document_title: Periodic table

question_text: the first element on the periodic table is

question_tokens: the first element on the periodic table is

text: Periodic table

text: Overview

text:
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Periodic table

Group
1
2
3

4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

Alkali metals
Alkaline earth metals

Pnictogens
Chalcogens
Halogens
Noble gases

Period
1

Hydrogen1H

Helium2He

2
Lithium3Li
Beryllium4Be

Boron5B
Carbon6C
Nitrogen7N
Oxygen8O
Fluorine9F
Neon10Ne

3
Sodium11Na
Magnesium12Mg

Aluminium13Al
Silicon14Si
Phosphorus15P
Sulfur16S
Chlorine17Cl
Argon18Ar

4
Potassium19K
Calcium20Ca
Scandium21Sc

Titanium22Ti
Vanadium23V
Chromium24Cr
Manganese25Mn
Iron26Fe
Cobalt27Co
Nickel28Ni
Copper29Cu
Zinc30Zn
Gallium31Ga
Germanium32Ge
Arsenic33As
Selenium34Se
Bromine35Br
Krypton36Kr

5
Rubidium37Rb
Strontium38Sr
Yttrium39Y

Zirconium40Zr
Niobium41Nb
Molybdenum42Mo
Technetium43Tc
Ruthenium44Ru
Rhodium45Rh
Palladium46Pd
Silver47Ag
Cadmium48Cd
Indium49In
Tin50Sn
Antimony51Sb
Tellurium52Te
Iodine53I
Xenon54Xe

6
Caesium55Cs
Barium56Ba
Lanthanum57La

Hafnium72Hf
Tantalum73Ta
Tungsten74W
Rhenium75Re
Osmium76Os
Iridium77Ir
Platinum78Pt
Gold79Au
Mercury80Hg
Thallium81Tl
Lead82Pb
Bismuth83Bi
Polonium84Po
Astatine85At
Radon86Rn

7
Francium87Fr
Radium88Ra
Actinium89Ac

Rutherfordium104Rf
Dubnium105Db
Seaborgium106Sg
Bohrium107Bh
Hassium108Hs
Meitnerium109Mt
Darmstadtium110Ds
Roentgenium111Rg
Copernicium112Cn
Nihonium113Nh
Flerovium114Fl
Moscovium115Mc
Livermorium116Lv
Tennessine117Ts
Oganesson118Og

Cerium58Ce
Praseodymium59Pr
Neodymium60Nd
Promethium61Pm
Samarium62Sm
Europium63Eu
Gadolinium64Gd
Terbium65Tb
Dysprosium66Dy
Holmium67Ho
Erbium68Er
Thulium69Tm
Ytterbium70Yb
Lutetium71Lu

Thorium90Th
Protactinium91Pa
Uranium92U
Neptunium93Np
Plutonium94Pu
Americium95Am
Curium96Cm
Berkelium97Bk
Californium98Cf
Einsteinium99Es
Fermium100Fm
Mendelevium101Md
Nobelium102No
Lawrencium103Lr

1 (red)=Gas
3 (black)=Solid
80 (green)=Liquid
109 (gray)=Unknown
Color of the atomic number shows state of matter (at 0 °C and 1 atm)

Primordial

From decay

Synthetic
Border shows natural occurrence of the element

Background color shows subcategory in the metal–metalloid–nonmetal trend:

Metal
Metalloid
Nonmetal
Unknown
chemical
properties

Alkali metal
Alkaline earth metal
Lanthanide
Actinide
Transition metal
Post-transition metal
Polyatomic nonmetal
Diatomic nonmetal
Noble gas

text: Each chemical element has a unique atomic number (Z) representing the number of protons in its nucleus.[n 2] Most elements have differing numbers of neutrons among different atoms, with these variants being referred to as isotopes. For example, carbon has three naturally occurring isotopes: all of its atoms have six protons and most have six neutrons as well, but about one per cent have seven neutrons, and a very small fraction have eight neutrons. Isotopes are never separated in the periodic table; they are always grouped together under a single element. Elements with no stable isotopes have the atomic masses of their most stable isotopes, where such masses are shown, listed in parentheses.[4]

text: In the standard periodic table, the elements are listed in order of increasing atomic number Z (the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom). A new row (period) is started when a new electron shell has its first electron. Columns (groups) are determined by the electron configuration of the atom; elements with the same number of electrons in a particular subshell fall into the same columns (e.g. oxygen and selenium are in the same column because they both have four electrons in the outermost p-subshell). Elements with similar chemical properties generally fall into the same group in the periodic table, although in the f-block, and to some respect in the d-block, the elements in the same period tend to have similar properties, as well. Thus, it is relatively easy to predict the chemical properties of an element if one knows the properties of the elements around it.[5]

text: As of 2016[update], the periodic table has 118 confirmed elements, from element 1 (hydrogen) to 118 (oganesson). Elements 113, 115, 117 and 118, the most recent discoveries, were officially confirmed by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) in December 2015. Their proposed names, nihonium (Nh), moscovium (Mc), tennessine (Ts) and oganesson (Og) respectively, were announced by the IUPAC in June 2016 and made official in November 2016.[6][7][8][9]

text: The first 94 elements occur naturally; the remaining 24, americium to oganesson (95–118), occur only when synthesized in laboratories. Of the 94 naturally occurring elements, 83 are primordial and 11 occur only in decay chains of primordial elements.[3] No element heavier than einsteinium (element 99) has ever been observed in macroscopic quantities in its pure form, nor has astatine (element 85); francium (element 87) has been only photographed in the form of light emitted from microscopic quantities (300,000 atoms).[10]

text: Grouping methods

text: Groups

text: A group or family is a vertical column in the periodic table. Groups usually have more significant periodic trends than periods and blocks, explained below. Modern quantum mechanical theories of atomic structure explain group trends by proposing that elements within the same group generally have the same electron configurations in their valence shell.[11] Consequently, elements in the same group tend to have a shared chemistry and exhibit a clear trend in properties with increasing atomic number.[12] In some parts of the periodic table, such as the d-block and the f-block, horizontal similarities can be as important as, or more pronounced than, vertical similarities.[13][14][15]

text: Under an international naming convention, the groups are numbered numerically from 1 to 18 from the leftmost column (the alkali metals) to the rightmost column (the noble gases).[16] Previously, they were known by roman numerals. In America, the roman numerals were followed by either an "A" if the group was in the s- or p-block, or a "B" if the group was in the d-block. The roman numerals used correspond to the last digit of today's naming convention (e.g. the group 4 elements were group IVB, and the group 14 elements were group IVA). In Europe, the lettering was similar, except that "A" was used if the group was before group 10, and "B" was used for groups including and after group 10. In addition, groups 8, 9 and 10 used to be treated as one triple-sized group, known collectively in both notations as group VIII. In 1988, the new IUPAC naming system was put into use, and the old group names were deprecated.[17]

text: Some of these groups have been given trivial (unsystematic) names, as seen in the table below, although some are rarely used. Groups 3–10 have no trivial names and are referred to simply by their group numbers or by the name of the first member of their group (such as "the scandium group" for group 3), since they display fewer similarities and/or vertical trends.[16]

text: Elements in the same group tend to show patterns in atomic radius, ionization energy, and electronegativity. From top to bottom in a group, the atomic radii of the elements increase. Since there are more filled energy levels, valence electrons are found farther from the nucleus. From the top, each successive element has a lower ionization energy because it is easier to remove an electron since the atoms are less tightly bound. Similarly, a group has a top-to-bottom decrease in electronegativity due to an increasing distance between valence electrons and the nucleus.[18] There are exceptions to these trends: for example, in group 11, electronegativity increases farther down the group.[19]

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Groups in the periodic table

IUPAC group
1
2
3a
a
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

Mendeleev (I–VIII)
IA
IIA
IIIB

IVB
VB
VIB
VIIB
VIIIB
IB
IIB
IIIB
IVB
VB
VIB
VIIB
b

CAS (US, A-B-A)
IA
IIA
IIIB

IVB
VB
VIB
VIIB
VIIIB
IB
IIB
IIIA
IVA
VA
VIA
VIIA
VIIIA

old IUPAC (Europe, A-B)
IA
IIA
IIIA

IVA
VA
VIA
VIIA
VIIIB
IB
IIB
IIIB
IVB
VB
VIB
VIIB
0

Trivial name
Alkali metals
Alkaline earth metalsr

Coinage metals
Volatile metals
Icosagens
Crystallogens
Pnictogensr
Chalcogensr
Halogensr
Noble gasesr

Name by elementr
Lithium group
Beryllium group
Scandium group

Titanium group
Vanadium group
Chromium group
Manganese group
Iron group
Cobalt group
Nickel group
Copper group
Zinc group
Boron group
Carbon group
Nitrogen group
Oxygen group
Fluorine group
Helium or Neon group

Period 1
h H h

He

Period 2
Li
Be

B
C
N
O
F
Ne

Period 3
Na
Mg

Al
Si
P
S
Cl
Ar

Period 4
K
Ca
Sc

Ti
V
Cr
Mn
Fe
Co
Ni
Cu
Zn
Ga
Ge
As
Se
Br
Kr

Period 5
Rb
Sr
Y

Zr
Nb
Mo
Tc
Ru
Rh
Pd
Ag
Cd
In
Sn
Sb
Te
I
Xe

Period 6
Cs
Ba
La
Ce–Lu
Hf
Ta
W
Re
Os
Ir
Pt
Au
Hg
Tl
Pb
Bi
Po
At
Rn

Period 7
Fr
Ra
Ac
Th–Lr
Rf
Db
Sg
Bh
Hs
Mt
Ds
Rg
Cn
Nh
Fl
Mc
Lv
Ts
Og

a Group 3 has scandium (Sc) and yttrium (Y). For the rest of the group, sources differ as either being (1) lutetium (Lu) and lawrencium (Lr), or (2) lanthanum (La) and actinium (Ac), or (3) the whole set of 15+15 lanthanides and actinides. IUPAC has initiated a project to standardize the definition as either (1) Sc, Y, Lu and Lr, or (2) Sc, Y, La and Ac.[20]

b Group 18, the noble gases, were not discovered at the time of Mendeleev's original table. Later (1902), Mendeleev accepted the evidence for their existence, and they could be placed in a new "group 0", consistently and without breaking the periodic table principle.

r Group name as recommended by IUPAC.

h Hydrogen (H), while placed in group 1, is not considered to be part of the alkali metals.

text: Periods

text: A period is a horizontal row in the periodic table. Although groups generally have more significant periodic trends, there are regions where horizontal trends are more significant than vertical group trends, such as the f-block, where the lanthanides and actinides form two substantial horizontal series of elements.[21]

text: Elements in the same period show trends in atomic radius, ionization energy, electron affinity, and electronegativity. Moving left to right across a period, atomic radius usually decreases. This occurs because each successive element has an added proton and electron, which causes the electron to be drawn closer to the nucleus.[22] This decrease in atomic radius also causes the ionization energy to increase when moving from left to right across a period. The more tightly bound an element is, the more energy is required to remove an electron. Electronegativity increases in the same manner as ionization energy because of the pull exerted on the electrons by the nucleus.[18] Electron affinity also shows a slight trend across a period. Metals (left side of a period) generally have a lower electron affinity than nonmetals (right side of a period), with the exception of the noble gases.[23]

text: Blocks

text: Specific regions of the periodic table can be referred to as blocks in recognition of the sequence in which the electron shells of the elements are filled. Each block is named according to the subshell in which the "last" electron notionally resides.[24][n 3] The s-block comprises the first two groups (alkali metals and alkaline earth metals) as well as hydrogen and helium. The p-block comprises the last six groups, which are groups 13 to 18 in IUPAC group numbering (3A to 8A in American group numbering) and contains, among other elements, all of the metalloids. The d-block comprises groups 3 to 12 (or 3B to 2B in American group numbering) and contains all of the transition metals. The f-block, often offset below the rest of the periodic table, has no group numbers and comprises lanthanides and actinides.[25]

text: Metals, metalloids and nonmetals

text: According to their shared physical and chemical properties, the elements can be classified into the major categories of metals, metalloids and nonmetals. Metals are generally shiny, highly conducting solids that form alloys with one another and salt-like ionic compounds with nonmetals (other than the noble gases). The majority of nonmetals are coloured or colourless insulating gases; nonmetals that form compounds with other nonmetals feature covalent bonding. In between metals and nonmetals are metalloids, which have intermediate or mixed properties.[26]

text: Metal and nonmetals can be further classified into subcategories that show a gradation from metallic to non-metallic properties, when going left to right in the rows. The metals are subdivided into the highly reactive alkali metals, through the less reactive alkaline earth metals, lanthanides and actinides, via the archetypal transition metals, and ending in the physically and chemically weak post-transition metals. The nonmetals are simply subdivided into the polyatomic nonmetals, which, being nearest to the metalloids, show some incipient metallic character; the diatomic nonmetals, which are essentially nonmetallic; and the monatomic noble gases, which are nonmetallic and almost completely inert. Specialized groupings such as the refractory metals and the noble metals, which are subsets (in this example) of the transition metals, are also known[27] and occasionally denoted.[28]

text: Placing the elements into categories and subcategories based on shared properties is imperfect. There is a spectrum of properties within each category and it is not hard to find overlaps at the boundaries, as is the case with most classification schemes.[29] Beryllium, for example, is classified as an alkaline earth metal although its amphoteric chemistry and tendency to mostly form covalent compounds are both attributes of a chemically weak or post-transition metal. Radon is classified as a nonmetal and a noble gas yet has some cationic chemistry that is more characteristic of a metal. Other classification schemes are possible such as the division of the elements into mineralogical occurrence categories, or crystalline structures. Categorizing the elements in this fashion dates back to at least 1869 when Hinrichs[30] wrote that simple boundary lines could be drawn on the periodic table to show elements having like properties, such as the metals and the nonmetals, or the gaseous elements.

text: Periodic trends and patterns

text: Electron configuration

text: The electron configuration or organisation of electrons orbiting neutral atoms shows a recurring pattern or periodicity. The electrons occupy a series of electron shells (numbered 1, 2, and so on). Each shell consists of one or more subshells (named s, p, d, f and g). As atomic number increases, electrons progressively fill these shells and subshells more or less according to the Madelung rule or energy ordering rule, as shown in the diagram. The electron configuration for neon, for example, is 1s2 2s2 2p6. With an atomic number of ten, neon has two electrons in the first shell, and eight electrons in the second shell; there are two electrons in the s subshell and six in the p subshell. In periodic table terms, the first time an electron occupies a new shell corresponds to the start of each new period, these positions being occupied by hydrogen and the alkali metals.[31][32]

text: Since the properties of an element are mostly determined by its electron configuration, the properties of the elements likewise show recurring patterns or periodic behaviour, some examples of which are shown in the diagrams below for atomic radii, ionization energy and electron affinity. It is this periodicity of properties, manifestations of which were noticed well before the underlying theory was developed, that led to the establishment of the periodic law (the properties of the elements recur at varying intervals) and the formulation of the first periodic tables.[31][32]

text: Atomic radii

text: Atomic radii vary in a predictable and explainable manner across the periodic table. For instance, the radii generally decrease along each period of the table, from the alkali metals to the noble gases; and increase down each group. The radius increases sharply between the noble gas at the end of each period and the alkali metal at the beginning of the next period. These trends of the atomic radii (and of various other chemical and physical properties of the elements) can be explained by the electron shell theory of the atom; they provided important evidence for the development and confirmation of quantum theory.[33]

text: The electrons in the 4f-subshell, which is progressively filled from cerium (element 58) to ytterbium (element 70), are not particularly effective at shielding the increasing nuclear charge from the sub-shells further out. The elements immediately following the lanthanides have atomic radii that are smaller than would be expected and that are almost identical to the atomic radii of the elements immediately above them.[34] Hence hafnium has virtually the same atomic radius (and chemistry) as zirconium, and tantalum has an atomic radius similar to niobium, and so forth. This is known as the lanthanide contraction. The effect of the lanthanide contraction is noticeable up to platinum (element 78), after which it is masked by a relativistic effect known as the inert pair effect.[35] The d-block contraction, which is a similar effect between the d-block and p-block, is less pronounced than the lanthanide contraction but arises from a similar cause.[34]

text: Ionization energy

text: The first ionization energy is the energy it takes to remove one electron from an atom, the second ionization energy is the energy it takes to remove a second electron from the atom, and so on. For a given atom, successive ionization energies increase with the degree of ionization. For magnesium as an example, the first ionization energy is 738 kJ/mol and the second is 1450 kJ/mol. Electrons in the closer orbitals experience greater forces of electrostatic attraction; thus, their removal requires increasingly more energy. Ionization energy becomes greater up and to the right of the periodic table.[35]

text: Large jumps in the successive molar ionization energies occur when removing an electron from a noble gas (complete electron shell) configuration. For magnesium again, the first two molar ionization energies of magnesium given above correspond to removing the two 3s electrons, and the third ionization energy is a much larger 7730 kJ/mol, for the removal of a 2p electron from the very stable neon-like configuration of Mg2+. Similar jumps occur in the ionization energies of other third-row atoms.[35]

text: Electronegativity

text: Electronegativity is the tendency of an atom to attract electrons.[36] An atom's electronegativity is affected by both its atomic number and the distance between the valence electrons and the nucleus. The higher its electronegativity, the more an element attracts electrons. It was first proposed by Linus Pauling in 1932.[37] In general, electronegativity increases on passing from left to right along a period, and decreases on descending a group. Hence, fluorine is the most electronegative of the elements,[n 5] while caesium is the least, at least of those elements for which substantial data is available.[19]

text: There are some exceptions to this general rule. Gallium and germanium have higher electronegativities than aluminium and silicon respectively because of the d-block contraction. Elements of the fourth period immediately after the first row of the transition metals have unusually small atomic radii because the 3d-electrons are not effective at shielding the increased nuclear charge, and smaller atomic size correlates with higher electronegativity.[19] The anomalously high electronegativity of lead, particularly when compared to thallium and bismuth, appears to be an artifact of data selection and data availability. Methods of calculation other than the Pauling method show the normal periodic trends for these elements.[38]

text: Electron affinity

text: The electron affinity of an atom is the amount of energy released when an electron is added to a neutral atom to form a negative ion. Although electron affinity varies greatly, some patterns emerge. Generally, nonmetals have more positive electron affinity values than metals. Chlorine most strongly attracts an extra electron. The electron affinities of the noble gases have not been measured conclusively, so they may or may not have slightly negative values.[41]

text: Electron affinity generally increases across a period. This is caused by the filling of the valence shell of the atom; a group 17 atom releases more energy than a group 1 atom on gaining an electron because it obtains a filled valence shell and is therefore more stable.[41]

text: A trend of decreasing electron affinity going down groups would be expected. The additional electron will be entering an orbital farther away from the nucleus. As such this electron would be less attracted to the nucleus and would release less energy when added. In going down a group, around one-third of elements are anomalous, with heavier elements having higher electron affinities than their next lighter congenors. Largely, this is due to the poor shielding by d and f electrons. A uniform decrease in electron affinity only applies to group 1 atoms.[42]

text: Metallic character

text: The lower the values of ionization energy, electronegativity and electron affinity, the more metallic character the element has. Conversely, nonmetallic character increases with higher values of these properties.[43] Given the periodic trends of these three properties, metallic character tends to decrease going across a period (or row) and, with some irregularities (mostly) due to poor screening of the nucleus by d and f electrons, and relativistic effects,[44] tends to increase going down a group (or column or family). Thus, the most metallic elements (such as caesium and francium) are found at the bottom left of traditional periodic tables and the most nonmetallic elements (oxygen, fluorine, chlorine) at the top right. The combination of horizontal and vertical trends in metallic character explains the stair-shaped dividing line between metals and nonmetals found on some periodic tables, and the practice of sometimes categorizing several elements adjacent to that line, or elements adjacent to those elements, as metalloids.[45][46]

text: Linking or bridging groups

text:
Hydrogen

Helium

Lithium
Beryllium

Boron
Carbon
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Fluorine
Neon

Sodium
Magnesium

Aluminium
Silicon
Phosphorus
Sulfur
Chlorine
Argon

Potassium
Calcium
Scandium

Titanium
Vanadium
Chromium
Manganese
Iron
Cobalt
Nickel
Copper
Zinc
Gallium
Germanium
Arsenic
Selenium
Bromine
Krypton

Rubidium
Strontium
Yttrium

Zirconium
Niobium
Molybdenum
Technetium
Ruthenium
Rhodium
Palladium
Silver
Cadmium
Indium
Tin
Antimony
Tellurium
Iodine
Xenon

Caesium
Barium
Lanthanum
Cerium
Praseodymium
Neodymium
Promethium
Samarium
Europium
Gadolinium
Terbium
Dysprosium
Holmium
Erbium
Thulium
Ytterbium
Lutetium
Hafnium
Tantalum
Tungsten
Rhenium
Osmium
Iridium
Platinum
Gold
Mercury (element)
Thallium
Lead
Bismuth
Polonium
Astatine
Radon

Francium
Radium
Actinium
Thorium
Protactinium
Uranium
Neptunium
Plutonium
Americium
Curium
Berkelium
Californium
Einsteinium
Fermium
Mendelevium
Nobelium
Lawrencium
Rutherfordium
Dubnium
Seaborgium
Bohrium
Hassium
Meitnerium
Darmstadtium
Roentgenium
Copernicium
Nihonium
Flerovium
Moscovium
Livermorium
Tennessine
Oganesson

32-column periodic table showing, from left to right, the location of group 3; lutetium and lawrencium; groups 11–12; and the noble gases

text: From left to right across the four blocks of the long- or 32-column form of the periodic table are a series of linking or bridging groups of elements, located approximately between each block.[47] These groups, like the metalloids, show properties in between, or that are a mixture of, groups to either side. Chemically, the group 3 elements, scandium, yttrium, lanthanum and actinium behave largely like the alkaline earth metals[48] or, more generally, s block metals[49][50] but have some of the physical properties of d block transition metals.[51] Lutetium and lawrencium, at the end of the end of the f block, may constitute another linking or bridging group. Lutetium behaves chemically as a lanthanide but shows a mix of lanthanide and transition metal physical properties.[52][53] Lawrencium, as an analogue of lutetium, would presumable display like characteristics.[n 6] The coinage metals in group 11 (copper, silver, and gold) are chemically capable of acting as either transition metals or main group metals.[56] The volatile group 12 metals, zinc, cadmium and mercury are sometimes regarded as linking the d block to the p block. Notionally they are d block elements but they have few transition metal properties and are more like their p block neighbors in group 13.[57][58] The relatively inert noble gases, in group 18, bridge the most reactive groups of elements in the periodic table—the halogens in group 17 and the alkali metals in group 1.[47]

text: History

text: First systemization attempts

text: In 1789, Antoine Lavoisier published a list of 33 chemical elements, grouping them into gases, metals, nonmetals, and earths.[59] Chemists spent the following century searching for a more precise classification scheme. In 1829, Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner observed that many of the elements could be grouped into triads based on their chemical properties. Lithium, sodium, and potassium, for example, were grouped together in a triad as soft, reactive metals. Döbereiner also observed that, when arranged by atomic weight, the second member of each triad was roughly the average of the first and the third;[60] this became known as the Law of Triads.[61] German chemist Leopold Gmelin worked with this system, and by 1843 he had identified ten triads, three groups of four, and one group of five. Jean-Baptiste Dumas published work in 1857 describing relationships between various groups of metals. Although various chemists were able to identify relationships between small groups of elements, they had yet to build one scheme that encompassed them all.[60]

text: In 1857, German chemist August Kekulé observed that carbon often has four other atoms bonded to it. Methane, for example, has one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms.[62] This concept eventually became known as valency; different elements bond with different numbers of atoms.[63]

text: In 1862, Alexandre-Emile Béguyer de Chancourtois, a French geologist, published an early form of periodic table, which he called the telluric helix or screw. He was the first person to notice the periodicity of the elements. With the elements arranged in a spiral on a cylinder by order of increasing atomic weight, de Chancourtois showed that elements with similar properties seemed to occur at regular intervals. His chart included some ions and compounds in addition to elements. His paper also used geological rather than chemical terms and did not include a diagram; as a result, it received little attention until the work of Dmitri Mendeleev.[64]

text: In 1864, Julius Lothar Meyer, a German chemist, published a table with 44 elements arranged by valency. The table showed that elements with similar properties often shared the same valency.[65] Concurrently, William Odling (an English chemist) published an arrangement of 57 elements, ordered on the basis of their atomic weights. With some irregularities and gaps, he noticed what appeared to be a periodicity of atomic weights among the elements and that this accorded with "their usually received groupings".[66] Odling alluded to the idea of a periodic law but did not pursue it.[67] He subsequently proposed (in 1870) a valence-based classification of the elements.[68]

text: English chemist John Newlands produced a series of papers from 1863 to 1866 noting that when the elements were listed in order of increasing atomic weight, similar physical and chemical properties recurred at intervals of eight; he likened such periodicity to the octaves of music.[69][70] This so termed Law of Octaves was ridiculed by Newlands' contemporaries, and the Chemical Society refused to publish his work.[71] Newlands was nonetheless able to draft a table of the elements and used it to predict the existence of missing elements, such as germanium.[72] The Chemical Society only acknowledged the significance of his discoveries five years after they credited Mendeleev.[73]

text: In 1867, Gustavus Hinrichs, a Danish born academic chemist based in America, published a spiral periodic system based on atomic spectra and weights, and chemical similarities. His work was regarded as idiosyncratic, ostentatious and labyrinthine and this may have militated against its recognition and acceptance.[74][75]

text: Mendeleev's table

text: Russian chemistry professor Dmitri Mendeleev and German chemist Julius Lothar Meyer independently published their periodic tables in 1869 and 1870, respectively.[76] Mendeleev's table was his first published version; that of Meyer was an expanded version of his (Meyer's) table of 1864.[77] They both constructed their tables by listing the elements in rows or columns in order of atomic weight and starting a new row or column when the characteristics of the elements began to repeat.[78]

text: The recognition and acceptance afforded to Mendeleev's table came from two decisions he made. The first was to leave gaps in the table when it seemed that the corresponding element had not yet been discovered.[79] Mendeleev was not the first chemist to do so, but he was the first to be recognized as using the trends in his periodic table to predict the properties of those missing elements, such as gallium and germanium.[80] The second decision was to occasionally ignore the order suggested by the atomic weights and switch adjacent elements, such as tellurium and iodine, to better classify them into chemical families. Later, in 1913, Henry Moseley determined experimental values of the nuclear charge or atomic number of each element, and showed that Mendeleev's ordering actually corresponds to the order of increasing atomic number.[81]

text: The significance of atomic numbers to the organization of the periodic table was not appreciated until the existence and properties of protons and neutrons became understood. Mendeleev's periodic tables used atomic weight instead of atomic number to organize the elements, information determinable to fair precision in his time. Atomic weight worked well enough in most cases to (as noted) give a presentation that was able to predict the properties of missing elements more accurately than any other method then known. Substitution of atomic numbers, once understood, gave a definitive, integer-based sequence for the elements, and Moseley predicted (in 1913) that the only elements still missing between aluminium (Z=13) and gold (Z=79) were Z = 43, 61, 72 and 75, all of which were later discovered. The sequence of atomic numbers is still used today even as new synthetic elements are being produced and studied.[82]

text: Second version and further development

text: In 1871, Mendeleev published his periodic table in a new form, with groups of similar elements arranged in columns rather than in rows, and those columns numbered I to VIII corresponding with the element's oxidation state. He also gave detailed predictions for the properties of elements he had earlier noted were missing, but should exist.[83] These gaps were subsequently filled as chemists discovered additional naturally occurring elements.[84] It is often stated that the last naturally occurring element to be discovered was francium (referred to by Mendeleev as eka-caesium) in 1939.[85] Plutonium, produced synthetically in 1940, was identified in trace quantities as a naturally occurring element in 1971.[86]

text: The popular[87] periodic table layout, also known as the common or standard form (as shown at various other points in this article), is attributable to Horace Groves Deming. In 1923, Deming, an American chemist, published short (Mendeleev style) and medium (18-column) form periodic tables.[88][n 7] Merck and Company prepared a handout form of Deming's 18-column medium table, in 1928, which was widely circulated in American schools. By the 1930s Deming's table was appearing in handbooks and encyclopaedias of chemistry. It was also distributed for many years by the Sargent-Welch Scientific Company.[89][90][91]

text: With the development of modern quantum mechanical theories of electron configurations within atoms, it became apparent that each period (row) in the table corresponded to the filling of a quantum shell of electrons. Larger atoms have more electron sub-shells, so later tables have required progressively longer periods.[92]

text: In 1945, Glenn Seaborg, an American scientist, made the suggestion that the actinide elements, like the lanthanides, were filling an f sub-level. Before this time the actinides were thought to be forming a fourth d-block row. Seaborg's colleagues advised him not to publish such a radical suggestion as it would most likely ruin his career. As Seaborg considered he did not then have a career to bring into disrepute, he published anyway. Seaborg's suggestion was found to be correct and he subsequently went on to win the 1951 Nobel Prize in chemistry for his work in synthesizing actinide elements.[93][94][n 8]

text: Although minute quantities of some transuranic elements occur naturally,[3] they were all first discovered in laboratories. Their production has expanded the periodic table significantly, the first of these being neptunium, synthesized in 1939.[95] Because many of the transuranic elements are highly unstable and decay quickly, they are challenging to detect and characterize when produced. There have been controversies concerning the acceptance of competing discovery claims for some elements, requiring independent review to determine which party has priority, and hence naming rights.[96] In 2010, a joint Russia–US collaboration at Dubna, Moscow Oblast, Russia, claimed to have synthesized six atoms of tennessine (element 117), making it the most recently claimed discovery. It, along with nihonium (element 113), moscovium (element 115), and oganesson (element 118), are the four most recently named elements, whose names all became official on 28 November 2016.[97]

text: Different periodic tables

text: The long- or 32-column table

text: The modern periodic table is sometimes expanded into its long or 32-column form by reinstating the footnoted f-block elements into their natural position between the s- and d-blocks. Unlike the 18-column form this arrangement results in "no interruptions in the sequence of increasing atomic numbers".[98] The relationship of the f-block to the other blocks of the periodic table also becomes easier to see.[99] Jensen advocates a form of table with 32 columns on the grounds that the lanthanides and actinides are otherwise relegated in the minds of students as dull, unimportant elements that can be quarantined and ignored.[100] Despite these advantages the 32-column form is generally avoided by editors on account of its undue rectangular ratio (compared to a book page ratio),[101] and the familiarity of chemists with the modern form (as introduced by Seaborg).[102]

text: Tables with different structures

text: Within 100 years of the appearance of Mendeleev's table in 1869 it has been estimated that around 700 different periodic table versions were published.[103] As well as numerous rectangular variations, other periodic table formats have been shaped, for example,[n 9] like a circle, cube, cylinder, building, spiral, lemniscate,[104] octagonal prism, pyramid, sphere, or triangle. Such alternatives are often developed to highlight or emphasize chemical or physical properties of the elements that are not as apparent in traditional periodic tables.[103]

text: A popular[105] alternative structure is that of Theodor Benfey (1960). The elements are arranged in a continuous spiral, with hydrogen at the centre and the transition metals, lanthanides, and actinides occupying peninsulas.[106]

text: Most periodic tables are two-dimensional;[3] three-dimensional tables are known to as far back as at least 1862 (pre-dating Mendeleev's two-dimensional table of 1869). More recent examples include Courtines' Periodic Classification (1925),[107] Wringley's Lamina System (1949),[108] Giguère's Periodic helix (1965)[109] and Dufour's Periodic Tree (1996).[110] Going one further, Stowe's Physicist's Periodic Table (1989)[111] has been described as being four-dimensional (having three spatial dimensions and one colour dimension).[112]

text: The various forms of periodic tables can be thought of as lying on a chemistry–physics continuum.[113] Towards the chemistry end of the continuum can be found, as an example, Rayner-Canham's "unruly"[114] Inorganic Chemist's Periodic Table (2002),[115] which emphasizes trends and patterns, and unusual chemical relationships and properties. Near the physics end of the continuum is Janet's Left-Step Periodic Table (1928). This has a structure that shows a closer connection to the order of electron-shell filling and, by association, quantum mechanics.[116] A somewhat similar approach has been taken by Alper,[117] albeit criticized by Eric Scerri as disregarding the need to display chemical and physical periodicity.[118] Somewhere in the middle of the continuum is the ubiquitous common or standard form of periodic table. This is regarded as better expressing empirical trends in physical state, electrical and thermal conductivity, and oxidation numbers, and other properties easily inferred from traditional techniques of the chemical laboratory.[119] Its popularity is thought to be a result of this layout having a good balance of features in terms of ease of construction and size, and its depiction of atomic order and periodic trends.[67][120]

text:
[hide]

v
t
e

Left-step periodic table (by Charles Janet)

f1
f2
f3
f4
f5
f6
f7
f8
f9
f10
f11
f12
f13
f14
d1
d2
d3
d4
d5
d6
d7
d8
d9
d10
p1
p2
p3
p4
p5
p6
s1
s2

1s

H
He

2s

Li
Be

2p 3s

B
C
N
O
F
Ne
Na
Mg

3p 4s

Al
Si
P
S
Cl
Ar
K
Ca

3d 4p 5s

Sc
Ti
V
Cr
Mn
Fe
Co
Ni
Cu
Zn
Ga
Ge
As
Se
Br
Kr
Rb
Sr

4d 5p 6s

Y
Zr
Nb
Mo
Tc
Ru
Rh
Pd
Ag
Cd
In
Sn
Sb
Te
 I
Xe
Cs
Ba

4f 5d 6p 7s
La
Ce
Pr
Nd
Pm
Sm
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Ho
Er
Tm
Yb
Lu
Hf
Ta
W
Re
Os
Ir
Pt
Au
Hg
Tl
Pb
Bi
Po
At
Rn
Fr
Ra

5f 6d 7p 8s
Ac
Th
Pa
U
Np
Pu
Am
Cm
Bk
Cf
Es
Fm
Md
No
Lr
Rf
Db
Sg
Bh
Hs
Mt
Ds
Rg
Cn
Nh
Fl
Mc
Lv
Ts
Og
119
120

f-block
d-block
p-block
s-block

This form of periodic table is more congruent with the order in which electron shells are ideally filled according to the Madelung rule, as shown in the accompanying sequence in the left margin (read from top to bottom, left to right). In reality, the filling of electron shells is characterized by a number of irregularities.

text: Open questions and controversies

text: Placement of hydrogen and helium

text: Simply following electron configurations, hydrogen (electronic configuration 1s1) and helium (1s2) should be placed in groups 1 and 2, above lithium ([He]2s1) and beryllium ([He]2s2).[24] Such placing is rarely used outside of the context of electron configurations: When the noble gases (then called "inert gases") were first discovered around 1900, they were known as "group 0", reflecting no chemical reactivity of these elements known at that point, and helium was placed on the top of that group, as it did share the extreme chemical inertness seen throughout the group. As the group changed its formal number, many authors continued to assign helium directly above neon, in group 18; one of the examples of such placing is the current IUPAC table.[121]

text: Hydrogen's chemical properties are not very close to those of the alkali metals, which occupy group 1. On this basis it is sometimes placed elsewhere. A common alternative is at the top of group 17[118] given hydrogen's strictly univalent and largely non-metallic chemistry, and the strictly univalent and non-metallic chemistry of fluorine (the element otherwise at the top of group 17). Sometimes, to show hydrogen has properties corresponding to both those of the alkali metals and the halogens, it is shown at the top of the two columns simultaneously.[122] Another suggestion is above carbon in group 14: placed that way, it fits well into the trends of increasing ionization potential values and electron affinity values, and is not too far from the electronegativity trend, even though hydrogen cannot show the tetravalence characteristic of the heavier group 14 elements.[123] Finally, hydrogen is sometimes placed separately from any group; this is based on how general properties of hydrogen differ from that of any group. The other period 1 element, helium, is sometimes placed separately from any group as well.[124] The property that distinguishes helium from the rest of the noble gases (even though the extraordinary inertness of helium is extremely close to that of neon and argon)[125] is that in its closed electron shell, helium has only two electrons in the outermost electron orbital, while the rest of the noble gases have eight.

text: Group 3 and its elements in periods 6 and 7

text: Although scandium and yttrium are always the first two elements in group 3, the identity of the next two elements is not completely settled. They are commonly lanthanum and actinium, and less often lutetium and lawrencium. The two variants originate from historical difficulties in placing the lanthanides in the periodic table, and arguments as to where the f block elements start and end.[126][n 10][n 11] It has been claimed that such arguments are proof that, "it is a mistake to break the [periodic] system into sharply delimited blocks".[128] A third variant shows the two positions below yttrium as being occupied by the lanthanides and the actinides.

text: Chemical and physical arguments have been made in support of lutetium and lawrencium[129][130] but the majority of authors seem unconvinced.[131] Most working chemists are not aware there is any controversy.[132] In December 2015 an IUPAC project was established to make a recommendation on the matter.[133]

text: Lanthanum and actinium

text: La and Ac below Y

text: Lanthanum and actinium are commonly depicted as the remaining group 3 members.[134][n 12] It has been suggested that this layout originated in the 1940s, with the appearance of periodic tables relying on the electron configurations of the elements and the notion of the differentiating electron. The configurations of caesium, barium and lanthanum are [Xe]6s1, [Xe]6s2 and [Xe]5d16s2. Lanthanum thus has a 5d differentiating electron and this establishes it "in group 3 as the first member of the d-block for period 6".[135] A consistent set of electron configurations is then seen in group 3: scandium [Ar]3d14s2, yttrium [Kr]4d15s2 and lanthanum [Xe]5d16s2. Still in period 6, ytterbium was assigned an electron configuration of [Xe]4f135d16s2 and lutetium [Xe]4f145d16s2, "resulting in a 4f differentiating electron for lutetium and firmly establishing it as the last member of the f-block for period 6".[135] Later spectroscopic work found that the electron configuration of ytterbium was in fact [Xe]4f146s2. This meant that ytterbium and lutetium—the latter with [Xe]4f145d16s2—both had 14 f-electrons, "resulting in a d- rather than an f- differentiating electron" for lutetium and making it an "equally valid candidate" with [Xe]5d16s2 lanthanum, for the group 3 periodic table position below yttrium.[135] Lanthanum has the advantage of incumbency since the 5d1 electron appears for the first time in its structure whereas it appears for the third time in lutetium, having also made a brief second appearance in gadolinium.[136]

text: In terms of chemical behaviour,[137] and trends going down group 3 for properties such as melting point, electronegativity and ionic radius,[138][139] scandium, yttrium, lanthanum and actinium are similar to their group 1–2 counterparts. In this variant, the number of f electrons in the most common (trivalent) ions of the f-block elements consistently matches their position in the f-block.[140] For example, the f-electron counts for the trivalent ions of the first three f-block elements are Ce 1, Pr 2 and Nd 3.[141]

text: Lutetium and lawrencium

text: Lu and Lr below Y

text: In other tables, lutetium and lawrencium are the remaining group 3 members.[n 13] Early techniques for chemically separating scandium, yttrium and lutetium relied on the fact that these elements occurred together in the so-called "yttrium group" whereas La and Ac occurred together in the "cerium group".[135] Accordingly, lutetium rather than lanthanum was assigned to group 3 by some chemists in the 1920s and 30s.[n 14] Several physicists in the 1950s and '60s favoured lutetium, in light of a comparison of several of its physical properties with those of lanthanum.[135] This arrangement, in which lanthanum is the first member of the f-block, is disputed by some authors since lanthanum lacks any f-electrons. It has been argued that this is not valid concern given other periodic table anomalies—thorium, for example, has no f-electrons yet is part of the f-block.[142] As for lawrencium, its gas phase atomic electron configuration was confirmed in 2015 as [Rn]5f147s27p1. Such a configuration represents another periodic table anomaly, regardless of whether lawrencium is located in the f-block or the d-block, as the only potentially applicable p-block position has been reserved for nihonium with its predicted configuration of [Rn]5f146d107s27p1.[143][n 15]

text: Chemically, scandium, yttrium and lutetium (and presumably lawrencium) behave like trivalent versions of the group 1–2 metals.[145] On the other hand, trends going down the group for properties such as melting point, electronegativity and ionic radius, are similar to those found among their group 4–8 counterparts.[135] In this variant, the number of f electrons in the gaseous forms of the f-block atoms usually matches their position in the f-block. For example, the f-electron counts for the first five f-block elements are La 0, Ce 1, Pr 3, Nd 4 and Pm 5.[135]

text: Lanthanides and actinides

text: Markers below Y

text: A few authors position all thirty lanthanides and actinides in the two positions below yttrium (usually via footnote markers). This variant emphasizes similarities in the chemistry of the 15 lanthanide elements (La–Lu), possibly at the expense of ambiguity as to which elements occupy the two group 3 positions below yttrium, and a 15-column wide f block (there can only be 14 elements in any row of the f block).[n 16]

text: Groups included in the transition metals

text: The definition of a transition metal, as given by IUPAC, is an element whose atom has an incomplete d sub-shell, or which can give rise to cations with an incomplete d sub-shell.[146] By this definition all of the elements in groups 3–11 are transition metals. The IUPAC definition therefore excludes group 12, comprising zinc, cadmium and mercury, from the transition metals category.

text: Some chemists treat the categories "d-block elements" and "transition metals" interchangeably, thereby including groups 3–12 among the transition metals. In this instance the group 12 elements are treated as a special case of transition metal in which the d electrons are not ordinarily involved in chemical bonding. The 2007 report of mercury(IV) fluoride (HgF4), a compound in which mercury would use its d electrons for bonding, has prompted some commentators to suggest that mercury can be regarded as a transition metal.[147] Other commentators, such as Jensen,[148] have argued that the formation of a compound like HgF4 can occur only under highly abnormal conditions; indeed, its existence is currently disputed. As such, mercury could not be regarded as a transition metal by any reasonable interpretation of the ordinary meaning of the term.[148]

text: Still other chemists further exclude the group 3 elements from the definition of a transition metal. They do so on the basis that the group 3 elements do not form any ions having a partially occupied d shell and do not therefore exhibit any properties characteristic of transition metal chemistry.[149] In this case, only groups 4–11 are regarded as transition metals. Though the group 3 elements show few of the characteristic chemical properties of the transition metals, they do show some of their characteristic physical properties (on account of the presence in each atom of a single d electron).[51]

text: Elements with unknown chemical properties

text: Although all elements up to oganesson have been discovered, of the elements above hassium (element 108), only copernicium (element 112), nihonium (element 113), and flerovium (element 114) have known chemical properties, and only for copernicium is there enough evidence for a conclusive categorisation at present. The other elements may behave differently from what would be predicted by extrapolation, due to relativistic effects; for example, flerovium has been predicted to possibly exhibit some noble-gas-like properties, even though it is currently placed in the carbon group.[150] More recent experiments have suggested that flerovium behaves chemically like lead, as expected from its periodic table position.[151]

text: Further periodic table extensions

text:
Hydrogen

Helium

Lithium
Beryllium

Boron
Carbon
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Fluorine
Neon

Sodium
Magnesium

Aluminium
Silicon
Phosphorus
Sulfur
Chlorine
Argon

Potassium
Calcium
Scandium

Titanium
Vanadium
Chromium
Manganese
Iron
Cobalt
Nickel
Copper
Zinc
Gallium
Germanium
Arsenic
Selenium
Bromine
Krypton

Rubidium
Strontium
Yttrium

Zirconium
Niobium
Molybdenum
Technetium
Ruthenium
Rhodium
Palladium
Silver
Cadmium
Indium
Tin
Antimony
Tellurium
Iodine
Xenon

Caesium
Barium
Lanthanum

Cerium
Praseodymium
Neodymium
Promethium
Samarium
Europium
Gadolinium
Terbium
Dysprosium
Holmium
Erbium
Thulium
Ytterbium
Lutetium
Hafnium
Tantalum
Tungsten
Rhenium
Osmium
Iridium
Platinum
Gold
Mercury (element)
Thallium
Lead
Bismuth
Polonium
Astatine
Radon

Francium
Radium
Actinium

Thorium
Protactinium
Uranium
Neptunium
Plutonium
Americium
Curium
Berkelium
Californium
Einsteinium
Fermium
Mendelevium
Nobelium
Lawrencium
Rutherfordium
Dubnium
Seaborgium
Bohrium
Hassium
Meitnerium
Darmstadtium
Roentgenium
Copernicium
Nihonium
Flerovium
Moscovium
Livermorium
Tennessine
Oganesson

Ununennium
Unbinilium
Unbiunium

Unquadquadium
Unquadpentium
Unquadhexium
Unquadseptium
Unquadoctium
Unquadennium
Unpentnilium
Unpentunium
Unpentbium
Unpenttrium
Unpentquadium
Unpentpentium
Unpenthexium
Unpentseptium
Unpentoctium
Unpentennium
Unhexnilium
Unhexunium
Unhexbium
Unhextrium
Unhexquadium
Unhexpentium
Unhexhexium
Unhexseptium
Unhexoctium
Unhexennium
Unseptnilium
Unseptunium
Unseptbium

Unbibium
Unbitrium
Unbiquadium
Unbipentium
Unbihexium
Unbiseptium
Unbioctium
Unbiennium
Untrinilium
Untriunium
Untribium
Untritrium
Untriquadium
Untripentium
Untrihexium
Untriseptium
Untrioctium
Untriennium
Unquadnilium
Unquadunium
Unquadbium
Unquadtrium

Periodic table with eight rows, extended to element 172[152]

text: It is unclear whether new elements will continue the pattern of the current periodic table as period 8, or require further adaptations or adjustments. Seaborg expected the eighth period to follow the previously established pattern exactly, so that it would include a two-element s-block for elements 119 and 120, a new g-block for the next 18 elements, and 30 additional elements continuing the current f-, d-, and p-blocks, culminating in element 168, the next noble gas.[153] More recently, physicists such as Pekka Pyykkö have theorized that these additional elements do not follow the Madelung rule, which predicts how electron shells are filled and thus affects the appearance of the present periodic table. There are currently several competing theoretical models for the placement of the elements of atomic number less than or equal to 172.[154]

text: Element with the highest possible atomic number

text: The number of possible elements is not known. A very early suggestion made by Elliot Adams in 1911, and based on the arrangement of elements in each horizontal periodic table row, was that elements of atomic weight greater than 256± (which would equate to between elements 99 and 100 in modern-day terms) did not exist.[155] A higher—more recent—estimate is that the periodic table may end soon after the island of stability,[156] which is expected to centre around element 126, as the extension of the periodic and nuclides tables is restricted by proton and neutron drip lines.[157] Other predictions of an end to the periodic table include at element 128 by John Emsley,[3] at element 137 by Richard Feynman,[158] and at element 155 by Albert Khazan.[3][n 17]

text: The Bohr model exhibits difficulty for atoms with atomic number greater than 137, as any element with an atomic number greater than 137 would require 1s electrons to be travelling faster than c, the speed of light.[159] Hence the non-relativistic Bohr model is inaccurate when applied to such an element.

text: The relativistic Dirac equation has problems for elements with more than 137 protons. For such elements, the wave function of the Dirac ground state is oscillatory rather than bound, and there is no gap between the positive and negative energy spectra, as in the Klein paradox.[160] More accurate calculations taking into account the effects of the finite size of the nucleus indicate that the binding energy first exceeds the limit for elements with more than 173 protons. For heavier elements, if the innermost orbital (1s) is not filled, the electric field of the nucleus will pull an electron out of the vacuum, resulting in the spontaneous emission of a positron;[161] This does not happen if the innermost orbital is filled, so that element 173 is not necessarily the end of the periodic table.[158]

text: Optimal form

text: The many different forms of periodic table have prompted the question of whether there is an optimal or definitive form of periodic table. The answer to this question is thought to depend on whether the chemical periodicity seen to occur among the elements has an underlying truth, effectively hard-wired into the universe, or if any such periodicity is instead the product of subjective human interpretation, contingent upon the circumstances, beliefs and predilections of human observers. An objective basis for chemical periodicity would settle the questions about the location of hydrogen and helium, and the composition of group 3. Such an underlying truth, if it exists, is thought to have not yet been discovered. In its absence, the many different forms of periodic table can be regarded as variations on the theme of chemical periodicity, each of which explores and emphasizes different aspects, properties, perspectives and relationships of and among the elements.[n 18]


document_title: To God Be the Glory

question_text: when was to god be the glory written

question_tokens: when was to god be the glory written

root

text: To God Be the Glory

text: This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: To God Be the Glory is a hymn with lyrics by Fanny Crosby[1] and tune by William Howard Doane, first published in 1875.

tag: p

text: It appears to have been written around 1872 but was first published in 1875 in Lowry and Doane's song collection, "Brightest and Best." It was already popular in Great Britain before publication. Ira Sankey had introduced it there during Moody's 1873-1874 evangelistic campaigns.[2] Despite this, the song failed to achieve wide usage in the United States and was included in very few hymnals. In 1954 Cliff Barrows, song leader for Billy Graham, was handed a copy with the suggestion that it be added to the song book for the London Crusade. It was so popular that he included it again later that year in the Crusade in Nashville, Tennessee. The audience responded enthusiastically and from that time on, he used it regularly. With this exposure, the song rapidly became familiar to a Christians worldwide and is included in most modern hymnals.[3]

text: Lyrics[edit]

text:
Stanza 1
To God be the glory, great things He hath done;
So loved He the world that He gave us His Son,
Who yielded His life an atonement for sin,
And opened the life gate that all may go in.

text:
Refrain
Praise the Lord, praise the Lord, Let the earth hear His voice! Praise the Lord, praise the Lord, Let the people rejoice! O come to the Father, through Jesus the Son, And give Him the glory, great things He hath done.

text:
Stanza 2
O perfect redemption, the purchase of blood,
To every believer the promise of God;
The vilest offender who truly believes,
That moment from Jesus a pardon receives.

text: (Refrain)

text:
Stanza 3
Great things He hath taught us, great things He hath done,
And great our rejoicing through Jesus the Son;
But purer, and higher, and greater will be
Our wonder, our rapture, when Jesus we see.

text: (Refrain)


document_title: World Trade Center station (PATH)

question_text: where is the oculus in new york city

question_tokens: where is the oculus in new york city

text: World Trade Center station (PATH)

text: Station layout[edit]

text:
G

Street level

Entrance/Exit to Vesey Street and Church Street

Entrance/Exit to the National September 11 Memorial & Museum

B1Upper Concourse[2]

Cortlandt Street–Greenwich Street southbound platform

Transfer to New York City Subway   trains (under construction)

Balcony

Elevators, escalators, and stairs to lower concourse

Westfield World Trade Center shops

West Concourse Balcony

Shops, passageway to Brookfield Place

Cortlandt Street–Church Street southbound platform

Transfer to New York City Subway    trains at Cortlandt Street–Church Street and to  train at World Trade Center

B2Lower Concourse[2]

Passageways

Transfer to New York City Subway (     trains at World Trade Center and         trains at Fulton Street)Transfer to    trains' northbound platform and   trains' southbound platform

Westfield World Trade Center

Shops, booths

B3Mezzanine[2]

West Concourse

Shops, passageway to Brookfield Place

Unpaid area

Fare control, MetroCard/SmartLink vending machines

Mezzanine

Elevators, escalators, and stairs to platforms

B4Platforms[2]

Track 1

←      HOB–WTC (rush hours only) toward Hoboken (Exchange Place)

Island platform (Platform A)

Track 2

←      HOB–WTC toward Hoboken (Exchange Place)

Island platform (Platform B)

Track 3

←      HOB–WTC toward Hoboken (Exchange Place)

Track 4

←      NWK–WTC toward Newark (Exchange Place)

Island platform (Platform C)

Track 5

←      NWK–WTC toward Newark (Exchange Place)

Side platform (Platform D)

text: The station has five tracks, three island platforms and one side platform in a basement four stories underground.[3]:S.10[2] Platform A, next to tracks 1 and 2, opened as part of the Transportation Hub on February 25, 2014.[4][5][6] Platform B between tracks 2 and 3 opened on May 7, 2015.[7] The other two platforms opened on September 8, 2016.[8]

text: Above the station, there are three mezzanine levels. The top two levels contain shops as part of the Westfield World Trade Center. The first mezzanine level below ground also contains the future Cortlandt Street–Greenwich Street station for the 1 and 2 trains and a direct entrance to the future northbound platform. A connection to the Cortlandt Street–Church Street station's southbound platform, for the N, R, and W trains, is located at the far east end of the mezzanine, past the mall's shops. The second mezzanine level contains the entrances to the station, as well as more connections to the subway. The third mezzanine level, located directly above the platform, contains the fare control and access to the platforms.[3]:S.10

text: Prior to reconstruction, station had a temporary entrance on Church Street, which opened along with the rest of the temporary station in November 2003.[9] With the redevelopment of the World Trade Center site, the entrances and size of the temporary station have changed over time. In 2007, the Church Street entrance was relocated to the south, and the old entrance was closed and demolished.[10] In April 2008, a third and final temporary entrance to the station was located at Vesey Street, facing Greenwich Street and adjacent to 7 World Trade Center. The temporary entrance was a one-story building on the south side of Vesey Street.[11] On March 3, 2016, the permanent PATH station building opened and the temporary entrance was closed.[12][13] The former temporary entrance was demolished later that year to make way for the Performing Arts Center.[14]

text: A connection to Brookfield Place opened on October 27, 2013, through a permanent passageway known as the West Concourse.[15][16]  On August 16, 2016, the Westfield World Trade Center entrance opened.[17][18]

text:
Fulton St to Cortlandt St subway cross-section

Greenwich St

WTCTransportationHub

Church St

Broadway

FultonCenter

Nassau St

William St

1

R / W

4 / 5

J / Z south

mezzanine

underpass

underpass

Dey Street Passageway

underpass

mezzanine

J / Z north

mezzanine

2 / 3

mezzanine

← A / C →

PATH

text: Hudson Terminal[edit]

text: Hudson Terminal was built by the Hudson and Manhattan Railroad at the turn of the twentieth century and was located between Greenwich, Cortlandt, Church, and Fulton Streets. The Hudson Terminal included two 22-story office buildings located above the station.[19]

text: The terminal was an architectural and engineering marvel of its time, designed with ramps to allow pedestrian traffic to flow in and out of the station quickly and easily.[20] The station was served by two single-track tubes connected by a loop to speed train movements. The loop included five tracks and 3 platforms (2 center island and one side) and was somewhat similar to the current arrangement.[21]:59–60 By 1914, passenger volume at the Hudson Terminal had reached 30,535,500 annually.[20] Volume nearly doubled by 1922, with 59,221,354 passengers that year.[22]

text: Overall ridership on New Jersey's Hudson and Manhattan Railroad declined substantially from a high of 113 million riders in 1927 to 26 million in 1958, after new automobile tunnels and bridges opened across the Hudson River.[21]:56 The State of New Jersey was interested in getting the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey to take over the railroad, but the Port Authority long viewed it as something unprofitable and had no interest in doing so. In the late 1950s, the Port Authority proposed to build a "world trade center" in Lower Manhattan along the East River.[23][24]

text: As a bi-state agency, Port Authority projects required approval from both the states of New Jersey and New York. Toward the end of 1961, negotiations with outgoing New Jersey Governor Robert B. Meyner regarding the World Trade Center project reached a stalemate. In December 1961, Port Authority executive director Austin J. Tobin met with newly elected New Jersey Governor Richard J. Hughes, and made a proposal to shift the World Trade Center project to the west side, where the Hudson Terminal was located.[25]

text: In acquiring the Hudson & Manhattan Railroad, the Port Authority also acquired the Hudson Terminal and other buildings which were deemed obsolete.[25] On January 22, 1962, the two states reached an agreement to allow the Port Authority to take over the railroad and build the World Trade Center on Manhattan's lower west side.[26]

text: Old PATH stations[edit]

text: Original PATH station[edit]

text: Groundbreaking on the World Trade Center took place in 1966. The site was on land fill, with bedrock located 65 metres (213 ft) below the surface.[27] A new method was used to construct a slurry wall to keep out water from the Hudson River. During excavation of the site and construction of the towers, the original Hudson Tubes remained in service as elevated tunnels.[28] The Hudson Terminal was shut down in 1971 when a new Port Authority Trans-Hudson, or PATH Railroad station was completed.[29] The new station cost $35 million to build. At the time, it had a passenger volume of 85,000 daily.[30]

text: The new PATH railroad station opened on July 6, 1971, and was at a different location from the original Hudson Terminal.[31] Larger balloon loops in the PATH station platform allowed 10-car trains; the previous station with its tight loops could handle only 6 linked cars.[29] While construction of the World Trade Center neared completion, a temporary corridor was provided to take passengers between the station and a temporary entrance on Church Street. When it opened, the station had nine high-speed escalators between the platform level and the mezzanine level.[30] The WTC PATH station was served by Newark–World Trade Center and Hoboken–World Trade Center trains. The station was connected to the World Trade Center towers via an underground concourse and a shopping center. There were also underground connections to the New York City Subway (A, C, and E trains at World Trade Center, and N, R, and W trains at Cortlandt Street). By 2001, the volume of passengers using the WTC PATH station was approximately 25,000 daily.[32]

text: The station did not sustain significant damage during the 1993 World Trade Center bombing, although a section of ceiling in the station collapsed and trapped dozens.[33][34] Within a week, the Port Authority was able to resume PATH service to the World Trade Center.[35]

text: On September 11, 2001, the station was shut down by the Port Authority after the first airplane hit the North Tower of the World Trade Center. In the minutes after the first plane hit at 8:46am, three PATH trains were pulling into the station. One was arriving from Newark and two others from Hoboken. The first Hoboken train turned around without stopping, not letting off passengers or opening any doors. The second Hoboken train arrived on track 3 at 8:52 a.m., was ordered to be evacuated, employees included. This train never left the World Trade Center complex and was found later in 2001 during the long recovery process. The train from Newark that came into the terminal at 8:55 a.m. stopped only to pick up passengers. An empty train was sent to the station at 9:10 a.m. to pick up a dozen PATH employees and a homeless individual, leaving the station empty.[36]

text: Temporary PATH station[edit]

text: With the station destroyed, service to Lower Manhattan was suspended for over two years. Exchange Place, the next station on the Newark–World Trade Center line, also had to be closed because it could not operate as a terminal station. Instead, two uptown services (Newark–33rd Street, red on the official PATH map; and Hoboken–33rd Street, blue on the map) and one intrastate New Jersey service (Hoboken–Journal Square, green on the map) were put into operation.[37] Cleanup of the Exchange Place station was needed after the attacks. In addition, the downtown Hudson tubes had been flooded, which destroyed the track infrastructure.[38] Modifications to the tracks were also required since the Exchange Place station was not a terminal station.[37] The uptown PATH tubes, ferry routes, and NJ Transit lines across the Hudson River could not handle the displaced ridership on their own, and it was deemed necessary to rebuild the World Trade Center terminal.[3]:S.3 After the reconfiguration of the Exchange Place station was completed, it was reopened to PATH trains on June 29, 2003. The setup was temporary: passengers at Exchange Place would transfer to ferries to Lower Manhattan until the World Trade Center station could be reopened later that year.[39]

text: PATH service to Lower Manhattan was restored when a temporary station opened on November 23, 2003.[9] The inaugural train was the same one that had been used for the evacuation.[40] The temporary PATH station was designed by Port Authority chief architect Robert I. Davidson[41] and constructed at a cost of $323 million.[9] It was located at the same place as the original station.[3]:S.4 The station featured a canopy entrance along Church Street and a 118-by-12 foot mosaic mural, "Iridescent Lightning," by Giulio Candussio[41] of the Scuola Mosaicisti del Friuli in Spilimbergo, Italy. The station was also adorned with opaque panel walls inscribed with inspirational quotes attesting to the greatness and resilience of New York City. These panels partially shielded the World Trade Center site from view.[42]

text: In the 9/11 attacks, some sections of the station, including the passageway and the signage on the northeast corner, were only lightly damaged in the collapse of the World Trade Center. These sections of the station were retained in the temporary station, and remained in the new station.[43][44] Following its reopening and the resumption of Newark–World Trade Center and Hoboken–World Trade Center services, the station quickly reclaimed its status as the busiest station in the PATH system.[45] However, it had several limitations. The temporary station had 8-car-long platforms, whereas the original station had 10-car-long platforms. The station frame was also not strong enough to support development above it, and parts of the station were located outdoors in the "bathtub".[3]:S.4 The temporary station had only one entrance, at Church Street, and disabled patrons needed to take four elevators to go from street level to platform level.[3]:S.5

text: The station was also home to a Storycorps booth, which opened in 2005. Through this program, visitors could arrange to give oral recorded histories of the disaster.[46] The booth closed in the spring of 2007 to make way for construction at the World Trade Center site.[47] In June 2007, the street entrance to the temporary station was closed and demolished as part of the site construction. A set of new staircases was constructed several feet to the south, and a "tent" structure was added to provide cover from the elements.[10] The tent structure, by Voorsanger Architects and installed at a cost of $275,000, was designed to have an "aspiring quality," according to architect Bartholomew Voorsanger.[48] That entrance on Church Street was closed in April 2008 when the entrance was relocated once again. On April 1, 2008, the third temporary entrance to the PATH station opened for commuters. The entrance was located on Vesey Street, adjacent to 7 World Trade Center, and served until the opening of the permanent station, designed by Calatrava,[11] and also to make way for the then-proposed Performing Arts Center.[49]

text: World Trade Center Transportation Hub[edit]

text: The World Trade Center Transportation Hub is the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey's formal name for the new PATH station and the associated transit and retail complex that opened on March 3, 2016.[12][13] The station's renaming took place when the station reopened.[50][51] It was designed by Spanish architect Santiago Calatrava and composed of a train station with a large and open mezzanine under the National September 11 Memorial plaza.[52] This mezzanine is connected to an aboveground head house structure called the Oculus—located between 2 World Trade Center and 3 World Trade Center—as well as to public concourses under the various towers in the World Trade Center complex.[51]

text: In addition, the station was designed to connect the PATH to the New York City Subway system, and to facilitate a below ground east-west passageway that connects to the various modes of transportation in Lower Manhattan, from the Fulton Center to the Battery Park City Ferry Terminal. Furthermore, to replace the lost retail space from the original mall at the World Trade Center, significant portions of the Hub are devoted to the new 365,000 square feet (33,900 m2) Westfield World Trade Center mall.[53]

text: Background[edit]

text: After the September 11 attacks, officials proposed a $7 billion redesign of transit in Lower Manhattan. This included a new PATH terminal, the Fulton Center, the South Ferry/Whitehall Street terminal further downtown, and the reconstruction of the West Side Highway.[3]:S.5[54] Other development projects to restart Lower Manhattan's economy were also proposed, and a new PATH terminal was seen as instrumental in making this happen.[3]:S.5 In August 2002, the U.S. government allocated $4.5 billion to build a terminal linking the subway and PATH stations at the World Trade Center site.[55] Four locations were considered,[3]:S.8  and it was ultimately decided to build the new terminal four levels underground, along the base of the World Trade Center "bathtub".[3]:S.11

text: A large transit station was not part of the 2003 Memory Foundations master plan for the site by Daniel Libeskind, which called for a smaller station along the lines of the original subterranean station that existed beneath the World Trade Center. Libeskind's design proposed that the current station house's site be left as an open plaza, forming a "Wedge of Light" so that sun rays around the autumnal equinox would hit the World Trade Center footprints each September.[56][57][58] The plaza would have included a wedge whose lines showed the sun's rays at 8:46 a.m. and 10:28 a.m. on September 11 of each year. These times respectively represented when American Airlines Flight 11 crashed into the North Tower, and when the South Tower fell.[59][58]

text: Redesign[edit]

text: In early 2004, the Port Authority, which owns the land, modified the Libeskind plan to include a large transportation station downtown, intended to rival Penn Station and Grand Central Terminal.[60] Calatrava was hired as the architect for this new, $2 billion design, and he revealed his plan in January 2004.[58][59] Calatrava's design called for an above-ground station house (now the Oculus) with curved supports that extended outward, like wings. These wings would run the length of the concourse, which would run from Church Street in the east to the PATH station under Greenwich Street in the west. The building itself would be located on its own block, bounded clockwise from the north by Fulton, Church, Dey, and Greenwich Streets.[59]

text: A skylight would run the length of the station building.[59] The roof was originally designed to mechanically open to increase light and ventilation to the enclosed space.  In a nod to the Libeskind concept, the Oculus was built to maximize the effect of the autumnal equinox rays (coinciding with the skylight opening on or around September 11 every year).[61] If needed, the skylight could also be manually opened to provide air ventilation.[59]

text: As outlined in the reconstruction plan, the new terminal would be rebuilt in several stages. The first phase would include the construction of a temporary northern entrance, which would be open between 2005 and 2006. The second phase would entail the construction of an East-West Concourse under the West Side Highway, connecting to the World Financial Center (now Brookfield Place). The third phase would include temporary structural underpinning for a temporary platform and track, as well as the construction of Platform D, the first permanent platform. The fourth phase would consist of the lengthening of the other three platforms, expansion of the mezzanine, and structural completion, while the fifth phase would include the construction of the station house. The complex would be completed by 2009 or 2010 under this plan.[3]:S.14–S.15

text: Calatrava said that the Oculus resembles "a bird being released from a child's hand".[62] Herbert Muschamp, architecture critic of The New York Times, compared the design to the Bethesda Terrace and Fountain in Central Park, and wrote in 2004:

text: Santiago Calatrava's design for the World Trade Center PATH station should satisfy those who believe that buildings planned for ground zero must aspire to a spiritual dimension. Over the years, many people have discerned a metaphysical element in Mr. Calatrava's work. I hope New Yorkers will detect its presence, too. With deep appreciation, I congratulate the Port Authority for commissioning Mr. Calatrava, the great Spanish architect and engineer, to design a building with the power to shape the future of New York. It is a pleasure to report, for once, that public officials are not overstating the case when they describe a design as breathtaking.[63]

text: Another New York Times critic, Michael Kimmelman, wrote later in 2004:

text:
“

The World Trade Center PATH Terminal by Santiago Calatrava, the renowned Spanish architect and engineer, is what we should have at ground zero. Not modified suburban malls with water fountains, but a major cultural contribution to our city.[64]

”

text: However, Calatrava's original soaring spike design was scaled back because of security issues. The New York Times observed in 2005 that the "bird has grown a beak". Because of the new security features, the station might "now evoke a slender stegosaurus more than it does a bird".[65] The design was further modified in 2008 to eliminate the opening and closing roof mechanism because of budget and space constraints.[66]

text: In 2014, a writer for The Atlantic's CityLab criticized the emphasis placed on form over function, citing design flaws driven by aesthetic choices that detract from the station's usability as a transit hub:

text: ...the Port Authority's new hub fails its customers, the PATH-riding public. One platform is already completed, and its design flaws are obvious. Staircases are too narrow to accommodate the morning crowds who come streaming out of the trains from Hoboken, Jersey City, and beyond, while the narrow platforms quickly fill with irate commuters. Anyone trying to catch a train back to the Garden State risks a stampede. The marble, bright and sterile, picks up any spill, and a drop of water creates dangerously slippery conditions until a Port Authority janitor scurries out of some unseen door, mop in hand. Passenger flow and comfort, two of the most important elements of terminal design, seem to be an afterthought. The PATH Hub is shaping up to be an example of design divorced from purpose.

text: Steve Cuozzo of the New York Post described the station in 2014 as it was being built as "a self-indulgent monstrosity" and "a hideous waste of public money".[68] Michael Kimmelman, architecture critic for The New York Times, referred to the structure as "a kitsch stegosaurus".[69] New York magazine referred to it in 2015 as it neared completion as a "Glorious Boondoggle" and, while withholding final judgement on the unfinished structure, did note the "Jurassic" appearance.[60] The New York Post editorial board also described the station when it opened in 2016 as the "world's most obscenely overpriced commuter rail station — and possibly its ugliest", deeming the transit hub a "white elephant" and "monstrosity", comparing the Oculus to a "giant gray-white space insect".[70]

text: Before the redesign, the station design had received critical acclaim.[71] One writer for Curbed NY stated, "The platform's mezzanine level ... is kind of amazing and shows off the station's soaring ribbed structure."[72] A committee for Manhattan Community Board 1 called the station "beautiful."[73]

text: West Concourse[edit]

text: The West Street pedestrian underpass (the West Concourse, formerly the "east-west connector") links the WTC station mezzanine with Brookfield Place in Battery Park City, on the west side of the World Trade Center site. It opened on October 23, 2013.[74][75] Access to One World Trade Center from the West Concourse became possible for employees when the tower opened on November 3, 2014.[76] On May 29, 2015, the same day the tower's observatory opened, the entrance to the observation deck opened.[77]

text: Construction[edit]

text: Construction of the Oculus called for relocation of the landmark World Trade Center cross in April 2006.[78] However, the Oculus's construction did not begin in earnest until July 8, 2008, when the first prefabricated "ribs" for the pedestrian walkway under Fulton Street were installed on the site.[79] The mezzanine level of the station was undergoing major construction and work on the foundation was underway.[80] By March 2011, over 225 of the 300 steel pieces that make up the roof of the station were installed.[81] Later that month installation of the Vierendeel Truss, one of the hub's key components, began with the installation of a 50 short tons (45 long tons) section of the 271-short-ton (242-long-ton) truss. The truss serves as the mezzanine roof and also acts as a support for the northeast corner of the WTC Memorial.[82]

text: The Oculus's $542 million construction contract was awarded to Skanska in summer 2010. The project included steel erection for the substructure; construction connecting to Vehicle Security Center complex; the Greenwich Street corridor and the steel and concrete placing under the 1 train's subway box; and preparations for installation of east arch truss.[83] By June 2013, 10 pieces of exterior arches were installed for the Oculus. The initial construction was expected to conclude in the end of 2014 or beginning of 2015, and the internal construction including paint, turnstiles, ticket booths, etc. was expected to complete in the end of 2015, with an official opening scheduled on December 17, 2015.[84] On October 23, 2013, the West Concourse opened with access to the World Financial Center, now renamed the Brookfield Place. The storefronts were covered and not yet opened, and the second floor was still closed for construction of One World Trade Center.[15][16]

text: On February 25, 2014, half of the first platform of the new station, Platform A, was opened to the public with service to Hoboken. The new platform, an island platform, was fully modernized and contains new lighting, speakers, illuminated signs, escalators and elevators. The west side of the platform was walled off at the time.[5][16] On November 3, One World Trade Center opened, as did the PATH entrance from that building.[76][85] Eight days later, the Fulton Center and Dey Street Concourse opened to the public. The Dey Street Concourse entrance into the Transportation Hub was closed until the Hub opened.[86] On November 22, the last of 114 rafters was installed. Also by this date, one crane had been disassembled and painting of the hub continued.[87][16]

text: On May 7, 2015, Platform B and the remaining half of Platform A opened, and Platform C closed.[7][16] A few weeks later on May 29, the entrance to the observation deck in the West Concourse was opened on the same day One World Observatory also opened.[77] In late September, the temporary new West Walkway opened with access from the platforms to the West Concourse.[88]

text: Cost and delays[edit]

text: The Transportation Hub has been dubbed "the world's most expensive transportation hub" for its massive cost for reconstruction—$3.74 billion dollars.[68][89] By contrast, the proposed two-mile PATH extension connecting Newark Liberty International Airport to the NWK-WTC service is projected to cost $1.5 billion.[90] The hub has also been criticized for being delayed almost 10 years.[91] However, even in inception, the hub was projected to cost almost $2 billion. The high cost for a single station is attributed to the extravagant design, which stems from the PA needing to convince the government of New Jersey to pay for a project situated entirely in New York.[71]

text: Originally, the reconstruction was to be funded by the Federal Transit Administration, which gave approximately $1.9 billion to the project. The costs of the hub were still expensive, but it was to be finished at budget in 2009. In 2014 dollars, the cost of the hub and the adjacent Fulton Center, combined, was $5.1 billion.[92] The hub cost twice as much in 2014 as it should have originally cost in 2004.[91] A single hallway in the elegantly constructed hub cost $225 million and was billed as the "world's most expensive hallway",[93] while construction, maintenance, and management alone cost $635 million; the Port Authority awarded several subcontracts, most of them costly.[91] The fees of the main construction team took up almost a billion dollars, and utility installation around the entire World Trade Center site cost another $400 million.[94] Over $500 million in cost savings was overlooked.[91]

text: The design was costly, with Calatrava netting $80 million in design fees[95][94] and the overall architectural design being another $405.8 million.[94] Speeding up the pace of construction also contributed to the higher cost, with $100 million dedicated to building the National September 11 Memorial & Museum and another $24 million to speed up delivery of construction materials.[94] The price of the station was further driven up by Calatrava's architectural decisions.[a]  He wanted to import custom-made steel from a northern Italian factory, which cost $474 million, and have a columnless, aesthetically based design; skylights in the ground, instead of trees;[b] and large, soaring "wings", or rafters.[91] Another $335 million was added to the cost overrun because the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey had to build around the New York City Subway's IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line (carrying the 1 and 2 trains), since the Metropolitan Transportation Authority refused to close the line for fear of inconveniencing commuters from Staten Island taking the Staten Island Ferry. The line had to be supported on a bridge over the station instead of on columns through the station.[91] In 2012, Hurricane Sandy damaged several hundred million dollars worth of materials.[91] Some of the additional cost and delay was due to additions and modifications to the original plan by the Port Authority. Calatrava's original entry pavilion was scaled back for security reasons, for instance.[66]

text: The hub's skyrocketing costs also attracted much controversy, with an editor at The New York Times saying that "Mr. Calatrava is amassing an unusually long list of projects marred by cost overruns, delays and litigation", referring to his other projects around the world that were over budget.[96] Especially because the current station has a ridership of only 46,000 daily passengers compared to 250,000 at Grand Central Terminal), the renovation is sometimes depicted as overpriced and overstylized.[91] In fact, one Esquire magazine writer stated that the hub's massive expense was in spite of the fact that operating the PATH itself was a waste of money for the Port Authority.[71][c]

text: On November 5, 2015, the opening was delayed to early 2016 by a leaking roof.[98] When the hub actually opened, the director of the Port Authority, Pat Foye, declined to hold an event to celebrate the opening of the Hub, describing it as "symbol of excess" and noting he was "troubled with the huge cost" of the construction project.[99]

text: Opening[edit]

text: On March 3, 2016, the Oculus partially opened to the public, along with new entrances. Only the west end of the Oculus and the Westfield Mall corridor to Four World Trade Center was opened.[12][13][100] Two months later, on May 26, 2016, PATH riders received a direct underground link to Fulton Center and Cortlandt Street through the Oculus.[101] The PATH entrance into 2 World Trade Center opened on June 21, 2016, and the temporary PATH entrance to outside 7 World Trade Center closed five days later.[102][16] Yet another entrance opened to the public when the Westfield World Trade Center mall was opened on August 16.[17][18] On September 8, 2016, the restrooms were opened on the south side of the mezzanine. The last two station platforms in the hub, Platforms C and D, were also opened, as was the permanent West Concourse walkway.[8][16] On December 19, the direct underground link to the New York City Subway's World Trade Center station, at the northeast corner of the complex, reopened.[103][43]

text: On October 13, 2016, the first birth inside the Oculus occurred.[104] A woman was walking through the station with her husband when she went into labor, eventually giving birth on the floor of the station.[105] (Another woman had previously given birth inside the old PATH station in August 2015.[106]) A few months later, on February 11, 2017, the first death inside the Oculus also occurred.[107] A woman from New Jersey fell to her death from the escalator. News reports initially said that she was trying to retrieve a hat dropped by her sister, but lost her balance and fell;[108] it was later revealed that the woman "was pretending to be flying" while lying on the escalator's handrail.[109] After the woman's death, there was some focus on the height of the 3-foot-4-inch (1.02 m) handrails, and how they could pose a safety risk.[109]

text: Adjacent transit connections[edit]

text:
[hide][ vte ]Lower Manhattan transit

Legend

( 4   5   6   <6> ) Brooklyn Bridge–City Hall

Chambers Street ( J   Z )

( 1   2   3 ) Chambers Street

City Hall ( R   W )

( A   C ) Chambers Street

World Trade Center ( E )

( 2   3 ) Park Place

( 1 ) Cortlandt Street

Cortlandt Street ( R   W )

( HOB   NWK ) World Trade Center

Fulton Street/Transit Center ( 2   3   4   5   A   C   J   Z )

( 1 ) Rector Street

Rector Street ( R   W )

( 4   5 ) Wall Street

Wall Street ( 2   3 )

( 4   5 ) Bowling Green

Broad Street ( J   Z )

( 1 ) South Ferry

Whitehall Street ( R   W )

Whitehall Ferry Terminal

South Ferry loops

text: The Transportation Hub is designed to connect the PATH subway system to the New York City Subway system. The 1 and 2 services, which runs through the Transportation Hub, was reconstructed under this project to run above the PATH mezzanine, and the rebuilt Cortlandt Street IRT station will have direct access into the Hub. There is also a direct access to the Chambers Street–World Trade Center/Park Place station complex.[110] The Cortlandt Street BMT station also has direct access into the Hub. In addition, the Dey Street Passageway along Dey Street connects the Transportation Hub east to the Fulton Center, providing access to the 2, 3, 4, 5, A, C, J, Z, N, R, and W services. A passageway, known as the West Concourse, connects west to Brookfield Place and the Battery Park City Ferry Terminal.[111]

text: A proposal for a connection to the Long Island Rail Road and John F. Kennedy International Airport via a new tunnel under the East River, the Lower Manhattan-Jamaica/JFK Transportation Project, was studied starting in 2004, but as of 2009 was a lower priority than other projects competing for funding.[112]

text: Current services include:

text:
Station service legend

Stops all times

Stops all times except late nights

Stops late nights only

Stops weekdays only

Stops rush hours in the peak direction only

Time period details

Station is compliant with the Americans with Disabilities Act

 ↑

Station is compliant with the Americans with Disabilities Actin the indicated direction only

 ↓

Elevator access to mezzanine only

text:
Services
Line
Station

      2       3
IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line
Park Place

      A       C
IND Eighth Avenue Line
Chambers Street

      E
IND Eighth Avenue Line
World Trade Center

      N       R       W
BMT Broadway Line
Cortlandt Street

text: The Fulton Street station complex (where the Fulton Center opened in November 2014) is two blocks away to the east and is fully compliant with the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. It features the following services:

text:
Services
Line

      2       3
IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line

      4       5
IRT Lexington Avenue Line

      A       C
IND Eighth Avenue Line

      J       Z
BMT Nassau Street Line

text: At the northeast end of the station is the exit to the World Trade Center station of the New York City Subway. The doors and original ADA-accessible ramp, as well as the structure from the first World Trade Center leading into the station, survived the September 11 attacks.[43] The station itself was not damaged, but it was covered by dust and was subsequently closed.[44] The passageway reopened for a while to provide an ADA-connection from the temporary PATH station to the New York City Subway station, but was closed again when the temporary PATH station closed for a reconstruction.[44] The passageway was then covered in plywood for preservation purposes.[103] The renovated entrance, leading to the New York City Subway station from the Oculus headhouse and the Westfield World Trade Center, opened on December 19, 2016.[43][44] The newly reopened passageway retained its pre-9/11 design, save for a door on display that has the words "MATF 1 / 9 13" spray-painted on it (a message from Urban Search and Rescue Massachusetts Task Force 1 of Beverly, Massachusetts, who searched the World Trade Center site on September 13, 2001). There is a plaque above the spray-painting, explaining the message on the door.[103] PATH was required to preserve the passageway's original design as per Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act, as a condition for getting funding to construct the Oculus and new stations. The passageway was not made ADA-accessible again until 2017, as there are twenty-six steps down from the mezzanine to the Oculus headhouse's lobby.[103]

text: The M55 New York City Bus route runs northbound on Church Street and 6th Avenue to Midtown, and southbound to South Ferry on Broadway.[113]

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ According to The New York Times: Suggestions from independent engineers and architects that the Oculus be even smaller [were rebuffed.] ... Calatrava and his partners said that the impact and utility of the Oculus would be diminished if it were shrunken further, that the temporary station did not meet requirements for circulation of air and pedestrians, and that columns would interrupt visitors’ movement and provide a potential target for bombers.[91]

Jump up ^ The Bloomberg administration later chose to add trees instead of skylights, since the station was close to the National September 11 Memorial & Museum. This required the mezzanine's roof to be redesigned to hold a heavier weight, which was also costly.[91]

Jump up ^ In 2009–2013, the Port Authority lost $2 billion in revenue by operating the PATH, equating to an almost $400-million loss in annual revenue if the Port Authority operates the PATH.[97]

tag: ol