Anglican, Catholic and Adventist churches, the religious affiliations on the island being 30% Anglican, 22% no religion, 18% Catholic and 12% Seventh Day Adventist.[58] There is about an equal division of the sexes with 47% of the population in the age group 25–54 and 92% holding Australian citizenship.[58]

text: Governance and land tenure[edit]

text: Official control of Lord Howe Island lay initially with the British Crown until it passed to New South Wales in 1855,[41][59] although until at least 1876 the islanders lived in "a relatively harmonious and self-regulating community".[60] In 1878 Richard Armstrong was appointed administrator when the NSW Parliament declared the island a Forest Reserve. But as a result of ill feeling, and an enquiry, he was eventually removed from office on 31 May 1882 (he returned later that year though to view the transit of Venus from present-day Transit Hill).[61] After his removal the island was administered by four successive magistrates until 1913 when a Sydney-based Board was formed until 1948 when a resident superintendent was appointed.[62] In 1913 the three-man Lord Howe Island Board of Control was established, mostly to regulate the palm seed industry, but also administering the affairs of the island from Sydney until the present Lord Howe Island Board was set up in 1954.[63]

text: The Lord Howe Island Board is a NSW Statutory Authority established under the Lord Howe Island Act 1953, to administer the island as part of the state of New South Wales. It reports directly to the state's Minister for Environment and Heritage, and is responsible for the care, control and management of the island. Its duties include: the protection of World Heritage values; the control of development; the administration of Crown Land, including the island's protected area; provision of community services and infrastructure; and regulating sustainable tourism.[13] In 1981 the Lord Howe Island Amendment Act gave islanders the administrative power of three members on a five-member Board.[64] The Board also manages the Lord Howe Island Kentia Palm Nursery which, together with tourism, provides the island's only sources of external income.[13] Under an amendment bill in 2004 the Board now comprises seven members, four of whom are elected from the islander community,[13] thus giving about 350 permanent residents a high level of autonomy. The remaining three members are appointed by the Minister to represent the interests of business, tourism and conservation.[13] The full Board meets on the island every three months while the day-to-day affairs of the island are managed by the Board's administration, with a permanent staff that had increased to 22 people by 1988.[65]

text: Land tenure has been an issue since first settlement as island residents repeatedly requested freehold title or an absolute gift of cultivated land.[66] Original settlers were squatters. The granting of a 100-acre (40 ha) lease to Richard Armstrong in 1878 drew complaints and a few short-term leases ("permissive occupancies") were granted.[67] In 1913, with the appointment of a Board of Control, permissive occupancies were revoked and the Board itself given permissive occupancy of the island.[68] Then the Lord Howe Island Act 1953 made all land the property of the Crown. Direct descendants of islanders with permissive occupancies in 1913 were granted perpetual leases on blocks of up to 5 acres (2.0 ha) for residential purposes. Short-term special leases were granted for larger areas used for agriculture, so in 1955, fifty-five perpetual leases and 43 special leases were granted.[69] The 1981 amendment to the act extended political and land rights to all residents of 10 years or more.[69] There remains an active debate concerning the proportion of residents with tenure and the degree of influence on the Board of resident islanders in relation to long-term planning for visitors, and issues relating to the environment, amenity and global heritage.[67]

text: Economy[edit]

text: Trading vegetables, meat, fish and other perishables with visiting ships ceased in the 1870s when the whaling industry collapsed.[11] With such a small population, Lord Howe Island's economy is now extremely simple with external income derived from only two significant sources: tourism and the overseas sale of kentia palm seeds and seedlings.

text: Kentia palm industry[edit]

text: The first exporter of palm seeds was Ned King, a mountain guide for the Fitzgerald surveys of 1869 and 1876, who sent seed to the Sydney Botanic Gardens. Overseas trade began in the 1880s when it was found that one of the four palms endemic to the island, kentia palm (Howea forsteriana), which grows naturally in the lowlands, was ideally suited to the fashionable conservatories of the well-to-do in Britain, Europe and the United States,[14][48] but the assistance of mainland magistrate Frank Farnell was needed to put the business on a sound commercial footing when in 1906 he became Director of a company, the Lord Howe Island Kentia Palm Nursery, whose shareholders included 21 islanders and a Sydney-based seed company. However, the formation of the Lord Howe Island Board of Control was needed in 1913 to resolve outstanding issues.[70]

text: The native kentia palm (known locally as the thatch palm as it was used to thatch the houses of the early settlers) is now the most popular decorative palm in the world. The mild climate of the island has evolved a palm which can tolerate low light, a dry atmosphere and lowish temperatures – ideal for indoor conditions.[14] Up to the 1980s the palms were only sold as seed but from then onwards only as high quality seedlings. The nursery received certification in 1997 for its high quality management complying with the requirements of Australian Standard AS/NZS ISO 9002.[71]

text: Seed is gathered from natural forest and plantations, most collectors being descendants of the original settlers. Seed is then germinated in soil-less media and sealed from the atmosphere to prevent contamination. After testing they are picked, washed (bare-rooted), sanitised and certified then packed and sealed into insulated containers for export. They grow both indoors and out and are popular for hotels and motels worldwide. Nursery profits are returned to enhance the island ecosystem. The nursery plans to expand the business to include the curly palm and other native plants of special interest.[14]

text: Tourism[edit]

text: Lord Howe Island is known for its geology, birds, plants, and marine life. Popular tourist activities include scuba diving, birdwatching, snorkelling, surfing, kayaking, and fishing.[72] To relieve pressure on the small island environment only 400 tourists are permitted at any one time.[57] The island is reached by plane from Sydney Airport or Brisbane Airport in less than two hours.[57] The Permanent Park Preserve declared in 1981 has similar management guidelines to a national park.[73]

text: Facilities[edit]

text: With fewer than 800 people on the island at any time, facilities are limited; they include a bakery, butcher, general store, liquor store, restaurants, post office, museum and information centre, a police officer, a ranger, and an ATM at the bowling club. Stores are shipped to the island fortnightly by the Island Trader from Port Macquarie.[49] There is a small four-bed hospital and dispensary.[74] A small botanic garden displays labelled local plants in its grounds. Diesel-generated power is 240 volts AC, as on the mainland.[74] There is no public transport or mobile phone coverage, but there are public telephones, fax facilities and internet access[74] as well as a local radio station and newsletter, The Signal.

text: Tourist accommodation ranges from luxury lodges to apartments and villa units.[75] The currency is the Australian dollar, and there are two banks.[74] There are no camping facilities on the island and remote-area camping is not permitted.[75] To protect the fragile environment of Ball's Pyramid (which carries the last remaining wild population of the endangered Howe Island stick insect), recreational climbing there is prohibited. No pets are allowed without permission from the Board. Islanders use tanked rainwater, supplemented by bore water for showers and washing clothes.[76]

text: Activities[edit]

text: As distances to sites of interest are short, cycling is the main means of transport on the island. Tourist activities include golf (9-hole), lawn bowls, tennis, fishing (including deep-sea game fishing), yachting, windsurfing, kitesurfing, kayaking, and boat trips (including glass-bottom tours of the lagoon).[77][78] Swimming, snorkelling and scuba diving are also popular in the lagoon, as well as off Tenth of June Island, a small rocky outcrop in the Admiralty group where an underwater plateau drops 36 m (118 ft) to reveal extensive gorgonia and black corals growing on the vertical walls. Other diving sites are found off Ball's Pyramid, 26 km (16 mi) away, where there are trenches, caves and volcanic drop-offs.[79]

text: Bushwalking, natural history tours, talks, and guided walks take place along the many tracks, the most challenging being the eight-hour guided hike to the top of Mount Gower.[80] There are 11 beaches and hand-feeding the 1-metre-long (3 ft) kingfish (Seriola lalandi) and large wrasse at Ned's Beach is very popular.[81] Walking tracks cover the island with difficulty graded from 1–5, they include – in the north: Transit Hill 2 hours return, 2 km (1.2 mi); Clear Place, 1–2 hours return; Stevens Reserve; North Bay, 4 hours return, 4 km (2.5 mi); Mount Eliza; Old Gulch, 20 minutes return, 300 m (330 yd); Malabar Hill and Kims Lookout, 3 hours, or 5 hours return, 7 km (4.3 mi) and – in the south: Goat House Cave, 5 hours return, 6 km (3.7 mi); Mount Gower, 8 hours return, 14 km (8.7 mi); Rocky Run and Boat Harbour; Intermediate Hill, 45 minutes return, 1 km (1,100 yd); Little Island, 40 minutes return, 3 km (1.9 mi). Recreational climbers must obtain permission from the Lord Howe Island Board.[82][83]

text: Geography[edit]

text: Lord Howe Island is an irregularly crescent-shaped volcanic remnant in the southwest Pacific Ocean. Lying in the Tasman Sea between Australia and New Zealand the island is 600 km (370 mi) east of mainland Port Macquarie, 702 km (436 mi) northeast of Sydney, and about 772 km (480 mi) from Norfolk Island to its northeast.[84] The island is about 10 km (6.2 mi) long and between 0.3 and 2.0 km (0.19 and 1.24 mi) wide with an area of 14.55 km2 (5.62 sq mi). Along the west coast there is a semi-enclosed sheltered coral reef lagoon with white sand, the most accessible of the island's eleven beaches. Both the north and south sections of the island are high ground of relatively untouched forest, in the south comprising two volcanic mountains, Mount Lidgbird (777 m, 2,549 ft) and Mount Gower which, rising to 875 m (2,871 ft), is the highest point on the island.[85] The two mountains are separated by the saddle at the head of Erskine Valley. In the north, where most of the population live, high points are Malabar (209 m, 686 ft) and Mount Eliza (147 m, 482 ft). Between these two uplands is an area of cleared lowland with some farming, the airstrip, and housing. The Lord Howe Island Group of islands comprises 28 islands, islets and rocks. Apart from Lord Howe Island itself the most notable of these is the pointed rocky islet Ball's Pyramid, a 551-metre-high (1,808 ft) eroded volcano about 23 km (14 mi) to the southeast, which is uninhabited but bird-colonised.[86] It contains the only known wild population of the Lord Howe Island stick insect, formerly thought to be extinct.[87] To the north there is the Admiralty Group, a cluster of seven small uninhabited islands.[7] Just off the east coast is 4.5 ha (11 acres) Mutton Bird Island, and in the lagoon is the 3 ha (7.4 acres) Blackburn (Rabbit) Island.

text: Geological origins[edit]

text: Lord Howe Island is the highly eroded remains of a 7-million-year-old shield volcano, the product of eruptions that lasted for about 500,000 years.[88] It is one of a chain of islands that occur on the western rim of an undersea shelf, the Lord Howe Rise, which is 3,000 km (1,900 mi) long and 300 km (190 mi) wide extending from New Zealand to the west of New Caledonia and consisting of continental rocks that separated from the Australian plate 60 to 80 million years ago to form a new crust in the deep Tasman Basin.[89] The shelf is part of Zealandia, a microcontinent nearly half the size of Australia that gradually submerged after breaking away from the Gondwanan supercontinent.[90] The Lord Howe Seamount Chain is defined by coral-capped guyots stretching to the north of the island for 1,000 km (620 mi) and including the Middleton (220 km, 140 mi away) and Elizabeth (160 km, 99 mi away) reefs of the Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs Marine National Park Reserve. This chain of nine volcanic peaks was probably produced by the northward movement of the Indo-Australian Plate over a stationary hotspot so the oldest guyots were the first formed and most northerly as the plate moved northward at a rate of 6 cm (2.4 in) per year (see plate tectonics).[91][92]

text: Basalts and calcarenite[edit]

text: Two periods of volcanic activity produced the major features of the island. The first about 6.9 million years ago produced the northern and central hills while the younger and highly eroded Mount Gower and Mount Lidgbird were produced about 6.3 million years ago by successive basalt (an extrusive igneous rock) lava flows that once filled a large volcanic caldera (crater)[93] and can now be seen as horizontal basalt strata on mountain cliffs (at Malabar and Mount Gower) occasionally interspersed with dikes (vertical lava intrusions).[94][95] Geological pyroclastic remnants of volcanic eruption can be seen on the 15 ha (37 acres) Roach Island (where the oldest rocks occur) and Boat Harbour as tuff (ash), breccia (with angular blocks), and agglomerate (rounded 'bombs').[14] Offshore on the Lord Howe Rise water depths reach 2,000 m (6,600 ft) falling to 4,000 m (13,000 ft) to the west of the rise. From the dimensions of the rock on which the island stands it has been calculated that the island has eroded to one fortieth of its original size.[96]

text: Rocks and land at the foot of these mountains is calcarenite, a coral sand, blown inland during the Pleistocene between 130,000 and 20,000 years ago and cemented into stratified layers by water percolation.[97] In this rock are fossils of bird bones and eggs, land and marine snails and the extinct endemic horned turtle (Meiolania platyceps) now thought to be an ancient relictual non-swimming tortoise with relatives in South America.[98] The crescent of the island protects a coral reef and lagoon, the barrier reef, at 31° S, is the most southerly in the world.[99] Beach sands, rather than consisting of quartz grains derived from granite, as on the mainland, are made of fragments of shell, coral and coralline algae, together with basalt grains, and basaltic minerals like black diopside, and green olivine.[100] The lowland consists of alluvial soils.

text: The island continues to erode rapidly and is expected to be fully submerged within 200,000 years taking an appearance akin to the Middleton and Elizabeth Reefs.[101]

text: Climate[edit]

text: Lord Howe Island has a subtropical climate.[102] Under the Köppen climate classification, Lord Howe Island has a Humid subtropical climate (Cfa).

text: In general the summers are warm-hot with rainfall erratic but occasionally heavy while in winter it is very mild with rainfall more or less uniform. There is a gradual transition from summer to winter conditions and vice versa.[103] Winds are frequent and salt-laden being moderate easterlies in the summer and fresh to strong westerlies in the winter.[103][104] July is the windiest month,[105] and the winter months are subject to frequent gales and strong winds. The island has 67.8 clear days, annually.[103]

text: Storms and occasional cyclones also affect the island.[103] Rainfall records are maintained in the north where rainfall is less than in the frequently cloud-shrouded mountains of the south. There can be wide variation in rainfall from year to year. July and August are the coldest months with average minimum temperatures of about 13 °C (55 °F) and no frost. Average maximum temperatures range from 17–20 °C (63–68 °F) in the winter to 24–27 °C (75–81 °F) in the summer. The humidity averages in the 60–70% range year round becoming more noticeable on warmer summer days than in the cooler winter months.[106][107]

text: The average temperature of the sea ranges from 20.0 °C (68.0 °F) in July, August and September to 25.3 °C (77.5 °F) in March.[108]

text:
[hide]Climate data for Lord Howe Island

Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year

Record high °C (°F)
29.9
(85.8)
31.3
(88.3)
28.2
(82.8)
27.0
(80.6)
25.2
(77.4)
23.9
(75)
22.4
(72.3)
23.4
(74.1)
23.3
(73.9)
24.9
(76.8)
28.0
(82.4)
28.3
(82.9)
31.3
(88.3)

Average high °C (°F)
25.3
(77.5)
25.7
(78.3)
24.8
(76.6)
23.2
(73.8)
21.4
(70.5)
19.8
(67.6)
18.9
(66)
18.9
(66)
20.0
(68)
20.8
(69.4)
22.3
(72.1)
24.0
(75.2)
22.1
(71.8)

Average low °C (°F)
20.6
(69.1)
21.0
(69.8)
20.0
(68)
18.0
(64.4)
16.3
(61.3)
14.8
(58.6)
13.9
(57)
13.5
(56.3)
14.6
(58.3)
15.7
(60.3)
17.4
(63.3)
19.2
(66.6)
17.1
(62.8)

Record low °C (°F)
13.1
(55.6)
14.7
(58.5)
13.4
(56.1)
11.2
(52.2)
9.1
(48.4)
7.5
(45.5)
6.6
(43.9)
6.6
(43.9)
5.9
(42.6)
7.8
(46)
9.2
(48.6)
11.4
(52.5)
5.9
(42.6)

Average precipitation mm (inches)
113.5
(4.469)
112.6
(4.433)
131.9
(5.193)
134.2
(5.283)
157.7
(6.209)
173.1
(6.815)
141.0
(5.551)
107.7
(4.24)
110.7
(4.358)
106.1
(4.177)
110.3
(4.343)
102.4
(4.031)
1,499
(59.016)

Average precipitation days
13.1
13.2
15.9
18.6
20.8
21.7
23.2
20.4
16.5
14.3
13.6
13.5
204.8

Average relative humidity (%)
69
66
67
67
66
66
66
64
68
68
67
66
67

Source: [109]

text: Flora and fauna[edit]

text: Plants[edit]

text: Lord Howe Island is a distinct terrestrial ecoregion known as the Lord Howe Island subtropical forests. It is part of the Australasia ecozone and shares many biotic affinities with Australia, New Guinea, and New Caledonia.[110] Almost half of the island's native plants are endemic and many of the island's unique plants grow on or around the mountain summits where the height has allowed the development of a true cloud forest and many different microhabitats from sealevel to the summits.[111] One of the best known is Howea, an endemic genus of palms (Arecaceae) that are commonly known as kentia palms and make handsome houseplants.[112] Annual exports provide a revenue of over A$2 million, providing the only major industry on the island apart from tourism.[113]

text: Origin[edit]

text: In geological terms at 7 million years old Lord Howe Island is relatively young and was never part of any continent, its flora and fauna colonising the island from across the sea, carried by wind, water or birds, possibly assisted at a geological time when other islands were exposed, enabling island hopping.[114] Nevertheless, it is far enough away and has had sufficient time to evolve endemic species. The high degree of endemism is emphasised by the presence of five endemic genera: Negria, Lordhowea, Howea, Lepidorrhachis, and Hedyscepe.[115] Island plants are similar to those of Norfolk Island, the two islands sharing some endemic species, for example, the critically endangered species of creeping vine Calystegia affinis. The combined flora of these two islands is more closely related to that of New Zealand and New Caledonia than to that of Australia.[115] There is also a small but clear link with the plants of Vanuatu.[115] The closest mainland affinities are with the vegetation of subtropical southeastern Queensland. A link with Gondwanaland is indicated by the presence of endemic species like the wedding lily (Dietes robinsoniana) whose only living relatives occur in South Africa.[116]

text: The flora of the island is relatively untouched with a large number of rare plants, 44% being endemic to the island.[115] With a diversity of conditions ranging from valleys, to ridges, plains and misty mountain tops there is habitat for a wide range of plant communities which have been comprehensively analysed and mapped.[117] There are 57 species of fern of which 25 are endemic: they are most abundant in the moist environments of the southern island, especially the higher parts of Mount Gower,[118] perhaps the most apparent being the four endemic tree ferns in the genus Cyathea that occur on the southern mountains.[119]

text:
Number of different vascular plants[115]

Total
Indigenous
Endemic
Naturalised

459
241
105 (43.6%)
218 (47.5%)

text: Communities and special plants[edit]

text: Plant communities have been classified into nine categories: lowland subtropical rainforest, submontane rainforest, cloud-forest and scrub, lowland swamp forest, mangrove scrub and seagrass, coastal scrub and cliff vegetation, inland scrub and herbland, offshore island vegetation, shoreline and beach vegetation, and disturbed vegetation.[115]

text: Several plants are immediately evident to the visitor. Banyan (Ficus macrophylla subsp. columnaris) is a remarkable tree with a buttressed trunk and pendulous aerial roots: it can be seen on the track to Clear Place and near Ned's Beach.[120] Pandanus tree (Pandanus forsteri) has spectacular teepee-like prop roots and pineapple-like fruits that are orange-red when mature, the tough leaves being used for basketry. It occurs in damp areas like creek beds and fine specimens can be seen along the Boat Harbour track.[120] There are ten species of orchid on the island, the most noticeable being the bush orchid (Dendrobium macropus subsp. howeanum) on lowland trees and rocks, bearing cream flowers from August to September.[120] Other prominent flowering plants in the summer include, on the mountain slopes, the whiskery red flowers of mountain rose (Metrosideros nervulosa and Metrosideros sclerocarpa), the massed small yellow flowers of corokia (Corokia carpodetoides), orange plump flowers of pumpkin tree (Negria rhabdothamnoides), and white spikes of Fitzgerald tree (Dracophyllum fitzgeraldii).[120] The kava bush has large, aromatic, heart-shaped leaves. After heavy rain the endemic glowing mushrooms Mycena chlorophanos and Omphalotus nidiformis can be found in the palm forests.[121]

text: It is the palms that are the signature plants of the island as the kentia and curly palms especially dominate the landscape in many places, the kentia being of special economic importance.[122] All four species are endemic to the island, often occurring in dense pure stands, the one that has proved such a worldwide success as an indoor plant being the kentia or thatch palm (Howea forsteriana). This is a lowland palm with drooping leaflets and seed branches in 'hands' of 3–5 while the curly palm (Howea belmoreana), which occurs on slightly higher ground, has upwardly directed leaflets and solitary 'hands'. Natural hybrids between these species occur on the island and there is a mature specimen of one growing in the island nursery. On the mountain sides higher than about 350 m there is the big mountain palm (Hedyscepe canterburyana); it has large golf-ball-sized fruits while the little mountain palm (Lepidorrhachis mooreana) has marble-sized fruits and is only found on the mountain summits.[123]

text: Images of native flora[edit]

text:
Curly palm
Lord Howe bird's nest fern

(Howea belmoreana)
(Asplenium australasicum)
(Asplenium milnei)
(Lagunaria patersonia)

text: Animals[edit]

text: There are no snakes, no highly venomous or stinging insects, animals or plants, and no dangerous daytime sharks off the beaches. Although there are reports of tiger sharks on the cliff side of the island.[124]

text: Birds[edit]

text: A total of 202 different birds have been recorded on the island. Eighteen species of land birds breed on the island and there are many more migratory species that occur on the island and its adjacent islets, many tame enough that it is possible for humans to get quite close.[125] The island has been identified by BirdLife International as an Endemic Bird Area, and the Permanent Park Preserve as an Important Bird Area, because it supports the entire population of Lord Howe woodhens, most of the breeding population of providence petrels, over 1% of the world population of another five seabird species, and the whole populations of three endemic subspecies.[126]

text: Fourteen species of seabirds breed on the island.[125] Red-tailed tropicbirds can be seen in large numbers circling the Malabar cliffs where they perform acrobatic courting rituals.[127] Between August and May thousands of flesh-footed and wedge-tailed shearwaters return to the island at dusk each day. From the Little Island Track between March and November one of the world's rarest birds, the providence petrel also performs courtship displays during winter breeding and it is extremely tame. The island was its only breeding location for many years after the breeding colony on Norfolk Island was exterminated in the late 19th century;[128] though a small population persists on the adjacent Phillip Island. The Kermadec petrel was discovered breeding on Mount Gower in 1914 by ornithologist Roy Bell while collecting specimens for Gregory Mathews[129] and the black-winged petrel was only confirmed as a breeder in 1971; its numbers have increased following the elimination of feral cats from the island.[130]

text: The flesh-footed shearwater, which breeds in large numbers on the main island in spring-autumn, used to have its chicks harvested for food by the islanders.[131] The wedge-tailed and little shearwaters breed on the main island and surrounding islets; though only a small number of the latter species can be found on the main island. Breeding white-bellied storm petrels were another discovery by Roy Bell.[132] Masked boobies are the largest seabirds breeding on Lord Howe[133] and can be seen nesting and gliding along the sea cliffs at Mutton Bird Point all year round. Sooty terns can be seen on the main island at Ned's and Middle Beaches, North Bay, and Blinkey Beach; the most numerous of the island's breeding seabirds, their eggs were formerly harvested for food. Common and black noddies build nests in trees and bushes, while white terns lay their single eggs precariously in a slight depression on a tree branch,[134] and grey ternlets lay their eggs in cliff hollows.[135]

text: Three endemic passerine subspecies are the Lord Howe golden whistler, Lord Howe silvereye and Lord Howe currawong.[136] The iconic endemic rail, the flightless Lord Howe woodhen, is the only surviving member of its genus: its ancestors could fly but with no predators and plenty of food on the island this ability was lost. This made it easy prey for islanders and feral animals and by the 1970s the population was less than 30 birds. From 1978 to 1984 feral animals were removed and birds raised in captivity to be successfully reintroduced to the wild. The population is now relatively safe and stable.[14][137]

text: Mammals, reptiles and amphibians[edit]

text: Only one native mammal remains on the islands, the large forest bat. The endemic Lord Howe long-eared bat is known only from a skull and is now presumed extinct, possibly the result of the introduction of ship rats.[138]

text: Two terrestrial reptiles are native to the island group: the Lord Howe Island skink and the Lord Howe Island gecko. Both are rare on the main island but more common on smaller islands offshore.[139] The garden skink and the bleating tree frog have been accidentally introduced from the Australian mainland.

text: Invertebrates[edit]

text: The Lord Howe Island stick insect disappeared from the main island soon after the introduction of rats in 1918.[139][140] In 2001 a tiny population was discovered in a single Melaleuca howeana shrub on the slopes of Ball's Pyramid,[141] has been successfully bred in captivity, and is nearing re-introduction to the main island.[142] The Lord Howe stag beetle is a colourful endemic beetle seen during summer months.[143] Another endemic invertebrate, the Lord Howe flax snail (or Lord Howe Placostylus), has also been affected by the introduction of rats.[139] Once common, the species is now endangered and a captive breeding program is under way to save the snail from extinction.

text: Marine life[edit]

text: Marine environments are near-pristine with a mixtures of temperate, subtropical and tropical species derived from cool-temperate ocean currents in the winter and the warm East Australian Current, which flows from the Great Barrier Reef, in summer.[144] Of the 490 fish species recorded 13 are endemic and 60% are tropical.[144] The main angling fish are yellowtail kingfish and New Zealand bluefish while game fish include marlin, tuna and giant kingfish called "greenbacks".[145] Over 80 species of coral occur in the reefs surrounding the islands.[146][147] Australian underwater photographer Neville Coleman has photographed various nudibranchs at Lord Howe Island.[148]

text: Various species of cetaceans inhabit or migrate through the waters in vicinity, however very little about their biology in the area is known due to lack of studies and sighting efforts caused from locational conditions. Bottlenose dolphins are the most commonly observed and is the only species confirmed to be seasonal or yearly residents while some other dolphin species have also been observed.[149] Humpback whales are the only of large whales showing slow but steady recoveries as their numbers annually migrating past the island of Lord Howe are much smaller than that of those migrating along Australian continent.

text: Historically, migratory whales such as blue, fin, sei were very abundant in the island waters, but were severely reduced in numbers to near-extinction by commercial and illegal hunts including the mass illegal hunts by Soviet Union and Japan in 1960s to 1970s.[150] Southern right and sperm were most severely hunted among these, hence the area was called the Middle Ground by whalers.[151] It is likely that these two were once seasonal residents around the island where right whales prefer sheltered, very shallow bays[152] while sperm whales mainly inhabit deep waters.

text:
Images of native fauna

Providence petrels on the summit of Mount Gower

Woodhen by Neds Beach Road

Masked booby with chick viewed off Malabar cliffs

Coral Skeleton on Little Island Beach

text: Conservation[edit]

text: About 10% of Lord Howe Island's forests have been cleared for agriculture, and another 20% has been disturbed, mostly by domestic cattle and feral sheep, goats and pigs. As a result, 70% of the island remains relatively untouched with a variety of plants and animals, many of which are endemic, some of which are rare or threatened.[153] Two species of plants, nine terrestrial birds, one bat and at least four invertebrates have become extinct since 1778.[154] Endemism at the generic level includes the palms Howea, Hedyscepe and Lepidorrhachis, a woody daisy Lordhowea, the tree Negria, the leech Quantenobdella howensis, three annelid worm genera (Paraplutellus, Pericryptodrilus and Eastoniella), an isopod shrimp Stigmops, a hemipteran bug Howeria and a cricket Howeta.[155]

text: The Lord Howe Island Board instigated an extensive biological and environmental survey (published in 1974), which has guided the island conservation program.[156] In 1981, the Lord Howe Island Amendment Act proclaimed a "Permanent Park Preserve" over the north and south ends of the island. Administration of the preserve was outlined in a management plan for the sustainable development of the island prepared by the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service,[73][157] which has a ranger stationed on the island. The Island was cited under the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1982.

text: Offshore environmental assets are protected by the Lord Howe Island Marine Park. This consists of a State Marine Park managed by the Marine Parks Authority of New South Wales in the waters out to 3 nautical miles around the island and including Ball's Pyramid.[17] It also includes a Commonwealth Marine Park extending from 3 to 12 nautical miles out and managed by the federal Department of the Environment and Heritage.[158] In total the Marine Park covers about 3,005 square kilometres (1,160 sq mi).[159]

text: Feral animals and plants[edit]

text: Pigs and goats were released on the island as potential food in the early 1800s, the goats destroying shrubs and grasses used as nesting sites and the pigs eating eggs and chicks and disturbing the land by nuzzling for food.[160] Several birds have become extinct on the island since the arrival of humans. The first round of extinctions included the Lord Howe swamphen or white gallinule, white-throated pigeon, red-crowned parakeet and the Tasman booby, which were eliminated by visitors and settlers during the nineteenth century either from overhunting for food or protection of crops.[160] Black rats were released from provisioning whaling ships in the 1840s and mice from Norfolk Island in 1860.[160] In 1918 the black rat was accidentally introduced with the shipwreck of the SS Makambo which ran aground at Ned's Beach. This triggered a second wave of extinctions, including the vinous-tinted thrush, robust white-eye, Lord Howe starling, Lord Howe fantail and the Lord Howe gerygone as well as the destruction of the native phasmid and decimation of palm fruits.[161] Bounties were offered for rat and pig tails and 'ratting' became a popular pursuit. Subsequent poisoning programs have kept populations low.[162] The Lord Howe boobook may have become extinct through predation by, or competition with, the Tasmanian masked owls which were introduced in the 1920s in a failed attempt to control the rat population.[160] Stray dogs are also a threat as they could harm the native wood hen and other birds.[163]

text: Invasive plants such as Crofton weed and Formosa lily occur in inaccessible areas and probably cannot be eradicated but others are currently being managed.[164] In 1995 the first action was taken to control the spread of introduced plants of the island, chiefly ground asparagus and bridal creeper, but also cherry guava, Madeira vine, Cotoneaster, Ochna and Cestrum. This has been followed by weeding tours and the formation of the Friends of Lord Howe Island group in 2000. Programs have also been started to remove weeds from private properties and revegetate some formerly cultivated areas.[165] An Environmental Unit was created by the Board and it includes a Flora Management Officer and a permanent Weed Officer. Weeds have been mapped and an eradication program is in place, supported by improved education and quarantine procedures.[166]

text: Despite the large number of introduced species that harm Lord Howe's native flora and fauna, feral pigs and cats were eradicated by the early 2000s.[137] The goat population has been reduced to just a few animals,[167] and there are ongoing efforts to control rodents and introduced plants.[165][168] In July 2012 it was announced by the Australian federal Environment Minister Tony Burke and the New South Wales Environment Minister Robyn Parker that the Australian and NSW Governments would each contribute 50% of the estimated A$9 million cost of implementing a rodent eradication plan for the island, using aerial deployment of poison baits.[169] The plan was put to a local vote and is considered controversial.[170] A recovery program has restored the Lord Howe woodhen numbers from only 20 in 1970 to about 200 in 2000, which is close to carrying capacity.[163]

text: Climate change[edit]

text: According to an analysis by Tim Flannery, the ecosystem of Lord Howe Island is threatened by climate change and global warming, with the reefs at risk from rises in water temperature.[99][171] The Great Barrier Reef is specifically identified as being at risk to the effects of global warming on Australia, and the same analysis applies to the reefs of Lord Howe Island.[citation needed][172] Cool climate flora and fauna are at risk from rises in temperature, because there is limited scope for migration to higher altitudes.[citation needed]. The first international conference on global artificial photosynthesis as a climate change solution occurred at Lord Howe island in 2011,[173] the papers being published by the Australian Journal of Chemistry.[174]


document_title: Calcutta Cup

question_text: when's the last time scotland won the calcutta cup

question_tokens: when 's the last time scotland won the calcutta cup

root

text: Calcutta Cup

text: The Calcutta Club[edit]

text: On Christmas Day 1872, a game of rugby, between 20 players representing England on one side and 20 representing Scotland on the other, was played in Calcutta.

tag: p

text: The match was such a success that it was repeated a week later. These lovers of rugby wanted to form a club in the area and the aforementioned matches were the agents which led to the formation of the Calcutta Football Club in January 1873.

text: The Calcutta Club joined the Rugby Football Union in 1874. Despite the Indian climate not being entirely suitable for playing rugby, the club prospered during that first year. However, when the free bar had to be discontinued, the membership took an appreciable drop. Other sports, such as tennis and polo, which were considered to be more suited to the local climate, were making inroads into the numbers of gentlemen available. The members decided to disband but keen to perpetuate the name of the club, they withdrew the club's funds from the bank, which were in Silver Rupees, had them melted down and made into a cup which they presented to the RFU in 1878, with the provision that it should be competed for annually.

text: The cup[edit]

text: The cup is of Indian workmanship, approximately 18 inches (45 cm) high, the body is finely engraved with three king cobras forming the handles. The domed lid is surmounted by an elephant which is, it is said, copied from the Viceroy's own stock. The inscription on the Cup's wooden base reads: THE CALCUTTA CUP.

text: The base has attached to it additional plates which record the date of each match played with the name of the winning country and the names of the two captains. There is an anomaly in the recording of the winning country on the base of the Cup. It was first played for in 1879, but the plinth shows records extending back to the first international in 1871.

text: The original trophy is in a very fragile state following many years of poor treatment and is not in a strong enough condition to attend functions or go on tours. When won by England the original Calcutta Cup is put on public display in the Museum of Rugby in Twickenham, where it slowly turns around in a purpose built showcase. Both nations have full size replicas of the Cup. Whilst the original was handmade by Indian craftsmen, the replicas were made using modern technology.

text: In 1988 the cup was damaged by the antics of some drunken players, including England number eight Dean Richards and Scotland flanker John Jeffrey who played football with the Calcutta Cup along Princes Street in Edinburgh. Jeffrey received a six-month ban from the SRU, whilst Richards was given a one-match sentence from England.[1]

text: The competition[edit]

text: Despite the initial request of the Calcutta Club that the trophy be used as rugby's answer to football's FA Cup, the RFU refused to turn the Calcutta Cup into a knock-out competition for English club sides. They believed that "competitiveness" ran against the amateur ethos and instead decided that a game should be played each year between England and Scotland and whoever wins should keep it for that year. The first Calcutta Cup match was played at Raeburn Place, Edinburgh, on 10 March 1879 and ended in a draw; Scotland scored a drop goal and England a goal. The following year on 28 February 1880 England became the first winners of the Calcutta Cup when they defeated Scotland by 2 goals & 3 tries to 1 goal in Manchester. Matches have continued on an annual basis ever since except for two interruptions due to the World Wars between 1915–1919 and 1940–1946.

text: As of 2018, 125 Calcutta Cup matches have taken place. Currently, this game is the annual match between the two nations in the Six Nations Championship. The ground alternates between Murrayfield Stadium in Edinburgh (on even years) and Twickenham Stadium in London (on odd years).

text: In 2004, the two countries' rugby governing bodies, the Rugby Football Union (England) and the Scottish Rugby Union, were considering a plan to add a second Calcutta Cup fixture each year, outside the Six Nations. The second fixture would be hosted by the away nation in the Six Nations fixture of the same year. Under that plan, one nation would have to win both matches to take the Cup off its current holder. Due to a largely unfavourable reaction, the proposal soon disappeared from view.

text: Results[edit]

text: Since 1879, the Calcutta Cup has been played 125 times.

text:
Year
Date
Winner
Result
Stadium
Place

1879
10 March
draw
3–3
Raeburn Place
Edinburgh

1880
28 February
 England
9–3
Whalley Range
Manchester

1881
19 March
draw
4–4
Raeburn Place
Edinburgh

1882
4 March
 Scotland
0–2
Whalley Range
Manchester

1883
3 March
 England
1–2
Raeburn Place
Edinburgh

1884
1 March
 England
3–1
Rectory Field
Blackheath

1885
Not played

1886
13 March
draw
0–0
Raeburn Place
Edinburgh

1887
5 March
draw
1–1
Whalley Range
Manchester

1888
Not played

1889
Not played

1890
1 March
 England
0–6
Raeburn Place
Edinburgh

1891
7 March
 Scotland
3–9
Athletic Ground
Richmond

1892
5 March
 England
0–5
Raeburn Place
Edinburgh

1893
4 March
 Scotland
0–8
Headingley
Leeds

1894
17 March
 Scotland
6–0
Raeburn Place
Edinburgh

1895
9 March
 Scotland
3–6
Athletic Ground
Richmond

1896
14 March
 Scotland
11–0
Hampden Park
Glasgow

1897
13 March
 England
12–3
Fallowfield
Manchester

1898
12 March
draw
3–3
Powderhall
Edinburgh

1899
11 March
 Scotland
0–5
Rectory Field
Blackheath

1900
10 March
draw
0–0
Inverleith
Edinburgh

1901
9 March
 Scotland
3–18
Rectory Field
Blackheath

1902
15 March
 England
3–6
Inverleith
Edinburgh

1903
21 March
 Scotland
6–10
Athletic Ground
Richmond

1904
19 March
 Scotland
6–3
Inverleith
Edinburgh

1905
18 March
 Scotland
0–8
Athletic Ground
Richmond

1906
17 March
 England
3–9
Inverleith
Edinburgh

1907
16 March
 Scotland
3–8
Rectory Field
Blackheath

1908
21 March
 Scotland
16–10
Inverleith
Edinburgh

1909
20 March
 Scotland
8–18
Athletic Ground
Richmond

1910
19 March
 England
5–14
Inverleith
Edinburgh

1911
18 March
 England
13–8
Twickenham
London

1912
16 March
 Scotland
8–3
Inverleith
Edinburgh

1913
15 March
 England
3–0
Twickenham
London

1914
21 March
 England
15–16
Inverleith
Edinburgh

1915
Not held due to World War I

1916

1917

1918

1919

1920
20 March
 England
13–4
Twickenham
London

1921
19 March
 England
0–18
Inverleith
Edinburgh

1922
18 March
 England
11–5
Twickenham
London

1923
17 March
 England
6–8
Inverleith
Edinburgh

1924
15 March
 England
19–0
Twickenham
London

1925
21 March
 Scotland
14–11
Murrayfield
Edinburgh

1926
20 March
 Scotland
9–17
Twickenham
London

1927
19 March
 Scotland
21–13
Murrayfield
Edinburgh

1928
17 March
 England
6–0
Twickenham
London

1929
16 March
 Scotland
12–6
Murrayfield
Edinburgh

1930
15 March
draw
0–0
Twickenham
London

1931
21 March
 Scotland
28–19
Murrayfield
Edinburgh

1932
19 March
 England
16–3
Twickenham
London

1933
18 March
 Scotland
3–0
Murrayfield
Edinburgh

1934
17 March
 England
6–3
Twickenham
London

1935
16 March
 Scotland
10–7
Murrayfield
Edinburgh

1936
21 March
 England
9–8
Twickenham
London

1937
20 March
 England
3–6
Murrayfield
Edinburgh

1938
19 March
 Scotland
16–21
Twickenham
London

1939
18 March
 England
6–9
Murrayfield
Edinburgh

1940
Not held due to World War II

1941

1942

1943

1944

1945

1946

1947
15 March
 England
24–5
Twickenham
London

1948
20 March
 Scotland
6–3
Murrayfield
Edinburgh

1949
19 March
 England
19–3
Twickenham
London

1950
18 March
 Scotland
13–11
Murrayfield
Edinburgh

1951
17 March
 England
5–3
Twickenham
London

1952
15 March
 England
3–19
Murrayfield
Edinburgh

1953
21 March
 England
26–8
Twickenham
London

1954
20 March
 England
3–13
Murrayfield
Edinburgh

1955
19 March
 England
9–6
Twickenham
London

1956
17 March
 England
6–11
Murrayfield
Edinburgh

1957
16 March
 England
16–3
Twickenham
London

1958
15 March
draw
3–3
Murrayfield
Edinburgh

1959
21 March
draw
3–3
Twickenham
London

1960
19 March
 England
12–21
Murrayfield
Edinburgh

1961
18 March
 England
6–0
Twickenham
London

1962
17 March
draw
3–3
Murrayfield
Edinburgh

1963
16 March
 England
10–8
Twickenham
London

1964
21 March
 Scotland
15–6
Murrayfield
Edinburgh

1965
20 March
draw
3–3
Twickenham
London

1966
19 March
 Scotland
6–3
Murrayfield
Edinburgh

1967
18 March
 England
27–14
Twickenham
London

1968
16 March
 England
6–8
Murrayfield
Edinburgh

1969
15 March
 England
8–3
Twickenham
London

1970
21 March
 Scotland
14–5
Murrayfield
Edinburgh

1971
20 March
 Scotland
15–16
Twickenham
London

1972
18 March
 Scotland
23–9
Murrayfield
Edinburgh

1973
17 March
 England
20–13
Twickenham
London

1974
2 February
 Scotland
16–14
Murrayfield
Edinburgh

1975
15 March
 England
7–6
Twickenham
London

1976
21 February
 Scotland
22–12
Murrayfield
Edinburgh

1977
15 January
 England
26–6
Twickenham
London

1978
4 March
 England
0–15
Murrayfield
Edinburgh

1979
3 February
draw
7–7
Twickenham
London

1980
15 March
 England
18–30
Murrayfield
Edinburgh

1981
21 February
 England
23–17
Twickenham
London

1982
16 January
draw
9–9
Murrayfield
Edinburgh

1983
5 March
 Scotland
12–22
Twickenham
London

1984
4 February
 Scotland
18–6
Murrayfield
Edinburgh

1985
16 March
 England
10–7
Twickenham
London

1986
15 February
 Scotland
33–6
Murrayfield
Edinburgh

1987
4 April
 England
21–12
Twickenham
London

1988
5 March
 England
6–9
Murrayfield
Edinburgh

1989
4 February
Draw
12–12
Twickenham
London

1990
17 March
 Scotland
13–7
Murrayfield
Edinburgh

1991
16 February
 England
21–12
Twickenham
London

1992
18 January
 England
7–25
Murrayfield
Edinburgh

1993
6 March
 England
26–12
Twickenham
London

1994
5 February
 England
14–15
Murrayfield
Edinburgh

1995
18 March
 England
24–12
Twickenham
London

1996
2 March
 England
9–18
Murrayfield
Edinburgh

1997
1 February
 England
41–13
Twickenham
London

1998
22 March
 England
20–34
Murrayfield
Edinburgh

1999
20 February
 England
24–21
Twickenham
London

2000
2 April
 Scotland
19–13
Murrayfield
Edinburgh

2001
3 March
 England
43–3
Twickenham
London

2002
2 February
 England
3–29
Murrayfield
Edinburgh

2003
22 March
 England
40–9
Twickenham
London

2004
21 February
 England
13–35
Murrayfield
Edinburgh

2005
19 March
 England
43–22
Twickenham
London

2006
25 February
 Scotland
18–12
Murrayfield
Edinburgh

2007
3 February
 England
42–20
Twickenham
London

2008
8 March
 Scotland
15–9
Murrayfield
Edinburgh

2009
21 March
 England
26–12
Twickenham
London

2010
13 March
draw
15–15
Murrayfield
Edinburgh

2011
13 March
 England
22–17
Twickenham
London

2012
4 February
 England
6–13
Murrayfield
Edinburgh

2013
2 February
 England
38–18
Twickenham
London

2014
8 February
 England
0–20
Murrayfield
Edinburgh

2015
14 March
 England
25–13
Twickenham
London

2016
6 February
 England
9–15[2]
Murrayfield
Edinburgh

2017
11 March
 England
61–21[3]
Twickenham
London

2018
24 February
 Scotland
25–13[4]
Murrayfield
Edinburgh

2019
16 March

Twickenham
London

tag: table

text: Records[edit]

text:
Team
Wins

 England
70

 Scotland
40

text: The cup has been tied 15 times.

text: The current record number of points scored by a player in a Calcutta Cup game was set by Jonny Wilkinson in 2007 when he scored 27 points (1 try, 2 conversions, 5 penalties, 1 drop goal). The previous record of 24 points was held by Rob Andrew.


document_title: Criminal law

question_text: what is the main objective of criminal law

text: Criminal law

text: History[edit]

text: The first civilizations generally did not distinguish between civil law and criminal law. The first written codes of law were designed by the Sumerians. Around 2100–2050 BC Ur-Nammu, the Neo-Sumerian king of Ur, enacted the oldest written legal code whose text has been discovered: the Code of Ur-Nammu[1] although an earlier code of Urukagina of Lagash ( 2380–2360 BC ) is also known to have existed. Another important early code was the Code Hammurabi, which formed the core of Babylonian law. Only fragments of the early criminal laws of Ancient Greece have survived, e.g. those of Solon and Draco.[2]

text: In Roman law, Gaius's Commentaries on the Twelve Tables also conflated the civil and criminal aspects, treating theft (furtum) as a tort. Assault and violent robbery were analogized to trespass as to property. Breach of such laws created an obligation of law or vinculum juris discharged by payment of monetary compensation or damages. The criminal law of imperial Rome is collected in Books 47–48 of the Digest.[3] After the revival of Roman law in the 12th century, sixth-century Roman classifications and jurisprudence provided the foundations of the distinction between criminal and civil law in European law from then until the present time.[4]

text: The first signs of the modern distinction between crimes and civil matters emerged during the Norman Invasion of England.[5] The special notion of criminal penalty, at least concerning Europe, arose in Spanish Late Scolasticism (see Alfonso de Castro), when the theological notion of God's penalty (poena aeterna) that was inflicted solely for a guilty mind, became transfused into canon law first and, finally, to secular criminal law.[6] The development of the state dispensing justice in a court clearly emerged in the eighteenth century when European countries began maintaining police services. From this point, criminal law had formalized the mechanisms for enforcement, which allowed for its development as a discernible entity.

text: Objectives of criminal law[edit]

text: Criminal law is distinctive for the uniquely serious potential consequences or sanctions for failure to abide by its rules.[7] Every crime is composed of criminal elements. Capital punishment may be imposed in some jurisdictions for the most serious crimes. Physical or corporal punishment may be imposed such as whipping or caning, although these punishments are prohibited in much of the world. Individuals may be incarcerated in prison or jail in a variety of conditions depending on the jurisdiction. Confinement may be solitary. Length of incarceration may vary from a day to life. Government supervision may be imposed, including house arrest, and convicts may be required to conform to particularized guidelines as part of a parole or probation regimen. Fines also may be imposed, seizing money or property from a person convicted of a crime.

text: Five objectives are widely accepted for enforcement of the criminal law by punishments: retribution, deterrence, incapacitation, rehabilitation and restoration. Jurisdictions differ on the value to be placed on each.

text:
Retribution – Criminals ought to Be Punished in some way. This is the most widely seen goal. Criminals have taken improper advantage, or inflicted unfair detriment, upon others and consequently, the criminal law will put criminals at some unpleasant disadvantage to "balance the scales." People submit to the law to receive the right not to be murdered and if people contravene these laws, they surrender the rights granted to them by the law. Thus, one who murders may be executed himself. A related theory includes the idea of "righting the balance."
Deterrence – Individual deterrence is aimed toward the specific offender. The aim is to impose a sufficient penalty to discourage the offender from criminal behavior. General deterrence aims at society at large. By imposing a penalty on those who commit offenses, other individuals are discouraged from committing those offenses.
Incapacitation – Designed simply to keep criminals away from society so that the public is protected from their misconduct. This is often achieved through prison sentences today. The death penalty or banishment have served the same purpose.
Rehabilitation – Aims at transforming an offender into a valuable member of society. Its primary goal is to prevent further offense by convincing the offender that their conduct was wrong.
Restoration – This is a victim-oriented theory of punishment. The goal is to repair, through state authority, any injury inflicted upon the victim by the offender. For example, one who embezzles will be required to repay the amount improperly acquired. Restoration is commonly combined with other main goals of criminal justice and is closely related to concepts in the civil law, i.e., returning the victim to his or her original position before the injury.

tag: ul

text: Selected criminal laws[edit]

text: Many laws are enforced by threat of criminal punishment, and the range of the punishment varies with the jurisdiction. The scope of criminal law is too vast to catalog intelligently. Nevertheless, the following are some of the more typical aspects of criminal law.

text: Elements[edit]

text: The criminal law generally prohibits undesirable acts. Thus, proof of a crime requires proof of some act. Scholars label this the requirement of an actus reus or guilty act. Some crimes – particularly modern regulatory offenses – require no more, and they are known as strict liability offenses (E.g. Under the Road traffic Act 1988 it is a strict liability offence to drive a vehicle with an alcohol concentration above the prescribed limit). Nevertheless, because of the potentially severe consequences of criminal conviction, judges at common law also sought proof of an intent to do some bad thing, the mens rea or guilty mind. As to crimes of which both actus reus and mens rea are requirements, judges have concluded that the elements must be present at precisely the same moment and it is not enough that they occurred sequentially at different times.[8]

text: Actus reus[edit]

text: Actus reus is Latin for "guilty act" and is the physical element of committing a crime. It may be accomplished by an action, by threat of action, or exceptionally, by an omission to act, which is a legal duty to act. For example, the act of A striking B might suffice, or a parent's failure to give food to a young child also may provide the actus reus for a crime.

text: Where the actus reus is a failure to act, there must be a duty of care. A duty can arise through contract,[9] a voluntary undertaking,[10] a blood relation with whom one lives,[11] and occasionally through one's official position.[12] Duty also can arise from one's own creation of a dangerous situation.[13] On the other hand, it was held in the U.K. that switching off the life support of someone in a persistent vegetative state is an omission to act and not criminal. Since discontinuation of power is not a voluntary act, not grossly negligent, and is in the patient's best interests, no crime takes place.[14] In this case it was held that since a PVS patient could not give or withhold consent to medical treatment, it was for the doctors to decide whether treatment was in the patient's best interest. It was reasonable for them to conclude that treatment was not in the patient's best interest, and should therefore be stopped, when there was no prospect of improvement. It was never lawful to take active steps to cause or accelerate death, although in certain circumstances it was lawful to withhold life sustaining treatment, including feeding, without which the patient would die.

text: An actus reus may be nullified by an absence of causation. For example, a crime involves harm to a person, the person's action must be the but for cause and proximate cause of the harm.[15] If more than one cause exists (e.g. harm comes at the hands of more than one culprit) the act must have "more than a slight or trifling link" to the harm.[16]

text: Causation is not broken simply because a victim is particularly vulnerable. This is known as the thin skull rule.[17] However, it may be broken by an intervening act (novus actus interveniens) of a third party, the victim's own conduct,[18] or another unpredictable event. A mistake in medical treatment typically will not sever the chain, unless the mistakes are in themselves "so potent in causing death."[19]

text: Mens rea[edit]

text: Mens rea is another Latin phrase, meaning "guilty mind". This is the mental element of the crime. A guilty mind means an intention to commit some wrongful act. Intention under criminal law is separate from a person's motive[20] (although motive does not exist in Scots law).[21]

text: A lower threshold of mens rea is satisfied when a defendant recognizes an act is dangerous but decides to commit it anyway. This is recklessness. It is the mental state of mind of the person at the time the actus reus was committed. For instance, if C tears a gas meter from a wall to get the money inside, and knows this will let flammable gas escape into a neighbour's house, he could be liable for poisoning.[22] Courts often consider whether the actor did recognize the danger, or alternatively ought to have recognized a risk.[23] Of course, a requirement only that one ought to have recognized a danger (though he did not) is tantamount to erasing intent as a requirement. In this way, the importance of mens rea has been reduced in some areas of the criminal law but is obviously still an important part in the criminal system.

text: Wrongfulness of intent also may vary the seriousness of an offense and possibly reduce the punishment but this is not always the case. A killing committed with specific intent to kill or with conscious recognition that death or serious bodily harm will result, would be murder, whereas a killing effected by reckless acts lacking such a consciousness could be manslaughter.[24] On the other hand, it matters not who is actually harmed through a defendant's actions. The doctrine of transferred malice means, for instance, that if a man intends to strike a person with his belt, but the belt bounces off and hits another, mens rea is transferred from the intended target to the person who actually was struck.[Note: The notion of transferred intent does not exist within Scots' Law. In Scotland, one would not be charged with assault due to transferred intent, but instead assault due to recklessness.] [25]

text: Strict liability[edit]

text: Strict liability can be described as criminal or civil liability notwithstanding the lack mens rea or intent by the defendant. Not all crimes require specific intent, and the threshold of culpability required may be reduced or demoted. For example, it might be sufficient to show that a defendant acted negligently, rather than intentionally or recklessly. In offenses of absolute liability, other than the prohibited act, it may not be necessary to show the act was intentional. Generally, crimes must include an intentional act, and "intent" is an element that must be proved in order to find a crime occurred. The idea of a "strict liability crime" is an oxymoron. The few exceptions are not truly crimes at all – but are administrative regulations and civil penalties created by statute, such as crimes against the traffic or highway code.

text: Fatal offenses[edit]

text: A murder, defined broadly, is an unlawful killing. Unlawful killing is probably the act most frequently targeted by the criminal law. In many jurisdictions, the crime of murder is divided into various gradations of severity, e.g., murder in the first degree, based on intent. Malice is a required element of murder. Manslaughter (Culpable Homicide in Scotland) is a lesser variety of killing committed in the absence of malice, brought about by reasonable provocation, or diminished capacity. Involuntary manslaughter, where it is recognized, is a killing that lacks all but the most attenuated guilty intent, recklessness.

text: Settled insanity is a possible defense.

text: Personal offenses[edit]

text: Many criminal codes protect the physical integrity of the body. The crime of battery is traditionally understood as an unlawful touching, although this does not include everyday knocks and jolts to which people silently consent as the result of presence in a crowd. Creating a fear of imminent battery is an assault, and also may give rise to criminal liability. Non-consensual intercourse, or rape, is a particularly egregious form of battery.

text: Property offenses[edit]

text: Property often is protected by the criminal law. Trespassing is unlawful entry onto the real property of another. Many criminal codes provide penalties for conversion, embezzlement, theft, all of which involve deprivations of the value of the property. Robbery is a theft by force. Fraud in the UK is a breach of the Fraud Act 2006 by false representation, by failure to disclose information or by abuse of position.

text: Participatory offenses[edit]

text: Some criminal codes criminalize association with a criminal venture or involvement in criminality that does not actually come to fruition. Some examples are aiding, abetting, conspiracy, and attempt. However, in Scotland, the English concept of Aiding and Abetting is known as Art and Part Liability. See Glanville Williams, Textbook of Criminal Law, (London: Stevens & Sons, 1983); Glanville Williams, Criminal Law the General Part (London: Stevens & Sons, 1961).

text: Mala in se v. mala prohibita[edit]

text: While crimes are typically broken into degrees or classes to punish appropriately, all offenses can be divided into 'mala in se' and 'mala prohibita' laws. Both are Latin legal terms, mala in se meaning crimes that are thought to be inherently evil or morally wrong, and thus will be widely regarded as crimes regardless of jurisdiction. Mala in se offenses are felonies, property crimes, immoral acts and corrupt acts by public officials. Mala prohibita, on the other hand, refers to offenses that do not have wrongfulness associated with them. Parking in a restricted area, driving the wrong way down a one-way street, jaywalking or unlicensed fishing are examples of acts that are prohibited by statute, but without which are not considered wrong. Mala prohibita statutes are usually imposed strictly, as there does not need to be mens rea component for punishment under those offenses, just the act itself. For this reason, it can be argued that offenses that are mala prohibita are not really crimes at all.[26]

text: Defenses[edit]

text: Criminal law jurisdictions[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Public international law deals extensively and increasingly with criminal conduct that is heinous and ghastly enough to affect entire societies and regions. The formative source of modern international criminal law was the Nuremberg trials following the Second World War in which the leaders of Nazism were prosecuted for their part in genocide and atrocities across Europe. The Nuremberg trials marked the beginning of criminal fault for individuals, where individuals acting on behalf of a government can be tried for violations of international law without the benefit of sovereign immunity. In 1998 an International criminal court was established in the Rome Statute.[27]


document_title: Federal Reserve Board of Governors

question_text: who appoints the members of the board of governors of the federal reserve

text: Federal Reserve Board of Governors

text: Description[edit]

text: By law, the appointments must yield a "fair representation of the financial, agricultural, industrial, and commercial interests and geographical divisions of the country".[1][2] As stipulated in the Banking Act of 1935, the Chairman and Vice Chairman of the Board are two of seven members of the Board of Governors who are appointed by the President from among the sitting Governors.[1][2]

text: The Board of Governors does not receive funding from Congress, and the terms of the seven members of the Board span multiple presidential and congressional terms. Once a member of the Board of Governors is appointed by the president, he or she functions mostly independently. The Board is required to make an annual report of operations to the Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives.[3] It also supervises and regulates the operations of the Federal Reserve Banks, and the U.S. banking system in general.

text: Membership is by statute limited in term, and a member that has served for a full 14 year term is not eligible for reappointment.[4] There are numerous occasions where an individual was appointed to serve the remainder of another member's uncompleted term, and has been reappointed to serve a full 14-year term.[4] Since "upon the expiration of their terms of office, members of the Board shall continue to serve until their successors are appointed and have qualified",[4] it is possible for a member to serve for significantly longer than a full term of 14 years. The law provides for the removal of a member of the Board by the President "for cause".[4]

text: The Chair and Vice Chair of the Board of Governors are appointed by the President from among the sitting Governors. They both serve a four-year term and they can be renominated as many times as the President chooses, until their terms on the Board of Governors expire.[1]

text: Records of the Federal Reserve Board of Governors are found in the Record Group n. 82 at the National Archives of the United States[5].

text: Current members[edit]

text: The current members of the Board of Governors are as follows:[6]

text:
Governor
Political Party
Entered office
Term expires

Jerome Powell
(Chairman)
Republican
February 5, 2018 (as Chairman)
May 25, 2012 (as Governor)
June 16, 2014 (new term)
February 5, 2022 (as Chairman)
January 31, 2028 (as Governor)

Vacant
(Vice Chairman)

N/A (as Vice Chairman)
January 31, 2022* (as Governor)

Randal Quarles
(Vice Chairman for Supervision)
Republican
October 13, 2017 (as Vice Chairman for Supervision)
October 13, 2017
October 13, 2021 (as Vice Chairman for Supervision)
January 31, 2018 (as Governor)

Lael Brainard
Democratic
June 16, 2014
January 31, 2026

Vacant

January 31, 2020*

Vacant

January 31, 2024*

Vacant

January 31, 2030*

text: *Indicates the date of term expiration for the individual nominated to this vacant position.

text: Committees[edit]

text:
Committee on Board Affairs

Governor Powell, Chairman
Vice Chairman (vacant)

Committee on Consumer and Community Affairs

Governor Brainard, Chair
Vacant

Committee on Economic and Financial Monitoring and Research

Chairman (vacant)
Governor Brainard

Committee on Financial Stability

Chairman (vacant)
Governor Brainard
Vacant

Committee on Federal Reserve Bank Affairs

Governor Powell, Chairman
Governor Brainard

Committee on Bank Supervision

Vacant, Chairman
Governor Powell
Governor Brainard

Subcommittee on Smaller Regional and Community Banking

Governor Powell, Chairman
Governor Brainard

Committee on Payments, Clearing, and Settlement

Governor Powell, Chairman
Vacant

text: Source: [7]

text: List of governors[edit]

text:
Name
Bank
Begin
End
Term (Years)
Notes

Frederic A. Delano
Chicago
000000001914-08-10-0000August 10, 1914
000000001918-07-21-0000July 21, 1918
4

Paul M. Warburg
New York
000000001914-08-10-0000August 10, 1914
000000001918-08-09-0000August 9, 1918
4

William P.G. Harding
Atlanta
000000001914-08-10-0000August 10, 1914
000000001922-08-09-0000August 9, 1922
8
Chairman (1916–1922)

Adolph C. Miller
San Francisco
000000001914-08-10-0000August 10, 1914
000000001936-02-03-0000February 3, 1936
12

Charles S. Hamlin
Boston
000000001914-08-10-0000August 10, 1914
000000001936-02-03-0000February 3, 1936
12
Chairman (1914–1916)

Albert Strauss
New York
000000001918-10-26-0000October 26, 1918
000000001920-03-15-0000March 15, 1920
2

Henry A. Moehlenpah
Chicago
000000001919-11-10-0000November 10, 1919
000000001920-08-09-0000August 9, 1920
1

Edmund Platt
New York
000000001920-06-20-0000June 20, 1920
000000001930-09-14-0000September 14, 1930
10

David C. Wills
Cleveland
000000001920-09-20-0000September 20, 1920
000000001921-03-04-0000March 4, 1921
1

John R. Mitchell
Minneapolis
000000001921-05-12-0000May 12, 1921
000000001923-05-12-0000May 12, 1923
2

Milo D. Campbell
Chicago
000000001923-03-14-0000March 14, 1923
000000001923-03-22-0000March 22, 1923
<1
Died in office

Daniel R. Crissinger
Cleveland
000000001923-05-01-0000May 1, 1923
000000001927-09-15-0000September 15, 1927
4
Chairman (1923–1927)

Edward H. Cunningham
Chicago
000000001923-05-14-0000May 14, 1923
000000001930-11-28-0000November 28, 1930
7
Died in office

George R. James
St. Louis
000000001923-05-14-0000May 14, 1923
000000001936-02-03-0000February 3, 1936
13

Roy A. Young
Minneapolis
000000001927-10-04-0000October 4, 1927
000000001930-08-31-0000August 31, 1930
3
Chairman (1927–1930)

Eugene Meyer
New York
000000001930-09-16-0000September 16, 1930
000000001933-05-10-0000May 10, 1933
3
Chairman (1930–1933)

Wayland W. Magee
Kansas City
000000001931-05-18-0000May 18, 1931
000000001933-01-24-0000January 24, 1933
2

Eugene R. Black
Atlanta
000000001933-05-19-0000May 19, 1933
000000001934-08-15-0000August 15, 1934
1
Chairman (1933–1934)

J.J. Thomas
Kansas City
000000001933-06-14-0000June 14, 1933
000000001936-02-10-0000February 10, 1936
3

M.S. Szymczak
Chicago
000000001933-06-14-0000June 14, 1933
000000001961-05-31-0000May 31, 1961
28

Marriner S. Eccles
San Francisco
000000001934-11-15-0000November 15, 1934
000000001951-07-14-0000July 14, 1951
17
Chairman (1934–1948)

Joseph A. Broderick
New York
000000001936-02-03-0000February 3, 1936
000000001937-09-30-0000September 30, 1937
2

John K. McKee
Cleveland
000000001936-02-03-0000February 3, 1936
000000001946-04-04-0000April 4, 1946
10

Ronald Ransom
Atlanta
000000001936-02-03-0000February 3, 1936
000000001947-12-02-0000December 2, 1947
12
Died in office

Ralph W. Morrison
Dallas
000000001936-02-10-0000February 10, 1936
000000001936-07-09-0000July 9, 1936
<1

Chester C. Davis
Richmond
000000001936-06-25-0000June 25, 1936
000000001941-04-15-0000April 15, 1941
5

Ernest G. Draper
New York
000000001938-03-30-0000March 30, 1938
000000001950-09-01-0000September 1, 1950
12

Rudolph M. Evans
Richmond
000000001942-03-14-0000March 14, 1942
000000001954-08-13-0000August 13, 1954
12

James K. Vardaman, Jr.
St. Louis
000000001946-04-04-0000April 4, 1946
000000001958-11-30-0000November 30, 1958
12

Lawrence Clayton
Boston
000000001947-02-14-0000February 14, 1947
000000001949-12-04-0000December 4, 1949
3
Died in office

Thomas B. McCabe
Philadelphia
000000001948-04-15-0000April 15, 1948
000000001951-03-31-0000March 31, 1951
3
Chairman (1948–1951)

Edward L. Norton
Atlanta
000000001950-09-01-0000September 1, 1950
000000001952-01-31-0000January 31, 1952
1

Oliver S. Powell
Minneapolis
000000001950-09-01-0000September 1, 1950
000000001952-06-30-0000June 30, 1952
2

William McChesney Martin
New York
000000001951-04-02-0000April 2, 1951
000000001970-01-31-0000January 31, 1970
19
Chairman (1951–1970)

A.L. Mills, Jr.
San Francisco
000000001952-02-18-0000February 18, 1952
000000001965-02-28-0000February 28, 1965
13

J.L. Robertson
Kansas City
000000001952-02-18-0000February 18, 1952
000000001973-04-30-0000April 30, 1973
21

C. Canby Balderston
Philadelphia
000000001954-08-12-0000August 12, 1954
000000001966-02-28-0000February 28, 1966
12

Paul E. Miller
Minneapolis
000000001954-08-13-0000August 13, 1954
000000001954-10-21-0000October 21, 1954
<1
Died in office

Charles N. Shepardson
Dallas
000000001955-03-17-0000March 17, 1955
000000001967-04-30-0000April 30, 1967
12

G.H. King, Jr.
Atlanta
000000001959-03-25-0000March 25, 1959
000000001963-09-18-0000September 18, 1963
4

George W. Mitchell
Chicago
000000001961-08-31-0000August 31, 1961
000000001976-02-13-0000February 13, 1976
14

J. Dewey Daane
Richmond
000000001963-11-29-0000November 29, 1963
000000001974-03-08-0000March 8, 1974
11

Sherman J. Maisel
San Francisco
000000001965-04-30-0000April 30, 1965
000000001972-05-31-0000May 31, 1972
7

Andrew F. Brimmer
Philadelphia
000000001966-03-09-0000March 9, 1966
000000001974-08-31-0000August 31, 1974
8

William W. Sherrill
Dallas
000000001967-05-01-0000May 1, 1967
000000001971-11-15-0000November 15, 1971
5

Arthur F. Burns
New York
000000001970-01-31-0000January 31, 1970
000000001978-03-31-0000March 31, 1978
8
Chairman (1970–1978)

John E. Sheehan
St. Louis
000000001972-01-04-0000January 4, 1972
000000001975-06-01-0000June 1, 1975
3

Jeffrey M. Bucher
San Francisco
000000001972-06-05-0000June 5, 1972
000000001976-01-02-0000January 2, 1976
4

Robert C. Holland
Kansas City
000000001973-06-11-0000June 11, 1973
000000001976-05-15-0000May 15, 1976
3

Henry C. Wallich
Boston
000000001974-03-08-0000March 8, 1974
000000001986-12-15-0000December 15, 1986
12

Philip E. Coldwell
Dallas
000000001974-10-29-0000October 29, 1974
000000001980-02-29-0000February 29, 1980
6

Philip C. Jackson, Jr.
Atlanta
000000001975-07-14-0000July 14, 1975
000000001978-11-17-0000November 17, 1978
3

J. Charles Partee
Richmond
000000001976-01-05-0000January 5, 1976
000000001986-02-07-0000February 7, 1986
10

Stephen S. Gardner
Philadelphia
000000001976-02-13-0000February 13, 1976
000000001978-11-19-0000November 19, 1978
3
Died in office

David M. Lilly
Minneapolis
000000001976-06-01-0000June 1, 1976
000000001978-02-24-0000February 24, 1978
2

G. William Miller
San Francisco
000000001978-03-08-0000March 8, 1978
000000001979-08-06-0000August 6, 1979
1
Chairman (1978–1979)

Nancy H. Teeters
Chicago
000000001978-09-18-0000September 18, 1978
000000001984-06-27-0000June 27, 1984
6

Emmett J. Rice
New York
000000001979-06-20-0000June 20, 1979
000000001986-12-31-0000December 31, 1986
8

Frederick H. Schultz
Atlanta
000000001979-07-27-0000July 27, 1979
000000001982-02-11-0000February 11, 1982
3

Paul A. Volcker
Philadelphia
000000001979-08-06-0000August 6, 1979
000000001987-08-11-0000August 11, 1987
8
Chairman (1979–1987)

Lyle E. Gramley
Kansas City
000000001980-05-28-0000May 28, 1980
000000001985-09-01-0000September 1, 1985
5

Preston Martin[8]
San Francisco
000000001982-03-31-0000March 31, 1982
000000001986-04-30-0000April 30, 1986
4

Martha R. Seger
Chicago
000000001984-07-02-0000July 2, 1984
000000001991-03-11-0000March 11, 1991
7

Manuel H. Johnson
Richmond
000000001986-02-07-0000February 7, 1986
000000001990-08-03-0000August 3, 1990
4

Wayne D. Angell
Kansas City
000000001986-02-07-0000February 7, 1986
000000001994-02-09-0000February 9, 1994
8

H. Robert Heller
San Francisco
000000001986-08-19-0000August 19, 1986
000000001989-07-31-0000July 31, 1989
3

Edward W. Kelley, Jr.
Dallas
000000001987-05-26-0000May 26, 1987
000000002001-12-31-0000December 31, 2001
14

Alan Greenspan
New York
000000001987-08-11-0000August 11, 1987
000000002006-01-31-0000January 31, 2006
19
Chairman (1987–2006)

John P. LaWare
Boston
000000001988-08-15-0000August 15, 1988
000000001995-04-30-0000April 30, 1995
7

David W. Mullins, Jr.
St. Louis
000000001990-05-21-0000May 21, 1990
000000001994-02-14-0000February 14, 1994
4

Lawrence B. Lindsey
Richmond
000000001991-11-26-0000November 26, 1991
000000001997-02-05-0000February 5, 1997
5

Susan M. Phillips
Chicago
000000001991-12-02-0000December 2, 1991
000000001998-06-30-0000June 30, 1998
7

Alan S. Blinder
Philadelphia
000000001994-06-27-0000June 27, 1994
000000001996-01-31-0000January 31, 1996
2

Janet Yellen
San Francisco
000000001994-08-12-0000August 12, 1994
000000001997-02-17-0000February 17, 1997
3

Laurence H. Meyer
St. Louis
000000001996-06-24-0000June 24, 1996
000000002002-01-31-0000January 31, 2002
6

Alice M. Rivlin
Philadelphia
000000001996-06-25-0000June 25, 1996
000000001999-07-16-0000July 16, 1999
3

Edward M. Gramlich
Richmond
000000001997-11-05-0000November 5, 1997
000000002005-08-31-0000August 31, 2005
8

Roger W. Ferguson, Jr.
Boston
000000001997-11-05-0000November 5, 1997
000000002006-04-28-0000April 28, 2006
8

Mark W. Olson
Minneapolis
000000002001-12-07-0000December 7, 2001
000000002006-06-30-0000June 30, 2006
5

Susan S. Bies
Chicago
000000002001-12-07-0000December 7, 2001
000000002007-03-30-0000March 30, 2007
5

Ben S. Bernanke
Atlanta
000000002002-08-05-0000August 5, 2002
000000002005-06-21-0000June 21, 2005
3

Donald L. Kohn
Kansas City
000000002002-08-05-0000August 5, 2002
000000002010-09-01-0000September 1, 2010
8

Ben S. Bernanke
Atlanta
000000002006-02-01-0000February 1, 2006
000000002014-01-31-0000January 31, 2014
8
Chairman (2006–2014)

Kevin M. Warsh
New York
000000002006-02-24-0000February 24, 2006
000000002011-04-02-0000April 2, 2011
5

Randall S. Kroszner
Richmond
000000002006-03-01-0000March 1, 2006
000000002009-01-21-0000January 21, 2009
3

Frederic S. Mishkin
Boston
000000002006-09-05-0000September 5, 2006
000000002008-08-31-0000August 31, 2008
2

Elizabeth A. Duke
Philadelphia
000000002008-08-05-0000August 5, 2008
000000002013-08-31-0000August 31, 2013
5

Daniel Tarullo
Boston
000000002009-01-28-0000January 28, 2009
000000002017-04-05-0000April 5, 2017
8

Janet Yellen
San Francisco
000000002010-10-04-0000October 4, 2010
000000002018-02-03-0000February 3, 2018
7
Chair (2014–2018)

Sarah Bloom Raskin
Richmond
000000002010-10-04-0000October 4, 2010
000000002014-03-13-0000March 13, 2014
3

Jerome Powell
New York
000000002012-05-25-0000May 25, 2012
000000002028-01-31-0000January 31, 2028 (Incumbent)

Chairman (2018–present)

Jeremy C. Stein
Chicago
000000002012-05-30-0000May 30, 2012
000000002014-05-28-0000May 28, 2014
2

Stanley Fischer
New York
000000002014-05-28-0000May 28, 2014
000000002017-10-13-0000October 13, 2017
3

Lael Brainard
Richmond
000000002014-06-16-0000June 16, 2014
000000002026-01-31-0000January 31, 2026 (Incumbent)

Randal Quarles
Kansas City
000000002017-10-13-0000October 13, 2017
000000002018-01-31-0000January 31, 2018 (Incumbent)

Vice Chairman for Supervision (2017–present)

text: Source: [9]