document_title: Den of Thieves (film)

question_text: who dies at the end of den of thieves

question_tokens: who dies at the end of den of thieves

text: Den of Thieves (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: Los Angeles, 2018: A team of robbers led by Ray Merrimen (Pablo Schreiber) make a violent armed attack and hijack an armored truck. A security guard who drops his coffee and reaches for his gun instigates the shootout. Police officers arrive on the scene and engage in a shootout with the robbers. Eventually, Merrimen and his crew escape with the empty armored truck, but he reprimands Bosco (Evan Jones) for killing the first guard. In the morning, Detective Nick "Big Nick" O'Brien (Gerard Butler) investigates the crime scene. He has been monitoring Merrimen and his crew for a while. Suspecting a local bartender named Donnie for involvement, Nick finds him at the bar and kidnaps him for interrogation. In a flashback, Merrimen is planning to rob the Federal Reserve on Friday of that week by covertly removing about $30 million in old bills which are scheduled to be shredded after their serial numbers are deleted from computer records.

text: Merrimen has Donnie gain access into the Federal Reserve by posing as a Chinese food deliveryman. In the ceiling of a Federal Reserve bathroom, he stashes an extra bag of food for the day of the big heist. At home, Nick's wife Debbie (Dawn Olivieri) discovers that Nick has been going behind her back seeing other women. Incensed, she leaves with their daughters and files for divorce. Nick spots Donnie and says hello at a restaurant with Merrimen, his crew and their stripper girlfriends. At their hideout, Merrimen has one of his crew, Levi (50 Cent), roughly interrogate Donnie. Donnie convinces him that he hasn't told anything about the robbery. Later on, Levi's daughter has a date arrive to pick her up for a school dance. Levi pulls the boy aside to introduce him to Merrimen and the rest of their crew to intimidate him into being on his best behavior with Levi's daughter.

text: Meanwhile, Nick drunkenly crashes a small get-together at the home of Debbie's sister. He obnoxiously signs the divorce papers, and gets belligerent with Debbie's new boyfriend, before he is told to leave. Nick then goes to a strip club and finds Merrimen's stripper girlfriend, hires her for the night to find out where the heist is going to happen. He is unaware the stripper was told by Merrimen to give him misleading information about the heist. The next morning, Nick makes a desperate unscheduled effort to see his daughter at her school.

text: The day of the heist comes. Merrimen and his crew invade a commercial bank and take hostages. Nick’s team is outside as the chaos unfolds. The L.A.P.D. Police Chief calls and speaks to the bank's manager on behalf of Merrimen. To discourage further time-wasting communications, Merrimen has one of the crew take a hostage to a back room, where he apparently shoots her. The police negotiator then agrees not to communicate again until the robbers' demands (money and helicopter) are about to arrive in over an hour's time. The thieves then blow the vault open and escape through a hole in the floor before Nick’s team come in. They also find that the shooting of the hostage was staged. The thieves needed commercial bank cash so they could make a cash drop-off at the Federal Reserve, the only way to get inside the Federal Reserve building.

text: Donnie is hidden inside a cash dolly delivered to the Federal Reserve building by Merrimen, and he slips out during a falsely tripped alarm to collect the targeted old bills that have been earmarked for shredding, and he stashes them in bags in the refuse. After escaping the cash count-rooms through the air ducts, Donnie retrieves the bag of food from the bathroom ceiling. Appalled by the cold, old food, the unsuspecting Federal Reserve employee who orders Chinese food daily tries to get security to stop him, but Donnie is gone. The cash is dispatched from the Federal Reserve building in a garbage truck that removes shredded bills. Nick’s team catch up to Donnie and seize him, beating him until he tells them where Merrimen is going.

text: Merrimen, Bosco and Levi try to make their escape with bags from the waste truck. They hit a traffic jam and are blocked. Nick’s team spots them and attempts to shoot them as the robbers try to escape. After warning other drivers, the police start to shoot at Merrimen and his gang. Levi and Bosco are shot dead, but Merrimen gets away. Nick gives chase and shoots Merrimen through a fence, wounding him. Nick hops the fence to catch him, but Merrimen refuses to go out quietly. He raises an empty gun to Nick, forcing him to shoot him. As Merrimen lies on the ground dying, Nick kneels by him. He reminds Nick that he kept to his word and dies peacefully. When Nick inspects Merrimen's van, he only finds bags with shredded paper. He also finds that Donnie has escaped custody.

text: Nick later goes to Donnie's bar and sees pictures of him with some of the crew members from the heist. Through flashbacks, it is revealed Donnie masterminded the heist to get all of the cash for himself in a second garbage truck. The realization hits Nick. After the passage of some time, Donnie is seen in London working at another bar. His crew is nearby having drinks and enjoying the spoils of their victory. A man (Michael Bisping) from a shop across the street comes in. Donnie serves him and asks whether he works at the diamond exchange next door. The man says yes, and Donnie gives the man a beer on the house.[3]

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Gerard Butler as Nick O'Brien, Debbie’s ex-husband and a gritty and corrupt LA sheriff who is hellbent on bringing down Merrimen's crew, who plan on robbing the Federal Reserve Bank in Downtown Los Angeles.
O'Shea Jackson Jr. as Donnie Wilson, a bartender and one of the robbers who set out in the first scheme in robbing the Federal Reserve Bank of downtown Los Angeles. He is the skilled driver of the group.
50 Cent as Levi Enson Levoux, one of the robbers who set out in the first scheme in robbing the Federal Reserve Bank of downtown Los Angeles. He has a young daughter and a wife.
Pablo Schreiber as Ray Merrimen, a marine veteran, the crew's leader and schemer, one of the robbers who set out in the first scheme in robbing the Federal Reserve Bank of Downtown Los Angeles.
Evan Jones as Bo Bosco Ostroman, one of the robbers who works directly with Merrimen and Enson
Cooper Andrews as Mack, one of the robber’s crew members. He doesn't directly take part in the robberies but does behind-the-scene stuff.
Maurice Compte as Benny 'Borracho' Megalob
Kaiwi Lyman-Mersereau as Tony Z Zapata
Dawn Olivieri as Debbie O'Brien, Nick O'Brien's ex-wife who leaves him after discovering he had cheated on her
Lewis Tan as Secret Service Lobby Guard #1
Jermaine Rivers as Fed Receiving Guard Jackson who stops Ray Merrimen and Levoux as they enter and exit the Federal Reserve facility.
Mo McRae as Gus Henderson, a sheriff working under Big Nick
Meadow Williams as Holly
Brian Van Holt as Murph Connors
Max Holloway as Bas, one of the robbers and Donnie’s friend.[4]
Jay Dobyns as Wolfgang
Alix Lapri as Maloa
Matthew Cornwell as Joseph, a bank manager
Eric Braeden as Ziggy Zerhusen

text: Production[edit]

text: The film was in development for roughly fourteen years, where director Christian Gudegast and a writing partner had a blind deal with New Line Cinema in 2003. The project was also later supposed to be distributed by the now-defunct Relativity Media at one point as well. Jay Dobyns, who played the character of Wolfgang, was a former Special Agent and undercover operative with the BATFE and served as a consultant for this film.[5]

text: Filming locations[edit]

text: Production began in January of 2017. Director of photography, Terry Stacey, shot the movie using the Arri Alexa XT Plus digital motion picture camera. Although set in Los Angeles, California, Den of Thieves was primarily filmed in and around Atlanta, Georgia. Aerial shots of Los Angeles included the Vincent Thomas Bridge, the Federal Correctional Institution, Terminal Island and the skyline of Downtown Los Angeles.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: Den of Thieves grossed $44.9 million in the United States and Canada, and $33.6 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $78.5 million, against a production budget of $30 million.[1]

text: In the United States and Canada, Den of Thieves was released on January 19, 2018 alongside 12 Strong and Forever My Girl, as well as the wide expansions of Phantom Thread, I, Tonya and Call Me by Your Name, and was projected to gross $7–10 million from 2,432 theaters in its opening weekend.[6] It ended up performing above projections, debuting to $15.3 million and finishing third at the box office behind holdover Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle and 12 Strong.[2] It dropped 43% to $8.6 million in its second week[7] and another 47% to $4.6 million in its third.[8]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 41% based on 107 reviews, and an average rating of 5.1/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Den of Thieves pays energetic homage to classic heist thrillers of the past; unfortunately, it never comes close to living up to its obvious inspirations."[9] On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 49 out of 100, based on 24 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[10] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale.[2]

text: Exclaim! scored the film a 5 out of 10, saying "Den of Thieves is just too bone-headed to deliver the twists it attempts."[11]

text: Sequel[edit]

text: In February 2018, it was announced a sequel was in development with Gudegast signed on to return to write and direct. Additionally, Butler, and Jackson Jr. were in talks to reprise their roles.[12]


document_title: List of Major League Baseball career home run leaders

question_text: who holds the most home runs in mlb history

root

text: Key[edit]

text:
Rank
Rank amongst leaders in career home runs. A blank field indicates a tie.

Player (2017 HRs)
Number of home runs hit during the 2017 Major League Baseball season.

HR
Total career home runs hit.

*
denotes elected to National Baseball Hall of Fame.

Bold
denotes active player.[a]

tag: table

text: List[edit]

text: Stats updated as of the 2017 season.

tag: ul

text:
Rank
Player (2017 HRs)
HR

1
Barry Bonds
762

2
Hank Aaron *
755

3
Babe Ruth *
714

4
Alex Rodriguez
696

5
Willie Mays *
660

6
Ken Griffey, Jr. *
630

7
Albert Pujols (23)
614

8
Jim Thome
612

9
Sammy Sosa
609

10
Frank Robinson *
586

11
Mark McGwire
583

12
Harmon Killebrew *
573

13
Rafael Palmeiro
569

14
Reggie Jackson *
563

15
Manny Ramirez
555

16
Mike Schmidt *
548

17
David Ortiz
541

18
Mickey Mantle *
536

19
Jimmie Foxx *
534

20
Willie McCovey *
521

Frank Thomas *
521

Ted Williams *
521

23
Ernie Banks *
512

Eddie Mathews *
512

25
Mel Ott *
511

26
Gary Sheffield
509

27
Eddie Murray *
504

28
Lou Gehrig *
493

Fred McGriff
493

30
Stan Musial *
475

Willie Stargell *
475

32
Carlos Delgado
473

33
Chipper Jones
468

34
Dave Winfield *
465

35
Adrián Beltré (17)
462

Miguel Cabrera (16)
462

José Canseco
462

Adam Dunn
462

39
Carl Yastrzemski *
452

40
Jeff Bagwell *
449

Vladimir Guerrero
449

42
Dave Kingman
442

43
Jason Giambi
440

44
Paul Konerko
439

45
Andre Dawson *
438

46
Carlos Beltrán (14)
435

47
Juan González
434

Andruw Jones
434

49
Cal Ripken, Jr. *
431

50
Mike Piazza *
427

51
Billy Williams *
426

52
Darrell Evans
414

53
Alfonso Soriano
412

54
Mark Teixeira
409

55
Duke Snider *
407

56
Andrés Galarraga
399

Al Kaline *
399

58
Dale Murphy
398

59
Joe Carter
396

60
Jim Edmonds
393

61
Graig Nettles
390

62
Johnny Bench *
389

63
Aramis Ramírez
386

64
Dwight Evans
385

65
Harold Baines
384

66
Larry Walker
383

67
Frank Howard
382

Ryan Howard (0)
382

Jim Rice *
382

70
Albert Belle
381

71
Orlando Cepeda *
379

Tony Pérez *
379

73
Matt Williams
378

74
Norm Cash
377

Jeff Kent
377

text:
Rank
Player (2017 HRs)
HR

76
Carlton Fisk *
376

77
Rocky Colavito
374

78
Gil Hodges
370

79
Todd Helton
369

Ralph Kiner *
369

81
Lance Berkman
366

82
Joe DiMaggio *
361

83
Gary Gaetti
360

84
Johnny Mize *
359

85
Yogi Berra *
358

Carlos Lee
358

87
Greg Vaughn
355

88
Luis Gonzalez
354

Lee May
354

90
Torii Hunter
353

91
Ellis Burks
352

92
Dick Allen
351

93
Chili Davis
350

94
Edwin Encarnación (38)
348

George Foster
348

96
Ron Santo *
342

97
Jack Clark
340

98
Tino Martinez
339

Dave Parker
339

Boog Powell
339

101
Don Baylor
338

102
Joe Adcock
336

103
Darryl Strawberry
335

104
Moisés Alou
332

Bobby Bonds
332

106
José Bautista (23)
331

Hank Greenberg *
331

Derrek Lee
331

109
Shawn Green
328

Mo Vaughn
328

111
Jermaine Dye
325

Willie Horton
325

113
Gary Carter *
324

Lance Parrish
324

115
Nelson Cruz (39)
323

116
Ron Gant
321

117
Vinny Castilla
320

Troy Glaus
320

119
Cecil Fielder
319

Prince Fielder
319

Curtis Granderson (26)
319

122
Roy Sievers
318

123
George Brett *
317

124
Ron Cey
316

Scott Rolen
316

126
Jeromy Burnitz
315

127
Matt Holliday (19)
314

Reggie Smith
314

129
Adrian Gonzalez (3)
311

Iván Rodríguez *
311

131
Jay Buhner
310

132
Edgar Martínez
309

133
Greg Luzinski
307

Al Simmons *
307

Miguel Tejada
307

136
Fred Lynn
306

Richie Sexson
306

Rubén Sierra
306

139
Raúl Ibañez
305

David Justice
305

Reggie Sanders
305

142
Steve Finley
304

143
Ryan Braun (17)
302

144
Robinson Canó (23)
301

Rogers Hornsby *
301

146
Chuck Klein *
300

147
Tim Salmon
299

148
Rickey Henderson *
297

149
Magglio Ordóñez
294

Robin Ventura
294

text:
Rank
Player (2017 HRs)
HR

151
Kent Hrbek
293

152
Pat Burrell
292

Rusty Staub
292

154
Craig Biggio *
291

Jimmy Wynn
291

156
Bobby Abreu
288

Del Ennis
288

Bob Johnson
288

Hank Sauer
288

160
Garret Anderson
287

Bobby Bonilla
287

Brian Giles
287

Bernie Williams
287

164
Carlos Peña
286

Frank Thomas
286

166
Will Clark
284

Eric Karros
284

168
Ken Boyer
282

Eric Davis
282

Ryne Sandberg *
282

171
Paul O'Neill
281

Mark Reynolds (30)
281

173
Ted Kluszewski
279

174
Mike Cameron
278

Ryan Klesko
278

176
Jay Bruce (36)
277

Rudy York
277

178
Brian Downing
275

Roger Maris
275

Dean Palmer
275

Jorge Posada
275

182
Dante Bichette
274

183
Steve Garvey
272

184
Tom Brunansky
271

Raúl Mondesí
271

George Scott
271

187
Vernon Wells
270

188
Joe Morgan *
268

Brooks Robinson *
268

Gorman Thomas
268

191
Chris Davis (26)
267

George Hendrick
267

Mike Napoli (29)
267

Giancarlo Stanton (59)
267

195
Vic Wertz
266

196
George Bell
265

Matt Stairs
265

198
Bobby Thomson
264

199
Brian McCann (18)
263

Hanley Ramírez (23)
263

201
Danny Tartabull
262

202
Eric Chavez
260

Derek Jeter
260

Evan Longoria (19)
260

Javy López
260

Tim Wallach
260

207
Matt Kemp (19)
259

208
Chase Utley (8)
258

209
Joey Votto (36)
257

210
Bob Allison
256

Larry Parrish
256

Vada Pinson
256

Justin Upton (35)
256

214
Kirk Gibson
255

Adam LaRoche
255

John Mayberry
255

John Olerud
255

218
Larry Doby *
253

Joe Gordon *
253

Andre Thornton
253

Todd Zeile
253

222
Bret Boone
252

Bobby Murcer
252

Joe Torre *
252

225
Tony Armas
251

text:
Rank
Player (2017 HRs)
HR

Tony Clark
251

Adam Jones (26)
251

Cy Williams
251

Robin Yount *
251

Ryan Zimmerman (36)
251

231
José Valentín
249

232
Goose Goslin *
248

Ted Simmons
248

234
Justin Morneau (0)
247

Vern Stephens
247

236
Ken Singleton
246

237
Deron Johnson
245

Nick Swisher
245

Mickey Tettleton
245

239
Lou Whitaker
244

Hack Wilson *
244

242
Dusty Baker
242

Sal Bando
242

Wally Berger
242

Roy Campanella *
242

J. D. Drew
242

Aubrey Huff
242

David Wright (0)
242

249
Jesse Barfield
241

Cecil Cooper
241

Rick Monday
241

252
Jeff Burroughs
240

Roberto Clemente *
240

254
Dolph Camilli
239

Ken Caminiti
239

256
Earl Averill *
238

Ray Lankford
238

258
Doug DeCinces
237

Víctor Martínez (10)
237

Gus Zernial
237

261
Gabby Hartnett *
236

262
Johnny Damon
235

Bill Nicholson
235

Ben Oglivie
235

Dan Uggla
235

266
Ian Kinsler (22)
234

Gary Matthews
234

Kevin Mitchell
234

Paul Molitor *
234

270
Cliff Floyd
233

271
Jimmy Rollins (0)
231

272
Rob Deer
230

273
Nomar Garciaparra
229

Jayson Werth (10)
229

275
Howard Johnson
228

Dick Stuart
228

Hal Trosky
228

278
Marquis Grissom
227

279
Johnny Callison
226

280
Bobby Grich
224

Troy Tulowitzki (7)
224

282
Bobby Doerr *
223

Travis Fryman
223

Mike Lowell
223

285
Jason Bay
222

Don Mattingly
222

287
Tony Batista
221

Geoff Jenkins
221

289
Tony Oliva
220

Hunter Pence (13)
220

291
Jim Bottomley *
219

Al Oliver
219

Joe Pepitone
219

294
Bob Horner
218

295
Benito Santiago
217

296
Ron Fairly
215

Carlos González (14)
215

Pedro Guerrero
215

Chet Lemon
215

Mike Sweeney
215


document_title: Serialism

question_text: who abandoned traditional harmony and created the twelve-tone system for composition

text: Serialism

text: Basic definitions[edit]

text: Serialism is a method (Griffiths 2001, 116), "highly specialized technique" (Wörner 1973, 196), or "way" (Whittall 2008, 1) of composition. It may also be considered, "a philosophy of life (Weltanschauung), a way of relating the human mind to the world and creating a completeness when dealing with a subject" (Bandur 2001, 5).

tag: p

text: However, serialism is not by itself a system of composition, nor is it a style. Neither is pitch serialism necessarily incompatible with tonality, though it is most often used as a means of composing atonal music (Griffiths 2001, 116).

text: "Serial music" is a problematic term because it is used differently in different languages and especially because, shortly after its coinage in French, it underwent essential alterations during its transmission to German (Frisius 1998, 1327). The use of the word "serial" in connection with music was first introduced in French by René Leibowitz (1947), and immediately afterward by Humphrey Searle in English, as an alternative translation of the German Zwölftontechnik twelve-tone technique or Reihenmusik (row music); it was independently introduced by Herbert Eimert and Karlheinz Stockhausen into German in 1955 as serielle Musik, with a different meaning (Frisius 1998, 1327), translated into English also as "serial music".

text: Twelve-tone serialism[edit]

text: Serialism of the first type is most specifically defined as the structural principle according to which a recurring series of ordered elements (normally a set—or row—of pitches or pitch classes) are used in order or manipulated in particular ways to give a piece unity. Serialism is often broadly applied to all music written in what Arnold Schoenberg called "The Method of Composing with Twelve Notes related only to one another" (Schoenberg 1975, 218; Anon. n.d.), or dodecaphony, and methods that evolved from his methods. It is sometimes used more specifically to apply only to music where at least one element other than pitch is subjected to being treated as a row or series. In such usages post-Webernian serialism will be used to denote works that extend serial techniques to other elements of music. Other terms used to make the distinction are twelve-note serialism for the former, and integral serialism for the latter.

text: A row may be assembled pre-compositionally (perhaps to embody particular intervallic or symmetrical properties), or it may be derived from a spontaneously invented thematic or motivic idea. The structure of the row, however, does not in itself define the structure of a composition, which requires development of a comprehensive strategy. The choice of available strategies will of course depend on the relationships contained in a row class, and rows may be constructed with an eye to producing the relationships needed to form desired strategies (Mead 1985, 129–30).

text: The basic set may have additional restrictions, such as the requirement that it use each interval only once.

text: Non-twelve-tone serialism[edit]

text: The series is not an order of succession, but indeed a hierarchy—which may be independent of this order of succession. (Boulez 1954,[page needed], translated in Griffiths 1978, 37)

text: Rules of analysis derived from twelve-tone theory do not apply to serialism of the second type: "in particular the ideas, one, that the series is an intervallic sequence, and two, that the rules are consistent" (Maconie 2005, 119). Stockhausen, for example, in early serial compositions such as Kreuzspiel and Formel, "advances in unit sections within which a preordained set of pitches is repeatedly reconfigured ... The composer's model for the distributive serial process corresponds to a development of the Zwölftonspiel of Josef Matthias Hauer" (Maconie 2005, 56), and Goeyvaerts, in such a work as Nummer 4,

text: provides a classic illustration of the distributive function of seriality: 4 times an equal number of elements of equal duration within an equal global time is distributed in the most equable way, unequally with regard to one another, over the temporal space: from the greatest possible coïncidence to the greatest possible dispersion. This provides an exemplary demonstration of that logical principle of seriality: every situation must occur once and only once. (Sabbe 1977, 114)

text: For Henri Pousseur, after an initial period working with twelve-tone technique in works like Sept Versets (1950) and Trois Chants sacrés (1951), serialism

text: evolved away from this bond in Symphonies pour quinze Solistes [1954–55] and in the Quintette [à la mémoire d’Anton Webern, 1955], and from around the time of Impromptu [1955] encounters whole new dimensions of application and new functions.

text: The twelve-tone series loses its imperative function as a prohibiting, regulating, and patterning authority; its working-out is abandoned through  its own constant-frequent presence: all 66 intervallic relations among the 12 pitches being virtually present. Prohibited intervals, like the octave, and prohibited successional relations, such as premature note repetitions, frequently occur, although obscured in the dense contexture. The number twelve no longer plays any governing, defining rôle; the pitch constellations no longer hold to the limitation determined by their formation. The dodecaphonic series loses its significance as a concrete model of shape (or a well-defined collection of concrete shapes) is played out. And the chromatic total remains active only, and provisionally, as a general reference. (Sabbe 1977, 264)

text: In the 1960s Pousseur took this a step further, applying a consistent set of predefined transformations to pre-existent music. One example is the large orchestral work Couleurs croisées (Crossed Colours, 1967), which performs these transformations on the protest song "We Shall Overcome", thereby creating a succession of different situations that are sometimes chromatic and dissonant and at other times diatonic and consonant (Locanto 2010, 157). In his opera Votre Faust (Your Faust, 1960–68) Pousseur used a large number of different quotations, themselves arranged into a "scale" for serial treatment, so as to bring coherence and order to the work. This "generalised" serialism (in the strongest possible sense) aims not to exclude any musical phenomena, no matter how heterogenous, in order "to control the effects of tonal determinism, dialectize its causal functions, and overcome any academic prohibitions, especially the fixing of an anti-grammar meant to replace some previous one" (Bosseur 1989, 60–61).

text: At about the same time, Stockhausen began using serial methods to integrate a variety of musical sources from recorded examples of folk and traditional music from around the world in his electronic composition Telemusik (1966), and from national anthems in Hymnen (1966–67). He extended this serial "polyphony of styles" in a series of "process-plan" works in the late 1960s, as well as later in portions of Licht, the cycle of seven operas he composed between 1977 and 2003 (Kohl 2002, 97 et passim).

text: History of serial music[edit]

text: Before World War II[edit]

text: In the late 19th and early 20th century, composers began to struggle against the ordered system of chords and intervals known as "functional tonality".  Composers such as Debussy and Strauss found differing ways of stretching the limits of the tonal system in order to accommodate their ideas.  After a brief period of free atonality, Arnold Schoenberg and others began exploring tone rows, in which an ordering of the twelve pitches of the equal tempered chromatic scale is used as the source material of a composition.  This ordered set, often called a row, allowed for new forms of expression and (unlike free atonality) the expansion of underlying structural organizing principles without recourse to common practice harmony (Delahoyde n.d.).

text: Twelve-tone serialism first appeared in the 1920s, with antecedents predating that decade (instances of twelve-note passages occur in Liszt's Faust Symphony Walker 1986,[page needed] and in Bach Cope 1971,[page needed]). Schoenberg was the composer most decisively involved in devising and demonstrating the fundamentals of twelve-tone serialism, though it is clear it is not the work of just one musician  (Whittall 2008, 1).

text: After World War II[edit]

text: Serialism, along with John Cage's indeterminate music (music composed with the use of chance operations), and Werner Meyer-Eppler's aleatoricism, was enormously influential in post-war music. Theorists such as George Perle codified serial systems, and his 1962 text Serial Composition and Atonality became a standard work on the origins of serial composition in the work of Schoenberg, Berg, and Webern.

text: The serialization of rhythm, dynamics, and other elements of music was partly fostered by the work of Olivier Messiaen and his analysis students, including Karel Goeyvaerts and Boulez, in post-war Paris.

text: Several of the composers associated with Darmstadt, notably Karlheinz Stockhausen, Karel Goeyvaerts, and Henri Pousseur developed a form of serialism that initially rejected the recurring rows characteristic of twelve-tone technique, in order to eradicate any lingering traces of thematicism (Felder 1977, 92). Instead of a recurring, referential row, "each musical component is subjected to control by a series of numerical proportions" (Morgan 1975, 3). In Europe, the style of some serial as well as non-serial music of the early 1950s emphasized the determination of all parameters for each note independently, often resulting in widely spaced, isolated "points" of sound, an effect called first in German "punktuelle Musik" ("pointist" or "punctual music"), then in French "musique ponctuelle", but quickly confused with "pointillistic" (German "pointillistische", French "pointilliste")  the familiar term associated with the densely packed dots in paintings of Seurat, despite the fact that the conception was at the opposite extreme (Stockhausen and Frisius 1998, 451).

text: Pieces were structured by closed sets of proportions, a method closely related to certain works from the de Stijl and Bauhaus movements in design and architecture called "serial art" by some writers (Bochner 1967; Gerstner 1964; Guderian 1985; Sykora 1983), specifically the paintings of Piet Mondrian, Theo van Doesburg, Bart van Leck, Georg van Tongerloo, Richard Paul Lohse, and Burgoyne Diller, who had been seeking to “avoid repetition and symmetry on all structural levels and working with a limited number of elements” (Bandur 2001, 54).

text: Stockhausen described the final synthesis in this manner:

text: So serial thinking is something that's come into our consciousness and will be there forever: it's relativity and nothing else. It just says: Use all the components of any given number of elements, don't leave out individual elements, use them all with equal importance and try to find an equidistant scale so that certain steps are no larger than others. It's a spiritual and democratic attitude toward the world. The stars are organized in a serial way. Whenever you look at a certain star sign you find a limited number of elements with different intervals. If we more thoroughly studied the distances and proportions of the stars we'd probably find certain relationships of multiples based on some logarithmic scale or whatever the scale may be. (Cott 1973, 101)

text: Igor Stravinsky's adoption of twelve-tone serial techniques offers an example of the level of influence that serialism had after the Second World War. Previously Stravinsky had used series of notes without rhythmic or harmonic implications (Shatzkin 1977). Because many of the basic techniques of serial composition have analogs in traditional counterpoint, uses of inversion, retrograde and retrograde inversion from before the war are not necessarily indicative of Stravinsky adopting Schoenbergian techniques. However with his meeting Robert Craft and acquaintance with younger composers, Stravinsky began to consciously study Schoenberg's music, as well as the music of Webern and later composers, and began to use the techniques in his own work, using, for example, serial techniques applied to fewer than twelve notes. Over the course of the 1950s he used procedures related to Messiaen, Webern and Berg. While it is difficult to label each and every work as "serial" in the strict definition, every major work of the period has clear uses and references to its ideas.

text: During this period, the concept of serialism influenced not only new compositions but also the scholarly analysis of the classical masters.  Adding to their professional tools of sonata form and tonality, scholars began to analyze previous works in the light of serial techniques; for example they found the use of row technique in previous composers going back to Mozart and Beethoven (Jalowetz 1944, 387; Keller 1955, passim).  In particular, the orchestral outburst that introduces the development section half-way through the last movement of Mozart's next-to-last symphony is a tone row that Mozart punctuates in a very modern and violent episode that Michael Steinberg called "rude octaves and frozen silences" (Steinberg 1998, 400).

text: Ruth Crawford Seeger is credited with extending serial controls to parameters other than pitch and to formal planning as early as 1930–33 (Tick 2001).

text: Reactions to and against serialism[edit]

text:
the first time I ever heard Webern in a concert performance …[t]he impression it made on me was the same as I was to experience a few years later when … I first laid eyes on a Mondriaan canvas...: those things, of which I had acquired an extremely intimate knowledge, came across as crude and unfinished when seen in reality.
“
”
Karel Goeyvaerts on Anton Webern's music. (Goeyvaerts 1994, 39)

tag: div

text: Some music theorists have criticized serialism on the basis that the compositional strategies employed are often incompatible with the way information is extracted by the human mind from a piece of music. Nicolas Ruwet (1959) was one of the first to criticise serialism through a comparison with linguistic structures, citing theoretical claims by Boulez and Henri Pousseur, and taking as specific examples bars from Stockhausen's Klavierstücke I & II, and calling for a general re-examination of Webern's music. Ruwet specifically names three works as exempt from his criticism: Stockhausen's Zeitmaße and Gruppen, and Boulez's Le marteau sans maître (Ruwet 1959, 83, 85, 87, 93–96).

text: In response, Pousseur (1959) questioned the equivalence made by Ruwet between phoneme and the single note. He also suggested that, if analysis of Le marteau sans maître  and Zeitmaße, "performed with sufficient insight", were to be made from the point of view of wave theory—taking into account the dynamic interaction of the different component phenomena, which creates "waves" that interact in a sort of frequency modulation—this analysis "would accurately reflect the realities of perception". This was because these composers had long since acknowledged the lack of differentiation found in punctual music and, becoming increasingly aware of the laws of perception and complying  better with them, "paved the way to a more effective kind of musical communication, without in the least abandoning the emancipation that they had been allowed to achieve by this 'zero state' that was punctual music". This was achieved, amongst other things, by the development of the concept of "groups", which allows structural relationships to be defined not only between individual notes but also at higher and higher levels, up to the overall form of a piece. This is "a structural method par excellence", and a sufficiently simple conception that it remains easily perceptible (Pousseur 1959, 104–105, 114–15). Pousseur also points out that serial composers were the first to recognize and attempt to move beyond the lack of differentiation within certain pointillist works (Campbell 2010, 125). Pousseur later followed up his own suggestion, by developing his idea of "wave" analysis and applying it to Stockhausen's Zeitmaße in two essays, Pousseur 1970 and Pousseur 1997.

text: Later writers have continued both lines of reasoning. Fred Lerdahl, for example, outlines Ruwet's subject further in his essay "Cognitive Constraints on Compositional Systems" (Lerdahl 1988). Lehrdahl has in turn been criticized for excluding "the possibility of other, non-hierarchical methods of achieving musical coherence," and for concentrating on the audibility of tone rows (Grant 2001, 219), and the portion of his essay focussing on Boulez's "multiplication" technique (exemplified in three movements of Le Marteau sans maître) has been challenged on perceptual grounds by Stephen Heinemann (1998) and Ulrich Mosch (2004). Ruwet's critique has also been criticised for making "the fatal mistake of equating visual presentation (a score) with auditive presentation (the music as heard)" (Grant 2006, 351).

text: Within the community of modern music, exactly what constituted serialism was also a matter of debate. The conventional English usage is that the word "serial" applies to all twelve-tone music, which is a subset of serial music, and it is this usage that is generally intended in reference works. Nevertheless, a large body of music exists that is called "serial" but does not employ note-rows at all, let alone twelve-tone technique, e.g., Stockhausen's Klavierstücke I–IV (the focus of Ruwet's criticism, they use permuted sets), as well as his Stimmung (with pitches from the overtone series, which also is used as the model for the rhythms) and Pousseur's Scambi (where the permuted sounds are made exclusively from filtered white noise).

text: When serialism is not equated with twelve-tone technique, a contributing problem is that the word "serial" is seldom if ever defined. Nevertheless, there are many published analyses of individual pieces in which the term is used, though examples are merely pointed out and the actual meaning is skated around (Koenig 1999, 298).

text: Theory of twelve-tone serial music[edit]

text: The vocabulary of serialism eventually became rooted in set theory, and uses a seemingly quasi-mathematical vocabulary to describe how the basic sets are manipulated to produce the final result. Musical set theory is often used to analyze and compose serial music, but may also be used to study tonal music and nonserial atonal music.

text: The basis for serial composition is Schoenberg's twelve-tone technique, where the twelve notes of the basic chromatic scale are organized into a row. This "basic" row is then used to create permutations, that is, rows derived from the basic set by reordering its elements. The row may be used to produce a set of intervals, or a composer may have wanted to use a particular succession of intervals, from which the original row was created. A row that uses all of the intervals in their ascending form once is an all-interval row. In addition to permutations, the basic row may have some set of notes derived from it, which is used to create a new row, these are derived sets.

text: Because there are tonal chord progressions that use all twelve notes, it is possible to create pitch rows with very strong tonal implications, and even to write tonal music using twelve-tone technique. Most tone rows contain subsets that can imply a pitch center; a composer can create music centered on one or more of the row's constituent pitches by emphasizing or avoiding these subsets, respectively, as well as through other, more complex compositional devices (Newlin 1974; Perle 1977).

text: To serialize other elements of music, a system quantifying an identifiable element must be created or defined (this is called "parametrization", after the term in mathematics). For example, if duration is to be serialized, then a set of durations must be specified. If tone colour (timbre) is to be serialized, then a set of separate tone colours must be identified, and so on.

text: The selected set or sets, their permutations and derived sets form the basic material with which the composer works.

text: Composition using twelve-tone serial methods focuses on each appearance of the collection of twelve chromatic notes, called an aggregate. (Sets of more or fewer pitches, or of elements other than pitch may be treated analogously.) The principle is that in a row, no element of the aggregate should be reused until all of the other members have been used, and each member must appear only in its place in the series. This rule is violated in numerous works still termed "serial".[citation needed]

text: An aggregate may be divided into subsets, and all the members of the aggregate not part of any one subset are said to be its complement. A subset is self-complementing if it contains half of the set and its complement is also a permutation of the original subset. This is most commonly seen with hexachords or six-note segments from a basic tone row. A hexachord that is self-complementing for a particular permutation is referred to as prime combinatorial. A hexachord that is self-complementing for all of the canonic operations—Inversion, Retrograde and Retrograde Inversion—is referred to as all-combinatorial.

text: The composer then presents the aggregate. If there are multiple serial sets, or if several parameters are associated with the same set, then a presentation will have these values calculated. Large-scale design may be achieved through the use of combinatorial devices, for example, subjecting a subset of the basic set to a series of combinatorial devices.

text: Notable composers[edit]

text:
Hans Abrahamsen
Gilbert Amy
Louis Andriessen
Denis ApIvor
Hans Erich Apostel
Kees van Baaren
Milton Babbitt
Tadeusz Baird
Osvaldas Balakauskas
Don Banks
Jean Barraqué
Jürg Baur
Alban Berg
Gunnar Berg
Arthur Berger
Erik Bergman
Luciano Berio
Karl-Birger Blomdahl
Konrad Boehmer
André Boucourechliev
Pierre Boulez
Martin Boykan
Ole Buck
Jacques Calonne
Niccolò Castiglioni
Aldo Clementi
Salvador Contreras
Aaron Copland
Luigi Dallapiccola
Franco Donatoni
Hanns Eisler
Manuel Enríquez
Karlheinz Essl
Franco Evangelisti
Brian Ferneyhough
Irving Fine
Wolfgang Fortner
Roberto Gerhard

Frans Geysen
Michael Gielen
Alberto Ginastera
Lucien Goethals
Karel Goeyvaerts
Jerry Goldsmith
Henryk Górecki
Glenn Gould
Pelle Gudmundsen-Holmgreen
César Guerra-Peixe
Lou Harrison
Jonathan Harvey
Josef Matthias Hauer
Hermann Heiss
Hans Werner Henze
York Höller
Heinz Holliger
Bill Hopkins
Klaus Huber
Karel Husa
Hanns Jelinek
Ben Johnston
Nikolai Karetnikov
Rudolf Kelterborn
Gottfried Michael Koenig
Józef Koffler
Ernst Krenek
Meyer Kupferman
René Leibowitz
Ingvar Lidholm
Witold Lutosławski
Elisabeth Lutyens
John McGuire
Bruno Maderna
Ursula Mamlok
Philippe Manoury
Donald Martino
Paul Méfano
Jacques-Louis Monod
Robert Morris

Luigi Nono
Per Nørgård
Krzysztof Penderecki
Goffredo Petrassi
Michel Philippot
Walter Piston
Henri Pousseur
Roger Reynolds
Terry Riley
George Rochberg
Leonard Rosenman
Cláudio Santoro
Peter Schat
Leon Schidlowsky
Dieter Schnebel
Arnold Schoenberg, considered the founder of serialism
Humphrey Searle
Ruth Crawford Seeger
Mátyás Seiber
Roger Sessions
Nikos Skalkottas
Roger Smalley
Ann Southam
Leopold Spinner
Karlheinz Stockhausen
Igor Stravinsky
Robert Suderburg
Richard Swift
Camillo Togni
Gilles Tremblay
Fartein Valen
Wladimir Vogel
Anton Webern
Hugo Weisgall
Peter Westergaard
Stefan Wolpe
Charles Wuorinen
La Monte Young


document_title: Domain name

question_text: what domain has more individuals than all other domains combined do

text: Domain name

text: Purpose

text: Domain names serve to identify Internet resources, such as computers, networks, and services, with a text-based label that is easier to memorize than the numerical addresses used in the Internet protocols. A domain name may represent entire collections of such resources or individual instances. Individual Internet host computers use domain names as host identifiers, also called host names. The term host name is also used for the leaf labels in the domain name system, usually without further subordinate domain name space. Host names appear as a component in Uniform Resource Locators (URLs) for Internet resources such as web sites (e.g., en.wikipedia.org).

text: Domain names are also used as simple identification labels to indicate ownership or control of a resource. Such examples are the realm identifiers used in the Session Initiation Protocol (SIP), the Domain Keys used to verify DNS domains in e-mail systems, and in many other Uniform Resource Identifiers (URIs).

text: An important function of domain names is to provide easily recognizable and memorizable names to numerically addressed Internet resources. This abstraction allows any resource to be moved to a different physical location in the address topology of the network, globally or locally in an intranet. Such a move usually requires changing the IP address of a resource and the corresponding translation of this IP address to and from its domain name.

text: Domain names are used to establish a unique identity. Organizations can choose a domain name that corresponds to their name, helping Internet users to reach them easily.

text: A generic domain is a name that defines a general category, rather than a specific or personal instance, for example, the name of an industry, rather than a company name. Some examples of generic names are books.com, music.com, and travel.info. Companies have created brands based on generic names, and such generic domain names may be valuable.[citation needed]

text: Domain names are often simply referred to as domains and domain name registrants are frequently referred to as domain owners, although domain name registration with a registrar does not confer any legal ownership of the domain name, only an exclusive right of use for a particular duration of time. The use of domain names in commerce may subject them to trademark law.

text: History

text: The practice of using a simple memorable abstraction of a host's numerical address on a computer network dates back to the ARPANET era, before the advent of today's commercial Internet. In the early network, each computer on the network retrieved the hosts file (host.txt) from a computer at SRI (now SRI International),[3][4] which mapped computer host names to numerical addresses. The rapid growth of the network made it impossible to maintain a centrally organized hostname registry and in 1983 the Domain Name System was introduced on the ARPANET and published by the Internet Engineering Task Force as RFC 882 and RFC 883.

text: Domain name space

text: Today, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) manages the top-level development and architecture of the Internet domain name space. It authorizes domain name registrars, through which domain names may be registered and reassigned.

text: The domain name space consists of a tree of domain names. Each node in the tree holds information associated with the domain name. The tree sub-divides into zones beginning at the DNS root zone.

text: Domain name syntax

text: A domain name consists of one or more parts, technically called labels, that are conventionally concatenated, and delimited by dots, such as example.com.

text:
The right-most label conveys the top-level domain; for example, the domain name www.example.com belongs to the top-level domain com.
The hierarchy of domains descends from the right to the left label in the name; each label to the left specifies a subdivision, or subdomain of the domain to the right. For example: the label example specifies a node example.com as a subdomain of the com domain, and www is a label to create www.example.com, a subdomain of example.com. Each label may contain from 1 to 63 octets. The empty label is reserved for the root node and when fully qualified is expressed as the empty label terminated by a dot. The full domain name may not exceed a total length of 253 ASCII characters in its textual representation.[5] Thus, when using a single character per label, the limit is 127 levels: 127 characters plus 126 dots have a total length of 253. In practice, some domain registries may have shorter limits.
A hostname is a domain name that has at least one associated IP address. For example, the domain names www.example.com and example.com are also hostnames, whereas the com domain is not. However, other top-level domains, particularly country code top-level domains, may indeed have an IP address, and if so, they are also hostnames.
Hostnames impose restrictions on the characters allowed in the corresponding domain name. A valid hostname is also a valid domain name, but a valid domain name may not necessarily be valid as a hostname.

text: Top-level domains

text: The top-level domains (TLDs) such as com, net and org are the highest level of domain names of the Internet. Top-level domains form the DNS root zone of the hierarchical Domain Name System. Every domain name ends with a top-level domain label.

text: When the Domain Name System was devised in the 1980s, the domain name space was divided into two main groups of domains.[6] The country code top-level domains (ccTLD) were primarily based on the two-character territory codes of ISO-3166 country abbreviations. In addition, a group of seven generic top-level domains (gTLD) was implemented which represented a set of categories of names and multi-organizations.[7] These were the domains gov, edu, com, mil, org, net, and int.

text: During the growth of the Internet, it became desirable to create additional generic top-level domains. As of October 2009, 21 generic top-level domains and 250 two-letter country-code top-level domains existed.[8] In addition, the ARPA domain serves technical purposes in the infrastructure of the Domain Name System.

text: During the 32nd International Public ICANN Meeting in Paris in 2008,[9] ICANN started a new process of TLD naming policy to take a "significant step forward on the introduction of new generic top-level domains." This program envisions the availability of many new or already proposed domains, as well as a new application and implementation process.[10] Observers believed that the new rules could result in hundreds of new top-level domains to be registered.[11] In 2012, the program commenced, and received 1930 applications.[12] By 2016, the milestone of 1000 live gTLD was reached.

text: The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) maintains an annotated list of top-level domains in the DNS root zone database.[13]

text: For special purposes, such as network testing, documentation, and other applications, IANA also reserves a set of special-use domain names.[14] This list contains domain names such as example, local, localhost, and test. Other top-level domain names containing trade marks are registered for corporate use. Cases include brands such as BMW, Google, and Canon.[15]

text: Second-level and lower level domains

text: Below the top-level domains in the domain name hierarchy are the second-level domain (SLD) names. These are the names directly to the left of .com, .net, and the other top-level domains. As an example, in the domain example.co.uk, co is the second-level domain.

text: Next are third-level domains, which are written immediately to the left of a second-level domain. There can be fourth- and fifth-level domains, and so on, with virtually no limitation. An example of an operational domain name with four levels of domain labels is sos.state.oh.us. Each label is separated by a full stop (dot). 'sos' is said to be a sub-domain of 'state.oh.us', and 'state' a sub-domain of 'oh.us', etc. In general, subdomains are domains subordinate to their parent domain. An example of very deep levels of subdomain ordering are the IPv6 reverse resolution DNS zones, e.g., 1.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.ip6.arpa, which is the reverse DNS resolution domain name for the IP address of a loopback interface, or the localhost name.

text: Second-level (or lower-level, depending on the established parent hierarchy) domain names are often created based on the name of a company (e.g., bbc.co.uk), product or service (e.g. hotmail.com). Below these levels, the next domain name component has been used to designate a particular host server. Therefore, ftp.example.com might be an FTP server, www.example.com would be a World Wide Web server, and mail.example.com could be an email server, each intended to perform only the implied function. Modern technology allows multiple physical servers with either different (cf. load balancing) or even identical addresses (cf. anycast) to serve a single hostname or domain name, or multiple domain names to be served by a single computer. The latter is very popular in Web hosting service centers, where service providers host the websites of many organizations on just a few servers.

text: The hierarchical DNS labels or components of domain names are separated in a fully qualified name by the full stop (dot, .).

text: Internationalized domain names

text: The character set allowed in the Domain Name System is based on ASCII and does not allow the representation of names and words of many languages in their native scripts or alphabets. ICANN approved the Internationalized domain name (IDNA) system, which maps Unicode strings used in application user interfaces into the valid DNS character set by an encoding called Punycode. For example, københavn.eu is mapped to xn--kbenhavn-54a.eu. Many registries have adopted IDNA.

text: Domain name registration

text: History

text: The first commercial Internet domain name, in the TLD com, was registered on 15 March 1985 in the name symbolics.com by Symbolics Inc., a computer systems firm in Cambridge, Massachusetts.

text: By 1992, fewer than 15,000 com domains had been registered.

text: In the first quarter of 2015, 294 million domain names had been registered.[16] A large fraction of them are in the com TLD, which as of December 21, 2014, had 115.6 million domain names,[17] including 11.9 million online business and e-commerce sites, 4.3 million entertainment sites, 3.1 million finance related sites, and 1.8 million sports sites.[18] As of July 2012 the com TLD had more registrations than all of the ccTLDs combined.[19]

text: Administration

text: The right to use a domain name is delegated by domain name registrars, which are accredited by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), the organization charged with overseeing the name and number systems of the Internet. In addition to ICANN, each top-level domain (TLD) is maintained and serviced technically by an administrative organization operating a registry. A registry is responsible for maintaining the database of names registered within the TLD it administers. The registry receives registration information from each domain name registrar authorized to assign names in the corresponding TLD and publishes the information using a special service, the WHOIS protocol.

text: Registries and registrars usually charge an annual fee for the service of delegating a domain name to a user and providing a default set of name servers. Often, this transaction is termed a sale or lease of the domain name, and the registrant may sometimes be called an "owner", but no such legal relationship is actually associated with the transaction, only the exclusive right to use the domain name. More correctly, authorized users are known as "registrants" or as "domain holders".

text: ICANN publishes the complete list of TLD registries and domain name registrars. Registrant information associated with domain names is maintained in an online database accessible with the WHOIS protocol. For most of the 250 country code top-level domains (ccTLDs), the domain registries maintain the WHOIS (Registrant, name servers, expiration dates, etc.) information.

text: Some domain name registries, often called network information centers (NIC), also function as registrars to end-users. The major generic top-level domain registries, such as for the com, net, org, info domains and others, use a registry-registrar model consisting of hundreds of domain name registrars (see lists at ICANN[20] or VeriSign).[21] In this method of management, the registry only manages the domain name database and the relationship with the registrars. The registrants (users of a domain name) are customers of the registrar, in some cases through additional layers of resellers.

text: Technical requirements and process

text: In the process of registering a domain name and maintaining authority over the new name space created, registrars use several key pieces of information connected with a domain:

text:
Administrative contact. A registrant usually designates an administrative contact to manage the domain name. The administrative contact usually has the highest level of control over a domain. Management functions delegated to the administrative contacts may include management of all business information, such as name of record, postal address, and contact information of the official registrant of the domain and the obligation to conform to the requirements of the domain registry in order to retain the right to use a domain name. Furthermore, the administrative contact installs additional contact information for technical and billing functions.
Technical contact. The technical contact manages the name servers of a domain name. The functions of a technical contact include assuring conformance of the configurations of the domain name with the requirements of the domain registry, maintaining the domain zone records, and providing continuous functionality of the name servers (that leads to the accessibility of the domain name).
Billing contact. The party responsible for receiving billing invoices from the domain name registrar and paying applicable fees.
Name servers. Most registrars provide two or more name servers as part of the registration service. However, a registrant may specify its own authoritative name servers to host a domain's resource records. The registrar's policies govern the number of servers and the type of server information required. Some providers require a hostname and the corresponding IP address or just the hostname, which must be resolvable either in the new domain, or exist elsewhere. Based on traditional requirements (RFC 1034), typically a minimum of two servers is required.

text: Domain names may be formed from the set of alphanumeric ASCII characters (a-z, A-Z, 0-9), but characters are case-insensitive. In addition the hyphen (U+002D) is permitted if it is surrounded by characters, digits or hyphens, although it is not to start or end a label. Labels are always separated by the full stop (period) character in the textual name representation.

text: Business models

text: Domain names are often seen in analogy to real estate in that domain names are foundations on which a website can be built, and the highest quality domain names, like sought-after real estate, tend to carry significant value, usually due to their online brand-building potential, use in advertising, search engine optimization, and many other criteria.

text: A few companies have offered low-cost, below-cost or even free domain registration with a variety of models adopted to recoup the costs to the provider. These usually require that domains be hosted on their website within a framework or portal that includes advertising wrapped around the domain holder's content, revenue from which allows the provider to recoup the costs. Domain registrations were free of charge when the DNS was new. A domain holder may provide infinite number of subdomains in their domain. For example, the owner of example.org could provide subdomains such as foo.example.org and foo.bar.example.org to interested parties.

text: Many desirable domain names are already assigned and users must search for other acceptable names, using Web-based search features, or WHOIS and dig operating system tools. Many registrars have implemented domain name suggestion tools which search domain name databases and suggest available alternative domain names related to keywords provided by the user.

text: Resale of domain names

text: The business of resale of registered domain names is known as the domain aftermarket. Various factors influence the perceived value or market value of a domain name. Most of the high-prize domain sales are carried out privately.

text: Domain name confusion

text: Intercapping is often used to emphasize the meaning of a domain name. However, DNS names are not case-sensitive, and some names may be misinterpreted in certain uses of capitalization. For example: Who Represents, a database of artists and agents, chose whorepresents.com,[citation needed] which can be misread as whore presents. Similarly, a therapists' network is named therapistfinder.com. In such situations, the proper meaning may be clarified by use of hyphens in the domain name. For instance, Experts Exchange, a programmers' discussion site, for a long time used expertsexchange.com, but ultimately changed the name to experts-exchange.com.[citation needed]

text: Use in web site hosting

text: The domain name is a component of a uniform resource locator (URL) used to access web sites, for example:

text:
URL: http://www.example.net/index.html
Top-level domain: net
Second-level domain: example
Host name: www

text: A domain name may point to multiple IP addresses to provide server redundancy for the services offered, a feature that is used to manage the traffic of large, popular web sites.

text: Web hosting services, on the other hand, run servers that are typically assigned only one or a few addresses while serving websites for many domains, a technique referred to as virtual web hosting. Such IP address overloading requires that each request identifies the domain name being referenced, for instance by using the HTTP request header field Host:, or Server Name Indication.

text: Abuse and regulation

text: Critics often claim abuse of administrative power over domain names. Particularly noteworthy was the VeriSign Site Finder system which redirected all unregistered .com and .net domains to a VeriSign webpage. For example, at a public meeting with VeriSign to air technical concerns about SiteFinder,[22] numerous people, active in the IETF and other technical bodies, explained how they were surprised by VeriSign's changing the fundamental behavior of a major component of Internet infrastructure, not having obtained the customary consensus. SiteFinder, at first, assumed every Internet query was for a website, and it monetized queries for incorrect domain names, taking the user to VeriSign's search site. Unfortunately, other applications, such as many implementations of email, treat a lack of response to a domain name query as an indication that the domain does not exist, and that the message can be treated as undeliverable. The original VeriSign implementation broke this assumption for mail, because it would always resolve an erroneous domain name to that of SiteFinder. While VeriSign later changed SiteFinder's behaviour with regard to email, there was still widespread protest about VeriSign's action being more in its financial interest than in the interest of the Internet infrastructure component for which VeriSign was the steward.

text: Despite widespread criticism, VeriSign only reluctantly removed it after the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) threatened to revoke its contract to administer the root name servers. ICANN published the extensive set of letters exchanged, committee reports, and ICANN decisions.[23]

text: There is also significant disquiet regarding the United States' political influence over ICANN. This was a significant issue in the attempt to create a .xxx top-level domain and sparked greater interest in alternative DNS roots that would be beyond the control of any single country.[24]

text: Additionally, there are numerous accusations of domain name front running, whereby registrars, when given whois queries, automatically register the domain name for themselves. Network Solutions has been accused of this.[25]

text: Truth in Domain Names Act

text: In the United States, the Truth in Domain Names Act of 2003, in combination with the PROTECT Act of 2003, forbids the use of a misleading domain name with the intention of attracting Internet users into visiting Internet pornography sites.

text: The Truth in Domain Names Act follows the more general Anticybersquatting Consumer Protection Act passed in 1999 aimed at preventing typosquatting and deceptive use of names and trademarks in domain names.

text: Seizures

text:
Seizure notices

absolutepoker.com

channelsurfing.net

libertyreserve.com

text: In the early 21st century, the US Department of Justice (DOJ) pursued the seizure of domain names, based on the legal theory that domain names constitute property used to engage in criminal activity, and thus are subject to forfeiture. For example, in the seizure of the domain name of a gambling website, the DOJ referenced 18 U.S.C. § 981 and 18 U.S.C. § 1955(d).[26][1] In 2013 the US government seized Liberty Reserve, citing 18 U.S.C. § 982(a)(1).[27]

text: The U.S. Congress passed the Combating Online Infringement and Counterfeits Act in 2010. Consumer Electronics Association vice president Michael Petricone was worried that seizure was a blunt instrument that could harm legitimate businesses.[28][29] After a joint operation in February 15, 2011, the DOJ and the Department of Homeland Security claimed to have seized ten domains of websites involved in advertising and distributing child pornography, but also mistakenly seized the domain name of a large DNS provider, temporarily replacing 84,000 websites with seizure notices.[30]

text: In the United Kingdom, the Police Intellectual Property Crime Unit has been attempting to seize domain names from registrars without court orders.[31]

text: Suspensions

text: PIPCU and other UK law enforcement organisations make domain suspension requests to Nominet which they process on the basis of breach of terms and conditions. Around 16,000 domains are suspended annually, and about 80% of the requests originate from PIPCU.[32]

text: Fictitious domain name

text: A fictitious domain name is a domain name used in a work of fiction or popular culture to refer to a domain that does not actually exist, often with invalid or unofficial top-level domains such as ".web", a usage exactly analogous to the dummy 555 telephone number prefix used in film and other media. The canonical fictitious domain name is "example.com", specifically set aside by IANA in RFC 2606 for such use, along with the .example TLD.

text: Domain names used in works of fiction have often been registered in the DNS, either by their creators or by cybersquatters attempting to profit from it. This phenomenon prompted NBC to purchase the domain name Hornymanatee.com after talk-show host Conan O'Brien spoke the name while ad-libbing on his show. O'Brien subsequently created a website based on the concept and used it as a running gag on the show.[33]