document_title: Conscription in the United States

question_text: when was the last time the military drafted

question_tokens: when was the last time the military drafted

text: Conscription in the United States

text: History[edit]

text: Colonial to 1862[edit]

text: In colonial times, the Thirteen Colonies used a militia system for defense. Colonial militia laws—and after independence those of the United States and the various states—required able-bodied males to enroll in the militia, to undergo a minimum of military training, and to serve for limited periods of time in war or emergency. This earliest form of conscription involved selective drafts of militiamen for service in particular campaigns. Following this system in its essentials, the Continental Congress in 1778 recommended that the states draft men from their militias for one year's service in the Continental army; this first national conscription was irregularly applied and failed to fill the Continental ranks.

text: For long-term operations, conscription was occasionally used when volunteers or paid substitutes were insufficient to raise the needed manpower. During the American Revolutionary War, the states sometimes drafted men for militia duty or to fill state Continental Army units, but the central government did not have the authority to conscript except for purposes of naval impressment. President James Madison and his Secretary of War James Monroe unsuccessfully attempted to create a national draft of 40,000 men during the War of 1812.[6] This proposal was fiercely criticized on the House floor by antiwar Congressman Daniel Webster of New Hampshire.[7]

text:
The administration asserts the right to fill the ranks of the regular army by compulsion...Is this, sir, consistent with the character of a free government? Is this civil liberty? Is this the real character of our Constitution? No, sir, indeed it is not...Where is it written in the Constitution, in what article or section is it contained, that you may take children from their parents, and parents from their children, and compel them to fight the battles of any war, in which the folly or the wickedness of government may engage it? Under what concealment has this power lain hidden, which now for the first time comes forth, with a tremendous and baleful aspect, to trample down and destroy the dearest rights of personal liberty?

Daniel Webster (December 9, 1814 House of Representatives Address)

text: Civil War[edit]

text: The United States first employed national conscription during the American Civil War. The vast majority of troops were volunteers; of the 2,100,000 Union soldiers, about 2% were draftees, and another 6% were substitutes paid by draftees.[8][9]

text: The Confederacy had far fewer inhabitants than the Union, and Confederate President Jefferson Davis proposed the first conscription act on March 28, 1862; it was passed into law the next month.[10] Resistance was both widespread and violent, with comparisons made between conscription and slavery.

text: Both sides permitted conscripts to hire substitutes to serve in their place. In the Union, many states and cities offered bounties and bonuses for enlistment. They also arranged to take credit against their draft quota by claiming freed slaves who enlisted in the Union Army.

text: Although both sides resorted to conscription, the system did not work effectively in either.[11] The Confederate Congress on April 16, 1862, passed an act requiring military service for three years from all males aged eighteen to thirty-five not legally exempt; it later extended the obligation. The U.S. Congress followed with the Militia Act of 1862 authorizing a militia draft within a state when it could not meet its quota with volunteers.[citation needed] This state-administered system failed in practice and in 1863 Congress passed the Enrollment Act, the first genuine national conscription law, setting up under the Union Army an elaborate machinery for enrolling and drafting men between twenty and forty-five years of age. Quotas were assigned in each state, the deficiencies in volunteers required to be met by conscription.

text: Still, men drafted could provide substitutes, and until mid-1864 could even avoid service by paying commutation money. Many eligible men pooled their money to cover the cost of any one of them drafted. Families used the substitute provision to select which member should go into the army and which would stay home. The other popular means of procuring a substitute was to pay a soldier whose period of enlistment was about to expire - the advantage of this method was that the Army could retain a trained veteran in place of a raw recruit. Of the 168,649 men procured for the Union Army through the draft, 117,986 were substitutes, leaving only 50,663 who had their personal services conscripted. There was much evasion and overt resistance to the draft, and the New York City draft riots were in direct response to the draft and were the first large-scale resistance against the draft in the United States.

text: The problem of Confederate desertion was aggravated by the inequitable inclinations of conscription officers and local judges. The three conscription acts of the Confederacy exempted certain categories, most notably the planter class, and enrolling officers and local judges often practiced favoritism, sometimes accepting bribes. Attempts to effectively deal with the issue were frustrated by conflict between state and local governments on the one hand and the national government of the Confederacy.[12]

text: World War I[edit]

text: In 1917 the administration of President Woodrow Wilson decided to rely primarily on conscription, rather than voluntary enlistment, to raise military manpower for World War I when only 73,000 volunteers enlisted out of the initial 1 million target in the first six weeks of the war.[13] One claimed motivation was to head off the former President, Theodore Roosevelt, who proposed to raise a volunteer division, which would upstage Wilson; however, there is no evidence that even Roosevelt had the popularity to overcome the unpopular war, and also, since Wilson had just started his second term in office the former President's prospects for substantial political gain would seem dubious.

text: The Selective Service Act of 1917 was carefully drawn to remedy the defects in the Civil War system and—by allowing exemptions for dependency, essential occupations, and religious scruples—to place each man in his proper niche in a national war effort. The act established a "liability for military service of all male citizens"; authorized a selective draft of all those between 21 and 31 years of age (later from 18 to 45); and prohibited all forms of bounties, substitutions, or purchase of exemptions. Administration was entrusted to local boards composed of leading civilians in each community. These boards issued draft calls in order of numbers drawn in a national lottery and determined exemptions.

text: In 1917, 10 million men were registered. This was deemed to be inadequate, so age ranges were increased and exemptions reduced, and so by the end of 1918 this increased to 24 million men that were registered with nearly 3 million inducted into the military services, with little of the resistance that characterized the Civil War, thanks to a huge campaign by the government to build support for the war, and shut down newspapers and magazines that published articles against the war.[14][15]

text: The draft was universal and included blacks on the same terms as whites, although they served in different units. In all 367,710 black Americans were drafted (13.0% of the total), compared to 2,442,586 white (86.9%). Along with a general opposition to American involvement in a foreign conflict, Southern farmers objected to unfair conscription practices that exempted members of the upper class and industrial workers.

text: Draft boards were localized and based their decisions on social class: the poorest were the most often conscripted because they were considered the most expendable at home.[citation needed] African-Americans in particular were often disproportionately drafted, though they generally were conscripted as laborers and not sent into combat to avoid the tensions that would arise from mixing races in military units.[citation needed] Forms of resistance ranged from peaceful protest to violent demonstrations and from humble letter-writing campaigns asking for mercy to radical newspapers demanding reform. The most common tactics were dodging and desertion, and many communities sheltered and defended their draft dodgers as political heroes.

text: Nearly half a million immigrants were drafted, which forced the military to develop training procedures that took ethnic differences into account. Military leaders invited Progressive reformers and ethnic group leaders to assist in formulating new military policies. The military attempted to socialize and Americanize young immigrant recruits, not by forcing "angloconformity", but by showing remarkable sensitivity and respect for ethnic values and traditions and a concern for the morale of immigrant troops. Sports activities, keeping immigrant groups together, newspapers in various languages, the assistance of bilingual officers, and ethnic entertainment programs were all employed.[16]

text: Opposition[edit]

text: The Conscription Act of 1917 was passed in June. Conscripts were court-martialed by the Army if they refused to wear uniforms, bear arms, perform basic duties, or submit to military authority. Convicted objectors were often given long sentences of 20 years in Fort Leavenworth.[17] In 1918 Secretary Baker created the Board of Inquiry to question the conscientious objectors' sincerity.[18] Military tribunals tried men found by the Board to be insincere for a variety of offenses, sentencing 17 to death, 142 to life imprisonment, and 345 to penal labor camps.[18]

text: In 1917, a number of radicals and anarchists, including Emma Goldman, challenged the new draft law in federal court, arguing that it was a direct violation of the Thirteenth Amendment's prohibition against slavery and involuntary servitude. The Supreme Court unanimously upheld the constitutionality of the draft act in the Selective Draft Law Cases on January 7, 1918. The decision said the Constitution gave Congress the power to declare war and to raise and support armies. The Court, relying partly on Vattel's The Law of Nations, emphasized the principle of the reciprocal rights and duties of citizens:[19]

text: It may not be doubted that the very conception of a just government and its duty to the citizen includes the reciprocal obligation of the citizen to render military service in case of need, and the right to compel it. To do more than state the proposition is absolutely unnecessary in view of the practical illustration afforded by the almost universal legislation to that effect now in force.

text: Conscription was unpopular from left-wing sectors at the start, with many Socialists jailed for "obstructing the recruitment or enlistment service". The most famous was Eugene Debs, head of the Socialist Party of America, who ran for president in 1920 from his Atlanta prison cell. He had his sentence commuted to time served and was released on December 25, 1921, by President Warren G. Harding.

text: The Industrial Workers of the World mobilized to obstruct the war effort through strikes in war-related industries and not registering.

text: Conscientious objectors[edit]

text: Conscientious objector (CO) exemptions were allowed for the Amish, Mennonites, Quakers, and Church of the Brethren only. All other religious and political objectors were forced to participate. Some 64,700 men claimed conscientious objector status; local draft boards certified 57,000, of whom 30,000 passed the physical and 21,000 were inducted into the U.S. Army. About 80% of the 21,000 decided to abandon their objection and take up arms, but 3,989 drafted objectors refused to serve. Most belonged to historically pacifist denominations, especially Quakers, Mennonites, and Moravian Brethren, as well as a few Seventh-day Adventists and Jehovah's Witnesses. About 15% were religious objectors from non-pacifist churches.[20]

text: Ben Salmon was a nationally known political activist who encouraged men not to register and personally refused to comply with the draft procedures. He rejected the Army Review Board proposal that he do noncombatant farm work. Sentenced to 25 years in prison, he again refused a proposed desk job. He was pardoned and released in November 1920 with a "dishonorable discharge".[21]

text: Interwar[edit]

text: The draft ended in 1918 but the Army designed the modern draft mechanism in 1926 and built it based on military needs despite an era of pacifism. Working where Congress would not, it gathered a cadre of officers for its nascent Joint Army-Navy Selective Service Committee, most of whom were commissioned based on social standing rather than military experience.[22] This effort did not receive congressionally approved funding until 1934 when Major General Lewis B. Hershey was assigned to the organization. The passage of a conscription act was opposed by some, including Dorothy Day and George Barry O'Toole, who were concerned that such conscription would not provide adequate protection for the rights of conscientious objectors. However, much of Hershey's work was codified into law with the Selective Training and Service Act of 1940 (STSA).[23]

text: World War II[edit]

text: By the summer of 1940, as Germany conquered France, Americans became more affable to the return of conscription. One national survey found that 67% of respondents believed that a German-Italian victory would endanger the United States, and that 71% supported "the immediate adoption of compulsory military training for all young men".[24] Similarly, a November 1942 survey of American high-school students found that 69% favored compulsory postwar military training.[25]

text: The World War I system served as a model for that of World War II. The 1940 instituted conscription in peacetime, requiring the registration of all men between 21 and 35, with selection for one year's service by a national lottery. President Roosevelt's signing of the Selective Training and Service Act on September 16, 1940, began the first peacetime draft in the United States. It also reestablished the Selective Service System as an independent agency responsible for identifying young men and facilitating their military service. Roosevelt named Lewis B. Hershey to head the System on July 31, 1941, where he remained until 1969.[23] This act came when other preparations, such as increased training and equipment production, had not yet been approved. Nevertheless, it served as the basis for the conscription programs that would continue to the present.

text: The act set a cap of 900,000 men to be in training at any given time, and limited military service to 12 months unless Congress deemed it necessary to extend such service in the interest of national defense. An amendment added 18 more months to this service period on August 18, 1941. After Pearl Harbor the STSA was further amended (December 19, 1941), extending the term of service to the duration of the war plus six months and requiring the registration of all men 18 to 64 years of age. During World War II, 49 million men were registered, 36 million classified[not in citation given], and 10 million inducted.[26] 18 and 19 year olds were made liable for induction on November 13, 1942. By late 1942, the Selective Service System moved away from a national lottery to administrative selection by its more than 6,000 local boards.

text: On December 5, 1942, presidential Executive Order 9279 made it so that all men from the ages of 18 to 37 could not voluntarily enlist for the duration of the war, providing protection for the nation's home front manpower pool. The Navy and Marine Corps began procuring their personnel through the Selective Service System in early 1943. The Navy and Marine Corps enlisted inductees and volunteers under the same service agreements, but with different service obligations, while the Army placed wartime inductees and volunteers into a special service component known as the Army of the United States, commonly known as the "AUS;" service commitments were set at the length of the war plus six months.[27][28]

text: Paul V. McNutt, head of the War Manpower Commission, estimated that the changes would increase the ratio of men drafted from one out of nine to one out of five. The commission's goal was to have nine million men in the armed forces by the end of 1943.[29] This facilitated the massive requirement of up to 200,000 men per month and would remain the standard for the length of the war.

text: The World War II draft operated from 1940 until 1946 when further inductions were suspended, and its legislative authorization expired without further extension by Congress in 1947. During this time, more than 10 million men had been inducted into military service.[30] However, the Selective Service System remained intact.

text: Opposition[edit]

text: Scattered opposition was encountered especially in the northern cities where African-Americans protested the system. The young Nation of Islam was at the forefront, with many Black Muslims jailed for refusing the draft, and their leader Elijah Muhammed was sentenced to federal prison for 5 years for inciting draft resistance. Organized draft resistance also developed in the Japanese American internment camps, where groups like the Heart Mountain Fair Play Committee refused to serve unless they and their families were released. 300 Nisei men from eight of the ten War Relocation Authority camps were arrested and stood trial for felony draft evasion; most were sentenced to federal prison.[31] American Communists also opposed the war until Germany attacked the Soviet Union in June 1941, whereupon they became supporters.[32]

text: Conscientious objectors[edit]

text: Of the more than 72,000 men registering as conscientious objectors (CO), nearly 52,000 received CO status. Of these, over 25,000 entered the military in noncombatant roles, another 12,000 went to civilian work camps, and nearly 6,000 went to prison. Draft evasion only accounted for about 4% of the total inducted. About 373,000 alleged evaders were investigated with just over 16,000 being imprisoned.[33]

text: Cold War[edit]

text: The second peacetime draft began with passage of the Selective Service Act of 1948 after the STSA expired. The new law required all men, ages 18 to 26, to register. It also created the system for the "Doctor Draft" aimed at inducting health professionals into military service.[34] Unless otherwise exempted or deferred (see Berry Plan), these men could be called for up to 21 months of active duty and five years of reserve duty service. Congress further tweaked this act in 1950 although the post–World War II surplus of military manpower left little need for draft calls until Truman's declaration of national emergency in December 1950.[35] Only 20,348 men were inducted in 1948 and only 9,781 in 1949.

text: Between the Korean War's outbreak in June 1950 and the armistice agreement in 1953, Selective Service inducted over 1.5 million men.[30] Another 1.3 million volunteered, usually choosing the Navy or Air Force.[22][33] Congress passed the Universal Military Training and Service Act in 1951 to meet the demands of the war. It lowered the induction age to 18½ and extended active-duty service commitments to 24 months. Despite the early combat failures and later stalemate in Korea, the draft has been credited by some as playing a vital role in turning the tide of war.[22] A February 1953 Gallup Poll showed 70 percent of Americans surveyed felt the SSS handled the draft fairly. Notably, Gallup reported that 64 percent of the demographic group including all draft age men (males 21 to 29) believed the draft to be fair.[36]

text: To increase equity in the system, President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed an executive order on July 11, 1953, that ended the paternity deferment for married men.[37] In large part, the change in the draft served the purposes of the burgeoning Cold War. From a program that had just barely passed congressional muster during the fearful prelude to World War II, a more robust draft continued as fears now focused on the Soviet threat. Nevertheless, some dissenting voices in Congress continued to appeal to the history of voluntary American military service as preferable for a democracy.[38][39] The Korean War was the first time any form of student deferment was used. During the Korean War a student carrying at least twelve semester hours was spared until the end of his current semester.[40]

text: The United States breathed easier with the Korean War Armistice on July 27, 1953; however, technology brought new promises and threats. U.S. air and nuclear power fueled the Eisenhower doctrine of "massive retaliation". This strategy demanded more machines and fewer foot soldiers, so the draft slipped to the back burner. However, the head of the SSS, Maj. Gen. Hershey, urged caution fearing the conflict looming in Vietnam. In May 1953, he told his state directors to do everything possible to keep SSS alive in order to meet upcoming needs.[41]

text: Following the 1953 Korean War Armistice, Congress passed the Reserve Forces Act of 1955 with the aim of improving National Guard and federal Reserve Component readiness while also constraining its use by the president. Towards this end, it mandated a six-year service commitment, in a combination of reserve and active duty time, for every line military member regardless of their means of entry. Meanwhile, the SSS kept itself alive by devising and managing a complex system of deferments for a swelling pool of candidates during a period of shrinking requirements. The greatest challenge to the draft came not from protesters but rather lobbyists seeking additional deferments for their constituency groups such as scientists and farmers.[23]

text: Government leaders felt the potential for a draft was a critical element in maintaining a constant flow of volunteers. On numerous occasions Gen. Hershey told Congress for every man drafted, three or four more were scared into volunteering.[42] Assuming his assessment was accurate, this would mean over 11 million men volunteered for service because of the draft between January 1954 and April 1975.[22]

text: The policy of using the draft as a club to force "voluntary" enlistment was unique in U.S. history. Previous drafts had not aimed at encouraging individuals to sign up in order to gain preferential placement or less dangerous postings. However, the incremental buildup of Vietnam without a clear threat to the country bolstered this.[22] Some estimates suggest conscription encompassed almost one-third of all eligible men during the period of 1965–69.[43][44] This group represented those without exemption or resources to avoid military service. During the active combat phase, the possibility of avoiding combat by selecting their service and military specialty led as many as four out of 11 eligible men to enlist.[45][46] The military relied upon this draft-induced volunteerism to make its quotas, especially the Army, which accounted for nearly 95 percent of all inductees during Vietnam. For example, defense recruiting reports show 34% of the recruits in 1964 up to 50% in 1970 indicated they joined to avoid placement uncertainty via the draft.[47][48][49] These rates dwindled to 24% in 1972 and 15% in 1973 after the change to a lottery system. Accounting for other factors, it can be argued up to 60 percent of those who served throughout the Vietnam War did so directly or indirectly because of the draft.[45]

text: In addition, deferments provided an incentive for men to follow pursuits considered useful to the state. This process, known as channeling, helped push men into educational, occupational, and family choices they might not otherwise have pursued. Undergraduate degrees were valued. Graduate work had varying value over time, though technical and religious training received near constant support. War industry support in the form of teaching, research, or skilled labor also received deferred or exempt status. Finally, marriage and family were exempted because of its positive social consequences.[23][50] This included using presidential orders to extend exemptions again to fathers and others.[51] Channeling was also seen as a means of preempting the early loss of the country's "best and brightest" who had historically joined and died early in war.[52]

text: In the only extended period of military conscription of U.S. males during a major peacetime period, the draft continued on a more limited basis during the late 1950s and early 1960s. While a far smaller percentage of eligible males were conscripted compared to war periods, draftees by law served in the Army for two years. Elvis Presley and Willie Mays were two of the most famous people drafted during this period.

text: Public protests in the United States were few during the Korean War. However, the percentage of CO exemptions for inductees grew to 1.5% compared to a rate of just 0.5% in the past two wars. The Justice Department also investigated more than 80,000 draft evasion cases.[44][53][54]

text: Vietnam War[edit]

text: President Kennedy's decision to send military troops to Vietnam as "advisors" was a signal that Selective Service Director Lewis B. Hershey needed to visit the Oval Office. From that visit emerged two wishes of JFK with regard to conscription. The first was that the names of married men with children should occupy the very bottom of the callup list. Just above them should be the names of men who are married. This Presidential policy, however, was not to be formally encoded into Selective Service Status. Men who fit into these categories became known as Kennedy Husbands. When President Lyndon Johnson decided to rescind this Kennedy policy, there was a last-minute rush to the altar by thousands of American couples.[citation needed]

text: Many early rank-and-file anti-conscription protesters had been allied with the National Committee for a SANE Nuclear Policy. The completion in 1963 of a Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty left a mass of undirected youth in search of a cause.[citation needed]Syndicated cartoonist Al Capp portrayed them as S.W.I.N.E, (Students Wildly Indignant About Nearly Everything). The catalyst for protest reconnection was the 1964 Gulf of Tonkin Resolution.

text: Consequently, there was some opposition to the draft even before the major U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War began. The large cohort of Baby Boomers who became eligible for military service during the Vietnam War was responsible for a steep increase in the number of exemptions and deferments, especially for college students. Besides being able to avoid the draft, college graduates who volunteered for military service (primarily as commissioned officers) had a much better chance of securing a preferential posting compared to less-educated inductees.

text: As U.S. troop strength in South Vietnam increased, more young men were drafted for service there, and many of those still at home sought means of avoiding the draft. Since only 15,000 National Guard and Reserve soldiers were sent to South Vietnam, enlistment in the Guard or the Reserves became a popular means of avoiding serving in a war zone. For those who could meet the more stringent enlistment standards, service in the Air Force, Navy, or Coast Guard was a means of reducing the chances of being killed. Vocations to the ministry and the rabbinate soared, because divinity students were exempt from the draft[citation needed]. Doctors and draft board members found themselves being pressured by relatives or family friends to exempt potential draftees.[citation needed]

text: The marriage deferment ended suddenly on August 26, 1965. Around 3:10pm President Johnson signed an order allowing the draft of men who married after midnight that day, then around 5pm he announced the change for the first time.[55]

text: Some conscientious objectors objected to the war based on the theory of Just War. One of these, Stephen Spiro, was convicted of avoiding the draft, but given a suspended sentence of five years. He was later pardoned by President Gerald Ford.[56]

text: There were 8,744,000 servicemembers between 1964 and 1975, of whom 3,403,000 were deployed to Southeast Asia.[57] From a pool of approximately 27 million, the draft raised 2,215,000 men for military service (in the United States, South Vietnam, and elsewhere) during the Vietnam War era. The majority of servicemembers deployed to South Vietnam were volunteers, even though hundreds of thousands of men opted to join the Army, Air Force, Navy, and Coast Guard (for three or four year terms of enlistment) rather than risk being drafted, serve for two years, and have no choice over their military occupational specialty (MOS).[58]

text: Of the nearly 16 million men not engaged in active military service, 57% were exempted (typically because of jobs including other military service), deferred (usually for educational reasons), or disqualified (usually for physical and mental deficiencies but also for criminal records including draft violations).[22] The requirements for obtaining and maintaining an educational deferment changed several times in the late 1960s. For several years, students were required to take an annual qualification test. In 1967 educational deferments were changed for graduate students. Those starting graduate studies in the fall of 1967 were given two semester deferments becoming eligible in June 1968. Those further along in their graduate study who entered prior to the summer of 1967 could continue to receive a deferment until they completed their studies. Peace Corps Volunteers were no longer given deferments and their induction was left to the discretion of their local boards. However most boards allowed Peace Corps Volunteers to complete their two years assignment before inducting them into the service. On December 1, 1969, a lottery was held to establish a draft priority for all those born between 1944 and 1950. Those with a high number no longer had to be concerned about the draft. Nearly 500,000 men were disqualified for criminal records, but less than 10,000 of them were convicted of draft violations.[33] Finally, as many as 100,000 draft eligible men fled the country.[59][60]

text: End of conscription[edit]

text: During the 1968 presidential election, Richard Nixon campaigned on a promise to end the draft.[61] He had first become interested in the idea of an all-volunteer army during his time out of office, based upon a paper by Martin Anderson of Columbia University.[62] Nixon also saw ending the draft as an effective way to undermine the anti-Vietnam war movement, since he believed affluent youths would stop protesting the war once their own probability of having to fight in it was gone.[63] There was opposition to the all-volunteer notion from both the Department of Defense and Congress, so Nixon took no immediate action towards ending the draft early in his presidency.[62]

text: Instead, the Gates Commission was formed, headed by Thomas S. Gates, Jr., a former Secretary of Defense in the Eisenhower administration. Gates initially opposed the all-volunteer army idea, but changed his mind during the course of the 15-member commission's work.[62] The Gates Commission issued its report in February 1970, describing how adequate military strength could be maintained without having conscription.[61][64] The existing draft law was expiring at the end of June 1971, but the Department of Defense and Nixon administration decided the draft needed to continue for at least some time.[64] In February 1971, the administration requested of Congress a two-year extension of the draft, to June 1973.[65][66]

text: Senatorial opponents of the war wanted to reduce this to a one-year extension, or eliminate the draft altogether, or tie the draft renewal to a timetable for troop withdrawal from Vietnam;[67] Senator Mike Gravel of Alaska took the most forceful approach, trying to filibuster the draft renewal legislation, shut down conscription, and directly force an end to the war.[68] Senators supporting Nixon's war efforts supported the bill, even though some had qualms about ending the draft.[66] After a prolonged battle in the Senate, in September 1971 cloture was achieved over the filibuster and the draft renewal bill was approved.[69] Meanwhile, military pay was increased as an incentive to attract volunteers, and television advertising for the U.S. Army began.[61] With the end of active U.S. ground participation in Vietnam, December 1972 saw the last men conscripted, who were born in 1952[70] and who reported for duty in June 1973. On February 2, 1972, a drawing was held to determine draft priority numbers for men born in 1953, but in early 1973 it was announced by Secretary of Defense Melvin Laird that no further draft orders would be issued.[71][72] In March 1973, 1974, and 1975, the Selective Service assigned draft priority numbers for all men born in 1954, 1955, and 1956, in case the draft was extended, but it never was.[73]

text: Command Sergeant Major Jeff Mellinger, believed to be the last drafted enlisted ranked soldier still on active duty, retired in 2011.[74][75]

text: Chief Warrant Officer 5 Ralph E. Rigby, the last Vietnam War-era drafted soldier of Warrant Officer rank, retired from the army on November 10, 2014 after a 42-year career.[76]

text: Post-1980 draft registration[edit]

text: On July 2, 1980, President Jimmy Carter issued Presidential Proclamation 4771 and re-instated the requirement that young men register with the Selective Service System.[77] At that time it was required that all males, born on or after January 1, 1960, register with the Selective Service System. Those now in this category are male U.S. citizens and male immigrant non-citizens between the ages of 18 and 25, who are required to register within 30 days of their 18th birthday even if they are not eligible to join the military.

text: The Selective Service System describes its mission as "to serve the emergency manpower needs of the Military by conscripting untrained manpower, or personnel with professional health care skills, if directed by Congress and the President in a national crisis".[78] Registration forms are available either online or at any U.S. Post Office.

text: The Selective Service registration form states that failure to register is a felony punishable by up to five years imprisonment or a $250,000 fine.[79] In practice, no one has been prosecuted for failure to comply with draft registration since 1986,[80] in part because prosecutions of draft resisters proved counter-productive for the government, and in part because of the difficulty of proving that noncompliance with the law was "knowing and wilful". In interviews published in U.S. News & World Report in May 2016, current and former Selective Service System officials said that in 1988, the Department of Justice and Selective Service agreed to suspend any further prosecutions of nonregistrants.[81] Many men do not register at all, register late, or change addresses without notifying the Selective Service System.[82] Registration is a requirement for employment by the federal government and some states, as well as for receiving some state benefits such as driver's licenses.[83] Refusing to register can also cause a loss of eligibility for federal financial aid for college.[84]

text: Health care personnel[edit]

text: On December 1, 1989, Congress ordered the Selective Service System to put in place a system capable of drafting "persons qualified for practice or employment in a health care and professional occupation", if such a special-skills draft should be ordered by Congress.[85] In response, Selective Service published plans for the "Health Care Personnel Delivery System" (HCPDS) in 1989 and has had them ready ever since. The concept underwent a preliminary field exercise in Fiscal Year 1998, followed by a more extensive nationwide readiness exercise in Fiscal Year 1999. The HCPDS plans include women and men ages 20–54 in 57 different job categories.[86] As of May 2003, the Defense Department has said the most likely form of draft is a special skills draft, probably of health care workers.[87]

text: Legality[edit]

text: In 1918, the Supreme Court ruled that the World War I draft did not violate the United States Constitution in the Selective Draft Law Cases. The Court summarized the history of conscription in England and in colonial America, a history that it read as establishing that the Framers envisioned compulsory military service as a governmental power. It held that the Constitution's grant to Congress of the powers to declare war and to create standing armies included the power to mandate conscription. It rejected arguments based on states' rights, the 13th Amendment, and other provisions of the Constitution.

text: Later, during the Vietnam War, a lower appellate court also concluded that the draft was constitutional. United States v. Holmes, 387 F.2d 781 (7th Cir.), cert. denied, 391 U.S. 936 (1968).[88] Justice William O. Douglas, in voting to hear the appeal in Holmes, agreed that the government had the authority to employ conscription in wartime, but argued that the constitutionality of a draft in the absence of a declaration of war was an open question, which the Supreme Court should address.

text: During the World War I era, the Supreme Court allowed the government great latitude in suppressing criticism of the draft. Examples include Schenck v. United States, 249 U.S. 47 (1919)[89] and Gilbert v. Minnesota, 254 U.S. 325 (1920).[90] In subsequent decades, however, the Court has taken a much broader view of the extent to which advocacy speech is protected by the First Amendment. Thus, in 1971 the Court held it unconstitutional for a state to punish a man who entered a county courthouse wearing a jacket with the words "Fuck the Draft" visible on it. Cohen v. California, 403 U.S. 15 (1971).[91] Nevertheless, protesting the draft by the specific means of burning a draft registration card can be constitutionally prohibited, because of the government's interest in prohibiting the "nonspeech" element involved in destroying the card. United States v. O'Brien, 391 U.S. 367 (1968).[92]

text: Since the reinstatement of draft registration in 1980, the Supreme Court has heard and decided four cases related to the Military Selective Service Act: Rostker v. Goldberg, 453 U.S. 57 (1981), upholding the Constitutionality of requiring men but not women to register for the draft; Selective Service v. Minnesota Public Interest Research Group (MPIRG), 468 U.S. 841 (1984), upholding the Constitutionality of the first of the federal "Solomon Amendment" laws, which requires applicants for Federal student aid to certify that they have complied with draft registration, either by having registered or by not being required to register; Wayte v. United States, 470 U.S. 598 (1985), upholding the policies and procedures which the Supreme Court thought the government had used to select the "most vocal" nonregistrants for prosecution, after the government refused to comply with discovery orders by the trial court to produce documents and witnesses related to the selection of nonregistrants for prosecution; and Elgin v. Department of the Treasury, 567 U.S. ____ (2012), regarding procedures for judicial review of denial of Federal employment for nonregistrants.[93]

text: In 1981, several men filed lawsuit in the case Rostker v. Goldberg, alleging that the Military Selective Service Act violates the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment by requiring that men only and not also women register with the Selective Service System. The Supreme Court upheld the act, stating that Congress's "decision to exempt women was not the accidental byproduct of a traditional way of thinking about women", that "since women are excluded from combat service by statute or military policy, men and women are simply not similarly situated for purposes of a draft or registration for a draft, and Congress' decision to authorize the registration of only men therefore does not violate the Due Process Clause", and that "the argument for registering women was based on considerations of equity, but Congress was entitled, in the exercise of its constitutional powers, to focus on the question of military need, rather than 'equity.'"[94]

text: The Rostker v. Goldberg opinion's dependence upon deference on decision of the executive to exclude women from combat has garnered renewed scrutiny since the Department of Defense announced its decision in January 2013 to do away with most of the federal policies that have kept women from serving in combat roles in ground war situations. Both the U.S. Navy and the U.S. Air Force had by then already opened up virtually all positions in sea and air combat to women. At least two lawsuits have been filed challenging the continued Constitutionality of requiring men but not women to register with the Selective service System: National Coalition for Men v. Selective Service System (filed April 4, 2013, U.S. District Court for the Central District of California; dismissed by the District Court July 29, 2013 as not "ripe" for decision; appeal argued December 8, 2015 before the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals;[95] reversed and remanded February 19, 2016[96]), and Kyle v. Selective Service System (filed July 3, 2015, U.S. District Court for the District of New Jersey), brought on behalf of Elizabeth Kyle-LaBell, who tried to register but was turned away because she is female.[97]

text: Conscientious objection[edit]

text: According to the Selective Service System,[98]

text: A conscientious objector is one who is opposed to serving in the armed forces and/or bearing arms on the grounds of moral or religious principles. [...]

text: The Supreme Court has ruled in cases United States v. Seeger[99] (1965) and Welsh v. United States[100] (1970) that conscientious objection can be by non-religious beliefs as well as religious beliefs; but it has also ruled in Gillette v. United States (1971) against objections to specific wars as grounds for conscientious objection.[101]

text: There is currently no mechanism to indicate that one is a conscientious objector in the Selective Service system. According to the SSS, after a person is drafted, he can claim Conscientious Objector status and then justify it before the Local Board. This is criticized because during the times of a draft, when the country is in emergency conditions, there could be increased pressure for Local Boards to be more harsh on conscientious objector claims.

text: There are two types of status for conscientious objectors. If a person objects only to combat but not to service in the military, then the person could be given noncombatant service in the military without training of weapons. If the person objects to all military service, then the person could be ordered to "alternative service" with a job "deemed to make a meaningful contribution to the maintenance of the national health, safety, and interest".

text: Poverty Draft[edit]

text: The poverty draft is a controversial belief in some circles that low-income demographics are either intentionally targeted by the military for recruitment, or that their low socioeconomic status makes enlistment especially attractive, such that they are overrepresented in the armed forces. The "poverty draft" is a term describing U.S. military recruiters' purposeful tendency to focus their recruiting efforts on inner-city and poor rural schools. The low-income youth and young people of color who attend these schools generally have fewer good educational and job opportunities than middle-class and wealthy youth and are therefore more likely to enlist. Proponents of the poverty draft view often claim that because of this the U.S. armed forces are disproportionally men and women of color and from poor and working-class backgrounds.[102] [103]

text: Selective Service reforms[edit]

text: The Selective Service System has maintained that they have implemented several reforms that would make the draft more fair and equitable.

text: Some of the measures they have implemented include:[104]

text:
Before and during the Vietnam War, a young man could get a deferment by showing that he was a full-time student making satisfactory progress towards a degree; now deferment only lasts to the end of the semester. If the man is a senior he can defer until the end of the academic year.
The government has said that draft boards are now more representative of the local communities in areas such as race and national origin.
A lottery system would be used to determine the order of people being called up. Previously the oldest men who were found eligible for the draft would be taken first. In the new system, the men called first would be those who are or will turn 20 years old in the calendar year or those whose deferments will end in the calendar year. Each year after, the man will be placed on a lower priority status until his liability ends.

text: Conscription controversies since 2003[edit]

text: The effort to enforce Selective Service registration law was abandoned in 1986. Since then, no attempt to reinstate conscription has been able to attract much support in the legislature or among the public.[82] Since early 2003, when the Iraq War appeared imminent, there had been attempts through legislation and campaign rhetoric to begin a new public conversation on the topic. Public opinion since 1973 has been largely negative.

text: In 2003, several Democratic congressmen (Charles Rangel of New York, Jim McDermott of Washington, John Conyers of Michigan, John Lewis of Georgia, Pete Stark of California, Neil Abercrombie of Hawaii) introduced legislation that would draft both men and women into either military or civilian government service, should there be a draft in the future. The Republican majority leadership suddenly considered the bill, nine months after its introduction, without a report from the Armed Services Committee (to which it had been referred), and just one month prior to the 2004 presidential and congressional elections. The Republican leadership used an expedited parliamentary procedure that would have required a two-thirds vote for passage of the bill. The bill was defeated on October 5, 2004, with two members voting for it and 402 members voting against.

text: In 2004, the platforms of both the Democratic and Republican parties opposed military conscription, but neither party moved to end draft registration. John Kerry in one debate criticized Bush's policies, "You've got stop-loss policies so people can't get out when they were supposed to. You've got a backdoor draft right now."

text: This statement was in reference to the U.S. Department of Defense use of "stop-loss" orders, which have extended the Active Duty periods of some military personnel. All enlistees, upon entering the service, volunteer for a minimum eight-year Military Service Obligation (MSO). This MSO is split between a minimum active duty period, followed by a reserve period where enlistees may be called back to active duty for the remainder of the eight years.[105] Some of these active duty extensions have been for as long as two years. The Pentagon stated that as of August 24, 2004, 20,000 soldiers, sailors, airmen, and Marines had been affected.[106] As of January 31, 2006 it has been reported that more than 50,000 soldiers and reservists had been affected.[107]

text: Despite arguments by defense leaders that they had no interest in re-instituting the draft, Representative Neil Abercrombie's (D-HI) inclusion of a DOD memo in the Congressional Record which detailed a meeting by senior leaders signaled renewed interest. Though the conclusion of the meeting memo did not call for a reinstatement of the draft, it did suggest Selective Service Act modifications to include registration by women and self-reporting of critical skills that could serve to meet military, homeland-defense, and humanitarian needs.[108] This hinted at more targeted draft options being considered, perhaps like that of the "Doctor Draft" that began in the 1950s to provide nearly 66% of the medical professionals who served in the Army in Korea.[109] Once created, this manpower tool continued to be used through 1972. The meeting memo gave DOD's primary reason for opposing a draft as a matter of cost effectiveness and efficiency. Draftees with less than two years' retention were said to be a net drain on military resources providing insufficient benefit to offset overhead costs of using them.[22]

text: Mentions of the draft during the presidential campaign led to a resurgence of anti-draft and draft resistance organizing.[110] One poll of young voters in October 2004 found that 29% would resist if drafted.[111]

text: In November 2006, Representative Charles B. Rangel (D-NY) again called for the draft to be reinstated; Speaker of the House Nancy Pelosi rejected the proposal.[112]

text: On December 19, 2006, President George W. Bush announced that he was considering sending more troops to Iraq. The next day, the Selective Service System's director for operations and chief information officer, Scott Campbell, announced plans for a "readiness exercise" to test the system's operations in 2006, for the first time since 1998.[113]

text: On December 21, 2006, Veterans Affairs Secretary Jim Nicholson, when asked by a reporter whether the draft should be reinstated to make the military more equal, said, "I think that our society would benefit from that, yes sir." Nicholson proceeded to relate his experience as a company commander in an infantry unit which brought together soldiers of different socioeconomic backgrounds and education levels, noting that the draft "does bring people from all quarters of our society together in the common purpose of serving". Nicholson later issued a statement saying he does not support reinstating the draft.[114]

text: On August 10, 2007, with National Public Radio on "All Things Considered", Lieutenant General Douglas Lute, National Security Adviser to the President and Congress for all matters pertaining to the United States Military efforts in Iraq and Afghanistan, expressed support for a draft to alleviate the stress on the Army's all-volunteer force. He cited the fact that repeated deployments place much strain upon one soldier's family and himself which, in turn, can affect retention.[115]

text: A similar bill to Rangel's 2003 one was introduced in 2007, called the Universal National Service Act of 2007 (H.R. 393), but it has not received a hearing or been scheduled for consideration.

text: At the end of June 2014 in Pennsylvania 14,250 letters of conscription were erroneously posted to men born in the 19th century calling upon them to register for the US military draft. This was attributed to a clerk at the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation who failed to select a century during a transfer of 400,000 records to the Selective Service. The Selective Service identified 27,218 records of men born in the 19th century made errantly applicable by the change of century and began sending out notices to them on June 30.[116]

text: On June 14, 2016, the Senate voted to require women to register for the draft, though language requiring this was dropped from later versions of the bill.[117]

text: Non-citizens[edit]

text: The Selective Service (and the draft) in the United States is not limited to citizens. Howard Stringer, for example, was drafted six weeks after arriving from his native Britain in 1965.[118][119] Today, non-citizen males of appropriate age in the United States, who are permanent residents (holders of green cards), seasonal agricultural workers not holding an H-2A Visa, refugees, parolees, asylees, and illegal immigrants, are required to register with the Selective Service System.[120] Refusal to do so is grounds for denial of a future citizenship application. In addition, immigrants who seek to naturalize as citizens must, as part of the Oath of Citizenship, swear to the following:

text: ... that I will bear arms on behalf of the United States when required by the law; that I will perform noncombatant service in the armed forces of the United States when required by the law; that I will perform work of national importance under civilian direction when required by the law;[121]

text: The United States Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) website also states however:

text: However, since 1975, USCIS has allowed the oath to be taken without the clauses:". . .that I will bear arms on behalf of the United States when required by law; that I will perform noncombatant service in the Armed Forces of the United States when required by law...."

text: Non-citizens who serve in the United States military enjoy several naturalization benefits which are unavailable to non-citizens who do not, such as a waiver of application fees.[122] Permanent resident aliens who die while serving in the U.S. Armed Forces may be naturalized posthumously, which may be beneficial to surviving family members.[123]


document_title: List of songs recorded by Panic! at the Disco

question_text: what is the longest panic at the disco song title

root

text: Panic! at the Disco have released five albums, two live albums, and two compilation albums. 21 singles have currently been released.

tag: p

text: Songs[edit]

text:
Key

Indicates song released as a single

Indicates song unreleased

tag: table

text:
Title
Length
Release
Year
Notes

[All the Boys] !"All the Boys"
3:12
Too Weird to Live, Too Rare to Die! !Too Weird to Live, Too Rare to Die!
2013
• Bonus song from Target edition of Too Weird to Live, Too Rare to Die!
• Featured in Nicotine - EP

Always] !"Always"
2:34
Vices & Virtues !Vices & Virtues
2011

Back Around !"Back Around"
3:26

2013
• Unreleased song from Too Weird to Live, Too Rare to Die! era. Clips can be found online

Behind the Sea !"Behind the Sea“
3:33
Pretty. Odd. !Pretty. Odd.
2008
• Alternate version featured on the deluxe version of Pretty. Odd.
• Alternate version featured on deluxe version of ...Live in Chicago
• Live version featured on ...Live in Chicago

Bittersweet !"Bittersweet"
3:34
Vices & Virtues !Vices & Virtues
2011
Bonus track on iTunes preorder edition of Vices & Virtues

Bohemian Rhapsody !"Bohemian Rhapsody"
6:02
Suicide Squad (soundtrack) !Suicide Squad (soundtrack)
2014
• Cover of song by Queen
• Studio recording featured in the soundtrack for Suicide Squad

Boss DJ !"Boss DJ"
2:59

2009
• Live cover of song by Sublime

Build God, Then We’ll Talk !"Build God, Then We'll Talk"
3:40
A Fever You Can't Sweat Out. !A Fever You Can't Sweat Out
2005
• Also featured on Introducing... Panic at the Disco
• Video featured on Panic! at the Disco Video Catalog

But It's Better If You Do !"But It's Better If You Do"
3:26
A Fever You Can't Sweat Out. !A Fever You Can't Sweat Out
2005
• Also featured on Introducing... Panic at the Disco
• Live version featured on Live Session EP
• Live version featured on ...Live in Chicago
• Video featured on Panic! at the Disco Video Catalog

C'Mon !"C'Mon"
3:34
C'Mon (feat. fun.) - EP
2011
• Featuring fun.

Camisado !"Camisado"
3:11
A Fever You Can't Sweat Out. !A Fever You Can't Sweat Out
2005
• *Live version featured on ...Live in Chicago
• Originally called "Relax Relapse"

Can't Fight Against the Youth !"Can't Fight Against the Youth"
3:13
Too Weird to Live, Too Rare to Die! !Too Weird to Live, Too Rare to Die!
2013
• Bonus song from Target edition of Too Weird to Live, Too Rare to Die!
• Featured in Nicotine - EP

Carry On Wayward Son !"Carry On Wayward Son"
5:37

2011
• Live cover of song by Kansas

Casual Affair !"Casual Affair"
3:40
Too Weird to Live, Too Rare to Die! !Too Weird to Live, Too Rare to Die!
2013

Crazy=Genius !"Crazy=Genius"
3:18
Death of a Bachelor !Death of a Bachelor
2016
• Charted #28 at US Rock

Death of a Bachelor !"Death of a Bachelor"
3:24
Death of a Bachelor !Death of a Bachelor
2016
• Charted #92 at US and #11 at US Rock

Do You Know What I'm Seeing? !"Do You Know What I'm Seeing?"
4:14
Pretty. Odd. !Pretty. Odd.
2008

Don't Stop Believin' !"Don't Stop Believin'"
2:33

2009
• Live cover of song by Journey

Don't Threaten Me with a Good Time !"Don't Threaten Me with a Good Time"
3:33
Death of a Bachelor !Death of a Bachelor
2016
• Charted #10 at US Rock

Eleanor Rigby !"Eleanor Rigby"
2:13

2015
• Live cover of song by The Beatles

Emperor's New Clothes !"Emperor's New Clothes"
2:39
Death of a Bachelor !Death of a Bachelor
2015

Far Too Young to Die !"Far Too Young to Die"
3:17
Too Weird to Live, Too Rare to Die! !Too Weird to Live, Too Rare to Die!
2013

Folkin' Around !"Folkin' Around"
1:55
Pretty. Odd. !Pretty. Odd.
2008
• *Live version featured on ...Live in Chicago

From a Mountain in the Middle of the Cabins !"From a Mountain in the Middle of the Cabins"
3:02
Pretty. Odd. !Pretty. Odd.
2008

Girl That You Love !"Girl That You Love"
3:09
Too Weird to Live, Too Rare to Die! !Too Weird to Live, Too Rare to Die!
2013

Girls/Girls/Boys !"Girls/Girls/Boys"
3:26
Too Weird to Live, Too Rare to Die! !Too Weird to Live, Too Rare to Die!
2013

Golden Days !"Golden Days"
4:14
Death of a Bachelor !Death of a Bachelor
2016
• Charted #34 at US Rock

Hallelujah !"Hallelujah"
3:01
Death of a Bachelor !Death of a Bachelor
2015

House of Memories !"House of Memories"
3:29
Death of a Bachelor !Death of a Bachelor
2016
• Charted #27 at US Rock

Hurricane !"Hurricane"
4:25
Vices & Virtues !Vices & Virtues
2011

I Constantly Thank God for Esteban !"I Constantly Thank God for Esteban"
3:30
A Fever You Can't Sweat Out. !A Fever You Can't Sweat Out
2005
• *Live version featured on ...Live in Chicago

I Have Friends in Holy Spaces !"I Have Friends in Holy Spaces"
1:56
Pretty. Odd. !Pretty. Odd.
2008

I Wanna Be Free !"I Wanna Be Free"
2:45
Vices & Virtues !Vices & Virtues
2011
• Bonus track on deluxe edition of Vices & Virtues

I Write Sins Not Tragedies !"I Write Sins Not Tragedies"
3:06
A Fever You Can't Sweat Out. !A Fever You Can't Sweat Out
2005
• Also featured on Introducing... Panic at the Disco
• Live version featured on Japanese version of A Fever You Can't Sweat Out
• Live version featured on Live Session EP
• Live version featured on ...Live in Chicago
• Video featured on Panic! at the Disco Video Catalog

Impossible Year !"Impossible Year"
3:23
Death of a Bachelor !Death of a Bachelor
2016
• Charted #35 at US Rock

It's Almost Halloween !"It's Almost Halloween"
3:55

2008

It's True Love !"It's True Love"

2007
• Unreleased demo played live

Kaleidoscope Eyes !"Kaleidoscope Eyes"
3:20
Vices & Virtues !Vices & Virtues
2011
• Bonus track on ShockHound edition of Vices & Virtues

LA Devotee !"LA Devotee"
3:29
Death of a Bachelor !Death of a Bachelor
2016
• Charted #15 at US Rock

Let's Kill Tonight !"Let's Kill Tonight"
3:34
Vices & Virtues !Vices & Virtues
2011
• Originally called "Kill Tonight"

London Beckoned Songs About Money Written by Machines !"London Beckoned Songs About Money Written by Machines"
3:23
A Fever You Can't Sweat Out. !A Fever You Can't Sweat Out
2005

Lullaby !"Lullaby"
2:03

2009
• Demo written for Pete Wentz's son

Lying Is the Most Fun a Girl Can Have Without Taking Her Clothes Off !"Lying Is the Most Fun a Girl Can Have Without Taking Her Clothes Off"
3:20
A Fever You Can't Sweat Out. !A Fever You Can't Sweat Out
2005
• Live version featured on Live Session EP
• Live version featured on ...Live in Chicago
• Video featured on Panic! at the Disco Video Catalog

Mad as Rabbits !"Mad as Rabbits"
3:48
Pretty. Odd. !Pretty. Odd.
2008
• Also featured on Introducing... Panic at the Disco
• Live version featured on ...Live in Chicago
• Video featured on Panic! at the Disco Video Catalog

Maneater !"Maneater"
2:59

2007
• Live cover of song by Nelly Furtado

Memories] !"Memories"
3:26
Vices & Virtues !Vices & Virtues
2011

Mercenary !"Mercenary"
2:41
Batman: Arkham City – The Album !Batman: Arkham City – The Album
2011

Miss Jackson !"Miss Jackson (feat. Lolo)"
4:19
Too Weird to Live, Too Rare to Die! !Too Weird to Live, Too Rare to Die!
2013
• Featuring Lolo

Nails for Breakfast, Tacks for Snacks !"Nails for Breakfast, Tacks for Snacks"
3:52
A Fever You Can't Sweat Out. !A Fever You Can't Sweat Out
2005
• Originally called "Nails for Breakfast and Tacks for Snacks"

Nearly Witches (Ever Since We Met...) !"Nearly Witches (Ever Since We Met...)"
4:16
Vices & Virtues !Vices & Virtues
2011
• Featuring Les Plastiscines
• Original demo featured on Welcome to the New Administration
• Originally called "Nearly Witches"

New Perspective !"New Perspective"
3:47
Jennifer's Body soundtrack !Jennifer's Body (soundtrack)
2009
• Video featured on Panic! at the Disco Video Catalog

Far Too Young to Die !"Nicotine"
3:06
Too Weird to Live, Too Rare to Die! !Too Weird to Live, Too Rare to Die!
2013
Released an EP

Night Birds !"Night Birds"

2016
• Unreleased song from Death of a Bachelor

Nine in the Afternoon !"Nine in the Afternoon"
3:11
Pretty. Odd. !Pretty. Odd.
2008
• Live version featured on ...Live in Chicago
• Video featured on Panic! at the Disco Video Catalog

Northern Downpour !"Northern Downpour"
4:07
Pretty. Odd. !Pretty. Odd.
2008
• Live version featured on ...Live in Chicago
• Video featured on Panic! at the Disco Video Catalog

Oh Glory !"Oh Glory"
3:03
Vices & Virtues !Vices & Virtues
2011
• Bonus track on deluxe edition of Vices & Virtues

Pas de Cheval !"Pas de Cheval“
2:39
Pretty. Odd. !Pretty. Odd.
2008
• Live version featured on ...Live in Chicago

Pas de Cheval !"Pas de Cheval“
2:39
Pretty. Odd. !Pretty. Odd.
2008
• Live version featured on ...Live in Chicago

Ready to Go (Get Me Out of My Mind) !"Ready to Go (Get Me Out of My Mind)"
3:37
Vices & Virtues !Vices & Virtues
2011
• Originally called "Ready to Go"

Sarah Smiles] !"Sarah Smiles"
3:33
Vices & Virtues !Vices & Virtues
2011

She Had the World !"She Had the World“
3:47
Pretty. Odd. !Pretty. Odd.
2008
• Alternate version featured on the deluxe version of ...Live in Chicago

She's a Handsome Woman !"She's a Handsome Woman“
3:12
Pretty. Odd. !Pretty. Odd.
2008
• Also featured on Introducing... Panic at the Disco
• Live version featured on ...Live in Chicago

Skid Row !"Skid Row"
4:26

2010
• Cover of song from the film The Little Shop of Horrors

Stall Me !"Stall Me"
3:10
Vices & Virtues !Vices & Virtues
2011
• Bonus track on deluxe edition of Vices & Virtues

That Green Gentleman (Things Have Changed) !"That Green Gentleman (Things Have Changed)"
3:15
Pretty. Odd. !Pretty. Odd.
2008
• Live version featured on ...Live in Chicago
• Video featured on Panic! at the Disco Video Catalog

The Ballad of Mona Lisa !"The Ballad of Mona Lisa"
3:49
Vices & Virtues !"Vices & Virtues"
2011
• Originally called "Mona Lisa"
• Video featured on Panic! at the Disco Video Catalog

The Calendar] !"The Calendar"
4:43
Vices & Virtues !Vices & Virtues
2011

The End of All Things !"The End of All Things"
3:30
Too Weird to Live, Too Rare to Die! !Too Weird to Live, Too Rare to Die!
2013

The Good, the Bad, and the Dirty !"The Good, the Bad, and the Dirty"
2:52
Death of a Bachelor !Death of a Bachelor
2016
• Charted #29 at US Rock

The Only Difference Between Martyrdom and Suicide Is Press Coverage !"The Only Difference Between Martyrdom and Suicide Is Press Coverage"
2:57
A Fever You Can't Sweat Out. !A Fever You Can't Sweat Out
2005
• Live version featured on ...Live in Chicago

The Piano Knows Something I Don't Know !"The Piano Knows Something I Don't Know“
3:43
Pretty. Odd. !Pretty. Odd.
2008
• Alternate version featured on deluxe version of ...Live in Chicago

The Weight !"The Weight"
3:17

2008
• Cover of song by The Band

There's a Good Reason These Tables Are Numbered Honey, You Just Haven't Thought Of It Yet !"There's a Good Reason These Tables Are Numbered Honey, You Just Haven't Thought Of It Yet"
3:16
A Fever You Can't Sweat Out. !A Fever You Can't Sweat Out
2005
• *Live version featured on ...Live in Chicago

This is Gospel !"This is Gospel"
3:07
Too Weird to Live, Too Rare to Die! !Too Weird to Live, Too Rare to Die!
2013

This is Halloween !"This is Halloween"
3:36
The Nightmare Before Christmas (soundtrack) !The Nightmare Before Christmas (soundtrack)
2006
• Cover of song from the film The Nightmare Before Christmas
* Featured in the 2006 reissue of the soundtrack

Three Little Birds !"Three Little Birds"
2:50

2009
• Cover of song by Bob Marley

Time to Dance !"Time to Dance"
4:09
A Fever You Can't Sweat Out. !A Fever You Can't Sweat Out
2005
• *Live version featured on ...Live in Chicago
• Originally called "It's Time to Dance ('Cause Boys Will Be Boys)"

Trade Mistakes] !"Trade Mistakes"
3:36
Vices & Virtues !Vices & Virtues
2011

Turn Off the Lights] !"Turn Off the Lights"
3:36
Vices & Virtues !Vices & Virtues
2011
• Bonus track on deluxe edition of Vices & Virtues

Unchained Melody !"Unchained Melody"

2008
• Live cover of song by The Righteous Brothers

Valerie !"Valerie"
3:28

2009
• Cover of song by The Zutons

Vegas Lights !"Vegas Lights"
3:40
Too Weird to Live, Too Rare to Die! !Too Weird to Live, Too Rare to Die!
2013

Victorious !"Victorious"
2:59
Death of a Bachelor !Death of a Bachelor
2015

We're So Starving !"We're So Starving"
1:21
Pretty. Odd. !Pretty. Odd.
2008
• Live version featured on ...Live in Chicago

When the Day Met the Night !"When the Day Met the Night"
4:53
Pretty. Odd. !Pretty. Odd.
2008
• Live version featured on ...Live in Chicago

White Christmas !"White Christmas"
1:32

2008
• Cover of song by Bing Crosby

text:
[hide]

v
t
e

Panic! at the Disco

Brendon Urie

Brent Wilson
Ryan Ross
Jon Walker
Spencer Smith
Dallon Weekes

Studio albums

A Fever You Can't Sweat Out
Pretty. Odd.
Vices & Virtues
Too Weird to Live, Too Rare to Die!
Death of a Bachelor

Live albums

...Live in Chicago
All My Friends We’re Glorious

Singles

"The Only Difference Between Martyrdom and Suicide Is Press Coverage"
"I Write Sins Not Tragedies"
"But It's Better If You Do"
"Lying Is the Most Fun a Girl Can Have Without Taking Her Clothes Off"
"Build God, Then We'll Talk"
"Nine in the Afternoon"
"Mad as Rabbits"
"That Green Gentleman (Things Have Changed)"
"Northern Downpour"
"The Ballad of Mona Lisa"
"Ready to Go (Get Me Out of My Mind)"
"Let's Kill Tonight"
"Miss Jackson"
"This Is Gospel"
"Girls / Girls / Boys"
"Hallelujah"
"Victorious"
"Emperor's New Clothes"
"Death of a Bachelor"

Other songs

"New Perspective"
"LA Devotee"
"Don't Threaten Me with a Good Time"
"Crazy=Genius"

Tours

Vices & Virtues Tour
Summer Tour 2016
Death of a Bachelor Tour

Related articles

Band members
Discography
List of songs recorded
The Young Veins

text: Lists of songs by American recording artists

tag: ul


document_title: Electron transport chain

question_text: where does the electron transport chain pumps protons

text: Electron transport chain

text: Background[edit]

text: The electron transport chain consists of a spatially separated series of redox reactions in which electrons are transferred from a donor molecule to an acceptor molecule. The underlying force driving these reactions is the Gibbs free energy of the reactants and products. The Gibbs free energy is the energy available ("free") to do work. Any reaction that decreases the overall Gibbs free energy of a system is thermodynamically spontaneous.

text: The function of the electron transport chain is to produce a transmembrane proton electrochemical gradient as a result of the redox reactions.[1] If protons flow back through the membrane, they enable mechanical work, such as rotating bacterial flagella. ATP synthase, an enzyme highly conserved among all domains of life, converts this mechanical work into chemical energy by producing ATP,[2] which powers most cellular reactions. A small amount of ATP is available from substrate-level phosphorylation, for example, in glycolysis. In most organisms the majority of ATP is generated in electron transport chains, while only some obtain ATP by fermentation.[citation needed]

text: In mitochondria[edit]

text: Most eukaryotic cells have mitochondria, which produce ATP from products of the citric acid cycle, fatty acid oxidation, and amino acid oxidation. At the mitochondrial inner membrane, electrons from NADH and FADH2 pass through the electron transport chain to oxygen, which is reduced to water. The electron transport chain comprises an enzymatic series of electron donors and acceptors. Each electron donor will pass electrons to a more electronegative acceptor, which in turn donates these electrons to another acceptor, a process that continues down the series until electrons are passed to oxygen, the most electronegative and terminal electron acceptor in the chain. Passage of electrons between donor and acceptor releases energy, which is used to generate a proton gradient across the mitochondrial membrane by actively "pumping" protons into the intermembrane space, producing a thermodynamic state that has the potential to do work. The entire process is called oxidative phosphorylation, since ADP is phosphorylated to ATP using the energy of hydrogen oxidation in many steps.

text: A small percentage of electrons do not complete the whole series and instead directly leak to oxygen, resulting in the formation of the free-radical superoxide, a highly reactive molecule that contributes to oxidative stress and has been implicated in a number of diseases and aging.

text: Mitochondrial redox carriers[edit]

text: Energy obtained through the transfer of electrons down the ETC is used to pump protons from the mitochondrial matrix into the intermembrane space, creating an electrochemical proton gradient (ΔpH) across the inner mitochondrial membrane (IMM). This proton gradient is largely but not exclusively responsible for the mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨM). It allows ATP synthase to use the flow of H+ through the enzyme back into the matrix to generate ATP from adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate. Complex I (NADH coenzyme Q reductase; labeled I) accepts electrons from the Krebs cycle electron carrier nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH), and passes them to coenzyme Q (ubiquinone; labeled Q), which also receives electrons from complex II (succinate dehydrogenase; labeled II). Q passes electrons to complex III (cytochrome bc1 complex; labeled III), which passes them to cytochrome c (cyt c). Cyt c passes electrons to Complex IV (cytochrome c oxidase; labeled IV), which uses the electrons and hydrogen ions to reduce molecular oxygen to water.

text: Four membrane-bound complexes have been identified in mitochondria. Each is an extremely complex transmembrane structure that is embedded in the inner membrane. Three of them are proton pumps. The structures are electrically connected by lipid-soluble electron carriers and water-soluble electron carriers. The overall electron transport chain:

text: Complex I[edit]

text: In Complex I (NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase, NADH-CoQ reductase, or NADH dehydrogenase; EC 1.6.5.3), two electrons are removed from NADH and ultimately transferred to a lipid-soluble carrier, ubiquinone (UQ). The reduced product, ubiquinol (UQH2), freely diffuses within the membrane, and Complex I translocates four protons (H+) across the membrane, thus producing a proton gradient. Complex I is one of the main sites at which premature electron leakage to oxygen occurs, thus being one of the main sites of production of superoxide.[3]

text: The pathway of electrons is as follows:

text: NADH is oxidized to NAD+, by reducing Flavin mononucleotide to FMNH2 in one two-electron step. FMNH2 is then oxidized in two one-electron steps, through a semiquinone intermediate. Each electron thus transfers from the FMNH2 to an Fe-S cluster, from the Fe-S cluster to ubiquinone (Q). Transfer of the first electron results in the free-radical (semiquinone) form of Q, and transfer of the second electron reduces the semiquinone form to the ubiquinol form, QH2. During this process, four protons are translocated from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space. [4] As the electrons become continuously oxidized and reduced throughout the complex an electron current is produced along the 180 Angstrom width of the complex within the membrane. This current powers the active transport of four protons to the intermembrane space per two electrons from NADH.[5]

text: Complex II[edit]

text: In Complex II (succinate dehydrogenase or succinate-CoQ reductase; EC 1.3.5.1) additional electrons are delivered into the quinone pool (Q) originating from succinate and transferred (via flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)) to Q. Complex II consists of four protein subunits: succinate dehydrogenase, (SDHA); succinate dehydrogenase [ubiquinone] iron-sulfur subunit, mitochondrial, (SDHB); succinate dehydrogenase complex subunit C, (SDHC) and succinate dehydrogenase complex, subunit D, (SDHD). Other electron donors (e.g., fatty acids and glycerol 3-phosphate) also direct electrons into Q (via FAD). Complex 2 is a parallel electron transport pathway to complex 1, but unlike complex 1, no protons are transported to the intermembrane space in this pathway. Therefore, the pathway through complex 2 contributes less energy to the overall electron transport chain process.

text: Complex III[edit]

text: In Complex III (cytochrome bc1 complex or CoQH2-cytochrome c reductase; EC 1.10.2.2), the Q-cycle contributes to the proton gradient by an asymmetric absorption/release of protons. Two electrons are removed from QH2 at the QO site and sequentially transferred to two molecules of cytochrome c, a water-soluble electron carrier located within the intermembrane space. The two other electrons sequentially pass across the protein to the Qi site where the quinone part of ubiquinone is reduced to quinol. A proton gradient is formed by one quinol (2H+2e-) oxidations at the Qo site to form one quinone (2H+2e-) at the Qi site. (in total four protons are translocated: two protons reduce quinone to quinol and two protons are released from two ubiquinol molecules).

text: When electron transfer is reduced (by a high membrane potential or respiratory inhibitors such as antimycin A), Complex III may leak electrons to molecular oxygen, resulting in superoxide formation.

text: Complex IV[edit]

text: In Complex IV (cytochrome c oxidase; EC 1.9.3.1), sometimes called cytochrome AA3, four electrons are removed from four molecules of cytochrome c and transferred to molecular oxygen (O2), producing two molecules of water. At the same time, eight protons are removed from the mitochondrial matrix (although only four are translocated across the membrane), contributing to the proton gradient. The activity of cytochrome c oxidase is inhibited by cyanide.

text: Coupling with oxidative phosphorylation[edit]

text:
According to the chemiosmotic coupling hypothesis, proposed by Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Peter D. Mitchell, the electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation are coupled by a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane. The efflux of protons from the mitochondrial matrix creates an electrochemical gradient (proton gradient). This gradient is used by the FOF1 ATP synthase complex to make ATP via oxidative phosphorylation. ATP synthase is sometimes described as Complex V of the electron transport chain.[6] The FO component of ATP synthase acts as an ion channel that provides for a proton flux back into the mitochondrial matrix. It is composed of a, b and c subunits. Protons in the inter-membranous space of mitochondria first enters the ATP synthase complex through a subunit channel. Then protons move to the c subunits.[7] The number of c subunits it has determines how many protons it will require to make the FO turn one full revolution. For example, in humans, there are 8 c subunits, thus 8 protons are required.[8] After c subunits, protons finally enters matrix using a subunit channel that opens into the mitochondrial matrix.[7] This reflux releases free energy produced during the generation of the oxidized forms of the electron carriers (NAD+ and Q). The free energy is used to drive ATP synthesis, catalyzed by the F1 component of the complex.[9]
Coupling with oxidative phosphorylation is a key step for ATP production. However, in specific cases, uncoupling the two processes may be biologically useful. The uncoupling protein, thermogenin—present in the inner mitochondrial membrane of brown adipose tissue—provides for an alternative flow of protons back to the inner mitochondrial matrix. This alternative flow results in thermogenesis rather than ATP production.[10] Synthetic uncouplers (e.g., 2,4-dinitrophenol) also exist, and, at high doses, are lethal.[citation needed]

text: Summary[edit]

text: In the mitochondrial electron transport chain electrons move from an electron donor (NADH or QH2) to a terminal electron acceptor (O2) via a series of redox reactions. These reactions are coupled to the creation of a proton gradient across the mitochondrial inner membrane. There are three proton pumps: I, III, and IV. The resulting transmembrane proton gradient is used to make ATP via ATP synthase.

text: The reactions catalyzed by Complex I and Complex III work roughly at equilibrium. This means that these reactions are readily reversible, by increasing the concentration of the products relative to the concentration of the reactants (for example, by increasing the proton gradient). ATP synthase is also readily reversible. Thus ATP can be used to build a proton gradient, which in turn can be used to make NADH. This process of reverse electron transport is important in many prokaryotic electron transport chains.[11]

text: In bacteria[edit]

text: In eukaryotes, NADH is the most important electron donor. The associated electron transport chain is

text: NADH → Complex I → Q → Complex III → cytochrome c → Complex IV → O2 where Complexes I, III and IV are proton pumps, while Q and cytochrome c are mobile electron carriers. The electron acceptor is molecular oxygen.

text: In prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) the situation is more complicated, because there are several different electron donors and several different electron acceptors. The generalized electron transport chain in bacteria is:

text: Note that electrons can enter the chain at three levels: at the level of a dehydrogenase, at the level of the quinone pool, or at the level of a mobile cytochrome electron carrier. These levels correspond to successively more positive redox potentials, or to successively decreased potential differences relative to the terminal electron acceptor. In other words, they correspond to successively smaller Gibbs free energy changes for the overall redox reaction Donor → Acceptor.

text: Individual bacteria use multiple electron transport chains, often simultaneously. Bacteria can use a number of different electron donors, a number of different dehydrogenases, a number of different oxidases and reductases, and a number of different electron acceptors. For example, E. coli (when growing aerobically using glucose as an energy source) uses two different NADH dehydrogenases and two different quinol oxidases, for a total of four different electron transport chains operating simultaneously.

text: A common feature of all electron transport chains is the presence of a proton pump to create a transmembrane proton gradient. Bacterial electron transport chains may contain as many as three proton pumps, like mitochondria, or they may contain only one or two. They always contain at least one proton pump.

text: Electron donors[edit]

text: In the present day biosphere, the most common electron donors are organic molecules. Organisms that use organic molecules as an energy source are called organotrophs. Organotrophs (animals, fungi, protists) and phototrophs (plants and algae) constitute the vast majority of all familiar life forms.

text: Some prokaryotes can use inorganic matter as an energy source. Such an organism is called a lithotroph ("rock-eater"). Inorganic electron donors include hydrogen, carbon monoxide, ammonia, nitrite, sulfur, sulfide, manganese oxide, and ferrous iron. Lithotrophs have been found growing in rock formations thousands of meters below the surface of Earth. Because of their volume of distribution, lithotrophs may actually outnumber organotrophs and phototrophs in our biosphere.

text: The use of inorganic electron donors as an energy source is of particular interest in the study of evolution. This type of metabolism must logically have preceded the use of organic molecules as an energy source.

text: Dehydrogenases[edit]

text: Bacteria can use a number of different electron donors. When organic matter is the energy source, the donor may be NADH or succinate, in which case electrons enter the electron transport chain via NADH dehydrogenase (similar to Complex I in mitochondria) or succinate dehydrogenase (similar to Complex II). Other dehydrogenases may be used to process different energy sources: formate dehydrogenase, lactate dehydrogenase, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, H2 dehydrogenase (hydrogenase), etc. Some dehydrogenases are also proton pumps; others funnel electrons into the quinone pool. Most dehydrogenases show induced expression in the bacterial cell in response to metabolic needs triggered by the environment in which the cells grow.[citation needed]

text: Quinone carriers[edit]

text: Quinones are mobile, lipid-soluble carriers that shuttle electrons (and protons) between large, relatively immobile macromolecular complexes embedded in the membrane. Bacteria use ubiquinone (the same quinone that mitochondria use) and related quinones such as menaquinone. Another name for ubiquinone is Coenzyme Q10.

text: Proton pumps[edit]

text: A proton pump is any process that creates a proton gradient across a membrane. Protons can be physically moved across a membrane; this is seen in mitochondrial Complexes I and IV. The same effect can be produced by moving electrons in the opposite direction. The result is the disappearance of a proton from the cytoplasm and the appearance of a proton in the periplasm. Mitochondrial Complex III uses this second type of proton pump, which is mediated by a quinone (the Q cycle).

text: Some dehydrogenases are proton pumps; others are not. Most oxidases and reductases are proton pumps, but some are not. Cytochrome bc1 is a proton pump found in many, but not all, bacteria (it is not found in E. coli). As the name implies, bacterial bc1 is similar to mitochondrial bc1 (Complex III).

text: Proton pumps are the heart of the electron transport process. They produce the transmembrane electrochemical gradient that enables ATP Synthase to synthesize ATP.

text: Cytochrome electron carriers[edit]

text: Cytochromes are pigments that contain iron. They are found in two very different environments.

text: Some cytochromes are water-soluble carriers that shuttle electrons to and from large, immobile macromolecular structures imbedded in the membrane. The mobile cytochrome electron carrier in mitochondria is cytochrome c. Bacteria use a number of different mobile cytochrome electron carriers.

text: Other cytochromes are found within macromolecules such as Complex III and Complex IV. They also function as electron carriers, but in a very different, intramolecular, solid-state environment.

text: Electrons may enter an electron transport chain at the level of a mobile cytochrome or quinone carrier. For example, electrons from inorganic electron donors (nitrite, ferrous iron, etc.) enter the electron transport chain at the cytochrome level. When electrons enter at a redox level greater than NADH, the electron transport chain must operate in reverse to produce this necessary, higher-energy molecule.

text: Terminal oxidases and reductases[edit]

text: When bacteria grow in aerobic environments, the terminal electron acceptor (O2) is reduced to water by an enzyme called an oxidase. When bacteria grow in anaerobic environments, the terminal electron acceptor is reduced by an enzyme called a reductase.

text: In mitochondria the terminal membrane complex (Complex IV) is cytochrome oxidase. Aerobic bacteria use a number of different terminal oxidases. For example, E. coli does not have a cytochrome oxidase or a bc1 complex. Under aerobic conditions, it uses two different terminal quinol oxidases (both proton pumps) to reduce oxygen to water.

text: Anaerobic bacteria, which do not use oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor, have terminal reductases individualized to their terminal acceptor. For example, E. coli can use fumarate reductase, nitrate reductase, nitrite reductase, DMSO reductase, or trimethylamine-N-oxide reductase, depending on the availability of these acceptors in the environment.

text: Most terminal oxidases and reductases are inducible. They are synthesized by the organism as needed, in response to specific environmental conditions.

text: Electron acceptors[edit]

text: Just as there are a number of different electron donors (organic matter in organotrophs, inorganic matter in lithotrophs), there are a number of different electron acceptors, both organic and inorganic. If oxygen is available, it is invariably used as the terminal electron acceptor, because it generates the greatest Gibbs free energy change and produces the most energy.[citation needed]

text: In anaerobic environments, different electron acceptors are used, including nitrate, nitrite, ferric iron, sulfate, carbon dioxide, and small organic molecules such as fumarate.

text: Since electron transport chains are redox processes, they can be described as the sum of two redox pairs. For example, the mitochondrial electron transport chain can be described as the sum of the NAD+/NADH redox pair and the O2/H2O redox pair. NADH is the electron donor and O2 is the electron acceptor.

text: Not every donor-acceptor combination is thermodynamically possible. The redox potential of the acceptor must be more positive than the redox potential of the donor. Furthermore, actual environmental conditions may be far different from standard conditions (1 molar concentrations, 1 atm partial pressures, pH = 7), which apply to standard redox potentials. For example, hydrogen-evolving bacteria grow at an ambient partial pressure of hydrogen gas of 10−4 atm. The associated redox reaction, which is thermodynamically favorable in nature, is thermodynamic impossible under "standard" conditions.[citation needed]

text: Summary[edit]

text: Bacterial electron transport pathways are, in general, inducible. Depending on their environment, bacteria can synthesize different transmembrane complexes and produce different electron transport chains in their cell membranes. Bacteria select their electron transport chains from a DNA library containing multiple possible dehydrogenases, terminal oxidases and terminal reductases. The situation is often summarized by saying that electron transport chains in bacteria are branched, modular, and inducible.

text: Photosynthetic[edit]

text: In oxidative phosphorylation, electrons are transferred from a low-energy electron donor (e.g., NADH) to an acceptor (e.g., O2) through an electron transport chain. In photophosphorylation, the energy of sunlight is used to create a high-energy electron donor and an electron acceptor. Electrons are then transferred from the donor to the acceptor through another electron transport chain.

text: Photosynthetic electron transport chains have many similarities to the oxidative chains discussed above. They use mobile, lipid-soluble carriers (quinones) and mobile, water-soluble carriers (cytochromes, etc.). They also contain a proton pump. It is remarkable that the proton pump in all photosynthetic chains resembles mitochondrial Complex III.

text: Photosynthetic electron transport chains are discussed in greater detail in the articles Photophosphorylation, Photosynthesis, Photosynthetic reaction center and Light-dependent reaction.

text: Summary[edit]

text: Electron transport chains are redox reactions that transfer electrons from an electron donor to an electron acceptor. The transfer of electrons is coupled to the translocation of protons across a membrane, producing a proton gradient. The proton gradient is used to produce useful work. About 30 work units are produced per electron transport.


document_title: List of films that most frequently use the word "fuck"

question_text: wolf of wall street number of f words

question_tokens: wolf of wall street number of f words

text: List of films by number of uses

text:
Film
Year
Fuck count
Minutes
Uses/minute
Source
Ref.

Swearnet: The Movie
2014
935
112
8.35

[7]

Fuck—a documentary on the word[8]
2005
857
93
9.21

[9][10]

The Wolf of Wall Street
2013
569
180
3.16
SI
[11][12][13]

Summer of Sam
1999
435
142
3.06
PO
[14]

Nil by Mouth
1997
428
128
3.34
SI
[15]

Casino
1995
422
178
2.40
FMG
[16]

Straight Outta Compton
2015
392
167
2.35
SI
[17]

Alpha Dog
2007
367
118
3.11
SI
[18]

End of Watch
2012
326
109
2.99
KIM
[19]

Twin Town
1997
318
99
3.21
SI
[20]

Running Scared
2006
315
122
2.58
SI
[21]

Sweet Sixteen
2002
313
106
2.95
DR
[22]

Martin Lawrence Live: Runteldat
2002
311
113
2.75
SI
[23]

Menace II Society
1993
305
98
3.11
PO
[24]

Goodfellas
1990
300
146
2.05
FMG
[25]

Narc
2002
297
105
2.82
FMG
[26]

Harsh Times
2006
296
120
2.46
SI
[27]

Made
2001
291
94
3.09
FMG
[28]

Another Day in Paradise
1998
291
101
2.88
SI
[29]

Pride and Glory
2008
291
125
2.32
SI
[30]

Dirty
2005
280
97
2.88
FMG
[31]

I'm Still Here
2010
280
107
2.40
FMG
[32]

Jarhead
2005
278
123
2.26
SI
[33]

Bully
2001
274
113
2.42
FMG
[34]

State Property 2
2005
271
94
2.88
SI
[35]

Brooklyn's Finest
2010
270
140
1.93
SI
[36]

Reservoir Dogs
1992
269
99
2.71
FMG
[37]

Pulp Fiction
1994
265
154
1.72
FMG
[38]

The Big Lebowski
1998
260
117
2.22
FMG
[39]

Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back
2001
248
104
2.38
FMG
[40]

Free Fire
2016
240
90
2.67
KIM
[41]

Do the Right Thing
1989
240
120
2.00
SD
[42]

The Boondock Saints
1999
239
110
2.17
FMG
[43]

The Departed
2006
237
151
1.56
SI
[44]

Empire
2002
236
90
2.62
FMG
[45]

True Romance
1993
234
121
1.93
FMG
[46]

Black Mass
2015
234
122
1.92
SI
[47]

Goon
2012
231
93
2.48
KIM
[48]

My Name Is Joe
1998
230
105
2.19
SI
[49]

State of Grace
1990
230
134
1.71
FMG
[50]

Gridlock'd
1997
227
91
2.49
SI
[51]

The Devil's Rejects
2005
224
109
2.06
FMG
[52]

Eddie Murphy Raw
1987
223
90
2.47
FMG
[53]

Suicide Kings
1997
222
106
2.09
FMG
[54]

Zack and Miri Make a Porno
2008
219
101
2.16
SI
[55]

30 Minutes or Less
2011
218
83
2.17
KIM
[56]

Black and White
1999
215
98
2.19
SI
[57]

American History X
1998
214
119
1.79
FMG
[58]

The Original Kings of Comedy
2000
213
115
1.85
FMG
[59]

Hot Tub Time Machine
2010
212
100
2.12
SI
[60]

Monument Ave.
1998
210
93
2.25
PO
[61]

Layer Cake
2004
210
105
2.00
FMG
[62]

All Eyez on Me
2017
210
140
1.50
PI
[3]

Scarface
1983
207
170
1.21
FMG
[63]

Spun
2002
203
101
2.00
FMG
[64]

Dysfunktional Family
2003
200
89
2.24
SI
[65]

Foolish
1999
200
97
2.06
SI
[66]

This Is The End
2013
200
106
1.88
KIM
[67]

8 Mile
2002
200
110
1.81
SI
[68]

22 Jump Street
2014
200
112
1.78
PI
[69]

A Bronx Tale
1993
200
122
1.63
FMG
[70]

I Got the Hook Up
1998
197
93
2.11
SI
[71]

Sabotage
2014
196
109
1.80
SI
[72]

Born on the Fourth of July
1989
196
145
1.35
FMG
[73]

Next Day Air
2009
193
84
2.23
SI
[74]

Killing Them Softly
2012
193
97
1.99
SI
[75]

Overnight
2003
191
82
2.32
FMG
[76]

Ten Benny
1996
190
108
1.75
KIM
[77]

Superbad
2007
190
118
1.61
SI
[78]

Magnolia
1999
190
188
1.01
FMG
[79]

Monster
2003
187
110
1.70
FMG
[80]

Belly
1998
186
96
1.93
SI
[81]

Hustle & Flow
2005
186
115
1.61
FMG
[82]

The Wall
2017
185
82
2.26
PI
[4]

Clockers
1995
185
128
1.44
PO
[83]

Get Rich or Die Tryin'
2005
185
134
1.38
FMG
[84]

Bad Santa 2
2016
180
92
1.96
KIM
[85]

The 51st State
2001
180
93
1.93
FMG
[86]

Flawless
1999
178
112
1.58
FMG
[87]

Slam
1998
176
100
1.76
SI
[88]

Poetic Justice
1993
175
109
1.60
PO
[89]

Pineapple Express
2008
175
111
1.57
SI
[90]

Project X
2012
175
88
1.98
KIM
[91]

Human Traffic
1999
174
100
1.74
PO
[92]

Bad Santa
2003
173
98
1.76
FMG
[93]

Tigerland
2000
173
100
1.73
MR
[94]

Donnie Brasco
1997
172
127
1.35
FMG
[95]

Backstage
2000
170
86
1.97
SI
[96]

The Commitments
1991
169
118
1.43
FMG
[97]

Grindhouse
2007
169
191
0.88
SI
[98]

Four Rooms
1995
168
98
1.71
FMG
[99]

Death of a Dynasty
2003
167
93
1.79
KIM
[100]

Gang Related
1997
165
102
1.61
SI
[101]

Crank: High Voltage
2009
164
96
1.71
SI
[102]

Funny People
2009
164
153
1.01
SI
[103]

Boogie Nights
1997
164
155
1.05
FMG
[104]

Formula 51
2001
163
93
1.75
SI
[105]

Blood In Blood Out
1993
163
190
0.85
PO
[106]

21 and Over
2013
162
93
1.74
KIM
[107]

The Grey
2012
161
117
1.30
SI
[108]

Lone Survivor
2013
161
121
1.33
SI
[109]

Sausage Party
2016
160
89
1.80
PI
[110]

Good Time
2017
160
100
1.60
PI
[5]

Dirty Grandpa
2016
160
102
1.57
KIM
[111]

Snatch
2000
159
102
1.55
FMG
[112][113]

Platoon
1986
159
120
1.32
FMG
[114]

Blue Collar
1978
158
114
1.39
TFF
[115]

The Heat
2013
158
117
1.35
KIM
[116]

Colors
1988
157
120
1.30
FMG
[117]

Dead Presidents
1995
157
119
1.32
PO
[118]

That's My Boy
2012
156
116
1.35
SI
[119]

Magic Mike
2012
156
110
1.42
KIM
[120]

Intermission
2003
155
106
1.46
FMG
[121]

The Town
2010
155
125
1.26
SI
[122]

Legend
2015
155
131
1.18
SI
[123]

The Blair Witch Project
1999
154
86
1.79
FMG
[124]

Notorious
2009
154
123
1.25
SI
[125]

Good Will Hunting
1997
154
126
1.22
FMG
[126]

Boiler Room
2000
153
118
1.29
SI
[127]

Bad Boys II
2003
153
147
1.04
FMG
[128]

All About the Benjamins
2002
151
99
1.53
SI
[129]

Ash Wednesday
2002
151
99
1.53
FMG
[130]

Soul Men
2008
151
103
1.46
SI
[131]

Smokin' Stogies
2001
151
102
1.48
FMG
[132]

In the Name of the Father
1993
151
127
1.19
FMG
[133]

Clerks II
2006
150
97
1.55
PI
[134]

The Night Before
2015
150
101
1.49
KIM
[135]

Everybody Wants Some!!
2016
150
117
1.28
PI
[136]

Patriots Day
2016
150
130
1.15
SI
[137]

Hoffa
1992
150
140
1.07
FMG
[138]

The Place Beyond the Pines
2012
150
140
1.07
SI
[139]

American Honey
2016
150
163
0.92
KIM
[140]

text: Record progression

text:
Film
Year
Fuck count
Minutes
Uses/minute

The French Connection
1971
11
104
0.11

Last Tango in Paris
1972
25
129
0.19

The Last Detail
1973
65
112
0.58

Blue Collar
1978
158
114
1.39

Scarface
1983
207
170
1.21

Eddie Murphy Raw
1987
223
90
2.47

Do the Right Thing
1989
240
120
2

Goodfellas
1990
300
146
2.05

Menace II Society
1993
305
98
3.11

Casino
1995
422
178
2.4

Nil by Mouth
1997
428
128
3.34

Summer of Sam
1999
435
142
3.06

Fuck-A documentary on the word
2005
857
93
9.21

The Wolf of Wall Street
2013
569
180
3.16

Swearnet: The Movie
2014
935
112
8.35