document_title: Supercars Championship

question_text: what engine is in a holden v8 supercar

question_tokens: what engine is in a holden v8 supercar

text: Supercars Championship

text: History[edit]

text: Group 3A[edit]

text: The concept of a formula centred around V8-engined Fords and Holdens for the Australian Touring Car Championship had been established as early as mid-1991. With the new regulations set to come into effect in 1993, Ford and Holden were both keen to know the details of the new formula by the end of 1991, putting pressure on the Confederation of Australian Motor Sport (CAMS) to provide clarity on the matter. However, CAMS was waiting to see what the FIA did with its proposed international formula for 2.5 and 2.0-litre touring cars.[13]

text: The new rules for the ATCC were announced in November 1991 and indicated that the V8 cars would be significantly faster than the smaller engined cars. During 1992, CAMS looked at closing the performance gap between the classes, only to have protests from Ford and Holden, who did not want to see their cars beaten by the smaller cars. In June 1992, the class structure was confirmed:[14]

text:
Class A: Australian-produced 5.0-litre V8-engined Fords and Holdens.
Class B: 2.0-litre cars complying with FIA Class II Touring Car regulations.
Class C: normally aspirated two-wheel drive cars complying with 1992 CAMS Group 3A Touring Car regulations. This class would only be eligible in 1993.[15]

text: Both the Ford EB Falcon and Holden VP Commodore ran American-based engines which were restricted to 7,500 rpm and a compression ratio of 10:1. The Holden teams had the option of using the Group A-developed 5.0-litre Holden V8 engine, although this was restricted to the second tier 'privateer' teams from 1994 onwards, forcing the major Holden runners to use the more expensive Chevrolet engine. The V8s were first eligible to compete in the endurance races of 1992. The distinctive aerodynamics package, consisting of large front and rear spoilers, was designed partly with this in mind, to give the new cars a better chance of beating the Nissan Skyline GT-Rs in those races.[14]

text: The new rules meant that cars such as the turbocharged Nissan Skyline GT-R and Ford Sierra RS500 Cosworth were not eligible to compete in 1993, while cars such as the BMW M3 were. However, the M3 received few of the liberal concessions given to the new V8s and also had an extra 100 kilograms (220 lb) added to its minimum weight so,[16] with the Class C cars eligible for 1993 only, the German manufacturer's attention switched to the 2.0-litre class for 1994.

text: Cars from all three classes would contest the 1993 Australian Touring Car Championship as well as non-championship Australian touring car events such as the Bathurst 1000. However, for the purposes of race classification and points allocation, cars competed in two classes:

text:
Over 2,000cc.
Under 2,000cc.

tag: ol

text: Originally the 2.0-litre class cars competed in a separate race to the V8s. This was changed for the second round of 1993 after there were only nine entrants in the 2.0-litre class for the first round at Amaroo Park.[16]

text: With the new regulations intended to be a parity formula, there were protests by the Holden teams that the Fords had an aerodynamic advantage after they won the opening three rounds, beating the Commodore comprehensively. After round five at Winton, Holden was granted a new front and rear wing package. The BMWs were also allowed a new splitter and a full DTM-specification rear wing.[17] Disparity between the Fords and Holdens continued to be a talking point during the next few years, with various concessions given to each manufacturer to try and equalise the two cars.[18]

text: From 1995, the 2.0-litre cars, now contesting their own series as Super Touring cars, became ineligible for the Australian Touring Car Championship. They did not contest the endurance races at Sandown and Bathurst, leaving these open solely to the 5.0-litre Ford and Holden models.

text: V8 Supercars[edit]

text: The Australian Vee Eight Super Car Company (AVESCO) – a joint venture between the Touring Car Entrants Group of Australia (TEGA), sports promoters IMG and the Australian Motor Sports Commission – was formed in November 1996 to run the series. This set the foundation for the large expansion of the series during the following years. The category also adopted the name 'V8 Supercars' at this time,[19] though the cars themselves were much unchanged. A new television deal with Network Ten was organised, although this had follow-on effects for the Bathurst 1000 later in the year.[20]

text: In February 1997, Tony Cochrane and James Erskine left IMG. Together with David Coe, they formed Sports & Entertainment Limited (SEL) in April 1997.[21] TEGA would have a 75% share in AVESCO, with SEL owning the other 25%. TEGA was responsible for the rules and technical management of the series and the supply of cars and drivers while SEL was responsible for capturing and maintaining broadcasting rights, sponsorship, licensing and sanction agreements.[22]

text: The expansion of the series began in 1998, with the first round to be held in the Northern Territory taking place at Hidden Valley Raceway. In 1999, a new street-race on a shortened version of the Adelaide Grand Prix Circuit became one of the first festival-style events which would become common in later years. Australia's capital city, Canberra, hosted its first event on the Canberra Street Circuit in 2000. In 2001, a championship round was held in New Zealand for the first time, at Pukekohe Park Raceway.[23] In 2002, the V8 Supercar support event at the Indy 300 on the Gold Coast became a championship round, having been a non-championship event since 1994.[24]

text: Major format changes were made for 1999, with the incorporation of the endurance races into the championship. Control tyres were used for the first time, with Bridgestone selected as the supplier. The series was also renamed from the 'Australian Touring Car Championship' to the 'Shell Championship Series', by virtue of Shell's sponsorship of the category.[25] Reverse-grid races were introduced for multiple rounds in 2000[26] before being confined to just the Canberra round for 2001. Also in 2001, compulsory pit stops were introduced at certain rounds and the Top Ten Shootout was used at all rounds.[27] The control tyre supplier changed from Bridgestone to Dunlop in 2002 and the series name was changed to the 'V8 Supercar Championship Series' after Shell discontinued their sponsorship.[28]

text: Project Blueprint[edit]

text: Discussions about parity had returned in 2000, with 100 millimetres trimmed from the front spoiler of the Commodore after Holden, in particular, the Holden Racing Team, had dominated in 1998 and 1999. This was in response to the 300 mm removed from the Falcon in previous seasons, and coincided with a 10 mm trim from the Falcon's rear spoiler. The small reduction for the Holden teams was quickly addressed with both cars receiving the same front splitter shortly afterwards, but the Falcon's rear wing remained trimmed. Ford had threatened to withdraw from the series, but nothing came of this.[29] After Holden again dominated in 2001 and 2002, a new set of regulations, dubbed 'Project Blueprint', was introduced in 2003 to close the performance gap between the Commodore and the Falcon,[30] thus creating closer, fairer racing.[31] Project Blueprint was developed by Paul Taylor and Wayne Cattach, who spent two years designing a formula which would eliminate most of the differences between the Fords and Holdens.[32]

text: Project Blueprint saw the chassis pick-up points, wheelbase, track and driving position become common across both manufacturers. The Holdens were now required to use double wishbone front suspension, similar to that of the Falcon, rather than the MacPherson struts used previously. The aerodynamic packages were comprehensively tested and revised and differences in the porting of each of the manufacturers' engines were also removed.[30][33] The performance of the new Ford BA Falcon and Holden VY and VZ Commodores was fairly even for the next four years, with Ford winning the championship in 2003, 2004 and 2005 and Holden winning in 2006.[34] Reverse-grid races were used at certain events in 2006 before unpopularity with the drivers, teams and fans saw them abolished halfway through the season.[35]

text: The Holden VE Commodore caused controversy when it was introduced in 2007. The production model was longer, wider and taller than the rival Ford BF Falcon and outside of the limits set by Project Blueprint. As a result, the VE race car was granted custom bodywork – namely shortened rear doors and a lowered roofline – in order to meet the regulations.[36] Despite this, the VE was approved for use in the series, along with the BF Falcon, after several months of pre-season testing.[37] Sequential gearboxes were introduced in 2008 and became compulsory by the end of the year.[38] In 2009, E85 (a fuel consisting of 85% ethanol and 15% unleaded petrol) was introduced in an effort to improve the environmental image of the sport. Carbon dioxide emissions decreased by up to 50%, however fuel consumption was increased by 30% to produce the same power as before.[39] 2009 also saw the introduction of a soft compound tyre at certain events to try to improve the quality of the racing and create different strategies.[40][41]

text: In 2005, AVESCO changed its name to V8 Supercars Australia (VESA).[19] The series continued to expand during this time, with races held outside of Australasia for the first time. The series travelled to the Shanghai International Circuit in China in 2005, originally on a five-year agreement,[42] however the promoter of the race dropped their support and the series did not return thereafter.[43] 2006 saw the series travel to the Middle East, with an event held at the Bahrain International Circuit in Bahrain.[3] Multiple new street circuits appeared on the calendar in 2008 and 2009, with new events held in Hamilton in New Zealand,[44] Townsville in North Queensland and at Sydney Olympic Park.[45] The series' Middle East expansion continued in 2010 with a second round held at the Yas Marina Circuit in Abu Dhabi.[4] In November 2010, the series was granted international status by the FIA for the 2011 season, allowing the series to race at up to six international venues each year. As a result, the series name was changed to the 'International V8 Supercars Championship'.[46]

text: 2008 saw the separate boards of directors of VESA and TEGA merge into a single board that was solely responsible for the administration of the category. The new board of directors was composed of four TEGA representatives, two members from SEL and two independent directors.[47] In 2011, TEGA and SEL entered a sale agreement with Australian Motor Racing Partners (AMRP), which had significant financial backing from Archer Capital. This agreement saw SEL lose its 25% stake in V8 Supercars, with Archer Capital taking up a 60% share and TEGA the other 40%. A new board of directors was appointed, with two TEGA representatives and two AMRP representatives.[48]

text: New Generation V8 Supercar[edit]

text: In the middle of 2008, a project led by Mark Skaife was organised by V8 Supercars to investigate future directions for the sport. The project had the primary objective of cutting costs to $250,000 per car through the use of control parts and to create a pathway for new manufacturers to enter the series, provided that they have a four-door saloon car in mass production. The new formula, called "Car of the Future", was scheduled to be introduced before or during the 2012 season. The plan was publicly unveiled in March 2010 and was shown to incorporate several key changes to the internal workings of the car. The chassis and the cooling, fuel and electronics systems would all be changed to control parts, with changes to the engine, drivetrain, rear suspension, wheels and the control brake package. The safety of the cars was also to be reviewed and improved.[49] While the plans were well received by all of the teams, Holden Motorsport boss Simon McNamara warned potential new manufacturers to stay out of the championship just hours after the plans were released, claiming that they would "gain nothing" from entering the series.[50]

text: Major changes were revealed to include a switch from a live rear axle to independent rear suspension; the use of a rear transaxle instead of a mid-mounted gearbox; the repositioning of the fuel tank to in front of the rear axle to improve safety; replacing the windscreen with a polycarbonate unit; and a switch from 17-inch to 18-inch wheels.[49] In 2011, it was announced that the Car of the Future would not be introduced until 2013.[51] In February 2012, Nissan confirmed that they would enter the series under Car of the Future regulations with Kelly Racing.[10] Later in 2012, Australian GT Championship team Erebus Motorsport announced they would be running Mercedes-Benz cars in the championship, taking over Stone Brothers Racing.[11][52] In June 2013, Volvo announced it would enter the series in 2014 in a collaboration with its motorsport arm, Polestar Racing, and Garry Rogers Motorsport.[12] In November 2013 the Car of the Future moniker was dropped in favour of the name "New Generation V8 Supercar".[53]

text: The series continued its international expansion in 2013, with the first event in North America held at the Circuit of the Americas in Austin, Texas.[54] In 2015, five drivers took part in a series of demonstration races at the Kuala Lumpur Street Circuit as part of the KL City Grand Prix. This was intended to be a precursor to the series holding a championship event at the circuit in 2016.[55] The event was later cancelled due to legal issues affecting the circuit.[56]

text: Supercars Championship[edit]

text: In April 2016, the series reached an agreement with Virgin Australia to rename the series to the Virgin Australia Supercars Championship on 1 July.[57][58]

text: Gen 2 Supercar[edit]

text: In December 2014, Supercars released details concerning the future of the category. New regulations, dubbed Gen2 Supercar, were introduced in 2017 to allow the use of two-door coupé body styles and turbocharged four- or six-cylinder engines. However, no teams elected to build cars for the new regulations until 2018. Cars are still required to be based on front-engined, rear-wheel drive, four-seater production cars that are sold in Australia. The chassis and control components will be carried over from the New Generation V8 Supercar regulations, while engine and aerodynamic parity will be reviewed.[59][60]

text: Supercar specifications[edit]

text: The current New Generation V8 Supercar regulations are an evolution of the previous Project Blueprint regulations. The regulations control many aspects of the car to ensure parity between the manufacturers, allowing for minor differences in the engines and body shapes so that the cars bear some resemblance to their production counterparts. The regulations were also designed to lower the costs of building and repairing a car.[49]

text: Bodyshell[edit]

text: The body of each car is based on its corresponding production car. However, due to the regulations governing the dimensions of the cars to ensure parity, the race cars are lowered and shortened or lengthened to meet the regulations.[61] As of 2017, only the Ford FG X Falcon, Holden VF Commodore, Mercedes-Benz E63 AMG W212, Nissan Altima L33 and Volvo S60 are eligible to compete.[62] To save costs, the front guards, passenger-side front door, rear doors and rear quarter panels are made from composite materials.[63] The tail lamps are carried over from the road car, while the windscreen is replaced by a polycarbonate unit.[8]

text: The bodies are built around a control chassis, featuring a full roll cage, originally designed by PACE Innovations but which can be made, or partially made, by other accredited builders, including certain race teams.[8] Many safety features are utilised to protect the driver in the event of a crash. The fuel tank is positioned in front of the rear axle to prevent it from being damaged or ruptured in a rear end impact. The driver is seated towards the centre of the car and extra reinforcement is used on the roll cage on the driver's side to lessen the risk of injury in a side-on collision. The cars also feature a collapsible steering column and a fire extinguisher system.[9]

text: Aerodynamics[edit]

text: All cars have an aerodynamics package consisting of a front spoiler and splitter, side skirts and a rear wing. The aerodynamics package for each manufacturer is homologated after a series of tests which ensure that the different body styles produce near-identical downforce and drag numbers.[64][65]

text: Weight[edit]

text: The minimum weight of each car is 1,410 kilograms (3,110 lb) including the driver, with a minimum load of 755 kg over the front axle. The minimum weight for the driver is 100 kg and includes the driver dressed in a full racing suit, the seat and seat mountings and any ballast needed to meet the minimum weight.[66] Some other components also have a minimum weight, such as the engine (200 kg) and the front uprights (10.5 kg each).[67]

text: Engine and drivetrain[edit]

text: All cars must be front-engined and rear-wheel drive. All cars use a 5.0-litre, naturally aspirated V8-engine with electronic fuel injection, capable of producing between 460 and 485 kW (620–650 bhp).[8] Manufacturers are free to choose between using an engine based on one from their own line up or a generic engine provided by V8 Supercars.[68] Both Ford and Holden use US-based racing engines with pushrod actuated valves and two valves per cylinder. Mercedes, Nissan and Volvo use modified versions of their own engines, with hydraulic-lift valves and four valves per cylinder.[61][69] All engines are electronically limited to 7,500 rpm and have a compression ratio of 10:1.[70]

text: Power is transferred from the engine to the rear wheels through a six-speed sequential transaxle with an integrated spool differential.[8] The individual gear ratios and the final drive ratio are fixed with drop gears at the front of the transaxle allowing the teams to alter the overall transmission ratio for different circuits.[71] The cars use a triple plate clutch.[8] The cars run on E85 fuel with a fuel tank capacity of 112 litres.[8][72]

text: An electronic control unit (ECU), provided by MoTeC, is used to monitor and optimise various aspects of the engine's performance. Numerous sensors in the car collect information which is then transmitted to the team, allowing them to monitor things such as tyre wear and fuel consumption and find potential problems with the car. The ECU is also used by officials during the scrutineering process.[73]

text: Suspension[edit]

text: All cars are required to use a double wishbone setup for the front suspension and independent rear suspension. Both the front and rear suspension systems feature adjustable shock absorbers and an anti-roll bar which can be adjusted from the cockpit.[8]

text: Brakes[edit]

text: The cars use disc brakes supplied by AP Racing on the front and rear, with the master cylinders provided by AP Racing or former control brake supplier Alcon. The front discs have a diameter of 395 millimetres (15.6 in) and a six-piston caliper, while the rear discs are 355 millimetres (14.0 in) diameter and have a four-piston caliper.[8][74]

text: Wheels and tyres[edit]

text: The cars use 18-inch control wheels, produced by Rimstock and supplied by Racer Industries, and control tyres from Dunlop. The slick tyre is available in both hard and soft compounds, with teams required to use either or both compounds in each race, depending on the event. A grooved wet tyre is used in damp conditions.[8][75]

text: Cost[edit]

text: The New Generation V8 Supercar regulations were intended to reduce the cost of building a car (without engine) from around $450,000 to $250,000,[31][49] with the cost of an engine coming down from around $120,000 to $50,000.[76][77]

text: Series structure[edit]

text: Teams and drivers[edit]

text: In order to compete in the Supercars Championship, drivers are required to hold a CAMS National Circuit Competition Licence, or a licence of an equivalent or higher level.[78] Each car entered is required to have a Racing Entitlements Contract (REC). A REC is a contract between Supercars and a team which outlines the team's entitlements and obligations.[79] RECs may be leased by their owners to another party for a maximum of two years, after which the owner must either use it themselves or sell it.[80] A racing number is tied to each REC, with teams able to apply for a REC number to be changed. The defending series champion is entitled to use the number 1, with the original REC number of that car reserved and not able to be used by another team without the agreement of its owner.[81]

text: The RECs were originally issued in 1999. Known as TEGA franchise agreements, they were divided into three categories – Level 1, Level 2 and Level 3. Twelve Level 1 franchises were issued to those teams that had competed in the series full-time since its inception in 1997:[82]

text:
Dick Johnson Racing
Garry Rogers Motorsport
Gibson Motorsport
Glenn Seton Racing
John Faulkner Racing
Holden Racing Team
Lansvale Racing Team
Larkham Motor Sport
Longhurst Racing
Perkins Engineering
Romano Racing
Stone Brothers Racing

text: A thirteenth was later issued to Bob Forbes Racing.[83] A Level 1 franchise required a team to race at least one car at all events, and at various times allowed a team to enter up to four cars. Other teams received Level 2 and Level 3 franchises based on their level of participation.[82] The structure was changed a number of times before the present system of 28 RECs was arrived at in 2011. Supercars bought a number of RECs as they became available in order to achieve a long-held desire to reduce the field to 28 cars.[84]

text: At the end of 2013, Lucas Dumbrell Motorsport, Tony D'Alberto Racing and Triple F Racing each returned a REC to Supercars.[85] These were put up for sale in 2014, but no bids were received.[86] One was reclaimed by Lucas Dumbrell Motorsport in 2015 after a legal fight.[87] At the end of 2014, a further REC was returned by James Rosenberg Racing.[88] In April 2015, Supercars launched a tender for one REC for the 2016 season, with Triple Eight the successful bidder.[89]

text: Teams consist of one to four cars, with most one-car teams forming a technical alliance with a larger team.[90] Only the REC holders are allowed to compete at each event, although "wildcard" entries are accepted for the endurance races, with a maximum of six extra cars on top of the regular 28.[91] Both Supercars and Development Series teams have entered wildcard entries in previous years.[92][93] In 2014, the first wildcard entry for a sprint race was issued when Dick Johnson Racing entered a third car for Marcos Ambrose at the Sydney 500.[94]

text: Teams are required to employ a co-driver for each car during the three endurance races due to the increased race distance and the need for driver substitutions during the race.[95] Teams were able to pair their full-time drivers in one car until a rule change in 2010 that required each full-time driver to remain in his own car and be joined by a co-driver not competing full-time in the series.[96]

text: The Drivers Championship title is awarded to the driver who accumulates the most points over the course of the season. If there is a points tie for the series win, the champion will be decided based on the number of races won by each driver (if there is still a tie, it is based on second-place finishes and so on). Teams also compete for the Teams Championship, with the champion team being decided in the same manner as the Drivers Championship. For Teams Championship points scoring purposes, teams with four cars are separated into a pair of two-car teams, while teams with three cars are split into a two-car team and a single-car team.[97] The Teams Championship dictates the pit lane order for the following season.

text: The defending driver has the right to carry the number 1 the following year. However, in 2017 Shane van Gisbergen elected not to, continuing to use 97.[98]

text: Development series[edit]

text: A second-tier series, the Dunlop Super2 Series, is run as a support category to the main series at certain events.[6] Initially for privateers who did not have the funding of the professional teams in the late 1990s, the series now serves the dual purpose of developing young drivers before they compete in the main series and a means for main series teams to give their endurance co-drivers more racing experience prior to the endurance races. Teams in the Dunlop Super2 Series compete with cars previously used in the main series.

text: A third V8 Supercar-based series, the Kumho Tyres V8 Touring Car Series, has been run since 2008 but has no involvement with the Supercars Championship or Dunlop Super2 Series, instead running on the programme of the Shannons Nationals Motor Racing Championships.[99] However, since 2016, several rounds have been run as support categories at Supercars events.

text: Race formats[edit]

text: There are three types of events held in Supercars, each with its own race format: SuperSprint events, SuperStreet events and Enduro Cup events.[100]

text: SuperSprint[edit]

text: The SuperSprint format is used at the Tasmania SuperSprint, Phillip Island 500, Perth SuperSprint, Winton SuperSprint, Darwin Triple Crown, Ipswich SuperSprint, The Bend SuperSprint and Sydney SuperNight 300.[101]

text: The Phillip Island and Sydney Motorsport Park events feature a single one-hour practice session on Saturday, while all other SuperSprint events have two one-hour practice sessions on the Friday with a fifteen-minute practice session on Saturday. The Winton and Ipswich events feature an extra thirty-minute session on Friday for endurance co-drivers. The SuperSprint format features a fifteen-minute qualifying session held on Saturday to decide the grid for the race on the same day. A single twenty-minute session is held on Sunday morning to decide the grid for the Sunday race. The Darwin event also features a top ten shootout (a session where the fastest ten qualifiers complete one flying lap each to determine the top ten on the grid) following the Sunday qualifying session. A single 120 km race is held on Saturday with a single 200 km race held on Sunday.[101]

text: International SuperSprint[edit]

text: The International SuperSprint format is used at the Auckland SuperSprint and Melbourne 400.[101]

text: Three thirty-minute practice sessions are held on Friday, while Saturday and Sunday both consist of two ten-minute qualifying sessions which set the grid for the pair of 100 km races held on each day.[101]

text: SuperStreet[edit]

text: The SuperStreet format is used at the Adelaide 500, Townsville 400, and Newcastle 500.[101]

text: Two forty-minute practice sessions take place on the Friday at each SuperStreet event, while a twenty-minute practice session is held on the Saturday at Adelaide. The Adelaide event features two ten-minute qualifying sessions on Friday, while the Townsville and Newcastle events have a single twenty-minute session on Saturday. All three events feature a twenty-minute session followed by a top ten shootout on Sunday. The Adelaide 500 features two 125 km races held on Saturday and a single 250 km race held on Sunday. The Townsville event features a 200 km race on each of Saturday and Sunday, while the Newcastle 500 has a single 250 km race on each of Saturday and Sunday.[101]

text: Enduro Cup[edit]

text: There are three endurance events held during the year: the Sandown 500, the Bathurst 1000 and the Gold Coast 600. These events require two drivers per car and together they form the Enduro Cup, a prize awarded to the driver or drivers who score the most points across the three events.[102]

text: The Sandown 500 and the Gold Coast 600 both feature three thirty-minute practice sessions held on Friday, with Sandown having an extra session on Saturday. Practice for the Bathurst 1000 consists of six one-hour sessions held across Thursday, Friday and Saturday.[101] Qualifying for the Sandown 500 involves a twenty-minute session followed by a pair of 60 km "qualifying races" held on Saturday.[103] The grid for the first race is based on the qualifying session; the grid for the second race is based on the results of the first. The results of the second race determine the grid for the main race on Sunday. Co-drivers must compete in the first of the qualifying races while the main driver must compete in the second.[104] The Bathurst 1000 features a single forty-minute qualifying session on Friday afternoon followed by a top ten shootout on Saturday. The Gold Coast 600 has two twenty-minute qualifying sessions, one each on Saturday and Sunday, with the Sunday session followed by a top ten shootout. The Sandown 500 and Bathurst 1000 both have a twenty-minute warm-up session on Sunday morning.[101]

text: The Sandown 500 and the Bathurst 1000 feature single races held on Sunday, at 500 km and 1000 km in length respectively. The Gold Coast 600 consists of two 300 km races with one held on Saturday and one on Sunday.[101]

text: Points system[edit]

text: Points are awarded as follows at all championship events. Various different points scales are applied to events having one, two, three or four races, ensuring that a driver will be awarded 300 points for winning all races at any event.[105] Points are awarded to all cars that have covered 75% of the race distance, provided they are running at the completion of the final lap and with a final lap time within 200% of the race winner's fastest lap. At the endurance events, both drivers earn the total points awarded to the finishing position of the car.[106]

text:
Points Scale
Position

1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th
7th
8th
9th
10th
11th
12th
13th
14th
15th
16th
17th
18th
19th
20th
21st
22nd
23rd
24th
25th
26th
27th
28th
29th
30th

1
75
69
64
60
55
51
48
45
42
39
36
34
33
31
30
28
27
25
24
22
21
19
18
16
15
13
12
10
9
7

2
150
138
129
120
111
102
96
90
84
78
72
69
66
63
60
57
54
51
48
45
42
39
36
33
30
27
24
21
18
15

3
300
276
258
240
222
204
192
180
168
156
144
138
132
126
120
114
108
102
96
90
84
78
72
66
60
54
48
42
36
30

text: Tyre allocation[edit]

text: Tyres are allocated at each event as follows:[107]

text:
Event
Tyre Allocation

Hard
Soft
Wet

Adelaide 500
28
0
16

Melbourne 400
0
16
12

Tasmania SuperSprint
0
24
12

Phillip Island 500
28
0
12

Perth SuperSprint
0
24
12

Winton SuperSprint
0
24
12

Darwin Triple Crown
0
24
12

Townsville 400
0
28
12

Ipswich SuperSprint
0
24
12

Sydney SuperNight 300
0
24
12

The Bend SuperSprint
0
24
12

Sandown 500
0
32
20

Bathurst 1000
36
0
24

Gold Coast 600
0
28
20

Auckland SuperSprint
32
0
12

Newcastle 500
0
28
12

text: Notable events[edit]

text: Bathurst 1000[edit]

text: The Bathurst 1000, also known as the "Great Race" and held in some form since 1960, is the most famous race on the Supercars calendar,[108] as well as the longest both in terms of race distance and race time. The race is run over 161 laps of the Mount Panorama Circuit, 1000 km in total, with the race taking between six and seven hours to complete. The event has attracted crowds of nearly 200,000 people.[7] The Peter Brock Trophy, named after nine-time Bathurst 1000 winner Peter Brock, is awarded to the winners of the race. The trophy was introduced in 2006 following Brock's death in a crash at the Targa West rally one month prior to the race.[109]

text: Sandown 500[edit]

text: The Sandown 500 was first held as a six-hour race in 1964[110] and has been labelled as the traditional "Bathurst warm-up" race.[111] Like the Bathurst 1000, the Sandown 500 is run over 161 laps. Due to the shorter track length of Sandown Raceway, the race is only 500 km and runs for between three and four hours. The Sandown 500 was not held for Supercars from 1999 to 2002 and from 2008 to 2011. During these years, the 500 km endurance races took place at Queensland Raceway (1999–2002)[112] and the Phillip Island Grand Prix Circuit (2008–2011).[113]

text: Adelaide 500[edit]

text: The Adelaide 500 has been held since 1999 and has become the traditional season-opening event.[114] It is run on a shortened version of the former Adelaide Grand Prix Circuit. Consisting of two 250 km races run on Saturday and Sunday, the event has been labelled the most physically demanding by the drivers, due to the length of each race, the nature of the circuit and the effect of the heat.[115] The event's format was changed for 2014, with the Saturday race being replaced with a pair of 125 km races.[116] The event attracts crowds of over 250,000 people[7] and is the only event to be inducted into the V8 Supercar Hall of Fame.[117] The Clipsal 500 was the first carnival-style event which would become common in the ten years after its inception, with music concerts held during the night.[118]

text: Gold Coast 600[edit]

text: The Gold Coast 600 was introduced in 2009 after the American IndyCar Series elected not to return to the Surfers Paradise circuit that year. The A1 Grand Prix series was scheduled to fill the void left by IndyCar,[119] however the owners of the series went into liquidation in June 2009 and,[120] as a result, the A1 Grand Prix cars were withdrawn from the event.[121] In order to compensate for this, Supercars introduced a new four-race format, with two 150 km races held on each day.[122] In 2010 the format changed to include two 300 km races and it became a two-driver event. To restore the event's previous international flavour, each team was required to have at least one co-driver with an 'international reputation' (that is, they were recognised for exploits in motorsport outside of Australia).[123] In 2011 and 2012, all entries required an international co-driver. In 2013 the international co-driver rule was dropped, due to a number of incidents during the 2012 event and the formation of the Endurance Cup, but teams could still choose to employ an international driver for the endurance races.[102]

text: Newcastle 500[edit]

text: In 2004, Supercars introduced the name "Grand Finale"[124] for the final round of the season (having called it "The Main Event" in 2003 and the "V8 Ultimate" in 2001 and 2002).[125] The Grand Finale was held at Sandown Raceway in 2001 and 2002, Sydney Motorsport Park in 2003 and 2004, Phillip Island in 2005, 2006 and 2007 and Oran Park Raceway in 2008. The Grand Finale name was used until 2008 before the Sydney 500 became the final event of the series in 2009.[126] The Sydney 500 was held around the streets of Sydney Olympic Park. Its format was similar to the Adelaide 500, with a 250 km race held on both Saturday and Sunday. Despite having a relatively simple layout, the circuit was one of the more challenging on the calendar – as evidenced in the 2010 title decider when, in wet conditions, the top three championship runners all slid into the wall at the same time – effectively handing the title to James Courtney.[127] The Sydney 500 was held for the final time in 2016.[128] The event at Sydney Olympic Park was replaced with a new street race in Newcastle, 150 km north of Sydney, which will consist of the streets in the eastern suburbs of the city.[129]

text: Media coverage[edit]

text: Television[edit]

text: The series is currently broadcast on Fox Sports and Network Ten, in a deal worth $241 million.[130] Fox Sports shows all practice and qualifying sessions live along with the races. Ten shows only seven events live which are Adelaide, Melbourne, Townsville, Sandown, Bathurst, Gold Coast and Newcastle with the rest shown as a highlights package after the races have finished. The coverage is produced by Supercars Media, a specialist production company for Supercars Australia.[131] Supercars Media provides the commentary for each race, with former champion and Bathurst winner Mark Skaife as lead commentator, along with Neil Crompton as expert commentator. Greg Rust, Riana Crehan and former driver Greg Murphy cover the pit lane. Both Fox Sports and Ten use their own commentary team for pre- and post-race coverage.[132] Supercars Media records the series in 1080i high-definition, with many cars carrying four or more onboard-cameras, though HD coverage is available only to subscribers of Foxtel HD.[133]

text: The series had previously been broadcast by the Seven Network, from 1993 to 1996 and from 2007 to 2014,[134] and exclusively by Network Ten from 1997 to 2006.[20] During the years of Seven Network's broadcast rights, Network Ten continued to broadcast the series once a year for the Melbourne 400 championship races, which are a support category at the Formula One Rolex Australian Grand Prix, which was broadcast by Ten. Previously when the Nine Network held the Formula One Rolex Australian Grand Prix broadcast rights in Australia, they would broadcast the Supercars support races at the Formula One Rolex Australian Grand Prix. All support category races were tied up with the Formula One Rolex Australian Grand Prix broadcast rights as a package.

text: Ten's television series RPM, which has aired from 1997 to 2008, in 2011 and from 2015 onwards, has covered Supercars, alongside other motorsports. From 2007 to 2014, Seven broadcast a weekly 25-minute show titled V8Xtra on non-racing weekends. The dedicated Supercars program covered news and feature items relating to the series. Since 2015, Fox Sports has broadcast a similar show, Inside Supercars, a weekly one-hour long program featuring a panel led by Rust and Mark Skaife.[135] In the same year, Fox Sports also launched an observational show Supercars Life, featuring behind the scenes footage from race weekends and features on drivers' lives away from the track.

text: Current TV broadcasters[edit]

text: Supercars races are broadcast on the following channels:[136][137][138]

text:
Country
TV network
Free/pay
Live/delayed
Notes

Australia
Network Ten
Free
Live/Delayed
Seven events shown live with all others delayed.

Fox Sports
Pay
Live
Includes live coverage of practice and qualifying sessions.

Africa
OSN
Pay
Delayed

Asia
Fox Sports Asia
Pay
Live/Delayed
Only races are shown.

Brazil
BandSports
Pay
Delayed

Canada
CBS Sports Network
Pay
Delayed

Caribbean
ESPN
Pay
Live/Delayed

Europe
Motors TV
Free/Pay
Live/Delayed

Hungary
Spíler TV
Pay
Live/Delayed

Latin America
ESPN
Pay
Live/Delayed

India
Sony ESPN
Pay
Live/Delayed

Malaysia
Astro
Pay
Live
Only races are shown.

Middle East
OSN
Pay
Delayed

Netherlands
Ziggo Sport
Pay
Live/Delayed

New Zealand
Sky Sport
Pay
Live
Includes live coverage of practice and qualifying sessions.

Thailand
TrueVisions
Pay
Live
Only races are shown.

United Kingdom
FreeSports
Free
Live
Only races shown.

United States
CBS Sports Network
Pay
Delayed

text: Other media[edit]

text: The series has its own live streaming pay-per-view service, Superview. The service, which started in 2013, currently shows all races as well as qualifying sessions. The service is not available in New Zealand and Australia due to their current broadcasting rights with Sky Sport and Fox Sports.

text: The series has its own website, which contains information about the series, drivers, teams and events and news articles, and a radio show, V8 Insiders. News is also featured on motorsport websites such as Speedcafe, V8X Magazine and Touring Car Times. A media deal with News Corp Australia has been in place since 2009.

text: Video games[edit]

text: Supercars have made several licensed appearances in video games, including in Codemasters' V8 Supercars series in the 2000s and Turn 10 Studios' Forza series in the 2010s. From 2011 to 2014, an online championship, sanctioned by Supercars, was contested on iRacing.[139]

text: Records[edit]

text:
Driver championships[140]

Driver race wins[141] [142]

Driver race starts

Team race wins

Manufacturer race wins

Pos.
Driver
Titles
Pos.
Driver
Wins
Pos.
Driver
Starts
Pos.
Team
Wins
Pos.
Manufacturer
Wins

1
 Jamie Whincup
7
1
 Jamie Whincup
108
1
 Craig Lowndes
600
1
Walkinshaw Racing/ HRT
178
1
Holden
507

2
 Dick Johnson
5
2
 Craig Lowndes
105
2
 Russell Ingall
583
2
Triple Eight Race Engineering
150
2
Ford
333

 Mark Skaife
5
3
 Mark Skaife
90
3
 Garth Tander
564
3
DJR Team Penske
81
3
Nissan
30

 Ian Geoghegan
5
4
 Garth Tander
53
4
 Jason Bright
534
4
Prodrive Racing Australia
61
4
BMW
17

5
 Bob Jane
4
5
 Peter Brock
48
5
 Todd Kelly
501
5
HSV Dealer Team
50
5
Volvo
11

 Allan Moffat
4
6
 Glenn Seton
40
6
 Mark Skaife
482
6
Gibson Motorsport
47
6
Chevrolet
10

 Jim Richards
4
7
 Mark Winterbottom
37
7
 John Bowe
473
7
Holden Dealer Team/Advantage Racing
42
7
Mazda
8

8
 Peter Brock
3
8
 Allan Moffat
36
8
 Rick Kelly
452
Glenn Seton Racing
42
8
Jaguar
4

 Craig Lowndes
3
9
 John Bowe
31
9
 Greg Murphy
448
9
Stone Brothers Racing
40
9
Porsche
2

10
 Norm Beechey
2
10
 Dick Johnson
30
10
 Steven Richards
446
10
Allan Moffat Racing
33
Mercedes-Benz
2

 Glenn Seton
2

 Marcos Ambrose
2

text:
Figures accurate as of 20 August 2017 (after Race 18 of the 2017 International Virgin Australia Supercars Championship).
Bold text indicates active full-time drivers, teams and manufacturers.
The above records relate to the Australian Touring Car Championship (1960–1998), the Shell Championship Series (1999–2001), the V8 Supercar Championship Series (2002–2010), International V8 Supercars Championship (2011–2016) and the Supercars Championship (2016–present).


document_title: Laika

question_text: what type of dog was laika the spacedog

question_tokens: what type of dog was laika the spacedog

root

text: Laika

text: Sputnik 2[edit]

text: After the success of Sputnik 1 in October 1957, Nikita Khrushchev, the Soviet leader, wanted a spacecraft launched on 7 November 1957, the 40th anniversary of the October Revolution. Construction had already started on a more sophisticated satellite, but it would not be ready until December; this satellite would later become Sputnik 3.[2]

tag: p

text: Meeting the November deadline meant building a new craft. Khrushchev specifically wanted his engineers to deliver a "space spectacular", a mission that would repeat the triumph of Sputnik 1, stunning the world with Soviet prowess. Planners settled on an orbital flight with a dog. Soviet rocket engineers had long intended a canine orbit before attempting human spaceflight; since 1951, they had lofted 12 dogs into sub-orbital space on ballistic flights, working gradually toward an orbital mission set for some time in 1958. To satisfy Khrushchev's demands, they expedited the orbital canine flight for the November launch.[3]

text: According to Russian sources, the official decision to launch Sputnik 2 was made on 10 or 12 October, leaving less than four weeks to design and build the spacecraft.[4] Sputnik 2, therefore, was something of a rush job, with most elements of the spacecraft being constructed from rough sketches. Aside from the primary mission of sending a living passenger into space, Sputnik 2 also contained instrumentation for measuring solar irradiance and cosmic rays.[2]

text: The craft was equipped with a life-support system consisting of an oxygen generator and devices to avoid oxygen poisoning and to absorb carbon dioxide. A fan, designed to activate whenever the cabin temperature exceeded 15 °C (59 °F), was added to keep the dog cool. Enough food (in a gelatinous form) was provided for a seven-day flight, and the dog was fitted with a bag to collect waste. A harness was designed to be fitted to the dog, and there were chains to restrict her movements to standing, sitting, or lying down; there was no room to turn around in the cabin. An electrocardiogram monitored heart rate and further instrumentation tracked respiration rate, maximum arterial pressure, and the dog's movements.[5][6]

text: Training[edit]

text: Laika was found as a stray wandering the streets of Moscow. Soviet scientists chose to use Moscow strays since they assumed that such animals had already learned to endure conditions of extreme cold and hunger.[3] This specimen was an eleven-pound[7] mongrel female, approximately three years old. Another account reported that she weighed about 6 kg (13 lb).[3] Soviet personnel gave her several names and nicknames, among them Kudryavka (Russian for Little Curly), Zhuchka (Little Bug), and Limonchik (Little Lemon). Laika, the Russian name for several breeds of dogs similar to the husky, was the name popularised around the world. The American press dubbed her Muttnik (mutt + suffix -nik) as a pun on Sputnik,[8] or referred to her as Curly.[9] Her true pedigree is unknown, although it is generally accepted that she was part husky or other Nordic breed, and possibly part terrier.[3] NASA refers to Laika as a "part-Samoyed terrier."[10] A Russian magazine described her temperament as phlegmatic, saying that she did not quarrel with other dogs.[7] Vladimir Yazdovsky, who led the program of test dogs used on rockets, in a later publication wrote that “Laika was quiet and charming”.[11]

text: The Soviet Union and United States had previously sent animals only on sub-orbital flights.[12] Three dogs were trained for the Sputnik 2 flight: Albina, Mushka, and Laika.[13] Soviet space-life scientists Vladimir Yazdovsky and Oleg Gazenko trained the dogs.[14]

text: To adapt the dogs to the confines of the tiny cabin of Sputnik 2, they were kept in progressively smaller cages for periods of up to 20 days. The extensive close confinement caused them to stop urinating or defecating, made them restless, and caused their general condition to deteriorate. Laxatives did not improve their condition, and the researchers found that only long periods of training proved effective. The dogs were placed in centrifuges that simulated the acceleration of a rocket launch and were placed in machines that simulated the noises of the spacecraft. This caused their pulses to double and their blood pressure to increase by 30–65 torr. The dogs were trained to eat a special high-nutrition gel that would be their food in space.[6]

text: Before the launch, one of the mission scientists took Laika home to play with his children. In a book chronicling the story of Soviet space medicine, Dr. Vladimir Yazdovsky wrote, "Laika was quiet and charming...I wanted to do something nice for her: She had so little time left to live."[15]

text: Preflight preparations[edit]

text: Vladimir Yazdovsky made the final selection of dogs and their designated roles. Laika was to be the "flight dog"—a sacrifice to science on a one-way mission to space.[16] Albina, who had already flown twice on a high-altitude test rocket, was to act as Laika's backup. The third dog Mushka was a "control dog"—she was to stay on the ground and be used to test instrumentation and life support.[6][12]

text: Before leaving for the Baikonur Cosmodrome, Yazdovsky and Gazenko conducted surgery on the dogs, routing the cables from the transmitters to the sensors that would measure breathing, pulse, and blood pressure.[17]

text: Because the existing airstrip at Turatam near the cosmodrome was small, the dogs and crew had to be first flown aboard a Tu-104 plane to Tashkent. From there, a smaller and lighter Il-14 plane took them to Turatam. Training of dogs continued upon arrival; one after another they were placed in the capsules to get familiar with the feeding system.[16]

text: According to a NASA document, Laika was placed in the capsule of the satellite on 31 October 1957—three days before the start of the mission.[6] At that time of year, the temperatures at the launch site were extremely cold, and a hose connected to a heater was used to keep her container warm. Two assistants were assigned to keep a constant watch on Laika before launch. Just prior to liftoff on 3 November 1957, from Baikonur Cosmodrome, Laika's fur was sponged in a weak alcohol solution and carefully groomed, while iodine was painted onto the areas where sensors would be placed to monitor her bodily functions.[18]

text: One of the technicians preparing the capsule before final liftoff stated that "after placing Laika in the container and before closing the hatch, we kissed her nose and wished her bon voyage, knowing that she would not survive the flight."[16]

text: Voyage[edit]

text: The exact time of the liftoff varies from source to source and is mentioned as 05:30:42 Moscow Time or 07:22 Moscow Time.[16]

text: At peak acceleration Laika's respiration increased to between three and four times the pre-launch rate.[6] The sensors showed her heart rate was 103 beats/min before launch and increased to 240 beats/min during the early acceleration. After reaching orbit, Sputnik 2's nose cone was jettisoned successfully; however the "Block A" core did not separate as planned, preventing the thermal control system from operating correctly. Some of the thermal insulation tore loose, raising the cabin temperature to 40 °C (104 °F).[10] After three hours of weightlessness, Laika's pulse rate had settled back to 102 beats/min,[19] three times longer than it had taken during earlier ground tests, an indication of the stress she was under. The early telemetry indicated that Laika was agitated but eating her food.[10] After approximately five to seven hours into the flight, no further signs of life were received from the spacecraft.[6]

text: The Soviet scientists had planned to euthanise Laika with a poisoned serving of food. For many years, the Soviet Union gave conflicting statements that she had died either from asphyxia,[20] when the batteries failed, or that she had been euthanised. Many rumours circulated about the exact manner of her death. In 1999, several Russian sources reported that Laika had died when the cabin overheated on the fourth orbit.[4] In October 2002, Dimitri Malashenkov, one of the scientists behind the Sputnik 2 mission, revealed that Laika had died by the fourth circuit of flight from overheating. According to a paper he presented to the World Space Congress in Houston, TX, USA, "It turned out that it was practically impossible to create a reliable temperature control system in such limited time constraints."[5]

text: Over five months later, after 2,570 orbits, Sputnik 2—including Laika's remains—disintegrated during re-entry on 14 April 1958.[21]

text: Ethics of animal testing[edit]

text: Due to the overshadowing issue of the Soviet vs. U.S. Space Race, the ethical issues raised by this experiment went largely unaddressed for some time. As newspaper clippings from 1957 show, the press was initially focused on reporting the political perspective, while the health and retrieval—or lack thereof—of Laika only became an issue later.[22]

text: Sputnik 2 was not designed to be retrievable, and Laika had always been intended to die.[4] The mission sparked a debate across the globe on the mistreatment of animals and animal testing in general to advance science.[14] In the United Kingdom, the National Canine Defence League called on all dog owners to observe a minute's silence, while the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) received protests even before Radio Moscow had finished announcing the launch. Animal rights groups at the time called on members of the public to protest at Soviet embassies.[23] Others demonstrated outside the United Nations in New York;[14] nevertheless, laboratory researchers in the U.S. offered some support for the Soviets, at least before the news of Laika's death.[14][24]

text: In the Soviet Union, there was less controversy. Neither the media, books in the following years, nor the public openly questioned the decision to send a dog into space. In 1998, after the collapse of the Soviet regime, Oleg Gazenko, one of the scientists responsible for sending Laika into space, expressed regret for allowing her to die:

text: Work with animals is a source of suffering to all of us. We treat them like babies who cannot speak. The more time passes, the more I'm sorry about it. We shouldn't have done it ... We did not learn enough from this mission to justify the death of the dog.[21][22]

text: In other Warsaw Pact countries, open criticism of the Soviet space program was difficult because of political censorship, but there were notable cases of criticism in Polish scientific circles. A Polish scientific periodical, "Kto, Kiedy, Dlaczego" ("Who, When, Why"), published in 1958, discussed the mission of Sputnik 2. In the periodical's section dedicated to astronautics, Krzysztof Boruń described the Sputnik 2 mission as "regrettable" and criticised not bringing Laika back to Earth alive as "undoubtedly a great loss for science".[25]

text: Legacy[edit]

text: Laika is memorialised in the form of a statue and plaque at Star City, Russia, the Russian Cosmonaut training facility.[26] Created in 1997, Laika is positioned behind the cosmonauts with her ears erect.[26] The Monument to the Conquerors of Space, constructed in 1964, also includes Laika.[27] On 11 April 2008 at the military research facility where staff had been responsible for readying Laika for the flight, officials unveiled a monument of her poised on top of a space rocket.[1] Stamps and envelopes picturing Laika were produced, as well as branded cigarettes and matches.[28]

text: Future space missions carrying dogs would be designed to be recovered. Four other dogs died in Soviet space missions: Bars and Lisichka were killed when their R-7 rocket exploded shortly after launch on 28 July 1960;[29] Pchyolka and Mushka died when Korabl-Sputnik 3 was purposely destroyed with an explosive charge to prevent foreign powers from inspecting the capsule after a wayward atmospheric reentry trajectory on 1 December 1960.[30]

text: Although never shown, Laika is prominently mentioned in the 1985 film My Life as a Dog, in which the main character (a young Swedish boy in the late 1950s) identifies strongly with the dog.[31] Laika, a 2007 graphic novel by Nick Abadzis giving a fictionalized account of Laika's life, won the Eisner Award as "Best Publication for Teens".[32]


document_title: Nitrogenous base

question_text: what are the 4 types of nitrogenous bases

text: Nitrogenous base

text: A nitrogenous base, or nitrogen-containing base, is an organic molecule with a nitrogen atom that has the chemical properties of a base. The main biological function of a nitrogenous base is to bond nucleic acids together. A nitrogenous base owes its basic properties to the lone pair of electrons of a nitrogen atom.

text: Nitrogenous bases are typically classified as the derivatives of two parent compounds, pyrimidine and purine.[1] They are non-polar and due to their aromaticity, planar. Both pyrimidines and purines resemble pyridine and are thus weak bases and relatively unreactive towards electrophilic aromatic substitution.[2]

text: Role in nucleic acids[edit]

text: In the biological sciences, nitrogenous bases are increasingly termed nucleobases because of their role in nucleic acids - their flat shape is particularly important when considering their roles as the building blocks of DNA and RNA. A set of five nitrogenous bases is used in the construction of nucleotides, which in turn build up the nucleic acids like DNA and RNA. These nitrogenous bases are adenine (A), uracil (U), guanine (G), thymine (T), and cytosine (C). These nitrogenous bases hydrogen bond between opposing DNA strands to form the rungs of the "twisted ladder" or double helix of DNA or a biological catalyst that is found in the nucleotides. Adenine is always paired with thymine, and guanine is always paired with cytosine. These are known as base pairs. Uracil is only present in RNA, replacing thymine. Pyrimidines include thymine, cytosine, and uracil. They have a single ring structure. Purines include adenine and guanine. They have a double ring structure. [3]


document_title: List of Mexican autopistas

question_text: what are the toll roads called in mexico

text: List of Mexican autopistas

text: This is a list of autopistas, or tolled (quota) highways, in Mexico. Tolled roads are often built as bypasses, to cross major bridges, and to provide direct intercity connections.

text: Many federal highways corridors numbers cover more than one autopista; other federal highways do not have limited access sections. Normally, Mexican federal highways that are on toll )quota)(cuota) roads have the letter suffix "D" for Directo, e.g. Fed. 45 is free (libre) and Fed. 45D is toll (quota). Most autopistas have a toll (quota) over all or part of their length. A few autopistas in very mountainous areas are two-lane.

text: The Mexican limited access highway network is the largest in the Americas outside the USA. The construction is generally financed by toll (quota) revenue (thus user fees) rather than fuel taxes, thus the toll (quota) rates are usually rather high, about MXN $$1–$2 per kilometer ($1.6–$3.2/mi), roughly 15–30 US cents per mile (9.3–18.6 ¢/km) for private cars and motorcycles. Toll plazas along the mainline charge tolls (quotos) anywhere from MXN $20 to $300, or USD $1 to $15. Plazas, crossing the border, accept either pesos or U.S. dollars, but after leaving border city limits one must pay in pesos.

text: List of autopistas[edit]

text:
Number
Length (km)
Length (mi)
Southern or western terminus
Northern or eastern terminus
Formed
Removed
Notes

 FH0001D !Fed. 1D
99
62
Tijuana
Ensenada
01967-01-011967
current

 FH0001D !Fed. 1D
58.884
36.589
Los Cabos International Airport
Cabo San Lucas
02015-04-262015
current

 FH0002D !Fed. 2D
193
120
Tijuana
Mexicali
01991-04-261991
current

 FH0002D !Fed. 2D
73
45
Altar
Santa Ana
02006-01-012006
current

 FH0002D !Fed. 2D
44
27
Reynosa
Matamoros
01999-01-011999
current

 FH0014D !Fed. 14D
124.1
77.1
Cuitzeo
Uruapan
01998-04-261998
current

 FH0015D !Fed. 15D
548
341
Nogales
Estación Don
01992-01-011992
current
Includes bypasses of Nogales, Magdalena de Kino, Guaymas and Hermosillo

 FH0015D !Fed. 15D
20.2
12.6
Libramiento de Culiacán
02012-01-012012
current

 FH0015D !Fed. 15D
190.26
118.22
Culiacán
Mazatlán
01992-01-011992
current

 FH0015D !Fed. 15D
37.64
23.39
Libramiento de Mazatlán
02014-01-012014
current

 FH0015D !Fed. 15D
238.05
147.92
Mazatlán
Tepic
02005-01-012005
current

 FH0015D !Fed. 15D
30
19
Libramiento de Tepic
02016-01-012016
current

 FH0015D !Fed. 15D
168.616
104.773
Tepic
Guadalajara
01994-01-011994
current

 FH0015D !Fed. 15D
311.38
193.48
Zapotlanejo
Maravatío
01993-01-011993
current

 FH0015D !Fed. 15D
64.35
39.99
Maravatío
Atlacomulco
01989-01-011989
current

 FH0015D !Fed. 15D
34
21
Toluca
Mexico City
01990-04-261990
current

 FH0037D !Fed. 37D
218.5
135.8
Uruapan
Lázaro Cárdenas
02005-01-012005
current

 FH0040D !Fed. 40D
238
148
Mazatlán
Durango
02013-01-012013
current

 FH0040D !Fed. 40D
21.6
13.4
Libramiento de Durango
—
—

 FH0040D !Fed. 40D
222.2
138.1
Durango
Gómez Palacio
01993-04-261993
current

 FH0040D !Fed. 40D
40.77
25.33
Libramiento Norte de la Laguna
02014-01-012014
current

 FH0040D !Fed. 40D
115.019
71.469
Torreón
Saltillo
01994-01-011994
current

 FH0040D !Fed. 40D
49.89
31.00
Saltillo
Monterrey
02009-01-012009
current

 FH0040D !Fed. 40D
132.105
82.086
Cadereyta
Reynosa
01993-01-011993
current

 FH0040D !Fed. 40D
36.4
22.6
Libramiento de Reynosa Sur II
—
—

 FH0043D !Fed. 43D
107.95
67.08
Morelia
Salamanca
02006-01-012006
current

 FH0045D !Fed. 45D
104.7
65.1
Querétaro
Irapuato
01962-01-011962
current

 FH0045D !Fed. 45D
79
49
Salamanca
León
02015-01-012015
current

 FH0045D !Fed. 45D
103.85
64.53
León
Aguascalientes
01992-01-011992
current

 FH0045D !Fed. 45D
42.31
26.29
Cuauhtémoc, Zac.
Osiris, Zac.
02002-01-012002
current

 FH0045D !Fed. 45D
12.2
7.6
Libramiento de Víctor Rosales
01991-01-011991
current

 FH0045D !Fed. 45D
20.05
12.46
Libramiento de Fresnillo
01993-01-011993
current

 FH0045D !Fed. 45D
68.98
42.86
Ciudad Jiménez
Ciudad Camargo
01990-01-011990
current

 FH0045D !Fed. 45D
65
40
Ciudad Camargo
Ciudad Delicias
01989-01-011989
current

 FH0045D !Fed. 45D
42.2
26.2
Libramiento Oriente de Chihuahua
02015-01-012015
current

 FH0045D !Fed. 45D
13.18
8.19
Chihuahua
Sacramento
—
—

 FH0045D !Fed. 45D
83.63
51.97
El Sueco
Villa Ahumada
01989-01-011989
current

 FH0047D !Fed. 47D
90
56
Macrolibramiento Palmillas-Apaseo el Grande
02017-01-012017
current

 FH0049D !Fed. 49D
151.3
94.0
Gómez Palacio
Ciudad Jiménez
01994-01-011994
current

 FH0054D !Fed. 54D
148
92
Guadalajara
Colima
01989-01-011989
current

 FH0055D !Fed. 55D
65.8
40.9
Atlacomulco
Toluca
01989-01-011989
current

 FH0057D !Fed. 57D
54
34
Nueva Rosita
Allende
—
—

 FH0057D !Fed. 57D
21
13
Libramiento Oriente de Saltillo
01992-01-011992
current

 FH0057D !Fed. 57D
32
20
Puerto México
La Carbonera
01994-01-011994
current

 FH0057D !Fed. 57D
14.2
8.8
Libramiento de Matehuala
02004-01-012004
current

 FH0057D !Fed. 57D
31.5
19.6
Libramiento Norponiente de San Luis Potosí
02014-01-012014
current

 FH0057D !Fed. 57D
33.76
20.98
Libramiento Oriente de San Luis Potosí
01991-01-011991
current

 FH0057D !Fed. 57D
37
23
Libramiento Nororiente de Querétaro
01992-01-011992
current

 FH0057D !Fed. 57D
175.454
109.022
Querétaro
Mexico City
01958-01-011958
current

 FH0068D !Fed. 68D
38
24
Chapalilla
Compostela
01973-01-011973
current

 FH0070D !Fed. 70D
14.478
8.996
Libramiento Poniente de Tampico
01991-01-011991
current

 FH0070D !Fed. 70D
117.6
73.1
Rayón
Tamuín
02016-04-262016
current

 FH0070D !Fed. 70D
105.51
65.56
Jala
Puerto Vallarta
02016-01-012016
current
Waiting Extention to Puerto Vallarta

 FH0080D !Fed. 80D
118.5
73.6
Zapotlanejo
Lagos de Moreno
01991-01-011991
current

 FH0080D !Fed. 80D
66.048
41.040
Lagos de Moreno
Villa de Arriaga
02012-01-012012
current

 FH0080D !Fed. 80D
9.75
6.06
Libramiento Norte de San Patricio-Melaque
02017-01-012017
current

 FH0085D !Fed. 85D
45.8
28.5
Mexico City
Pachuca
01994-01-011994
current

 FH0085D !Fed. 85D
123.1
76.5
Monterrey
Nuevo Laredo
01991-01-011991
current

 FH0090D !Fed. 90D
26
16
Zapotlanejo
Guadalajara
01994-01-011994
current

 FH0091D !Fed. 91D
62.8
39.0
Puente de Ixtla
Iguala
01994-01-011994
current

 FH0092D !Fed. 92D
25.64
15.93
Zacapalco
Taxco
01996-04-261996
current

 FH0093D !Fed. 93D
20.6
12.8
Chilpancingo
Tixtla
02011-01-012011
current

 FH0095D !Fed. 95D
61.54
38.24
Mexico City
Cuernavaca
01952-01-011952
current

 FH0095D !Fed. 95D
262.58
163.16
Cuernavaca
Acapulco
01990-01-011990
current

 FH0095D !Fed. 95D
2.953
1.835
Maxitúnel Interurbano Acapulco
01996-01-011996
current

 FH0110D !Fed. 110D
21.388
13.290
Libramiento Norte de La Piedad
02012-01-012012
current

 FH0115D !Fed. 115D
26.810
16.659
Libramiento de Amecameca-Nepantla
02014-01-012014
current

 FH0117D !Fed. 117D
19.419
12.066
San Martín Texmelucan
Tlaxcala
01991-01-011991
current

 FH0117D !Fed. 117D
11
7
Libramiento de Tlaxcala
02015-01-012015
current

 FH0119D !Fed. 119D
72
45
Tlaxco
Tejocotal
—
—

 FH0130D !Fed. 130D
67.789
42.122
Gutiérrez Zamora
Tuxpan
01994-04-261994
current

 FH0132D !Fed. 132D
143.08
88.91
Tihuatlán
Tulancingo
02014-04-262014
current

 FH0132D !Fed. 132D
22.2
13.8
San Martín de las Pirámides
Ecatepec
01991-01-011991
current

 FH0134D !Fed. 134D
39.2
24.4
Autopista Toluca–Naucalpan
02007-01-012007
current
Started construction in 2007 but has been in construction for 10 years

 FH0135D !Fed. 135D
243
151
Cuacnopalan
Oaxaca
01994-01-011994
current

 FH0136D !Fed. 136D
16.17
10.05
Peñón
Texcoco
01994-01-011994
current

 FH0140D !Fed. 140D
195
121
Puebla City
Xalapa
02004-01-012004
current

 FH0145D !Fed. 145D
228.1
141.7
La Tinaja
Cosoleacaque
01993-01-011993
current

 FH0150D !Fed. 150D
397.77
247.16
Mexico City
Veracruz
01962-01-011962
current

 FH0160D !Fed. 160D
34.165
21.229
La Pera
Cuautla
01994-01-011994
current

 FH0180D !Fed. 180D
2.5
1.6
Libramiento de Cardel
—
—

 FH0180D !Fed. 180D
28.5
17.7
José Cardel
Veracruz
01994-01-011994
current

 FH0180D !Fed. 180D
34
21
Nuevo Teapa
Cosoleacaque
—
—

 FH0180D !Fed. 180D
53
33
Coatzacoalcos
Cárdenas
02000-01-012000
current

 FH0180D !Fed. 180D
23.7
14.7
Libramiento de Villahermosa
02016-01-012016
current

 FH0180D !Fed. 180D
39.5
24.5
Champotón
Campeche
01993-01-011993
current

 FH0180D !Fed. 180D
241.34
149.96
Mérida/Kantunil
Cancún
01991-01-011991
current

 FH0185D !Fed. 185D
75.39
46.85
Salina Cruz
La Ventosa
02003-01-012003
current

 FH0187D !Fed. 187D
197.5
122.7
Las Choapas
Ocozocuautla
02002-01-012002
current

 FH0190D !Fed. 190D
169.23
105.15
San Pablo Villa de Mitla
Tehuantepec
—
—
Under construction

 FH0190D !Fed. 190D
93.77
58.27
Ocozocuautla
Arriaga
02010-01-012010
current

 FH0190D !Fed. 190D
46
29
Tuxtla Gutiérrez
San Cristóbal de las Casas
02006-01-012006
current

 FH0200D !Fed. 200D
46
29
Manzanillo
Armería
01991-01-011991
current

 FH0200D !Fed. 200D
4.369
2.715
Libramiento de Tecpan de Galeana
02008-01-012008
current

 FH0305D !Fed. 305D
44
27
El Tintal
Playa del Carmen
02014-01-012014
current

 FH0307D !Fed. 307D
14.14
8.79
Libramiento Felipe Carrillo Puerto
02016-01-012016
current

 FHI-20D !Fed. I-20D
29.2
18.1
Libramiento Norponiente de Irapuato
02010-01-012010
current

 FHM40D !Fed. M40D
223
139
Autopista Arco Norte
Atlacomulco—San Martín Texmelucan
02009-01-012009
current

 FHS30 !Fed. S30
46.21
28.71
Libramiento Norponiente de Saltillo
02010-01-012010
current

 FHD !Fed. D
32.4
20.1
Autopista Tepic–San Blas
02017-01-012017
current

 FHGUA 10D !Fed. GUA 10D
111
69
Macrolibramiento Sur de Guadalajara
02018-01-012018
current
Started Construction in 2014 (Opened first segment in 2016) (Completed 2017) Inagurated 2018

tag: table


document_title: Ghosts of Girlfriends Past

question_text: where did they film ghosts of girlfriends past

text: Ghosts of Girlfriends Past

text: Plot[edit]

text: Connor Mead (Matthew McConaughey) is a famous photographer and confirmed womanizer. He takes a break from his playboy lifestyle to attend his brother Paul's wedding, where he becomes reacquainted with Jenny Perotti (Jennifer Garner), Connor's childhood friend and the only girl who's ever captured his heart. After Connor delivers a drunken speech at the rehearsal dinner where he says that love isn't real, he's met in the bathroom by the ghost of his uncle Wayne (Michael Douglas), a roué who taught Connor everything he knows about seducing women. Wayne informs Connor that, over the course of the evening, he will be visited by three ghosts who will lead him through his romantic past, present, and future.

text: The first ghost is the "Ghost of Girlfriends Past" in the form of Allison Vandermeersh (Emma Stone), one of his high school girlfriends and his first lover. Together, they revisit scenes from his past, focusing on his relationship with Jenny. In 1982, Connor and Jenny were very close as children; she gave him his first instant camera which he used to take her picture, promising to keep it forever. When Connor's parents died in a car accident, Jenny consoles Connor throughout the years without them, as she, his brother Paul and his uncle Wayne were all he had left. By middle school, the two were on the verge of romance, but Connor's hesitation at asking her for a dance caused Jenny to dance with and kiss another boy. Heartbroken, Connor was told by Wayne that he must avoid romance at all costs in order not to feel such pain again. For the next two years, Wayne schooled Connor in the art of seduction. When he next saw Jenny, at a high school party, Connor ignored her and kissed another girl named Allison, whom he had his first sexual encounter with. Several years later, as adults, Connor and Jenny rekindled their romance, but Jenny forced him to woo her for several weeks in an attempt to rid him of his womanizing ways. After they finally did have sex, Connor falls in love with her, but when he lies in bed with her to fall asleep beside her, he remembers his uncle Wayne's warnings about sleeping and spooning with the opposite sex after a night of passion. Realizing this, he panics, running out on her so he won't be hurt. The next morning, Jenny wakes up alone and broken-hearted. His relationships thereafter consisted of a series of very short flings.

text: Awakening back in the Mead mansion in the present, Connor accidentally destroys Paul and Sandra's (his bride-to-be) wedding cake and unsuccessfully attempts to reconcile with Jenny. After his failed attempt, Connor returns to his uncle Wayne's room and finds another woman awaiting him in his bed and, fearing that this woman was the next "Ghost" to accompany him on his journey to show him how he became "himself", panics and runs out of his room, though it's clear after he leaves that the woman in the bed awaiting him is actually one of the bridesmaids hoping to have sex with him. As he storms out of the house, he is confronted by the "Ghost of Girlfriends Present" in the form of his assistant Melanie (Noureen DeWulf), the only constant female figure in his life. With her, he sees that in his absence the other wedding guests make fun of him and his shallow lifestyle. Paul stands up for his brother, recalling that Connor helped raise him after their parents' death, and expresses his hope that Connor will someday change for the better. As the bridemaids discusse their love lives, one of them makes a remark about Jenny being emotionally twisted beyond recognition by Connor to the point that she's unable to move on to a new relationship. Jenny hears this and though Sandra tries to comfort her, Jenny leaves the room hurt and in tears. Melanie guides Connor to the kitchen to show him a crying Jenny as she tries to repair Paul and Sandra's wedding cake. Connor also sees that Jenny is being comforted by Brad (Daniel Sunjata), and is upset that his own actions and attitude are bringing the two closer. He is further upset to discover that Melanie and the three women whom he previously broke up with by conference call are bonding over his disregard for their feelings.

text: Returning to the house, Connor finds Sandra furious at learning that Paul had slept with one of her bridesmaids very early in their relationship, information that Connor had let slip earlier in the evening. Connor attempts to mend the situation but only makes things worse, and Paul tells him to leave. On his way out, he is confronted by the "Ghost of Girlfriends Future" (Olga Maliouk), who takes him forward in time to see that Jenny marries Brad while Paul remains alone. Further in the future, Paul is the only mourner at Connor's funeral. Wayne appears and tells Connor that this is his future if he continues on the same path, pushing him into the grave to be buried by his many ex-girlfriends.

text: Connor awakens in the Mead home and learns that Sandra has called off the wedding and is on her way to the airport. He intercepts the bridal party and convinces Sandra to forgive Paul by sharing lessons learned from his own mistakes, particularly that the pain of heartbreak is outweighed by the regret of never risking one's heart in the first place, something he admits to always regretting having done. Connor helps Jenny to restart the wedding, which he photographs, and afterwards he reconciles with Jenny by showing her the picture he still carries of her as a child and by promising to always be there when she wakes up. The two kiss and dance in the snow to the same song Connor once hesitated to ask her to dance to.

text: Meanwhile, Wayne tries to hit on the ghost of girlfriends future, but she magically vanishes after throwing a drink in his face. Then he tries to hit on the ghost of girlfriends present, but Melanie informs Wayne she is one of the attendees and vanishes. Melanie and Brad start talking and then dancing. Wayne is left with the ghost of girlfriends past, Allison, who is not interested since she is only 16. Wayne says that they are ghosts and therefore ageless.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Matthew McConaughey as Connor 'Dutch' Mead

Devin Brochu as Young Connor
Logan Miller as Teenage Connor

Jennifer Garner as Jenny Perotti

Kasey Russell as Young Jenny
Christa B. Allen as Teenage Jenny

Michael Douglas as Wayne S. Mead
Breckin Meyer as Paul Mead
Lacey Chabert as Sandra Volkom
Robert Forster as Sergeant Major Mervis Volkom
Daniel Sunjata as Brad Frye
Emma Stone as Allison Vandermeersh, the Ghost of Girlfriends Past
Noureen DeWulf as Melanie, the Ghost of Girlfriends Present
Drew Barrymore as the Ghost of Girlfriends Future
Anne Archer as Vonda Volkom
Amanda Walsh as Denice
Camille Guaty as Donna
Rachel Boston as Deena
Christina Milian as Kalia
Emily Foxler as Nadja

tag: ul

text: Production[edit]

text: Ghosts of Girlfriends Past was originally set up at Touchstone Pictures with Ben Affleck attached to play the lead character, but he opted out of the movie.[3] It was primarily filmed at Castle Hill in Ipswich, Massachusetts[4] The film was also the first pairing of Michael Douglas and Anne Archer since the 1987 hit thriller Fatal Attraction, although they shared no scenes together. Jennifer Garner and Christa B. Allen again appear together for the first time since 13 Going on 30 in 2004, and they again play the older and younger versions of the same character.

text: Ghosts of Girlfriends Past was cast by veteran Hollywood casting director Marci Liroff.

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text:
"Ghosts of Girlfriends Past" - All Too Much featuring Matthew Sweet
"Hush" - Gavin Rossdale
"Got a Lot of Love for You Baby" - The Ralph Sall Experience
"Keep on Loving You" - REO Speedwagon
"You Can't Hurry Love" - The Ralph Sall Experience
"Ladies Night" - Kool & the Gang
"The Safety Dance" - Men Without Hats
"Yeah (Dream of Me)" - All Too Much
"Holding Back the Years" - Simply Red
"Sleep" - All Too Much

text: Reception[edit]

text: Critical reaction[edit]

text: As of January 2011, the film received negative reviews and holds a 26% rating on the website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 140 reviews.[5] Metacritic lists it with a 34 out of 100, which indicates "generally unfavorable reviews", based on 29 reviews.[6]

text: Box office[edit]

text: On the film's opening weekend, it debuted at #2 with a gross of $15.4 million (3,175 theaters, $4,854 average), far behind X-Men Origins: Wolverine's $85.1 million gross.[7] The film made $55.3 million in the United States and Canada along with $47 million from foreign territories for a worldwide total of $102.2 million.[1]

text: Home media[edit]

text: The film was released on DVD on September 22, 2009.[8]