document_title: Reba McEntire

question_text: when did reba mcentire record back to god

question_tokens: when did reba mcentire record back to god

text: Reba McEntire

text: Early life[edit]

text: Reba Nell McEntire was born March 28, 1955, in McAlester, Oklahoma, to Jacqueline (née Smith; born November 6, 1926) and Clark Vincent McEntire (November 30, 1927 – October 23, 2014[5]).[4]

text: Her father, and her grandfather, John Wesley McEntire (February 19, 1897 – February 13, 1976), were both champion steer ropers and her father was a World Champion Steer Roper three times (1957, 1958, and 1961). John McEntire was the son of Clark Stephen McEntire (September 10, 1855 – August 15, 1935) and Helen Florida McEntire (née Brown; May 19, 1868 – May 16, 1947). Her mother had once wanted to be a country-music artist but eventually decided to become a schoolteacher, but she did teach her children how to sing. Reba reportedly taught herself how to play the guitar. On car rides home from their father's rodeo shows, the McEntire siblings learned songs and harmonies from their mother, eventually forming a vocal group called the "Singing McEntires" with her brother, Pake, and her younger sister Susie (her older sister Alice did not participate). Reba played guitar in the group and wrote all the songs. The group sang at rodeos and recorded "The Ballad of John McEntire" together. Released on the indie label Boss, the song pressed one thousand copies.[4]

text: In 1974, McEntire attended Southeastern Oklahoma State University planning to be an elementary school teacher (eventually graduating December 16, 1976[4]). While not attending school, she also continued to sing locally. That same year she was hired to perform the national anthem at the National Rodeo in Oklahoma City. Country artist Red Steagall, who was also performing that day, was impressed by her vocal ability and agreed to help her launch a country-music career in Nashville, Tennessee. After recording a demo tape, she signed a recording contract with Mercury Records in 1975.[6]

text: Music career[edit]

text: 1976–83: Career launch at Mercury[edit]

text: McEntire made her first recordings for Mercury on January 22, 1976, when she released her debut single. Upon its release that year, "I Don't Want to Be a One Night Stand" failed to become a major hit on the Billboard country music chart, peaking at number 88 in May.[7] She completed her second recording session September 16, which included the production of her second single, "(There's Nothing Like The Love) Between a Woman and Man", which reached only number 86 in March 1977. She recorded a third single that April, "Glad I Waited Just for You", which reached number 88 by August. That same month, Mercury issued her self-titled debut album.[4] The album was a departure from any of McEntire's future releases, as it resembled the material of Tanya Tucker and Tammy Wynette, according to AllMusic reviewer Greg Adams.[8] The album itself did not chart the Billboard Top Country Albums chart upon its release.[4][6] After releasing two singles with Jacky Ward ("Three Sheets in the Wind" b/w "I'd Really Love to See You Tonight"; and "That Makes Two of Us" at No. 20 and No. 26, respectively[7]), Mercury issued her second studio album in 1979, Out of a Dream. The album's cover of Patsy Cline's "Sweet Dreams" became McEntire's first Top 20 hit, reaching No. 19 on the Billboard country chart in November 1979.[4][7]

text: In 1980, "You Lift Me Up (To Heaven)" brought her to the Top 10 for the first time.[9] Her third studio album, Feel the Fire was released in October and spawned two additional Top 20 hit singles that year.[4] In September 1981, McEntire's fourth album, Heart to Heart was issued and became her first album to chart the Billboard Top Country Albums list, peaking at No. 2. Its lead single, "Today All Over Again" became a top five country hit.[4] The album received mainly negative reviews from critics. William Ruhlmann of AllMusic gave it two-and-a-half out of five stars, stating she did not get creative control of her music. Ruhlmann called "There Ain't No Love" "essentially a soft pop ballad".[10] Most of the album's material consisted of mainly country pop-styled ballads, which was not well liked by McEntire herself.[6] Her fifth album, Unlimited was issued in June 1982, and spawned her first Billboard number one single in early 1983: "Can't Even Get the Blues" and "You're the First Time I've Thought About Leaving".[7] The following year her sixth album, Behind the Scene was released and was positively received by music critics. In 1983, McEntire announced her departure from Mercury, criticizing the label's country pop production styles.[4]

text: 1984–90: Breakthrough[edit]

text: McEntire signed with MCA Nashville Records in 1984 and released her seventh studio album, Just a Little Love. Harold Shedd was originally the album's producer; however, McEntire rejected his suggestions towards country pop arrangements. It was instead produced by Norro Wilson, although the album still had a distinguishable country pop sound.[6] Dissatisfied with the album's sound, she went to MCA president, Jimmy Bowen, who told McEntire to find material that was best-suited to her liking. Instead of finding new material, she found previously recorded country hits from her own record collection, which was then recorded for the album. The album's material included songs originally released as singles by Ray Price ("Don't You Believe Her", "I Want to Hear It from You"), Carl Smith ("Before I Met You"), Faron Young ("He's Only Everything") and Connie Smith ("You've Got Me [Right Where You Want Me"]).[11] The album spawned two number-one singles: "How Blue" and "Somebody Should Leave". It was given positive reviews from critics, with Billboard praising McEntire as "the finest woman country singer since Kitty Wells" and Rolling Stone critics honoring her as one of their Top 5 favorite country artists. Upon its release, My Kind of Country became her highest-peaking album on the Top Country Albums chart, reaching No. 13. The album also included instruments such as a fiddle and pedal steel guitar, and was aimed more towards a traditional country sound. McEntire was later praised as a "new traditionalist", along with Ricky Skaggs, George Strait, and Randy Travis. That year, she won the Country Music Association Awards' Female Vocalist of the Year, her first major industry award. The album was certified Gold.[4][11]

text: In 1985, McEntire released her third MCA album, Have I Got a Deal for You, which followed the same traditional format as My Kind of Country.[12] It was the first album produced by McEntire and was co-produced with Jimmy Bowen. Like her previous release, the album received positive feedback, including Rolling Stone, which called it a "promising debut". The album's second single, "Only in My Mind" was entirely written by McEntire and reached No. 5 on the Billboard country chart. On January 17, 1986, McEntire became a member of the Grand Ole Opry in Nashville, Tennessee, and has been a member ever since.[13] In February 1986, McEntire's ninth studio album, Whoever's in New England was released. For this album, McEntire and co-producer Jimmy Bowen incorporated her traditional music style into a mainstream sound that was entirely different from anything she had previously recorded. Country Music: The Rough Guide called the production of the title track, "bigger and sentimentalism more obvious, even manipulative".[6] The title track peaked at No. 1 on the Billboard Country Chart and won her a Grammy Award for Best Female Country Vocal Performance the following year.[7] In addition, the album became McEntire's first release to certify gold in sales by the Recording Industry Association of America (and was later certified Platinum). At the end of the year, McEntire won Entertainer of the Year from the Country Music Association, the highest honor in the awards show.[6]

text: McEntire released a second album in 1986 (her tenth overall), What Am I Gonna Do About You. Allmusic critic William Ruhlmann was not overly pleased with album's production, saying that it lacked the features that had been set forth on Whoever's in New England. Rulhlmann criticized the title track for "something of the feel of 'Whoever's in New England' in its portrayal of a woman trying to recover from a painfully ended love affair".[14] The title track was the lead single from the release and became a number-one single shortly after its release.[7] This album also spawned a second number-one in "One Promise Too Late". The following year, her first MCA compilation, Greatest Hits was released and became her first album to be certified platinum in sales, eventually certifying triple-platinum.[4] A twelfth studio album, The Last One to Know, was released in 1987. The emotions of her divorce from husband, Charlie Battles, were put into the album's material, according to McEntire. The title track from the release was a number-one single in 1987 and the second single, "Love Will Find Its Way to You", also reached the top spot. In late 1987, McEntire released her first Christmas collection, Merry Christmas to You, which sold two million copies in the United States, certifying double Platinum.[9] The album included cover versions of "Away in a Manger", "Silent Night", and Grandpa Jones's "The Christmas Guest".[15]

text: Her thirteenth album, Reba, was issued in 1988 and was not well received by critics, who claimed she was moving farther away from her "traditional country" sound. Stereo Review disliked the album's contemporary style, stating, "After years of insisting that she'd stick to hard-core country 'because I have tried the contemporary-type songs, and it's not Reba McEntire—it's just not honest', McEntire...has gone whole-hog pop. The album peaked at No. 1 on the Top Country Albums chart and remained there for six consecutive weeks. Okay, so maybe that's not so terrible." Although it was reviewed poorly, the album itself was certified platinum in sales and produced two number-one singles: "I Know How He Feels" and "New Fool at an Old Game".[7] In addition, the release's cover version of Jo Stafford's "A Sunday Kind of Love" became a Top 5 hit on the Billboard country music chart.[16] Also in 1988, McEntire founded Starstruck Entertainment, which controlled her management, booking, publishing, promotion, publicity, accounting, ticket sales, and fan club administration. The company would eventually expand into managing a horse farm, jet charter service, trucking, construction, and book publishing.

text: McEntire's fourteenth studio album, Sweet Sixteen, was released in May 1989; it spent sixteen weeks at No. 1 on the Billboard Top Country Albums chart, while also becoming her first album to peak in the top 100 on the Billboard 200, reaching No. 78. The album was given positive reviews because unlike her previous studio album, the release, "welcomes the fiddles and steel guitars back as she returns to the neo-traditionalist fold", according to Allmusic, which gave the release four-and-a-half out of five stars. Reviewer William Ruhlmann found Sweet Sixteen to "double back to a formula that worked for her in the past". The lead single was a cover of The Everly Brothers' "Cathy's Clown", with McEntire's version reaching No. 1 in July on the Billboard country music chart. Three more Top 10 hits followed from Sweet Sixteen: "Till Love Comes Again", "Little Girl", and "Walk On", at No. 4, 7 and 2, respectively.[7] In September she released Reba Live, her first live album, which originally certified gold but certified platinum ten years later.[17][4]

text: Sixteen months after the release of Sweet Sixteen and after giving birth to her son, McEntire transitioned into 1990 with the release of Rumor Has It. The album's "sound and production were almost entirely pop-oriented", according to Kurt Wolff of Country Music: The Rough Guide.[6] Although Rumor Has It was an attempt to receive critical praise, many reviewers found the album to be "predictable". Stereo Review mainly found the recording displeasing in some places, but the reviewer also believed she "still leaves most of the competition in the dust", calling the album "glorious". Rumor Has It eventually sold three million copies by 1999, certifying triple-platinum by that year. It was prefaced by the single "You Lie", which became her fifteenth number-one single on the country chart.[7] In addition, the album's cover of Bobbie Gentry's 1969 hit "Fancy" and a new track, "Fallin' Out of Love", became Top 10 hits on the same Billboard country chart.[18]

text: 1991: Aviation accident and For My Broken Heart[edit]

text: While on tour for her 1990 album, McEntire lost eight members of her band; (Chris Austin, Kirk Cappello, Joey Cigainero, Paula Kaye Evans, Jim Hammon, Terry Jackson, Anthony Saputo, and Michael Thomas), plus pilot Donald Holmes and co-pilot Chris Hollinger, when their charter jet plane crashed near San Diego, California, in the early morning of March 16, 1991. The accident occurred after McEntire's private performance for IBM executives the night before. The first plane was a Hawker Siddeley DH-125-1A/522 charter jet, believed to have taken off around 1:45 AM from the Brown Field Municipal Airport, located near the border of Mexico. After reaching an altitude of about 3,572 feet (1,089 m) above sea level, the aircraft crashed on the side of Otay Mountain, located ten miles east of the airport, while the second plane (carrying her other band members) did not crash. The accident was believed to have occurred due to poor visibility near the mountain, which was not considered "prohibitive" for flying. The news was reported nearly immediately to McEntire and her husband, who were sleeping at a nearby hotel. A spokeswoman for McEntire at the time stated in the Los Angeles Times that "she was very close to all of them. Some of them had been with her for years. Reba is totally devastated by this. It's like losing part of your family. Right now she just wants to get back to Nashville."[19]

text: McEntire dedicated her eighteenth album, For My Broken Heart, to her deceased road band. Released in October 1991, it contained songs of sorrow and lost love about "all measure of suffering,"[20] according to Alanna Nash of Entertainment Weekly. Nash reported that McEntire "still hits her stride with the more traditional songs of emotional turmoil, above all combining a spectacular vocal performance with a terrific song on 'Buying Her Roses,' a wife's head-spinning discovery of her husband's other woman."[20] The release peaked at No. 1 on the Billboard Top Country Albums chart, while also reaching No. 13 on the Billboard 200,[21] and eventually sold four million copies. Its title track became McEntire's sixteenth number-one, followed by "Is There Life Out There", which also reached No. 1 on the Billboard country music chart.[4] The third single, "The Greatest Man I Never Knew," peaked in the Top 5 and her cover of Vicki Lawrence's "The Night the Lights Went Out in Georgia" reached No. 12.[7] "If I Had Only Known," a cut from this album, was later included in the soundtrack to the 1994 film 8 Seconds.[7]

text: 1992–96: Continued success[edit]

text: In December 1992, McEntire's seventeenth studio album, It's Your Call, was released. It became her first album to peak within the Billboard 200 Top 10, reaching No. 8.[22] McEntire commented that the record was a "second chapter" to For My Broken Heart,[23] while music reviewers such as Alanna Nash of Entertainment Weekly disagreed, writing, "In truth, it isn't nearly as pessimistic as its predecessor—and unfortunately it isn't anywhere as involving." Nash called the album's title track—which peaked at No. 5 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart—"one of those moment-of-truth sagas at which McEntire excels. In the song, a wife answers the phone to find her husband's girlfriend on the other end and seizes the opportunity not only to inform her mate that she knows of his affair but to give him the ultimatum of choosing between the two. She's not the only one who's waitin' on the line, she sings, handing her husband the phone. It's your call."[24][25]

text: Christopher John Farley of Time magazine wrote that the album ranged from being "relaxing" to "cathartic", and "these vocals from one of the best country singers linger in the mind".[26] The album's preceding singles—"The Heart Won't Lie" (a duet with then-labelmate Vince Gill) and "Take It Back"—were Top 10 hits on the Billboard country chart, reaching No. 1 and No. 5 respectively.[24] Like its preceding album, It's Your Call sold over a million copies, eventually certifying by the RIAA in sales of double-platinum.[27]

text: In October 1993, McEntire's third compilation album, Greatest Hits Volume Two was released, reaching No. 1 and No. 5 on the Billboard Top Country Albums and Billboard 200 charts respectively, selling 183,000 copies during Christmas week 1993.[28] Out of the ten tracks were two new singles: the first, "Does He Love You", was a duet with Linda Davis. The song later went on to reach No. 1 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart and win both women a Grammy for Best Country Collaboration with Vocals.[7] Its second single, "They Asked About You", was also a Top 10 hit. The additional eight songs were some of McEntire's biggest hit singles during a course of five years including "The Last One to Know", "I Know How He Feels", "Cathy's Clown", and "The Heart Won't Lie".[29] After originally selling two million copies upon its initial release (2× Multi-Platinum), Greatest Hits Volume Two would later certify at 5× Multi-Platinum by the RIAA in 1998. The album has gone to sell over 10 million copies worldwide, which makes it McEntire's best selling album to date.[30]

text: Her eighteenth studio release was 1994's Read My Mind. The album spawned five major hit singles onto the Billboard Country chart, including the No. 1 single "The Heart Is a Lonely Hunter". The further releases ("Till You Love Me", "Why Haven't I Heard from You", and "And Still") became Top 10 singles on the same chart,[31] with "Till You Love Me" also reaching No. 78 on the Billboard Hot 100, a chart that she had not previously entered.[7] The album itself reached No. 2 on both the Billboard 200 and Top Country Albums charts.[32] Charlotte Dillon of Allmusic gave the album four out of five stars, calling it "another wonderful offering of songs performed by the gifted country singer Reba McEntire". Dillon also felt that the album's material had "a little soul, a little swing, and some pop, too".[33]

text: Entertainment Weekly's Alanna Nash also gave the album positive feedback, viewing the album to have "enough boiling rhythms and brooding melodies to reflect the anger and disillusionment of the middle class in the '90s", calling the track "She Thinks His Name Was John" to be the best example of that idea.[34] The song was eventually spawned as a single and was considered controversial for its storyline, which described a woman who contracts AIDS from a one-night stand.[35] Due to its subject matter, the song garnered less of a response from radio and peaked at No. 15.[4] Read My Mind became another major seller for McEntire and her label, selling three million copies by 1995 and certifying at 3× Multi-Platinum from the RIAA.[36]

text: After many years of releasing studio albums of newly recorded material, McEntire's nineteenth studio album, Starting Over (1995) was collection of her favorite songs originally recorded by others from the 1950s through the early 1980s. The album was made to commemorate twenty years in the music industry, but many music critics gave it a less positive response than her previous release.[37] Allmusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine commented that although the album was considered a "rebirth" for McEntire, he thought that some tracks were recorded for merely "nothing more than entertainment".[38] The album paid tribute to many of McEntire's favorite artists and included cover versions of "Talking In Your Sleep" originally sung by Crystal Gayle, "Please Come to Boston", "I Won't Mention It Again" sung by Ray Price, "Starting Over Again", cowritten by Donna Summer and originally a hit for Dolly Parton, "On My Own", and "By the Time I Get to Phoenix".[6] "On My Own" featured guest vocals from Davis, as well as Martina McBride and Trisha Yearwood.[7]

text: Despite negative reviews, Starting Over was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America within the first two months of its release,[39] but only one single—a cover of Lee Greenwood's "Ring on Her Finger, Time on Her Hands"—was a Top 10 hit single.[40]

text: 1997–98: What If It's You and "If You See Him"[edit]

text: McEntire made a major comeback into the music industry the following year with her twentieth studio album, What If It's You.[41] The album's lead single, "The Fear of Being Alone" reached No. two on the country charts, and its further two singles ("How Was I to Know" and "I'd Rather Ride Around with You") reached No. 1 and No. 2 respectively.[4] The release garnered higher critical acclaim than Starting Over, with Thom Owens of Allmusic calling the album "nevertheless an excellent reminder of her deep talents as a vocalist".[42] MCA Nashville chairman Bruce Hinton told Billboard how pleased he was with McEntire's release, calling the album's ten tracks "powerful" and concluding by stating, "There are so many writers and so many great songs in Nashville, and Reba has collected her disproportionate share[...]She's country music's female artist of the 90's." What If It's You peaked at No. 1 Top Country Albums and No. 15 on the Billboard 200, while also becoming her first album in three years to certify in multi-platinum sales, selling two million copies by 1999.[43][44] At the end of 1997, McEntire also charted at No. 23 the charity single "What If". The proceeds of sales for this single were donated to the Salvation Army.[7]

text: In 1997, McEntire headlined a tour with Brooks & Dunn that led to the recording of "If You See Him/If You See Her" with the duo the following year.[41] This song was included on McEntire's If You See Him album and Brooks & Dunn's If You See Her album, both of which were released on June 2.[45] Thom Owens of AllMusic reported in its review that both album titles were named nearly the same as "a way to draw attention for both parties, since they were no longer new guns—they were veterans in danger of losing ground to younger musicians".[46] The duet reached No. 1 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart in June 1998 and spawned an additional three Top 10 hits during that year: "Forever Love", "Wrong Night", and "One Honest Heart".[7] In addition, If You See Him peaked within the Top 10 on both the Billboard 200 and Top Country Albums chart, reaching No. 8 and No. 2, respectively.[47]

text: 1999–2001: So Good Together and Greatest Hits Vol. 3: I'm a Survivor[edit]

text: In 1999, McEntire released two albums. In September she issued her second Christmas album, The Secret of Giving: A Christmas Collection, which eventually sold 500,000 copies in the United States. In November, her twenty-second studio album, So Good Together was released, spawning three singles. The first release, "What Do You Say" and the second release, "I'll Be" both reached the Top 5 on the Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart. So Good Together also brought her into the Top 40 of the Billboard Hot 100 for the first time, peaking at No. 31.[7] The album would eventually certify Platinum by the end of the decade.[4] What Do You Say became her first crossover hit as well. Unlike any of her previous albums, So Good Together was produced by three people, including McEntire. Entertainment Weekly commented that most of the album's material was "an odd set—mostly ballads, including an English/Portuguese duet with Jose e Durval on Boz Scaggs' 'We're All Alone'".[48]

text: In 2001, McEntire returned with her third greatest-hits album: Greatest Hits Vol. 3: I'm a Survivor. The album helped McEntire receive her third gold certification from the Recording Industry Association of America, which made her the most certified female country artist in music history. It spawned the number-three hit "I'm a Survivor", which would be her last major hit for two years, as McEntire would go on a temporary hiatus to focus on her television sitcom, Reba.[41] The album's only other single, a cover of Kenny Rogers' "Sweet Music Man", went to No. 36.[7]

text: 2003–07: Return to the music industry[edit]

text: McEntire's seventy-sixth chart single, "I'm Gonna Take That Mountain", released in mid-2003, ended her two-year break from recording.[41] In November 2003, her twenty-third studio album, Room to Breathe, marked her first release of new material in four years. Writing for The Boston Globe, Steve Morse found the album's material to have a variety of musical stylings, saying the track "Love Revival" sounded like Tanya Tucker and calling "If I Had Any Sense at All" "a mournful country ballad".[citation needed] Dan MacIntosh of Country Standard Time gave Room to Breathe a less-received review, reporting that "it ultimately falls short of leaving the listener breathless". He highlighted "I'm Gonna Take That Mountain" for sounding like a Bluegrass-inspired song such as music by Ricky Skaggs or Patty Loveless.[49] The album itself reached a peak of No. 4 on the Billboard Top Country Albums chart and No. 25 on the Billboard 200, staying at the position for only one week.[50] The second single, "Somebody", also recorded by Mark Wills on his "Loving Every Minute" release, became her twenty-second number-one single on the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart and first since "If You See Him/If You See Her" six years previous. This became her thirty-third number-one single overall.[7] It took longer than expected to become a hit, according to McEntire, who said, "Yeah, that had us concerned. The album came out in November and it took 30 weeks for "Somebody" to work its way up the charts. Usually, it's 15 weeks. But this one had a resurgence of life, especially after the video came out. MCA is really kicking butt with it."[51] Its third single, "He Gets That from Me" reached No. 7, followed by the Amy Dalley co-written track "My Sister", which reached No. 16.[4]

text: In 2005, McEntire released the compilation Reba 1's. The album comprised all thirty-three number-one hits in her career on all major trade charts. Two new songs were included on the album: "You're Gonna Be" and "Love Needs a Holiday". Both were released as singles, peaking at No. 33 and No. 60, respectively, with the latter becoming her first single in twenty-seven years to miss the country top 40 entirely.[7] Country Standard Time called the tracks "Whoever's in New England" and "You Lie" the album highlights.[52] The album reached a peak of No. 3 on the Top Country Albums chart and No. 12 on the Billboard 200 upon its release, certifying 2× Platinum by the RIAA within two years. On August 30, 2007, McEntire received two CMA nominations: Female Vocalist of the Year and Vocal Event of the Year. With those two nominations plus another in 2008 and two more in 2009, McEntire became the female artist with the most nominations (forty-eight) in the forty-three year history of the CMA Awards, surpassing Dolly Parton, who has forty-three.[53]

text: In mid-2007, McEntire announced the release of her twenty-fifth studio album, Reba: Duets, on September 18. McEntire stated that out of all the albums she had previously recorded, her newest release was particularly special: "This is an album that will go down in history as probably my favorite album to record because I got to work and sing and be with my friends. Out of everything in this whole career that I can say that I'm the most proud of, are my friends. And here's the proof." In promotion for the album, McEntire made appearances at radio shows and on The Oprah Winfrey Show September 19.[54] The album's lead single, "Because of You"—a duet with Kelly Clarkson, who originally recorded the song—became her fifty-fifth Top 10 single on the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart, tying her with Dolly Parton, who also had the same amount of Top 10 records.[55] The album was given high critical praise from magazines such as PopMatters, which called McEntire's vocals, "to sound sweet without being syrupy, while being extremely powerful. McEntire's vocal strength yields a different kind of authority than the bluesy, drawling growl of Janis Joplin, the weathered rasp of Marianne Faithfull, or even the soul-shrieking powerhouse of Tina Turner. Instead, Reba's voice combines the aspects of all three singers but tempers it with a Southern sweetness and an unmistakable femininity."[56] The album contained ten tracks of duets with country and pop artists, including Kenny Chesney, LeAnn Rimes, Trisha Yearwood, Carole King, and Justin Timberlake. Reba: Duets peaked at No. 1 on the Top Country Albums chart, while also becoming her first album in her thirty-year career to peak and debut at No. 1 on the Billboard 200, with 300,536 copies (according to Nielsen Soundscan) sold within its first week of release.[57] On January 17, 2008, McEntire embarked on the 2 Worlds 2 Voices Tour with Clarkson, which began in Fairborn, Ohio and ended in November of the same year.[58] A month after its release, the album was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America on October 19, 2007.[59] The album's only other single was "Every Other Weekend". Recorded on the album as a duet with Chesney, it was released to radio with its co-writer, Skip Ewing, as a duet partner.

text: 2008–12: Move to Valory[edit]

text: In early 2008, McEntire partnered again with Brooks & Dunn for a re-recorded version of their single "Cowgirls Don't Cry". McEntire is featured in the video, but not on the version found on the album Cowboy Town. It became McEntire's fifty-sixth Top Ten country hit, breaking Dolly's record for the most Top Ten country hits for a solo female.[60]

text: In November 2008, McEntire announced that she would be departing from her label of twenty-five years and signing with the Valory Music Group, an imprint of Big Machine Records (coincidentally distributed by MCA and Mercury's parent, Universal Music Group). Under MCA, she had sold a total of sixty-seven million records worldwide and won two Grammys.[61] The switch to Valory reunited McEntire with the label's president, Scott Borchetta, who had worked as senior vice president of promotion at MCA during most of the 1990s. McEntire later commented on her label switch, stating, "I am thrilled to be joining the Valory team. Scott and I worked together on some of the biggest singles of my career, and I am excited to renew our partnership."[62] In November, 2008, MCA released a 50 Greatest Hits box set compilation album, containing three CDs, from 1984's "How Blue" to 2007's "Because of You".

text: On April 5, 2009, McEntire debuted her first single, "Strange", on Valory at the 2009 Academy of Country Music Awards.[63] The song debuted at No. 39 on the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart, giving McEntire the highest single debut of her career, and went on to peak at No. 11. Her twenty-sixth studio album, Keep On Loving You was released August 18, 2009, and became McEntire's first solo studio album in six years.[64] The album gained fairly positive reviews from most album critics. On August 26, Keep on Loving You became McEntire's second album to top both the Billboard Country and 200 charts, selling almost 96,000 copies within its first week. With the album, McEntire broke the record for the female country artist with the most Billboard number-one albums, which was previously held by Loretta Lynn.[65]

text: On August 18 the label released the album's second single, "Consider Me Gone", and it debuted at No. 51 on The Hot Country Single's Chart. The single became McEntire's thirty-fourth number-one on the Billboard chart in December.[66] With a four-week stay at No. 1, this song became the longest-lasting number-one of her career, as well as the first multi-week number-one by a female country singer since Taylor Swift's "Our Song" in 2007. The album's third and final single was "I Keep On Loving You", co-written by Ronnie Dunn of Brooks & Dunn, which peaked at No. 7.

text: McEntire's thirty-fourth studio album, All the Women I Am, was released on November 9, 2010, under Valory Music Group/Starstruck Records.[67][68] The album's lead single called "Turn On the Radio" was released on August 3, 2010, and the music video premiered on August 18, 2010.[69][70] Upon its release, All the Women I Am received generally positive reviews from most music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 72, based on 4 reviews, which indicates "generally favorable reviews". On November 10, 2010, McEntire appeared at the Country Music Association Awards performing her version of Beyoncé's "If I Were a Boy".[71]

text: On December 20, 2010, McEntire scored her 35th Billboard number-one single in the U.S. with "Turn On the Radio".[72] The second single from All the Women I Am was a cover of Beyoncé's "If I Were a Boy", which McEntire took to No. 22. After it came "When Love Gets a Hold of You" at No. 40 and "Somebody's Chelsea" at No. 44. The latter was the only single that McEntire had co-written since "Only in My Mind" in 1985.[73] McEntire later announced that she would be visiting 31 cities on her All the Women I Am Tour' late that year with The Band Perry, Steel Magnolia, and Edens Edge as opening acts on different stops of the tour. Dates for the tour were announced July 6, 2011.[74]

text: On March 1, 2011, the Country Music Association announced that McEntire would be inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame.[75] McEntire was unable to attend the announcement after her father had slipped into a coma following a stroke.[75] McEntire was inducted by Dolly Parton into the Country Music Hall of Fame on May 22, 2011, at a Medallion Ceremony at the Country Music Hall of Fame in Nashville.[citation needed]

text: 2014–2016: Nash Icon, Love Somebody, Christmas and Gospel albums, America's Got Talent[edit]

text: On October 21, 2014, it was announced that McEntire would be the inaugural signing for Big Machine's new imprint Nash Icon Music. She also disclosed that she was working on a new album, with 11 new songs.[76]

text: Her first single for the new label, "Going Out Like That", was announced December 16, 2014 and was released on January 6, 2015.[77] It served as the lead-off single to Love Somebody, McEntire's twenty-seventh studio album, released on April 14, 2015.[78] Love Somebody debuted at No. 1 on the Billboard Top Country Albums—her twelfth number-one album on the chart—and No. 3 on Billboard 200, selling 62,469 copies in the U.S.[79] The album has sold 171,600 copies in the U.S. as of October 5, 2015.[80]

text: In 2016, McEntire was selected as one of thirty artists to perform on "Forever Country", a mash-up track of Take Me Home, Country Roads, On the Road Again and I Will Always Love You which celebrates 50 years of the CMA Awards.[81]

text: McEntire released her third Christmas album My Kind of Christmas on September 2, 2016. The album was exclusively sold at Cracker Barrel and online. She also announced she would soon be selling her own line of clothing, home decor, jewelry and other things under the "Rockin' R by Reba" line also at Cracker Barrel.[82][83]

text: McEntire was a guest judge on the July 13, 2016 episode of America's Got Talent. She used her golden buzzer, which she could only use once and allowed an act to go straight to the live shows, on contortionist Sofie Dossi.

text: 2017–present: Rockin' R Records, Reba's Business Inc., Gospel album[edit]

text: After her split from ex-husband, Narvel Blackstock, Reba took control of her career as her own manager. She recruited Justin McIntosh of Starstruck Entertainment, Leslie Matthews serving as Brand Manager, and Carolyn Snell who has been with McEntire for nine years. They formed Reba's Business Inc. (RBI).[84] She moved out of the building she and Blackstock had worked in, and moved her company to Green Hills, Nashville.[85]

text: On December 15, 2016, McEntire announced that she was releasing her first Gospel album titled Sing It Now: Songs of Faith & Hope. It was released by Nash Icon/Rockin' R Records on February 3, 2017, and consists of two discs. Disc one contains traditional hymns while disc two contains original tracks. "Softly and Tenderly", featuring Kelly Clarkson and Trisha Yearwood, was the first track off the album released. Another track on the album, "In the Garden/Wonderful Peace", features The Isaacs. Jay DeMarcus of the Rascal Flatts produced the album.[86] The first single off the album is "Back to God".[87] She also headlined the C2C: Country to Country festival in the UK alongside Brad Paisley and Zac Brown Band in March.

text: Because of its limited release in 2016, on October 13, 2017 My Kind of Christmas was re-released - this time including songs with Vince Gill, Amy Grant, Darius Rucker and Lauren Daigle - on her website and through iTunes.[88]

text: Grand Ole Opry[edit]

text: When Reba McEntire made her Grand Ole Opry debut on September 17, 1977, she almost did not make it in the door after a guard at the Opry gate missed her name on the night's list of performers.[89] Her parents and older sister, Alice, drove 1,400 miles round trip from their Oklahoma home to see what turned out to be Reba's three-minute performance that night. Her act was cut from two songs to just one—"Invitation to the Blues"—because of a surprise appearance from Dolly Parton.[89] McEntire was inducted into the Grand Ole Opry on January 17, 1986.[89] "The Grand Ole Opry is a home," she says. "It's a family. It's like a family reunion, when you come back and get to see everybody."[90]

text: Acting career[edit]

text: 1989–99: Entry into film and television acting[edit]

text: During the late 1980s, many of McEntire's music videos were being described as "mini movies". In each video, she would portray a different character, which distinguished her music videos from other videos released by artists during that time. In the late 1980s, McEntire became interested in an acting career, eventually hiring an agent. In 1989, she co-hosted Good Morning America on ABC.[citation needed]

text: In 1990, she obtained her first film role playing Heather Gummer in the horror comedy Tremors, along with Kevin Bacon. The film told the story of a small group of people living in Nevada who were fighting subterranean worm-like creatures. After the film's release, McEntire developed a strong interest in acting and made it her second career.[91][92] The following year, she starred along with Kenny Rogers and Burt Reynolds in the made-for-television movies, The Gambler Returns: The Luck of the Draw and The Man From Left Field. In 1994, McEntire worked with director, Rob Reiner in the film, North, playing Ma Tex. The film obtained negative reviews, receiving only two and a half stars from Allmovie.[93]

text: In 1994, McEntire starred in Is There Life Out There?, a television movie based on her song of the same name. The following year, she appeared in Buffalo Girls, which was based upon the life of western cowgirl, Calamity Jane (played by Anjelica Huston). Playing Jane's friend, Annie Oakley, Buffalo Girls was nominated for an Emmy award.[94] In 1996, McEntire was cast by director James Cameron as Molly Brown in his film Titanic. However, when it became apparent production for the film would extend well beyond its original length, McEntire had to turn down the part, as she had already scheduled prior concert engagements. The role was recast with Kathy Bates.[95] In 1998, she starred as Lizzie Brooks in Forever Love, which was based upon McEntire's hit single of the same name.[96]

text: 2000–07: Broadway and television series[edit]

text: In early 2001, McEntire expanded into theater, starring in the Broadway revival of Annie Get Your Gun. Playing Annie Oakley (whom she had previously portrayed in Buffalo Girls), her performance was critically acclaimed by several newspapers, including The New York Times, which commented, "Without qualification the best performance by an actress in a musical comedy this season."[97] McEntire personally called the musical, "some of the hardest work I've ever done in my life".[98]

text: In 2005, McEntire starred as Nellie Forbush in the Carnegie Hall concert production of the Broadway musical South Pacific with Alec Baldwin as Luther Billis and Brian Stokes Mitchell as Emile de Becque, directed by Walter Bobbie and with an adapted script by David Ives. The concert was broadcast as part of the Great Performances series in 2006.[99]

text: In October 2001, McEntire premiered her half-hour television sitcom Reba on the WB network. The show was based around divorced mother Reba Hart, who learns how to handle life situations after her husband divorces her and their teenage daughter becomes pregnant.[100] Reba garnered critical acclaim and success, becoming the network's highest-rated television show for adults ranging from the ages of eighteen to forty nine. The show ran for six seasons and earned McEntire a nomination for a Golden Globe award.[92] It was cancelled on February 18, 2007; the series finale had 8.7 million viewers.[101]

text: 2011–present: Return to television[edit]

text: In September 2011, McEntire confirmed on her website that ABC had ordered a pilot for her second television series, Malibu Country.[102] McEntire would play a divorced mother of two who moves to Malibu, California to restart her music career.[102] The pilot was filmed in April 2012 and began production on its first season in August. It was announced that the pilot for Malibu Country would premiere November 2, 2012. The show was broadcast Friday nights at 8:30/7:30c on ABC.[103] On May 11, 2012, McEntire tweeted that the show had been picked up.[104] She also was the host in the 2011 NASCAR Award Show in Las Vegas.

text: Despite reports that Malibu Country was the most-watched freshman comedy in its debut season (8.7 million),[105] the show was canceled on May 10, 2013, after eighteen episodes.

text: In January 2017, it was announced that McEntire would star and produce a Southern drama series for ABC, called Red Blooded.[106][107] It was reported in May that ABC ultimately turned down the show, so it moved to being shopped around to other networks.[108]

text: Musical styles and legacy[edit]

text: McEntire's sound has been influenced by the country music of Bob Wills, Merle Haggard, Dolly Parton, Barbara Mandrell, and Patsy Cline.[109] In college, McEntire would attend local dances at the Oklahoma–Texas border so she could dance to Wills's music, commenting that, "it didn't get any better than dancing to Bob Wills music". She also explained Merle Haggard's influence on her career, stating "I had every album he ever put out", and would sing "every song he did", along with her brother, Pake and sister, Susie. In addition, her first major hit, "Sweet Dreams" was a remake of Patsy Cline's version of the song, according to McEntire herself.[110]

text: McEntire's music has been described to not only be built upon traditional country music, but also expand into the genres of Country pop, Mainstream pop, Soul, and R&B. At times, her music has often been criticized for moving away from traditional country music. Many music critics have often called her music to be "melodramatic", "formulaic", and "bombastic", particularly after her 1988 album Reba. Studio releases such as Sweet Sixteen, Rumor Has It, It's Your Call, and Starting Over have often been described by these terms.[6]

text: McEntire possesses a contralto vocal range[111] and performs "vocal gymnastics" with her voice,[112] a musical technique in which a singer twirls a note around, using their vibrato. McEntire has often credited Dolly Parton for influencing this trait, stating that she would always listen to Parton's records and find her style of vocal gymnastics "so pretty".[98]

text: McEntire has often been regarded as one of country music's most influential female vocalists and most beloved entertainers.[6][109] She is highly credited for remaining one of country's most popular female artists for nearly four decades, maintaining her success by continually incorporating contemporary musical sounds without changing her traditional vocal style.[41][109] For many new artists, she has been credited as the inspiration to their careers in country music, including Faith Hill, Martina McBride, Trisha Yearwood, and LeAnn Rimes. She has also been credited as an inspiration to other performers such as Sara Evans, Kelly Clarkson, Lee Ann Womack, Terri Clark, Taylor Swift, and Carrie Underwood,[109] The Net Music Countdown second-handedly reported, "That influence has manifested itself in many ways. As a role model, she's shown others how to handle fame with grace and good humor while never backing down from her values or goals. Just as importantly, she's shown others to refuse to accept limitations on what she can do or how much she can achieve." McEntire also explained to the online website, "Whatever I'm doing, I feel like I'm representing country music". "It's always been my main career, and it's where my loyalties lie. I feel like I'm waving the flag of country music wherever I go, and I couldn't be prouder to do it."[113]

text: Personal life[edit]

text: Two of her siblings have also had careers in the music industry. Her brother Pake dabbled in the country music industry in the late 80s but returned to Oklahoma after a brief stint. He owns and operates a 1,000 acre ranch near Coalgate, Oklahoma, and continues to rodeo. Her sister Susie is a successful Christian music singer who travels the country with her husband, speaking and performing. She also has an older sister, Alice Foran, a retired social worker who resides in Lane, Oklahoma. Her niece, Calamity McEntire, is an assistant basketball coach at the University of Arizona.[114]

text: In 1976, McEntire married steer wrestling champion and rancher Charlie Battles who was ten years her senior and had two teenage sons. The couple shared a ranch in Oklahoma. In 1987, McEntire divorced Battles and moved to Nashville, Tennessee to pursue her career.[115][116][117]

text: In 1989, McEntire married her manager and former steel guitar player, Narvel Blackstock. The couple wed in a private ceremony on a boat in Lake Tahoe. Together, the pair took over all aspects of McEntire's career, forming Starstruck Entertainment, which was originally designed to help manage her career. From her marriage to Blackstock, McEntire inherited three stepchildren - Chassidy, Shawna, and Brandon - and then gave birth to a son, Shelby Steven McEntire Blackstock, in February 1990. On August 3, 2015, it was announced in a joint statement on McEntire's website that she and Blackstock had been separated for a few months after twenty-six years of marriage.[118]

text: McEntire announced in December 2015 that their divorce had been finalized on October 28, 2015. Despite the divorce, McEntire remains very close to her three stepchildren as well as the Blackstock family. She adores her stepchildren's six children and considers them her grandchildren. [119]

text: McEntire's stepson Brandon Blackstock is married to singer Kelly Clarkson.[120] Speaking about their impending marriage in 2013, McEntire stated she was "thrilled to death, thrilled to death. To have my buddy as my daughter-in-law, I mean, who could ask for more?"[121]

text: Accolades[edit]

text: McEntire has the second most wins for the Academy of Country Music's Top Female Vocalist Awards with seven. Reba holds the record American Music Awards for Favorite Country Female Artist (twelve). She also holds the distinction of being the first to win the Country Music Association's Female Vocalist of the Year Award four times consecutively. Martina McBride won Female Vocalist four times, although not consecutively. In 2013, Miranda Lambert tied McEntire to win Female Vocalist four years in a row and in 2016 Carrie Underwood joined this elite club by winning her fourth Female Vocalist award. McEntire is also a rare musical artist to achieve solo number-ones across four decades (1980s, 1990s, 2000s, 2010s). She holds the record for most CMA Award nominations for a female artist, with 50. Reba also holds the record with the most ACM Awards nominations for a female artist with 47, respectively.[122]

text: Discography[edit]

text:
Reba McEntire (1977)
Out of a Dream (1979)
Feel the Fire (1980)
Heart to Heart (1981)
Unlimited (1982)
Behind the Scene (1983)
Just a Little Love (1984)
My Kind of Country (1984)
Have I Got a Deal for You (1985)
What Am I Gonna Do About You (1986)
Whoever's in New England (1986)
Merry Christmas to You (1987)
The Last One to Know (1987)
Reba (1988)
Reba Live (1989)
Sweet Sixteen (1989)
Rumor Has It (1990)
For My Broken Heart (1991)
It's Your Call (1992)
Read My Mind (1994)
Starting Over (1995)
What If It's You (1996)
If You See Him (1998)
So Good Together (1999)
The Secret of Giving: A Christmas Collection (1999)
Room to Breathe (2003)
Reba: Duets (2007)
Keep On Loving You (2009)
All the Women I Am (2010)
Love Somebody (2015)
My Kind of Christmas (2016)
Sing It Now: Songs of Faith & Hope (2017)

text: Filmography[edit]

text:
Film

Year
Title
Role
Notes

1990
Tremors
Heather Gummer

1994
Maverick
Spectator
Uncredited[citation needed]

1994
North
Ma Tex

1994
The Little Rascals
A.J. Ferguson

2001
One Night at McCool's
Dr. Green

2006
The Fox and the Hound 2
Dixie
Voice role

2006
Charlotte's Web
Betsy the Cow
Voice role

2015
Romances of the Republics
Stella Wonders

2016
The Land Before Time: Journey of the Brave[123]
Etta
Voice role

text:
Television

Year
Title
Role
Notes

1985-12
Academy of Country Music Awards
Herself (co-host)
with Vince Gill

1991
The Gambler Returns: The Luck of the Draw
Burgundy Jones
Movie

1992
WrestleMania VIII
Herself (performer)
Sang the national anthem

1993
Man from Left Field, TheThe Man from Left Field
Nancy Lee Prinzi
Movie

1994
Frasier
Rachel (voice)
Episode: "Fortysomething"

1994
Is There Life Out There?
Lily Marshall
Movie

1995
Buffalo Girls
Annie Oakley
Miniseries

1998
Forever Love
Lizzie Brooks
Movie

1998
Hercules
Artemis (voice)
2 episodes

1999
Secret of Giving
Rose Cameron
Movie

2001–07
Reba
Reba Hart
126 episodes

2010
Better with You
Lorraine Ashley
Episode: "Better With Flirting"

2011
Working Class
Renee
Episode: "Sugar Mama"

2012–13
Malibu Country
Reba McKenzie
18 episodes

2012
Blake Shelton's Not So Family Christmas
Herself (performer)
Special

2013
Kelly Clarkson's Cautionary Christmas Music Tale
Herself (performer)
Special

2015–16
Baby Daddy
Charlotte
2 episodes

2015
Best Time Ever with Neil Patrick Harris
Herself (guest announcer)
Episode: "Reba"

2015
Disney Parks Christmas Day Parade
Herself (performer)
Special

2015
The Voice
Herself (advisor)
Multiple episodes

2016
Last Man Standing
Billie Cassidy
Episode: "Outdoor Woman"

2016
America's Got Talent
Herself (guest judge)
Episode: "Judge Cuts 2"

text:
Theatre

Year
Title
Role
Notes

2001
Annie Get Your Gun
Annie Oakley

2006
South Pacific: In Concert from Carnegie Hall
Nellie Forbush


document_title: Lead–acid battery

question_text: what are the active materials of a lead acid battery

question_tokens: what are the active materials of a lead acid battery

root

text: Lead–acid battery

text: History[edit]

text: The French scientist Gautherot observed in 1801 that wires that had been used for electrolysis experiments would themselves provide a small amount of "secondary" current after the main battery had been disconnected.[9] In 1859, Gaston Planté's lead–acid battery was the first battery that could be recharged by passing a reverse current through it. Planté's first model consisted of two lead sheets separated by rubber strips and rolled into a spiral.[10] His batteries were first used to power the lights in train carriages while stopped at a station. In 1881, Camille Alphonse Faure invented an improved version that consisted of a lead grid lattice, into which a lead oxide paste was pressed, forming a plate. This design was easier to mass-produce. An early manufacturer (from 1886) of lead–acid batteries was Henri Tudor.

tag: p

text: Using a gel electrolyte instead of a liquid allows the battery to be used in different positions without leakage. Gel electrolyte batteries for any position date from the 1930s, and even in the late 1920s portable suitcase radio sets allowed the cell vertical or horizontal (but not inverted) due to valve design (see third Edition of Wireless Constructor's Encyclopaedia by Frederick James Camm). In the 1970s, the valve-regulated lead–acid battery (often called "sealed") was developed, including modern absorbed glass mat types, allowing operation in any position.

text: Electrochemistry[edit]

text: Discharge[edit]

text:
In the discharged state both the positive and negative plates become lead(II) sulfate (PbSO
4), and the electrolyte loses much of its dissolved sulfuric acid and becomes primarily water. The discharge process is driven by the conduction of electrons from the negative plate back into the cell at the positive plate in the external circuit.

text: As electrons accumulate they create an electric field which attracts hydrogen ions and repels sulfate ions, leading to a double-layer near the surface. The hydrogen ions screen the charged electrode from the solution which limits further reactions unless charge is allowed to flow out of electrode.

text: The total reaction can be written as

text: The sum of the molecular masses of the reactants is 642.6 g/mol, so theoretically a cell can produce two faradays of charge (192,971 coulombs) from 642.6 g of reactants, or 83.4 ampere-hours per kilogram (or 13.9 ampere-hours per kilogram for a 12-volt battery).[citation needed] For a 2 volts cell, this comes to 167 watt-hours per kilogram of reactants, but a lead–acid cell in practice gives only 30–40 watt-hours per kilogram of battery, due to the mass of the water and other constituent parts.[citation needed]

text: Charging[edit]

text: In the fully charged state, the negative plate consists of lead, and the positive plate lead dioxide, with the electrolyte of concentrated sulfuric acid.

text: Overcharging with high charging voltages generates oxygen and hydrogen gas by electrolysis of water, which is lost to the cell. The design of some types of lead-acid battery allow the electrolyte level to be inspected and topped up with any water that has been lost.

text: Due to the freezing-point depression of the electrolyte, as the battery discharges and the concentration of sulfuric acid decreases, the electrolyte is more likely to freeze during winter weather when discharged.

text: Ion motion[edit]

text:
During discharge, H+ produced at the negative plates moves into the electrolyte solution and then is consumed into the positive plates, while HSO−
4 is consumed at both plates. The reverse occurs during charge. This motion can be by electrically driven proton flow or Grotthuss mechanism, or by diffusion through the medium, or by flow of a liquid electrolyte medium. Since the density is greater when the sulfuric acid concentration is higher, the liquid will tend to circulate by convection. Therefore, a liquid-medium cell tends to rapidly discharge and rapidly charge more efficiently than an otherwise similar gel cell.

text: Measuring the charge level[edit]

text: Because the electrolyte takes part in the charge-discharge reaction, this battery has one major advantage over other chemistries. It is relatively simple to determine the state of charge by merely measuring the specific gravity of the electrolyte; the specific gravity falls as the battery discharges. Some battery designs include a simple hydrometer using colored floating balls of differing density. When used in diesel-electric submarines, the specific gravity was regularly measured and written on a blackboard in the control room to indicate how much longer the boat could remain submerged.[11]

text: The battery's open-circuit voltage can also be used to gauge the state of charge.[12] If the connections to the individual cells are accessible, then the state of charge of each cell can be determined which can provide a guide as to the state of health of the battery as a whole, otherwise the overall battery voltage may be assessed.

text: Note that neither technique gives any indication of charge capacity, only charge level. Charge capacity of any rechargeable battery will decline with age and usage, meaning that it may no longer be fit for purpose even when nominally fully charged. Other tests, usually involving current drain, are used to determine the residual charge capacity of a battery.

text: Voltages for common usage[edit]

text: IUoU battery charging is a three-stage charging procedure for lead-acid batteries. A lead-acid battery's theoretical voltage is 2 V for one cell. For a single cell, the voltage can range from 1.8 V loaded at full discharge, to 2.10 V in an open circuit at full charge. Float voltage varies depending on battery type, i.e. flooded cells, gelled electrolyte, absorbed glass mat (AGM), and ranges from 1.8 V to 2.27 V. Equalization voltage, and charging voltage for sulfated cells, can range from 2.67 V to almost 3 V.[13] (only until a charge current is flowing)[14][15] Specific values for a given battery depend on the design and manufacturer recommendations, and are usually given at a baseline temperature of 20 °C (68 °F), requiring adjustment for ambient conditions.

text: Construction[edit]

text: Plates[edit]

text: The lead–acid cell can be demonstrated using sheet lead plates for the two electrodes. However, such a construction produces only around one ampere for roughly postcard-sized plates, and for only a few minutes.

text: Gaston Planté found a way to provide a much larger effective surface area. In Planté's design, the positive and negative plates were formed of two spirals of lead foil, separated with a sheet of cloth and coiled up. The cells initially had low capacity, so a slow process of "forming" was required to corrode the lead foils, creating lead dioxide on the plates and roughening them to increase surface area. Initially this process used electricity from primary batteries; when generators became available after 1870, the cost of production of batteries greatly declined.[8] Planté plates are still used in some stationary applications, where the plates are mechanically grooved to increase their surface area.

text: In 1880, Camille Alphonse Faure patented a method of coating a lead grid (which serves as the current conductor) with a paste of lead oxides, sulfuric acid and water, followed by curing phase in which the plates were exposed to gentle heat in a high humidity environment. The curing process caused the paste to change to a mixture of lead sulfates which adhered to the lead plate. Then, during the battery's initial charge (called "formation") the cured paste on the plates was converted into electrochemically active material (the "active mass"). Faure's process significantly reduced the time and cost to manufacture lead–acid batteries, and gave a substantial increase in capacity compared with Planté's battery.[16] Faure's method is still in use today, with only incremental improvements to paste composition, curing (which is still done with steam, but is now a very tightly controlled process), and structure and composition of the grid to which the paste is applied.

text: The grid developed by Faure was of pure lead with connecting rods of lead at right angles. In contrast, present-day grids are structured for improved mechanical strength and improved current flow. In addition to different grid patterns (ideally, all points on the plate are equidistant from the power conductor), modern-day processes also apply one or two thin fibre-glass mats over the grid to distribute the weight more evenly. And while Faure had used pure lead for his grids, within a year (1881) these had been superseded by lead-antimony (8–12%) alloys to give the structures additional rigidity. However, high-antimony grids have higher hydrogen evolution (which also accelerates as the battery ages), and thus greater outgassing and higher maintenance costs. These issues were identified by U. B. Thomas and W. E. Haring at Bell Labs in the 1930s and eventually led to the development of lead-calcium grid alloys in 1935 for standby power batteries on the U.S. telephone network. Related research led to the development of lead-selenium grid alloys in Europe a few years later. Both lead-calcium and lead-selenium grid alloys still add antimony, albeit in much smaller quantities than the older high-antimony grids: lead-calcium grids have 4–6% antimony while lead-selenium grids have 1–2%. These metallurgical improvements give the grid more strength, which allows it carry more weight, i.e. more active material, and so the plates can be thicker, which in turn contributes to battery lifespan since there is more material available to shed before the battery becomes unusable. High-antimony alloy grids are still used in batteries intended for frequent cycling, e.g. in motor-starting applications where frequent expansion/contraction of the plates needs to be compensated for, but where outgassing is not significant since charge currents remain low. Since the 1950s, batteries designed for infrequent cycling applications (e.g., standby power batteries) increasingly have lead-calcium or lead-selenium alloy grids since these have less hydrogen evolution and thus lower maintenance overhead. Lead-calcium alloy grids are cheaper to manufacture (the cells thus have lower up-front costs), and have a lower self-discharge rate, and lower watering requirements, but have slightly poorer conductivity, are mechanically weaker (and thus require more antimony to compensate), and are strongly subject to corrosion (and thus a shorter lifespan) than cells with lead-selenium alloy grids.

text: The open circuit effect is also known as the antimony free effect.[17][18]

text: Modern-day paste contains carbon black, blanc fixe (barium sulfate) and lignosulfonate. The blanc fixe acts as a seed crystal for the lead–to–lead sulfate reaction. The blanc fixe must be fully dispersed in the paste in order for it to be effective. The lignosulfonate prevents the negative plate from forming a solid mass during the discharge cycle, instead enabling the formation of long needle–like dendrites. The long crystals have more surface area and are easily converted back to the original state on charging. Carbon black counteracts the effect of inhibiting formation caused by the lignosulfonates. Sulfonated naphthalene condensate dispersant is a more effective expander than lignosulfonate and speeds up formation. This dispersant improves dispersion of barium sulfate in the paste, reduces hydroset time, produces a more breakage-resistant plate, reduces fine lead particles and thereby improves handling and pasting characteristics. It extends battery life by increasing end-of-charge voltage. Sulfonated naphthalene requires about one-third to one-half the amount of lignosulfonate and is stable to higher temperatures.[19]

text: Once dry, the plates are stacked with suitable separators and inserted in a cell container. The alternate plates then constitute alternating positive and negative electrodes, and within the cell are later connected to one another (negative to negative, positive to positive) in parallel. The separators inhibit the plates from touching each other, which would otherwise constitute a short circuit. In flooded and gel cells, the separators are insulating rails or studs, formerly of glass or ceramic, and now of plastic. In AGM cells, the separator is the glass mat itself, and the rack of plates with separators are squeezed together before insertion into the cell; once in the cell, the glass mats expand slightly, effectively locking the plates in place. In multi-cell batteries, the cells are then connected to one another in series, either through connectors through the cell walls, or by a bridge over the cell walls. All intra-cell and inter-cell connections are of the same lead alloy as that used in the grids. This is necessary to prevent galvanic corrosion.

text: So-called "deep cycle" batteries employ a different geometry for their positive electrodes. In this geometry, the positive electrode is not a flat plate but a row of lead-oxide cylinders or tubes strung side by side (hence the term "tubular" or "cylindrical" batteries for this geometry). The advantage of this geometry is an increased surface area in contact with the electrolyte, which in turn allows higher discharge/charge currents than a flat-plate cell of the same volume and depth-of-charge. Tubular-electrode cells thus exhibit a higher power density than flat-plate cells. This makes tubular/cylindrical geometry plates especially suitable for high-current applications with storage weight/space limitations, such as for forklifts or for starting marine diesel engines. However, because tubes/cylinders have less active material in the same volume, they also have a lower energy density than flat-plate cells. And, less active material at the electrode also means they have less material available to shed before the cell becomes unusable. Tubular/cylindrical electrodes are also more complicated to manufacture uniformly, which tends to make them more expensive than flat-plate cells. These trade-offs limit the range of applications in which tubular/cylindrical batteries are meaningful to situations where there is insufficient space to install higher capacity (and thus larger) flat-plate units.

text: About 60% of the weight of an automotive-type lead–acid battery rated around 60 A·h (8.7 kg of a 14.5 kg battery) is lead or internal parts made of lead; the balance is electrolyte, separators, and the case.[8]

text: Separators[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: Separators between the positive and negative plates prevent short-circuit through physical contact, mostly through dendrites ("treeing"), but also through shedding of the active material. Separators obstruct the flow of ions between the plates and increase the internal resistance of the cell. Wood, rubber, glass fiber mat, cellulose, and PVC or polyethylene plastic have been used to make separators. Wood was the original choice, but deteriorated in the acid electrolyte. Rubber separators are stable in battery acid and provide valuable electrochemical advantages that other materials cannot.

text: An effective separator must possess a number of mechanical properties; such as permeability, porosity, pore size distribution, specific surface area, mechanical design and strength, electrical resistance, ionic conductivity, and chemical compatibility with the electrolyte. In service, the separator must have good resistance to acid and oxidation. The area of the separator must be a little larger than the area of the plates to prevent material shorting between the plates. The separators must remain stable over the battery's operating temperature range.

text: Absorbed glass mat (AGM)[edit]

text: In the absorbed glass mat design, or AGM for short, the spaces between the cells is replaced by a glass fibre mat soaked in electrolyte. There is only enough electrolyte in the mat to keep it wet, and if the battery is punctured the electrolyte will not flow out of the mats. Likewise, the mat greatly reduces evaporation, to the point that the batteries do not require periodic refilling of the water. This combination of features allows the battery to be completely sealed, which makes them useful in portable devices and similar roles.

text: To reduce the water loss rate calcium is alloyed with the plates, however gas build-up remains a problem when the battery is deeply or rapidly charged or discharged. To prevent over-pressurization of the battery casing, AGM batteries include a one-way blow-off valve, and are often known as "valve regulated lead–acid", or VRLA, designs.

text: Another advantage to the AGM design is that the electrolyte becomes the separator material, and mechanically strong. This allows the plate stack to be compressed together in the battery shell, slightly increasing energy density compared to liquid or gel versions. AGM batteries often show a characteristic "bulging" in their shells when built in common rectangular shapes.

text: The mat also prevents the vertical motion of the electrolyte within the battery. When a normal wet cell is stored in a discharged state, the heavier acid molecules tend to settle to the bottom of the battery, causing the electrolyte to stratify. When the battery is then used, the majority of the current flows only in this area, and the bottom of the plates tend to wear out rapidly. This is one of the reasons a conventional car battery can be ruined by leaving it stored for a long period and then used and recharged. The mat significantly prevents this stratification, eliminating the need to periodically shake the batteries, boil them, or run an "equalization charge" through them to mix the electrolyte. Stratification also causes the upper layers of the battery to become almost completely water, which can freeze in cold weather, AGMs are significantly less susceptible to damage due to low-temperature use.

text: While AGM cells do not permit watering (typically it is impossible to add water without drilling a hole in the battery), their recombination process is fundamentally limited by the usual chemical processes. Hydrogen gas will even diffuse right through the plastic case itself. Some have found that it is profitable to add water to an AGM battery, but this must be done slowly to allow for the water to mix via diffusion throughout the battery. When a lead-acid battery loses water, its acid concentration increases, increasing the corrosion rate of the plates significantly. AGM cells already have a high acid content in an attempt to lower the water loss rate and increase standby voltage, and this brings about short life. If the open circuit voltage of AGM cells is significantly higher than 2.093 volts, or 12.56 V for a 12 V battery, then they have a higher acid content than a flooded cell; while this is normal for an AGM battery, it is not desirable for long life.

text: AGM cells intentionally or accidentally overcharged will show a higher open circuit voltage according to the water lost (and acid concentration increased). One amp-hour of overcharge will liberate 0.335 grams of water; some of this liberated hydrogen and oxygen will recombine, but not all of it.

text: Gelled electrolytes[edit]

text: During the 1970s, researchers developed the sealed version or "gel battery", which mixes a silica gelling agent into the electrolyte (silica-gel based lead-acid batteries used in portable radios from early 1930s were not fully sealed). This converts the formerly liquid interior of the cells into a semi-stiff paste, providing many of the same advantages of the AGM. Such designs are even less susceptible to evaporation and are often used in situations where little or no periodic maintenance is possible. Gel cells also have lower freezing and higher boiling points than the liquid electrolytes used in conventional wet cells and AGMs, which makes them suitable for use in extreme conditions.

text: The only downside to the gel design is that the gel prevents rapid motion of the ions in the electrolyte, which reduces carrier mobility and thus surge current capability. For this reason, gel cells are most commonly found in energy storage applications like off-grid systems.

text: "Maintenance free", "sealed" and "VRLA"[edit]

text: Both gel and AGM designs are sealed, do not require watering, can be used in any orientation, and use a valve for gas blowoff. For this reason, both designs can be called maintenance free, sealed and VRLA. However, it is quite common to find resources stating that these terms refer to one or another of these designs, specifically.

text: Applications[edit]

text: Most of the world's lead-acid batteries are automobile starting, lighting and ignition (SLI) batteries, with an estimated 320 million units shipped in 1999.[8] In 1992 about 3 million tons of lead were used in the manufacture of batteries.

text: Wet cell stand-by (stationary) batteries designed for deep discharge are commonly used in large backup power supplies for telephone and computer centres, grid energy storage, and off-grid household electric power systems.[20] Lead–acid batteries are used in emergency lighting and to power sump pumps in case of power failure.

text: Traction (propulsion) batteries are used in golf carts and other battery electric vehicles. Large lead-acid batteries are also used to power the electric motors in diesel-electric (conventional) submarines when submerged, and are used as emergency power on nuclear submarines as well. Valve-regulated lead acid batteries cannot spill their electrolyte. They are used in back-up power supplies for alarm and smaller computer systems (particularly in uninterruptible power supplies; UPS) and for electric scooters, electric wheelchairs, electrified bicycles, marine applications, battery electric vehicles or micro hybrid vehicles, and motorcycles.

text: Lead-acid batteries were used to supply the filament (heater) voltage, with 2 V common in early vacuum tube (valve) radio receivers.

text: Portable batteries for miners' cap lamps headlamps typically have two or three cells.[21]

text: Cycles[edit]

text: Starting batteries[edit]

text: Lead–acid batteries designed for starting automotive engines are not designed for deep discharge. They have a large number of thin plates designed for maximum surface area, and therefore maximum current output, but which can easily be damaged by deep discharge. Repeated deep discharges will result in capacity loss and ultimately in premature failure, as the electrodes disintegrate due to mechanical stresses that arise from cycling. Starting batteries kept on continuous float charge will have corrosion in the electrodes which will result in premature failure. Starting batteries should be kept open circuit but charged regularly (at least once every two weeks) to prevent sulfation.

text: Starting batteries are lighter weight than deep cycle batteries of the same battery dimensions, because the cell plates do not extend all the way to the bottom of the battery case. This allows loose disintegrated lead to fall off the plates and collect under the cells, to prolong the service life of the battery. If this loose debris rises high enough it can touch the plates and lead to failure of a cell, resulting in loss of battery voltage and capacity.

text: Deep-cycle batteries[edit]

text: Specially designed deep-cycle cells are much less susceptible to degradation due to cycling, and are required for applications where the batteries are regularly discharged, such as photovoltaic systems, electric vehicles (forklift, golf cart, electric cars and other) and uninterruptible power supplies. These batteries have thicker plates that can deliver less peak current, but can withstand frequent discharging.[22]

text: Some batteries are designed as a compromise between starter (high-current) and deep cycle batteries. They are able to be discharged to a greater degree than automotive batteries, but less so than deep cycle batteries. They may be referred to as "marine/motorhome" batteries, or "leisure batteries".

text: Fast and slow charge and discharge[edit]

text: The capacity of a lead–acid battery is not a fixed quantity but varies according to how quickly it is discharged. An empirical relationship between discharge rate and capacity is known as Peukert's law.

text: When a battery is charged or discharged, only the reacting chemicals, which are at the interface between the electrodes and the electrolyte, are initially affected. With time, the charge stored in the chemicals at the interface, often called "interface charge" or "surface charge", spreads by diffusion of these chemicals throughout the volume of the active material.

text: Consider a battery that has been completely discharged (such as occurs when leaving the car lights on overnight, a current draw of about 6 amps). If it then is given a fast charge for only a few minutes, the battery plates charge only near the interface between the plates and the electrolyte. In this case the battery voltage might rise to a value near that of the charger voltage; this causes the charging current to decrease significantly. After a few hours this interface charge will spread to the volume of the electrode and electrolyte; this leads to an interface charge so low that it may be insufficient to start the car.[23] As long as the charging voltage stays below the gassing voltage (about 14.4 volts in a normal lead–acid battery), battery damage is unlikely, and in time the battery should return to a nominally charged state.

text: Valve regulated (VRLA)[edit]

text: In a valve regulated lead acid battery (VRLA) the hydrogen and oxygen produced in the cells largely recombine into water. Leakage is minimal, although some electrolyte still escapes if the recombination cannot keep up with gas evolution. Since VRLA batteries do not require (and make impossible) regular checking of the electrolyte level, they have been called maintenance free batteries. However, this is somewhat of a misnomer. VRLA cells do require maintenance. As electrolyte is lost, VRLA cells "dry-out" and lose capacity. This can be detected by taking regular internal resistance, conductance or impedance measurements. Regular testing reveals whether more involved testing and maintenance is required. Recent maintenance procedures have been developed allowing "rehydration", often restoring significant amounts of lost capacity.

text: VRLA types became popular on motorcycles around 1983,[24] because the acid electrolyte is absorbed into the separator, so it cannot spill.[25] The separator also helps them better withstand vibration. They are also popular in stationary applications such as telecommunications sites, due to their small footprint and installation flexibility.[26]

text: The electrical characteristics of VRLA batteries differ somewhat from wet-cell lead–acid batteries, requiring caution in charging and discharging.[clarification needed]

text: Sulfation and desulfation[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Lead–acid batteries lose the ability to accept a charge when discharged for too long due to sulfation, the crystallization of lead sulfate.[27] They generate electricity through a double sulfate chemical reaction. Lead and lead dioxide, the active materials on the battery's plates, react with sulfuric acid in the electrolyte to form lead sulfate. The lead sulfate first forms in a finely divided, amorphous state, and easily reverts to lead, lead dioxide and sulfuric acid when the battery recharges. As batteries cycle through numerous discharges and charges, some lead sulfate is not recombined into electrolyte and slowly converts to a stable crystalline form that no longer dissolves on recharging. Thus, not all the lead is returned to the battery plates, and the amount of usable active material necessary for electricity generation declines over time.

text: Sulfation occurs in lead–acid batteries when they are subjected to insufficient charging during normal operation. It impedes recharging; sulfate deposits ultimately expand, cracking the plates and destroying the battery. Eventually so much of the battery plate area is unable to supply current that the battery capacity is greatly reduced. In addition, the sulfate portion (of the lead sulfate) is not returned to the electrolyte as sulfuric acid. It is believed that large crystals physically block the electrolyte from entering the pores of the plates. Sulfation can be avoided if the battery is fully recharged immediately after a discharge cycle.[28] A white coating on the plates may be visible (in batteries with clear cases, or after dismantling the battery). Batteries that are sulfated show a high internal resistance and can deliver only a small fraction of normal discharge current. Sulfation also affects the charging cycle, resulting in longer charging times, less efficient and incomplete charging, and higher battery temperatures.

text: SLI batteries (starting, lighting, ignition; i.e., car batteries) suffer most deterioration because vehicles normally stand unused for relatively long periods of time. Deep cycle and motive power batteries are subjected to regular controlled overcharging, eventually failing due to corrosion of the positive plate grids rather than sulfation.

text: There are no known, independently verified ways to reverse sulfation.[8][29] There are commercial products claiming to achieve desulfation through various techniques (such as pulse charging), but there are no peer-reviewed publications verifying their claims. Sulfation prevention remains the best course of action, by periodically fully charging the lead-acid batteries.

text: Stratification[edit]

text: A typical lead–acid battery contains a mixture with varying concentrations of water and acid. Sulfuric acid has a higher density than water, which causes the acid formed at the plates during charging to flow downward and collect at the bottom of the battery. Eventually the mixture will again reach uniform composition by diffusion, but this is a very slow process. Repeated cycles of partial charging and discharging will increase stratification of the electrolyte, reducing the capacity and performance of the battery because the lack of acid on top limits plate activation. The stratification also promotes corrosion on the upper half of the plates and sulfation at the bottom.[30]

text: Periodic overcharging creates gaseous reaction products at the plate, causing convection currents which mix the electrolyte and resolve the stratification. Mechanical stirring of the electrolyte would have the same effect. Batteries in moving vehicles are also subject to sloshing and splashing in the cells, as the vehicle accelerates, brakes, and turns.

text: Risk of explosion[edit]

text: Excessive charging causes electrolysis, emitting hydrogen and oxygen. This process is known as "gassing". Wet cells have open vents to release any gas produced, and VRLA batteries rely on valves fitted to each cell. Catalytic caps are available for flooded cells to recombine hydrogen and oxygen. A VRLA cell normally recombines any hydrogen and oxygen produced inside the cell, but malfunction or overheating may cause gas to build up. If this happens (for example, on overcharging) the valve vents the gas and normalizes the pressure, producing a characteristic acid smell. However, valves can fail, such as if dirt and debris accumulate, allowing pressure to build up.

text: Accumulated hydrogen and oxygen sometimes ignite in an internal explosion. The force of the explosion can cause the battery's casing to burst, or cause its top to fly off, spraying acid and casing fragments. An explosion in one cell may ignite any combustible gas mixture in the remaining cells. Similarly, in a poorly ventilated area, connecting or disconnecting a closed circuit (such as a load or a charger) to the battery terminals can also cause sparks and an explosion, if any gas was vented from the cells.

text: Individual cells within a battery can also short circuit, causing an explosion.

text: The cells of VRLA batteries typically swell when the internal pressure rises. The deformation varies from cell to cell, and is greater at the ends where the walls are unsupported by other cells. Such over-pressurized batteries should be carefully isolated and discarded. Personnel working near batteries at risk for explosion should protect their eyes and exposed skin from burns due to spraying acid and fire by wearing a face shield, overalls, and gloves. Using goggles instead of a face shield sacrifices safety by leaving the face exposed to possible flying acid, case or battery fragments, and heat from a potential explosion.

text: Environment[edit]

text: Environmental concerns[edit]

text: According to a 2003 report entitled "Getting the Lead Out", by Environmental Defense and the Ecology Center of Ann Arbor, Michigan, the batteries of vehicles on the road contained an estimated 2,600,000 metric tons (2,600,000 long tons; 2,900,000 short tons) of lead. Some lead compounds are extremely toxic. Long-term exposure to even tiny amounts of these compounds can cause brain and kidney damage, hearing impairment, and learning problems in children.[31] The auto industry uses over 1,000,000 metric tons (980,000 long tons; 1,100,000 short tons) every year, with 90% going to conventional lead–acid vehicle batteries. While lead recycling is a well-established industry, more than 40,000 metric tons (39,000 long tons; 44,000 short tons) ends up in landfills every year. According to the federal Toxic Release Inventory, another 70,000 metric tons (69,000 long tons; 77,000 short tons) are released in the lead mining and manufacturing process.[32]

text: Attempts are being made to develop alternatives (particularly for automotive use) because of concerns about the environmental consequences of improper disposal and of lead smelting operations, among other reasons. Alternatives are unlikely to displace them for applications such as engine starting or backup power systems, since the batteries, although heavy, are low-cost.

text: Recycling[edit]

text: Lead–acid battery recycling is one of the most successful recycling programs in the world. In the United States 99% of all battery lead was recycled between 2009 and 2013.[33] An effective pollution control system is a necessity to prevent lead emission. Continuous improvement in battery recycling plants and furnace designs is required to keep pace with emission standards for lead smelters.

text: Additives[edit]

text: Chemical additives have been used ever since the lead–acid battery became a commercial item, to reduce lead sulfate build up on plates and improve battery condition when added to the electrolyte of a vented lead–acid battery. Such treatments are rarely, if ever, effective.[34]

text: Two compounds used for such purposes are Epsom salts and EDTA. Epsom salts reduces the internal resistance in a weak or damaged battery and may allow a small amount of extended life. EDTA can be used to dissolve the sulfate deposits of heavily discharged plates. However, the dissolved material is then no longer available to participate in the normal charge/discharge cycle, so a battery temporarily revived with EDTA will have a reduced life expectancy. Residual EDTA in the lead–acid cell forms organic acids which will accelerate corrosion of the lead plates and internal connectors.

text: The active materials change physical form during charge/discharge, resulting in growth and distortion of the electrodes, and shedding of electrode into the electrolyte. Once the active material has fallen out of the plates, it cannot be restored into position by any chemical treatment. Similarly, internal physical problems such as cracked plates, corroded connectors, or damaged separators cannot be restored chemically.

text: Corrosion problems[edit]

text: Corrosion of the external metal parts of the lead–acid battery results from a chemical reaction of the battery terminals, lugs and connectors.

text: Corrosion on the positive terminal is caused by electrolysis, due to a mismatch of metal alloys used in the manufacture of the battery terminal and cable connector. White corrosion is usually lead or zinc sulfate crystals. Aluminum connectors corrode to aluminum sulfate. Copper connectors produce blue and white corrosion crystals. Corrosion of a battery's terminals can be reduced by coating the terminals with petroleum jelly or a commercially available product made for the purpose.[35]

text: If the battery is over-filled with water and electrolyte, thermal expansion can force some of the liquid out of the battery vents onto the top of the battery. This solution can then react with the lead and other metals in the battery connector and cause corrosion.

text: The electrolyte can seep from the plastic-to-lead seal where the battery terminals penetrate the plastic case.

text: Acid fumes that vaporize through the vent caps, often caused by overcharging, and insufficient battery box ventilation can allow the sulfuric acid fumes to build up and react with the exposed metals.

text: Maintenance precautions[edit]

text: Ammonia can neutralize spilled battery acid. Surplus ammonia and water evaporate, leaving an ammonium sulfate residue. Sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) is also commonly used for this purpose.

text: Sizing nomenclature[edit]

text: With the broad range of possible electrical attributes, a part number nomenclature is used by many battery manufacturers to convey basic information such as voltage, ampere-hour capacity, and terminals.[36] The format follows a pattern such as <mfr><voltage><capacity>.

text:
Part number
Manufacturer
Voltage (V)
Capacity (Ah)

AP12-24
Avon Battery
12
24.0

NB12-18HR
National Battery
12
18.0

TB12100
Tenergy
12
10.0

CBL18-12
Canbat Batteries
12
18.0

SP12-18HR
Sigmas Battery Tek
12
18.0

UB12180
Universal Power Group
12
18.0

text: Some vendors append a suffix, indicating the terminal types, terminal locations, and battery dimensions. Batteries for passenger motor vehicles usually use BCI sizing nomenclature.[37]