document_title: Driver's license

question_text: when was the first driver's license required

question_tokens: when was the first driver 's license required

text: Driver's license

text: History[edit]

text: Karl Benz, inventor of the modern automobile, had to receive written permission from the Grand Ducal authorities to operate his car on public roads in 1888 after residents complained about the noise and smell of his Motorwagen.[1] Up until the start of the 20th century, European authorities issued licenses to drive motor vehicles similarly ad hoc, if at all.[1]

text: Mandatory licensing for drivers came into force on 1 January 1904[2] after the Motor Car Act 1903 received royal assent in the United Kingdom. Every car owner had to register their vehicle with their local government authority and be able to prove registration of their vehicle on request. The minimum qualifying age was set at 17. The licence gave its holder 'freedom of the road' with a maximum 20 mph (32 km/h) speed limit.[3] Compulsory testing was introduced in 1934, with the passing of the Road Traffic Act.[4]

text: Prussia, then a state within the German Empire, introduced compulsory licensing on September 29, 1903. A test on mechanical aptitude had to be passed and the Dampfkesselüberwachungsverein ("steam boiler supervision association") was charged with conducting these tests.[1] In 1910, the German imperial government mandated the licensing of drivers on a national scale, establishing a system of tests and driver's education requirements that was adopted in other countries.[1]

text: In 1909, the Convention with Respect to the International Circulation of Motor Vehicles[5] recognize the need of qualifications, examination, and authorization for international driving.

text: In 1929, the notion of International Driving Permit is addressed by international Convention [6].

text: In 1977, the Convention on road traffic address the notion of driving license for a number of countries, under the wording "driving permit".[7][clarification needed]

text: Other countries in Europe also introduced driving tests during the twentieth century, the last of them being Belgium where, until 1977, it was possible to purchase and hold a license without having to undergo a driving test.[8]

text: As automobile-related fatalities soared in North America, public outcry provoked legislators to begin studying the French and German statutes as models.[9] On August 1, 1910, North America's first licensing law for motor vehicles went into effect in the US state of New York, though it initially applied only to professional chauffeurs.[10] In July 1913, the state of New Jersey became the first to require all drivers to pass a mandatory examination before receiving a license.[11]

text: Driver's licenses used for identification purposes[edit]

text: Many countries, including Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States, have no national identification cards. As many people have driver's licenses, they are often accepted as de facto proof of identity. Most identity cards and driver's licenses are credit card size—the "ID-1" size and shape defined in ISO/IEC 7810.

text: Europe[edit]

text: Many European countries require drivers to produce their license on demand when driving. Some European countries require adults to carry proof of identity at all times, but a driving license is not valid for identification in every European country.[12]

text: In the United Kingdom most drivers are not required to carry their licence. A driver may be required by a constable or vehicle examiner to produce their licence, but may provide it in a specified police station within seven days;[13] the police issue a form for this purpose.[14]

text: In Denmark, Finland, Norway, Spain and Sweden, the driver's license number is the same as the citizen's ID number. Banks and authorities use the same number for customer databases, making the licence fully useful for identification purposes.

text: Asia[edit]

text: In Hong Kong a driving license carries the same number as the holder's ID card, but has no photograph. Upon inspection both must be presented. Plans to make the newly phased in Smart ID contain driving license information have been shelved.

text: Similarly, the Saudi Arabian government require all drivers to carry an ID card in addition to a license and present them whenever requested. In Saudi Arabia using a license instead is only permitted if the request is made for on-site inspection/identification purposes, especially at checkpoints. Expatriates may be requested to present their visas as well.

text: In Japan, South Korea, and Singapore driving license cards are widely used as identification.[15]

text: Japan[edit]

text: Japanese driver's licenses bear one of the following 3 colors on the expiration date.

text: The Gold License is granted to any driver who, at the point of license renewal, has at least five years of clean driving history (no driving infractions).[16][17] According to implications in the Road Traffic Laws Reforms that took place on May 10, 1995, all such licenses are marked with a gold band over the license's expiration date as well as the word 優良 printed in black, below.

text: Those who hold a gold license have the added benefit of qualifying for the Superior Drivers Course at the time of renewal, a significantly shorter and less-expensive renewal process. In some cases, they can bypass the main license center and have their license renewed at a separate Superior Drivers License Renewal Center.[18]

text: Moreover, because such license holders are proven to have been free of accidents and moving violations for at least five years, they are deemed low-risk and qualify for optional car insurance discounts. To qualify, drivers must be accident and violation-free for 5 years and 41 days prior to their birthday on their license's expiration. The period in which the license holder's driving history is reviewed begins on the 40th day prior to their birthday of that year. Should the license holder be deemed to qualify, they will receive a decision in the mail with the word 優良 printed on it.

text: Even the so-called "Paper Drivers" who hold licenses but never drive, who technically are without violation or accident, can lose their eligibility to obtain a gold license for several reasons including if their car is used by a drunk driver or to support drunk driving in any way.

text: North America[edit]

text: In the United States and Canada, driver's licenses are issued by the states and provinces (or territories), respectively, and do not look the same nationwide. They are also used as a de facto or government-issued identification document for the holder. Most government issuers of driver's licenses also provide a government-issued identification card with similar attributes to a driver's license to those residents within their jurisdictions who do not have or maintain a valid driver’s license, making it easier for them to do things such as open a bank account, and perform any other activities that require official identification. Identification cards serve as government-issued photo ID but do not enable a person to operate a motor vehicle, a fact typically noted on the ID via the phrase 'Not a driver's license' or similar wording. This type of photo ID is referred to as a Photo card in some jurisdictions (for example, Ontario Photo Card).

text: South America[edit]

text: In Venezuela, the driver's license number is the same as the citizen's ID number.

text: The number of a driving license issued by the Dominican Republic has the same number as the holder's Dominican Republic ID card.

text: Licenses for different categories of vehicles[edit]

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text: In a number of countries (including the United States, New Zealand, Australia, UK, Ireland and sometimes Canada as well) people who drive commercially are required to have special licenses. The cost of taking the series of tests and examinations to obtain these licenses usually means that an employer would subsidize his or her drivers.

text: Africa[edit]

text: Egypt[edit]

text: Egyptian citizens are entitled to a driver's license once they have reached the age of 18. To obtain their licenses, applicants must pass a driving test as well as several computer tests.

text: In order to pass, all a person had to do was drive six meters forward and then reverse six meters. However, the test was updated to make it more difficult, now the applicant has to answer 8 out of 10 correct answers in a computer test, then pass a forward & reverse S-track test in addition to an assessment of parking skills.

text: Ghana[edit]

text: Driver's licensing in Ghana is conducted by the nation's Driver and Vehicle Licensing Authority. The legal driving age is 18.

text: Kenya[edit]

text: The legal driving age is 18 years old. The license must include:

text:
Id number
Name
Date of issue
Class of vehicle

text: Morocco[edit]

text: The legal driving age of Moroccan citizens is 18.[citation needed]

text: Nigeria[edit]

text: In Nigeria, the minimum age to qualify for a driver's license is 18. The applicant would first attend training at an accredited driving school. Then, the driving school will then present the applicant to a Vehicle Inspection Officer (VIO) for a driving test.Upon passing the driving test and the applicant would obtain a certificate of proficiency from the VIO.The applicant then completes a driver's licence application form at the Driver's Licence Centre (DLC) or download the form online.Afterwards he pays a license fee online or at the Bank and presents his application form to the Board of Internal Revenue (BIR) Officer and VIO at the DLC for endorsement. After all these he proceeds to the Federal Road Safety Corps (FRSC) Officer at the DLC for biometric data capture.He is given a temporary driver’s licence which is valid for 60 days. He picks up original driver’s licence at the BIR Office after 60 days.

text: South Africa[edit]

text: The minimum driving age in South Africa is 17, when you may drive with an adult whom holds a valid driving license, after passing your learners license theory test. At 18 you can obtain a driving license after passing the road test. Small motorcycles may be driven from the age of 16. To obtain a license, applicants must pass a written or computer-based test to obtain a learner's license, and then pass a road test to obtain the driving license. Categories for licenses include CODE B (normal vehicles), CODE C1 (LDV), CODE EC (heavy trucks), CODE A (motorcycle). The learners license theory test will contain three sets of questions with multiple answer options; you will have to select the correct answer. Some driving license test centres use computers for the test, whereas other centres require you to complete the test using a test paper and pen.[citation needed]

text: Tanzania[edit]

text: Driver's licenses are issued by the Tanzania Revenue Authority. The legal driving age for motor vehicles is 18 and for motorcycles is 16.[19]

text: Asia[edit]

text: Hong Kong[edit]

text: India[edit]

text: The minimum driving age in India is 16 for mopeds under 50 cc (3.1 cu in), and 18 for cars and motorcycles. Access to motorcycles producing more than 50 cc (3.1 cu in) is restricted to riders aged 18 and above.[20] The Regional Transport Office (RTO/RTA) issue their own driving licences in various states. Drivers are legally obliged to carry a valid driving license in India whilst driving, and must be produced if required to do so by a police officer.

text: In India, people aged 50 or more, have to undergo strict medical tests in order to obtain a license that has limited validity and requires renewal every five years. A commercial driving license is valid for 3 years and requires to be renewed.

text: Indonesia[edit]

text: In Indonesia, to drive a motor vehicle, one must own a legal Indonesian Driving License which is called (Surat Izin Mengemudi) or SIM in Indonesian. It is a card which legally permits one to drive a motor vehicle. In Indonesia, there are classes for each driving license for which is allowed to drive a type of motor vehicle:

text:
A – to drive private passenger or cargo vehicle with weight allowed not exceeding 3,500 kg (7,700 lb)
A Public (A UMUM) - to drive commercial vehicles and goods carrier to the amount of weight that is allowed does not exceed 3,500 kg (7,700 lb)
B1 – to drive private passenger or cargo vehicle with weight allowed exceeding 3,500 kg (7,700 lb)
B1 Public (B1 UMUM) - to drive passenger vehicles and general freight allowed amount of weight over 3,500 kg (7,700 lb)
B2 - to drive heavy equipment vehicles, towing vehicles, or motor vehicles with attractive patch or trailer train individuals with severe or patches are allowed to train more than 1,000 kg (2,200 lb) trailer/s
B2 Public (B2 UMUM) - to drive commercial vehicles for towing or pull cart trailer with heavy patch that are allowed to train more than 1,000 kg trailer
C – to drive motorcycles (two-wheeled motor vehicle)
D – special vehicle for disabled person

text: The classes above are also allowed by the age of the driver according to the class of the driving license. The ages are accordingly issued to the different classes of the driver's choice:

text:
17 years old for issue of Driving License class: A, C, and D
20 years old for issue of Driving License class: B1
21 years old for issue of Driving License class: B2

text: Israel[edit]

text: Lebanon[edit]

text: Malaysia[edit]

text: The minimum age for obtaining driving license varies between 16 and 21, although there is a concern about teenage driving safety.[21]

text: As of November 2011, any drivers could renew their license on his or her birthday, rather than expiry date.[22]

text: Pakistan[edit]

text: The minimum age for eligibility for learner's permit is 18 years ; as the driver's information is saved against the Computerized National ID Card number which is issued at the age of 18. The License Issuing Authorities vary to each district and work under the relative District Police.

text: New credit card format driving license has been introduced. The license bears the digital photo, signature and blood group information of card holder. The record of violation is stored automatically in the database. To obtain a driving license one must register for the learner's permit at any of the local District Police's designated license offices and after 42 days can apply for test for a regular full license.

text: The test phase consists of a theory based test followed by a short practical test. Only the ones who pass the theory test are allowed to take the practical test. The whole test stage is a single day process where both the tests are to be taken the same day. The driving license currently issued holds basic information of the Driver including Name, Father's Name, Date of birth, Address, Authorized Vehicle Types, Emergency Contact, Blood Group, Fingerprint Impression, Driver Photo. The license also has a magnetic strip though its viability is yet to be made public.

text: Singapore[edit]

text: Driving licences in Singapore are issued by the traffic police. The minimum age to obtain a provisional driving licence (PDL), which allows the holder to practise driving while under the supervision of an authorised driving instructor, is 18. A provisional driving licence is obtained once the individual has passed the basic theory test. PDL holders are then required to sit for and pass the final theory test before they are allowed to sit for the practical driving test. Once they have passed the practical driving test, they are issued with a driving licence which allows for driving without supervision, though new drivers are required to display probationary plates when driving for the 1st year after their licence is issued.

text: South Korea[edit]

text: In South Korea, one must be holding a driving license called "운전면허증" or an international driving license. The International driving license is valid for 1 years starting from the date of entry. If one is going to stay in South Korea longer than a year, it is necessary to change the international license to a local license by visiting the police office or driving license testing center.

text: For South Korean driving license, there are classes for each driving license for which is allowed to drive a type of motor vehicle:

text:
Type 1 (1종) – Commercial Vehicles

Large (대형) – A license which allows one to drive every vehicle except trailers and wreckers. It allows one to drive cargo truck, passenger bus, construction equipment for commercial purposes.
Normal (보통) – Allows one to drive a vehicle with less than 15 seats, an emergency motor vehicle with less than 12 seats, a cargo truck with a load limit of 12 tonnes, a construction equipment which weighs less than 3 tonnes (doesn't include trailers and wreckers), a special motor vehicle which weighs less than 10 tonnes (doesn't include trailers and wreckers).
Small (소형) – Allows one to drive a vehicle with three wheels and a motorcycle.

Type 2 (2종) – Non-Commercial Vehicles

Normal (보통) – Allows one to drive a vehicle with less than 10 seats, a cargo truck with a load limit of 4 tonnes, a special motor vehicle which weighs less than 3.5 tonnes (doesn't include trailers and wreckers).
Small (소형) – Allows one to drive a motorcycle.

Practice Licence

Type 1 (1종) – Allows one to drive a vehicle with less than 15 seats, a cargo truck with a load limit of 12 tonnes, when the driver is driving with somebody with a licence which isn't a practice licence.
Type 2 (2종) – Allows one to drive a vehicle with less than 10 seats, a cargo truck with a load limit of 4 tonnes, when the driver is driving with somebody with a licence which isn't a practice licence.

text: Besides the type of the licence, the licence may have a special condition. Depending on the special condition given, the driver must satisfy the condition below to be able to drive. Drving a vehicle without satisfying the given condition is considered as unlicensed driving.

text:
A – Automatic Transmission Only
B – Drive with prosthetic hand or arm
C – Drive with prosthetic leg
D – Wear hearing aid when driving
E – Drive with Hearing-Impaired Sign + Convex Mirror
I – Drive a car with a gas pedal located in the left.

text: Sri Lanka[edit]

text: New E-Smart Card driving licenses are available in Sri Lanka. These cards are intended for the use in the proposed "Point System".

text: In Sri Lanka, a driving license is the official document which authorizes its holder to operate various types of motor vehicles on public roads. They are administered by the Department of Motor Traffic (DMT). The minimum age is 18 years for all vehicle types.

text: Vietnam[edit]

text: In Vietnam, to drive a vehicle, one must own a legal Vietnamese Driving License which is called "bằng lái". It is a card which legally permits one to drive a motor vehicle. In Vietnam, there are classes for each driving license for which is allowed to drive a type of motor vehicle:

text:
A – to drive private passenger or cargo vehicle with weight allowed exceeding 3,500 kg (7,700 lb).
B1 – to drive private passenger or cargo vehicle with weight allowed not exceeding 3,500 kg (7,700 lb). B1 is issued to drivers who are younger than 21 years old. B1 license is valid for 5 years.
B2 - to drive private passenger or cargo vehicle with weight allowed not exceeding 3,500 kg (7,700 lb). B2 license is identical to B1 license but issued for drivers who are 21 years old or older. B2 license is valid for 10 years.
C – to drive motorcycles (two-wheeled motor vehicle)
D – special vehicle for disabled person

text:
17 years old for issue of Driving License class: A, C
20 years old or younger for issue of Driving License class : B1
21 years old for issue of Driving License class: B2

text: European Economic Area[edit]

text: The European Union has adopted a common format for driving licenses within all 31 European Economic Area member states (EU, Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway), and a common set of driving license categories. They were introduced to replace the 110 different plastic and paper driving licenses. The common format with the same information in the same place on all licenses allows the driving license to be understood, even if it is in a different language.

text: The system for handling the penalty points remains different in each country, for the existence of points, initial number of points, revolving, and number of points removed (or added) for each penalty.

text: Austria[edit]

text: Belgium[edit]

text: Bulgaria[edit]

text: Croatia[edit]

text: Cyprus[edit]

text: Denmark[edit]

text: Finland[edit]

text: France[edit]

text: Germany[edit]

text: Greece[edit]

text: Iceland[edit]

text: The minimum age for getting a driver's license in Iceland is 17 for a B class license, a B class license will qualify a person to drive low powered motorcycles (50 cc (3.1 cu in) two stroke or equivalent, for more powerful bikes one will have to obtain an A class license), Tractors, ATVs and Automobiles that do not exceed a GVWR of 3,500 kg (7,700 lb) or 8 passengers.

text: The minimum age in Iceland to get a C1 class (vehicles up to 7,500 kg (16,500 lb) GVWR) is 18, for a C class (vehicles exceeding 7,500 kg) one will have to have obtained a 12-point license (obtainable without getting a ticket for a whole year) and have reached the age of 21 years.

text: The minimum age in Iceland for a D1 class license is 21 years old and D class (and DE class) license is 23 years old, the same rules apply as with a C/CE class license.

text: Ireland[edit]

text: Italy[edit]

text: The Netherlands[edit]

text: Norway[edit]

text: The minimum age for getting a driver's license in Norway is 16 for A1, T (tractor), 18 for A-C and 21 for D. The driver's licenses are always revoked when he/she has reached an age of 100.

text: Poland[edit]

text: Romania[edit]

text: The minimum age for obtaining a driver's license in Romania is 18 ("Minimum legal age in Romania")

text: Spain[edit]

text: Sweden[edit]

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: The minimum driving age in the United Kingdom is 16 for mopeds under 50 cc (3.1 cu in), and 17 for cars and motorcycles. Access to motorcycles producing more than 25 kW (34 hp) is restricted to riders with two years experience or aged 21.[23] The British Overseas Territories and the British Crown dependencies issue their own driving licences. There is no legal requirement for a non-professional driver to carry a driving licence in the UK whilst driving, although it must be produced at a police station within seven days, if required to do so by a police officer.[24]

text: In the United Kingdom, one must hold a Passenger Carrying Vehicle (PCV) licence to drive a vehicle with more than eight passenger seats for hire or reward, or a Large Goods Vehicle (LGV) licence to drive a vehicle with a Gross Vehicle Weight (Maximum Authorized Mass) in excess of 3,500 kg (7,700 lb). Licences and Driver Certificate of Professional Competence qualification cards must be carried whilst driving vehicles in such categories. Special licences are also required in order to transport hazardous materials.

text: Rest of Europe[edit]

text: Albania[edit]

text: Azerbaijan[edit]

text: Macedonia[edit]

text: Russia[edit]

text: The Russian Empire was one of the first countries to create a driving licence. Russia's first licences were issued in 1900 by Saint Petersburg authorities, and Russia joined an international convention in 1909[citation needed]. However, due to relatively small number of cars, the attempts to create a standardised Russian licence were rather sporadic and limited to major urban areas. No comprehensive system of driver licensing was present until 1936, when the Soviet government organised and standardised traffic and driving regulations, with the statewide system regulated by specialised police authorities.

text: Russia employs a system of driver's licenses very similar to the EU standard. Since 2014 there are 14 main categories that require a driving licence: A, A1, B, B1, C, C1, D, D1, BE, CE, C1E, DE, D1E, M[25] and two additional categories: Tm (tram) and Tb (trolleybus).

text: The current licence style, introduced in 1999, is a laminated plastic card similar to the European driving licence card in dimensions and outward appearance, with the bearer's photo and name (in Latin and Cyrillic scripts) to the left, place/date of issue, allowed categories and signature to the right. The reverse of the card features a detailed list of allowed categories in Russian.[26] Older booklet-style licenses are also occasionally seen although they are no longer issued and are increasingly rare as a result. The Russian driving license is also sometimes supplemented by a special card called "временное разрешение" (temporary permission), which serves for registering offense points and as a temporary licence if the primary licence has been seized by the authorities for serious traffic offences.[27] This supplement has been abolished and reinstated a countless number of times as the views of the traffic police change.

text: The legal driving age within the Russian Federation is 18 years (16 for motorcycles (A1 and M categories only, not A) and 20 for buses)[28] and to obtain a licence one must be physically fit to drive (including certificates of mental fitness and no record of substance abuse). One must also pass a test administered at a local traffic police authority and pay a fee. Tests are divided into theory and practice. The theory test is usually a computerized multiple-choice test on various traffic rules. Twenty multiple-choice questions are asked, only two incorrect answers allowed for a passing grade.[29] A road test is then administered which includes a demonstration of basic driving skills (steering, slope starting for manual transmission vehicles and backing-up), obstacle course as well as a skills examination for road driving. Four minor errors are allowed for the road driving examination—the obstacle course is pass-fail. The number of retries is unlimited.

text: Switzerland[edit]

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text: Even though Switzerland is a EFTA member state, it is not a member of the European Economic Area. Switzerland has, however, generally adopted much of the harmonised EU legislation with regard to driving licences. Swiss licences can be exchanged in most EEA countries. Switzerland has, since the 2000s, used the EU system of vehicle categories and issued EEA-style credit-card licences.

text: To apply for a car driving licence (category B), the applicant must be 18 years old. They must first attend first aid courses, and pass an eyesight test. Passing a theory exam is required to receive a learner's permit valid for two years. This allows holders to drive a car only if accompanied by an adult aged 23 or more who has had a full driving licence for a minimum of three years. Before passing the practical exam, the candidate must attend 10 hours of theory lessons on "sensibilisation (familiarisation) to road traffic". Practical driving lessons are not legally required, but are considered a de facto prerequisite for passing the practical exam taken with a government official Driving Test Examiner. Upon succeeding the practical exam, a probationary driving licence is issued for three years. To obtain the full, unlimited, driving licence after these three years, the candidate must not commit a serious traffic offence, and attend two days of further driving training.

text: For motorcycles and heavier vehicles, the regulations are different, and some agrarian vehicles can be driven without a licence. As of 2011, a 45-minute driving lesson costs around CHF 90, while the various fees and theoretical instruction costs associated with getting a car driving licence can amount to up to CHF 600, without counting the costs for the two days of further training.

text: The theoretical exam must be taken in either German, French or Italian. In some cantons it is possible to take it in English.

text: Turkey[edit]

text: Turkey has been an associate member since 1963, and application to accede to the European Economic Community, the predecessor of the European Union (EU), was made on 14 April 1987. [30] Turkey signed a Customs Union agreement with the EU in 1995 and was officially recognised as a candidate for full membership on 12 December 1999, at the Helsinki summit of the European Council.

text: On 1st January 2016 new Turkish laws concerning driving licences were implemented.[31][32] The changes are intended to bring Turkey more in line with existing EU driving regulations and concern all road users in Turkey. A foreign national can drive in Turkey with an EU license for 6 months. After 6 months he/she has to change it to a Turkish licence. Application can be made to any Traffic Registration office, and the foreign driving licences will not be returned to holders. Instead they will be sent to the issuing authority of the country of origin i.e. for British nationals, DVLA. The DVLA says that expats can drive in the UK on a Turkish licence for up to 12 months, and if they wish to settle back in the UK, the Turkish license can be exchanged for a UK license. [31]

text: In Turkey you must be at least 18 years old in order to drive a car and at least 17 to drive a motorbike. The driving test comprises a practical and theory test, which has been recently made tougher in order to meet European Union regulations. [33]

text: North America[edit]

text: Canada[edit]

text: The age to obtain a driver's license in Canada varies by province, as do the necessary procedures. The minimum age for obtaining a driver's license to drive unaccompanied in most provinces is 16.[citation needed]

text: Barbados[edit]

text: In Barbados, a person 16 years or over can apply for a Learner's Permit which allows them to drive for a specified period with an accompanying tutor. During that period they will be tested on their driving skill and their knowledge of road signs and traffic laws. On passing both the written and driving test the license is issued. Once issued a driver's license is valid for a period of one to five years depending on which period of time the driver chooses to pay for. On the expiry of the period for which the license is issued, it will become renewable on the last day of the driver's birth month and will again be valid for the time period for which payment is made. Visitors and non-nationals who are the holders of a valid driver's license issued in their country of residence or origin are not allowed to drive automatically in Barbados but must go to a police station to have a temporary local driver's license issued. The license is issued on payment of a fee and the production of the visitor's existing license.

text: Costa Rica[edit]

text: Every vehicle driver must carry a driver's license (Licencia de Conducir), which is issued by COSEVI (Consejo de Seguridad Vial) of the ministry of transportation and public infrastructure (Ministerio de Obras Públicas y Transporte).

text: For this license to be granted there are three needed tests, practical driving (includes driving a car in simulated streets), theoretical driving (a multiple selection written test based on booklet issued by the education department or after taking a special course), and finally a medical test performed by a medical practitioner that tests eyesight, blood pressure and attests the presence of other diseases and behavior of the driver.

text: Every citizen can solicit a driver's license at age 18, after being issued the first time, the license must be renewed after two years, and every successive occasion after five years.[34] Foreigners may also obtain a drivers' license if they have residency.

text: Besides this document the driver must carry the national identity card (Cédula de Identidad), however both documents use the same identification number, the national identity card being the basis of the driver's license number.

text: El Salvador[edit]

text: All driver's licenses are given by the government agency SERTRACEN (Servicios de Tránsito Centroamericanos S.A. de C.V.).

text: One needs a minimum of 15 years to receive a driver's license (a juvenile license).[35] To get a new license, one needs to pass a vision test, a written test, and a driving test. These tests are given at accredited driving schools. Foreigners with a license from another country can obtain an El Salvador license if they have residency. They will also have to pass a vision test.[36] The driver's license number is the same as the person's Tax ID number.

text: El Salvador licenses (as well as vehicle circulation cards) contain a chip which can be read by putting the card in a chip reader.

text: There are several categories of drivers' licenses in El Salvador:[37]

text:
Juvenil Particular—License for minors, allowing them to drive cars and pickup trucks
Motociclista—Motorcycle license
Particular—License for adults, for cars, vans up to 17 passengers, and pickup trucks.
Liviana—Taxis, Light trucks up to 5 tons, and buses up to 30 passengers.
Pesada—Buses greater than 30 passengers, and trucks greater than 5 tons.
Pesada T—Trucks with more than 3 axles.

text: Jamaica[edit]

text: A citizen may obtain a learner's permit once he or she is age 17. A learner will get their driver's license upon being proven competent through the results of both a written and practical test. This license expires on the holder's fifth birthday after the date of issue.

text: Mexico[edit]

text: Driving licenses in Mexico are regulated by each state, and they all have different rules and requirements. However, all state driving licenses are recognized across Mexico, and international licenses with an IDP are also recognized as well.

text: A driver is allowed a learner's permit at the age of 15 (in some states), with the cost of approximately 100 dollars, a duration of a year, and requiring to drive with an adult at all times. At the age of 16, the fee drops to 30 dollars, and a driving permit is issued with some usage restrictions, depending on the state (like a curfew). When a driver turns 18, he or she is allowed a full license.

text: United States[edit]

text: The eligible age to first obtain a driver's license varies substantially from state to state, from 14 years, three months, in South Dakota to 17 in New Jersey. In a majority of states one can obtain a license that allows driving without adult supervision by age 16, after passing the requisite tests. Since the driver's license is a commonplace document that carries much of the necessary information needed for identification, it has become the primary method of identification in the United States.[38]

text: In the United States, a holder of a driver's license is typically legally allowed to operate a motor vehicle up to 26,000 pounds if no hazardous materials and no more than 16 persons (driver included) are in the vehicle. Most jurisdictions that grant driver's licenses only permit the holder to operate a roadworthy vehicle consisting of four or more wheels. To operate a two-wheel motorized vehicle with a sustainable speed greater than 30 mph (48 km/h) requires an endorsement on the license, typically after successful completion of a theory (written) and practical test.

text: On the federal level, motor vehicles with a curb weight of GCWR of 26,001 lb (11,794 kg) or more, a vehicle designed to transport 16 or more passengers (driver included), or a vehicle transporting hazardous materials can only be driven by an operator carrying a Commercial Driver License (Commercial Motor Vehicle Safety Act of 1986). Upon successful completion of theory and practical testing, endorsements can be applied to a CDL to allow legal transport of specialty types of goods:

text:
T Semi trailer Double or Triple (Written Test)

Certain states prohibit triple trailers statewide, such as California,[39] Florida,[40] Michigan,[41] and New York[42]
A Class A license is required to obtain the T endorsement

P Passenger Vehicle (Written and Driving Tests)
S School Bus (Written and Driving Test, Background Check, Sex Offender Registry Check and P endorsement)
N Tank Truck (Written Test)
H Hazardous materials (Written Test and Background Check through the Transportation Security Administration)
X Combination of Tank Vehicle and Hazardous Materials (Written Test)
W Tow truck. (Written Test)
M Motorcycle License (Written Test and practical)

text: Various state statutes also mandate that CDL must be held to operate vehicles not covered by federal statutes.

text: Oceania[edit]

text: Australia[edit]

text: The minimum driving age varies between 16 and 18 years of age in different States and Territories. After the minimum age, a graduated licensing scheme operates, with state variations.

text: Cook Islands[edit]

text: A Cook Islands "License to Drive a Motor Vehicle" is issued at police headquarters on Rarotonga, on production of a valid license from the visitor's home country. To use a scooter or motor cycle (the main hire vehicles for tourists) a short test has to be taken by anyone whose home license is only valid for cars, in which a police officer observes the applicant riding up and down the main street of the capital.

text: New Zealand[edit]

text: Since August 2011, the minimum age to obtain a learner licence is 16 years old in New Zealand; formerly it was 15 years old.[43]

text: There are three different types of drivers licence in New Zealand: learners, restricted and full licence. Learners licences allow the person to drive, with a wide number of restrictions.[44] Restricted licenses allow driving alone between the hours of 5am to 10pm, and require the person to be 16½.[45] Full licences are restricted to those 18 and over, or 17½ years if an approved advanced driving course has been successfully completed.[46]

text: There are six different classes of vehicle that are licensed:[47]

text:
Class Number
Vehicle
Requirements for learners licence
Requirements for restricted licence
Requirements for full licence

Class 1
Car
Must be 16 years or over
Must be 16½ or over, must have learners licence for at least 6 months
Must be 18 or over, must have restricted licence for at least 12 months

Class 2
Medium rigid vehicle
Hold a full class 1 licence for at least 6 months and pass a theory test[48]
N/A
6 months on the class 2 learner licence plus a practical test, or immediately upon passing an approved course

Class 3
Medium combination vehicle
Get a full licence in Class 1
N/A
TBA

Class 4
Heavy rigid vehicle
Hold a full class 2 licence for at least 6 months (under 25) or 3 months (25 and over). No theory test required. Apply and pay the required fee
N/A
6 months on the class 4 learner licence plus a practical test, or immediately upon passing an approved course

Class 5
Heavy combination vehicle
Hold a full class 4 licence for at least 6 months (under 25) and pass a theory test
N/A
6 months on the class 5 learner licence plus a practical test, or immediately upon passing an approved course

Class 6
Motorcycle
Must be 16 years or over
Must be 16½ or over, must have learners licence for at least 6 months
Must be 18 or over, must have restricted licence for at least 12 months

text: South America[edit]

text: Brazil[edit]

text: Peru[edit]

text: The minimum age for a driving license is 18 years old. It is obtained via a test in a car, a computer and the applicant must present a vision test which says they are permitted to drive

text: Organ donations[edit]

text: Licensing bureaus in many countries add an organ donation option on license forms. Sometimes a small picture of a heart or the term Organ Donor is printed on the driver's license, to indicate that he or she has agreed to donate his or her organs in case of sudden death, such as after a collision.

text: In the United States, this is governed by the Uniform Anatomical Gift Act. In New Zealand and the Republic of Ireland, willingness to donate organs for transplant is also listed on driver's licenses. In Australia, the system of notating organ donation requests on licenses was replaced in July 2005 with a national registration system and the issue of special cards. In Great Britain (England, Wales and Scotland), code "115" is printed on the reverse of the licence to indicate that details are on the National Health Service (NHS) Organ Donor Register.

text: International and interstate considerations[edit]

text: Many groups of countries have agreed to recognize driver's licenses issued by authorities of any of its members. Examples include the European Union and the GCC, where holders of driver's licenses issued by any member state can drive in all member states. Most countries worldwide will also recognize the licenses of citizens of foreign states wishing to drive as visitors. All EU member countries now issue licenses in a standard format, regardless of the language of the license.[49]

text: The International Driving Permit (IDP) (sometimes erroneously called the International Driver's License) is a booklet which is an authorized translation of a driver's home license into many languages (especially languages with non-Latin scripts such as Russian, Arabic, Chinese, Japanese, Korean, etc.). In some cases, it is obtained from a motoring organization such as the Automobile Association or the equivalent in the driver's home country. In other cases, it is delivered by the same government services that deliver ordinary licenses. The IDP has no validity except when used in conjunction with the driver's own license. The existence of the IDP is necessitated by many countries refusing to recognize driver's licenses written in foreign languages without accompanying translations.

text: Temporary visitors from the United States to France (less than 90 days) are permitted to drive with a valid US state driver's license. In addition to holding a US driver's license, visitors are advised (but not required) to carry an International Driving permit, or attach a French translation to their US state driver's license.

text: China, at present, does not recognize IDPs and requires drivers to get an additional Chinese license before being officially allowed on all roads. Holders of foreign licenses are exempt from certain requirements when obtaining a Chinese license.

text: A minimum driving age often exists regardless of possession of a foreign license; an American cannot drive below the local minimum age in Europe, nor can a 17-year-old Briton drive in mainland Europe where the minimum age is 18.[50]

text: Many countries have established a driver's license exchange arrangement after reviews of the foreign jurisdiction's licensing processes. Where standards in the other jurisdiction are comparable in areas such as medical standards, minimum driving age, and knowledge and road testing, an exchange (or honoring) of the foreign jurisdiction's license may occur.[51] This may also be called Driver's License Reciprocity.[52]

text: Issues when moving permanently from one country or one state to another[edit]

text: Most license-issuing authorities require holders of foreign licenses taking up residence in their jurisdiction to obtain a local driver's license within a limited time, typically 6 months or 1 year. In most cases, the driver must follow the full local procedure for obtaining a license, but some jurisdictions have mutual recognition agreements and will exchange the foreign license for a local one without the need to undertake an additional driving test.

text: An exception is the EU, where licenses do not need to be exchanged since the introduction of the common EU-driver's-license scheme.

text: Australia[edit]

text: Each state in Australia has different rules for how long a visitor can drive on an international licence or a licence from a different state. For example, New South Wales allows three months[53] whereas Victoria allows six months.[54] Drivers that move permanently to another state must change their licence to a local state licence within the prescribed time. This is usually free. In some states, drivers with a full New Zealand licence are treated as interstate drivers.

text: Canada[edit]

text: British Columbia has a reciprocal license exchange scheme with other Canadian provinces and territories as well other countries provided the license is valid or has been expired for less than three years.[55] Ontario If you have a (7L) licensing, which is given out by British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, you are not restricted to being accompanied by a supervisor while driving in Ontario, until you get your Full License at the age of 18. Ontario has a reciprocal license exchange scheme for Canadian provinces and territories, Canadian Forces Europe, and some other countries.[56] Quebec has a reciprocal license exchange scheme for Canadian provinces and territories, Canadian Forces Europe, American states and other countries.[57]

text: France[edit]

text: US state driver's licenses can be exchanged from the 15 states below during the first year of legal residence in France: Arkansas, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Illinois, Iowa, Maryland, New Hampshire, Ohio, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Texas, Virginia and Wisconsin.[58]

text: If you are a resident of France (holder of a carte de séjour or carte de residence), you may drive in France with a valid US state driver's license for a one-year recognition period, beginning on the date of validity of the first carte de séjour (exception for students who are allowed to use their driver's license for the duration of their studies). In addition to having s US state driver's license, residents are also required to attach a French translation done by a sworn translator, or expert traducteur or traducteur assermenté.

text: Germany[edit]

text: The US Embassy, supported by the American Chamber of Commerce in Germany, continues to actively press all US states, territories, and the federal district to reach an agreement on the reciprocal recognition of driver's licenses with Germany, essentially a waiver of testing requirements.[59]

text: If approved, drivers from Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, Colorado, Delaware, Idaho, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Maryland, Michigan, New Mexico, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Puerto Rico, South Carolina, South Dakota, Texas, Utah, Virginia, West Virginia, Washington State, Wisconsin, and Wyoming will be exempted from road and written driving tests.

text: If approved, drivers from Connecticut, District of Columbia, Florida, Indiana, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Nebraska, North Carolina, Oregon, Tennessee will be exempted from the road tests only.

text: Hong Kong[edit]

text: As stated on the application form for direct issue of full Hong Kong driving license (Rev. 11/2008),[60] when a person has documentary evidence to the Commissioner for Transport's satisfaction that all of the following apply, the person is eligible to direct issue of a Hong Kong license:

text:
The person has held a full driving license (not an International Driving Permit) for three years issued by one of the following countries or territories: Australia, Austria, Bangladesh, Belgium, Bermuda, Canada, China, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Guernsey, Iceland, India, Ireland, the Isle of Man, Israel, Italy, Japan, Jersey, Luxembourg, Macao, Malaysia, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Nigeria, Norway, Pakistan, Portugal, Singapore, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, South Africa, South Korea, Namibia, Taiwan, the United Kingdom and the United States.
The driving entitlement(s) for which one is applying must be equivalent to the class(es) which are authorized to drive by the issuing country or place; and
The driving license was obtained by passing the relevant driving test(s) in the issuing country or territory; and
Satisfies one of the three requirements below:

The license was originally issued on any date during a period of residence of not less than 6 months in the country or place of issue (entry and departure stamps on a passport, school transcript or employer's testimonial with employment period specified are accepted as proof); or
The license has been issued for not less than 5 years immediately before the application; or
Hold a passport or an equivalent travel document of the country or territory in which the license was issued.

text: Singapore[edit]

text: A foreigner 18 years of age or older and holding a Work Pass/Dependent Pass/Student Pass may drive in Singapore with a valid class 3, 3A or 2B foreign license, for a period of not more than 12 months. A Singaporean driving licence is required after 12 months. Those on short term social visits may drive with their foreign license for up to 12 months each time they enter into Singapore. For licences not written in the English language, an International Driving Permit or translation is required.

text: Foreign licence conversion is only granted for class 2B and class 3 qualified driving licences.

text: In order to convert your foreign licence to a Singapore driving licence, you are required to pass the Basic Theory Test (BTT). Overseas theory test results are not admissible for consideration.[61]

text: Sweden[edit]

text: Residents in Sweden having a foreign license can exchange it to a Swedish license, if it is from an EU country, an EEA country, Switzerland or Japan.[62] Foreign licenses are valid if the holder has not been living in Sweden for more than a year (and some more requirements).

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: The Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency (DVLA), which licences drivers in Great Britain (England, Scotland and Wales), but not Northern Ireland, exchanges full licences issued by:[63]

text:
Northern Ireland (although being part of the UK, driving licences are issued by the Driver and Vehicle Agency (DVA) in Northern Ireland),
Countries within the EEA and Switzerland,
The British Crown dependencies (Guernsey, Jersey and the Isle of Man)
Gibraltar and other British Overseas Territories,
Australia, Barbados, the Faroe Islands, Hong Kong, Japan, Monaco, New Zealand, Singapore, South Korea, South Africa, and Zimbabwe.
Canada (by default, Canadian driver's licences will only be exchanged for licences to drive automatic transmission cars, unless documentary evidence is provided that a manual gearbox (shift) test was passed in Canada)

text: United States[edit]

text: A Driver's License from any US state is valid for temporary use in any other US state, although most states require that a person have a license issued by their state of primary residence. Most states allow residents to convert an out-of-state license to an in-state license without any additional written or road tests.

text: Delaware has a reciprocal license exchange for Germany, France, and Taiwan to allow holders of those licenses to obtain a Delaware license without any additional written or road tests.[64]

text: A District of Columbia driver's license may be obtained while maintaining out-of-country driver's license. D.C. driver's licenses may vary for non-US citizens, depending on visa classification. The written test is required for non-US citizens who possess an out-of-country driver's license.[65]

text: Florida has a reciprocal license agreement with South Korea, allowing South Korea licenses to be exchanged for a Florida license, and vice versa, without taking a written or road test.[66]

text: A New York State driver's license may be obtained by a resident of another country. If the driver has a driver license from any nation except Canada, they must pass a written test, complete a 5-hour pre-licensing course and pass a road test to qualify for a driver's license.[67]

text: Texas doesn't require drivers from Canada, France, Germany, nor Taiwan to take the written and practical tests. But drivers must still agree to a vision test.[68]

text: Washington State has a reciprocal license exchange, allowing holders of valid licenses from any other US state, British Columbia, Germany, South Korea, and Taiwan to exchange their license for a Washington State license without taking any written or road tests.[69]

text: Virginia has a reciprocal agreement with Canada, France and Germany. The knowledge and skills tests may be waived if the driver meets residency and other requirements.[70]


document_title: Abul Kalam Azad

question_text: list of books written by abul kalam azad

root

text: Abul Kalam Azad

text: Early life[edit]

text: Azad was born on 11 November 1888 in Mecca, then a part of the Ottoman Empire. His real name was Sayyid Ghulam Muhiyuddin Ahmed bin Khairuddin AlHussaini, but he eventually became known as Maulana AbulKalam Azad.[4] Azad's father was a scholar who lived in Delhi with his maternal grandfather, as his father had died at a very young age. During the Sepoy Mutiny, he left India and settled in Mecca. His father Maulana Sayyid Muhammad Khairuddin bin Ahmed AlHussaini wrote twelve books, had thousands of disciples, and claimed ancestry from Imam Hussain,[5] while his mother was Sheikha Alia bint Mohammad, the daughter of Sheikh Mohammad bin Zaher AlWatri, himself a reputed scholar from Medina who had a reputation that extended even outside of Arabia.[4][6][7]

tag: p

text: Maulana Azad returned to Calcutta with his family in 1890.[8][9] Azad began to master several languages, including Urdu, Hindi, Persian, Bengali, Arabic, and English.[4] He was also trained in the Mazahibs of Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i and Hanbali fiqh, Shariat, mathematics, philosophy, world history, and science by tutors hired by his family. An avid and determined student, the precocious Azad was running a library, a reading room, and a debating society before he was twelve; wanted to write on the life of Ghazali at twelve; was contributing learned articles to Makhzan (a literary magazine) at fourteen;[10] was teaching a class of students, most of whom were twice his age, when he was fifteen; and completed the traditional course of study at the age of sixteen, nine years ahead of his contemporaries, and brought out a magazine at the same age.[11] In fact, he was publishing a poetical journal (Nairang-e-Aalam)[12] and was already an editor of a weekly (Al-Misbah) in 1900, at the age of twelve and, in 1903, brought out a monthly journal, Lissan-us-Sidq, which soon gained popularity.[13] At the age of thirteen, he was married to a young Muslim girl, Zulaikha Begum.[9] Azad compiled many treatises interpreting the Qur'an, the Hadis, and the principles of Fiqh and Kalam.[8]

text: Revolutionary and journalist[edit]

text: Azad developed political views considered radical for most Muslims of the time and became a full-fledged Indian nationalist.[8] He fiercely criticised the British for racial discrimination and ignoring the needs of common people across India. He also criticised Muslim politicians for focusing on communal issues before the national interest and rejected the All India Muslim League's communal separatism. Azad developed curiosity and interest in the pan-Islamic doctrines of Jamal al-Din al-Afghani and visited Afghanistan, Iraq, Egypt, Syria and Turkey. But his views changed considerably when he met revolutionary activists in Iraq and was influenced by their fervent anti-imperialism and nationalism.[8] Against common Muslim opinion of the time, Azad opposed the partition of Bengal in 1905 and became increasingly active in revolutionary activities, to which he was introduced by the prominent Hindu revolutionaries Aurobindo Ghosh and Shyam Sundar Chakravarty. Azad initially evoked surprise from other revolutionaries, but Azad won their praise and confidence by working secretly to organise revolutionaries activities and meetings in Bengal, Bihar and Bombay (now called Mumbai).[8]

text: Azad's education had been shaped for him to become a cleric, but his rebellious nature and affinity for politics turned him towards journalism.

text: Maulana Azad worked for "Vakil", a newspaper from Amritsar. As per Allama Mashriqi's book titled "Dahulbab" “[Translation] In 1903, Maulvi Shibli Nomani…sent the respected Abul Kalam Azad…to Qibla-au-Kaaba [Khan Ata] in Amritsar so that he could shape his [Azad] future. Therefore he [Azad] stayed with him [Khan Ata] for five years and was part of the editorial team of the…Vakil.” For further information, visit: https://www.facebook.com/TheVakilAmritsar

text: He established an Urdu weekly newspaper in 1912 called Al-Hilal,[3] and openly attacked British policies while exploring the challenges facing common people, but it was banned in 1914.[3] Espousing the ideals of Indian nationalism, Azad's publications were aimed at encouraging young Muslims into fighting for independence and Hindu-Muslim unity.[8] His work helped improve the relationship between Hindus and Muslims in Bengal, which had been soured by the controversy surrounding the partition of Bengal and the issue of separate communal electorates.

text: With the onset of World War I, the British stiffened censorship and restrictions on political activity. Azad's Al-Hilal was consequently banned in 1914 under the Press Act. Azad started a new journal, the Al-Balagh, which increased its active support for nationalist causes and communal unity. In this period Azad also became active in his support for the Khilafat agitation to protect the position of the Sultan of Ottoman Turkey, who was considered the Caliph or Khalifa for Muslims worldwide. The Sultan had sided against the British in the war and the continuity of his rule came under serious threat, causing distress amongst Muslim conservatives. Azad saw an opportunity to energise Indian Muslims and achieve major political and social reform through the struggle. With his popularity increasing across India, the government outlawed Azad's second publication under the Defence of India Regulations Act and arrested him. The governments of the Bombay Presidency, United Provinces, Punjab and Delhi prohibited his entry into the provinces and Azad was moved to a jail in Ranchi, where he was incarcerated until 1 January 1920.[14]

text: Literary works[edit]

text: Maulana Azad is considered one of the greatest Urdu writers of the 20th century. He has written many books including India Wins Freedom, Ghubar-e-Khatir, Tazkirah, Tarjumanul Quran, etc.

text: Ghubar-e-Khatir[edit]

text: Ghubar-e-Khatir (Sallies of Mind), (Urdu: غُبارِخاطِر) is one of the most important works of Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, written primarily during 1942 to 1946 when he was imprisoned in Ahmednagar Fort in Maharashtra by British Raj while he was in Bombay (now Mumbai) to preside over the meeting of All India Congress Working Committee.[15]

text: The book is basically a collection of 24 letters he wrote addressing his close friend Maulana Habibur Rahman Khan Sherwani. These letters were never sent to him because there was no permission for that during the imprisonment and after the release in 1946, he gave all these letters to his friend Ajmal Khan who let it published for the first time in 1946.

text: Although the book is a collection of letters but except one or two letters, all other letters are unique and most of the letters deal with complex issues such as existence of God,[16] the origin of religions, the origin of music and its place in religion, etc.

text: The book is primarily an Urdu language book; however, there are over five hundred of couplets, mostly in Persian and Arabic languages. It is because, Maulana was born in a family where Arabic and Persian were used more frequently than Urdu. He was born in Mekkah, given formal education in Persian and Arabic languages but he was never taught Urdu.

text: It is often said that his book India wins Freedom is about his political life and Ghubar-e-Khatir deals with his social and spiritual life.[by whom?]

text: Non-co-operation[edit]

text: Upon his release, Azad returned to a political atmosphere charged with sentiments of outrage and rebellion against British rule. The Indian public had been angered by the passage of the Rowlatt Acts in 1919, which severely restricted civil liberties and individual rights. Consequently, thousands of political activists had been arrested and many publications banned. The killing of unarmed civilians at Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar on 13 April 1919 had provoked intense outrage all over India, alienating most Indians, including long-time British supporters, from the authorities. The Khilafat struggle had also peaked with the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I and the raging Turkish War of Independence, which had made the caliphate's position precarious. India's main political party, the Indian National Congress came under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi, who had aroused excitement all over India when he led the farmers of Champaran and Kheda in a successful revolt against British authorities in 1918. Gandhi organised the people of the region and pioneered the art of Satyagraha— combining mass civil disobedience with complete non-violence and self-reliance.

text: Taking charge of the Congress, Gandhi also reached out to support the Khilafat struggle, helping to bridge Hindu-Muslim political divides. Azad and the Ali brothers - Maulana Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali - warmly welcomed Congress support and began working together on a programme of non-co-operation by asking all Indians to boycott British-run schools, colleges, courts, public services, the civil service, police and military. Non-violence and Hindu-Muslim unity were universally emphasised, while the boycott of foreign goods, especially clothes were organised. Azad joined the Congress and was also elected president of the All India Khilafat Committee. Although Azad and other leaders were soon arrested, the movement drew out millions of people in peaceful processions, strikes and protests.

text: This period marked a transformation in Azad's own life. Along with fellow Khilafat leaders Dr. Mukhtar Ahmad Ansari, Hakim Ajmal Khan and others, Azad grew personally close to Gandhi and his philosophy. The three men founded the Jamia Millia Islamia in Delhi as an institution of higher education managed entirely by Indians without any British support or control. Both Azad and Gandhi shared a deep passion for religion and Azad developed a close friendship with him. He adopted the Prophet Muhammad's ideas by living simply, rejecting material possessions and pleasures. He began to spin his own clothes using khadi on the charkha, and began frequently living and participating in the ashrams organised by Gandhi.[citation needed] Becoming deeply committed to ahimsa (non-violence) himself, Azad grew close to fellow nationalists like Jawaharlal Nehru, Chittaranjan Das and Subhas Chandra Bose.[14] He strongly criticised the continuing suspicion of the Congress amongst the Muslim intellectuals from the Aligarh Muslim University and the Muslim League.

text: The movement had a sudden decline with rising incidences of violence; a nationalist mob killed 22 policemen in Chauri Chaura in 1922. Fearing degeneration into violence, Gandhi asked Indians to suspend the revolt and undertook a five-day fast to repent and encourage others to stop the rebellion. Although the movement stopped all over India, several Congress leaders and activists were disillusioned with Gandhi. The following year, the caliphate was overthrown by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and the Ali brothers grew distant and critical of Gandhi and the Congress. Azad's close friend Chittaranjan Das co-founded the Swaraj Party, breaking from Gandhi's leadership. Despite the circumstances, Azad remained firmly committed to Gandhi's ideals and leadership. In 1923, he became the youngest man to be elected Congress president. Azad led efforts to organise the Flag Satyagraha in Nagpur. Azad served as president of the 1924 Unity Conference in Delhi, using his position to work to re-unite the Swarajists and the Khilafat leaders under the common banner of the Congress. In the years following the movement, Azad travelled across India, working extensively to promote Gandhi's vision, education and social reform.

text: Congress leader[edit]

text: Azad became an inspiring personality in the field of politics. Azad became an important national leader, and served on the Congress Working Committee and in the offices of general secretary and president many times. The political environment in India re-energised in 1928 with nationalist outrage against the Simon Commission appointed to propose constitutional reforms. The commission included no Indian members and did not even consult Indian leaders and experts. In response, the Congress and other political parties appointed a commission under Motilal Nehru to propose constitutional reforms from Indian opinions. In 1928, Azad endorsed the Nehru Report, which was criticised by the Ali brothers and Muslim League politician Muhammad Ali Jinnah. Azad endorsed the ending of separate electorates based on religion, and called for an independent India to be committed to secularism. At the 1928 Congress session in Guwahati, Azad endorsed Gandhi's call for dominion status for India within a year. If not granted, the Congress would adopt the goal of complete political independence for India. Despite his affinity for Gandhi, Azad also drew close to the young radical leaders Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhash Bose, who had criticised the delay in demanding full independence. Azad developed a close friendship with Nehru and began espousing socialism as the means to fight inequality, poverty and other national challenges. Azad decided the name of Muslim political party Majlis-e-Ahrar-ul-Islam. He was also a friend of Syed Ata Ullah Shah Bukhari, founder of All India Majlis-e-Ahrar. When Gandhi embarked on the Dandi Salt March that inaugurated the Salt Satyagraha in 1930, Azad organised and led the nationalist raid, albeit non-violent on the Dharasana salt works to protest the salt tax and restriction of its production and sale. The biggest nationalist upheaval in a decade, Azad was imprisoned along with millions of people, and would frequently be jailed from 1930 to 1934 for long periods of time. Following the Gandhi-Irwin Pact in 1931, Azad was amongst millions of political prisoners released. When elections were called under the Government of India Act 1935, Azad was appointed to organise the Congress election campaign, raising funds, selecting candidates and organising volunteers and rallies across India.[14] Azad had criticised the Act for including a high proportion of un-elected members in the central legislature, and did not himself contest a seat. He again declined to contest elections in 1937, and helped head the party's efforts to organise elections and preserve co-ordination and unity amongst the Congress governments elected in different provinces.[14]

text: At the 1936 Congress session in Lucknow, Azad was drawn into a dispute with Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Dr. Rajendra Prasad and Chakravaachari regarding the espousal of socialism as the Congress goal. Azad had backed the election of Nehru as Congress president, and supported the resolution endorsing socialism. In doing so, he aligned with Congress socialists like Nehru, Subhash Bose and Jayaprakash Narayan. Azad also supported Nehru's re-election in 1937, at the consternation of many conservative Congressmen. Azad supported dialogue with Jinnah and the Muslim League between 1935 and 1937 over a Congress-League coalition and broader political co-operation. Less inclined to brand the League as obstructive, Azad nevertheless joined the Congress's vehement rejection of Jinnah's demand that the League be seen exclusively as the representative of Indian Muslims.

text: Quit India[edit]

text: In 1938, Azad served as an intermediary between the supporters of and the Congress faction led by Congress president Subhash Bose, who criticised Gandhi for not launching another rebellion against the British and sought to move the Congress away from Gandhi's leadership. Azad stood by Gandhi with most other Congress leaders, but reluctantly endorsed the Congress's exit from the assemblies in 1939 following the inclusion of India in World War II. Nationalists were infuriated that Viceroy Lord Linlithgow had entered India into the war without consulting national leaders. Although willing to support the British effort in return for independence, Azad sided with Gandhi when the British ignored the Congress overtures. Azad's criticism of Jinnah and the League intensified as Jinnah called Congress rule in the provinces as "Hindu Raj", calling the resignation of the Congress ministries as a "Day of Deliverance" for Muslims. Jinnah and the League's separatist agenda was gaining popular support amongst Muslims. Muslim religious and political leaders criticised Azad as being too close to the Congress and placing politics before Muslim welfare.[14] As the Muslim League adopted a resolution calling for a separate Muslim state (Pakistan) in its session in Lahore in 1940, Azad was elected Congress president in its session in Ramgarh. Speaking vehemently against Jinnah's Two-Nation Theory—the notion that Hindus and Muslims were distinct nations—Azad lambasted religious separatism and exhorted all Muslims to preserve a united India, as all Hindus and Muslims were Indians who shared deep bonds of brotherhood and nationhood. In his presidential address, Azad said:

text: "... Full eleven centuries have passed by since then. Islam has now as great a claim on the soil of India as Hinduism. If Hinduism has been the religion of the people here for several thousands of years Islam also has been their religion for a thousand years. Just as a Hindu can say with pride that he is an Indian and follows Hinduism, so also we can say with equal pride that we are Indians and follow Islam. I shall enlarge this orbit still further. The Indian Christian is equally entitled to say with pride that he is an Indian and is following a religion of India, namely Christianity."[14]

text: In face of increasing popular disenchantment with the British across India, Gandhi and Patel advocated an all-out rebellion demanding immediate independence. Azad was wary and sceptical of the idea, aware that India's Muslims were increasingly looking to Jinnah and had supported the war. Feeling that a struggle would not force a British exit, Azad and Nehru warned that such a campaign would divide India and make the war situation even more precarious. Intensive and emotional debates took place between Azad, Nehru, Gandhi and Patel in the Congress Working Committee's meetings in May and June 1942. In the end, Azad became convinced that decisive action in one form or another had to be taken, as the Congress had to provide leadership to India's people and would lose its standing if it did not.

text: Supporting the call for the British to "Quit India", Azad began exhorting thousands of people in rallies across the nation to prepare for a definitive, all-out struggle. As Congress president, Azad travelled across India and met with local and provincial Congress leaders and grass-roots activists, delivering speeches and planning the rebellion. Despite their previous differences, Azad worked closely with Patel and Dr. Rajendra Prasad to make the rebellion as effective as possible. On 7 August 1942 at the Gowalia Tank in Mumbai, Congress president Azad inaugurated the struggle with a vociferous speech exhorting Indians into action. Just two days later, the British arrested Azad and the entire Congress leadership. While Gandhi was incarcerated at the Aga Khan Palace in Pune, Azad and the Congress Working Committee were imprisoned at a fort in Ahmednagar, where they would remain under isolation and intense security for nearly four years. Outside news and communication had been largely prohibited and completely censored. Although frustrated at their incarceration and isolation, Azad and his companions attested to feeling a deep satisfaction at having done their duty to their country and people.[17]

text: Azad occupied the time playing bridge and acting as the referee in tennis matches played by his colleagues. In the early mornings, Azad began working on his classic Urdu work, the Ghubhar-i-Khatir. Sharing daily chores, Azad also taught the Persian and Urdu languages, as well as Indian and world history to several of his companions. The leaders would generally avoid talking of politics, unwilling to cause any arguments that could exacerbate the pain of their imprisonment. However, each year on 26 January, which was then considered Poorna Swaraj (Complete Independence) Day, the leaders would gather to remember their cause and pray together. Azad, Nehru and Patel would briefly speak about the nation and the future. Azad and Nehru proposed an initiative to forge an agreement with the British in 1943. Arguing that the rebellion had been mistimed, Azad attempted to convince his colleagues that the Congress should agree to negotiate with the British and call for the suspension of disobedience if the British agreed to transfer power. Although his proposal was overwhelmingly rejected, Azad and a few others agreed that Gandhi and the Congress had not done enough. When they learnt of Gandhi holding talks with Jinnah in Mumbai in 1944, Azad criticised Gandhi's move as counter-productive and ill-advised.[18]

text: Partition of India[edit]

text: With the end of the war, the British agreed to transfer power to Indian hands. All political prisoners were released in 1946 and Azad led the Congress in the elections for the new Constituent Assembly of India, which would draft India's constitution. He headed the delegation to negotiate with the British Cabinet Mission, in his sixth year as Congress president. While attacking Jinnah's demand for Pakistan and the mission's proposal of 16 June 1946 that envisaged the partition of India, Azad became a strong proponent of the mission's earlier proposal of 16 May. The proposal advocated a federal system with a limited central government and autonomy for the provinces. The central government would have Defence, Foreign Affairs and Communication while the provinces would win all other subjects unless they voluntarily relinquished selected subjects to the Central Government. Additionally, the proposal called for the "grouping" of provinces on religious lines, which would informally band together the Muslim-majority province in the West as Group B, Muslim-majority provinces of Bengal and Assam as Group C and the rest of India as Group A. While Gandhi and others expressed scepticism of this clause, Azad argued that Jinnah's demand for Pakistan would be buried and the concerns of the Muslim community would be assuaged.[19] Under Azad and Patel's backing,[citation needed] the Working Committee approved the resolution against Gandhi's advice. Azad also managed to win Jinnah's agreement to the proposal citing the greater good of all Indian Muslims.[20][page needed]

text: Azad had been the Congress president since 1939, so he volunteered to resign in 1946. He nominated Nehru, who replaced him as Congress president and led the Congress into the interim government. Azad was appointed to head the Department of Education. However, Jinnah's Direct Action Day agitation for Pakistan, launched on 16 August sparked communal violence across India. Thousands of people were killed as Azad travelled across Bengal and Bihar to calm the tensions and heal relations between Muslims and Hindus. Despite Azad's call for Hindu-Muslim unity, Jinnah's popularity amongst Muslims soared and the League entered a coalition with the Congress in December, but continued to boycott the constituent assembly. Later in his autobiography, Azad indicated Patel having become more pro-partition than the Muslim League, largely due to the League's not co-operating with the Congress in the provisional government on any issue.[20]

text: Azad had grown increasingly hostile to Jinnah, who had described him as the "Muslim Lord Haw-Haw" and a "Congress Showboy."[21][22] Muslim League politicians accused Azad of allowing Muslims to be culturally and politically dominated by the Hindu community. Azad continued to proclaim his faith in Hindu-Muslim unity:[23]

text: "I am proud of being an Indian. I am part of the indivisible unity that is Indian nationality. I am indispensable to this noble edifice and without me this splendid structure is incomplete. I am an essential element, which has gone to build India. I can never surrender this claim."

text: Amidst more incidences of violence in early 1947, the Congress-League coalition struggled to function. The provinces of Bengal and Punjab were to be partitioned on religious lines, and on 3 June 1947 the British announced a proposal to partition India on religious lines, with the princely states free to choose between either dominion. The proposal was hotly debated in the All India Congress Committee, with Muslim leaders Saifuddin Kitchlew and Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan expressing fierce opposition. Azad privately discussed the proposal with Gandhi, Patel and Nehru, but despite his opposition was unable to deny the popularity of the League and the unworkability of any coalition with the League. Faced with the serious possibility of a civil war, Azad abstained from voting on the resolution, remaining silent and not speaking throughout the AICC session, which ultimately approved the plan.[24]

text: Post-Independence[edit]

text: India's partition and independence on 15 August 1947 brought with it a scourge of violence that swept the Punjab, Bihar, Bengal, Delhi and many other parts of India. Millions of Hindus and Sikhs fled the newly created Pakistan for India, and millions of Muslims fled for West Pakistan and East Pakistan, created out of East Bengal. Violence claimed the lives of an estimated one million people, almost entirely in Punjab. Azad took up responsibility for the safety of Muslims in India, touring affected areas in Bengal, Bihar, Assam and the Punjab, guiding the organisation of refugee camps, supplies and security. Azad gave speeches to large crowds encouraging peace and calm in the border areas and encouraging Muslims across the country to remain in India and not fear for their safety and security. Focusing on bringing the capital of Delhi back to peace, Azad organised security and relief efforts, but was drawn into a dispute with the Deputy prime minister and Home Minister Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel when he demanded the dismissal of Delhi's police commissioner, who was a Sikh accused by Muslims of overlooking attacks and neglecting their safety.[25] Patel argued that the commissioner was not biased, and if his dismissal was forced it would provoke anger amongst Hindus and Sikhs and divide the city police. In Cabinet meetings and discussions with Gandhi, Patel and Azad clashed over security issues in Delhi and Punjab, as well as the allocation of resources for relief and rehabilitation. Patel opposed Azad and Nehru's proposal to reserve the houses vacated by Muslims who had departed for Pakistan for Muslims in India displaced by the violence.[25] Patel argued that a secular government could not offer preferential treatment for any religious community, while Azad remained anxious to assure the rehabilitation of Muslims in India, secularism, religious freedom and equality for all Indians. He supported provisions for Muslim citizens to make avail of Muslim personal law in courts.[26]

text: Azad remained a close confidante, supporter and advisor to prime minister Nehru, and played an important role in framing national policies. Azad masterminded the creation of national programmes of school and college construction and spreading the enrolment of children and young adults into schools, to promote universal primary education. Elected to the lower house of the Indian Parliament, the Lok Sabha in 1952 and again in 1957, Azad supported Nehru's socialist economic and industrial policies, as well as the advancing social rights and economic opportunities for women and underprivileged Indians. In 1956, he served as president of the UNESCO General Conference held in Delhi. Azad spent the final years of his life focusing on writing his book India Wins Freedom, an exhaustive account of India's freedom struggle and its leaders, which was published in 1959.

text: As India's first Minister of Education, he emphasised on educating the rural poor and girls. As Chairman of the Central Advisory Board of Education, he gave thrust to adult literacy, universal primary education, free and compulsory for all children up to the age of 14, girls education, and diversification of secondary education and vocational training.[27] Addressing the conference on All India Education on 16 January 1948, Maulana Azad emphasised,[27]

text: We must not for a moment forget, it is a birthright of every individual to receive at least the basic education without which he cannot fully discharge his duties as a citizen.

text: He oversaw the setting up of the Central Institute of Education, Delhi, which later became the Department of Education of the University of Delhi as "a research centre for solving new educational problems of the country".[28] Under his leadership, the Ministry of Education established the first Indian Institute of Technology in 1951 and the University Grants Commission in 1953.,[29][30] He also laid emphasis on the development of the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore and the Faculty of Technology of the Delhi University.[31] He foresaw a great future in the IITs for India:[31]

text: I have no doubt that the establishment of this Institute will form a landmark in the progress of higher technological education and research in the country.

text: Criticism[edit]

text: During his life and in contemporary times, Maulana Azad has been criticised for not doing enough to prevent the partition of India although he was committed to united India till his last attempt. He was condemned by the advocates of Pakistan, especially Muslim League.[15]

text: Legacy and influence[edit]

text: Azad is remembered as one of the leading Indian nationalists of his time. His firm belief in Hindu-Muslim unity earned him the respect of the Hindu community and he still remains one of the most important symbols of communal harmony in modern India. His work for education and social uplift in India made him an important influence in guiding India's economic and social development.

text: The Ministry of Minority Affairs of the central Government of India set up the Maulana Azad Education Foundation in 1989 on the occasion of his birth centenary to promote education amongst educationally backward sections of the Society.[32] The Ministry also provides the Maulana Abul Kalam Azad National Fellowship, an integrated five-year fellowship in the form of financial assistance to students from minority communities to pursue higher studies such as M. Phil and PhD[33]

text: Numerous institutions across India have also been named in his honour. Some of them are the Maulana Azad Medical College in New Delhi, the Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology in Bhopal, the Maulana Azad National Urdu University in Hyderabad, Maulana Azad Centre for Elementary and Social Education (MACESE Delhi University), the Maulana Azad College, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad Institute of Asian Studies, and Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology, in Kolkata, Bab - e - Maulana Abul Kalam Azad (Gate No. 7), Jamia Millia Islamia, A Central (Minority) University in New Delhi, the Maulana Azad library in the Aligarh Muslim University in Aligarh and Maulana Azad Stadium in Jammu. His home housed the Maulana Abul Kalam Azad Institute of Asian Studies earlier, and is now the Maulana Azad Museum.[34]

text: He is celebrated as one of the founders and greatest patrons of the Jamia Millia Islamia. Azad's tomb is located next to the Jama Masjid in Delhi. In recent years great concern has been expressed by many in India over the poor maintenance of the tomb.[15] On 16 November 2005 the Delhi High Court ordered that the tomb of Maulana Azad in New Delhi be renovated and restored as a major national monument. Azad's tomb is a major landmark and receives large numbers of visitors annually.[35]

text: Jawaharlal Nehru referred to him as Mir-i- Karawan (the caravan leader), "a very brave and gallant gentleman, a finished product of the culture that, in these days, pertains to few".[15]Mahatma Gandhi remarked about Azad by counting him as "a person of the calibre of Plato, Aristotle and Pythagorus".[27]

text: Azad was portrayed by actor Virendra Razdan in the 1982 biographical film, Gandhi, directed by Richard Attenborough.[36]

text: His birthday, 11 November is celebrated as National Education Day in India.