document_title: Advance Auto Parts Clash

question_text: who gets to race in the daytona clash

question_tokens: who gets to race in the daytona clash

root

text: Advance Auto Parts Clash

text: Background and history[edit]

text: The event was first known as the Busch Clash and was the brain child of Monty Roberts. Roberts was the brand manager of the newly formed Busch Beer (which had formerly been Busch Bavarian Beer). And the race was seen as a way to promote the new brand. Roberts had been successful introducing Mercury into racing while working at Ford, and had also been a part of Ontario Motor Speedway. His experiences led him to believe that racing fans were loyal brand followers. The initial format was set up as a 50-mile sprint race, with no pit stops, with a field consisting of the previous season's pole position winners. Inviting the fastest drivers from the previous season headlined the event as the "fastest race" of the season. The race established an incentive for drivers to earn pole positions during the NASCAR season, which up to that time, still offered relatively tiny cash prizes. Likewise, at no time have pole winners earned bonus championship points.

tag: p

text: The event was also seen as a way to expand the Speedweeks activities leading up to the Daytona 500. Previously, the weekend before the Daytona 500 featured only minor support events, and the Winston Cup competitors ordinarily would not have taken to the track until Wednesday. The Busch Clash allowed the Winston Cup regulars to kick off the week live on CBS.

text: The 1987 race, won by Bill Elliott was completed at an average speed of 197.802 mph. It stands as the fastest sanctioned race in the history of NASCAR (though it was not an official points-paying event).

text: The 2013 race (renamed the Sprint Unlimited at Daytona) introduced a new format incorporating the results of fan voting into certain aspects of the race.[1][2]

text: In 2017, the race was renamed the Advance Auto Parts Clash after Advance Auto Parts signed a multi-year deal to sponsor the event.[3] The 2017 race was delayed to Sunday due to persistent rain, marking the first time the race has been run during the day since 2006.

text: Race format[edit]

text: The race consisted of a single twenty-lap (50-mile) green flag sprint with no pit stops required. Caution flag laps would not count.

text: The race was broken into two ten-lap, green flag segments. The field was then inverted for the second ten-lap segment. Prize money was awarded for both segments for all positions. The race was broken up into two segments mainly because it had been lacking competitiveness since restrictor plates were introduced in 1988. The inversion rule added some needed excitement to the event, but its popularity continued to wane.

text: The event was renamed the Bud Shootout, and consisted of two 25-lap (62.5-mile) races, the Bud Shootout Qualifier at 11 am, and the Bud Shootout itself at 12 pm. One two-tire pit stop was required for each race. The winner of the qualifier advanced to the main event.

text: The event was renamed the Budweiser Shootout and expanded to a new distance, 70 laps (175 miles). Caution laps would be counted, but the finish had to be under green, with the Truck Series green-white-checker rule used if necessary. A minimum of one two-tire green flag pit stop was required. The Bud Shootout Qualifier was discontinued because second round qualifying for Cup races had been eliminated.

text: The race was broken up into two segments: a 20-lap segment, followed by a ten-minute intermission, concluding with a 50-lap second segment. While a pit stop was no longer required by rule, a reduction in fuel cell size (from 22 gallons to 13.5 gallons) made a fuel stop necessary. (In 2007, fuel cells were expanded to 18.5 gallons.) Many drivers also changed two tires during their fuel stop, as the time required to fuel the car allowed for a two-tire change without additional delay.

text: The first segment was expanded to 25 laps, followed by the 50-lap second segment. The total race distance was 75 laps (187.5 miles).

text: The race was divided into three segments (30 laps, 25 laps, 20-laps), with online fan voting deciding certain aspects of the race specifics (lengths of the segments, requirements for mandatory pit stops, number of drivers eliminated, etc.)[1] The total race distance was 75 laps (187.5 miles). For 2013, the vote resulted in a mandatory four-tire pit stop, and no cars were eliminated. For 2014, voting set the starting lineup per final practice speeds and required mandatory pit stops after the second segment.

text: Race eligibility[edit]

text:
1979–1997: Pole position winners from the previous season clinched automatic berths. The drivers that were the fastest qualifiers for the previous year's races' during Busch Second Round Qualifying were eligible for one wild card spot. The wild card driver was selected by blind draw during the week of the NASCAR awards banquet or during the January media tour.

From 1995–1996, the winner of the most pole positions in the secondary NASCAR Busch Series won an entry into the Busch Clash, driving a Busch-sponsored car. David Green won the right both times.

1998–2000: Pole position winners from the previous season clinched automatic berths. Drivers eligible from Second Round Qualifying participated in the Bud Shootout Qualifier, with the winner advancing to the main event Bud Shootout.
2001: Pole position winners from the previous season clinched automatic berths. In addition, all former winners of the event not already qualified received automatic berths. NASCAR eliminated second round qualifying beginning in 2001 and the Shootout Qualifier was eliminated. For the 2001 Shootout only, the drivers eligible from second round qualifying of 2000 events were placed in a blind draw for the final wild card starting position, as had been done from 1979–1997.
2002–2008: Pole position winners from the previous season clinched automatic berths. All former winners of the event not already qualified received automatic berths.
2009: The field consists of 28 cars. The top six teams from each manufacturer (Ford, Chevrolet, Dodge, and Toyota) based on owners' points from the previous season clinch berths, for a total of 24 cars. Previous season's pole position winners no longer were a qualifying factor. Unlike previous formats, the entry receives the berth, not the driver. In addition, each of the four manufacturers receive one "wild card" berth for a car/driver not already qualified, to bring the grand total to 28 cars. The other four "entries" were for previous champions and past Shootout winners. This system was discarded after only one year as it was largely unpopular.
2010–2011: A new qualifying format was introduced, which expanded the field, with no size limitations:

The 12 drivers from the previous season's Chase
Previous Budweiser Shootout winners
Previous points-paying winners at Daytona (Daytona 500 or Coke Zero 400)
Previous Sprint Cup champions
The last 10 Rookies of year (in 2010, it was only the reigning rookie of the year)

2012: The field was once again expanded. Automatic bids went to the top 25 in series points (every driver from defending series champion Tony Stewart through 25th place Brian Vickers), as well as any Daytona race winner who was not otherwise qualified and who competed in at least one race in 2011 (which enabled Bill Elliott, Geoff Bodine, Derrike Cope, Michael Waltrip, Jamie McMurray, Trevor Bayne, Terry Labonte, and Ken Schrader to make the race if they decide to run).
2013–2014: The Unlimited format returned to the format used from 2002-2008, with all drivers who won pole positions via time trials (does not include winners of practice one, should qualifying not be held because of inclement weather) and previous Unlimited/Shootout winners that have attempted to qualify for any of the 36 points races in the previous season. Because of the new race sponsor, the beer sticker mandate was eliminated by the track.[4]
2015–2016: Eligibility was once again changed, with a minimum of 25 eligible entries.[5] Automatic eligibility now goes to:

The 16 drivers from the previous year's Chase; e.g. in the 2016 Unlimited, every driver from defending 2015 series champion Kyle Busch through 16th place Clint Bowyer qualified; with the exception of Jeff Gordon, who retired.
Drivers who won pole positions via knockout qualifying (excluding winners of practice one, should qualifying be rained out)
Previous Unlimited winners that attempted to qualify for any of the 36 points races in the previous season
Previous Daytona 500 front row starters (both inside and outside polesitters) if they did not win a pole position at any of the other 35 races during the previous season
Any remaining spots are filled by the highest drivers in the previous season's final point standings to not be automatically entered into the Unlimited on any of the other qualifications

2017–present:* Unlike previous years, the starting field for the 2017 Clash will not be a predetermined number of cars; rather, the field is limited to drivers who meet more exclusive criteria. Only drivers who were 2016 Pole Award winners, former Clash race winners, former Daytona 500 pole winners who competed full-time in 2016, and drivers who qualified for the 2016 Chase are eligible. It should be noted that in the 2017 Clash, Daniel Suarez was allowed to race since Joe Gibbs Racing already had a car prepared for Carl Edwards who surprisingly retired just a month before the race.

text: Race history[edit]

text:
1979: The race debuted on Sunday, broadcast live on CBS. Pole position qualifying for the Daytona 500 would start Sunday at 10 am, followed by the ARCA 200. The Busch Clash would be held after the ARCA race at 3 pm.
1980: Heavy winds during Daytona 500 pole qualifying delayed the proceedings and the ARCA 200 began 90 minutes later than scheduled. As 3 pm approached, the ARCA race was red flagged and halted so that the Busch Clash could be held as scheduled and be shown on live television. After the Clash was finished, the ARCA race resumed.
1981: Morning rain washed out Daytona 500 pole qualifying, which was rescheduled for the following day. After the track dried Sunday, the ARCA race began at 2:30 pm The Busch Clash, scheduled for 3 pm, was held following the delayed ARCA race.
1983: Rain washed out all scheduled activities for Sunday. The Busch Clash was rescheduled and run the following day, Monday.
1984: Ricky Rudd was spun off the track at turn four at a very high speed, resulting in a blowover, then a series of violent flips. Ricky suffered a concussion, and his eyes were so swollen that he had to tape them open so he could race in that Thursday's UNO Twin 125 and subsequent races. This practice is now illegal as a result of the "Dale Earnhardt, Jr. Rule" effective the 2014 season, mandating drivers take a concussion test, and Rudd would never have been approved to participate in subsequent races for a few weeks under current rules.
1985: Track officials reorganized the schedule for track activities for the weekend. Daytona 500 pole qualifying was moved from Sunday to Saturday, and the Busch Clash was moved from 3 pm to 12 pm on Sunday. The ARCA 200 was then held after the Busch Clash rather than before.
1992: For one year, Daytona 500 pole qualifying and the Busch Clash swapped days. The Busch Clash was held Saturday, and qualifying was held Sunday. This move was made at the request of CBS, who wanted the additional time on Sunday for their coverage of the 1992 Winter Olympics.
1995: Morning rain delayed the start by 30 minutes.
2001: FOX broadcasts the race for the first time. It also marked the first race televised on Fox. The start time was shifted to 2 pm on Sundays.
2002: TNT broadcast the race for the first time.
2003: The race was run at night for the first time.
2004: A crash at the final lap resulted in controversy. A 2003 incident at Loudon involving Dale Jarrett and Casey Mears had resulted in the banning of racing back to the caution. In this case, NASCAR did not wave the caution at the end of the race despite a crash involving Ryan Newman and Jamie McMurray, and allow the race to run to the finish, creating a potentially dangerous situation. Ironically, Dale Jarrett won the race.
2005: The ARCA race was stopped for 45 minutes because of repairs to the catchfencing, and was stopped 15 laps short in order to prepare for the Budweiser Shootout.
2006: The event was postponed from Saturday night to Sunday afternoon due to rain. This was also the first shootout to feature the green-white-checkered finish. Denny Hamlin became the first rookie to win the event in 2006 in his #11 car.
2007: Tony Stewart won the race for the third time driving his No. 20 car. It was the second win in a row for Joe Gibbs Racing because Denny Hamlin won in 2006.
2008: Dale Earnhardt, Jr. won the race for the second time, and won in his first start with Hendrick Motorsports. He also made the record of leading the most laps, 47, during the shootout.
2009: Kevin Harvick, won the race for the first time on a last-lap pass reminiscent of his 2007 Daytona 500 last-lap pass on Mark Martin. This time however Harvick passed Jamie McMurray in Turn 3 for the win as an accident would occur behind Harvick, also the same scenario happened in the 500 for Harvick.
2010: All Daytona 500 qualifying weekend activity was moved to Saturday, as not to conflict with Super Bowl XLIV. Daytona 500 qualifying started at 12 noon, then the ARCA Lucas Oil Slick Mist 200 at 4:30 pm, and the Budweiser Shootout was held at 8 pm. Kevin Harvick won the race for the second time in a row, becoming the first driver to win it consecutively since Tony Stewart. A crash caused by Jeff Gordon during the one attempt at the green-white-checkered finish led the race to finish under caution.
2011: Kurt Busch won the race in a complicated finish. For the last few laps, a lead pack of 4 cars ran single file, with Ryan Newman in the lead, followed by Denny Hamlin, then Busch, and then Jamie McMurray. Coming out of Turn 4 on the final lap, Busch and McMurray pulled to the outside, while Denny Hamlin pulled to the inside. Hamlin took the lead from Newman under the yellow line, which is prohibited at Daytona and Talladega. Busch and McMurray could not get to the line quick enough, so at first it seemed that Hamlin had won with 2-4 being Busch, McMurray and Newman, but after reviewing the footage, Hamlin was dropped to the last car on the lead lap, in 13th, and all other drivers on the lead lap gained a position, giving Busch the win.
2012: Kyle Busch won the race after passing Tony Stewart at the finish line.[6] It was the closest finish in Bud Shootout history. The race itself, being the first Sprint Cup event under a new rules package designed to break up the controversial two-car tandem drafting of the previous year, was marked by three multi-car crashes during the race caused by drivers getting into the left-rear quarter panel of another car. The first crash happened in the first 25 lap segment when Paul Menard got into David Ragan in turn 2, starting an eight car crash. The drivers involved were: Kasey Kahne, Denny Hamlin, Matt Kenseth, Paul Menard, Jeff Burton, David Ragan, Juan Pablo Montoya and Michael Waltrip. The second one happened on lap 55, also in turn 2. This one started when Marcos Ambrose turned Joey Logano loose. Several other drivers were collected trying to avoid Logano, including Kenseth, Martin Truex, Jr., Dale Earnhardt, Jr. and Kevin Harvick. Harvick's brakes failed, and he ended up coasting down the apron with flames coming out from under his car, though they extinguished themselves before Harvick reached the garage. A third crash happened with two laps to go within regulation, when Jeff Gordon got into the back of eventual winner Kyle Busch on turn 4. While Kyle retained control of his car, Gordon shot up the banking and collected Jimmie Johnson, Jamie McMurray and Kurt Busch, and turned sideways on the driver's side door. Gordon was pushed down the track on his side for several hundred feet before his car barrel-rolled three times and came to a rest on his roof.
2013: Kevin Harvick won for the third time in the race. This was the first time the event was named the Sprint Unlimited. This race also marked the debut of the Sixth Generation car.
2014: Denny Hamlin won his second Unlimited by overtaking Brad Keselowski with drafting help from Kyle Busch with two laps to go. The first race under a new rules package that included a slightly taller spoiler, there were numerous wrecks, including a frightening wreck on lap 35 when Matt Kenseth was turned by Joey Logano in the trioval, collecting Kevin Harvick, Kurt Busch, Tony Stewart, Danica Patrick, Jeff Gordon, Carl Edwards and Ricky Stenhouse, Jr., which saw Stenhouse's car first drive under Busch's rear wheels, lose its brakes and steering, before t-boning Patrick on the apron. The race also saw an incident during the break between the second and third segments in which the pace car managed to catch fire. There were 16 lead changes among seven drivers.
2015: Matt Kenseth won the race with Martin Truex, Jr. challenging in the final laps. Brad Keselowski crashed hard on the front straight at lap 25, and Jamie McMurray caused the big one later in the race. After the race, defending series champion Kevin Harvick and Joey Logano were involved in an altercation after Logano's 22 sent Harvick's 4 into the turn four wall coming to the white flag.
2016: Hamlin took command of the field and moved ahead of the No. 2 car. Eventually, Keselowski moved by him coming to the line and took the lead on lap 34. Hamlin shot ahead of Keselowski on the backstretch to take the lead back the next lap. Keselowski used a push from teammate Joey Logano to retake the lead on lap 37. Just like his first stint in the lead, he picked up another piece of debris that covered his grill. The third caution of the race flew on lap 44 for a single-car spin on the backstretch. Going down the backstretch, Johnson made contact with Mears that sent him spinning through the grass.[7] His car dug into the ground and ripped off the front fender.[7] He said afterwards that he "did a decent job of backing out of there and not causing a big one as the door shut on me."[8] Keselowski opted to stay out while the rest of the field opted to pit, The race restarted with two laps to go in overtime, The field passed the overtime line and the race was official at that point. After a multi-car wreck in turn 1, Hamlin was declared the race winner.[9]
2017: For just the second time in the event's history, the race was postponed from Saturday Night to Sunday Afternoon due to rain. Kurt Busch lasted just shy of 20 laps as Jimmie Johnson got loose off of turn 4 and spun Busch. Denny Hamlin dominated and looked to be on his way to his fourth win in the event leading 48 laps. After leading at the white flag, Brad Keselowski made a move to the inside that Hamlin left open, which led to Hamlin driving into Keselowski in a failed attempt to block him, ultimately ending their chances at winning. As the collision happened, Keselowski's teammate Joey Logano was able to avoid the incident on the high side and ultimately won the event for the first time in his career over Kyle Busch and Alex Bowman. Danica Patrick managed to finish 4th after running 10th at the white flag.
2018: Unlike all the other years, except for 2006 and 2017, the race was held on Sunday Afternoon. The race saw only two caution flags, one for the end of the segment, and the other caused by Jamie McMurray crashing in turn 4 after contact with Kurt Busch on lap 34. He would ultimately be the only one not running at the end of the race. This was the first race where crew members only allow five men over the wall instead of six, with the fastest pit stop going to Kurt Busch at 16.9 seconds. Brad Keselowski would win his first Clash race as a big wreck happened on the last lap where Kyle Larson turns Jimmie Johnson into the outside wall on the back straightaway collecting Kyle Busch, Chase Elliott, Kasey Kahne, and Martin Truex, Jr.

text: Race notes[edit]

text:
Six times the winner of the Clash at Daytona has gone on to win the Daytona 500 the following weekend: Bobby Allison (1982), Bill Elliott (1987), Dale Jarrett (1996, 2000), Jeff Gordon (1997), and Denny Hamlin (2016).
Though there have been drivers who have won all three of the Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series events of Speedweeks at Daytona – the Clash at Daytona, the Can-Am Duel, and the Daytona 500 – there has not yet been a driver who won all three events in the same year. Twice, an Earnhardt won two of the events, but came up short by losing to Dale Jarrett in the third: in 2004, Dale Earnhardt, Jr. won the Budweiser Duel and the Daytona 500, but finished second to Jarrett in the Unlimited. In 1993, Dale Earnhardt won the Unlimited and the Budweiser Duel, but finished second to Jarrett in the Daytona 500. In 2014, Denny Hamlin joined this group, winning the Unlimited and the second Duel race, but losing to Dale Earnhardt, Jr. in the 500.
While it was still named the Busch Clash, on two occasions, the race had the year in its official title. The Busch Clash of '89 and the Busch Clash of '93 were the respective advertised titles.
From 1979 until 2008, the drivers themselves qualified as eligible for the Budweiser Shootout, not the teams. If an eligible driver for the upcoming Shootout switches teams in the off-season, the driver, not the team, is eligible for the race. That driver competes in the race with his new team.
Until 2008, drivers who win the pole award at a race must have had an Anheuser-Busch decal (the Busch brand from 1979–1997, and the Budweiser brand 1998–2007), or the corporate logo affixed to their car (for drivers under 21 years of age) at the time in order to earn the berth for the Budweiser Shootout. If the car does not carry the sticker, the Budweiser Pole Award goes to the next car eligible, but the driver which wins the Budweiser Pole Award does not earn a Shootout spot.

In 1998, John Andretti was eligible to race in the Bud Shootout for having won a pole position in 1997 racing for Cale Yarborough. In the off-season, Andretti switched to Petty Enterprises, which was not allowed to participate, since they chose not affix the proper decals to their cars – it was Petty family tradition to not permit alcohol decals or sponsorship on their cars. Andretti participated in the race in a one-off ride with Hendrick Motorsports. (Ricky Craven, the regular driver for Hendrick's Budweiser-sponsored Chevrolet, did not qualify for the race; Andretti drove the Hendrick car, which carried the usual No. 25 instead of the No. 50 otherwise used by the team for NASCAR's 50-year celebration in 1998.)
Bobby Hamilton won the pole position for the 1997 Miller 400 racing for Petty Enterprises, but was not eligible for the 1998 Bud Shootout since the team chose not to affix the proper decal.
John Andretti won the pole position for the 1998 Primestar 500 racing for Petty Enterprises, but was not eligible for the 1999 Bud Shootout since the team chose not to affix the proper decal. Todd Bodine was the official winner of the Bud Pole Award by NASCAR rule, but not awarded a Budweiser Shootout position.
Jeff Green won the pole position for the 2003 Daytona 500 racing Richard Childress Racing's No. 30 AOL Chevrolet, but did not participate in the 2004 Budweiser Shootout. Green changed teams twice in 2003 ending up in the No. 43 Petty Enterprises Dodge (which he also signed to drive in 2004). As usual, since the team chose not to affix the proper decal the No. 43 was ineligible for the Shootout. Green could have driven for another team, but chose not to do so.
Aric Almirola drove the Richard Petty Motorsports No. 43, which does not have the (since 2008) Molson Coors Brewing Company-provided Pole Award sticker (Coors Light or Coors Brewing 21 Means 21), per Petty policy. With InBev withdrawing sponsorship of the Shootout, the 2013 Shootout does not have an alcohol sticker mandate, the circuit he will be in the first race of the new 2013 format.

Drivers must carry a special decal without the alcohol brand if they are under 21 years of age, but could race in the Shootout. Drivers must be 21 or older to wear alcohol decals, and those under 21 must wear a special sticker, which during Anheuser-Busch era was a corporate logo Pole Award sticker, without any brand indication, and since Molson's Coors Light took over in 2008, a "Coors Brewing Company 21 Means 21" sticker. Special stickers are made to cover up alcohol for such drivers, which has happened four times recently.

On May 14, 2004, 20-year-old Brian Vickers won the pole at Richmond in the Chevy American Revolution 400.
On September 3, 2004, Vickers won the pole at the Pop Secret 500 at Fontana.
On February 26, 2005, 19-year-old Kyle Busch won his first pole at the very same race in Fontana.
On April 20, 2006, Busch won the pole at Avondale, Arizona at 20 years, 353 days.

Until the end of the 2012 season, drivers under 21 were not permitted to participate in formal activities relating to the race, such as the draw for position and other activities such as conferences related to the race because of the alcohol sponsorship. In those cases, the crew chief will participate in such activities. The abolition of the alcohol sponsorship eliminates the rule.

In the 2005 Shootout (Vickers under age), Lance McGrew, who was the new crew chief for Vickers that season, participated in the Shootout draw.
In the 2006 Shootout (Busch under age), Alan Gustafson participated in the Shootout draw.
Beginning in the 2009 Shootout (Joey Logano under age), Greg Zipadelli participated in the Shootout draw. Presumably, he will continue to do so until Logano turns 21; Logano himself can participate in the draw beginning in 2012.

Dale Jarrett (2000) and Tony Stewart (2002, 2007) are the only drivers to win the Budweiser Shootout without having won a pole position the previous year. Jarrett advanced to the Shootout by winning the Bud Shootout Qualifier, and Stewart was eligible for the Shootout via the 2001 rule change adding a lifetime exemption for former winners.
2006 Shootout winner Denny Hamlin was the first rookie to win the event. He had won the pole at Phoenix in a seven-race tryout for Joe Gibbs Racing to find a driver for the FedEx No. 11 car late in the 2005 NASCAR Nextel Cup Series season. A driver can make up to five (until 2000) or seven (since 2001) starts in a season, or run portions of a season and not be declared in that series (since 2011), without giving up their eligibility to be a rookie in that series.

text: Past winners[edit]

text:
Year
Date
No.
Driver
Team
Manufacturer
Race Distance
Race Time
Average Speed
(mph)
Report

Laps
Miles (km)

1979
February 11
28
Buddy Baker
Ranier-Lundy
Oldsmobile
20
50 (80.467)
0:15:26
194.384
Report

1980
February 10
2
Dale Earnhardt
Osterlund Racing
Oldsmobile
20
50 (80.467)
0:15:39
191.693
Report

1981
February 8
11
Darrell Waltrip
Junior Johnson & Associates
Buick
20
50 (80.467)
0:15:52
189.076
Report

1982
February 7
88
Bobby Allison
DiGard Motorsports
Buick
20
50 (80.467)
0:15:39
191.693
Report

1983
February 14*
75
Neil Bonnett
RahMoc Enterprises
Chevrolet
20
50 (80.467)
0:15:35
192.513
Report

1984
February 9
12
Neil Bonnett
Junior Johnson & Associates
Chevrolet
20
50 (80.467)
0:15:33
195.926
Report

1985
February 10
44
Terry Labonte
Hagan Racing
Chevrolet
20
50 (80.467)
0:15:19
195.865
Report

1986
February 8
3
Dale Earnhardt
Richard Childress Racing
Chevrolet
20
50 (80.467)
0:15:19
195.865
Report

1987
February 8
9
Bill Elliott
Melling Racing
Ford
20
50 (80.467)
0:15:10
197.802
Report

1988
February 7
3
Dale Earnhardt
Richard Childress Racing
Chevrolet
20
50 (80.467)
0:15:40
191.489
Report

1989
February 12
25
Ken Schrader
Hendrick Motorsports
Chevrolet
20
50 (80.467)
0:15:33
192.926
Report

1990
February 11
25
Ken Schrader
Hendrick Motorsports
Chevrolet
20
50 (80.467)
0:15:36
192.308
Report

1991*
February 10
3
Dale Earnhardt
Richard Childress Racing
Chevrolet
20
50 (80.467)
0:15:50
189.474
Report

1992*
February 8
15
Geoff Bodine
Bud Moore Engineering
Ford
20
50 (80.467)
0:15:52
189.076
Report

1993*
February 7
3
Dale Earnhardt
Richard Childress Racing
Chevrolet
20
50 (80.467)
0:16:03
186.916
Report

1994*
February 13
24
Jeff Gordon
Hendrick Motorsports
Chevrolet
20
50 (80.467)
0:15:53
188.877
Report

1995*
February 12
3
Dale Earnhardt
Richard Childress Racing
Chevrolet
20
50 (80.467)
0:15:55
188.482
Report

1996*
February 11
88
Dale Jarrett
Robert Yates Racing
Ford
20
50 (80.467)
0:16:13
184.995
Report

1997*
February 9
24
Jeff Gordon
Hendrick Motorsports
Chevrolet
20
50 (80.467)
0:16:11
185.376
Report

1998
February 8
2
Rusty Wallace
Penske Racing
Ford
25
62.5 (100.584)
0:20:57
178.998
Report

1999
February 7
6
Mark Martin
Roush Racing
Ford
25
62.5 (100.584)
0:20:38
181.745
Report

2000
February 13
88
Dale Jarrett
Robert Yates Racing
Ford
25
62.5 (100.584)
0:20:34
182.334
Report

2001
February 11
20
Tony Stewart
Joe Gibbs Racing
Pontiac
70
175 (281.635)
0:58:00
181.036
Report

2002
February 10
20
Tony Stewart
Joe Gibbs Racing
Pontiac
70
175 (281.635)
0:57:55
181.295
Report

2003
February 8
8
Dale Earnhardt Jr.
Dale Earnhardt, Inc.
Chevrolet
70
175 (281.635)
0:58:04
180.827
Report

2004
February 7
88
Dale Jarrett
Robert Yates Racing
Ford
70
175 (281.635)
1:09:37
150.826
Report

2005
February 12
48
Jimmie Johnson
Hendrick Motorsports
Chevrolet
70
175 (281.635)
0:57:53
181.399
Report

2006
February 12*
11
Denny Hamlin
Joe Gibbs Racing
Chevrolet
72*
180 (289.681)
1:10:18
153.627
Report

2007
February 10
20
Tony Stewart
Joe Gibbs Racing
Chevrolet
70
175 (281.635)
1:03:12
166.195
Report

2008
February 9
88
Dale Earnhardt Jr.
Hendrick Motorsports
Chevrolet
70
175 (281.635)
1:14:36
140.751
Report

2009
February 7
29
Kevin Harvick
Richard Childress Racing
Chevrolet
78*
195 (313.822)
1:31:57
127.243
Report

2010
February 6
29
Kevin Harvick
Richard Childress Racing
Chevrolet
76*
190 (305.775)
1:18:48
144.742
Report

2011
February 12
22
Kurt Busch
Penske Racing
Dodge
75
187.5 (301.752)
1:13:15
153.584
Report

2012
February 18
18
Kyle Busch
Joe Gibbs Racing
Toyota
82*
205 (329.915)
1:39:07
124.096
Report

2013
February 16
29
Kevin Harvick
Richard Childress Racing
Chevrolet
75
187.5 (301.752)
1:03:22
177.538
Report

2014
February 15
11
Denny Hamlin
Joe Gibbs Racing
Toyota
75
187.5 (301.752)
1:18:35
143.16
Report

2015
February 14
20
Matt Kenseth
Joe Gibbs Racing
Toyota
75
187.5 (301.752)
1:22:59
135.569
Report

2016
February 13
11
Denny Hamlin
Joe Gibbs Racing
Toyota
79*
197.5 (317.845)
1:32:16
128.432
Report

2017
February 19*
22
Joey Logano
Team Penske
Ford
75
187.5 (301.752)
1:18:13
143.831
Report

2018
February 11
2
Brad Keselowski
Team Penske
Ford
75
187.5 (301.752)
1:06:19
169.641
Report

tag: table

text:
1983: Race postponed from Sunday to Monday due to rain.
2006 & 2017: Race postponed from Saturday night to Sunday afternoon due to rain.
2006, 2009, 2010, 2012, & 2016: Race extended due to an overtime.

text: Segment winners[edit]

text:
1991: Earnhardt won first 10-lap segment, and second 10-lap segment
1992: Sterling Marlin won first 10-lap segment, and Bodine won second 10-lap segment
1993: Earnhardt won first 10-lap segment, and second 10-lap segment
1994: Dale Earnhardt won first 10-lap segment, and Gordon won second 10-lap segment
1995: Jeff Gordon won first 10-lap segment, and Earnhardt won second 10-lap segment
1996: Sterling Marlin won first 10-lap segment, and Jarrett won second 10-lap segment
1997: Terry Labonte won first 10-lap segment, and Gordon won second 10-lap segment

text: Bud Shootout Qualifier[edit]

text:
Year
Date
Driver
Team
Manufacturer
Race Distance
Race Time
Average Speed
(mph)

Laps
Miles (km)

1998
February 8
Jimmy Spencer
Travis Carter Enterprises
Ford
25
62.5 (100.584)
0:20:50
180

1999
February 7
Mike Skinner
Richard Childress Racing
Chevrolet
25
62.5 (100.584)
0:20:56
179.14

2000
February 13
Dale Jarrett
Robert Yates Racing
Ford
25
62.5 (100.584)
0:20:43
181.014

text: Multiple winners (drivers)[edit]

text:
# Wins
Driver
Years Won

6
Dale Earnhardt
1980, 1986, 1988, 1991, 1993, 1995

3
Dale Jarrett
1996, 2000, 2004

Tony Stewart
2001, 2002, 2007

Kevin Harvick
2009, 2010, 2013

Denny Hamlin
2006, 2014, 2016

2
Neil Bonnett
1983, 1984

Ken Schrader
1989, 1990

Jeff Gordon
1994, 1997

Dale Earnhardt, Jr.
2003, 2008

text: Multiple winners (teams)[edit]

text:
# Wins
Team
Years Won

8
Richard Childress Racing
1986, 1988, 1991, 1993, 1995, 2009, 2010, 2013

Joe Gibbs Racing
2001, 2002, 2006, 2007, 2012, 2014, 2015, 2016

6
Hendrick Motorsports
1989, 1990, 1994, 1997, 2005, 2008

4
Team Penske
1998, 2011, 2017, 2018

3
Robert Yates Racing
1996, 2000, 2004

2
Junior Johnson & Associates
1981, 1984

text: Multiple winners (manufacturers)[edit]

text:
# Wins
Manufacturer
Years Won

20
Chevrolet
1983, 1984, 1985, 1986, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2013

9
Ford
1987, 1992, 1996, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2004, 2017, 2018

4
Toyota
2012, 2014, 2015, 2016

2
Oldsmobile
1979, 1980

Buick
1981, 1982

Pontiac
2001, 2002

text: Television broadcasters[edit]

text: Due to the nature of qualifying for the event (see above), several top NASCAR drivers were often excluded from the field in it first two decades. During its tenure on CBS, the Busch Clash telecast sometimes included a special guest color commentator(s), who was an active driver(s) on the circuit, but did not win a pole position the previous year, and thus was not in the field.

text:
Year
Network
Lap-by-lap
Color commentator(s)

1979
CBS
Ken Squier
David Hobbs

1980
CBS
Ken Squier
David Hobbs

1981
CBS
Ken Squier
David Hobbs

1982
CBS
Ken Squier
Richard Petty and A. J. Foyt

1983
CBS
Ken Squier
Richard Petty and A. J. Foyt

1984
CBS
Ken Squier
Ned Jarrett

1985
CBS
Ken Squier
Chris Economaki

1986
CBS
Ken Squier
Chris Economaki

1987
CBS
Ken Squier
Ned Jarrett

1988
CBS
Ken Squier
Ned Jarrett

1989
CBS
Ken Squier
Ned Jarrett

1990
CBS
Ken Squier
Ned Jarrett

1991
CBS
Ken Squier
Ned Jarrett

1992
CBS
Ken Squier
Ned Jarrett and Neil Bonnett

1993
CBS
Ken Squier
Ned Jarrett and Neil Bonnett

1994
CBS
Ken Squier
Ned Jarrett and Darrell Waltrip

1995
CBS
Ken Squier
Ned Jarrett and Darrell Waltrip

1996
CBS
Ken Squier
Ned Jarrett and Kenny Wallace

1997
CBS
Ken Squier
Ned Jarrett and Darrell Waltrip

1998
CBS
Mike Joy
Ned Jarrett and Buddy Baker

1999
CBS
Mike Joy
Ned Jarrett and Darrell Waltrip

2000
CBS
Mike Joy
Ned Jarrett and Buddy Baker

2001
Fox
Mike Joy
Darrell Waltrip and Larry McReynolds

2002
TNT
Allen Bestwick
Benny Parsons and Wally Dallenbach

2003
Fox
Mike Joy
Darrell Waltrip and Larry McReynolds

2004
TNT
Allen Bestwick
Benny Parsons and Wally Dallenbach

2005
Fox
Mike Joy
Darrell Waltrip and Larry McReynolds

2006
TNT
Bill Weber
Benny Parsons and Wally Dallenbach

2007
Fox
Mike Joy
Darrell Waltrip and Larry McReynolds

2008
Fox
Mike Joy
Darrell Waltrip and Larry McReynolds

2009
Fox
Mike Joy
Darrell Waltrip and Larry McReynolds

2010
Fox
Mike Joy
Darrell Waltrip and Larry McReynolds

2011
Fox
Mike Joy
Darrell Waltrip and Larry McReynolds

2012
Fox
Mike Joy
Darrell Waltrip and Larry McReynolds

2013
Fox
Mike Joy
Darrell Waltrip and Larry McReynolds

2014
FS1
Mike Joy
Michael Waltrip* and Larry McReynolds

2015
Fox
Mike Joy
Darrell Waltrip and Larry McReynolds

2016
Fox
Mike Joy
Darrell Waltrip and Jeff Gordon

2017
FS1
Mike Joy
Darrell Waltrip, Jeff Gordon and Dale Earnhardt, Jr.*

2018
FS1
Mike Joy
Darrell Waltrip and Jeff Gordon

text:
2014: Michael Waltrip filled in for Darrell Waltrip, who was recovering from gallbladder surgery.
2017: Dale Earnhardt, Jr. was a guest analyst. Alex Bowman drove his car after winning his first career pole at Phoenix in November 2016 as Earnhardt was recovering from a concussion after missing the second half of the 2016 season.

text: Bud Shootout Qualifying Race[edit]

text:
Year
Network
Lap-by-lap
Color commentator(s)

1998
ESPN
Bob Jenkins
Benny Parsons and Kyle Petty

1999
ESPN
Bob Jenkins
Benny Parsons and Kyle Petty

2000
ESPN
Bob Jenkins
Benny Parsons and Ray Evernham


document_title: Woolly mammoth

question_text: what kind of food did the woolly mammoth eat

question_tokens: what kind of food did the woolly mammoth eat

text: Woolly mammoth

text: Taxonomy[edit]

text: Remains of various extinct elephants were known by Europeans for centuries, but were generally interpreted, based on biblical accounts, as the remains of legendary creatures such as behemoths or giants. It was also theorised that they were remains of modern elephants that had been brought to Europe during the Roman Republic, for example the war elephants of Hannibal and Pyrrhus of Epirus, or animals that had wandered north.[1] The first woolly mammoth remains studied by European scientists were examined by Hans Sloane in 1728 and consisted of fossilised teeth and tusks from Siberia. Sloane was the first to recognise that the remains belonged to elephants.[2] Sloane turned to another biblical explanation for the presence of elephants in the Arctic, asserting that they had been buried during the Great Flood, and that Siberia had previously been tropical prior to a drastic climate change.[3] Others interpreted Sloane's conclusion slightly differently, arguing the flood had carried elephants from the Tropics to the Arctic. Sloane's paper was based on travellers' descriptions and a few scattered bones collected in Siberia and Britain. He discussed the question of whether or not the remains were from elephants, but drew no conclusions.[4] In 1738, the German zoologist Johann Philipp Breyne argued that mammoth fossils represented some kind of elephant. He could not explain why a tropical animal would be found in such a cold area as Siberia, and suggested that they might have been transported there by the Great Flood.[5] In 1796, the French anatomist Georges Cuvier was the first to identify the woolly mammoth remains not as modern elephants transported to the Arctic, but as an entirely new species. He argued this species had gone extinct and no longer existed, a concept that was not widely accepted at the time.[1][6]

text: Following Cuvier's identification, the German naturalist Johann Friedrich Blumenbach gave the woolly mammoth its scientific name, Elephas primigenius, in 1799, placing it in the same genus as the Asian elephant. This name is Latin for "first elephant". Cuvier coined the name Elephas mammonteus a few months later, but the former name was subsequently used.[7] In 1828, the British naturalist Joshua Brookes used the name Mammuthus borealis for woolly mammoth fossils in his collection that he put up for sale, thereby coining a new genus name.[8] It is unclear where and how the word "mammoth" originated. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, it comes from an old Vogul word mēmoŋt 'earth-horn'.[9] It may be a version of mehemot, the Arabic version of the biblical word "behemoth". Another possible origin is Estonian, where maa means earth, and mutt means mole. The word was first used in Europe during the early 17th century, when referring to maimanto tusks discovered in Siberia.[10] The American president Thomas Jefferson, who had a keen interest in palaeontology, was partially responsible for transforming the word mammoth from a noun describing the prehistoric elephant to an adjective describing anything of surprisingly large size. The first recorded use of the word as an adjective was in a description of a wheel of cheese (the "Cheshire Mammoth Cheese") given to Jefferson in 1802.[11]

text: The taxonomy of extinct elephants was complicated by the early 20th century, and in 1942, the American palaoentologist Henry Fairfield Osborn's posthumous monograph on the Proboscidea was published, wherein he used various taxon names that had previously been proposed for mammoth species, including replacing Mammuthus with Mammonteus, as he believed the former name to be invalidly published.[12] Mammoth taxonomy was simplified by various researchers from the 1970s onwards, all species were retained in the genus Mammuthus, and many proposed differences between species were instead interpreted as intraspecific variation.[13] Osborn chose two molars (found in Siberia and Osterode) from Blumenbach's collection at Göttingen University as the lectotype specimens for the woolly mammoth, since holotype designation was not practised in Blumenbach's time. The Russian palaeontologist Vera Gromova further proposed the former should be considered the lectotype with the latter as paralectotype. Both molars were thought lost by the 1980s, and the more complete "Taimyr mammoth" found in Siberia in 1948 was therefore proposed as the neotype specimen in 1990. Resolutions to historical issues about the validity of the genus name Mammuthus and the type species designation of E. primigenius were also proposed.[14] The paralectotype molar (specimen GZG.V.010.018) has since been located in the Göttingen University collection, identified by comparing it with Osborn's illustration of a cast.[7][15]

text: Evolution[edit]

text: The earliest known members of Proboscidea, the clade which contains modern elephants, existed about 55 million years ago around the Tethys Sea. The closest known relatives of the Proboscidea are the sirenians (dugongs and manatees) and the hyraxes (an order of small, herbivorous mammals). The family Elephantidae existed six million years ago in Africa and includes the modern elephants and the mammoths. Among many now extinct clades, the mastodon (Mammut) is only a distant relative of the mammoths, and part of the separate family Mammutidae, which diverged 25 million years before the mammoths evolved.[16] The following cladogram shows the placement of the genus Mammuthus among other proboscideans, based on characteristics of the hyoid bone in the neck:[17]

text:
Elephantimorpha

†Mammutidae (Mastodons)

Elephantida

†Gomphotheriidae (Gomphotheres)

Elephantoidea

†Stegodontidae (Stegodontids)

Elephantidae

Loxodonta (African elephants)

Elephantini

†Palaeoloxodon (Straight-tusked elephants)

Elephantina

Elephas (Asian elephants)

†Mammuthus (Mammoths)

text: In 2005, researchers assembled a complete mitochondrial genome profile of the woolly mammoth, which allowed them to trace the close evolutionary relationship between mammoths and Asian elephants (Elephas maximus).[18] A 2015 DNA review confirmed Asian elephants as the closest living relative of the woolly mammoth.[19] African elephants (Loxodonta africana) branched away from this clade around 6 million years ago, close to the time of the similar split between chimpanzees and humans. Before the publication of the Neanderthal genome, many researchers expected the first fully sequenced nuclear genome of an extinct species would be that of the mammoth.[20] A 2010 study confirmed these relationships, and suggested the mammoth and Asian elephant lineages diverged 5.8–7.8 million years ago, while African elephants diverged from an earlier common ancestor 6.6–8.8 million years ago.[21] In 2008, much of the woolly mammoth's chromosomal DNA was mapped. The analysis showed that the woolly mammoth and the African elephant are 98.55% to 99.40% identical.[22] The team mapped the woolly mammoth's nuclear genome sequence by extracting DNA from the hair follicles of both a 20,000-year-old mammoth retrieved from permafrost, and another that died 60,000 years ago.[23] In 2012, proteins were confidently identified for the first time, collected from a 43,000-year-old woolly mammoth.[24]

text: Since many remains of each species of mammoth are known from several localities, it is possible to reconstruct the evolutionary history of the genus through morphological studies. Mammoth species can be identified from the number of enamel ridges (or lamellar plates) on their molars; primitive species had few ridges, and the number increased gradually as new species evolved to feed on more abrasive food items. The crowns of the teeth became deeper in height and the skulls became taller to accommodate this. At the same time, the skulls became shorter from front to back to minimise the weight of the head.[25][26] The short and tall skulls of woolly and Columbian mammoths (Mammuthus columbi) are the culmination of this process.[27]

text: The first known members of the genus Mammuthus are the African species M. subplanifrons from the Pliocene, and M. africanavus from the Pleistocene. The former is thought to be the ancestor of later forms. Mammoths entered Europe around 3 million years ago. The earliest European mammoth has been named M. rumanus; it spread across Europe and China. Only its molars are known, which show that it had 8–10 enamel ridges. A population evolved 12–14 ridges, splitting off from and replacing the earlier type, becoming M. meridionalis about 2–1.7 million years ago. In turn, this species was replaced by the steppe mammoth (M. trogontherii) with 18–20 ridges, which evolved in eastern Asia around 1 million years ago.[25] The Columbian mammoth evolved from a population of M. trogontherii that had crossed the Bering Strait and entered North America about 1.5 million years ago; it retained a similar number of molar ridges. Mammoths derived from M. trogontherii evolved molars with 26 ridges 400,000 years ago in Siberia and became the woolly mammoth. Woolly mammoths entered North America about 100,000 years ago.[27]

text: Individuals and populations showing transitional morphologies between each of the mammoth species are known, and primitive and derived species coexisted as well until the former disappeared. The different species and their intermediate forms have therefore been termed "chronospecies". Many taxa intermediate between M. primigenius and other mammoths have also been proposed, but their validity is uncertain; depending on author, they are either considered primitive forms of an advanced species or advanced forms of a primitive species.[25] Distinguishing and determining these intermediate forms has been called one of the most long lasting and complicated problems in Quaternary palaeontology. Regional and intermediate species and subspecies such as M. intermedius, M. chosaricus, M. p. primigenius, M. p. jatzkovi, M. p. sibiricus, M. p. fraasi, M. p. leith-adamsi, M. p. hydruntinus, M. p. astensis, M. p. americanus, M. p. compressus, and M. p. alaskensis have been proposed.[12][28][29]

text: A 2011 genetic study showed that two examined specimens of the Columbian mammoth were grouped within a subclade of woolly mammoths. This suggests that the two populations interbred and produced fertile offspring. A North American type formerly referred to as M. jeffersonii may be a hybrid between the two species.[30] A 2015 study suggested that the animals in the range where M. columbi and M. primigenius overlapped formed a metapopulation of hybrids with varying morphology. It also suggested that Eurasian M. primigenius had a similar relationship with M. trogontherii, in areas where their range overlapped.[31]

text: Description[edit]

text: The appearance of the woolly mammoth is probably the best known of any prehistoric animal due to the many frozen specimens with preserved soft tissue and depictions by contemporary humans in their art. Fully grown males reached shoulder heights between 2.7 and 3.4 m (8.9 and 11.2 ft) and weighed up to 6 tonnes (6.6 short tons). This is almost as large as extant male African elephants, which commonly reach a shoulder height of 3–3.4 m (9.8–11.2 ft), and is less than the size of the earlier mammoth species M. meridionalis and M. trogontherii, and the contemporary M. columbi. The reason for the smaller size is unknown. Female woolly mammoths reached 2.6–2.9 m (8.5–9.5 ft) in shoulder heights and were built more lightly than males, weighing up to 4 tonnes (4.4 short tons). A newborn calf would have weighed about 90 kg (200 lb). These sizes are deduced from comparison with modern elephants of similar size.[32] Few frozen specimens have preserved genitals, so the gender is usually determined through examination of the skeleton. The best indication of sex is the size of the pelvic girdle, since the opening that functions as the birth canal is always wider in females than in males.[33] Though the mammoths on Wrangel Island were smaller than those of the mainland, their size varied, and they were not small enough to be considered "dwarves".[34] It has been claimed that the last woolly mammoth populations decreased in size and increased their sexual dimorphism, but this was dismissed in a 2012 study.[35]

text: Woolly mammoths had several adaptations to the cold, most noticeably the layer of fur covering all parts of the body. Other adaptations to cold weather include ears that are far smaller than those of modern elephants; they were about 38 cm (15 in) long and 18–28 cm (7.1–11.0 in) across, and the ear of the 6–12 month old frozen calf "Dima" was under 13 cm (5.1 in) long. The small ears reduced heat loss and frostbite, and the tail was short for the same reason, only 36 cm (14 in) long in the "Berezovka mammoth". The tail contained 21 vertebrae, whereas the tails of modern elephants contain 28–33. Their skin was no thicker than that of present-day elephants, between 1.25 and 2.5 cm (0.49 and 0.98 in). They had a layer of fat up to 10 cm (3.9 in) thick under the skin, which helped to keep them warm. Woolly mammoths had broad flaps of skin under their tails which covered the anus; this is also seen in modern elephants.[36]

text: Other characteristic features depicted in cave paintings include a large, high, single-domed head and a sloping back with a high shoulder hump; this shape resulted from the spinous processes of the back vertebrae decreasing in length from front to rear. These features were not present in juveniles, which had convex backs like Asian elephants. Another feature shown in cave paintings was confirmed by the discovery of a frozen specimen in 1924, an adult nicknamed the "Middle Kolyma mammoth", which was preserved with a complete trunk tip. Unlike the trunk lobes of modern elephants, the upper "finger" at the tip of the trunk had a long pointed lobe and was 10 cm (3.9 in) long, while the lower "thumb" was 5 cm (2.0 in) and was broader. The trunk of "Dima" was 76 cm (2.49 ft) long, whereas the trunk of the adult "Liakhov mammoth" was 2 metres (6.6 ft) long.[36] The well-preserved trunk of a juvenile specimen nicknamed "Yuka" was described in 2015, and it was shown that it possessed a fleshy expansion a third above the tip. Rather than oval as the rest of the trunk, this part was ellipsoidal in cross section, and double the size in diameter. The feature was also shown to be present in two other specimens, of different sexes and ages.[37]

text: Coat[edit]

text: The coat consisted of an outer layer of long, coarse "guard hair", which was 30 cm (12 in) on the upper part of the body, up to 90 cm (35 in) in length on the flanks and underside, and 0.5 mm (0.020 in) in diameter, and a denser inner layer of shorter, slightly curly under-wool, up to 8 cm (3.1 in) long and 0.05 mm (0.0020 in) in diameter. The hairs on the upper leg were up to 38 cm (15 in) long, and those of the feet were 15 cm (5.9 in) long, reaching the toes. The hairs on the head were relatively short, but longer on the underside and the sides of the trunk. The tail was extended by coarse hairs up to 60 cm (24 in) long, which were thicker than the guard hairs. It is likely that the woolly mammoth moulted seasonally, and that the heaviest fur was shed during spring. Since mammoth carcasses were more likely to be preserved during autumn, it is possible that only the winter coat has been preserved in frozen specimens. Modern elephants have much less hair, though juveniles have a more extensive covering of hair than adults.[38] Comparison between the over-hairs of woolly mammoths and extant elephants show that they did not differ much in overall morphology.[39] Woolly mammoths had numerous sebaceous glands in their skin, which secreted oils into their hair; this would have improved the wool's insulation, repelled water, and given the fur a glossy sheen.[40]

text: Preserved woolly mammoth fur is orange-brown, but this is believed to be an artefact from the bleaching of pigment during burial. The amount of pigmentation varied from hair to hair and also within each hair.[36] A 2006 study sequenced the Mc1r gene (which influences hair colour in mammals) from woolly mammoth bones. Two alleles were found: a dominant (fully active) and a recessive (partially active) one. In mammals, recessive Mc1r alleles result in light hair. Mammoths born with at least one copy of the dominant allele would have had dark coats, while those with two copies of the recessive allele would have had light coats.[41] A 2011 study showed that light individuals would have been rare.[42] A 2014 study instead indicated that the colouration of an individual varied from non-pigmented on the overhairs, bi-coloured, non-pigmented and mixed red-brown guard hairs, and non-pigmented underhairs, which would give a light overall appearance.[43]

text: Dentition[edit]

text: Woolly mammoths had very long tusks (modified incisor teeth), which were more curved than those of modern elephants. The largest known male tusk is 4.2 m (14 ft) long and weighs 91 kg (201 lb), but 2.4–2.7 m (7.9–8.9 ft) and 45 kg (99 lb) was a more typical size. Female tusks were smaller and thinner, averaging at 1.5–1.8 m (4.9–5.9 ft) and weighing 9 kg (20 lb). The sheaths of the tusks were parallel and spaced closely. About a quarter of the length was inside the sockets. The tusks grew spirally in opposite directions from the base and continued in a curve until the tips pointed towards each other, sometimes crossing. In this way, most of the weight would have been close to the skull, and there would be less torque than with straight tusks. The tusks were usually asymmetrical and showed considerable variation, with some tusks curving down instead of outwards and some being shorter due to breakage. Calves developed small milk tusks a few centimetres long at six months old, which were replaced by permanent tusks a year later. Tusk growth continued throughout life but became slower as the animal reached adulthood. The tusks grew by 2.5–15 cm (0.98–5.91 in) each year. Some cave paintings show woolly mammoths with small or no tusks, but it is unknown whether this reflected reality or was artistic license. Female Asian elephants have no tusks, but there is no fossil evidence that any adult woolly mammoths lacked them.[44][45]

text: Woolly mammoths had four functional molar teeth at a time, two in the upper jaw and two in the lower. About 23 cm (9.1 in) of the crown was within the jaw, and 2.5 cm (1 in) was above. The crown was continually pushed forwards and up as it wore down, comparable to a conveyor belt. The teeth had up to 26 separated ridges of enamel, which were themselves covered in "prisms" that were directed towards the chewing surface. These were quite wear resistant and kept together by cementum and dentine. A mammoth had six sets of molars throughout a lifetime, which were replaced five times, though a few specimens with a seventh set are known. The latter condition could extend the lifespan of the individual, unless the tooth consisted of only a few plates. The first molars were about the size of those of a human, 1.3 cm (0.51 in), the third were 15 cm (6 in) 15 cm (5.9 in) long, and the sixth were about 30 cm (1 ft) long and weighed 1.8 kg (4 lb). The molars grew larger and contained more ridges with each replacement.[46] The woolly mammoth is considered to have had the most complex molars of any elephant.[45]

text: Distortion in the molars is the most common health problem found in woolly mammoth fossils. Sometimes the replacement was disrupted, and the molars were pushed into abnormal positions, but some animals are known to have survived this. Teeth from Britain showed that 2% of specimens had periodontal disease, with half of these containing caries. The teeth also sometimes had cancerous growths.[47]

text: Palaeobiology[edit]

text: Adult woolly mammoths could effectively defend themselves from predators with their tusks, trunks and size, but juveniles and weakened adults were vulnerable to pack hunters such as wolves, cave hyenas and large felines. The tusks may also have been used in intra-species fighting, such as territorial fights or fights over mates. Display of the large tusks of males could also have been used to attract females, and to intimidate rivals. Because of their curvature, the tusks were not suitable for stabbing, but may have been used for hitting, as indicated by injuries to some fossil shoulder blades. The very long hairs on the tail probably compensated for the shortness of the tail, enabling its use as a flyswatter, similar to the tail on modern elephants. As in modern elephants, the sensitive and muscular trunk worked as a limb-like organ with many functions. It was used for manipulating objects, and in social interactions.[48] The well-preserved foot of the adult male "Yukagir mammoth" shows that the soles of the feet contained many cracks that would have helped in gripping surfaces during locomotion. Like modern elephants, woolly mammoths walked on their toes and had large, fleshy pads behind the toes.[36]

text: Like modern elephants, woolly mammoths were likely very social and lived in matriarchal (female-led) family groups. This is supported by fossil assemblages and cave paintings showing groups. It is therefore probable that most of their other social behaviour was similar to that of modern elephants. It is unknown how many mammoths lived at one location at a time, as fossil deposits are often accumulations of individuals that died over long periods of time. It is likely that the amounts varied by season and life-cycle events. Modern elephants can form large herds, sometimes consisting of multiple family groups, and these herds can include thousands of animals migrating together. Mammoths may have formed large herds more often, since animals that live in open areas are more likely to do this than those in forested areas.[49] Trackways made by a woolly mammoth herd 11,300–11,000 years ago have been found in the St. Mary Reservoir in Canada, showing that there were in this case almost equal numbers of adults, sub-adults and juveniles. The adults had a stride of 2 m (6.6 ft), and the juveniles ran to keep up.[50]

text: The woolly mammoth was probably the most specialised member of the family Elephantidae. They had lipopexia (fat storage) in their neck and withers, for times when food availability was insufficient during winter, and their first three molars grew more quickly than in the calves of modern elephants. The expansion identified on the trunk of "Yuka" and other specimens was suggested to function as a "fur mitten"; the trunk tip was not covered in fur, but was used for foraging during winter, and could have been heated by curling it into the expansion. It was also suggested that the expansion could be used to melt snow if there was shortage of water to drink, as melting it directly inside the mouth could disturb the thermal balance of the animal.[37] As in reindeer and musk oxen, the haemoglobin of the woolly mammoth was adapted to the cold, with three mutations to improve oxygen delivery around the body and prevent freezing. This feature may have helped the mammoths to live in high latitudes.[51]

text: In a 2015 study, high-quality genome sequences from three Asian elephants and two woolly mammoths were compared. Approximately 1.4 million DNA nucleotide differences were found between mammoths and elephants, which affect the sequence of more than 1,600 proteins. Differences were noted in genes for a number of aspects of physiology and biology that would be relevant to Arctic survival, including development of skin and hair, storage and metabolism of adipose tissue, and perceiving temperature. Genes related to both sensing temperature and transmitting that sensation to the brain were altered. One of the heat-sensing genes encodes a protein, TRPV3, found in skin which also affects hair growth. When inserted into human cells, the mammoth's version of the protein was found to be less sensitive to heat than the elephant's. This is consistent with a previous observation that mice lacking active TRPV3 are likely to spend more time in cooler cage locations than wild type mice, and have wavier hair. There were also several alterations in circadian clock genes, perhaps needed to cope with the extreme polar variation in length of daylight. Similar mutations are known in other Arctic mammals, such as reindeer.[52][53]

text: Diet[edit]

text: Food at various stages of digestion has been found in the intestines of several woolly mammoths, giving a good picture of their diet. Woolly mammoths sustained themselves on plant food, mainly grass and sedges, which were supplemented with herbaceous plants, flowering plants, shrubs, mosses, and tree matter. The composition and exact varieties differed from location to location. Woolly mammoths needed a varied diet to support their growth, like modern elephants. An adult of six tonnes would need to eat 180 kg (397 lb) daily, and may have foraged as long as twenty hours every day. The two-fingered tip of the trunk was probably adapted for picking up the short grasses of the last ice age (Quaternary glaciation, 2.58 million years ago to present) by wrapping around them, whereas modern elephants curl their trunks around the longer grass of their tropical environments. The trunk could also be used for pulling off large grass tufts, delicately picking buds and flowers, and tearing off leaves and branches where trees and shrubs were present. The "Yukagir mammoth" had ingested plant matter that contained spores of dung fungus.[54] Isotope analysis shows that woolly mammoths fed mainly on C3 plants, unlike horses and rhinos.[55]

text: Scientists identified milk in the stomach and faecal matter in the intestines of the mammoth calf "Lyuba".[56] The faecal matter may have been eaten by "Lyuba" to promote development of the intestinal microbes necessary for digestion of vegetation, as is the case in modern elephants.[57] An isotope analysis of woolly mammoths from Yukon showed that the young nursed for at least three years, and were weaned and gradually changed to a diet of plants when they were two to three years old. This is later than in modern elephants and may be due to a higher risk of predator attack or difficulty in obtaining food during the long periods of winter darkness in high latitudes.[58]

text: The molars were adapted to their diet of coarse tundra grasses, with more enamel plates and a higher crown than their earlier, southern relatives. The woolly mammoth chewed its food by using its powerful jaw muscles to move the mandible forwards and close the mouth, then backwards while opening; the sharp enamel ridges thereby cut across each other, grinding the food. The ridges were wear-resistant to enable the animal to chew large quantities of food, which often contained grit. Woolly mammoths may have used their tusks as shovels to clear snow from the ground and reach the vegetation buried below, and to break ice to drink. This is indicated on many preserved tusks by flat, polished sections up to 30 centimetres (12 in) long on the part of the surface that would have reached the ground. The tusks were also used for obtaining food in other ways, such as digging up plants and stripping off bark.[59]

text: Life history[edit]

text: The lifespan of mammals is related to their size, and since modern elephants can reach the age of 60 years, the same is thought to be true for woolly mammoths which were of a similar size. The age of a mammoth can be roughly determined by counting the growth rings of its tusks when viewed in cross section, but this does not account for their early years, as these are represented by the tips of the tusks, which are usually worn away. In the remaining part of the tusk, each major line represents a year, and weekly and daily ones can be found in between. Dark bands correspond to summers, and it is therefore possible to determine the season in which a mammoth died. The growth of the tusks slowed when it became harder to forage, for example during winter, during disease, or when a male was banished from the herd (male elephants live with their herds until about the age of ten). Mammoth tusks dating to the harshest period of the last glaciation 25–20,000 years ago show slower growth rates. Woolly mammoths continued growing past adulthood, like other elephants. Unfused limb bones show that males grew until they reached the age of 40, and females grew until they were 25. The frozen calf "Dima" was 90 cm (35 in) tall when it died at the age of 6–12 months. At this age, the second set of molars would be in the process of erupting, and the first set would be worn out at 18 months of age. The third set of molars lasted for ten years, and this process was repeated until the final, sixth set emerged when the animal was 30 years old. When the last set of molars was worn out, the animal would be unable to chew and feed, and it would die of starvation. A study of North American mammoths found that they often died during winter or spring, the hardest times for northern animals to survive.[60][61]

text: The best preserved head of a frozen adult specimen, that of a male nicknamed the "Yukagir mammoth", shows that woolly mammoths had temporal glands between the ear and the eye.[62] This feature indicates that, like bull elephants, male woolly mammoths also entered "musth", a period of heightened aggressiveness. The glands are used especially by males to produce an oily substance with a strong smell called temporin. Their fur may have helped in spreading the scent further.[63]

text: Examination of preserved calves show that they were all born during spring and summer, and since modern elephants have gestation periods of 21–22 months, it is probable that the mating season was from summer to autumn.[64] δ15N isotopic analysis of the teeth of "Lyuba" has demonstrated their prenatal development, and indicates its gestation period was similar to that of a modern elephant, and that it was born in spring.[65]

text: Evidence of several different bone diseases has been found in woolly mammoths. The most common of these diseases was osteoarthritis, found in 2% of specimens. One specimen from Switzerland had several fused vertebrae as a result of this condition. The "Yukagir mammoth" had suffered from spondylitis in two vertebrae, and osteomyelitis is also known from some specimens. Several specimens have healed bone fractures, showing that the animals had survived these injuries.[66] An abnormal number of cervical vertebrae has been found in 33% of specimens from the North Sea region, probably due to inbreeding in a declining population.[67] Parasitic flies and protozoa were identified in the gut of the calf "Dima".[68]

text: Distribution and habitat[edit]

text: The habitat of the woolly mammoth is known as "mammoth steppe" or "tundra steppe". This environment stretched across northern Asia, many parts of Europe, and the northern part of North America during the last ice age. It was similar to the grassy steppes of modern Russia, but the flora was more diverse, abundant, and grew faster. Grasses, sedges, shrubs, and herbaceous plants were present, and scattered trees were mainly found in southern regions. This habitat was not dominated by ice and snow, as is popularly believed, since these regions are thought to have been high-pressure areas at the time. The habitat of the woolly mammoth also supported other grazing herbivores such as the woolly rhinoceros, wild horses and bison.[69] A 2014 study concluded that forbs (a group of herbaceous plants) were more important in the steppe-tundra than previously acknowledged, and that it was a primary food source for the ice-age megafauna.[70]

text: The southernmost woolly mammoth specimen known is from the Shandong province of China, and is 33,000 years old.[71] The southernmost European remains are from the Depression of Granada in Spain and are of roughly the same age.[72][73] DNA studies have helped determine the phylogeography of the woolly mammoth. A 2008 DNA study showed there were two distinct groups of woolly mammoths: one that became extinct 45,000 years ago and another one that became extinct 12,000 years ago. The two groups are speculated to be divergent enough to be characterised as subspecies. The group that became extinct earlier stayed in the middle of the high Arctic, while the group with the later extinction had a much wider range.[74] Recent stable isotope studies of Siberian and New World mammoths have shown there were also differences in climatic conditions on either side of the Bering land bridge, with Siberia being more uniformly cold and dry throughout the Late Pleistocene.[75] During the Younger Dryas age, woolly mammoths briefly expanded into north-east Europe, whereafter the mainland populations became extinct.[76]

text: A 2008 genetic study showed that some of the woolly mammoths that entered North America through the Bering land bridge from Asia migrated back about 300,000 years ago and had replaced the previous Asian population by about 40,000 years ago, not long before the entire species became extinct.[77] Fossils of woolly mammoths and Columbian mammoths have been found together in a few localities of North America, including the Hot Springs sinkhole of South Dakota where their regions overlapped. It is unknown whether the two species were sympatric and lived there simultaneously, or if the woolly mammoths may have entered these southern areas during times when Columbian mammoth populations were absent there.[69]

text: Relationship with humans[edit]

text: Modern humans coexisted with woolly mammoths during the Upper Palaeolithic period when the humans entered Europe from Africa between 30,000 and 40,000 years ago. Prior to this, Neanderthals had coexisted with mammoths during the Middle Palaeolithic, and already utilised mammoth bones for tool making and building materials. Woolly mammoths were very important to ice-age humans, and human survival may have depended on the mammoth in some areas. Evidence for such coexistence was not recognised until the 19th century. William Buckland published his discovery of the Red Lady of Paviland skeleton in 1823, which was found in a cave alongside woolly mammoth bones, but he mistakenly denied that these were contemporaries. In 1864, Édouard Lartet found an engraving of a woolly mammoth on a piece of mammoth ivory in the Abri de la Madeleine cave in Dordogne, France. The engraving was the first widely accepted evidence for the coexistence of humans with prehistoric extinct animals and is the first contemporary depiction of such a creature known to modern science.[78]

text: The woolly mammoth is the third most depicted animal in ice-age art, after horses and bison, and these images were produced between 35,000 and 11,500 years ago. Today, more than five hundred depictions of woolly mammoths are known, in media ranging from cave paintings and engravings on the walls of 46 caves in Russia, France and Spain to engravings and sculptures (termed "portable art") made from ivory, antler, stone and bone. Cave paintings of woolly mammoths exist in several styles and sizes. The French Rouffignac Cave has the most depictions, 159, and some of the drawings are more than 2 metres (6.6 ft) in length. Other notable caves with mammoth depictions are the Chauvet Cave, Les Combarelles Cave, and Font-de-Gaume.[79] A depiction in the Cave of El Castillo may instead show Palaeoloxodon, the "straight-tusked elephant".[80]

text: "Portable art" can be more accurately dated than cave art since it is found in the same deposits as tools and other ice age artefacts. The largest collection of portable mammoth art, consisting of 62 depictions on 47 plaques, was found in the 1960s at an excavated open-air camp near Gönnersdorf in Germany. There does not seem to be a correlation between the number of mammoths depicted and the species that were most often hunted, since reindeer bones are the most frequently found animal remains at the site. Two spear throwers shaped as woolly mammoths have also been found in France.[79] Some portable mammoth depictions may not have been produced where they were discovered, but could have moved around by ancient trading.[80]

text: Exploitation[edit]

text: Woolly mammoth bones were used as construction material for dwellings by both Neanderthals and modern humans during the ice age.[81] More than 70 such dwellings are known, mainly from the Russian Plain. The bases of the huts were circular, and ranged from 8 to 24 square metres (86 to 258 sq ft). The arrangement of dwellings varied, and ranged from 1 m (3.3 ft) to 20 m (66 ft) apart, depending on location. Large bones were used as foundations for the huts, tusks for the entrances, and the roofs were probably skins held in place by bones or tusks. Some huts had floors that extended 40 cm (16 in) below ground. Some huts included fireplaces, which used bones as fuel, probably because wood was scarce. It is possible that some of the bones used for materials came from mammoths killed by humans, but the state of the bones, and the fact that bones used to build a single dwelling varied by several thousands of years in age, suggests that they were collected remains of long-dead animals. Woolly mammoth bones were also made into various tools, furniture, and musical instruments. Large bones, such as shoulder blades, were also used to cover dead human bodies during burial.[82]

text: Woolly mammoth ivory was used to create art objects. Several Venus figurines, including the Venus of Brassempouy and the Venus of Lespugue, were made from this material. Weapons made from ivory, such as daggers, spears, and a boomerang, are also known. To be able to process the ivory, the large tusks had to be chopped, chiselled and split into smaller, more manageable pieces. Some ivory artefacts show that tusks had been straightened, and it is unknown how this was achieved.[83]

text: Several woolly mammoth specimens show evidence of being butchered by humans, which is indicated by breaks, cut-marks, and associated stone tools. It is not known how much prehistoric humans relied on woolly mammoth meat, since there were many other large herbivores available. Many mammoth carcasses may have been scavenged by humans rather than hunted. Some cave paintings show woolly mammoths in structures interpreted as pitfall traps. Few specimens show direct, unambiguous evidence of having been hunted by humans. A Siberian specimen with a spearhead embedded in its shoulder blade shows that a spear had been thrown at it with great force.[84] A specimen from the Mousterian age of Italy shows evidence of spear hunting by Neanderthals.[85] The juvenile specimen nicknamed "Yuka" is the first frozen mammoth with evidence of human interaction. It shows evidence of having been killed by a large predator, and of having been scavenged by humans shortly after. Some of its bones had been removed, and were found nearby.[86] A site near the Yana River in Siberia has revealed several specimens with evidence of human hunting, but the finds were interpreted to show that the animals were not hunted intensively, but perhaps mainly when ivory was needed.[87] Two woolly mammoths from Wisconsin, the "Schaefer" and "Hebior mammoths", show evidence of having been butchered by Palaeoamericans.[88][89]

text: Extinction[edit]

text: Most woolly mammoth populations disappeared during the late Pleistocene and early Holocene, alongside most of the Pleistocene megafauna (including the Columbian mammoth). This extinction formed part of the Quaternary extinction event, which began 40,000 years ago and peaked between 14,000 and 11,500 years ago. Scientists are divided over whether hunting or climate change, which led to the shrinkage of its habitat, was the main factor that contributed to the extinction of the woolly mammoth, or whether it was due to a combination of the two. Whatever the cause, large mammals are generally more vulnerable than smaller ones due to their smaller population size and low reproduction rates. Different woolly mammoth populations did not die out simultaneously across their range, but gradually became extinct over time. Most populations disappeared between 14,000 and 10,000 years ago. The last mainland population existed in the Kyttyk Peninsula of Siberia 9,650 years ago.[90][91] A small population of woolly mammoths survived on St. Paul Island, Alaska, well into the Holocene[92][93][94] with the most recently published date of extinction being 5,600 years B.P.[95] The last known population remained on Wrangel Island in the Arctic Ocean until 4,000 years ago, well into the start of human civilization and concurrent with the construction of the Great Pyramid of ancient Egypt.[96][97][98][99]

text: DNA sequencing of remains of two mammoths, one from Siberia 44,800 years BP and one from Wrangel Island 4,300 years BP, indicates two major population crashes: one around 280,000 years ago from which the population recovered, and a second about 12,000 years ago, near the ice age's end, from which it did not.[100] The Wrangel Island mammoths were isolated for 5000 years, and due to the small population present when the island was isolated by rising post-ice-age sea level, about 300 to 1000 individuals[101] experienced a 20%[102] to 30%[99] loss of heterozygosity, and a 65% loss in mitochondrial DNA diversity.[99] The population seems to have subsequently been stable, without suffering further significant loss of genetic diversity.[99][103] Genetic evidence thus implies the extinction of this final population was sudden, rather than the culmination of a gradual decline.[99]

text: Prior to their extinction, the Wrangel Island mammoths had accumulated numerous genetic defects due to their small population, consistent with the concept of genomic meltdown; in particular, a number of genes for olfactory receptors and urinary proteins became nonfunctional, possibly because they had lost their selective value on the island environment.[104] It is not clear whether these genetic changes contributed to their extinction.[105] The disappearance coincides roughly in time with the first evidence for humans on the island.[106] The woolly mammoths of eastern Beringia (modern Alaska and Yukon) had similarly died out about 13,300 years ago, soon (roughly 1000 years) after the first appearance of humans in the area, which parallels the fate of all the other late Pleistocene proboscids (mammoths, gomphotheres and mastodons), as well as most of the rest of the megafauna, of the Americas.[107] In contrast, the St. Paul Island mammoth population apparently died out prior to human arrival due to habitat shrinkage resulting from the post-ice-age sea-level rise,[107] perhaps in large measure as a result of a consequent reduction in the freshwater supply.[95]

text: Changes in climate shrank suitable mammoth habitat from 7,700,000 km2 (3,000,000 sq mi) 42,000 years ago to 800,000 km2 (310,000 sq mi) 6,000 years ago.[108][109] Woolly mammoths survived an even greater loss of habitat at the end of the Saale glaciation 125,000 years ago, and it is likely that humans hunted the remaining populations to extinction at the end of the last glacial period.[110][111] Studies of an 11,300–11,000-year-old trackway in south-western Canada showed that M. primigenius was in decline while coexisting with humans, since far fewer tracks of juveniles were identified than would be expected in a normal herd.[50]

text: The decline of the woolly mammoth could have increased temperatures by up to 0.2 °C (0.36 °F) at high latitudes in the northern hemisphere. Mammoths frequently ate birch trees, creating a grassland habitat. With the disappearance of mammoths, birch forests, which absorb more sunlight than grasslands, expanded, leading to regional warming.[112]

text: Fossil specimens[edit]

text: Woolly mammoth fossils have been found in many different types of deposits, including former rivers and lakes, and also in "Doggerland" in the North Sea, which was dry at times during the ice age. Such fossils are usually fragmentary and contain no soft tissue. Accumulations of modern elephant remains have been termed "elephants' graveyards", as these sites were erroneously thought to be where old elephants went to die. Similar accumulations of woolly mammoth bones have been found; it is thought these are the result of individuals dying near or in the rivers over thousands of years, and their bones eventually being brought together by the streams. Some accumulations are also thought to be the remains of herds that died together at the same time, perhaps due to flooding. Natural traps, such as kettle holes, sink holes, as well as mud, have also trapped mammoths in separate events over time.[113]

text: Apart from frozen remains, the only soft tissue known is from a specimen that was preserved in a petroleum seep in Starunia, Poland. Frozen remains of woolly mammoths have been found in the northern parts of Siberia and Alaska, with far fewer finds in the latter. Such remains are mostly found above the Arctic Circle, in permafrost. It appears that soft tissue was less likely to be preserved between 30,000 and 15,000 years ago, perhaps because the climate was milder during that period. Most specimens have partially degraded prior to discovery, due to exposure or to being scavenged. This "natural mummification" required the animal to have been buried rapidly in liquid or semi-solids such as silt, mud and icy water, which then froze.[114]

text: The presence of undigested food in the stomach and seed pods still in the mouth of many of the specimens suggests neither starvation nor exposure are likely. The maturity of this ingested vegetation places the time of death in autumn rather than in spring, when flowers would be expected.[115] The animals may have fallen through ice into small ponds or potholes, entombing them. Many are certainly known to have been killed in rivers, perhaps through being swept away by floods. In one location, by the Berelekh River in Yakutia in Siberia, more than 8,000 bones from at least 140 mammoths have been found in a single spot, apparently having been swept there by the current.[116]

text: Frozen specimens[edit]

text: Between 1692 and 1806, only four descriptions of frozen mammoths were published in Europe. None of the remains of those five were preserved, and no complete skeleton was recovered during that time.[117] While frozen woolly mammoth carcasses had been excavated by Europeans as early as 1728, the first fully documented specimen was discovered near the delta of the Lena River in 1799 by Ossip Schumachov, a Siberian hunter.[118] Schumachov let it thaw until he could retrieve the tusks for sale to the ivory trade. While in Yakutsk in 1806, Michael Friedrich Adams heard about the frozen mammoth. Upon arrival at the location, Adams discovered that wild animals had eaten most of the organs and flesh of the mammoth, including the trunk. He examined the carcass and realised what was left would still be the most complete mammoth recovered by that time. Adams recovered the entire skeleton, apart from the tusks, which Shumachov had already sold, and one foreleg, most of the skin, and nearly 18 kg (40 lb) of hair. During his return voyage he purchased a pair of tusks that he believed were the ones that Shumachov had sold. Adams brought it to the Zoological Museum of the Zoological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences, and the task of mounting the skeleton was given to Wilhelm Gottlieb Tilesius.[4] The Kunstkamera, the museum established by Peter the Great, contained the skeleton of an Indian elephant that could be used as reference.[119] This was one of the first attempts at reconstructing the skeleton of an extinct animal. Most of the reconstruction is correct, but Tilesius placed each tusk in the opposite socket, so that they curved outward instead of inward. The error was not corrected until 1899, and the correct placement of mammoth tusks was still a matter of debate into the twentieth century.[120][121]

text: The 1901 excavation of the "Berezovka mammoth" is the best documented of the early finds. It was discovered at the Siberian Berezovka River, and the Russian authorities financed its excavation. Its head was exposed, and the flesh had been scavenged. The animal still had grass between its teeth and on the tongue, showing that it had died suddenly. The entire expedition took 10 months, and the specimen had to be cut to pieces before it could be transported to St. Petersburg. It was identified as a 35- to 40-year-old male, which had died 35,000 years ago. One of its shoulder blades was broken, which may have happened when it fell into a crevasse.[115]

text: By 1929, the remains of 34 mammoths with frozen soft tissues (skin, flesh, or organs) had been documented. Only four of them were relatively complete. Since then, about that many more have been found. In most cases, the flesh showed signs of decay before its freezing and later desiccation.[122] Since 1860, Russian authorities have offered rewards of up to ₽1000 for finds of frozen woolly mammoth carcasses. Often such finds were kept secret due to superstition. Several carcasses have been lost because they were not reported, and one was fed to dogs. In more recent years, scientific expeditions have been devoted to finding carcasses instead of relying solely on chance encounters. The most famous frozen specimen from Alaska is a calf nicknamed "Effie", which was found in 1948. It consists of the head, trunk, and a foreleg, and is about 25,000 years old.[113]

text: In 1977, the well-preserved carcass of a seven- to eight-month-old woolly mammoth calf named "Dima" was discovered. This carcass was recovered near a tributary of the Kolyma River in northeastern Siberia. This specimen weighed approximately 100 kg (220 lb) at death and was 104 cm (41 in) high and 115 cm (45 in) long. Radiocarbon dating determined that "Dima" died about 40,000 years ago. Its internal organs are similar to those of modern elephants, but its ears are only one-tenth the size of those of an African elephant of similar age. A less complete juvenile, nicknamed "Mascha", was found on the Yamal Peninsula in 1988. It was 3–4 months old, and a laceration on its right foot may have been the cause of death. It is the westernmost frozen mammoth found.[123]

text: In 1997, a piece of mammoth tusk was discovered protruding from the tundra of the Taymyr Peninsula in Siberia, Russia. In 1999, this 20,380-year-old carcass and 25 tons of surrounding sediment were transported by an Mi-26 heavy lift helicopter to an ice cave in Khatanga. The specimen was nicknamed the "Jarkov mammoth". In October 2000, the careful defrosting operations in this cave began with the use of hair dryers to keep the hair and other soft tissues intact.[124][125]

text: In 2002, a well-preserved carcass was discovered near the Maxunuokha River in northern Yakutia, which was recovered during three excavations. This adult male specimen was called the "Yukagir mammoth", and is estimated to have lived around 18,560 years ago, and to have been 282.9 cm (9.2 ft) tall at the shoulder, and weighed between 4 and 5 tonnes. It is one of the best preserved mammoths ever found due to the almost complete head, covered in skin, but without the trunk. Some postcranial remains were also found, some with soft tissue.[62]

text: In 2007, the carcass of a female calf nicknamed "Lyuba" was discovered near the Yuribey River, where it had been buried for 41,800 years.[57][126] By cutting a section through a molar and analysing its growth lines, they found that the animal had died at the age of one month.[65] The mummified calf weighed 50 kg (110 lb), was 85 cm (33 in) high and 130 cm (51 in) in length.[127][128] At the time of discovery, its eyes and trunk were intact and some fur remained on its body. Its organs and skin are very well preserved.[129] "Lyuba" is believed to have been suffocated by mud in a river that its herd was crossing.[57][130] After death, its body may have been colonised by bacteria that produce lactic acid, which "pickled" it, preserving the mammoth in a nearly pristine state.[57]

text: In 2012, a juvenile was found in Siberia, which had man-made cut marks. Scientists estimated its age at death to be 2.5 years, and nicknamed it "Yuka". Its skull and pelvis had been removed prior to discovery, but were found nearby.[86][131] After being discovered, the skin of "Yuka" was prepared to produce a taxidermy mount.[37] Another mammoth discovery was reported in October 2012, when it was excavated on the Taymyr Peninsula. It was dated to 30,000 years old. Formally known as the Sopkarga mammoth, it was nicknamed "Zhenya" after the boy who found it.[132]

text: In 2013, a well-preserved carcass was found on Maly Lyakhovsky Island, one of the islands in the New Siberian Islands archipelago, a female between 50 and 60 years old at the time of death. The carcass contained well-preserved muscular tissue. When it was extracted from the ice, liquid blood spilled from the abdominal cavity. The finders interpreted this as indicating woolly mammoth blood possessed anti-freezing properties.[133]

text: Recreating the species[edit]

text: The existence of frozen soft tissue remains and DNA of woolly mammoths has led to the idea that the species could be recreated by scientific means. Several methods have been proposed to achieve this. Cloning would involve removal of the DNA-containing nucleus of the egg cell of a female elephant, and replacement with a nucleus from woolly mammoth tissue, a process called somatic cell nuclear transfer. For example, Akira Iritani, at the Kyoto University in Japan, reportedly planned to do this.[134][135] The cell would then be stimulated into dividing, and implanted in a female elephant. The resulting calf would have the genes of the woolly mammoth. However, nobody has yet found a viable mammoth cell, and most scientists doubt that any living cell could have survived freezing in the tundra.[136][137][138][139] Because of their conditions of preservation, the DNA of frozen mammoths has deteriorated significantly.[140][141]

text: A second method involves artificially inseminating an elephant egg cell with sperm cells from a frozen woolly mammoth carcass. The resulting offspring would be an elephant–mammoth hybrid, and the process would have to be repeated so more hybrids could be used in breeding. After several generations of cross-breeding these hybrids, an almost pure woolly mammoth would be produced. In one case, an Asian elephant and an African elephant produced a live calf named Motty, but it died of defects at less than two weeks old.[142] The fact that sperm cells of modern mammals are viable for 15 years at most after deep-freezing makes this method unfeasible.[141]

text: In April 2015, Swedish scientists published the complete genome (nuclear DNA sequence) of the woolly mammoth.[143][144] Several projects are working on gradually replacing the genes in elephant cells with mammoth genes.[143][145]

text: One such project is that of Harvard University geneticist George M. Church —who is funded by the Long Now Foundation,[143][145] which is attempting to create a mammoth-elephant hybrid using DNA from frozen mammoth carcasses. According to the researchers, a mammoth cannot be recreated, but they will try to eventually grow a hybrid elephant with some woolly mammoth traits in an "artificial womb".[146][147] The Harvard University team is attempting to study the animals' characteristics in vitro by replacing or editing some specific mammoth genes into Asian elephant skin cells called fibroblasts that have the potential to become embryonic stem cells.[148] By March 2015 and using the new CRISPR DNA editing technique, Church's team had some woolly mammoth genes edited into the genome of an Asian elephant; Focusing on cold-resistance initially,[136] the target genes are for the external ear size, subcutaneous fat, hemoglobin, and hair attributes.[148][149] By February 2017, Church's team had made 45 substitutions to the elephant genome.[146] So far his work focuses solely on single cells.

text: The Mammoth Genome Project at Pennsylvania State University is also researching the modification of African elephant DNA to create an elephant-mammoth hybrid.[150]

text: If a viable hybrid embryo is obtained via gene editing procedures, it may be possible to implant it into a female Asian elephant housed in a zoo,[143] but with the current knowledge and technology, it is unknown if the hybrid embryo would be carried through the two-year gestation.[151][152] If any method is ever successful, there is the suggestion to introduce the hybrids to a wildlife reserve in Siberia called the Pleistocene Park.[134][153] Some biologists question the ethics of such recreation attempts. In addition to the technical problems, there is not much habitat left that would be suitable for elephant-mammoth hybrids. Because both species are [were] social and gregarious, creating a few specimens would not be ideal. The time and resources required would be enormous, and the scientific benefits would be unclear, suggesting these resources should instead be used to preserve extant elephant species which are endangered.[141][154] The ethics of using elephants as surrogate mothers in hybridization attempts has also been questioned, as most embryos would not survive, and it would be impossible to know the exact needs of a hybrid elephant-mammoth calf.[155]

text: Cultural significance[edit]

text: The woolly mammoth has remained culturally significant long after its extinction. Indigenous peoples of Siberia had long found what are now known to be woolly mammoth remains, collecting their tusks for the ivory trade. Native Siberians believed woolly mammoth remains to be those of giant mole-like animals that lived underground and died when burrowing to the surface.[156][157] Woolly mammoth tusks had been articles of trade in Asia long before Europeans became acquainted with them. Güyük, the 13th-century Khan of the Mongols, is reputed to have sat on a throne made from mammoth ivory.[117] Inspired by the Siberian natives' concept of the mammoth as an underground creature, it became recorded in the Chinese pharmaceutical encyclopedia, Ben Cao Gangmu, as yin shu, "the hidden rodent".[158]

text: The indigenous peoples of North America also used woolly mammoth ivory and bone for tools and art.[159] As in Siberia, North American natives had "myths of observation" explaining the remains of woolly mammoths and other elephants; the Bering Strait Inupiat also believed the bones came from underground burrowing creatures, while other peoples associated them with primordial giants or "great beasts".[160][161][162] Observers have interpreted legends from several Native American peoples as containing folk memory of extinct elephants, though other scholars are sceptical that folk memory could survive such a long time.[160][162][163]

text: Siberian mammoth ivory is reported to have been exported to Russia and Europe in the 10th century. The first Siberian ivory to reach western Europe was brought to London in 1611. When Russia occupied Siberia, the ivory trade grew and it became a widely exported commodity, with huge amounts being excavated. From the 19th century and onwards, woolly mammoth ivory became a highly prized commodity, used as raw material for many products. Today it is still in great demand as a replacement for the now-banned export of elephant ivory, and has been referred to as "white gold". Local dealers estimate that there are 10 million mammoths still frozen in Siberia, and conservationists have suggested that this could help save the living species of elephants from extinction. Elephants are hunted by poachers for their ivory, but if this could instead be supplied by the already extinct mammoths, the demand could instead be met by these. Trade in elephant ivory has been forbidden in most places following the 1989 Lausanne Conference, but dealers have been known to label it as mammoth ivory to get it through customs. Mammoth ivory looks similar to elephant ivory, but the former is browner and the Schreger lines are coarser in texture.[164] In the 21st century, global warming has made access to Siberian tusks easier, since the permafrost thaws more quickly, exposing the mammoths embedded within it.[165]

text: Stories abound about frozen woolly mammoth meat that was consumed once defrosted, especially that of the "Berezovka mammoth", but most of these are considered dubious. The carcasses were in most cases decayed, and the stench so unbearable that only wild scavengers and the dogs accompanying the finders showed any interest in the flesh. It appears that such meat was once recommended against illness in China, and Siberian natives have occasionally cooked the meat of frozen carcasses they discovered.[166]

text: Alleged survival[edit]

text: There have been occasional claims that the woolly mammoth is not extinct, and that small isolated herds might survive in the vast and sparsely inhabited tundra of the Northern Hemisphere. In the 19th century, several reports of "large shaggy beasts" were passed on to the Russian authorities by Siberian tribesmen, but no scientific proof ever surfaced. A French chargé d'affaires working in Vladivostok, M. Gallon, said in 1946 that in 1920 he had met a Russian fur-trapper who claimed to have seen living giant, furry "elephants" deep into the taiga. Gallon added that the fur-trapper had not heard of mammoths before.[167] Due to the large area of Siberia, it cannot be completely ruled out that woolly mammoths survived into more recent times, but all evidence indicates that they became extinct thousands of years ago. It is likely that these natives had gained their knowledge of woolly mammoths from carcasses they encountered, and that this is the source for their legends of the animal.[168]

text: In the late 19th century, there were rumours about surviving mammoths in Alaska.[167] In October 1899, Henry Tukeman detailed his killing of a mammoth in Alaska and his subsequent donation of the specimen to the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C.. The museum denied the story.[169] Bengt Sjögren believed that the myth began when the American biologist Charles Haskins Townsend travelled in Alaska, saw Eskimos trading mammoth tusks, asked if there were still living mammoths in Alaska, and provided them with a drawing of the animal.[167]