document_title: Scramble for Africa

question_text: by 1914 which of the following african countries were still independent

question_tokens: by 1914 which of the following african countries were still independent

text: Scramble for Africa

text: Background[edit]

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text: The Portuguese established the first firm post-Middle Ages European settlements, trade posts, permanent fortifications and ports of call along the coast of the African continent, from the beginning of the Age of Discovery during the 15th century. But Europeans showed comparatively little interest in (and less knowledge of) the interior for some two centuries thereafter.

text: European exploration of the African interior began in earnest at the end of the 18th century. By 1835, Europeans had mapped most of northwestern Africa. In the middle decades of the 19th century, famous European explorers included David Livingstone and H. M. Stanley, each of whom mapped vast areas of Southern Africa and Central Africa. Arduous expeditions in the 1850s and 1860s by Richard Burton, John Speke and James Grant located the great central lakes and the source of the Nile. By the end of the 19th century Europeans had charted the Nile from its source, traced the courses of the Niger, Congo and Zambezi Rivers, and realised the vast resources of Africa.

text: Even as late as the 1870s, European states still controlled only ten percent of the African continent, with all their territories located near the coast. The most important holdings were Angola and Mozambique, held by Portugal; the Cape Colony, held by the United Kingdom; and Algeria, held by France. By 1914, only Ethiopia and Liberia remained independent of European control.[5]

text: Technological advances facilitated European expansion overseas. Industrialisation brought about rapid advancements in transportation and communication, especially in the forms of steam navigation, railways and telegraphs. Medical advances also played an important role, especially medicines for tropical diseases. The development of quinine, an effective treatment for malaria, made vast expanses of the tropics more accessible for Europeans.

text: Causes[edit]

text: Africa and global markets[edit]

text: Sub-Saharan Africa, one of the last regions of the world largely untouched by "informal imperialism", was also attractive to Europe's ruling elites for economic, political and social reasons. During a time when Britain's balance of trade showed a growing deficit, with shrinking and increasingly protectionist continental markets due to the Long Depression (1873–96), Africa offered Britain, Germany, France, and other countries an open market that would garner them a trade surplus: a market that bought more from the colonial power than it sold overall.[4]

text: In addition, surplus capital was often more profitably invested overseas, where cheap materials, limited competition, and abundant raw materials made a greater premium possible. Another inducement for imperialism arose from the demand for raw materials unavailable in Europe, especially copper, cotton, rubber, palm oil, cocoa, diamonds, tea, and tin, to which European consumers had grown accustomed and upon which European industry had grown dependent. Additionally, Britain wanted the southern and eastern coasts of Africa for stopover ports on the route to Asia and its empire in India.[6]

text: However, in Africa – excluding the area which became the Union of South Africa in 1910 – the amount of capital investment by Europeans was relatively small, compared to other continents. Consequently, the companies involved in tropical African commerce were relatively small, apart from Cecil Rhodes's De Beers Mining Company. Rhodes had carved out Rhodesia for himself; Léopold II of Belgium later, and with considerable brutality, exploited the Congo Free State. These events might detract from the pro-imperialist arguments of colonial lobbyists such as the Alldeutscher Verband, Francesco Crispi and Jules Ferry, who argued that sheltered overseas markets in Africa would solve the problems of low prices and over-production caused by shrinking continental markets.

text: John A. Hobson argued in Imperialism that this shrinking of continental markets was a key factor of the global "New Imperialism" period.

text: William Easterly of New York University, however, disagrees with the link made between capitalism and imperialism, arguing that colonialism is used mostly to promote state-led development rather than "corporate" development. He has stated that "imperialism is not so clearly linked to capitalism and the free markets... historically there has been a closer link between colonialism/imperialism and state-led approaches to development."[7]

text: Strategic rivalry[edit]

text: The rivalry between Britain, France, Germany, and the other European powers accounts for a large part of the colonization.

text: While tropical Africa was not a large zone of investment, other overseas regions were. The vast interior between Egypt and the gold and diamond-rich southern Africa had strategic value in securing the flow of overseas trade. Britain was under political pressure to secure lucrative markets against encroaching rivals in China and its eastern colonies, most notably India, Malaya, Australia and New Zealand. Thus, it was crucial to secure the key waterway between East and West—the Suez Canal. However, a theory that Britain sought to annex East Africa during the 1880 onwards, out of geostrategic concerns connected to Egypt (especially the Suez Canal),[8][9] has been challenged by historians such as John Darwin (1997) and Jonas F. Gjersø (2015).[10][11]

text: The scramble for African territory also reflected concern for the acquisition of military and naval bases, for strategic purposes and the exercise of power. The growing navies, and new ships driven by steam power, required coaling stations and ports for maintenance. Defense bases were also needed for the protection of sea routes and communication lines, particularly of expensive and vital international waterways such as the Suez Canal.[12]

text: Colonies were also seen as assets in "balance of power" negotiations, useful as items of exchange at times of international bargaining. Colonies with large native populations were also a source of military power; Britain and France used large numbers of British Indian and North African soldiers, respectively, in many of their colonial wars (and would again be utilised in the coming World Wars). In the age of nationalism there was pressure for a nation to acquire an empire as a status symbol; the idea of "greatness" became linked with the sense of duty underlying many nations' strategies.[12]

text: In the early 1880s, Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza was exploring the Kingdom of Kongo for France, at the same time Henry Morton Stanley explored it on behalf of Léopold II of Belgium, who would have it as his personal Congo Free State (see section below). France occupied Tunisia in May 1881, which may have convinced Italy to join the German-Austrian Dual Alliance in 1882, thus forming the Triple Alliance. The same year, Britain occupied Egypt (hitherto an autonomous state owing nominal fealty to the Ottoman Empire), which ruled over Sudan and parts of Chad, Eritrea, and Somalia. In 1884, Germany declared Togoland, the Cameroons and South West Africa to be under its protection; and France occupied Guinea. French West Africa (AOF) was founded in 1895, and French Equatorial Africa in 1910.[13][14]

text: Germany's Weltpolitik[edit]

text: Germany was hardly a colonial power before the New Imperialism period, but would eagerly participate in this race. Fragmented in various states, Germany was only unified under Prussia's rule after the 1866 Battle of Königgrätz and the 1870 Franco-Prussian War. A rising industrial power close on the heels of Britain, Germany began its world expansion in the 1880s. After isolating France by the Dual Alliance with Austria-Hungary and then the 1882 Triple Alliance with Italy, Chancellor Otto von Bismarck proposed the 1884–85 Berlin Conference, which set the rules of effective control of a foreign territory. Weltpolitik (world policy) was the foreign policy adopted by Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1890, with the aim of transforming Germany into a global power through aggressive diplomacy, the acquisition of overseas colonies, and the development of a large navy.

text: Some Germans, claiming themselves of Friedrich List's thought, advocated expansion in the Philippines and Timor; others proposed to set themselves up in Formosa (modern Taiwan), etc. At the end of the 1870s, these isolated voices began to be relayed by a real imperialist policy[citation needed], backed by mercantilist thesis. In 1881, Hübbe-Schleiden, a lawyer, published Deutsche Kolonisation, according to which the "development of national consciousness demanded an independent overseas policy".[15] Pan-Germanism was thus linked to the young nation's imperialist drives[citation needed]. In the beginning of the 1880s, the Deutscher Kolonialverein was created, and got its own magazine in 1884, the Kolonialzeitung. This colonial lobby was also relayed by the nationalist Alldeutscher Verband. Generally, Bismarck was opposed to widespread German colonialism[citation needed], but he had to resign at the insistence of the new German Emperor Wilhelm II on 18 March 1890. Wilhelm II instead adopted a very aggressive policy of colonisation and colonial expansion.

text: Germany's expansionism would lead to the Tirpitz Plan, implemented by Admiral von Tirpitz, who would also champion the various Fleet Acts starting in 1898, thus engaging in an arms race with Britain. By 1914, they had given Germany the second-largest naval force in the world (roughly three-fifths the size of the Royal Navy). According to von Tirpitz, this aggressive naval policy was supported by the National Liberal Party rather than by the conservatives, implying that imperialism was supported by the rising middle classes.[16]

text: Germany became the third-largest colonial power in Africa. Nearly all of its overall empire of 2.6 million square kilometres and 14 million colonial subjects in 1914 was found in its African possessions of Southwest Africa, Togoland, the Cameroons, and Tanganyika. Following the 1904 Entente cordiale between France and the British Empire, Germany tried to isolate France in 1905 with the First Moroccan Crisis. This led to the 1905 Algeciras Conference, in which France's influence on Morocco was compensated by the exchange of other territories, and then to the Agadir Crisis in 1911. Along with the 1898 Fashoda Incident between France and Britain, this succession of international crises reveals the bitterness of the struggle between the various imperialist nations, which ultimately led to World War I.

text: Italy's expansion[edit]

text: Italy took possession of parts of Eritrea in 1870[17][18] and 1882. Following its defeat in the First Italo–Ethiopian War (1895–1896), it acquired Italian Somaliland in 1889–90 and the whole of Eritrea (1899). In 1911, it engaged in a war with the Ottoman Empire, in which it acquired Tripolitania and Cyrenaica (modern Libya). In 1919 Enrico Corradini—who fully supported the war, and later merged his group in the early fascist party (PNF)—developed the concept of Proletarian Nationalism, supposed to legitimise Italy's imperialism by a mixture of socialism with nationalism:

text: We must start by recognizing the fact that there are proletarian nations as well as proletarian classes; that is to say, there are nations whose living conditions are subject...to the way of life of other nations, just as classes are. Once this is realised, nationalism must insist firmly on this truth: Italy is, materially and morally, a proletarian nation.[19]

text: The Second Italo-Abyssinian War (1935–36), ordered by the Fascist Benito Mussolini, would actually be one of the last colonial wars (that is, intended to colonise a foreign country, as opposed to wars of national liberation), occupying Ethiopia—which had remained the last independent African territory, apart from Liberia.

text: Crises prior to World War I[edit]

text: Colonisation of the Congo[edit]

text: David Livingstone's explorations, carried on by Henry Morton Stanley, excited imaginations with Stanley's grandiose ideas for colonisation; but these found little support owing to the problems and scale of action required, except from Léopold II of Belgium, who in 1876 had organised the International African Association (the Congo Society). From 1869 to 1874, Stanley was secretly sent by Léopold II to the Congo region, where he made treaties with several African chiefs along the Congo River and by 1882 had sufficient territory to form the basis of the Congo Free State. Léopold II personally owned the colony from 1885 and used it as a source of ivory and rubber.

text: While Stanley was exploring Congo on behalf of Léopold II of Belgium, the Franco-Italian marine officer Pierre de Brazza travelled into the western Congo basin and raised the French flag over the newly founded Brazzaville in 1881, thus occupying today's Republic of the Congo. Portugal, which also claimed the area due to old treaties with the native Kongo Empire, made a treaty with Britain on 26 February 1884 to block off the Congo Society's access to the Atlantic.

text: By 1890 the Congo Free State had consolidated its control of its territory between Leopoldville and Stanleyville, and was looking to push south down the Lualaba River from Stanleyville. At the same time, the British South Africa Company of Cecil Rhodes was expanding north from the Limpopo River, sending the Pioneer Column (guided by Frederick Selous) through Matabeleland, and starting a colony in Mashonaland.

text: To the west, in the land where their expansions would meet, was Katanga, site of the Yeke Kingdom of Msiri. Msiri was the most militarily powerful ruler in the area, and traded large quantities of copper, ivory and slaves — and rumors of gold reached European ears. The scramble for Katanga was a prime example of the period. Rhodes and the BSAC sent two expeditions to Msiri in 1890 led by Alfred Sharpe, who was rebuffed, and Joseph Thomson, who failed to reach Katanga. Leopold sent four CFS expeditions. First, the Le Marinel Expedition could only extract a vaguely worded letter. The Delcommune Expedition was rebuffed. The well-armed Stairs Expedition was given orders to take Katanga with or without Msiri's consent. Msiri refused, was shot, and the expedition cut off his head and stuck it on a pole as a "barbaric lesson" to the people. The Bia Expedition finished the job of establishing an administration of sorts and a "police presence" in Katanga.

text: Thus, the half million square kilometers of Katanga came into Leopold's possession and brought his African realm up to 2,300,000 square kilometres (890,000 sq mi), about 75 times larger than Belgium. The Congo Free State imposed such a terror regime on the colonised people, including mass killings and forced labour, that Belgium, under pressure from the Congo Reform Association, ended Leopold II's rule and annexed it in 1908 as a colony of Belgium, known as the Belgian Congo.

text: The brutality of King Leopold II of Belgium in his former colony of the Congo Free State,[20][21] now the Democratic Republic of the Congo, was well documented; up to 8 million of the estimated 16 million native inhabitants died between 1885 and 1908.[22] According to the former British diplomat Roger Casement, this depopulation had four main causes: "indiscriminate war", starvation, reduction of births and diseases.[23] Sleeping sickness ravaged the country and must also be taken into account for the dramatic decrease in population; it has been estimated that sleeping sickness and smallpox killed nearly half the population in the areas surrounding the lower Congo River.[24]

text: Estimates of the total death toll vary considerably. As the first census did not take place until 1924, it is difficult to quantify the population loss of the period. Casement's report set it at three million.[25] William Rubinstein wrote: "More basically, it appears almost certain that the population figures given by Hochschild are inaccurate. There is, of course, no way of ascertaining the population of the Congo before the twentieth century, and estimates like 20 million are purely guesses. Most of the interior of the Congo was literally unexplored if not inaccessible."[26] See Congo Free State for further details including numbers of victims.

text: A similar situation occurred in the neighbouring French Congo. Most of the resource extraction was run by concession companies, whose brutal methods, along with the introduction of disease, resulted in the loss of up to 50 percent of the indigenous population.[27] The French government appointed a commission, headed by de Brazza, in 1905 to investigate the rumoured abuses in the colony. However, de Brazza died on the return trip, and his "searingly critical" report was neither acted upon nor released to the public.[28] In the 1920s, about 20,000 forced labourers died building a railroad through the French territory.[29]

text: Suez Canal[edit]

text: French diplomat Ferdinand de Lesseps had obtained many concessions from Isma'il Pasha, the Khedive of Egypt and Sudan, in 1854–56, to build the Suez Canal. Some sources estimate the workforce at 30,000,[30] but others estimate that 120,000 workers died over the ten years of construction due to malnutrition, fatigue and disease, especially cholera.[31] Shortly before its completion in 1869, Khedive Isma'il borrowed enormous sums from British and French bankers at high rates of interest. By 1875, he was facing financial difficulties and was forced to sell his block of shares in the Suez Canal. The shares were snapped up by Britain, under its Prime Minister, Benjamin Disraeli, who sought to give his country practical control in the management of this strategic waterway. When Isma'il repudiated Egypt's foreign debt in 1879, Britain and France seized joint financial control over the country, forcing the Egyptian ruler to abdicate, and installing his eldest son Tewfik Pasha in his place. The Egyptian and Sudanese ruling classes did not relish foreign intervention.

text: During the 1870s, European initiatives against the slave trade caused an economic crisis in northern Sudan, precipitating the rise of Mahdist forces.[32] In 1881, the Mahdist revolt erupted in Sudan under Muhammad Ahmad, severing Tewfik's authority in Sudan. The same year, Tewfik suffered an even more perilous rebellion by his own Egyptian army in the form of the Urabi Revolt. In 1882, Tewfik appealed for direct British military assistance, commencing Britain's administration of Egypt. A joint British-Egyptian military force ultimately defeated the Mahdist forces in Sudan in 1898. Thereafter, Britain (rather than Egypt) seized effective control of Sudan.

text: Berlin Conference (1884–85)[edit]

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text: The occupation of Egypt, and the acquisition of the Congo were the first major moves in what came to be a precipitous scramble for African territory. In 1884, Otto von Bismarck convened the 1884–85 Berlin Conference to discuss the African problem. The diplomats put on a humanitarian façade by condemning the slave trade, prohibiting the sale of alcoholic beverages and firearms in certain regions, and by expressing concern for missionary activities. More importantly, the diplomats in Berlin laid down the rules of competition by which the great powers were to be guided in seeking colonies. They also agreed that the area along the Congo River was to be administered by Léopold II of Belgium as a neutral area, known as the Congo Free State, in which trade and navigation were to be free. No nation was to stake claims in Africa without notifying other powers of its intentions. No territory could be formally claimed prior to being effectively occupied. However, the competitors ignored the rules when convenient and on several occasions war was only narrowly avoided.[33]

text: Britain's administration of Egypt and South Africa[edit]

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text: Britain's administration of Egypt and the Cape Colony contributed to a preoccupation over securing the source of the Nile River. Egypt was overrun by British forces in 1882 (although not formally declared a protectorate until 1914, and never an actual colony); Sudan, Nigeria, Kenya and Uganda were subjugated in the 1890s and early 20th century; and in the south, the Cape Colony (first acquired in 1795) provided a base for the subjugation of neighboring African states and the Dutch Afrikaner settlers who had left the Cape to avoid the British and then founded their own republics. Theophilus Shepstone annexed the South African Republic (or Transvaal) in 1877 for the British Empire, after it had been independent for twenty years. In 1879, after the Anglo-Zulu War, Britain consolidated its control of most of the territories of South Africa. The Boers protested, and in December 1880 they revolted, leading to the First Boer War (1880–81). British Prime Minister William Gladstone signed a peace treaty on 23 March 1881, giving self-government to the Boers in the Transvaal. The Jameson Raid of 1895 was a failed attempt by the British South Africa Company and the Johannesburg Reform Committee to overthrow the Boer government in the Transvaal. The Second Boer War, fought between 1899 and 1902, was about control of the gold and diamond industries; the independent Boer republics of the Orange Free State and the South African Republic (or Transvaal) were this time defeated and absorbed into the British Empire.

text: The French thrust into the African interior was mainly from the coasts of West Africa (modern day Senegal) eastward, through the Sahel along the southern border of the Sahara, a huge desert covering most of present-day Senegal, Mali, Niger, and Chad. Their ultimate aim was to have an uninterrupted colonial empire from the Niger River to the Nile, thus controlling all trade to and from the Sahel region, by virtue of their existing control over the Caravan routes through the Sahara. The British, on the other hand, wanted to link their possessions in Southern Africa (modern South Africa, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Lesotho, Swaziland, and Zambia), with their territories in East Africa (modern Kenya), and these two areas with the Nile basin.

text: The Sudan (which in those days included most of present-day Uganda) was the key to the fulfillment of these ambitions, especially since Egypt was already under British control. This "red line" through Africa is made most famous by Cecil Rhodes. Along with Lord Milner, the British colonial minister in South Africa, Rhodes advocated such a "Cape to Cairo" empire, linking the Suez Canal to the mineral-rich Southern part of the continent by rail. Though hampered by German occupation of Tanganyika until the end of World War I, Rhodes successfully lobbied on behalf of such a sprawling African empire.

text: If one draws a line from Cape Town to Cairo (Rhodes's dream), and one from Dakar to the Horn of Africa (now Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti and Somalia), (the French ambition), these two lines intersect somewhere in eastern Sudan near Fashoda, explaining its strategic importance. In short, Britain had sought to extend its East African empire contiguously from Cairo to the Cape of Good Hope, while France had sought to extend its own holdings from Dakar to the Sudan, which would enable its empire to span the entire continent from the Atlantic Ocean to the Red Sea.

text: A French force under Jean-Baptiste Marchand arrived first at the strategically located fort at Fashoda, soon followed by a British force under Lord Kitchener, commander in chief of the British Army since 1892. The French withdrew after a standoff and continued to press claims to other posts in the region. In March 1899, the French and British agreed that the source of the Nile and Congo Rivers should mark the frontier between their spheres of influence.[citation needed]

text: Moroccan Crisis[edit]

text: Although the 1884–85 Berlin Conference had set the rules for the Scramble for Africa, it had not weakened the rival imperialists. The 1898 Fashoda Incident, which had seen France and the British Empire on the brink of war, ultimately led to the signature of the Entente Cordiale of 1904, which countered the influence of the European powers of the Triple Alliance. As a result, the new German Empire decided to test the solidity of such influence, using the contested territory of Morocco as a battlefield.

text: Thus, Kaiser Wilhelm II visited Tangiers on 31 March 1905 and made a speech in favor of Moroccan independence, challenging French influence in Morocco. France's influence in Morocco had been reaffirmed by Britain and Spain in 1904. The Kaiser's speech bolstered French nationalism, and with British support the French foreign minister, Théophile Delcassé, took a defiant line. The crisis peaked in mid-June 1905, when Delcassé was forced out of the ministry by the more conciliation-minded premier Maurice Rouvier. But by July 1905 Germany was becoming isolated and the French agreed to a conference to solve the crisis. Both France and Germany continued to posture up until the conference, with Germany mobilizing reserve army units in late December and France actually moving troops to the border in January 1906.

text: The 1906 Algeciras Conference was called to settle the dispute. Of the thirteen nations present, the German representatives found their only supporter was Austria-Hungary. France had firm support from Britain, the US, Russia, Italy and Spain. The Germans eventually accepted an agreement, signed on 31 May 1906, whereby France yielded certain domestic changes in Morocco but retained control of key areas.

text: However, five years later the Second Moroccan Crisis (or Agadir Crisis) was sparked by the deployment of the German gunboat Panther to the port of Agadir on 1 July 1911. Germany had started to attempt to surpass Britain's naval supremacy—the British navy had a policy of remaining larger than the next two naval fleets in the world combined. When the British heard of the Panther's arrival in Morocco, they wrongly believed that the Germans meant to turn Agadir into a naval base on the Atlantic.

text: The German move was aimed at reinforcing claims for compensation for acceptance of effective French control of the North African kingdom, where France's pre-eminence had been upheld by the 1906 Algeciras Conference. In November 1911 a convention was signed under which Germany accepted France's position in Morocco in return for territory in the French Equatorial African colony of Middle Congo (now the Republic of the Congo).

text: France and Spain subsequently established a full protectorate over Morocco (30 March 1912), ending what remained of the country's formal independence. Furthermore, British backing for France during the two Moroccan crises reinforced the Entente between the two countries and added to Anglo-German estrangement, deepening the divisions that would culminate in the First World War.

text: Dervish resistance[edit]

text: Following the Berlin Conference at the end of the 19th century, the British, Italians, and Ethiopians sought to claim lands owned by the Somalis such as the Warsangali Sultanate, the Ajuran Sultanate and the Gobroon Dynasty.

text: The Dervish State was a state established by Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, a Somali religious leader who gathered Muslim soldiers from across the Horn of Africa and united them into a loyal army known as the Dervishes. This Dervish army enabled Hassan to carve out a powerful state through conquest of lands sought after by the Ethiopians and the European powers. The Dervish State successfully repulsed the British Empire four times and forced it to retreat to the coastal region.[34] Due to these successful expeditions, the Dervish State was recognised as an ally by the Ottoman and German empires. The Turks also named Hassan Emir of the Somali nation,[35] and the Germans promised to officially recognise any territories the Dervishes were to acquire.[36]

text: After a quarter of a century of holding the British at bay, the Dervishes were finally defeated in 1920 as a direct consequence of Britain's use of aircraft.[37]

text: Herero Wars and the Maji-Maji Rebellion[edit]

text: Between 1904 and 1908, Germany's colonies in German South-West Africa and German East Africa were rocked by separate, contemporaneous native revolts against their rule. In both territories the threat to German rule was quickly defeated once large-scale reinforcements from Germany arrived, with the Herero rebels in German South-West Africa being defeated at the Battle of Waterberg and the Maji-Maji rebels in German East Africa being steadily crushed by German forces slowly advancing through the countryside, with the natives resorting to guerrilla warfare. German efforts to clear the bush of civilians in German South-West Africa then resulted in a genocide of the population.

text: In total, as many as 65,000 Herero (80% of the total Herero population), and 10,000 Namaqua (50% of the total Namaqua population) either starved, died of thirst, or were worked to death in camps such as Shark Island Concentration Camp between 1904 and 1908. Characteristic of this genocide was death by starvation and the poisoning of the population's wells whilst they were trapped in the Namib Desert.

text: Colonial encounter[edit]

text: Colonial consciousness and exhibitions[edit]

text: Colonial lobby[edit]

text: In its earlier stages, imperialism was generally the act of individual explorers as well as some adventurous merchantmen. The colonial powers were a long way from approving without any dissent the expensive adventures carried out abroad. Various important political leaders, such as Gladstone, opposed colonisation in its first years. However, during his second premiership between 1880 and 1885 he could not resist the colonial lobby in his cabinet, and thus did not execute his electoral promise to disengage from Egypt. Although Gladstone was personally opposed to imperialism, the social tensions caused by the Long Depression pushed him to favor jingoism: the imperialists had become the "parasites of patriotism" (John A. Hobson).[38] In France, then Radical politician Georges Clemenceau also adamantly opposed himself to it: he thought colonisation was a diversion from the "blue line of the Vosges" mountains, that is revanchism and the patriotic urge to reclaim the Alsace-Lorraine region which had been annexed by the German Empire with the 1871 Treaty of Frankfurt. Clemenceau actually made Jules Ferry's cabinet fall after the 1885 Tonkin disaster. According to Hannah Arendt in The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951), this expansion of national sovereignty on overseas territories contradicted the unity of the nation state which provided citizenship to its population. Thus, a tension between the universalist will to respect human rights of the colonised people, as they may be considered as "citizens" of the nation state, and the imperialist drive to cynically exploit populations deemed inferior began to surface. Some, in colonising countries, opposed what they saw as unnecessary evils of the colonial administration when left to itself; as described in Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness (1899)—published around the same time as Kipling's The White Man's Burden—or in Louis-Ferdinand Céline's Journey to the End of the Night (1932).

text: Colonial lobbies emerged to legitimise the Scramble for Africa and other expensive overseas adventures. In Germany, France, and Britain, the middle class often sought strong overseas policies to ensure the market's growth. Even in lesser powers, voices like Enrico Corradini claimed a "place in the sun" for so-called "proletarian nations", bolstering nationalism and militarism in an early prototype of fascism.

text: Colonial propaganda and jingoism[edit]

text: Colonial exhibitions[edit]

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text: However, by the end of World War I the colonial empires had become very popular almost everywhere in Europe: public opinion had been convinced of the needs of a colonial empire, although most of the metropolitans would never see a piece of it. Colonial exhibitions had been instrumental in this change of popular mentalities brought about by the colonial propaganda, supported by the colonial lobby and by various scientists. Thus, the conquest of territories were inevitably followed by public displays of the indigenous people for scientific and leisure purposes. Karl Hagenbeck, a German merchant in wild animals and a future entrepreneur of most Europeans zoos, thus decided in 1874 to exhibit Samoa and Sami people as "purely natural" populations. In 1876, he sent one of his collaborators to the newly conquered Egyptian Sudan to bring back some wild beasts and Nubians. Presented in Paris, London, and Berlin these Nubians were very successful. Such "human zoos" could be found in Hamburg, Antwerp, Barcelona, London, Milan, New York City, Paris, etc., with 200,000 to 300,000 visitors attending each exhibition. Tuaregs were exhibited after the French conquest of Timbuktu (visited by René Caillié, disguised as a Muslim, in 1828, thereby winning the prize offered by the French Société de Géographie); Malagasy after the occupation of Madagascar; Amazons of Abomey after Behanzin's mediatic defeat against the French in 1894. Not used to the climatic conditions, some of the indigenous exposed died, such as some Galibis in Paris in 1892.[39]

text: Geoffroy de Saint-Hilaire, director of the Parisian Jardin d'acclimatation, decided in 1877 to organise two "ethnological spectacles", presenting Nubians and Inuit. The public of the Jardin d'acclimatation doubled, with a million paying entrances that year, a huge success for these times. Between 1877 and 1912, approximately thirty "ethnological exhibitions" were presented at the Jardin zoologique d'acclimatation.[40] "Negro villages" would be presented in Paris' 1878 and 1879 World's Fair; the 1900 World's Fair presented the famous diorama "living" in Madagascar, while the Colonial Exhibitions in Marseilles (1906 and 1922) and in Paris (1907 and 1931) would also display human beings in cages, often nudes or quasi-nudes.[41] Nomadic "Senegalese villages" were also created, thus displaying the power of the colonial empire to all the population.

text: In the US, Madison Grant, head of the New York Zoological Society, exposed Pygmy Ota Benga in the Bronx Zoo alongside the apes and others in 1906. At the behest of Grant, a prominent scientific racist and eugenicist, zoo director Hornaday placed Ota Benga in a cage with an orangutan and labeled him "The Missing Link" in an attempt to illustrate Darwinism, and in particular that Africans like Ota Benga are closer to apes than were Europeans. Other colonial exhibitions included the 1924 British Empire Exhibition and the successful 1931 Paris "Exposition coloniale".

text: Countering disease[edit]

text: From the beginning of the 20th century onward, the elimination or control of disease in tropical countries became a driving force for all colonial powers.[42] The sleeping sickness epidemic in Africa was arrested due to mobile teams systematically screening millions of people at risk.[43] In the 20th century, Africa saw the biggest increase in its population due to lessening of the mortality rate in many countries due to peace, famine relief, medicine, and above all, the end or decline of the slave trade.[44] Africa's population has grown from 120 million in 1900[45] to over 1 billion today.[46]

text: Colonialism leading to World War I[edit]

text: During the New Imperialism period, by the end of the 19th century, Europe added almost 9,000,000 square miles (23,000,000 km2) – one-fifth of the land area of the globe – to its overseas colonial possessions. Europe's formal holdings now included the entire African continent except Ethiopia, Liberia, and Saguia el-Hamra, the latter of which would be integrated into Spanish Sahara. Between 1885 and 1914, Britain took nearly 30% of Africa's population under its control; 15% for France, 11% for Portugal, 9% for Germany, 7% for Belgium and 1% for Italy.[citation needed] Nigeria alone contributed 15 million subjects, more than in the whole of French West Africa or the entire German colonial empire. It was paradoxical that Britain, the staunch advocate of free trade, emerged in 1914 with not only the largest overseas empire thanks to its long-standing presence in India, but also the greatest gains in the "scramble for Africa", reflecting its advantageous position at its inception. In terms of surface area occupied, the French were the marginal victors but much of their territory consisted of the sparsely populated Sahara.

text: The political imperialism followed the economic expansion, with the "colonial lobbies" bolstering chauvinism and jingoism at each crisis in order to legitimise the colonial enterprise. The tensions between the imperial powers led to a succession of crises, which finally exploded in August 1914, when previous rivalries and alliances created a domino situation that drew the major European nations into World War I. Austria-Hungary attacked Serbia to avenge the murder by Serbian agents of Austrian crown prince Francis Ferdinand, Russia would mobilise to assist allied Serbia, Germany would intervene to support Austria-Hungary against Russia. Since Russia had a military alliance with France against Germany, the German General Staff, led by General von Moltke decided to realise the well prepared Schlieffen Plan to invade and quickly knock France out of the war before turning against Russia in what was expected to be a long campaign. This required an invasion of Belgium which brought Britain into the war against Germany, Austria-Hungary and their allies. German U-Boat campaigns against ships bound for Britain eventually drew the United States into what had become World War I. Moreover, using the Anglo-Japanese Alliance as an excuse, Japan leaped onto this opportunity to conquer German interests in China and the Pacific to become the dominating power in the Western Pacific, setting the stage for the Second Sino-Japanese War (starting in 1937) and eventually World War II.

text: African colonies listed by colonising power[edit]

text: Belgium[edit]

text:
Congo Free State and Belgian Congo (today's Democratic Republic of the Congo)
Ruanda-Urundi (comprising modern Rwanda and Burundi, 1922–62)

text: France[edit]

text:
French West Africa :

Mauritania
Senegal
Albreda (1681–1857, now part of Gambia)
French Sudan (now Mali)
French Guinea (now Guinea)
Ivory Coast
Niger
French Upper Volta (now Burkina Faso)
French Dahomey (now Benin)
French Togoland (1916–60, now Togo)
Enclaves of Forcados and Badjibo (in modern Nigeria)

French Equatorial Africa :

Gabon
French Cameroun (1922–60)
French Congo (now Republic of the Congo)
Oubangui-Chari (now Central African Republic)
Chad

French North Africa :

French Algeria
French Protectorate of Tunisia
French Morocco
Fezzan-Ghadames (1943–1951) (administration given by the UNO after its conquest by Charles de Gaulle)
Egypt (ownership (1798–1801)) (Condominium of France and the United Kingdom) (1876–1882)[47]

French East Africa :

French Madagascar
Comoros
Scattered islands in the Indian Ocean
French Somaliland (now Djibouti)
Isle de France (1715-1810) (now Mauritius)

text: Germany[edit]

text:
German Kamerun (now Cameroon and part of Nigeria, 1884–1916)
German East Africa (now Rwanda, Burundi and most of Tanzania, 1885–1919)
German South-West Africa (now Namibia, 1884–1915)
German Togoland (now Togo and eastern part of Ghana, 1884–1914)

text: After the First World War, Germany's possessions were partitioned among Britain (which took a sliver of western Cameroon, Tanzania, western Togo, and Namibia), France (which took most of Cameroon and eastern Togo) and Belgium (which took Rwanda and Burundi).

text: Italy[edit]

text:
Italian Libya
Italian Eritrea
Italian Somaliland

text: Later, during the Interwar period, with the Second Italo-Ethiopian War Italy would annex Ethiopia, which formed together with Eritrea and Italian Somaliland the Italian East Africa (A.O.I., "Africa Orientale Italiana", also defined by the fascist government as L'Impero).

text: Portugal[edit]

text:
Portuguese West Africa
(now Angola)

Mainland Angola
Portuguese Congo
(now Cabinda Province of Angola)

Portuguese East Africa
(now Mozambique)
Portuguese Guinea
(now Guinea-Bissau)

Portuguese Cape Verde
Portuguese São Tomé and Príncipe

São Tomé Island
Príncipe Island
Fort of São João Baptista de Ajudá
(now Ouidah, in Benin)

text: Spain[edit]

text:
Spanish North Africa

Northern Spanish Morocco

Chefchaouen (Chauen)
Jebala (Yebala)
Kert
Loukkos (Lucus)
Rif

Spanish West Africa

Southern Spanish Morocco

Cape Juby
Ifni

Spanish Sahara
(now Western Sahara)

Río de Oro
Saguia el-Hamra

Spanish Guinea
(now Equatorial Guinea)

Fernando Pó
Río Muni
Annobón

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: The British were primarily interested in maintaining secure communication lines to India, which led to initial interest in Egypt and South Africa. Once these two areas were secure, it was the intent of British colonialists such as Cecil Rhodes to establish a Cape-Cairo railway and to exploit mineral and agricultural resources. Control of the Nile was viewed as a strategic and commercial advantage.

text:
Egypt
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (1899–1956)
British Somaliland (now part of Somalia)
British East Africa:

Kenya Colony
Uganda Protectorate
Tanzania :

Tanganyika Territory (1919–61)
Zanzibar

British Mauritius
Bechuanaland (now Botswana)
Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe)
Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia)
British Seychelles
British South Africa

South Africa :

Transvaal Colony
Cape Colony
Colony of Natal
Orange River Colony

South-West Africa (from 1915, now Namibia)

British West Africa

Gambia Colony and Protectorate
Sierra Leone
Nigeria
British Togoland (1916–56, today part of Ghana)
Cameroons (1922–61, now parts of Cameroon and Nigeria)
Gold Coast (British colony) (now Ghana)

Nyasaland (now Malawi)
Basutoland (now Lesotho)
Swaziland

text: Independent states[edit]

text: Liberia was the only nation in Africa that was a colony and a protectorate of the United States. Liberia was founded, colonised, established and controlled by the American Colonization Society, a private organisation established in order to relocate freed African-American and Caribbean slaves from the United States and the Caribbean islands in 1821. Liberia declared its independence from the American Colonization Society on July 26, 1847. Liberia is Africa's oldest democratic republic, and the second-oldest black republic in the world (after Haiti).

text: Ethiopia maintained its independence from Italy after the Battle of Adwa which resulted in the Treaty of Addis Ababa. With the exception of the occupation between 1936 and 1941 by Benito Mussolini's military forces, Ethiopia is Africa's oldest independent nation.

text: Modern Scramble for Africa[edit]

text: The new scramble for Africa began with the emergence of the Afro-Neo-Liberal capitalist movement in Post-Colonial Africa.[48] When African nations began to gain independence during the Post World War II Era, their post colonial economic structures remained undiversified and linear. In most cases, the bulk of a nation’s economy relied on cash crops or natural resources. The decolonisation process kept independent African nations at the mercy of colonial powers due to structurally-dependent economic relations.[49] Structural Adjustment Programs led to the privatization and liberalization of many African political and economic systems, forcefully pushing Africa into the global capitalist market.[50] The economic decline in the 1990s fostered democratization by the World Bank intervening in the political and economic affairs of Africa once again.[51] All of these factors led to Africa’s forced development under Western ideological systems of economics and politics.[52]

text: Petro-states[edit]

text: In the era of globalization, many African countries have emerged as petro-states (for example Sudan, Cameroon, Nigeria, Angola). These are nations with an economic and political partnership between transnational oil companies and the ruling elite class in oil-rich African nations.[53] Numerous countries have entered into a neo-imperial relationship with Africa during this time period. Mary Gilmartin notes that “material and symbolic appropriation of space [is] central to imperial expansion and control”; nations in the globalization era who invest in controlling land internationally are engaging in neo-imperialism.[54] Chinese (and other Asian countries) state oil companies have entered Africa’s highly competitive oil sector. China National Petroleum Corporation purchased 40% of Greater Nile Petroleum Operating Company. Furthermore, Sudan exports 50–60% of its domestically produced oil to China, making up 7% of China’s imports. China has also been purchasing equity shares in African oil fields, invested in industry related infrastructure development and acquired continental oil concessions throughout Africa.[55]


document_title: AARP

question_text: where does aarp fall on the political spectrum

root

text: AARP

text: History[edit]

text: According to the group's official history, Dr. Ethel Percy Andrus founded AARP in 1958. AARP evolved from the National Retired Teachers Association (NRTA), which Andrus had established in 1947 to promote her philosophy of productive aging, and to promote health insurance for retired teachers. After ten years, she opened the organization to all Americans over 50, creating AARP.[8] Today, the NRTA is a division within AARP.[9]

tag: p

text: Critics of AARP offer an alternative version of the group's origins. 60 Minutes reported in a 1978 exposé that AARP had been established as a marketing device by Leonard Davis, founder of the Colonial Penn Group insurance companies, after he met Ethel Percy Andrus.[10] According to critics, until the 1980s AARP was controlled by Davis, who promoted its image as a non-profit advocate of retirees in order to sell insurance to members.[11] Possibly as a result of this report, AARP conducted a competitive bidding process, and, in 1980, shifted the insurance contracts available to members to Prudential Financial.[12]

text: In the 1990s, the United States Senate investigated AARP's non-profit status, with Republican Senator Alan K. Simpson, then chairman of the United States Senate Finance Subcommittee on Social Security, Pensions, and Family Policy, questioning the organization's tax-exempt status in congressional hearings. According to Charles Blahous, the investigations did not reveal sufficient evidence to change the organization's status,[13] though in an interview years later by the Des Moines Register, Senator Simpson remained "troubled by AARP's practices", calling AARP "the biggest marketing operation in America and money-maker" and an organization whose practices are "the greatest abuse of American generosity I witnessed in my time in the U.S. Senate".[14]

text: The organization was originally named the American Association of Retired Persons, but in 1999 it officially changed its name to "AARP" (pronounced one letter at a time, "ay ay ar pee") to reflect that its focus was no longer American retirees.[15] AARP no longer requires that members be retired, but they must be at least age 50 (although a membership includes free membership for a spouse or partner who may not yet be 50).

text: All people age 50 and older are eligible for full membership with AARP. For those under the age of 50, AARP offers associate memberships that automatically convert to full membership at the age of 50th birthday.[16]

text: Activities[edit]

text: Overview[edit]

text: AARP addresses issues affecting older Americans through lobbying efforts at the state and national governmental level, an activity permitted by its 501(c)(4) status. The organization says that it is non-partisan and does not support, oppose or give money to any candidates or political parties. The total revenue for 2006 was approximately $1 billion and it spent $23 million on lobbying.[17] Middle-class security has been a major focus for the organization in recent years.[18] AARP also provides extensive consumer information, volunteer opportunities, and events including the annual National Event & Expo (2013 in Las Vegas from May 30–June 1 and in Atlanta from October 3–5).

text: AARP launched Life Reimagined in May 2013, calling it a "first-of-its-kind series of online and offline experiences that guide people through life transitions by helping them discover new possibilities and connect with a community of people pursuing similar passions and goals".[19] USA Today called the iniative "the latest step for the AARP ... as it continues to rebrand itself and become the go-to address for feeling good about aging.[20]

text: Affiliates[edit]

text: AARP has several affiliated organizations including:

text:
AARP Foundation, a 501c3 non-profit charity that helps people over age 50 who are at social and economic risk;It includes

AARP Experience Corps, a 501c3 non-profit charity that encourages people over age 50 to mentor and tutor school children;
AARP Institute, a non-profit charity that holds some of AARP's charitable gift annuity funds;

AARP Services Inc., a for-profit corporation that provides quality control and research,
Legal Counsel for the Elderly, a 501c3 non-profit charity that provides legal assistance to seniors in Washington, D.C.[1][21]
AARP Financial Services Corporation, a for-profit corporation that holds AARP's real estate;
AARP Insurance Plan, an organization that holds some of AARP's group health insurance policies;

tag: ul

text: Because of AARP's vast membership, it is able to generate its own income without being dependent on government grants or private donors, though it receives both of these for specific programs. According to its 2015 Consolidated Financial Statement, the largest sources of income were:

text:
royalties for the rights to use AARP's intellectual property (name, logo, etc.) paid by commercial providers of products, services and discounts for AARP members ($838,649,000);
membership dues ($295,180,000); and
advertisements placed in its publications ($149,604,000).[22]

text: AARP Services, Inc. and AARP Financial Incorporated[edit]

text: AARP Services, Inc., founded in 1999, is a wholly owned taxable subsidiary of AARP that manages the range of products and services offered as benefits to members. Its offers include Medicare supplemental insurance; member discounts on rental cars, cruises, vacation packages and lodging; special offers on technology and gifts; pharmacy services; legal services; and long-term care insurance. AARP Services founded AARP Financial Incorporated, a subsidiary that manages AARP-endorsed financial products including AARP Funds. In a filing with the Securities and Exchange Commission in June 2010, AARP Financial announced the discontinuation of AARP Funds[23] AARP Services develops new products, manages and markets products and services, and creates and maintains partnership and sponsorship relationships.

text: AARP Foundation[edit]

text: AARP Foundation[24] is AARP's affiliated charity. Foundation programs provide security, protection and empowerment for older persons in need. Low-income older workers receive the job training and placement they need to re-join the workforce. Free tax preparation is provided for low- and moderate-income individuals, with special attention to those 60 and older. The Foundation's litigation staff protects the legal rights of older Americans in critical health, long-term care, consumer and employment situations. Additional programs provide information, education, and services to ensure that people over 50 lead lives of independence, dignity, and purpose. Foundation programs are funded by grants, tax-deductible contributions and AARP.

text: The AARP Foundation's website claims the nonprofit "wants to win back opportunity for those now in crisis, so thousands of vulnerable low-income Americans 50+ can regain their foothold, continue to serve as anchors for their families and communities and ensure that their best life is still within reach." Key areas of focus are hunger, income, housing, and isolation. The Foundation's vision is "a country that is free of poverty where no older person feels vulnerable."

text: One of the goals of the AARP Foundation is its Drive to End Hunger. In 2011, AARP and AARP Foundation formed a relationship with NASCAR driver Jeff Gordon and Hendrick Motorsports to increase awareness of hunger in America with the No. 24 Drive to End Hunger race car and related food drives.[25] Through the Drive to End Hunger program, AARP also sponsored Hendrick driver Kasey Kahne, beginning in 2016.[26]

text: AARP Driver Safety[edit]

text: In 1979, AARP introduced the nation's first[citation needed] driver safety course geared towards older adults. AARP Driver Safety,[27] which can be completed in a classroom setting or online, teaches defensive driving techniques and provides "added information on age-related cognitive and physical changes that affect driving."[28] The course is instructed and promoted by volunteers throughout the U.S.

text: In addition to course fees, the program is supported by a grant from the automobile manufacturer, Toyota.[29] Over half million drivers completed the course in 2012 and over 15 million people completed the courses since 1979.[30][31]

text: AARP publications and broadcasts[edit]

text: English language[edit]

text: AARP The Magazine with their approximately 37 million readers and the AARP Bulletin with 29.7 million, are the two largest-circulation publications in the United States.[32][33]

text:
The organization publishes AARP The Magazine[34] (known until 2002 as Modern Maturity), a lifestyle magazine for people 50+. Established in 1958,[35] the magazine is distributed bi-monthly to AARP members.
AARP Bulletin, subtitled "The Newspaper for 50-Plus America", is published monthly, 10 times per year, and requires membership and an additional subscription fee.[36]
The Journal, released by AARP's International Office, is a policy publication on health and financial security issues facing a global population.[37]

text: The organization also produces radio and television programs and has a book division.[citation needed]

text:
Inside E Street, hosted by broadcast journalist Lark McCarthy, takes a "nonpartisan, civil look into issues critical to Americans"[38]
Movies for Grownups, is a weekly two-minute program hosted and produced by Bill Newcott, creator of AARP's Movies for Grownups franchise, heard on stations nationwide and online at the radioprimetime website.
Prime Time Focus, hosted by Alyne Ellis, is a 90-second daily feature with a five-minute weekend edition heard on more than 500 stations.[citation needed]
Prime Time Radio, hosted by broadcaster Mike Cuthbert, is a one-hour weekly interview program that focuses on the interests and concerns of Americans aged 50 and older. The program is heard on radio stations mainly in the United States.[39]

text: Spanish language[edit]

text: AARP en Español is the AARP's Spanish-language multimedia platform. Offerings include a Spanish-language website, a Spanish-language YouTube channel, and informational resources.

text: AARP Awards[edit]

text:
The Inspire Awards “honor 10 people over age 50 each year who continue to make a significant impact.”[40] Past recipients include: Maya Angelou,[41][42] Caroline Kennedy,[43] Jane Goodall,[44] Steve Jobs,[45][44] Daniel Inouye,[45][44] Emilio Estefan,[45][44] Toby Keith,[44][45] Joy Behar,[42] Henry Winkler,[42] Elizabeth Warren,[42] and Tony Danza.[42]
The Movies for Grownups Awards "recognizes achievements of those in the entertainment industry age 50 and over, and the films that speak to that vast audience,"[46] as well as supports the overall goals of the AARP.[47] Past recipients include: Denzel Washington,[48] Annette Bening[48] Jeff Bridges,[48] Viola Davis,[48] Morgan Freeman,[49][48][50] Michael Douglas,[51] and Lily Tomlin.[51]

text: Health care[edit]

text: AARP has been active in health care policy debates since the 1960s, and its recent engagement is a reflection of this long-standing involvement.[52]

text: AARP's public stances influenced the United States Congress' passage of the Medicare Prescription Drug, Improvement, and Modernization Act, which created Medicare Part D, in 2003, and also influenced the Congress by resisting radical changes to Social Security in 2005.[53][54] AARP also addressed health care issues in their campaign targeting the 2008 elections with Divided We Fail.

text: In an editorial in the Los Angeles Times, critic Dale Van Atta wrote that AARP does unauthorized lobbying for its membership, and lobbies against the best interests of its membership. He says that by lobbying for the Medicare Prescription Drug, Improvement, and Modernization Act, AARP leaders betrayed the membership.[55]

text: In early 2017, AARP strongly opposed the American Health Care Act of 2017, believing that older Americans would be unfairly burdened with higher premiums and smaller tax credits.[56]

text: Health insurance[edit]

text: Approximately seven million people have AARP-branded health insurance, including drug coverage and Medigap, as of April 2007

text: This article needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (November 2017)

tag: table

text: [57] and the association earns more income from selling insurance to members than from membership dues.[58] In 2008, AARP began offering new health insurance products: an HMO for Medicare recipients, in partnership with UnitedHealth Group; and a PPO and "a high-deductible insurance policy that could be used with a health savings account" to people aged 50–64, in partnership with Aetna.

text: While AARP is not an insurer, it allows its name to be used by insurance companies in the sale of products, for which it is paid a commission.[59]

text: Senator Charles E. Grassley (R-Iowa), senior Republican on the Senate Finance Committee, said in 2008 that the "limited benefit" insurance plans offered by AARP through UnitedHealth provided inadequate coverage and were marketed deceptively. One plan offered $5,000 for surgery that may cost two or three times that amount.[60]

text: AARP conducts a thriving business in marketing branded Medigap policies. As of October 2009, Medical care reform contained a proposal to trim an associated program Medicare Advantage, which was expected to increase demand for Medigap policies.[61] However, as cited above, AARP also brands a Medicare Advantage plan (MedicareComplete), and would also be subject to cuts under health care reform.[62] According to an Annenberg Public Policy Center report, critics have said AARP had a conflict of interest in supporting the Act, because it "derives income from the sale of health and life insurance policies", by licensing its brand to insurance dealers such as New York Life,[63] and would benefit financially from passage of the legislation.[64]

text: In 2004 BusinessWeek said questions have arisen in the past about whether AARP's commercial interests may conflict with those of its membership, and characterizes many of the funds and insurance policies that AARP markets as providing considerably less benefit than seniors could get on their own.[65]

text: Single payer[edit]

text: Single-payer advocates have criticized AARP for not supporting the single-payer or public option during the health care debate.[66] Single-payer advocates supported H.R. 676, proposed by Rep. John Conyers (D-MI). AARP released a statement explaining to its members why the organization was not supporting H.R. 676:

text: Starting over with a new, "single-payer" program will not eliminate the problems Medicare, Medicaid, and SCHIP currently face, such as the spiraling costs of procedures and prescription medications, as well as technological advances that are often not comprehensively tested to be proven safe or effective before marketing. H.R. 676 does not address the problem of increasing health-care costs. Rather, it allows costs to continue to grow, which will result in unaffordable coverage.

text: John Rother, AARP's former chief lobbyist, said the single-payer model would "disrupt the system that is currently in place" and "require a very significant tax increase." But Rother admitted that it would be possible to design a system that would avoid these problems. Since AARP's priorities now are to protect the current programs and implement the Affordable Care Act, Rother said that any effort to promote single payer would be undercutting health reform. Rother said. "To go to a single-payer you do have to trust government. The climate we're in right now is a very hostile climate for something like that."[66]

text: Rother also thought that an educational effort on the benefits of single payer would undercut the ACA. AARP has not published any material relating to single-payer health insurance on its website, in its several hundred page policy book, or through its Public Policy Institute.[66]

text: Approximately 60,000 AARP members quit AARP between July 1 and August 18, 2009, in a controversy that arose over AARP's support for U.S. health care reform. FOX News stated, "The Atlanta-based American Seniors Association, which is opposed to President Obama's health care plan, is trying to capitalize on growing public dissatisfaction with the AARP." AARP spokesman Drew Nannis responded that AARP loses about 300,000 members a month on average, and the controversial 60,000 of those that had left had specified leaving over the health care debate. Nannis also stated that the AARP gained 400,000 members and that 1.5 million members renewed their memberships within the same period of time.[67] The American Seniors Association is a for-profit organization operated by the American Seniors Association Holding Group, Inc (ASAHG, Inc).[68][69]

text: Social Security[edit]

text: Since March 2012, AARP's You've Earned a Say campaign has sought to foster nonpartisan conversations about how to strengthen Social Security and Medicare. The Richmond (VA) Times-Dispatch reported, "AARP took the debate about Medicare and Social Security from what it called behind closed doors in Washington to a series of town hall meetings around the country to make sure retirees have a voice in the discussion."[70]

text: In June 2011, AARP dropped its longstanding opposition to cutting Social Security benefits. A news release[71] emphasized "AARP has not changed its position on Social Security." In 2005 AARP led the effort to kill President George W. Bush's plan for partial privatization. AARP now has concluded that change is inevitable, and it wants to be at the table to try to minimize the pain. John Rother, AARP's policy chief and a prime mover for the new position, said "The ship was sailing. I wanted to be at the wheel when that happens." AARP declined to join a coalition of about 300 unions, women's groups and liberal advocacy organizations created to fight Social Security benefit cuts. Rother said, "The coalition's role was to kind of anchor the left, and our role is going to be to actually get something done".[72]

text: Criticism[edit]

text: In a November 2008 editorial, The Des Moines Register and the Canada Free Press called AARP a strong lobbying group masquerading as a non profit, meanwhile charging high membership fees and selling expensive private healthcare plans.[73]

text: Executive compensation, benefits, and travel[edit]

text: Criticism has also been leveled at the high salaries that AARP staff earn, and the use of first class and business class travel for all their short trips. According to AARP's IRS annual return, Chief Executive Officer Addison B. Rand received $1,698,289 of salary and benefits in 2014 from AARP and its subsidiaries.[74]

text: All board members, officers, and key employees fly first class on flights longer than five hours unless business class is available.[74] The Chief Executive Officer flies first-class on all flights longer than 90 minutes.[74]

text: AARP reported that it had spent $8,694,890 on compensation of its officers, directors, and key employees during 2014.[74]

text: Charity Watch rated the AARP Foundation overall at 81.07 out of 100 possible points for fiscal year 2014, but gave the organization a Financial score of only 73.53 out of 100 for the same time period.[75]


document_title: Newsreel

question_text: french film pioneer who introduced newsreel in 1910

text: Newsreel

text: History[edit]

text: Created in 1911 by Charles Pathé, this form of film was a staple of the typical North American, British, and Commonwealth countries (especially Canada, Australia, and New Zealand), and throughout European cinema programming schedule from the silent era until the 1960s when television news broadcasting completely supplanted its role. The National Film and Sound Archive in Australia holds the Cinesound Movietone Australian Newsreel Collection, a comprehensive collection of 4,000 newsreel films and documentaries representing news stories covering all major events.

text: The first official British news cinema that only showed newsreels was the Daily Bioscope that opened in London on May 23, 1909.[3] In 1929, William Fox purchased a former Broadway theater called the Embassy (now a visitor center operated by the Times Square Alliance[4]). He changed the format from a $2 show twice a day to a continuous 25-cent programme, establishing the first newsreel theater in the USA. The idea was such a success that Fox and his backers announced they would start a chain of newsreel theaters across the USA.[5] The newsreels were often accompanied by cartoons or short subjects.

text: In some countries, newsreels generally used music as a background for usually silent on-site film footage. In some countries, the narrator used humorous remarks for light-hearted or non-tragic stories. In the U.S., newsreel series included The March of Time (1935–1951), Pathé News (1910–1956), Paramount News (1927–1957), Fox Movietone News (1928–1963), Hearst Metrotone News (1914–1967), and Universal Newsreel (1929–1967). Pathé News was distributed by RKO Radio Pictures from 1931 to 1947, and then by Warner Brothers from 1947 to 1956.

text: An example of a newsreel story is in the film Citizen Kane (1941), which was prepared by RKO's actual newsreel staff. Citizen Kane includes a fictional newsreel "News on the March" that summarizes the life of title character Charles Foster Kane while parodying The March of Time.

text: On August 12, 1949, 120 cinema technicians employed by Associated British Pathé in London went on strike to protest the dismissal of fifteen men on the grounds of redundancy while conciliation under trade union agreements was pending. Their strike lasted through to at least Tuesday August 16, the Tuesday being the last day for production on new newsreels shown on the Thursday. Events of the strike resulted in over three hundred cinemas across Britain having to go without newsreels that week.[6]

text: Retrospectives[edit]

text: A 1978 Australian film, Newsfront, is a drama about the newsreel business.

text: Effect of television[edit]

text: On February 16, 1948, NBC launched a ten-minute television program called Camel Newsreel Theatre with John Cameron Swayze that featured newsreels with Swayze doing voiceovers. Also in 1948, the DuMont Television Network launched two short-lived newsreel series, Camera Headlines and I.N.S. Telenews, the latter in cooperation with Hearst's International News Service.

text: On August 15, 1948, CBS started their evening television news program Douglas Edwards and the News. Later the NBC, CBS, and ABC news shows all produced their own news film. Newsreel cinemas either closed or went to showing continuous programmes of cartoons and short subjects, such as the London Victoria Station News Cinema, later Cartoon Cinema that opened in 1933 and closed in 1981.

text: In New Zealand, the Weeky Review was "the principal film series produced in the 1940s".[7] The first television news broadcasts in the country, incorporating newsreel footage, began in 1960.[8]

text: Newsreels died out because of technological advances such as electronic news-gathering for television news, introduced in the 1970s, rendered them obsolete. Nonetheless, some countries such as Cuba, Japan, Spain, and Italy continued producing newsreels into the 1980s and 1990s.[9] Newsreel-producing companies excluded television companies from their distribution, but the television companies countered by sending their own cameramen to film news events.


document_title: List of Eurovision Song Contest winners

question_text: who has won the eurovision song contest the most times

text: List of Eurovision Song Contest winners

text: List[edit]

text:
Year
Date
Host City
Winner
Song
Performer
Points
Margin
Runner-up

1956
24 May
 Lugano
  Switzerland
"Refrain"
Lys Assia

Never announced

1957
3 March
 Frankfurt
 Netherlands
"Net als toen"
Corry Brokken
7001310000000000000♠31
7001140000000000000♠14
 France

1958
12 March
 Hilversum
 France
"Dors, mon amour"
André Claveau
7001270000000000000♠27
7000300000000000000♠3
  Switzerland

1959
11 March
 Cannes
 Netherlands
"Een beetje"
Teddy Scholten
7001210000000000000♠21
7000500000000000000♠5
 United Kingdom

1960
29 March
 London
 France
"Tom Pillibi"
Jacqueline Boyer
7001320000000000000♠32
7000700000000000000♠7
 United Kingdom

1961
18 March
 Cannes
 Luxembourg
"Nous les amoureux"
Jean-Claude Pascal
7001310000000000000♠31
7000700000000000000♠7
 United Kingdom

1962
18 March
 Luxembourg
 France
"Un premier amour"
Isabelle Aubret
7001260000000000000♠26
7001130000000000000♠13
 Monaco

1963
23 March
 London
 Denmark
"Dansevise"
Grethe and Jørgen Ingmann
7001420000000000000♠42
7000200000000000000♠2
  Switzerland

1964
21 March
 Copenhagen
 Italy
"Non ho l'età"
Gigliola Cinquetti
7001490000000000000♠49
7001320000000000000♠32
 United Kingdom

1965
20 March
 Naples
 Luxembourg
"Poupée de cire, poupée de son"
France Gall
7001320000000000000♠32
7000600000000000000♠6
 United Kingdom

1966
5 March
 Luxembourg
 Austria
"Merci, Chérie"
Udo Jürgens
7001310000000000000♠31
7001150000000000000♠15
 Sweden

1967
8 April
 Vienna
 United Kingdom
"Puppet on a String"
Sandie Shaw
7001470000000000000♠47
7001250000000000000♠25
 Ireland

1968
6 April
 London
 Spain
"La, la, la"
Massiel
7001290000000000000♠29
7000100000000000000♠1
 United Kingdom

1969
29 March
 Madrid
 Spain
"Vivo cantando"
Salomé
7001180000000000000♠18

No runner-up

 United Kingdom
"Boom Bang-a-Bang"
Lulu

 Netherlands
"De troubadour"
Lenny Kuhr

 France
"Un jour, un enfant"
Frida Boccara

1970
21 March
 Amsterdam
 Ireland
"All Kinds of Everything"
Dana
7001320000000000000♠32
7000600000000000000♠6
 United Kingdom

1971
3 April
 Dublin
 Monaco
"Un banc, un arbre, une rue"
Séverine
7002128000000000000♠128
7001120000000000000♠12
 Spain

1972
25 March
 Edinburgh
 Luxembourg
"Après toi"
Vicky Leandros
7002128000000000000♠128
7001140000000000000♠14
 United Kingdom

1973
7 April
 Luxembourg
 Luxembourg
"Tu te reconnaîtras"
Anne-Marie David
7002129000000000000♠129
7000400000000000000♠4
 Spain

1974
6 April
 Brighton
 Sweden
"Waterloo"
ABBA
7001240000000000000♠24
7000600000000000000♠6
 Italy

1975
22 March
 Stockholm
 Netherlands
"Ding-a-dong"
Teach-In
7002152000000000000♠152
7001140000000000000♠14
 United Kingdom

1976
3 April
 The Hague
 United Kingdom
"Save Your Kisses for Me"
Brotherhood of Man
7002164000000000000♠164
7001170000000000000♠17
 France

1977
7 May
 London
 France
"L'oiseau et l'enfant"
Marie Myriam
7002136000000000000♠136
7001150000000000000♠15
 United Kingdom

1978
22 April
 Paris
 Israel
"A-Ba-Ni-Bi" (א-ב-ני-בי)
Izhar Cohen and the Alphabeta
7002157000000000000♠157
7001320000000000000♠32
 Belgium

1979
31 March
 Jerusalem
 Israel
"Hallelujah" (הללויה)
Gali Atari and Milk and Honey
7002125000000000000♠125
7000900000000000000♠9
 Spain

1980
19 April
 The Hague
 Ireland
"What's Another Year"
Johnny Logan
7002143000000000000♠143
7001150000000000000♠15
 Germany

1981
4 April
 Dublin
 United Kingdom
"Making Your Mind Up"
Bucks Fizz
7002136000000000000♠136
7000400000000000000♠4
 Germany

1982
24 April
 Harrogate
 Germany
"Ein bißchen Frieden"
Nicole
7002161000000000000♠161
7001610000000000000♠61
 Israel

1983
23 April
 Munich
 Luxembourg
"Si la vie est cadeau"
Corinne Hermès
7002142000000000000♠142
7000600000000000000♠6
 Israel

1984
5 May
 Luxembourg
 Sweden
"Diggi-Loo Diggi-Ley"
Herreys
7002145000000000000♠145
7000800000000000000♠8
 Ireland

1985
4 May
 Gothenburg
 Norway
"La det swinge"
Bobbysocks!
7002123000000000000♠123
7001180000000000000♠18
 Germany

1986
3 May
 Bergen
 Belgium
"J'aime la vie"
Sandra Kim
7002176000000000000♠176
7001360000000000000♠36
  Switzerland

1987
9 May
 Brussels
 Ireland
"Hold Me Now"
Johnny Logan
7002172000000000000♠172
7001310000000000000♠31
 Germany

1988
30 April
 Dublin
  Switzerland
"Ne partez pas sans moi"
Céline Dion
7002137000000000000♠137
7000100000000000000♠1
 United Kingdom

1989
6 May
 Lausanne
 Yugoslavia
"Rock Me"
Riva
7002137000000000000♠137
7000700000000000000♠7
 United Kingdom

1990
5 May
 Zagreb
 Italy
"Insieme: 1992"
Toto Cutugno
7002149000000000000♠149
7001170000000000000♠17
 Ireland
 France

1991
4 May
 Rome
 Sweden
"Fångad av en stormvind"
Carola
7002146000000000000♠146
5000000000000000000♠0
 France

1992
9 May
 Malmö
 Ireland
"Why Me?"
Linda Martin
7002155000000000000♠155
7001160000000000000♠16
 United Kingdom

1993
15 May
 Millstreet
 Ireland
"In Your Eyes"
Niamh Kavanagh
7002187000000000000♠187
7001230000000000000♠23
 United Kingdom

1994
30 April
 Dublin
 Ireland
"Rock 'n' Roll Kids"
Paul Harrington and Charlie McGettigan
7002226000000000000♠226
7001600000000000000♠60
 Poland

1995
13 May
 Dublin
 Norway
"Nocturne"
Secret Garden[a]
7002148000000000000♠148
7001290000000000000♠29
 Spain

1996
18 May
 Oslo
 Ireland
"The Voice"
Eimear Quinn
7002162000000000000♠162
7001480000000000000♠48
 Norway

1997
3 May
 Dublin
 United Kingdom
"Love Shine a Light"
Katrina and the Waves
7002227000000000000♠227
7001700000000000000♠70
 Ireland

1998
9 May
 Birmingham
 Israel
"Diva" (דיווה)
Dana International
7002172000000000000♠172
7000600000000000000♠6
 United Kingdom

1999
29 May
 Jerusalem
 Sweden
"Take Me to Your Heaven"
Charlotte Nilsson
7002163000000000000♠163
7001170000000000000♠17
 Iceland

2000
13 May
 Stockholm
 Denmark
"Fly on the Wings of Love"
Olsen Brothers
7002195000000000000♠195
7001400000000000000♠40
 Russia

2001
12 May
 Copenhagen
 Estonia
"Everybody"
Tanel Padar, Dave Benton and 2XL
7002198000000000000♠198
7001210000000000000♠21
 Denmark

2002
25 May
 Tallinn
 Latvia
"I Wanna"
Marie N
7002176000000000000♠176
7001120000000000000♠12
 Malta

2003
24 May
 Riga
 Turkey
"Everyway That I Can"
Sertab Erener
7002167000000000000♠167
7000200000000000000♠2
 Belgium

2004[N 1]
15 May
 Istanbul
 Ukraine
"Wild Dances"
Ruslana
7002280000000000000♠280
7001170000000000000♠17
 Serbia and Montenegro

2005
21 May
 Kiev
 Greece
"My Number One"
Helena Paparizou
7002230000000000000♠230
7001380000000000000♠38
 Malta

2006
20 May
 Athens
 Finland
"Hard Rock Hallelujah"
Lordi
7002292000000000000♠292
7001440000000000000♠44
 Russia

2007
12 May
 Helsinki
 Serbia
"Molitva" (Молитва)
Marija Šerifović
7002268000000000000♠268
7001330000000000000♠33
 Ukraine

2008[N 2]
24 May
 Belgrade
 Russia
"Believe"
Dima Bilan
7002272000000000000♠272
7001420000000000000♠42
 Ukraine

2009
16 May
 Moscow
 Norway
"Fairytale"
Alexander Rybak
7002387000000000000♠387
7002169000000000000♠169
 Iceland

2010
29 May
 Oslo
 Germany
"Satellite"
Lena
7002246000000000000♠246
7001760000000000000♠76
 Turkey

2011
14 May
 Düsseldorf
 Azerbaijan
"Running Scared"
Ell & Nikki
7002221000000000000♠221
7001320000000000000♠32
 Italy

2012
26 May
 Baku
 Sweden
"Euphoria"
Loreen
7002372000000000000♠372
7002113000000000000♠113
 Russia

2013
18 May
 Malmö
 Denmark
"Only Teardrops"
Emmelie de Forest
7002281000000000000♠281
7001470000000000000♠47
 Azerbaijan

2014
10 May
 Copenhagen
 Austria
"Rise Like a Phoenix"
Conchita Wurst
7002290000000000000♠290
7001520000000000000♠52
 Netherlands

2015
23 May
 Vienna
 Sweden
"Heroes"
Måns Zelmerlöw
7002365000000000000♠365
7001620000000000000♠62
 Russia

2016
14 May
 Stockholm
 Ukraine
"1944"
Jamala
7002534000000000000♠534
7001230000000000000♠23
 Australia

2017
13 May
 Kiev
 Portugal
"Amar pelos dois"
Salvador Sobral
7002758000000000000♠758
7002143000000000000♠143
 Bulgaria

2018
12 May
 Lisbon

text: For information about the winning songwriters of each year, see List of Eurovision Song Contest winning songwriters

text: Eleven Eurovision winners (alongside three non-winners) featured at the Congratulations concert in 2005, in which ABBA's "Waterloo" was voted the most popular song of the contest's first fifty years.[5]

text: Ireland has finished first seven times, more than any other country, Ireland also won the contest for three consecutive years (1992, 1993, 1994), more consecutive years than any other country. Three countries have won twice in a row, Spain (1968 and 1969), Luxembourg (1972 and 1973) and Israel (1978 and 1979). Along with Switzerland's win in the first contest, Serbia is the only other country to win with its debut entry (in 2007), though Serbia had competed prior as part of Yugoslavia and Serbia and Montenegro. Under the voting system used between 1975 and 2015, the winner of the contest was decided by the final voting nation on eleven occasions.[N 3]

text: Changes to the voting system, including a steady growth in the number of countries participating/voting, means that the points earned are not comparable across the decades. Portugal's Salvador Sobral holds the record of the highest number of points in the contest's history, earning 758 with the song "Amar pelos dois". Norway's Alexander Rybak holds the largest margin of victory in absolute points, a 169-point cushion over second place in 2009. Italy's Gigliola Cinquetti holds the record for largest victory by percentage, scoring almost three times as many as second place (49 points compared with 17 by the runner-up) in the 1964 contest. Under the voting system used from 1975 until 2015, the lowest winning score was Norway's Bobbysocks! 123 points earned (of the 216 available from the 18 other countries) when winning Eurovision 1985, while the lowest winning total ever is the 18 points (of the 160 total votes cast by 16 countries) scored by each of the four winning countries in 1969.

text: Under the voting system used from 1975 until 2015, in which each country gives maximum points to its first place choice, Sweden's Loreen won Eurovision 2012 with the most ever first place votes earned, receiving first place votes from 18 of 41 countries (excluding themselves). The 1976 United Kingdom entrant, Brotherhood of Man with the song "Save Your Kisses For Me" holds the record of the highest average score per participating country, with an average of 9.65 points received per country. 2011 winner Azerbaijan Eldar & Nigar, hold the lowest average score for a winning song under that system, receiving 5.14 points per country.

text: The United Kingdom has finished second fifteen times at Eurovision (most recently in 1998), more than any other country. The most successful country never to have won the Contest is Malta, having finished second in 2002 and 2005 and third in 1992 and 1998. Another island nation Iceland has also finished second twice, in 1999 and 2009.

text: There is no official runner-up for two of the contests – 1956 and 1969. In 1956 only the winner, Switzerland, was announced, whilst there were speculative reports that Germany ended up in second place with "Im Wartesaal zum großen Glück" by Walter Andreas Schwarz, on account that Germany was chosen to host the 1957 contest. In 1969 four songs shared first place by achieving the same number of points, and the second best result was achieved by Switzerland, who is not considered an official runner-up, because of the draw for first place.

text: By country[edit]

text:
Wins
Country
Years

7
 Ireland
1970, 1980, 1987, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1996

6
 Sweden
1974, 1984, 1991, 1999, 2012, 2015

5
 France
1958, 1960, 1962, 1969, 1977

 Luxembourg
1961, 1965, 1972, 1973, 1983

 United Kingdom
1967, 1969, 1976, 1981, 1997

4
 Netherlands
1957, 1959, 1969, 1975

3
 Denmark
1963, 2000, 2013

 Israel
1978, 1979, 1998

 Norway
1985, 1995, 2009

2
  Switzerland
1956, 1988

 Italy
1964, 1990

 Austria
1966, 2014

 Spain
1968, 1969

 Germany[N 5]
1982, 2010

 Ukraine
2004, 2016

1
 Monaco
1971

 Belgium
1986

 Yugoslavia
1989

 Estonia
2001

 Latvia
2002

 Turkey
2003

 Greece
2005

 Finland
2006

 Serbia
2007

 Russia
2008

 Azerbaijan
2011

 Portugal
2017

text: Year 1969 is in italics to indicate joint (4-way) win.

text: By language[edit]

text: Between 1966 and 1973, and again between 1977 and 1998, countries were only permitted to perform in their own language; see the main Eurovision Song Contest article.

text:
Wins
Language
Years
Countries

31
English
1967, 1969, 1970, 1974, 1975, 1976, 1980, 1981, 1987, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1996, 1997, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004,[N 6] 2005, 2006, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016[N 7]
United Kingdom, Ireland, Sweden, Netherlands, Denmark, Estonia, Latvia, Turkey, Ukraine,[N 6][N 7] Greece, Finland, Russia, Norway, Germany, Azerbaijan, Austria

14
French
1956, 1958, 1960, 1961, 1962, 1965, 1969, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1977, 1983, 1986, 1988
Switzerland, France, Luxembourg, Monaco, Belgium

3
Dutch
1957, 1959, 1969
Netherlands

Hebrew
1978, 1979, 1998
Israel

2
Italian
1964, 1990
Italy

German
1966, 1982
Austria, Germany

Spanish
1968, 1969
Spain

Swedish
1984, 1991
Sweden

Norwegian
1985, 1995
Norway

1
Danish
1963
Denmark

Croatian[N 8]
1989
Yugoslavia

Ukrainian
2004[N 6]
Ukraine[N 6]

Serbian[N 8]
2007
Serbia

Crimean Tatar
2016[N 7]
Ukraine[N 7]

Portuguese
2017
Portugal

text: Photogallery[edit]

text:
Lys Assia, winner of the 1956 contest for Switzerland.

Corry Brokken, winner of the 1957 contest for The Netherlands.

André Claveau, winner of the 1958 contest for France.

Teddy Scholten, winner of the 1959 contest for The Netherlands.

Jacqueline Boyer, winner of the 1960 contest for France.

Jean-Claude Pascal, winner of the 1961 contest for Luxembourg.

Isabelle Aubret, winner of the 1962 contest for France.

Jørgen & Grethe Ingmann, winners of the 1963 contest for Denmark.

Gigliola Cinquetti, winner of the 1964 contest for Italy.

France Gall, winner of the 1965 contest for Luxembourg.

Udo Jürgens, winner of the 1966 contest for Austria.

Sandie Shaw, winner of the 1967 contest for the United Kingdom.

Massiel, winner of the 1968 contest for Spain.

Lulu, one of the four winners of the 1969 contest for the United Kingdom.

Frida Boccara, one of the four winners of the 1969 contest for France.

Lenny Kuhr, one of the four winners of the 1969 contest for The Netherlands.

Dana, winner of the 1970 contest for Ireland.

Vicky Leandros, winner of the 1972 contest for Luxembourg.

Anne-Marie David, winner of the 1973 contest for Luxembourg.

ABBA, winners of the 1974 and the 50th anniversary contests for Sweden.

Teach-In, winners of the 1975 contest for The Netherlands.

Brotherhood of Man, winners of the 1976 contest for the United Kingdom

Marie Myriam, winner of the 1977 contest for France.

Gali Atari, winner (together with Milk and Honey) of the 1979 contest for Israel.

Johnny Logan, winner of the 1980 and 1987 contests for Ireland.

Bucks Fizz, winners of the 1981 contest for the United Kingdom.

Nicole Hohloch, winner of the 1982 contest for Germany.

Richard Herrey from Herreys, winners of the 1984 contest for Sweden.

Bobbysocks!, winners of the 1985 contest for Norway.

Sandra Kim, winner of the 1986 contest for Belgium.

Celine Dion, winner of the 1988 contest for Switzerland.

Toto Cutugno, winner of the 1990 contest for Italy.

Carola Häggkvist, winner of the 1991 contest for Sweden.

Linda Martin, winner of the 1992 contest for Ireland.

Niamh Kavanagh, winner of the 1993 contest for Ireland.

Secret Garden, winner of the 1995 contest for Norway.

Katrina and the Waves, winners of the 1997 contest for the United Kingdom.

Dana International, winner of the 1998 contest for Israel.

Charlotte Nilsson, winner of the 1999 contest for Sweden.

Olsen Brothers, winners of the 2000 contest for Denmark.

Dave Benton, winner (together with Tanel Padar and 2XL) of the 2001 contest for Estonia.

Marie N, winner of the 2002 contest for Latvia.

Sertab Erener, winner of the 2003 contest for Turkey.

Ruslana, winner of the 2004 contest for Ukraine.

Helena Paparizou, winner of the 2005 contest for Greece.

Lordi, winner of the 2006 contest for Finland.

Marija Šerifović, winner of the 2007 contest for Serbia.

Dima Bilan, winner of the 2008 contest for Russia.

Alexander Rybak, winner of the 2009 contest for Norway.

Lena, winner of the 2010 contest for Germany.

Ell & Nikki, winners of the 2011 contest for Azerbaijan.

Loreen, winner of the 2012 contest for Sweden.

Emmelie de Forest, winner of the 2013 contest for Denmark.

Conchita Wurst, winner of the 2014 contest for Austria.

Måns Zelmerlöw, winner of the 2015 contest for Sweden.

Jamala, winner of the 2016 contest for Ukraine.

Salvador Sobral, winner of the 2017 contest for Portugal.