document_title: New media

question_text: when did the age of new media began

question_tokens: when did the age of new media began

text: New media

text: History[edit]

text: In the 1950s, connections between computing and radical art began to grow stronger. It was not until the 1980s that Alan Kay and his co-workers at Xerox PARC began to give the computability of a personal computer to the individual, rather than have a big organization be in charge of this. "In the late 1980s and early 1990s, however, we seem to witness a different kind of parallel relationship between social changes and computer design. Although causally unrelated, conceptually it makes sense that the Cold War and the design of the Web took place at exactly the same time."[1]

text: Writers and philosophers such as Marshall McLuhan were instrumental in the development of media theory during this period. His now famous declaration in Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man (1964) that "the medium is the message" drew attention to the too often ignored influence media and technology themselves, rather than their "content," have on humans' experience of the world and on society broadly.

text: Until the 1980s media relied primarily upon print and analog broadcast models, such as those of television and radio. The last twenty-five years have seen the rapid transformation into media which are predicated upon the use of digital technologies, such as the Internet and video games. However, these examples are only a small representation of new media. The use of digital computers has transformed the remaining 'old' media, as suggested by the advent of digital television and online publications. Even traditional media forms such as the printing press have been transformed through the application of technologies such as image manipulation software like Adobe Photoshop and desktop publishing tools.

text: Andrew L. Shapiro (1999) argues that the "emergence of new, digital technologies signals a potentially radical shift of who is in control of information, experience and resources" (Shapiro cited in Croteau and Hoynes 2003: 322). W. Russell Neuman (1991) suggests that whilst the "new media" have technical capabilities to pull in one direction, economic and social forces pull back in the opposite direction. According to Neuman, "We are witnessing the evolution of a universal interconnected network of audio, video, and electronic text communications that will blur the distinction between interpersonal and mass communication and between public and private communication" (Neuman cited in Croteau and Hoynes 2003: 322). Neuman argues that new media will:

text:
Alter the meaning of geographic distance.
Allow for a huge increase in the volume of communication.
Provide the possibility of increasing the speed of communication.
Provide opportunities for interactive communication.
Allow forms of communication that were previously separate to overlap and interconnect.

text: Consequently, it has been the contention of scholars such as Douglas Kellner and James Bohman that new media, and particularly the Internet, provide the potential for a democratic postmodern public sphere, in which citizens can participate in well informed, non-hierarchical debate pertaining to their social structures. Contradicting these positive appraisals of the potential social impacts of new media are scholars such as Ed Herman and Robert McChesney who have suggested that the transition to new media has seen a handful of powerful transnational telecommunications corporations who achieve a level of global influence which was hitherto unimaginable.

text: Scholars, such as Lister et al. (2003), have highlighted both the positive and negative potential and actual implications of new media technologies, suggesting that some of the early work into new media studies was guilty of technological determinism – whereby the effects of media were determined by the technology themselves, rather than through tracing the complex social networks which governed the development, funding, implementation and future development of any technology.

text: Based on the argument that people have a limited amount of time to spend on the consumption of different media, Displacement theory argue that the viewership or readership of one particular outlet leads to the reduction in the amount of time spent by the individual on another. The introduction of New Media, such as the internet, therefore reduces the amount of time individuals would spend on existing "Old" Media, which could ultimately lead to the end of such traditional media.[4]

text: Definition[edit]

text: Although there are several ways that New Media may be described, Lev Manovich, in an introduction to The New Media Reader, defines New Media by using eight propositions:[1]

text:
New Media versus Cyberculture – Cyberculture is the various social phenomena that are associated with the Internet and network communications (blogs, online multi-player gaming), whereas New Media is concerned more with cultural objects and paradigms (digital to analog television, iPhones).
New Media as Computer Technology Used as a Distribution Platform – New Media are the cultural objects which use digital computer technology for distribution and exhibition. e.g. (at least for now) Internet, Web sites, computer multimedia, Blu-ray disks etc. The problem with this is that the definition must be revised every few years. The term "new media" will not be "new" anymore, as most forms of culture will be distributed through computers.
New Media as Digital Data Controlled by Software – The language of New Media is based on the assumption that, in fact, all cultural objects that rely on digital representation and computer-based delivery do share a number of common qualities. New media is reduced to digital data that can be manipulated by software as any other data. Now media operations can create several versions of the same object. An example is an image stored as matrix data which can be manipulated and altered according to the additional algorithms implemented, such as color inversion, gray-scaling, sharpening, rasterizing, etc.
New Media as the Mix Between Existing Cultural Conventions and the Conventions of Software – New Media today can be understood as the mix between older cultural conventions for data representation, access, and manipulation and newer conventions of data representation, access, and manipulation. The "old" data are representations of visual reality and human experience, and the "new" data is numerical data. The computer is kept out of the key "creative" decisions, and is delegated to the position of a technician. e.g. In film, software is used in some areas of production, in others are created using computer animation.
New Media as the Aesthetics that Accompanies the Early Stage of Every New Modern Media and Communication Technology – While ideological tropes indeed seem to be reappearing rather regularly, many aesthetic strategies may reappear two or three times ... In order for this approach to be truly useful it would be insufficient to simply name the strategies and tropes and to record the moments of their appearance; instead, we would have to develop a much more comprehensive analysis which would correlate the history of technology with social, political, and economical histories or the modern period.
New Media as Faster Execution of Algorithms Previously Executed Manually or through Other Technologies – Computers are a huge speed-up of what were previously manual techniques. e.g. calculators. Dramatically speeding up the execution makes possible previously non-existent representational technique. This also makes possible of many new forms of media art such as interactive multimedia and video games. On one level, a modern digital computer is just a faster calculator, we should not ignore its other identity: that of a cybernetic control device.
New Media as the Encoding of Modernist Avant-Garde; New Media as Metamedia – Manovich declares that the 1920s are more relevant to New Media than any other time period. Metamedia coincides with postmodernism in that they both rework old work rather than create new work. New media avant-garde is about new ways of accessing and manipulating information (e.g. hypermedia, databases, search engines, etc.). Meta-media is an example of how quantity can change into quality as in new media technology and manipulation techniques can recode modernist aesthetics into a very different postmodern aesthetics.
New Media as Parallel Articulation of Similar Ideas in Post-WWII Art and Modern Computing – Post WWII Art or "combinatorics" involves creating images by systematically changing a single parameter. This leads to the creation of remarkably similar images and spatial structures. This illustrates that algorithms, this essential part of new media, do not depend on technology, but can be executed by humans.

tag: ol

text: Globalization[edit]

text: The rise of new media has increased communication between people all over the world and the Internet. It has allowed people to express themselves through blogs, websites, videos, pictures, and other user-generated media.

text: Flew (2002) stated that, "as a result of the evolution of new media technologies, globalization occurs." Globalization is generally stated as "more than expansion of activities beyond the boundaries of particular nation states".[5] Globalization shortens the distance between people all over the world by the electronic communication (Carely 1992 in Flew 2002) and Cairncross (1998) expresses this great development as the "death of distance". New media "radically break the connection between physical place and social place, making physical location much less significant for our social relationships" (Croteau and Hoynes 2003: 311).

text: However, the changes in the new media environment create a series of tensions in the concept of "public sphere".[6] According to Ingrid Volkmer, "public sphere" is defined as a process through which public communication becomes restructured and partly disembedded from national political and cultural institutions. This trend of the globalized public sphere is not only as a geographical expansion form a nation to worldwide, but also changes the relationship between the public, the media and state (Volkmer, 1999:123).[7]

text: "Virtual communities" are being established online and transcend geographical boundaries, eliminating social restrictions.[8] Howard Rheingold (2000) describes these globalised societies as self-defined networks, which resemble what we do in real life. "People in virtual communities use words on screens to exchange pleasantries and argue, engage in intellectual discourse, conduct commerce, make plans, brainstorm, gossip, feud, fall in love, create a little high art and a lot of idle talk" (Rheingold cited in Slevin 2000: 91). For Sherry Turkle "making the computer into a second self, finding a soul in the machine, can substitute for human relationships" (Holmes 2005: 184). New media has the ability to connect like-minded others worldwide.

text: While this perspective suggests that the technology drives – and therefore is a determining factor – in the process of globalization, arguments involving technological determinism are generally frowned upon by mainstream media studies.[9][10][11] Instead academics focus on the multiplicity of processes by which technology is funded, researched and produced, forming a feedback loop when the technologies are used and often transformed by their users, which then feeds into the process of guiding their future development.

text: While commentators such as Castells[12] espouse a "soft determinism"[13] whereby they contend that "Technology does not determine society. Nor does society script the course of technological change, since many factors, including individual inventiveness and entrpreneurialism, intervene in the process of scientific discovery, technical innovation and social applications, so the final outcome depends on a complex pattern of interaction. Indeed the dilemma of technological determinism is probably a false problem, since technology is society and society cannot be understood without its technological tools." (Castells 1996:5) This, however, is still distinct from stating that societal changes are instigated by technological development, which recalls the theses of Marshall McLuhan.[14][15]

text: Manovich[16] and Castells[12] have argued that whereas mass media "corresponded to the logic of industrial mass society, which values conformity over individuality," (Manovich 2001:41) new media follows the logic of the postindustrial or globalized society whereby "every citizen can construct her own custom lifestyle and select her ideology from a large number of choices. Rather than pushing the same objects to a mass audience, marketing now tries to target each individual separately." (Manovich 2001:42).

text: As tool for social change[edit]

text: Social movement media has a rich and storied history (see Agitprop) that has changed at a rapid rate since New Media became widely used.[17] The Zapatista Army of National Liberation of Chiapas, Mexico were the first major movement to make widely recognized and effective use of New Media for communiques and organizing in 1994.[17] Since then, New Media has been used extensively by social movements to educate, organize, share cultural products of movements, communicate, coalition build, and more. The WTO Ministerial Conference of 1999 protest activity was another landmark in the use of New Media as a tool for social change. The WTO protests used media to organize the original action, communicate with and educate participants, and was used as an alternative media source.[18] The Indymedia movement also developed out of this action, and has been a great tool in the democratization of information, which is another widely discussed aspect of new media movement.[19] Some scholars even view this democratization as an indication of the creation of a "radical, socio-technical paradigm to challenge the dominant, neoliberal and technologically determinist model of information and communication technologies."[20] A less radical view along these same lines is that people are taking advantage of the Internet to produce a grassroots globalization, one that is anti-neoliberal and centered on people rather than the flow of capital.[21] Chanelle Adams, a feminist blogger for the Bi-Weekly webpaper The Media says that in her "commitment to anti-oppressive feminist work, it seems obligatory for her to stay in the know just to remain relevant to the struggle."  In order for Adams and other feminists who work towards spreading their messages to the public, new media becomes crucial towards completing this task, allowing people to access a movement's information instantaneously. Of course, some are also skeptical of the role of New Media in Social Movements. Many scholars point out unequal access to new media as a hindrance to broad-based movements, sometimes even oppressing some within a movement.[22] Others are skeptical about how democratic or useful it really is for social movements, even for those with access.[23]

text: New Media has also found a use with less radical social movements such as the Free Hugs Campaign. Using websites, blogs, and online videos to demonstrate the effectiveness of the movement itself. Along with this example the use of high volume blogs has allowed numerous views and practices to be more widespread and gain more public attention. Another example is the ongoing Free Tibet Campaign, which has been seen on numerous websites as well as having a slight tie-in with the band Gorillaz in their Gorillaz Bitez clip featuring the lead singer 2D sitting with protesters at a Free Tibet protest. Another social change seen coming from New Media is trends in fashion and the emergence of subcultures such as Text Speak, Cyberpunk, and various others.

text: Following trends in fashion and Text Speak, New Media also makes way for "trendy" social change. The Ice Bucket Challenge is a recent example of this. All in the name of raising money for ALS (the lethal neurodegenerative disorder also known as Lou Gehrig's disease), participants are nominated by friends via Facebook, Twitter and ownmirror to dump a bucket of ice water on themselves, or donate to the ALS Foundation. This became a huge trend through Facebook's tagging tool, allowing nominees to be tagged in the post. The videos appeared on more people's feeds, and the trend spread fast. This trend raised over 100 million dollars for the cause and increased donations by 3,500 percent.

text: National security[edit]

text: New Media has also recently become of interest to the global espionage community as it is easily accessible electronically in database format and can therefore be quickly retrieved and reverse engineered by national governments. Particularly of interest to the espionage community are Facebook and Twitter, two sites where individuals freely divulge personal information that can then be sifted through and archived for the automatic creation of dossiers on both people of interest and the average citizen.[24]

text: New media also serves as an important tool for both institutions and nations to promote their interest and values (The contents of such promotion may vary according to different  purposes). Some communities consider it an approach of "peaceful evolution" that may erode their own nation's system of values and eventually compromise national security.

text: Interactivity[edit]

text: Interactivity has become a term for a number of new media use options evolving from the rapid dissemination of Internet access points, the digitalization of media, and media convergence. In 1984, Rice defined new media as communication technologies that enable or facilitate user-to-user interactivity and interactivity between user and information.[25] Such a definition replaces the "one-to-many" model of traditional mass communication with the possibility of a "many-to-many" web of communication. Any individual with the appropriate technology can now produce his or her online media and include images, text, and sound about whatever he or she chooses.[26] Thus the convergence of new methods of communication with new technologies shifts the model of mass communication, and radically reshapes the ways we interact and communicate with one another. In "What is new media?" Vin Crosbie[27] (2002) described three different kinds of communication media. He saw Interpersonal media as "one to one", Mass media as "one to many", and finally New Media as Individuation Media or "many to many".

text: When we think of interactivity and its meaning, we assume that it is only prominent in the conversational dynamics of individuals who are face-to-face. This restriction of opinion does not allow us to see its existence in mediated communication forums. Interactivity is present in some programming work, such as video games. It's also viable in the operation of traditional media. In the mid 1990s, filmmakers started using inexpensive digital cameras to create films. It was also the time when moving image technology had developed, which was able to be viewed on computer desktops in full motion. This development of new media technology was a new method for artists to share their work and interact with the big world. Other settings of interactivity include radio and television talk shows, letters to the editor, listener participation in such programs, and computer and technological programming.[28] Interactive new media has become a true benefit to every one because people can express their artwork in more than one way with the technology that we have today and there is no longer a limit to what we can do with our creativity.

text: Interactivity can be considered a central concept in understanding new media, but different media forms possess, or enable[29] different degrees of interactivity,[30] and some forms of digitized and converged media are not in fact interactive at all. Tony Feldman[31] considers digital satellite television as an example of a new media technology that uses digital compression to dramatically increase the number of television channels that can be delivered, and which changes the nature of what can be offered through the service, but does not transform the experience of television from the user's point of view, and thus lacks a more fully interactive dimension. It remains the case that interactivity is not an inherent characteristic of all new media technologies, unlike digitization and convergence.

text: Terry Flew (2005) argues that "the global interactive games industry is large and growing, and is at the forefront of many of the most significant innovations in new media" (Flew 2005: 101). Interactivity is prominent in these online video games such as World of Warcraft, The Sims Online and Second Life. These games, which are developments of "new media," allow for users to establish relationships and experience a sense of belonging that transcends traditional temporal and spatial boundaries (such as when gamers logging in from different parts of the world interact). These games can be used as an escape or to act out a desired life. Will Wright, creator of The Sims, "is fascinated by the way gamers have become so attached to his invention-with some even living their lives through it".[32] New media have created virtual realities that are becoming virtual extensions of the world we live in. With the creation of Second Life and Active Worlds before it, people have even more control over this virtual world, a world where anything that a participant can think of can become a reality.[33]

text: New Media changes continuously because it is constantly modified and redefined by the interaction between users, emerging technologies, cultural changes, etc.

text: New forms of New Media are emerging like Web 2.0 tools Facebook and YouTube, along with video games and the consoles they are played on. It is helping to make video games and video game consoles branch out into New Media as well. Gamers on YouTube post videos of them playing video games they like and that people want to watch. Cultural changes are happening because people can upload their gaming experiences to a Web 2.0 tool like Facebook and YouTube for the world to see. Consoles like the Xbox One and the PlayStation 4 have WiFi connectivity and chat rooms on most of their video games that allow gamer-to-gamer conversations around the world. They also allow people to connect to YouTube, so if they stream/record a gamer, it allows for easy uploading to YouTube for the world to see. Even the older video game consoles are becoming new media because YouTube can display the walkthroughs and let's plays of the game. YouTube gaming is evolving because some YouTubers are getting wealthy and earning money from their videos. The more people that become YouTube members, the popular YouTube becomes and the more it starts emerging as a new source of media, along with video games and consoles. The chat room/online gaming/WiFi consoles are getting the highest increase in popularity because they are not only the most advanced, but because of the newest video games being created that the majority of the gaming community wants to buy, play and watch. The older video games and consoles also get popularity, but from YouTube's capabilities of uploading them to the gamer's channels for everyone to see. The older games get popularity from the communities nostalgia of the game(s), and the old school graphics and gameplay that made people see how old-school technology was the best at some point in time. Facebook helps those video games and consoles get popularity as well. People can upload the videos they create to Facebook as well. Facebook is a much larger website with a lot more users, so people use Facebook to spread their gaming content as well.

text: Industry[edit]

text: The new media industry shares an open association with many market segments in areas such as software/video game design, television, radio, mobile and particularly movies, advertising and marketing, through which industry seeks to gain from the advantages of two-way dialogue with consumers primarily through the Internet. As a device to source the ideas, concepts, and intellectual properties of the general public, the television industry has used new media and the Internet to expand their resources for new programming and content. The advertising industry has also capitalized on the proliferation of new media with large agencies running multimillion-dollar interactive advertising subsidiaries. Interactive websites and kiosks have become popular. In a number of cases advertising agencies have also set up new divisions to study new media. Public relations firms are also taking advantage of the opportunities in new media through interactive PR practices. Interactive PR practices include the use of social media[34] to reach a mass audience of online social network users.

text: With the rise of the Internet, many new career paths were created. Before the rise, many technical jobs were seen as nerdy. The Internet led to creative work that was seen as laid-back and diverse amongst sex, race, and sexual orientation. Web design, gaming design, webcasting, blogging, and animation are all creative career paths that came with this rise. At first glance, the field of new media may seem hip, cool, creative and relaxed.  What many don't realize is that working in this field is tiresome. Many of the people that work in this field don't have steady jobs. Work in this field has become project-based. Individuals work project to project for different companies. Most people are not working on one project or contract, but multiple ones at the same time. Despite working on numerous projects, people in this industry receive low payments, which is highly contrasted with the techy millionaire stereotype. It may seem as a carefree life from the outside, but it is not.  New media workers work long hours for little pay and spend up to 20 hours a week looking for new projects to work on.[35]

text: The ideology of new media careers as an egalitarian and stress-free environment is a myth. It is a game of networking and thriving at what you are capable of. Many workers face job instability. Inequality within this field exists due to the informality and flexibility of this career path.

text: Within the Industry, many Companies have emerged or transformed to adapt to the fast moving exciting opportunities that new media offers. The following companies are great examples of the changing landscape of companies/agencies whom have redeveloped, added or changed services to offer new media services.[36]

text:
Brand New Media[37]
Adcore Creative[38]
Seven West Media[39]

text: Youth[edit]

text: Based on nationally representative data, a study conducted by Kaiser Family Foundation in five-year intervals in 1998–99, 2003–04, and 2008–09 found that with technology allowing nearly 24-hour media access, the amount of time young people spend with entertainment media has risen dramatically, especially among Black and Hispanic youth.[40]  Today, 8- to 18-year-olds devote an average of 7 hours and 38 minutes (7:38) to using entertainment media in a typical day (more than 53 hours a week) – about the same amount most adults spend at work per day.  Since much of that time is spent 'media multitasking' (using more than one medium at a time), they actually manage to spend a total of 10 hours and 45 minutes worth of media content in those 7½ hours per day. According to the Pew Internet & American Life Project, 96% of 18- to 29-year-olds and three-quarters (75%) of teens now own a cell phone, 88% of whom text, with 73% of wired American teens using social networking websites, a significant increase from previous years.[41] A survey of over 25000 9- to 16-year-olds from 25 European countries found that many underage children use social media sites despite the site's stated age requirements, and many youth lack the digital skills to use social networking sites safely.[42]

text: The development of the new digital media demands a new educational model by parents and educators. The parental mediation become a way to manage the children’s experiences with Internet, chat, videogames and social network.[43]

text: A recent trend in internet is Youtubers Generation. Youtubers are young people who offer free video in their personal channel on YouTube. There are videos on games, fashion, food, cinema and music, where they offers tutorial or comments.[44]

text: The role of cellular phones, such as the iPhone, has created the inability to be in social isolation, and the potential of ruining relationships. The iPhone activates the insular cortex of the brain, which is associated with feelings of love. People show similar feelings to their phones as they would to their friends, family and loved ones. Countless people spend more time on their phones, while in the presence of other people than spending time with the people in the same room or class.[45][dubious  – discuss]

text: Political campaigns in the United States[edit]

text: In trying to determine the impact of new media on political campaigning and electioneering, the existing research has tried to examine whether new media supplants conventional media. Television is still the dominant news source, but new media's reach is growing. What is known is that new media has had a significant impact on elections and what began in the 2008 presidential campaign established new standards for how campaigns would be run. Since then, campaigns also have their outreach methods by developing targeted messages for specific audiences that can be reached via different social media platforms. Both parties have specific digital media strategies designed for voter outreach.

text:
Additionally, their websites are socially connected, engaging voters before, during, and after elections. Email and text messages are also regularly sent to supporters encouraging them to donate and get involved.[46]
Some existing research focuses on the ways that political campaigns, parties, and candidates have incorporated new media into their political strategizing. This is often a multi-faceted approach that combines new and old media forms to create highly specialized strategies. This allows them to reach wider audiences, but also to target very specific subsets of the electorate. They are able to tap into polling data and in some cases harness the analytics of the traffic and profiles on various social media outlets to get real-time data about the kinds of engagement that is needed and the kinds of messages that are successful or unsuccessful.[46]
One body of existing research into the impact of new media on elections investigates the relationship between voters' use of new media and their level of political activity. They focus on areas such as "attentiveness, knowledge, attitudes, orientations, and engagement" (Owen, 2011). In references a vast body of research, Owen (2011) points out that older studies were mixed, while "newer research reveals more consistent evidence of information gain".[46]

text: Some of that research has shown that there is a connection between the amount and degree of voter engagement and turnout (Owen, 2011). However, new media may not have overwhelming effects on either of those. Other research is tending toward the idea that new media has reinforcing effect, that rather than completely altering, by increasing involvement, it "imitates the established pattern of political participation" (Nam, 2012). After analyzing the Citizenship Involvement Democracy survey, Nam (2012) found that "the internet plays a dual role in mobilizing political participation by people not normally politically involved, as well as reinforcing existing offline participation." These findings chart a middle ground between some research that optimistically holds new media up to be an extremely effective or extremely ineffective at fostering political participation.[47]

text:
Towner (2013) found, in his survey of college students, that attention to new media increases offline and online political participation particularly for young people. His research shows that the prevalence of online media boosts participation and engagement. His work suggests that "it seems that online sources that facilitate political involvement, communication, and mobilization, particularly campaign websites, social media, and blogs, are the most important for offline political participation among young people".[48]
Deliberation When gauging effects and implications of new media on the political process, one means of doing so is to look at the deliberations that take place in these digital spaces (Halpern & Gibbs, 2013). In citing the work of several researchers, Halpern and Gibbs (2003) define deliberation to be "the performance of a set of communicative behaviors that promote thorough discussion. and the notion that in this process of communication the individuals involved weigh carefully the reasons for and against some of the propositions presented by others".[49]

text: The work of Halpern and Gibbs (2013) "suggest that although social media may not provide a forum for intensive or in-depth policy debate, it nevertheless provides a deliberative space to discuss and encourage political participation, both directly and indirectly". Their work goes a step beyond that as well though because it shows that some social media sites foster a more robust political debate than do others such as Facebook which includes highly personal and identifiable access to information about users alongside any comments they may post on political topics. This is in contrast to sites like YouTube whose comments are often posted anonymously.[49]

text: Ethical Issues in New Media Research[edit]

text: Due to the popularity of new media, social media websites (SMWs) like Facebook and Twitter are becoming increasingly popular among researchers (Moreno, Goniu, Moreno, Diekema, 2013)[50]. Although SMWs present new opportunities, they also represent challenges for researchers interested in studying social phenomena online, since it can be difficult to determine what are acceptable risks to privacy unique to social media. Some scholars (e.g. Moreno, Frost & Christakis, 2008)[51] argue that standard Institutional Review Board (IRB) procedures provide little guidance on research protocols relating to social media in particular.

text: As a consequence, Moreno et al (2013) identified three major approaches to research on social media and relevant concerns scholars should consider before engaging in social media research.

text: Observational Research[edit]

text: One of the major issues for observational research is whether a particular project is considered to involve human subjects. A human subject is one that “is defined by federal regulations as a living individual about whom an investigator obtains data through interaction with the individual or identifiable private information”[50]. Moreno et al (2013) note that if access to a social media site is public, information is considered identifiable but not private, and information gathering procedures do not require researchers to interact with the original poster of the information, then this does not meet the requirements for human subjects research. Research may also be exempt if the disclosure of participant responses outside the realm of the published research does not subject the participant to civic or criminal liability, damage the participant’s reputation, employability or financial standing[50]. Given these criteria, however, researchers still have considerable leeway when conducting observational research on social media. Many profiles on Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, and Twitter are public and researchers are free to use that data for observational research.

text: It should be noted, however, that users have the ability to change their privacy settings on most social media websites. Facebook, for example, provides users with the ability to restrict who sees their posts through specific privacy settings.[52] There is also debate about whether requiring users to create a username and password is sufficient to establish whether the data is considered public or private. Historically, Institutional Review Boards considered such websites to be private[50], although newer websites like YouTube call this practice into question. For example, YouTube only requires the creation of a username and password to post videos and/or view adult content, but anyone is free to view general YouTube videos and these general videos would not be subject to consent requirements for researchers looking to conduct observational studies.

text: Interactive Research[edit]

text: According to Romano et al (2013), interactive research occurs when "a researcher wishes to access the [social media website] content that is not publicly available" (pg. 710). Because researchers have limited ways of accessing this data, this could mean that a researcher sends a Facebook user a friend request, or follows a user on Twitter in order to gain access to potentially protected tweets (pg.711). While it could be argued that such actions would violate a social media user's expectation of privacy, Ellison, Steinfield and Lampe (2007) argued that actions like "friending" or "following" an individual on social media constitutes a "loose tie" relationship and therefore not sufficient to establish a reasonable expectation of privacy since individuals often have friends or followers they have never even met.[53]

text: Survey/Interview Research[edit]

text: Because research on social media occurs online, it is difficult for researchers to observe participant reactions to the informed consent process. For example, when collecting information about activities that are potentially illegal, or recruiting participants from stigmatized populations, this lack of physical proximity could potentially negatively impact the informed consent process[50]. Another important consideration regards the confidentiality of information provided by participants. While information provided over the internet might be perceived as lower risk, studies that publish direct quotes from study participants might expose them to the risk of being identified via a Google search[50]


document_title: Buckwheat Boyz

question_text: where did the peanut butter jelly time song come from

root

text: Buckwheat Boyz

text: This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text:
Buckwheat Boyz

Origin
Miami, Florida, United States

Genres
Baltimore club

Years active
1997–2002

Labels
Koch Records

Past members
Marcus Bowens, Jermaine Fuller, J.J. O'Neal, Dougy Williams

text: The Buckwheat Boyz was an American musical group founded by Marcus Bowens and Jermaine Fuller, with the later addition of J.J. O'Neal and Dougy Williams. The Buckwheat Boyz were signed by Koch Records, and recorded their first and only full-length record. From this self-titled album, the song "Peanut Butter Jelly Time" became popular on the Internet after a flash music video featuring an animated dancing banana was created.[1] The popularity of the song increased as it was featured on television shows such as The Proud Family, Family Guy, and Regular Show.

tag: p

text: Disbandment[edit]

text: In 2002, founding member and vocalist Jermaine Fuller died during an 11-hour police standoff. During the standoff his brother-in-law, Snoop Dogg attempted to calm Fuller down and convince him to surrender to no avail. Fuller's death directly led to the disbandment of the group.[2]

text: "Ice Cream and Cake" song[edit]

text: Their song "Ice Cream and Cake" rapidly rose in popularity after being featured in a 2009 Baskin-Robbins marketing campaign, which included a television commercial and an Ice Cream and Cake Dance Video Contest.[3] In August 2009, Baskin-Robbins kicked off the contest by hosting the Guinness World Records Largest Cheerleading Dance event with Mario Lopez of Extra TV and 225 members of the Universal Cheerleaders Association (UCA), at the University of California Los Angeles.[4] However, as of August 2011, the Guinness World Records archive states that the record for largest cheerleading dance was set in November 2009 by 297 participants at the University of Memphis in Memphis, Tennessee. It is not known whether this event was related to the Baskin-Robbins contest.[5]

text: Old Dominion University plays "Ice Cream and Cake" at home basketball games at the Ted Constant Convocation Center, and enjoys active crowd dance participation.[6]


document_title: List of Cleveland Browns seasons

question_text: when was the cleveland browns last winning game

text: List of Cleveland Browns seasons

text: The Cleveland Browns were a charter member club of the All-America Football Conference (AAFC) when the league was founded in 1946. From 1946 to 1949, the Browns won each of the league's four championships. The National Football League (NFL) does not recognize the Browns' AAFC championships; however, the Pro Football Hall of Fame does recognize the team's championships, which is reflected in this list. When the AAFC folded in 1949, the Browns were absorbed into the NFL in 1950. The Browns went on to win three NFL championships, nearly dominating the NFL in the 1950s, and won one more NFL championship in 1964. The team has yet to appear in a Super Bowl, however. Overall, the team has won eight championships: four in the AAFC, and four in the NFL.

text: In 1996, then-Browns owner Art Modell made the decision to move the team from Cleveland, Ohio to Baltimore, Maryland. An agreement between the city of Cleveland and the NFL kept the team's history, name and colors in Cleveland, while Modell's new team would be regarded as an expansion team. The Baltimore Ravens would begin play in 1996, and the Browns would return to the league in 1999. For record-keeping purposes, the Browns are considered to have suspended operations from 1996 to 1998, which is reflected in this list.

text: Seasons[edit]

text: For a complete team history, see History of the Cleveland Browns.

tag: ul

text:
AAFC champions[1] (1946–1949)
NFL champions (1950–1969)
Super Bowl champions[2] (1970–present)
Conference champions
Division champions
Wild Card berth

text:
Season
Team
League
Conference
Division
Regular season results
Post-season results
Awards

Finish
Wins
Losses
Ties

All-America Football Conference

1946
1946
AAFC

Western
1st
12
2
0
Won AAFC championship (1) (Yankees) 14–9

1947
1947
AAFC

Western
1st
12
1
1
Won AAFC championship (2) (at Yankees) 14–3

1948
1948
AAFC

Western
1st
14
0
0
Won AAFC championship (3) (Bills) 49–7

1949
1949
AAFC

1st
9
1
2
Won AAFC playoff game (Bills) 31–21
Won AAFC championship (4) (49ers) 21–7
Paul Brown (COY)

National Football League (1950–1995; 1999–present)

1950
1950
NFL
American

T-1st[3]
10
2
0
Won Conference Playoffs (Giants) 8–3
Won NFL Championship (5) (Rams) 30–28

1951
1951
NFL
American

1st
11
1
0
Lost NFL Championship (at Rams) 17–24
Paul Brown (COY)
Otto Graham (MVP)

1952
1952
NFL
American

1st
8
4
0
Lost NFL Championship (Lions) 7–17

1953
1953
NFL
Eastern

1st
11
1
0
Lost NFL Championship (at Lions) 16–17
Paul Brown (COY)
Otto Graham (MVP)

1954
1954
NFL
Eastern

1st
9
3
0
Won NFL Championship (6) (Lions) 56–10

1955
1955
NFL
Eastern

1st
9
2
1
Won NFL Championship (7) (at Rams) 38–14
Otto Graham (MVP)

1956
1956
NFL
Eastern

T-4th[4]
5
7
0

1957
1957
NFL
Eastern

1st
9
2
1
Lost NFL Championship (at Lions) 14–59
Paul Brown (COY)
Jim Brown (MVP, ROY)

1958
1958
NFL
Eastern

T-1st[5]
9
3
0
Lost Conference Playoffs (at Giants) 0–10
Jim Brown (MVP)

1959
1959
NFL
Eastern

T-2nd[6]
7
5
0

1960
1960
NFL
Eastern

2nd
8
3
1

1961
1961
NFL
Eastern

3rd
8
5
1

1962
1962
NFL
Eastern

3rd
7
6
1

1963
1963
NFL
Eastern

2nd
10
4
0

Jim Brown (BBA, MVP)

1964
1964
NFL
Eastern

1st
10
3
1
Won NFL Championship (8)[7] (Colts) 27–0

1965
1965
NFL
Eastern

1st
11
3
0
Lost NFL Championship (at Packers) 12–23
Jim Brown (MVP, MVP)

1966
1966
NFL
Eastern

T-2nd[8]
9
5
0

1967
1967
NFL
Eastern
Century
1st
9
5
0
Lost Conference Championship (at Cowboys) 14–52

1968
1968
NFL
Eastern
Century
1st
10
4
0
Won Conference Championship (Cowboys) 31–20
Lost NFL Championship (Colts) 0–34
Leroy Kelly (MVP)

1969
1969
NFL
Eastern
Century
1st
10
3
1
Won Conference Championship (at Cowboys) 38–14
Lost NFL Championship (at Vikings) 7–27

1970
1970
NFL
AFC
Central
2nd
7
7
0

1971
1971
NFL
AFC
Central
1st
9
5
0
Lost Divisional Playoffs (Colts) 3–20

1972
1972
NFL
AFC
Central
2nd
10
4
0
Lost Divisional Playoffs (at Dolphins) 14–20

1973
1973
NFL
AFC
Central
3rd
7
5
2

1974
1974
NFL
AFC
Central
4th
4
10
0

1975
1975
NFL
AFC
Central
4th
3
11
0

1976
1976
NFL
AFC
Central
2nd
9
5
0

Forrest Gregg (COY)

1977
1977
NFL
AFC
Central
4th
6
8
0

1978[9]
1978
NFL
AFC
Central
3rd
8
8
0

1979
1979
NFL
AFC
Central
3rd
9
7
0

Sam Rutigliano (COY)

1980
1980
NFL
AFC
Central
1st
11
5
0
Lost Divisional Playoffs (Raiders) 12–14[10]
Sam Rutigliano (COY)
Brian Sipe (MVP, MVP, POY)

1981
1981
NFL
AFC
Central
4th
5
11
0

1982[11]
1982
NFL
AFC

8th
4
5
0
Lost First Round Playoffs (at Raiders) 10–27
Chip Banks (Def. ROY)

1983
1983
NFL
AFC
Central
2nd
9
7
0

1984
1984
NFL
AFC
Central
3rd
5
11
0

1985
1985
NFL
AFC
Central
1st
8
8
0
Lost Divisional Playoffs (at Dolphins) 21–24
Kevin Mack (ROY)

1986
1986
NFL
AFC
Central
1st
12
4
0
Won Divisional Playoffs (Jets 23–20) (2 OT)
Lost AFC Championship[12] (Broncos) 20–23 (OT)
Marty Schottenheimer (COY)

1987[13]
1987
NFL
AFC
Central
1st
10
5
0
Won Divisional Playoffs (Colts) 38–21
Lost AFC Championship[14] (at Broncos) 33–38

1988
1988
NFL
AFC
Central
2nd[15]
10
6
0
Lost Wild Card Playoffs (Oilers) 23–24

1989
1989
NFL
AFC
Central
1st
9
6
1
Won Divisional Playoffs (Bills) 34–30
Lost AFC Championship[16] (at Broncos) 21–37
Michael Dean Perry (Def. POY)

1990
1990
NFL
AFC
Central
4th
3
13
0

1991
1991
NFL
AFC
Central
3rd
6
10
0

1992
1992
NFL
AFC
Central
3rd
7
9
0

1993
1993
NFL
AFC
Central
3rd
7
9
0

1994
1994
NFL
AFC
Central
2nd
11
5
0
Won Wild Card Playoffs (Patriots) 20–13
Lost Divisional Playoffs (at Steelers) 9–29

1995
1995
NFL
AFC
Central
4th
5
11
0

1996
Inactive from 1996–1998

1997

1998

1999
1999
NFL
AFC
Central
6th
2
14
0

2000
2000
NFL
AFC
Central
6th
3
13
0

2001
2001
NFL
AFC
Central
3rd[17]
7
9
0

2002
2002
NFL
AFC
North
2nd
9
7
0
Lost Wild Card Playoffs (at Steelers) 33–36

2003
2003
NFL
AFC
North
4th
5
11
0

2004
2004
NFL
AFC
North
4th
4
12
0

2005
2005
NFL
AFC
North
4th[18]
6
10
0

2006
2006
NFL
AFC
North
4th
4
12
0

2007
2007
NFL
AFC
North
2nd[19]
10
6
0

2008
2008
NFL
AFC
North
4th
4
12
0

2009
2009
NFL
AFC
North
4th
5
11
0

2010
2010
NFL
AFC
North
3rd
5
11
0

2011
2011
NFL
AFC
North
4th
4
12
0

2012
2012
NFL
AFC
North
4th
5
11
0

2013
2013
NFL
AFC
North
4th
4
12
0

2014
2014
NFL
AFC
North
4th
7
9
0

2015
2015
NFL
AFC
North
4th
3
13
0

2016
2016
NFL
AFC
North
4th
1
15
0

2017
2017
NFL
AFC
North
4th
0
16
0

Totals
4 AAFC Championships
4 NFL Championships
12 Conference Titles
9 NFL Division Titles

47
4
3
All-America Football Conference regular season results[20]

5
0
0
AAFC post-season results

462
482
10
National Football League regular season results[20]

11
20
0
NFL post-season results[20]

525
506
13
AAFC and NFL regular and post-season results

text: Footnotes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ The NFL does not recognize the Browns' AAFC championships. For the purposes of this list, however, they are included in final totals.
Jump up ^ The Browns are one of only four teams to have never appeared in a Super Bowl. The other three teams are the Detroit Lions, the Houston Texans, and the Jacksonville Jaguars.
Jump up ^ At the end of the 1950 NFL season, the Browns and Giants had identical 10–2–0 records. To determine the team that would play in the NFL Championship Game, the NFL held a one-game conference playoff. The Browns won, 8–3.
Jump up ^ At the end of the 1956 season, the Browns and the Steelers ended the season with identical 5–7 records. There were no tie-breaking procedures, so the teams ended the season tied.
Jump up ^ At the end of the 1958 NFL season, the Browns and Giants had identical 9–3–0 records. To determine the team that would play in the NFL Championship Game, the NFL held a one-game conference playoff. The Giants shut the Browns out 10–0.
Jump up ^ At the end of the 1959 season, the Browns and the Eagles ended the season with identical 5–7 records. There were no tie-breaking procedures, so the teams ended the season tied.
Jump up ^ The Browns' championship win in 1964 is the second most recent championship won by any sports team from the Cleveland area. The most recent being the Cleveland Cavaliers Championship win over the Golden State Warriors in 2016.
Jump up ^ At the end of the 1966 season, the Browns and the Eagles ended the season with identical 9–5 records. There were no tie-breaking procedures, so the teams ended the season tied.
Jump up ^ For the 1978 season, the NFL expanded from a 14-game season to a 16-game season.
Jump up ^ This game involved the play Red Right 88 in its final minutes.
Jump up ^ The 1982 NFL season was shortened from 16 games per team to 9 games because of a players' strike. The NFL adopted a special 16-team playoff tournament; eight teams from each conference were seeded 1–8, and division standings were ignored.
Jump up ^ The 1987 Conference Championship game between the Browns and the Broncos is best remembered for The Drive, in which quarterback John Elway, over the span of 5 minutes and 2 seconds, lead the Broncos on a 98-yard drive to tie the game with 37 seconds remaining in regulation. The Broncos won the game in overtime with a field goal, 23–20.
Jump up ^ The 1987 NFL season was shortened from 16 games per team to 15 games because of a players' strike. Games to be played during the third week of the season were canceled, and replacement players were used to play games from weeks 4 through 6.
Jump up ^ The 1988 Conference Championship game between the Browns and the Broncos is best remembered for The Fumble, in which, while on a potentially game-winning drive, the Browns' running back Ernest Byner fumbled the ball at the Broncos 3-yard line with 65 seconds remaining on the clock. The Broncos recovered the ball, allowed the Browns to get an intentional safety, and won the game, 38–33.
Jump up ^ At the end of the 1988 season, the Browns and the Oilers ended the season with identical 10–6 records. Using the NFL's tie-breaking procedures, Cleveland finished ahead of Houston based on a better division record.
Jump up ^ The 1990 Conference Championship game between the Browns and the Broncos marked the third time in four years that John Elway defeated Bernie Kosar and the Browns in the AFC championship game.
Jump up ^ At the end of the 2001 season, the Browns and the Titans ended the season with identical 7–9 records. Using the NFL's tie-breaking procedures, Cleveland finished ahead of Tennessee based on a better division record.
Jump up ^ At the end of the 2005 season, the Browns and the Ravens ended the season with identical 6–10 records. Using the NFL's tie-breaking procedures, Baltimore finished ahead of Cleveland based on a better division record.
Jump up ^ At the end of the 2007 season, the Browns and the Pittsburgh Steelers ended the season with identical 10–6 records. Using the NFL's tie-breaking procedures, the Steelers finished ahead of the Browns based on winning both games against the Browns during the season.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Cleveland Browns Team Encyclopedia - Pro-Football-Reference.com". pro-football-reference.com. Retrieved 14 January 2017.


document_title: Model year

question_text: when does new model year start for cars

question_tokens: when does new model year start for cars

text: Model year

text: Automobiles[edit]

text: Alfred P. Sloan extended the idea of yearly fashion-change from clothing to automobiles in the 1920s. His company, General Motors, was the first to introduce planned obsolescence (in cars) by means of making the production date, and thus the car's newness or lack of it, visually discernible.[citation needed]

text: European and Japanese automakers can utilise the term "model year" in respect of model availability dates in North American markets: these often receive updated models significantly later than domestic markets, especially in the event of unforeseen slow sales causing an inventory build-up of earlier versions.

text: The practice of identifying revisions of automobiles by their model year is strongest in Canada and the United States.[citation needed] Typically, complete vehicle redesigns of long-standing models occur in cycles of at least five years, with one or two facelifts during the model cycle, and manufacturers introduce such redesigns at various times throughout a calendar year.

text: Introductions of new models are often phased in around the world, meaning that a 2004 model of a particular vehicle may actually refer to two entirely different vehicles in different countries. Therefore, the more common practice for enthusiasts and motoring writers in other countries is to identify major revisions using the manufacturer's identifier for each revision.

text: For instance, aficionados will classify the Holden Commodore (a popular Australian car) according to the following series: VB (introduced in 1978), VC (1980), VH (1981), VK (1984), VL (1986), VN (1988), VP (1991), VR (1993), VS (1995), VT (1997), VX (2000), VY (2002), VZ (2004), VE (2006) and VF (2013). This is done for the simple reason of making the cars more easily distinguished.

text: Europe[edit]

text: In the automotive industry the model year is absolutely defined only by the manufacturer, and not by any local vehicle registration practices or marketing opinions.

text: Industry practice varies between markets according both to the level of exports to North America, and to the extent to which US-owned subsidiaries dominate the domestic automarket.[citation needed] In the 1960s and 1970s, many new models were traditionally introduced at the London or Paris motor shows during October, and manufacturers owned by US corporations as well as domestically controlled UK auto-makers tended to follow US auto-industry conventions in respect of model years. The concept was never so universally applied in Europe as in North America, however, and since the 1980s, the more commercially critical European Motor Shows have been the March Geneva Motor Show and the September Frankfurt Motor Show or Paris Motor Show. New models have increasingly been launched in June or July even in the UK, where the two remaining US-owned subsidiaries no longer design and build distinctively British Ford and Vauxhall models. All this has left the US-style model-year concept increasingly absent from the European domestic automarkets.

text: An automotive model year is categorically defined by the 10th digit of the vehicle identification number (VIN), and simply indicates any manufacturer-specified evolution in mid-cycle of a model range - such as revised paint options, trim options or any other minor specification change. The 10th VIN digit does not relate to the calendar year which the car is built, although the two may coincide. For example, a vehicle produced between July 2006 and June 2007 may have a 7 as the 10th digit of the VIN, and another vehicle produced between July 2007 and June 2008 may have an 8 in the 10th digit - with the change-over date varying depending on manufacturer, model and year.

text: United States[edit]

text: In the United States, automobile model-year sales traditionally begin with the fourth quarter of the preceding year. So model year refers to the sales model year; for example, vehicles sold during the period from October 1 to September 30 of the following year belong to a single model year.[citation needed] In addition, the launch of the new model-year has long been coordinated to the launch of the traditional new television season (as defined by A.C. Nielsen) in late September, because of the heavy dependence between television to offer products from automakers to advertise, and the car companies to launch their new models at a high-profile time of year.[1]

text: In other cases, products of a previous model year can continue production, especially if a newer model hasn't yet been released. In that case, the model year remains the same until a new model is introduced. This is to ensure that the model will be seen by the public, and will actually sell a number of vehicles before a new vehicle-model is produced, and people will look at the newer model rather than the previous one.

text: In the United States, for regulation purposes, government authorities allow cars of a given model year to be sold starting on January 1 of the previous calendar year. For example, this means that a 2019 model year vehicle can legally go on sale on January 1, 2018.[2] This has resulted in a few cars in the following model year being introduced in advertisements during the NFL's Super Bowl in February.

text: Other products[edit]

text: In addition to automobiles and bicycles, some other products that often have model years include:

text:
Airplanes
All-terrain vehicles
Golf carts
Heavy equipment
Mobile homes
Motorcycles
Recreational vehicles
Semi-trailer trucks
Snowmobiles
Tractors
Trailers
Watercraft


document_title: Kickstarter

question_text: what is the purpose of a website kick starter

text: Kickstarter

text: History[edit]

text: Kickstarter launched on April 28, 2009, by Perry Chen, Yancey Strickler, and Charles Adler.[8] The New York Times called Kickstarter "the people's NEA".[9] Time named it one of the "Best Inventions of 2010"[10] and "Best Websites of 2011".[11] Kickstarter reportedly raised $10 million funding from backers including NYC-based venture firm Union Square Ventures and angel investors such as Jack Dorsey, Zach Klein and Caterina Fake.[12] The company is based in Greenpoint, Brooklyn.[13]

text: Andy Baio served as the site's CTO until November 2010, when he joined Expert Labs.[14] Lance Ivy has been Lead Developer since the website launched.[15] On February 14, 2013, Kickstarter released an iOS app called Kickstarter for the iPhone.[16] The app is aimed at users who create and back projects and is the first time Kickstarter has had an official mobile presence.[17]

text: On October 31, 2012, Kickstarter opened projects based in the United Kingdom,[18] followed by projects based in Canada on September 9, 2013,[19] Australia and New Zealand on November 13, 2013,[20] the Netherlands on April 28, 2014, Denmark, Ireland, Norway, and Sweden on September 15, 2014,[21] Germany on April 28, 2015, France and Spain on May 19, 2015,[22] Austria, Belgium, Italy, Luxembourg and Switzerland on June 16, 2015, Singapore and Hong Kong on August 30, 2016,[23] Mexico on November 15, 2016 and Japan on September 12, 2017. In July 2017, Strickler announced his resignation.[24]

text: Model[edit]

text: Kickstarter is one of a number of crowdfunding platforms for gathering money from the public, which circumvents traditional avenues of investment.[25][26] Project creators choose a deadline and a minimum funding goal. If the goal is not met by the deadline, no funds are collected (a kind of assurance contract).[27] The platform is open to backers from anywhere in the world and to creators from the US, UK,[28] Canada,[29] Australia, New Zealand,[20] The Netherlands, Denmark, Ireland, Norway, Sweden, Spain, France, Germany, Austria, Italy, Belgium, Luxembourg, Switzerland and Mexico.

text: Kickstarter applies a 5% fee on the total amount of the funds raised.[30] Their payments processor applies an additional 3–5% fee.[31] Unlike many forums for fundraising or investment, Kickstarter claims no ownership over the projects and the work they produce. The web pages of projects launched on the site are permanently archived and accessible to the public. After funding is completed, projects and uploaded media cannot be edited or removed from the site.[32]

text: There is no guarantee that people who post projects on Kickstarter will deliver on their projects, use the money to implement their projects, or that the completed projects will meet backers' expectations. Kickstarter advises backers to use their own judgment on supporting a project. They also warn project leaders that they could be liable for legal damages from backers for failure to deliver on promises.[33] Projects might also fail even after a successful fundraising campaign when creators underestimate the total costs required or technical difficulties to be overcome.[34][35]

text: Asked what made Kickstarter different from other crowdfunding platforms, co-founder Perry Chen said: "I wonder if people really know what the definition of crowdfunding is. Or, if there’s even an agreed upon definition of what it is. We haven’t actively supported the use of the term because it can provoke more confusion. In our case, we focus on a middle ground between patronage and commerce. People are offering cool stuff and experiences in exchange for the support of their ideas. People are creating these mini-economies around their project ideas. So, you aren’t coming to the site to get something for nothing; you are trying to create value for the people who support you. We focus on creative projects—music, film, technology, art, design, food and publishing—and within the category of crowdfunding of the arts, we are probably ten times the size of all of the others combined."[36]

text: Projects[edit]

text: On June 21, 2012, Kickstarter began publishing statistics on its projects.[37] As of February 13, 2015, there were 207,135 launched projects (7,802 in progress), with a success rate of 40%.[clarification needed] The total amount pledged was $1,523,718,656.[38]

text: The business grew quickly in its early years. In 2010 Kickstarter had 3,910 successful projects and $27,638,318 pledged. The corresponding figures for 2011 were 11,836 successfully funded projects and $99,344,381 pledged; and there were 18,109 successfully funded projects, $319,786,629 pledged in 2012.[39][40]

text: On February 9, 2012, Kickstarter hit a number of milestones. A dock made for the iPhone designed by Casey Hopkins became the first Kickstarter project to exceed one million dollars in pledges. A few hours later, a new adventure game project started by computer game developers, Double Fine Productions, reached the same figure, having been launched less than 24 hours earlier, and finished with over $3 million pledged.[41] This was also the first time Kickstarter raised over a million dollars in pledges in a single day.[42] On August 30, 2014, the "Coolest Cooler", an icebox created by Ryan Grepper, became the most funded Kickstarter project in history, with US$13.28 million in funding, breaking the record previously held by the Pebble smart watch.[43]

text: In July 2012, Wharton professor Ethan Mollick and Jeanne Pi conducted research into what contributes to a project’s success or failure on Kickstarter. Some key findings from the analysis were that increasing goal size is negatively associated with success, projects that are featured on the Kickstarter homepage have an 89% chance of being successful, compared to 30% without, and that for an average $10,000 project, a 30-day project has a 35% chance of success, while a 60-day project has a 29% chance of success, all other things being constant.[44]

text: The ten largest Kickstarter projects by funds raised are listed below. Among successful projects, most raise between $1,000 and $9,999. These dollar amounts drop to less than half in the Design, Games, and Technology categories. However, the median amount raised for the latter two categories remains in the four-figure range. There is substantial variation in the success rate of projects falling under different categories. Over two thirds of completed dance projects have been successful. In contrast, fewer than 30% of completed fashion projects have reached their goal. Most failing projects fail to achieve 20% of their goals and this trend applies across all categories. Indeed, over 80% of projects that pass the 20% mark reach their goal.[38]

text: Categories[edit]

text: Creators categorize their projects into one of 13 categories and 36 subcategories.[45] They are: Art, Comics, Dance, Design, Fashion, Film and Video, Food, Games, Music, Photography, Publishing, Technology and Theater. Of these categories, Film & Video and Music are the largest categories and have raised the most amount of money. These categories, along with Games, account for over half the money raised.[38] Video games and tabletop games alone account for more than $2 out of every $10 spent on Kickstarter.[46]

text: Guidelines[edit]

text: To maintain its focus as a funding platform for creative projects, Kickstarter has outlined three guidelines for all project creators to follow: creators can fund projects only; projects must fit within one of the site's 13 creative categories; and creators must abide by the site's prohibited uses, which include charity and awareness campaigns. Kickstarter has additional requirements for hardware and product design projects. These include[47][48]

text:
Banning the use of photorealistic renderings and simulations demonstrating a product
Banning projects for genetically modified organisms.[49]
Limiting awards to single items or a "sensible set" of items relevant to the project (e.g., multiple light bulbs for a house)
Requiring a physical prototype
Requiring a manufacturing plan

text: The guidelines are designed to reinforce Kickstarter’s position that people are backing projects, not placing orders for a product. To underscore the notion that Kickstarter is a place in which creators and audiences make things together, creators across all categories are asked to describe the risks and challenges a project faces in producing it. This educates the public about the project goals and encourages contributions to the community.[50]

text: Notable projects and creators[edit]

text: Several creative works have gone on to receive critical acclaim and accolades after being funded on Kickstarter. Others, such as the Ouya console, have resulted in commercial failure.[51] The documentary short "Sun Come Up" and documentary short "Incident in New Baghdad" were each nominated for an Academy Award;[52][53] contemporary art projects "EyeWriter" and "Hip-Hop Word Count" were both chosen to exhibit in the Museum of Modern Art in 2011;[54] filmmaker Matt Porterfield was selected to screen his film Putty Hill at the Whitney Biennial In 2012;[55] author Rob Walker's Hypothetical Futures project exhibited at the 13th International Venice Architecture Biennale;[56] musician Amanda Palmer's album "Theatre is Evil" debuted at No. 10 on the Billboard 200;[57] designer Scott Wilson won a National Design Award from Smithsonian’s Cooper-Hewitt, National Design Museum following the success of his TikTok + LunaTik project;[58] the Kickstarter funded GoldieBlox toy gained nationwide distribution in 2013;[59] and approximately 10% of the films accepted into the Sundance, SXSW and Tribeca Film Festivals are projects funded on Kickstarter.[60][61]

text: Numerous well-known creators have used Kickstarter to produce their work, including: musicians Jennifer Paige,[62] Paula Cole,[63] TLC,[64] Amanda McBroom,[65] De La Soul,[66] Amanda Palmer,[67] Daniel Johnston,[68] Stuart Murdoch[69] and Tom Rush;[70] filmmakers and actors Kevin Sorbo,[71] Alyson Hannigan,[72] Zach Braff,[73] Bret Easton Ellis,[74] Colin Hanks,[75] Ed Begley, Jr.,[76] Gary Hustwit,[77] Hal Hartley,[78] Jennie Livingston,[79] Mark Duplass,[80] Matthew Modine,[81] Paul Schrader,[82] Ricki Lake,[83] Whoopi Goldberg,[84] Kristen Bell, John de Lancie and Zana Briski; authors and writers Dan Harmon,[85] Kevin Kelly,[86] Neal Stephenson,[87] Steve Altes,[88] and Seth Godin;[89] photographers Spencer Tunick,[90] Shane Lavalette,[91] and Gerd Ludwig;[92] game developers Tim Schafer,[93] Keiji Inafune, Brian Fargo,[94] and Rand Miller;[95] designer Stefan Sagmeister;[96] animator John Kricfalusi; comedian Eugene Mirman;[97] animators Don Bluth and Gary Goldman;[98] entrepreneurs Tim Ferriss,[99] Samuel Agboola[100] and Craig Mod;[101] and custom guitar maker Moniker.[102]

text: The Glowing Plant project was the first and only Kickstarter project to fund the development of a genetically modified organism (GMO).[citation needed]

text: Top projects by funds raised[edit]

text:
Ten largest successfully completed Kickstarter projects by total funds pledged (only closed fundings are listed)[103]

Rank
Total USD
Project name
Creator
Category
% funded
Backers
Closing date

1
20,338,986
Pebble Time – Awesome Smartwatch, No Compromises[104]
Pebble Technology
Product design
4,067
78,471
2015-03-27

2
13,285,226
Coolest Cooler: 21st Century Cooler that's Actually Cooler[105]
Ryan Grepper
Product design
26,570
62,642
2014-08-30

3
12,779,843
Pebble 2, Time 2 + All-New Pebble Core[106]
Pebble Technology
Product design
1,277
66,673
2016-06-30

4
12,393,139
Kingdom Death: Monster 1.5[107]
Kingdom Death/Adam Poots
Tabletop games
12,393
19,264
2017-01-07

5
10,266,845
Pebble: E-Paper Watch for iPhone and Android[108]
Pebble Technology
Product design
10,266
68,929
2012-05-18

6
9,192,055
The World's Best Travel Jacket with 15 Features || BAUBAX[109]
BAUBAX LLC
Product design
45,960
44,949
2015-09-03

7
8,782,571
Exploding Kittens[110]
Elan Lee
Playing cards
87,825
219,382
2015-02-20

8
8,596,474
OUYA: A New Kind of Video Game Console[111]
Ouya Inc.
Video games
904
63,416
2012-08-09

9
7,072,757
THE 7th CONTINENT – What Goes Up, Must Come Down[112]
Serious Poulp
Board game
17,681
43,733
2017-10-19

10
6,565,782
The Everyday Backpack, Tote, and Sling[113]
Peak Design
Product design
1,313
26,359
2016-09-10

text: Project cancellations[edit]

text: Both Kickstarter and project creators have canceled projects that appeared to have been fraudulent. Questions were raised about the projects in internet communities related to the fields of the projects. The concerns raised were: apparent copying of graphics from other sources; unrealistic performance or price claims; and failure of project sponsors to deliver on prior Kickstarter projects.

text: A small list of canceled projects includes:

text:
Eye3 camera drone helicopter for unrealistic performance promises, photos copied from other commercial products, and failure of creators to deliver on an earlier Kickstarter project.[114]
Mythic: The Story of Gods and Men adventure game for copying graphics from other games and unrealistic performance promises; the creator had raised $4,739 on an $80,000 goal before canceling the project.[115]
Tech-Sync Power System for failing to provide photos of the prototype and sudden departure of project creator.[116]
Tentacle Bento, a card game intended to satirize Japanese school girl tentacle rape comics, after being criticized in the online media for having inappropriate content.[117]
Kobe Red, a project for jerky made from Kobe beef, was canceled after raising $120,309. The project was allegedly fraudulent.[118]
iFind claimed to be a battery-free item locating tag. Critics of the project raised serious doubts about its viability, focussing on its claimed EM harvesting capability and the lack of a working prototype. Kickstarter suspended funding after $546,852 had been raised.[119]

text: Controversies[edit]

text: In the Huffington Post article "Why Kickstarter is Corrupted[120]" Nathan Resnick[121] blames the rise of paid advertising, investor-backed campaigns, and crowdfunding agencies for the decline of Kickstarter as a useful tool for small inventors and creators.

text: Resnick cites Nebia,[122] backed by Tim Cook and Eric Schmidt, as an example of a well funded, investor-backed project using Kickstarter purely for publicity, thus drawing donations from smaller teams.

text: He goes on to note the highest profile crowdfunding marketing agency, "Funded Today", charges a 35% commission on all monies raised, regardless of their contribution, while reserving the right to abandon projects they've pledged to support and claims such huge fees can make it impossible for successful projects to survive even if they hit their targets. Funded Today can collect as much as 50% of the total amount a campaign raised as fees, when the four-figure up-front charges they levy are accounted for.[123]

text: In addition, many individual projects caused controversy.

text:
In May 2014, Kickstarter blocked fundraising for a TV film about late-term abortionist Kermit Gosnell. Producer Phelim McAleer claimed Kickstarter censored the project because of its graphic content and espousing a "liberal agenda".[124] In June 2014 the project received approval for fundraising from rival site Indiegogo, raising more than $2.3 million.[125]
On November 6, 2013, writer/director Hal Hartley launched a Kickstarter campaign to produce his upcoming film Ned Rifle, seeking a total of $384,000.[126] On November 25, Hartley added a $9,000 reward tier offering the film's distribution rights for seven years in the United States and other countries, making his Kickstarter campaign the first to propose offering film distribution rights.[127] Subsequently, Kickstarter notified Hartley selling distribution rights is a form of investment, which is forbidden by Kickstarter's terms and conditions, forcing Hartley to remove the option.[128]
In June 2013, there was controversy over the book Above the Game, a guidebook on seducing women. Outlets pointed how the advice in the book seemed to encourage sexual assault.[129][130][131] Although Kickstarter received a significant alert, they failed to pull the project. The site eventually wrote a letter of apology and placed a blanket ban on "Seduction guides" [132]
In April 2013, filmmaker Zach Braff used Kickstarter to fund his film Wish I Was Here and raised $2 million in three days, citing the success of Rob Thomas' Veronica Mars Kickstarter as his inspiration. Braff received criticism for using the site, saying his celebrity status would draw attention from other creatives who lack celebrity recognition,[133] the same kind of criticism regarding big figures in the gaming industry using Kickstarter. (One example is Richard Garriott, who created a successful $1+ million Kickstarter despite his personal fortune).[134] Kickstarter disputed these arguments by claiming, according to their metrics, big name projects attract new visitors, who in turn pledge to lesser known projects.[135][136]
Since 2013, several crowdfunding campaigns have been accused of creating fake contributors to fool the public into thinking the campaigns were successful, and to defraud potential sources of matching funds.[137]
In 2012, Amanda Palmer raised $1.2 million on Kickstarter. She wrote about how she used the money, however several other musicians reviewed these expenses and said they were extravagant and possibly fraudulent. She was further criticized for attempting to have musicians play with her for free on tour, after raising such a large sum.[138]
In May 2011, a New York University film student, Matias Shimada, raised $1,726 to make a film, but plagiarized another film. He later apologized to the public.[139][140]

text: Patent disputes[edit]

text:
On September 30, 2011, Kickstarter filed a declaratory judgment suit against ArtistShare in an attempt to invalidate U.S. crowd-funding[141] patent US 7885887 , "Methods and apparatuses for financing and marketing a creative work". Kickstarter asked that the patent be invalidated, or, at the very least, that the court find that Kickstarter is not liable for infringement.[142] In February 2012, ArtistShare and Fan Funded responded to Kickstarter's complaint by filing a motion to dismiss the lawsuit. They asserted that patent infringement litigation was never threatened, that "ArtistShare merely approached Kickstarter about licensing their platform, including patent rights", and that "rather than responding to ArtistShare's request for a counter-proposal, Kickstarter filed this lawsuit."[143] The judge ruled that the case could go forward. ArtistShare then responded by filing a counterclaim alleging that Kickstarter was indeed infringing its patent.[144] In June 2015, Kickstarter won its lawsuit with the judge declaring ArtistShare's patent invalid.[145]
On November 21, 2012, 3D Systems filed a patent infringement lawsuit against Formlabs and Kickstarter for infringing its 3D printer patent US 5,597,520 , ”Simultaneous multiple-layer curing in stereolithography.” Formlabs had raised $2.9 million in a Kickstarter campaign to fund its own competitive printer.[146] The company said that Kickstarter caused "irreparable injury and damage" to its business by promoting the Form 1 printer, and taking a 5% cut of pledged funds.[147] A six-month stay was granted by the judge for settlement talks in which Kickstarter did not participate.[148]
On January 23, 2015, Alphacap Ventures LLC filed a patent infringement lawsuit against multiple crowdfunding platforms, including Indiegogo, CircleUp, GoFundMe, Kickstarter, Gust, RocketHub & Innovational Funding, for three patents — US 7848976 , US 7908208  and US 8433630 . According to Bloomberg, Alphacap Ventures provides strategic, operations, and financial advisory services in the United States along with other financial services[149]


document_title: List of Mount Everest records of India

question_text: who is the first indian climber of mount everest

text: List of Mount Everest records of India

text: Indian records[edit]

text:
Bachendri Pal (Hindi: बचेंद्री पाल)

In 1984 became the first Indian woman to reach the summit of Mount Everest[5]

Prem Lata Agarwal (Hindi: प्रेम लता अग्रवाल) Summiting Mount Everest (2011)The first Indian woman - mountaineer to complete the seven summits and the oldest Indian women mountaineer to summit Mount Everest at an age of 48 years

See also Category:Indian summiters of Mount Everest

text: [[Nungshi & Tashi Malik]]

text: World Records •19 May 2013: First female twins to scale Mt Everest (entered in Guinness world records) •16 Dec 2014: First siblings & twins to climb ‘Seven Summits’ (highest peaks in all continents) (entered in Guinness world records) •21 Apr 2015: First siblings & twins to complete Adventurers Grand Slam & the Three Pole Challenge (entered in Guinness world records) •21 Apr 2015: Youngest persons ever to complete Adventurers Grand Slam & the Three Pole Challenge (entered in Guinness world records)

text: National/Regional Records •First South Asians to complete Adventurers Grand Slam & the Three Pole Challenge •Youngest South Asians and fastest Indian women to scale the ‘Seven Summits’ •First Indian women to climb all ‘Seven Summits’ in first attempt (overall 2nd Indian women) •Youngest and fastest South Asians to reach North & South Pole on Skis (completed in less than 4 months) •First Indian & South Asian women to reach North & South Pole on Skis

text:
In 2016 Deepika Rathore achieved here second Mount Everest summiting (her first was in 2012) [6]
On May 20, 2016, Radhika GR, Additional SP, from Telangana, became the first FEMALE CIVIL POLICE OFFICER from India to climb the Everest.
Also in 2016, Suhail Sharma, and IPS officer summited[7]

An all-girls 10-member expedition put some people on the summit.[8] This team did come across the stricken Bengal climbers and tried to help them a little.[8]
An Indian team from Bengal suffered three fatalities.[9]

text:
Anshu Jamsenpa, who came from Bomdilla in Arunachal Pradesh, became the first woman to make a dual ascent of Mount Everest within a span of 5 days, setting the record for fastest double ascent in a single climbing season by a woman. This is a new world record set by the woman who broke the previous record of Nepal’s Chhurim Sherpa, who had ascended Mt. Everest twice in a week in the year 2012.A mother of two, Anshu Jamsenpa reached the summit of the world’s highest mountain for the second time on Sunday 21st May 2017.[10]
Madhusudan Patidar, a 20 year old from Indore, scaled the peak as part of an expedition which climbed Mt. Everest from the Chinese side. [11]

text: International records by Indians[edit]

text: Overall records achieved by Indian

text:
Record name
Record
Owner
Nation
Date
Ref

First IAS to summit twice
2
Ravindra Kumar
 India
2013,2015
[12]

First woman to summit twice
2
Santosh Yadav
 India
1992, 1993
[13]

Youngest female to climb Mount Everest
13 years and 11 months old
Malavath Purna
 India
2014-05-25 !May 25, 2014
[14][15]

Youngest woman up to Summit Everest up to that time
19 years 35 days
Dicky Dolma
 India
May 10, 1993
[16]

Youngest woman to summit up to that time
24 years, 215 days
Santosh Yadav
 India
May 12, 1992

Youngest woman to summit up to that time
30 years 28 days
Bachendri Pal
 India
May 23, 1984
[17]

Oldest person to climb M. Everest from North side and oldest civilian to climb M. Everest up to that time
52 years
Debabrata Mukherjee (b 1962)
 India (West Bengal)
25 May 2014
[18]

Oldest person to climb M. Everest from South up to that time
56 years
S C Negi Additional DIG BSF (b 8 March 1950)[19]
 India (Himachal Pradesh)
24 May 2006
[20]

Oldest person to climb M. Everest up to that time
42 years, 6 months
Sonam Gyatso (b 1922)
 India (Sikkim)
22 May 1965
[17]

First person to reach the summit from three different routes (South Col, North Col and Kangshung Face)
Summited by 3 routes
Kushang Sherpa
 India
1993- 2003
[21]
[22]

First twins to climb Mount Everest together
Summited
Tashi and Nungshi Malik
 India
May 19, 2013
[23]

Female amputee (1 leg)
Summited Everest
Arunima Sinha
 India
May 21, 2013
[24]

Youngest person to trek to Everest Base Camp (Nepal)
5 years old
Harshit Saumitra
 India
October 2014
[25]

First to recite national anthem at everest
Summited
Ratnesh Pandey
 India
May 2016

First dual ascent made by a woman on Mount Everest summit within five days
Summited
Anshu Jamsenpa
 India
21st May 2017
[26]

text: Images[edit]


document_title: Advisory speed limit

question_text: what does a yellow 35 mph sign mean

question_tokens: what does a yellow 35 mph sign mean

text: Advisory speed limit

text: Use[edit]

text: Use of advisory speed limits varies from country to country, but they are generally used to reduce speed along short stretches of dangerous road, such as on the tight curves of an off-ramp or on a busy shopping street. The advisory speed limit when not posted is generally the same as the mandatory speed limit in ideal conditions.

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: In the United Kingdom, most speed limits imposed by variable-message signs are advisory, and there are no sanctions for drivers who exceed them; a notable exception being the Gatsometer-camera enforced, MIDAS and ATM variable limits on the M25, M42 and M6 motorways.[1] Crucially, the signs imposing these limits are distinct from regular, advisory VMS displays by the inclusion of a red ring surround, effectively changing them from advance hazard warnings into standard, mandatory speed-limit signs.

text: As local councils require consent from the Department for Transport before changing speed limits, some use advisory speed limits on roads that the DfT refuses to officially downgrade.[2]

text: The usefulness of advisory speed limits has been questioned by a number of studies: one group from the Transportation Research Board found advisory speed limits through roadworks being consistently flouted by motorists,[3] while an investigation by Manchester Evening News found that almost all buses in Manchester city centre exceeded the local 10 miles per hour (16 km/h) advisory speed limit; some by as much as 30 miles per hour (48 km/h).[4]

text: Australia[edit]

text: In Australia, if a person is involved in a single vehicle accident and the resulting investigation reveals that the driver was exceeding the Advisory Speed Limit displayed it can be a breach of the Insurance Cover Contract, resulting in no pay-out.

text: Germany[edit]

text: The Richtgeschwindigkeit (German Advisory or Suggested Speed of Travel) is a legal term in Germany describing the advisory speed limit for roads without a mandatory speed limit. Autobahns (German plural form: Autobahnen) have an advisory speed limit of 130 kilometres per hour (81 mph) on non-signposted sections.

text: Exceeding the advised speed is not a criminal offense, however an increased liability in the case of an accident may result from driving faster than the recommended speed, due to an increased danger of operating the vehicle.[5]

text: In Germany, the Autobahn-Richtgeschwindigkeits-Verordnung (Directive on Reference Speed on Motorways), introduced in 1974, recommends a speed of no more than 130 km/h (81 mph) for autobahns and similar roads, whose lanes are separated by a median or which have at least two lanes per direction, provided there are no traffic signs posting a lower speed limit.

text: Until 31 August 2009, a different reference speed could be posted by the traffic signs number 380 and 381, according to §42 of the German traffic code (Straßenverkehrsordnung, StVO), as seen above. As these traffic signs were only rarely used, they meanwhile have been abolished.

text: Signage[edit]

text: The signage for advisory speed limits is not defined by the Vienna Convention on Road Signs and Signals, and is therefore not standardised internationally. The United States uses a small yellow sign under the main warning sign, as well as a standalone variation on the standard speed limit sign, with a yellow background instead of a white one, the words "speed limit" omitted and an additional panel stating the type of hazard ahead. Though they list speeds, the U.S. advisory speed signs are classified as warning signs, not regulatory signs, as primary speed signs are.[6] Australia uses a similar design as the U.S. in spite of regulatory speed limit signs being quite different. Germany used a square sign with a blue background and white lettering, similar to the minimum speed limit sign,[5] and New Zealand uses a yellow background with black lettering (similar to the Australian design without the "km/h" lettering). The United Kingdom currently uses an oblong white rectangle with black lettering stating "Max Speed".

text:
Most of Europe

Australia

Australia (motorway exits)

Australia (with diagram of motorway exit shape)

Victoria, Australia

Western Australia, Australia (traffic-calming bumps, known as speed bumps)

Canada

Canada (Ontario) (highway ramps and exits)

Denmark

Finland

Japan

Netherlands

New Zealand

New Zealand (motorway exits)

New Zealand (dangerous curve)

New Zealand (extremely dangerous curve)

New Zealand (warning of danger of truck roll-over)

Norway

Philippines

South Korea

Sweden

United Kingdom (imperial)

United Kingdom (roadworks, imperial)

United States (customary)

United States (metric)

United States (highway exits)

United States (highway ramps)

United States (highway curves)

United States (warning of danger of truck roll-over)

United States (integrated into curve warning sign)