document_title: Carnival Road March

question_text: who win road march in trinidad and tobago

root

text: Carnival Road March

text: Trinidad and Tobago[edit]

text: Below are over 100 T&T Road Marches starting from this year going back to 1800's when most calypsos were sung in Patios.

tag: p

text:
Year
Performer
Song
Album / Notes

2018
Machel Montano and Superblue
"Soca Kingdom"
9th & 10th RM wins

2017
Ultimate Rejects featuring MX Prime
"Full Extreme"

2016
Machel Montano
"Waiting On the Stage"
Monk Evolution

2015
Machel Montano
"Like Ah Boss"
Monk Monte

2014
Machel Montano
"Ministry Of Road" (MOR)
Happiest Man Alive

2013
Superblue
"Fantastic Friday"
Soca Gold 2013

2012
Machel Montano
"Pump Yuh Flag" (PYF)
Double M

2011
Machel Montano
"Advantage"
The Return

2010
JW & Blaze
"Palance"
Monkey Steak Play Soca

2009
Fay-Ann Lyons
"Meet Super Blue"

2008
Fay-Ann Lyons
"Get On"
Best Of Best Soca 2008

2007
Machel Montano
"Jumbie"
Book of Angels

2006
Machel Montano and Patrice Roberts
"Band Of De Year" (BODY)
B.O.D.Y.

2005
Shurwayne Winchester
"Dead or Alive"

2004
Shurwayne Winchester
"The Band Coming"
Press Play

2003
Fay-Ann Lyons (3rd official female winner)
"Display"
Soca Gold 2003

2002
Naya George
"Trinidad"
Soca Gold 2002

2001
Shadow aka Mighty Shadow
"Stranger"
Shadow - Just For You

2000
Superblue / Iwer George (TIE)
"Pump Up" / "Carnival Come Back Again"
Soca Matrix / Iwer+Family

1999
Sanell Dempster (2nd official female winner)
"De River"
Blue Ventures 1999

1998
Wayne Rodriguez
"Footsteps"
Charge

1997
Machel Montano (1st Road March win)
"Big Truck"
Heavy Duty

1996
Nigel Lewis
"Moving"

1995
Super Blue
"Signal For Lara"
Happy Carnival

1994
Preacher
"Jump and Wave"
Rattlesnake Wine

1993
Super Blue
"Bacchanal Time"
Bacchanal Time

1992
Super Blue
"Jab Jab"
In The Power

1991
Super Blue (formerly Blue Boy)
"Get Something and Wave"
10th Anniversary

1990
Tambu
"No No We Eh Going Home"
The Cry

1989
Tambu
"Free Up"
The Journey

1988
Tambu
"This Party Is It"
Culture

1987
Mighty Duke
"Is Thunder"
Yesterday Today Tomorro

1986
David Rudder
"Bahia Gyal"
The Hammer

1985
Crazy
"Soucouyant"
Caribbean Hits Makers

1984
Sparrow (8th Road March win)
"Don't Back Back"
King Of The World

1983
Blue Boy
"Rebecca"
Superman

1982
Penguin
"Deputy"
Life Is A Lollipop

1981
Blue Boy
"Ethel"
Soca In Shaolin Temple

1980
Blue Boy (1st Road March win)
"Soca Baptist" (3rd soca song to win RM)
Blueboy's breakout song

1979
Poser
"Ah Tell She" (Smoke Ah Watty)
2nd soca song to win RM

1978
Calypso Rose (1st full soca song to win RM)
"Come Leh We Jam" (Soca Jam)
Her Majesty CalypsoRose

1977
Calypso Rose (1st official female winner)
"Give More Tempo" (uptempo calypso)
Action Is Tight

1976
Kitchener (11th and final Road March win)
"Flag Woman" (soca elements in bassline)
Kitch: Home For Carnival

1975
Kitchener
"Tribute to Spree"
Carnival Fever In Kitch

1974
Shadow
"Bass Man"
Bass Man LP

1973
Kitchener
"Rain-O-Rama"
We Walk 100 Miles

1972
Sparrow
"Drunk and Disorderly"
Hotter Than Ever

1971
Kitchener
"Mas' At Madison"
Curfew Time With Kitch

1970
Kitchener
"Margie"
Sock It To Me Kitch

1969
Sparrow
"Sa Sa Yea"
16 Carnival Hits (Ice)

1968
Kitchener
"Miss Tourist"
Play Mas' With Kitch

1967
Kitchener
"Sixty Seven"
16 Carnival Hits (Ice)

1966
Sparrow
"Obeah Wedding"
Calypso Genius Vol.1

1965
Kitchener
"My Pussin"
Mr. Kitch (RCA Victor)

1964
Kitchener
"Mama This is Mas"
Lord Kitchener (RCA)

1963
Kitchener
"The Road"
Klassic Kitchener Vol.Two

1962
Lord Blakie
"Maria"
Trinidad All Time Calypso

1961
Sparrow
"Royal Jail"
Sparrow The Conqueror

1960
Sparrow
"May May"
Calypso King Of Trinidad

1959
Lord Caruso
"Run the Gunslingers"
Ten For The Road

1958
Sparrow
"Pay As You Earn"
16 Carnival Hits (Ice)

1957
Lord Christo / Nelson Cato
"Chicken Chest" / "Doctor Nelson"
Two competitions

1956
Sparrow (1st Road March win)
"Jean and Dinah" (Yankee's Gone)
Sparrow's breakout song

1955
Obernkirchen Children's Choir
"The Happy Wanderer" (Valderi, Valdera!)
German pop song

1954
Lord Blakie
"Steel Band Clash"

1953
Vivian Comma / Spit Fire
"Madeline Oye" / "Bow Wow Wow"
Two competitions

1952
Spit Fire
"Post, Post Another Letter For Thelma"

1951
Mighty Terror
"Tiny Davis Blow"

1950
Mighty Killer
"In A Calabash"

1949
Lord Wonder
"Ramgoat Baptism"

1948
Lord Melody or King Radio
"Canaan Barrow" or "Who Dead Canaan?"
To confirm correct winner

1947
King Pharaoh
"Portuguese Dance" (Vishki Vashki Voo)

1946
Kitchener (1st official Road March win)
"Jump In The Line"
Competition renamed

1945
World War II (No Official Carnival): Lion
"(All Day All Night,) Mary-Ann"
Calypso Carnival (Decca)

1944
World War II (No Official Carnival): Radio
"Brown Skin Girl"

1943
World War II (No Official Carnival): Invader
"Rum & Coca Cola"
Lord Invader Calypso

1942
World War II (No Official Carnival):Kitchener
"Green Fig"
Kitchener's breakout song

1941
Lion (aka Roaring Lion)
"Whoopsin Whoopsin"

1940
Lord Beginner
"Run Yuh Run"

1939
King Radio
"Mathilda"
Rough Guide To Calypso

1938
Lion (aka Roaring Lion)
"No Nora Darling"

1937
Lion (aka Roaring Lion)
"Netty Netty"
Roaring Lion Sacred 78's

1936
Lion (aka Roaring Lion)
"Advantage Could Never Done"

1935
Lion (aka Roaring Lion)
"Dingolay Oy"

1934
Railway Douglas
"After Johnny Drink Me Rum"

1933
King Radio
"Wash Pan Wash"

1932
King Radio (1st official "Leggo" champion)
"Tiger Tom Play Tiger Cat"
1st official competition

1931
King Houdini
"Mr. Huggins" (Remake)

1930
Inveigler
"Captain Cipriani"

1928
Mentor
"Mr. Huggins"

1927
Atilla The Hun
"???" (Song to be confirmed)

1926
Sam Manning
"Camilla"
Sam Manning Volume 1

1925
King Houdini
"Fire Brigade Water the Road"

1924
??? (Singer to be confirmed)
"Mavis Powder"

1923
King Houdini
"Sly Mongoose"

1922
Atilla The Hun
"Toddy"

1920
Atilla The Hun
"Bigman Sweetman"

1918
World War I (No Official Carnival)
(No champion "Breakaway/Leggo" chosen)

1917
World War I (No Official Carnival)
(No champion "Breakaway/Leggo" chosen)

1916
World War I (No Official Carnival)
(No champion "Breakaway/Leggo" chosen)

1915
World War I (No Official Carnival)
(No champion "Breakaway/Leggo" chosen)

1911
Lionel Belasco
"Poeme One"
Year b4 1st recordings

1906
Sophie Mataloney[2] (aka Jamette Matador)
"Pauline" (Adaptation of Guadeloupe song)
Sung in Patios & English

1899
Chantwell
"Prisoner Levez"
Sung in Patios & English

1897
Chantwell
"J'ouvert Band"
Sung in Patios & English

1834
Gros Jean or other early Calypsonian
"Point De Six Ans" (means "No Six Years")
Protest Calypso in Patios

tag: table

text: Antigua and Barbuda[edit]

text:
Year
Performer
Song
Album / Notes

2017
ClaudettePeters
"Out Deh"

2016
Tian Winter
"In De Middle"

2015
Boasta
"Ole time Something"

2014
Menace
"Fete Me Ah Fete"

2013
Ezzy Rattigan
"Golden Cup"

2012
Burning Flames
"Kick Een She Back Door"

2011
Hard Knaxx
"KFC (Kentucky)"

2010
Burning Flames
"Bullbud"

2009
Red Hot Flames
"Trademark"

2008
Red Hot Flames
"Musical Bomb"

2007
Burning Flames
"Papi"

2006
Red Hot Flames
"Trouble"

2005
Burning Flames
"De Harder Dey Come"

2004
Burning Flames
"Road Rage"

2003
Burning Flames
"Rush"

2002
Wanskie
"More Gyal"

2001
High Intensity
"Ole Time Something"

2000
Calypso Jim
"Exercise"

1999
Burning Flames
"I Command You"

1998
Burning Flames
"Sweet Song"

1997
Burning Flames
"Crazy Man"

1996
Burning Flames
"Fire Unda Me Foot"

1995
Burning Flames
"Gym Jam"

1994
Vision Band ft Eddie Mello
"Dress Back"

1993
Burning Flames
"Wet Down De Place"

1992
Burning Flames
"Donkey"

1991
Burning Flames
"Piece of Iron"

1990
Burning Flames
"Congo Man"

1989
Burning Flames
"Workey Workey"

1988
Lion
"Bad Girl"

1987
Short Shirt
"J'Ouvert Rhythm"

1986
Burning Flames
"Rudeness Mek Me"

1985
Burning Flames
"Stylie Tight"

1984
Swallow
"Satan Coming Down"

1983
Swallow
"Party In Space"

1982
Short Shirt
"Push"

1981
Redding
"Up and Jumping"

1980
Short Shirt
"Summer Festival"

1979
Short Shirt
"Kangaroo Jam"

1978
Short Shirt
"Benna Music"

1977
La Tumba
"Supa Jam"

1976
Short Shirt
"Tourist Leggo"

1975
Swallow
"Shake and Break You Bam Bam"

1974
Short Shirt
"Lucinda"

1973
Swallow
"Push Ya, Push Dy"

1972
Swallow
"Pow Pow"

1971
Razor Blade
"Shake You Waist"

1970
Calypso Joe
"Bum Bum"

text: Barbados[edit]

text:
Year
Performer
Song
Album / Notes

2017
Stiffy
"Tip & Ben Ova"

2016
Lil Rick
"Iz A Bajan"

2015
Peter Ram
"All Ah We"
Get Soca 2016

2014
Lead Pipe & Saddis
"Ah Feeling"

2013
Soca Kartel
"Roll It"

2012
Mikey
"We Loose"

2011
Edwin Yearwood
"Cova de Road"

2010
Blood
"Foot On Fire"

2009
Edwin Yearwood
"In Da Middle Of Da Road"

2008
Edwin Yearwood
"Handle Yah Business"

2007
Mr Dale
"Soka Junkie"

2006
Jabae
"Flames"

2005
Natahlee & Shontelle
"Colours"

2004
Mikey
"Come Together"

2003
Lil' Rick
"Mash Up & Buy Back"

2002
Lil' Rick
"Hypa Dogg"

2001
Krosfyah
"Sak Pase"

2000
Rupee
"Jump"

1999
Red Plastic Bag
"Volcano"

1998
Grynner
"Grind Them"

1997 (TIE)
Alison Hinds / Edwin Yearwood
"In The Meantime" / "Highway Robbery"

1996
Alison Hinds
"Raggamuffin"

1995
Edwin Yearwood
"Obadele"

1994
Serenader
"Juck Fuh Juck"

1993
Ras Iley
"Inez"

1992
De Great Carew
"Mad Woman Jam"

1991
Madd
"Tribute To Grynner"

1990
Grynner
"Get Out The Way"

1989
Grynner
"Leggo I Hand"

1988
Grynner
"Wait For Me"

1987
Red Plastic Bag
"Can't Find Me Brudda"

1986
Ras Iley
"Spring Garden On Fire"

1985
Grynner
"More Grynner"

1984
Grynner
"Stinging Bees"

1983
Grynner
"Mr T"

1982
Mighty Gabby
"Jack"

1981
Adonijah
"Ethiopian Rock"

1980
Viper
"Ting Tong"

1979
Mighty Gabby
"Burn Mister Harding"

text: Grenada[edit]

text: Grenada Carnival also known as Spicemas was founded to celebrate the anniversary of the independence of Grenada, Carriacou, and Petit Martinique, which gained their independence on 7 February 1974. In 1978 Grenada Carnival was moved to the month of May by the Eric Gairy led government but after that government was overthrown in March 1979, the 1979 Carnival celebration was cancelled. In 1980 the new People’s Revolutionary Government (PRG) led by Maurice Bishop brought back Grenada Carnival, which was held in May that year. After a feasibility study Grenada Carnival was moved to August the following year.[3] Hence annually from 1981 Grenada's Carnival has been held in August culminating with their Road March competition. If anyone has reliable details of the Grenada Road March winners and songs between 1974 and 1978 and also for 1980 please also contribute.

text:
Year
Performer
Song
Album / Notes

2017
Lil Natty & Thunda
"Top Striker"

2016
Lil Natty & Thunda
"Take It To Dem"

2015
Synnah
"Jab on Sesame Street"

2014
Squeeze Head
"Turbo Charge"

2013
Boyzie
"Mas Everywhere"

2012
Boyzie
"Born Troublesome"

2011
Lavaman
"So We Dey"

2010
Otis
"Tornado"

2009
Mr. Killa
"Swing It Away"

2008
Miney
"10,000 Masqueraders"

2007
Berbice
"Traffic"

2006
Soca Banton
"Over You Head"

2005
Boogie B
"Clear The Smoke"

2004
General PP
"Never Say Never"

2003
Super P
"Do What You Want"

2002
Japs
"Helicopter"

2001
Tallpree
"Rags Invasion"

2000
Tallpree
"Grave, Jail, Hospital"

1999
Sheldon Douglas
"Find Something"

1998
Sheldon Douglas
"Stamp Up"

1997
Tangler
"Chala Baiti"

1996
Tangler
"Bouncing Low"

1995
Inspector
"Madness"

1994
Inspector
"Sweeter Than Home"

1993
Flying Cloud
"Way You Man"

1992
Flying Cloud
"Raise You Hand"

1991
Moss International
"Jambalasie"

1990
Ajamu
"Open Up"

1989
Skylark
"Simple Policeman"

1988
Black Wizard
"Soca Feeling"

1987
Squeezy
"To Cork Ah Hole"

1986
Inspector
"No Kicks"

1985
Inspector
"Dance"

1984
Flying Turkey
"Byron"

1983
African Teller
"You Cock Ain’t Dey"

1982
Snakey Boy
"Charmaine Darling"

1981
Timpo
"We Want We Carnival"

text: St. Lucia[edit]

text: Invader has won the Road March in St. Lucia seven times. In a period from 1970-1972 and again from 1974-1976, Road March winners were imported from Trinidad and Tobago.

text:
Year
Performer
Song
Album / Notes

2017
Ricky T
"Sully"

2016
Mac 11
"Padnas"

2015
Ricky T & Superman HD
"Perfect Storm"

2014
J Mouse
"Hurt It"

2013
Ricky T
"Mass Attack"

2012
Soca Syco
"Gallop"

2011
Ricky T
"Mad Ting"

2010
DJ HP
"Pa Mele”

2009
Ricky T
"Like a Jumbie"

2008
Ricky T
"Wheel & Come Again"

2007
Ricky T
"Pressure Boom"

2006
[Tie] Ricky T/Vertex Band
"Bring Your Container"/My Pressure Up

2005
Nicole David
"Queen of the Jungle (Bounce)"

2004
Alpha
"Down De Road"

2003
X Man
"Pee Pee In Me Poo Poo"

2002
Invader
"Bo Bee Wia Wea"

2001
Invader
"Be Le Lesh"

2000
Rootsy
"Hillary"

1999
Invader
"Take My Money"

1998
Jaunty
"Military Jam"

1997
Twop Chance
"Hospital Burning"

1996
Jaunty
"Bobolist'"

1995
Jaunty
"We Shall Hop"

1994
Stylist Black
"Okay Okay"

1993
Jaunty
"Oh La Lay"

1992
Invader
"Vievxe Nomme Sa La"

1991
[Tie] Invader/Buffalo
"Wine Down William Peter"/”Manje”

1990
Translator
"Ninja"

1989
Educator
"Calypso Tyson"

1988
Chippy
"One Bad Prick"

1987
Inspector Red
"Zodi Zodi"

1986
Ashanti
"Sufferer’s Song"

1985
Invader
"Carnal Knowledge"

1984
Shakey
"Twavay Mwen Vle"

1983
Invader
"Yellow Man"

1982
Get Through
"What De People Chanting"

1981
Educator
"Mon Kon Arrow"

1980
Jackson
"Guy Love Dance"

1979
Barrie
"Sailor In The Band”

1978
Pelay
"Sweet Suzette"

1977
Prince
"Doh Smoke Dope"

1973
Desper
"Popham ‘72"

1969
Pelay
"Jump, Jump, Jump"

text: St. Vincent[edit]

text:
Year
Performer
Song
Album / Notes

2017
Problem Child
"Never Bow"

2016
Hypa 4000
"No Behaviour"

2015
Hypa 4000
"Dutty Dancing"

2014
Fireman Hooper
"Unruly"

2013
Skinny Fabulous
"The General"

2012
Fya Empress
"Rum Please"

2011
Gao
"The Sheep

2010
Maddzart
"The King Road"

2009
Problem Child
"Mad House"

2008
Icon
"Two Knees"

2007
Problem Child
"Party Animal"

2006
Jamesy P & Skarpyon
"Leave Me Alone"

2005
DJ Twenty & Poorsah
"Googa Googa"

2004
Bomani
"I Am Soca"

2003
Poorsah
"Sling Shot"

2002
Poorsah
"Chook It”

2001
Poorsah
"Hairy Bank"

2000
Touch
"Take Away"

1999
Becket
"Small Pin"

1998
Becket
"Tone Up"

1997
Rebels
"Rumping"

1996
New Direction
"Rudeness on the Road"

1995
Touch
"Macco"

1994
Touch
"Butt"

1993
Touch
"Kangaroo"

1992
Touch
"Puss Man"

1991
Touch
"Move Yo Front"

1990
Becket
"Teaser"

1989
Touch
"Jam Dem"

1988
Poorsah
"Mouth in Me Moma"

1987
Becket
"Ten Years"

1986
Becket
"Ah Want Soca"

1985
Becket
"Tone"

1984
Man CP
"Rhythm Colour"

1983
Poorsah
"Right Up In Dey"

1982
Scakes . "Mambo in De Disco"

1981
Asterisks
"Yuh Can’t Wine"

1980
Becket
"Cocoa"

1978
Becket
"Wine Down Kingstown"

1977
Mighty Gringo
"Don’t Lock Me Up"

1976
King Brooklyn
"Largo Heights Busy Heights"

1975
Mighty Gringo
"Leggo Me Hand"

1974
Mighty Toiler
"The Puppy"

1973
Lord Hawke
"Ding Dong"

1972
Lord Hawke
"Oupane"

1971
Lord Hawke
"Sweeeter That This"

text: Saint Kitts and Nevis[edit]

text:
Year
Performer
Song
Album / Notes

2015
Small Axe Band
"Pepper Dem"

2014
Small Axe Band
"Bottoms in de Road"

2013
Small Axe Band
"We Got De Hardware"

2012
Small Axe Band
"Do The DCH"

2011
Grand Masters
"None a Dem (Step Pon Dem)"

2010
King Konris
"Unstoppable Force"

2009
Grand Masters
"Bust U Bubble"

2008
Grand Masters
"A Want Whale"

2007
Grand Masters
"Boom Boom Bam"

2006
Small Axe Band
"Masquerade"

2005
Nu Vybes
"Ting Lang"

2004
Grand Masters
"Money Wutt"

2003
Small Axe Band
"Watch De Creep Up"

2002
Nu Vybes
"Step Up"

2001
Nu Vybes
"Sugar"

2000
Small Axe Band
"Shub Back On De"

1999
Grand Masters
"Millenium Jam"

1998
Grand Masters
"Masters' Massive"

1997
Nu Vybes
"Street Style"

1996
Nu Vybes
"Hand Signal"

1995
Pungwa
"Stranded Night"

1994
A U Brown
"Fan Me"

1992
Ellie Matt
"Jump"

1991
Mic Stokes
"All Kinda Tings"

1990
Small Axe
"Pan Man"

1989
Small Axe
"Who is De Dan"

1988
Small Axe
"Big League"

1987
Grand Masters
"Masters' Jam"

1986
De Coach/ Contender
"De Boops"/ "Living in De Band"

1985
Mic Stokes
"One Shot Man"

1984
Shango
"Chin Chin Bar"

1982
Ellie Matt
"Patsy"

1981
Starshield
"Hooray Mass"

1980
Ranger
"Seven Day Mass"

1979
Ellie Matt
"Tune for De Children"

1978
Ellie Matt
"Sugar City Jam"

1977
Ellie Matt
"Shang Shang"

1976
Ellie Matt
"Jam Back"

1975
Arrow
"Rummy Song"

1974
Mark the First
"Come Forward"

1973
Ellie Matt
"All Day, All Night"

1972
Controller
"Right On"

1971
Sundar Popo
"Play You Mas"
Trinidadian artist and song

text: Saint Thomas, US Virgin Islands[edit]

text: The Jam Band, formerly Eddie and the Movements has won the Road March Title a record 21 times.

text:
Year
Performer
Song
Album / Notes

2015
Spectrum Band
"Left Right Stop Wukup"

2014 [Tie]
Spectrum Band/Volume International XL
"Manners"/"Recipe"

2013
Spectrum Band
"Wake Up To Wuk Up"

2012
Spectrum Band
"V.I. Party"

2011
Spectrum Band
"Boom"

2010
Spectrum Band
"Kallaloo"

2009
Jam Band
"Sickness"

2008
JDPP Jammerz
"Bedrock"

2007
JDPP Jammerz
"Bunny Train"

2006
Whadablee
"Steel Pan Comin Up Deh Road"

2005
Jam Band
"How To Take De Road"

2004
Jam Band
"Soldiers"

2003
Jam Band
"Jockey"

2002
Alwyn Baptiste Jr and Pat Raguette of the Xpress Band
"Happy Birthday Carnival"

2001
Jam Band
"Tear Down De Roof"

2000
Jam Band
"Inspection Lane"

1999
Jam Band
"Iron"

1998
Whadablee
"This One is for Milo"

1997
Jam Band
"Road Runner"

1996
Jam Band
"Time For Wuk"

1995
Jam Band
"Man Terrible"

1994
Jam Band
"Showtime"

1993
Jam Band
"Possessed"

1992
Imaginations Brass
"All Out Posse"

1991
Jam Band
"Let Loose"

1990
Jam Band [Formerly Eddie and the Movements]
"Horse Chip"

1989
Eddie and the Movements
"We Run Things"

1988
Eddie and the Movements
"Kool Um Down"

1987
Eddie and the Movements
"Legal"

1986
Eddie and the Movements
"Lamboushay"

1985
Eddie and the Movements
"Pepper"

1984
Eddie and the Movements
"Tramping Style"

1983
Mandingo Brass
"Traffic Tight"

1982
Mandingo Brass
"Off Man Jam"

1981
Eddie and the Movements
"Backbone"

1980
Dread Ones
"Hey Hey Hey"

1979
Mandingo Brass
"Man For She"

1978 [Tie]
Ellie Matt and the G.I. Brass/Mandingo Brass
"Shang Shang/Winey Eva Mae"

text: Anguilla[edit]

text:
Year
Performer
Song
Album / Notes

2015
Exodus HD
"Hello"
Thrillogy

2014
Exodus HD
"Wash & Rinse"
De Encore

2013
Exodus HD [Formerly Exodus Band]
"For Di Fans Dem"
For Di Fans Dem

2012
Pantha Vibes International
"On De Road (My Riddim)"

2011
Pantha Vibes International
"I Love PVI"

2010
Pantha Vibes International
"Make It Rain"

2009
Exodus Band [Currently Exodus HD]
"Cut Them Off"

2008
Pantha Vibes International
"We want Action"

2007
Better Band
"Keep Movin"

2006
Better Band
"Jam-A-Robics"

2005
Better Band
"Imagine"

2004
Better Band
"Toss Up"

2003
Mussington Brothers
"Dust Dem"

2002
Mussington Brothers
"Dig Um"

2001
AXA Band
"Caribbean Mass"

2000
Better Band
"Misbehave"

1999
Better Band (Formerly Vito)
"Soggy"

1998
Vito
"Raise De Roof"

1997
AXA Band
"On De Track"

1996
??
"??"

1995
Mussington Brothers
"J’ouvert Slammer"

1994
Mussington Brothers
"Hold Ya Balance"

1993
Mussington Brothers
"Jump Up Jam"

1992
Mussington Brothers
"It’s A Business"

1991
Mussington Brothers
"In De Valley"

1990
Lord Anything
"Tired Bodies"

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text:
Year
Performer
Song
Album / Notes

2013
Soca Johnny
"Don't Do That"

2012
Chardanai
"See Mi On The Road"

2011
Chardanai
"Down Deh"

2010
Soca Johnny
"Madness"


document_title: Croquet

question_text: how many hoops are used in a game of croquet

text: Croquet

text: History[edit]

text: The oldest document to bear the word croquet with a description of the modern game is the set of rules registered by Isaac Spratt in November 1856 with the Stationers' Company in London. This record is now in the Public Record Office. In 1868, the first croquet all-comers meet was held at Moreton-in-Marsh, Gloucestershire and in the same year the All England Croquet Club was formed at Wimbledon, London.

text: Regardless when and by what route it reached England and the British colonies in its recognizable form, croquet is, like golf, pall-mall, trucco, and kolven, among the later forms of ground billiards, which as a class have been popular in Western Europe back to at least the Late Middle Ages, with roots in classical antiquity, including sometimes the use of arches and pegs along with balls and mallets or other striking sticks (some more akin to modern field hockey sticks).[3][4][5] By the 12th century, a team ball game called la soule or choule, akin to a chaotic version of hockey or football (depending on whether sticks were used), was regularly played in France and southern Britain between villages or parishes; it was attested in Cornwall as early as 1283.[6][page needed]

text: In the book Queen of Games: The History of Croquet,[7] Nicky Smith presents two theories of the origin of the modern game of croquet, which took England by storm in the 1860s and then spread overseas.

text: The first explanation is that the ancestral game was introduced to Britain from France during the 1630–1685 reign of Charles II of England, and was played under the name of paille-maille (among other spellings, today usually pall-mall), derived ultimately from Latin words for 'ball and mallet' (the latter also found in the name of the earlier French game, jeu de mail). This was the explanation given in the ninth edition of Encyclopædia Britannica, dated 1877.

text: In his 1810 book The Sports and Pastimes of the People of England, Joseph Strutt described the way pall-mall was played in England at the time: "Pale-maille is a game wherein a round box[wood] ball is struck with a mallet through a high arch of iron, which he that can do at the fewest blows, or at the number agreed upon, wins. It is to be observed, that there are two of these arches, that is one at either end of the alley. The game of mall was a fashionable amusement in the reign of Charles the Second, and the walk in Saint James's Park, now called the Mall, received its name from having been appropriated to the purpose of playing at mall, where Charles himself and his courtiers frequently exercised themselves in the practice of this pastime."[8]

text: While the name pall-mall and various games bearing this name also appeared elsewhere (France and Italy), the description above suggests that the croquet-like games in particular were popular in England by the early 17th century. Some other early modern sources refer to pall-mall being played over a large distance (as in golf); however, an image in Strutt's 1801 book shows a croquet-like ground billiards game (balls on ground, hoop, bats and peg) being played over a short, garden-sized distance. The image's caption describes the game as "a curious ancient pastime", confirming that croquet games were not new in early nineteenth century England.

text: In Samuel Johnson's 1755 dictionary, his definition of "pall-mall" clearly describes a game with similarities to modern croquet: "A play in which the ball is struck with a mallet through an iron ring".[9] However, there is no evidence that pall-mall involved the croquet stroke which is the distinguishing characteristic of the modern game.

text: The second theory is that the rules of the modern game of croquet arrived from Ireland during the 1850s, perhaps after being brought there from Brittany where a similar game was played on the beaches. Regular contact between Ireland and France had continued since the Norman invasion of Ireland in 1169. By no later than the early 15th century, the game jeu de mail (itself ancestral to pall-mall and perhaps to indoor billiards) was popular in France, including in the courts of Henry II in the 16th century and Louis XIV of the 17th.

text: At least one version of it, rouët ('wheel') was a multi-ball lawn game. Records show a game called "crookey", similar to croquet, being played at Castlebellingham in County Louth, Ireland, in 1834, which was introduced to Galway in 1835 and played on the bishop's palace garden, and in the same year to the genteel Dublin suburb of Kingstown (today Dún Laoghaire) where it was first spelt as "croquet".[10] There is, however, no pre-1858 Irish document that describes the way game was played, in particular there is no reference to the distinctive croquet stroke.[11][clarification needed] The noted croquet historian Dr Prior, in his book of 1872, makes the categoric statement "One thing only is certain: it is from Ireland that croquet came to England and it was on the lawn of the late Lord Lonsdale that it was first played in this country." This was about 1851.[12]

text: John Jaques apparently claimed in a letter to Arthur Lillie in 1873 that he had himself seen the game played in Ireland, writing "I made the implements and published directions (such as they were) before Mr. Spratt [mentioned above] introduced the subject to me."[13] Whatever the truth of the matter, Jaques certainly played an important role in popularising the game, producing editions of the rules in 1857, 1860, and 1864.

text: Croquet became highly popular as a social pastime in England during the 1860s. It was enthusiastically adopted and promoted by the Earl of Essex who held lavish croquet parties at Cassiobury House, his stately home in Watford, Hertfordshire, and the Earl even launched his own Cassiobury brand croquet set.[14][15] By 1867, Jaques had printed 65,000 copies of his Laws and Regulations of the game. It quickly spread to other Anglophone countries, including Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, and the United States. No doubt one of the attractions was that the game could be played by both sexes; this also ensured a certain amount of adverse comment.

text: By the late 1870s, however, croquet had been eclipsed by another fashionable game, lawn tennis, and many of the newly created croquet clubs, including the All England Club at Wimbledon, converted some or all of their lawns into tennis courts. There was a revival in the 1890s, but from then onwards, croquet was always a minority sport, with national individual participation amounting to a few thousand players. The All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club still has a croquet lawn, but has not hosted any significant tournaments. The English headquarters for the game is now in Cheltenham.

text: The earliest known reference to croquet in Scotland is the booklet The Game of Croquet, its Laws and Regulations which was published in the mid-1860s for the proprietor of Eglinton Castle, the Earl of Eglinton. On the page facing the title page is a picture of Eglinton Castle with a game of "croquet" in full swing.[16]

text: The croquet lawn existed on the northern terrace, between Eglinton Castle and the Lugton Water. The 13th Earl developed a variation on croquet named Captain Moreton's Eglinton Castle croquet, which had small bells on the eight hoops "to ring the changes", two pegs, a double hoop with a bell and two tunnels for the ball to pass through. In 1865 the 'Rules of the Eglinton Castle and Cassiobury Croquet' was published by Edmund Routledge. Several incomplete sets of this form of croquet are known to exist, and one complete set is still used for demonstration games in the West of Scotland.[16]

text: Competitive variations[edit]

text: There are several variations of croquet currently played, differing in the scoring systems, order of shots, and layout (particularly in social games where play must be adapted to smaller-than-standard playing courts). Two forms of the game, association croquet and golf croquet, have rules that are agreed internationally and are played in many countries around the world. The United States has its own set of rules for domestic games. Gateball, a sport originated in Japan under the influence of croquet, is played mainly in East and Southeast Asia and the Americas and can also be regarded as a croquet variant.

text: As well as club-level games, there are regular world championships and international matches between croquet-playing countries. The sport has particularly strong followings in the UK, US, New Zealand and Australia; every four years, these countries play the MacRobertson Shield tournament. Many other countries also play. The current world rankings[17] show England in top place for association croquet, followed by Australia and New Zealand sharing second place, with the United States in fourth position; the same four countries appear in the top six of the golf croquet league table, below Egypt in top position, and with South Africa at number five.

text: Croquet is popularly believed to be viciously competitive.[18] This may derive from the fact that (unlike in golf) players will often attempt to move their opponents' balls to unfavourable positions. However, purely negative play is rarely a winning strategy: successful players (in all versions other than golf croquet) will use all four balls to set up a break for themselves, rather than simply making the game as difficult as possible for their opponents. At championship-standard association croquet, players can often make all 26 points (13 for each ball) in two turns.

text: Croquet was an event at the 1900 Summer Olympics. Roque, an American variation on croquet, was an event at the 1904 Summer Olympics.

text: Pronunciation[edit]

text: As with similar words with a French derivation, the final 't' is silent. British pronunciation puts the accent on the first syllable, American on the second: /ˈkroʊkeɪ/ versus /kroʊˈkeɪ/.

text: Variations[edit]

text: Association[edit]

text: Association croquet is the name of an advanced game of croquet, played at international level. It involves four balls teamed in pairs, with both balls going through every hoop for one pair to win. The game's distinguishing feature is the "croquet" shot: when certain balls hit other balls, extra shots are allowed. The six hoops are arranged three at each end of the court, with a centre peg.

text: In association croquet one side takes the black and blue balls, the other takes red and yellow. At each turn, players can choose to play with either of their balls for that turn. At the start of a turn, the player plays a stroke. If the player either hits the ball through the correct hoop ("runs" the hoop), or hits another ball (a "roquet"), the turn continues.

text: Following a roquet, the player picks up his or her own ball and puts it down next to the ball that it hit. The next shot is played with the two balls touching: this is the "croquet stroke" from which the game takes its name. By varying the speed and angle at which the mallet hits the striker's ball, a good player can control the final position of both balls: the horizontal angle determines how much the balls diverge in direction, while the vertical angle and the amount of follow-through determine the relative distance that the two balls travel.

text: After the croquet stroke, the player plays a "continuation" stroke, during which the player may again attempt to make a roquet or run a hoop. Each of the other three balls may be roqueted once in a turn before a hoop is run, after which they become available to be roqueted again.

text: The winner of the game is the team who completes the set circuit of six hoops (and then back again the other way), with both balls, and then strikes the centre peg (making a total of 13 points per ball = 26).

text: Good players may make "breaks" of several hoops in a single turn. The best players may take a ball round a full circuit in one turn. "Advanced play" (a variant of association play for expert players) gives penalties to a player who runs certain hoops in a turn, to allow the opponent a chance of getting back into the game; feats of skill such as triple peels or better, in which the partner ball (or occasionally an opponent ball) is caused to run a number of hoops in a turn by the striker's ball help avoid these penalties.

text: A handicap system ('bisques') provides less experienced players a chance of winning against more formidable opponents. Players of all ages and both sexes compete on level terms.

text: The World Championships are organised by the World Croquet Federation (WCF)[19] and usually take place every 2 or 3 years. The 2016 championships took place in Florida, the winner being Stephen Mulliner of England — at 62, the oldest ever champion.[20] The current Women's Association Croquet World Champion (2015) is Miranda Chapman of England.[21]

text: The Australian team won the last MacRobertson International Croquet Shield tournament, which is the major international test tour trophy in association croquet. It is contested every three to four years between Australia, England, the United States and New Zealand. Historically the British have been the dominant force, winning 14 times out of the twenty two times that the event has been held. In individual competition, the UK is often divided by subnational country (England, Scotland and Wales), while Northern Ireland joins with the republic in an All Ireland association (as it does in other sports).

text: The world's top 10 association croquet players as of December 2015 were Robert Fulford (England), Robert Fletcher (Australia), Reg Bamford (South Africa), Greg Bryant (New Zealand), Paddy Chapman (New Zealand), David Maugham (England), Jamie Burch (England), Jonathan Kirby (Scotland), Jeff Dawson (England), Samir Patel (England).[22]

text: Unlike most sports, men and women compete and are ranked together. Three women have won the British Open Championship: Lily Gower in 1905, Dorothy Steel in 1925, 1933, 1935 and 1936, and Hope Rotherham in 1960. While male players are in the majority at club level in the UK, the opposite is the case in Australia and New Zealand.[22]

text: The governing body in England is The Croquet Association, which has been the driving force of the development of the game. The rules and tournament regulations are now maintained by the International Laws Committee, established by the croquet associations of England and Wales (CA), Australia (ACA), New Zealand (CNZ) and the United States (USCA).

text: Golf[edit]

text: In golf croquet, a hoop is won by the first ball to go through each hoop. Unlike association croquet, there are no additional turns for hitting other balls.

text: Each player takes a stroke in turn, each trying to hit a ball through the same hoop. The sequence of play is blue, red, black, yellow. Blue and black balls play against red and yellow. When a hoop is won, the sequence of play continues as before. The winner of the game is the player/team who wins the most hoops.

text: Golf croquet is the fastest-growing version of the game,[23] owing largely to its simplicity and competitiveness. There is an especially large interest with competitive success by players in Egypt.[24] Golf croquet is easier to learn and play, but requires strategic skills and accurate play. In comparison with association croquet, play is faster and balls are more likely to be lifted off the ground.

text: In April 2013, Reg Bamford of South Africa beat Ahmed Nasr of Egypt in the final of the Golf Croquet World Championship in Cairo, becoming the first person to simultaneously hold the title in both association croquet and golf croquet.[25] As of 2017, the Golf Croquet World Champion was Reg Bamford (South Africa) and the Women's Golf Croquet World Champion was Judith Hanekom (South Africa).[26]

text: Garden[edit]

text: Garden croquet is widely played in the UK. The rules are easy to learn and the game can be played on lawns of almost any size but usually around 32 feet wide (9.8 m) by 40 ft long (12 m). The rules are similar to those described above for Association Croquet with three major differences:

text:
The starting point for all balls is a spot three feet (0.91 m) in from the boundary directly in front of hoop 1.
If a striker's ball goes off, there is no penalty, it comes back on three feet (0.91 m) and the turn continues.
In a croquet stroke the croqueted ball does not have to move when the striker's ball is struck.

tag: ol

text: This version of the game is easy for beginners to learn. The main Garden Croquet Club in the UK is the Bygrave Croquet Club which is a private club with five lawns. Other clubs also use garden croquet as an introduction to the game, notably the Hampstead Heath Croquet Club and the Watford Croquet Club.

text: American six-wicket[edit]

text: The American rules version of croquet, another six-hoop game, is the dominant version of the game in the United States and is also widely played in Canada. It is governed by the United States Croquet Association. Its genesis is mostly in association croquet, but it differs in a number of important ways that reflect the home-grown traditions of American "backyard" croquet.

text: Two of the most notable differences are that the balls are always played in the same sequence (blue, red, black, yellow) throughout the game, and that a ball's "deadness" on other balls is carried over from turn to turn until the ball has been "cleared" by scoring its next hoop. A Deadness Board is used to keep track of deadness on all four balls. Tactics are simplified on the one hand by the strict sequence of play, and complicated on the other hand by the continuation of deadness. A further difference is the more restrictive boundary-line rules of American croquet.[27]

text: In the American game, roqueting a ball out of bounds or running a hoop out of bounds causes the turn to end, and balls that go out of bounds are replaced only nine inches (23 cm) from the boundary rather than one yard (91 cm) as in association croquet.[27] "Attacking" balls on the boundary line to bring them into play is thus far more challenging.

text: Nine-wicket[edit]

text: Nine-wicket croquet, sometimes called "backyard croquet", is played mainly in Canada and the United States, and is the game most recreational players in those countries call simply "croquet". In this version of croquet there are nine wickets, two stakes, and up to six balls. The course is arranged in a double-diamond pattern, with one stake at each end of the course. Players start at one stake, navigate one side of the double diamond, hit the turning stake, then navigate the opposite side of the double diamond and hit the starting stake to end. If playing individually (Cutthroat), the first player to stake out is the winner. In partnership play, all members of a team must stake out, and a player might choose to avoid staking out (becoming a Rover) in order to help a lagging teammate.

text: Each time a ball is roqueted, the striker gets two bonus shots. For the first bonus shot, the player has four options:[28]

text:
From a mallet-head distance or less away from the ball that was hit ("taking a mallet-head")
From a position in contact with the ball that was hit, with the striker ball held steady by the striker's foot or hand (a "foot shot" or "hand shot")
From a position in contact with the ball that was hit, with the striker ball not held by foot or hand (a "croquet shot")
From where the striker ball stopped after the roquet.

tag: ul

text: The second bonus shot ("continuation shot") is an ordinary shot played from where the striker ball came to rest.

text: An alternate endgame is "poison": in this variant, a player who has scored the last wicket but not hit the starting stake becomes a "poison ball", which may eliminate other balls from the game by roqueting them. A non-poison ball that roquets a poison ball has the normal options. A poison ball that hits a stake or passes through any wicket (possibly by the action of a non-poison player) is eliminated. The last person remaining is the winner.[29]

text: Ricochet[edit]

text: This version of the game was invented by John Riches of Adelaide, Australia with help from Tom Armstrong in the 1980s. The game can be played by up to six people and is very easy to learn. For this reason it is often used as a stepping stone to association croquet.

text: Ricochet has similar rules to association and garden croquet, except that when a ball is roqueted, the striker's ball remains live and two free shots are earned. This enables strikers to play their ball near to another opponent ball and ricochet that too thus earning two more free shots. Running a hoop earns one free shot.

text: Glossary of terms[edit]

text:
Backward ball: The ball of a side that has scored fewer hoops (compare with 'forward ball').[30]
Ball-in-hand: A ball that the striker can pick up to change its position, for example:

text:
any ball when it leaves the court has to be replaced on the yard-line
the striker’s ball after making a roquet must be placed in contact with the roqueted ball
the striker’s ball when the striker is entitled to a lift.[31]

text:
Ball in play: A ball after it has been played into the game, which is not a ball in hand or pegged out.[31]
Baulk: An imaginary line on which a ball is placed for its first shot in the game, or when taking a lift. The A-baulk coincides with the western half of the yard line along the south boundary; the B-baulk occupies the eastern half of the north boundary yard line.[31]
Bisque, half-bisque A bisque is a free turn in a handicap match. A half-bisque is a restricted handicap turn in which no point may be scored.[31]
Break down: To end a turn by making a mistake.[30]
Continuation stroke: Either the bonus stroke played after running a hoop in order or the second bonus stroke played after making a roquet.[31]
Croquet stroke: A stroke taken after making a roquet, in which the striker's ball and the roqueted ball are placed together in contact.[31]
Double tap: A fault in which the mallet makes more than one audible sound when it strikes the ball.[31]
Forward ball: The ball of a side that has scored more hoops (compare with 'backward ball').[30]
Hoop: Metal U-shaped gate pushed into ground.[31] (Also called a wicket in the US). [32]
Leave: The position of the balls after a successful break, in which the striker is able to leave the balls placed so as to make life as difficult as possible for the opponent.[30]
Lift: A turn in which the player is entitled to remove the ball from its current position and play instead from either baulk line. A lift is permitted when a ball has been placed by the opponent in a position where it is wired from all other balls, and also in advanced play when the opponent has completed a break that includes hoops 1-back or 4-back.[31]
Object ball: A ball which is going to be rushed.
Peg out: To cause a rover ball to strike the peg and conclude its active involvement in the game.[31]
Peel: To send a ball other than the striker's ball through its target hoop.[31]
Pioneer: A ball placed in a strategic position near the striker's next-but-one or next-but-two hoop, to assist in running that hoop later in the break.
Primary colours or first colours: The main croquet ball colours used which are blue, red, black and yellow (in order of play). One player or team plays blue and black, the other red and yellow.[31]
Push: A fault when the mallet pushes the striker's ball, rather than making a clean strike.[31]
Roquet: (Second syllable rhymes with "play".) When the striker’s ball hits a ball that he is entitled to then take a croquet shot with. At the start of a turn, the striker is entitled to roquet all the other three balls once. Once the striker's ball goes through its target hoop, it is again entitled to roquet the other balls once.[31]
Rover ball: A ball that has run all 12 hoops and can be pegged out.[31]
Rover hoop: The last hoop, indicated by a red top bar. The first hoop has a blue top.[31]
Run a hoop: To send the striker’s ball through a hoop. If the hoop is the hoop in order for the striker’s ball, the striker earns a bonus stroke.[31]
Rush: A roquet when the roqueted ball is sent to a specific position on the court, such as the next hoop for the striker’s ball or close to a ball that the striker wishes to roquet next.[30]
Scatter shot: A continuation stroke used to hit a ball which may not be roqueted in order to send it to a less dangerous position.[30]
Secondary colours or second colours; also known as alternate colours:[31] The colours of the balls used in the second game played on the same court in double-banking: green, pink, brown and white (in order of play). Green and brown versus pink and white, are played by the same player or pair.[31]
Sextuple peel (SXP): To peel the partner ball through its last six hoops in the course of a single turn. Very few players have achieved this feat, but it is being seen increasingly at championship level.[30]
Tice: A ball sent to a location that will entice an opponent to shoot at it but miss.[30]
Triple peel (TP): To send a ball other than the striker’s ball through its last three hoops, and then peg it out. See also Triple Peel, A variant is the Triple Peel on Opponent (TPO), where the peelee is the opponent's ball rather than the partner ball. The significance of this manoevre is that in advanced play, making a break that includes the tenth hoop (called 4-back) is penalized by granting the opponent a lift (entitling him to take the next shot from either baulk line). Therefore, many breaks stop voluntarily with three hoops and the peg still to run.[30]
Wired: When a hoop or the peg impedes the path of a striker's ball, or the swing of the mallet. A player will often endeavour to finish a turn with the opponent's balls wired from each other.[30]
Yard line: An imaginary line one yard (0.91 m) from the boundary. Balls that go off the boundary are generally replaced on the yard line (but if this happens on a croquet stroke, the turn ends).[31]

text: In art and literature[edit]

text: The way croquet is depicted in paintings and books says much about popular perceptions of the game, though little about the reality of modern play.

text:
In 1868 a song titled Croquet (essentially anonymous: by M.B.C.S and W.O.F.) was included in a popular song book by W. O. Perkins, The Golden Robin (Pub. Oliver Ditson & Company, New York). ("Upon the smoothly shaven lawn, Beneath the skies of May, Oh, boys and girls, this merry morn, Come out and play Croquet ..."); there are four full verses.
Winslow Homer, Édouard Manet, Louise Abbéma and Pierre Bonnard all have paintings titled The Croquet Game.
Norman Rockwell often depicted the game, including in his painting Croquet.
A favorite subject of Edward Gorey, a croquet reference often appeared in the first illustration of his books. The Epiplectic Bicycle opens with two illustrations of the main characters playing with croquet mallets.
H. G. Wells wrote The Croquet Player, which uses croquet as a metaphor for the way in which people confront the very problem of their own existence.
Lewis Carroll featured a nonsense version of the game in the popular children's novel Alice's Adventures in Wonderland: a hedgehog was used as the ball, a flamingo as the mallet, and playing cards as the hoops.
In the Thursday Next series of novels, notably Something Rotten, Jasper Fforde depicts an alternative world in which croquet is a brutal mass spectator sport.
The cover of the 1971 Genesis album Nursery Cryme shows Cynthia, a character in the song "Musical Box" holding a croquet mallet with a few heads on the playing field including another character of the song Henry's head that she removed with said mallet.
In the 1980s geography game Where in the World Is Carmen Sandiego?, one of the characters, Fast Eddie B, is described as a "world class croquet player", and two other gang members, Ihor Ihorovich and Scar Graynolt, also play the sport.
In the 1988 film Heathers, Winona Ryder and her friends, the Heathers, are depicted as playing croquet, though at the beginning, the Heathers are playing croquet to hit someone on the head.

text: In politics[edit]

text: On 25 May 2006, the then British Deputy Prime Minister, John Prescott, was photographed by The Mail on Sunday playing croquet at his official residence, Dorneywood.[33] Following shortly after a sex scandal[34] that had forced Prescott to resign his ministerial responsibilities while retaining his salary and privileges,[35] the incident was portrayed as evidence that Prescott had little real responsibility for running the country during the absence of the Prime Minister. Shortly afterwards, Prescott announced that he would no longer make use of the Dorneywood residence.

text: It was also reported that the incident led to a 300% increase in sales of croquet equipment at Asda,[36] while the TV channel Five announced that they would be running a series featuring croquet matches played at country houses pitting "rich" against "poor" players.[37]

text: Clubs[edit]

text: About 200 croquet clubs across the United States are members of the United States Croquet Association.[38]

text: Many colleges have croquet clubs as well, such as The University of Virginia, The University of Chicago, Pennsylvania State University,[39] Bates College, SUNY New Paltz, and Harvard University. Notably, St. John's College and the US Naval Academy engage in a yearly match in Annapolis, Maryland. Both schools also compete at the collegiate level and the rivalry continues to be an Annapolis tradition, attracting thousands of spectators each April.

text: In England and Wales, there are around 170 clubs affiliated with the Croquet Association.[40] The All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club at Wimbledon is famous for its lawn tennis tournament, but retains an active croquet section. There are also clubs in many Universities and Colleges, with an annual Varsity match being played between Oxford and Cambridge.[41] With over 1800 participants, the 2011 Oxford University "Cuppers" (inter-college) tournament claimed to be not only the largest croquet tournament ever, but the largest sporting event in the University.[42]


document_title: Tinder (app)

question_text: what does it mean on tinder common connections

text: Tinder (app)

text: Founding[edit]

text: Tinder was founded by Sean Rad, Jonathan Badeen, Justin Mateen, Joe Munoz, Dinesh Moorjani, and Whitney Wolfe, who later left Tinder to start Bumble.[8][9] Other sources restrict the list of founders to Mateen, Rad, and Badeen,[10][11] though this has been disputed.[12] Rad and Mateen had known each other since they were 14. They both come from wealthy Jewish-Iranian families.[13][14] The two later attended USC together and entered the Internet entrepreneurship field. Rad has stated that the impetus for the app was his observation that "no matter who you are, you feel more comfortable approaching somebody if you know they want you to approach them." He believed that a "double opt-in" system could be created to potentially alleviate that stress. Rad has also stated that Tinder filled a gap for social sites for meeting strangers, rather than connecting with people a user already knows.[10][15]

text: Tinder was then seeded at numerous college campuses and then expanded to other college campuses. The app won TechCrunch's Crunchie Award for "Best New Startup of 2013".[8] In March 2013, when the app was still used only in some localities, social media director Alexa Mateen stated that the app was intended to be a "chance to meet people you wouldn't normally meet".[16] By May 2013, Tinder was one of the top 25 social networking apps available on the web based on frequency of use and number of users. Initially, instead of a swiping motion, users would click on either a green "heart" or red "X" to select or move on from the photos shown.[17] Tinder became the first new online dating service to become one of the top five utilized services on the web in about 10 years.[18] As of 2016, Sean Rad is the company's CEO, and Justin Mateen is chief marketing officer.[19]

text: As of October 2014, the app was processing over one billion swipes per day, producing about twelve million matches per day. The average user would generally spend about an hour and a half on the app each day.[7] After transitioning from the clicking function Tinder initially used, Tinder became the first "swipe app", now a term to describe various apps that use swiping left or right to control what content the user sees in a browsing fashion.[20] The functionality of the swipe is now in use by multiple other companies and software.[15][21][22] In 2015, Tinder introduced the ability to go back to rejected profiles, "rewinding" if the user feels they made a mistake—something previously not possible on the app.[23]

text: Companion apps were being developed by different companies allowing users to, for example, use the user's heart rate to determine which direction to swipe instead of the user swiping with their hands.[24][25] The main companion site for Tinder has been Facebook, as Tinder users connect their Facebook profile to their Tinder accounts for verification and profile details. Chatting on Tinder is only available between two users that have swiped right on one another's photos.[26] The selections a user makes are not known to other users, unless two individuals swipe right on each other's profiles. However, once you have matches on the app, you were able to send "Tinder Moments" to each of a user's matches at once, allowing each match to like or not like the photos. The site also has verified profiles for public figures, so that celebrities and other public figures can verify they are who they are when using the app.[27][28]

text: In October 2015, Tinder released the Super Like feature worldwide.[29] This allows non-Tinder Plus users to Super Like one profile every 24 hours for free. Tinder Plus users have up to five Super Likes a day.[30] Instead of swiping right for a profile, the user swipes up. The app notifies the user if they have been Super Liked with a blue border that surrounds the profile of the person who Super Liked them. It then allows the user to either swipe right or left. Tinder says that Super Likes makes it three times as likely for users to find a match.

text: As of November 11, 2015, Tinder's "Moments" feature had been retired.[31]

text: In September 2016, Tinder invested in Vina, a social network where women can meet and nurture new friendships.[32]

text: Tinder Boost was tested in September 2016 in Australia, and went live worldwide in October 2016.[33] The Boost feature lets the user have the top profile in the area for thirty minutes. Users receive up to ten times the amount of profile views while boosting. Tinder Plus users get one free Boost a month. If users do not have Tinder Plus or want more Boosts, they can be purchased in the app.[34] This feature is similar to a premium feature on Match Group's OkCupid.[35]

text: In October 2016, Tinder announced it was opening its first office in Silicon Valley in hopes to better recruit technical employees.[36]

text: In November 2016, Tinder introduced more options for users to select their gender. In the app's settings, users have the option to type a word that suits their gender identity. Users also have the option to have this displayed on their profile or not. This feature was released for the US, UK, and Canada.[37]

text: In March 2017, Tinder launched Tinder Online, a web-optimized version of the dating app so people can access Tinder at their desktops.[38] Initially, It was only available in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Indonesia, Italy, Mexico, Philippines and Sweden and didn't include special features such as Super Likes or Tinder Boost.[39] Tinder Online is now accessible globally.

text: In June 2017, Tinder launched Tinder Gold,[40] a members-only service, offering their most exclusive features: Passport, Rewind, Unlimited Likes, five Super Likes per day, one Boost per month, and more profile controls.

text: Operation[edit]

text: Using Facebook, Tinder is able to build a user profile with photos that have already been uploaded. Basic information is gathered and the users' social graph is analyzed. Candidates who are most likely to be compatible based on geographical location, number of mutual friends, and common interests are then streamed into a list of matches. Based on the results of potential candidates, the app allows the user to anonymously like another user by swiping right or pass by swiping left on them. If two users like each other it then results in a "match" and they are able to chat within the app.[41] The app is used in about 196 countries.[42]

text: Features[edit]

text:
Swipe is central to Tinder's design. From the compatible matches the app's algorithm provides, users swipe right to "like" potential matches and swipe left to continue on their search.[43]
Instagram integration enables users to access other users' Instagram profiles.[44]
Common Connections allows users to see whether they share a mutual Facebook friend with a match (a first degree connection on Tinder) or when a user and their match have two separate friends who happen to be friends with each other (considered second degree on Tinder).[44][45]
Tinder Gold, introduced worldwide in August 2017, is a premium subscription feature that allows the user to see those who have already liked them before swiping.[46]

text: Paid subscriptions[edit]

text: In March 2015, Tinder announced the public release of its paid service, Tinder Plus, a feature allowing unlimited matches, whereas the free Tinder app limits the number of right swipes in a 12-hour period. It has met with controversy over limiting the number of "likes" a free user can give in a certain amount of time, as well as charging prices for different age groups.[47] The price of a Tinder Plus subscription was announced to be £14.99/$19.99 USD per month for users over 28, while the service for a user 28 and under will be £3.99/$9.99 USD per month.[48][49] A month after implementing these changes, TechCrunch reported that, no matter the consumer impression, Tinder's 'Swipe Right Limit Is Working.'[50]

text: Users[edit]

text: Tinder is used widely throughout the world and is available in over 40 languages.[52] As of late 2014, an estimated 50 million people use the app every month with an average of 12 million matches per day. However, to get to those 12 million matches, users collectively make around 1 billion swipes per day. The minimum age to sign up and use Tinder is 18. As of June 2016, If a user of Tinder who is below the age of 18 attempts to use the app, they are met with cards on their deck stating that Tinder is no longer usable by anyone under 18, and that the Tinder team is developing a new app especially for their age group.[53][54] As of April 2015, Tinder users swipe through 1.6 billion Tinder profiles and make more than 26 million matches per day. More than 8 billion matches have been made since Tinder launched in 2012.[55][56]

text: Company overview[edit]

text: Financials[edit]

text: In March 2014, Media & Internet conglomerate IAC increased its majority stake in Tinder, a move that caused speculation that the valuation of Tinder was at several billion dollars.[18] In July 2015, Bank of America Merrill Lynch valued Tinder at $1.35 billion, based upon an estimate of $27 per user on an estimated user base of 50 million, with an additional bullish-estimate of $3 billion by taking the average of the IPOs of similar companies. Analysts also estimated that Tinder had about half a million paid users within its userbase that consisted mostly of free users.[57] The monetization of the site has come through leaving the basic app free, and then adding different in-app purchase options for additional functions.[15] In January 2015 Tinder acquired Chill, the developers of Tappy—a mobile messenger that uses "images and ephemerality".[58]

text: Advertising[edit]

text: An ad campaign launched by "The Barn" internship program of Bartle Bogle Hegarty (BBH) used Tinder profiles to promote their NYC Puppy Rescue Project.[59] Using Facebook pet profiles, BBH was able to add them to the Tinder network. The campaign received media cover from Slate, Inc., The Huffington Post and more.[60] In April 2015, Tinder revealed their first sponsored ad promoting Budweiser's next #Whatever, USA campaign.[61]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Reviews[edit]

text: The New York Times wrote that the wide use of Tinder could be attributed not to what Tinder was doing right but to flaws in the models of earlier dating software, which relied on mathematical algorithms to select potential partners. Relationship experts interviewed by the newspaper stated that users used the photographs that come in succession on the app to derive cues as to social status, confidence levels, and personal interests.[7] Marie Claire wrote that the app was "easy to use on the run" and "addictive" but that "...it's hard to focus. The game-style of Tinder means it's really easy to keep playing and forget about that hottie you were messaging yesterday."[27]

text: Concerns[edit]

text: In 2017, Texas Tech Department of Communications Studies conducted a study to see how infidelity was connected to the Tinder app. The experiment was conducted on 550 students from an unnamed southwestern U.S. University. The students first gave their demographic and then answered questions regarding Tinder’s link to infidelity. The results showed that “more than half reported having seen somebody on Tinder who they knew was in an exclusive relationship (63.9%).” 71.3% of participants reported that they knew male friends who used Tinder while in a relationship, and 56.1% reported that they had female friends who used Tinder while in a relationship.[62]

text: In February 2014, security researchers in New York found a flaw which made it possible to find users' precise locations for between 40 and 165 days, without any public notice from the company. Tinder's spokesperson, Rosette Pambakian, said the issue was resolved within 48 hours. Chief Executive Officer Rad said in a statement that shortly after being contacted, Tinder implemented specific measures to enhance location security and further obscure location data.[63]

text: On June 30, 2014, Tinder's co-founder and former vice president of marketing, Whitney Wolfe, filed a sexual harassment and sex discrimination suit in Los Angeles County Superior Court against IAC-controlled Match Group, parent company of the app. The lawsuit alleged that her fellow executives and co-founders Rad and Mateen had engaged in discrimination, sexual harassment, and retaliation against her, while Tinder's corporate supervisor, IAC's Sam Yagan, did nothing.[64] IAC suspended CMO Mateen from his position pending an ongoing investigation, and stated that it "acknowledges that Mateen sent private messages containing 'inappropriate content,' but it believes Mateen, Rad and the company are innocent of the allegations".[65]

text: There have been anti-Tinder online marketing campaigns and websites developed.[66] As of June 2015, 68% of Tinder users were male and 32% were female.[67] According to University of Texas-Austin professor David Buss, "One dimension of [dating apps like Tinder] is the impact it has on men's psychology. When there is ... a perceived surplus of women, the whole mating system tends to shift towards short-term dating"[68] and there is a feeling of disconnect when choosing future partners.[69] CEO Sean Rad has said that Tinder removes the "friction" associated with walking up to someone and introducing oneself.[70] Nancy Jo Sales wrote in Vanity Fair that Tinder operates within a culture of users seeking sex without relationships.[20] Health officials from Rhode Island and Utah claimed that Tinder and similar apps are responsible for uptick of some STDs.[71]

text: On February 5, 2016, members of the Facebook group "Bernie Sanders Dank Tinder Convos" (BSDTC) (a spin-off of Bernie Sanders' Dank Meme Stash) were reportedly being banned from Tinder for promoting American politician Bernie Sanders' 2016 presidential campaign. BSDTC members would send messages to other Tinder users promoting Sanders and imploring them to vote for him. In response, many BSDTC members' profiles would either become locked or deleted due to flagging their messages as spam or their profiles as bots.[72][73][74][75][76][77] Tinder spokeswoman Rosette Pambakian stated in an email, "We whole-heartedly support people sharing their political views on Tinder, but we don't allow spamming. So feel free to feel the Bern, just don't spam."[73][77][78]

text: In March 2016, a website called Swipebuster was launched, which allows anyone to see how recently someone else logged on to Tinder, at a cost of $4.99 for every three searches.[79] Vanity Fair was the first to report on the service, in an article titled "Here's How You Can Check if Your Partner Is Cheating on Tinder," and Swipebuster subsequently received extensive media coverage for being the first searchable database of Tinder users.[80][81] The Guardian explained how Swipebuster works: "[I]t doesn't [identify users] by hacking into Tinder, or even by 'scraping' the app manually. Instead, it searches the database using Tinder's official API, which is intended for use by third-party developers who want to write software that plugs in with the site. All the information that it can reveal is considered public by the company, and revealed through the API with few safeguards."[82]

text: In August 2016, two engineers found another flaw which showed the exact location of all users' matches. The location was updated every time a user logged into the app and it worked even for blocked matches. The issue was detected in March 2016, but it was not fixed until August 2016.[83]

text: A 2017 study found that Tinder users are excessively willing to disclose their personally identifiable information.[84]

text: A 2017 report showed that Tinder stores all messages, locations, times, characteristics of people who interest you or are interested in you, length of time people spend looking at a picture, amounting to hundreds of pages of detail, and offers the information to advertisers.[85]


document_title: Railway platform

question_text: who is the longest railway station in india

text: Railway platform

text: Height relative to trains[edit]

text: The most basic form of platform consists of an area at the same level as the track, usually resulting in a fairly large height difference between the platform and the train floor. This would often not be considered a true platform. The more traditional platform is elevated relative to the track but often lower than the train floor, although ideally they should be at the same level. Occasionally the platform is higher than the train floor, where a train with a low floor serves a station built for trains with a high floor, for example at the Dutch stations of the DB Regionalbahn Westfalen (see Enschede). On the London Underground some stations are served by both District line and Piccadilly line trains, and the Piccadilly trains have lower floors.

text: A tram stop is often in the middle of the street; usually it has as a platform a refuge area of a similar height to that of the sidewalk (e.g. 100 mm (3.9 in)), and sometimes has no platform. The latter requires extra care by passengers and other traffic to avoid accidents. Both types of tram stops can be seen in the tram networks of Melbourne and Toronto. Sometimes a tram stop is served by ordinary trams with rather low floors and metro-like light rail vehicles with higher floors, and the tram stop has a dual-height platform, as in Amstelveen, Netherlands. A train station may be served by heavy-rail and light-rail vehicles with lower floors and have a dual- height platform, as on the RijnGouweLijn in the Netherlands.

text: Types of platform[edit]

text: Platform types include the bay platform, side platform (also called through platform), split platform and island platform. A bay platform is one at which the track terminates, i.e. a dead-end or siding. Trains serving a bay platform must reverse in or out. A side platform is the more usual type, alongside tracks where the train arrives from one end and leaves towards the other. An island platform has through platforms on both sides; it may be indented on one or both ends, with bay platforms. To reach an island platform there may be a bridge, a tunnel, or a level crossing. The climb up to the bridge or down to the tunnel may use stairs, ramps, escalators, lifts, or a combination of the above. A variant on the side platform is the spanish solution which has platforms on both sides of a single through track.

text: Identification[edit]

text: Most stations have their platforms numbered consecutively from 1; a few stations, including Cardiff Central, Haymarket, King's Cross, Stockport, and Gravesend (in the UK); Uppsala, (Sweden); and Lidcombe, Sydney (Australia), start from 0. At Bristol Temple Meads platforms 3 through to 12 are split along their length with odd numbered platforms facing north and east and even facing south and west, with a small signal halfway along the platform. Some, such as London Waterloo East, use letters instead of numbers (this is to distinguish the platforms from numbered ones in the adjoining Waterloo main-line station for staff who work at both stations); some, such as Paris-Gare de Lyon, use letters for one group of platforms but numbers for the other.

text: Usually platform numbering is a numbering of the boarding areas in the station (hence one island platform, for example, may have several numbered platforms). In some cases, tracks used only for through traffic without platform access also have a number. In North America, reference is usually made to a "track" (e.g. "The train is arriving on Track 5"). The term "platform" is also used in the US, but a single island platform may have access to two "tracks".

text: Facilities[edit]

text: Some of the station facilities are often located on the platforms. Where the platforms are not adjacent to a station building, often some form of shelter or waiting room is provided, and employee cabins may also be present. The weather protection offered varies greatly, from little more than a roof with open sides, to a closed room with heating or air-conditioning. There may be benches, lighting, ticket counters, drinking fountains, shops, trash boxes, and static timetables or dynamic displays with information about the next train.

text: There are often loudspeakers as part of a public address (PA) system. The PA system is often used where dynamic timetables or electronic displays are not present. A variety of information is presented, including destinations and times (for all trains, or only the more important long-distance trains), delays, cancellations, platform changes, changes in routes and destinations, the number of carriages in the train and the location of first class or luggage compartments, and supplementary fee or reservation requirements.

text: Safety[edit]

text: Some metro stations have platform screen doors between the platforms and the tracks. They provide more safety, and they allow the heating or air conditioning in the station to be separated from the ventilation in the tunnel, thus being more efficient and effective. They have been installed in most stations of the Singapore MRT and the Hong Kong MTR, and stations on the Jubilee Line Extension in London.

text: Platforms should be sloped upwards slightly towards the platform edge to prevent wheeled objects such as trolleys, prams and wheelchairs from rolling away and into the path of the train.[citation needed] Many platforms have a cavity underneath an overhanging edge so that people who may fall off the platform can seek shelter from incoming trains. A dangerous practice is sitting on the edge of the platform, which requires withdrawing the legs fast enough when a train arrives.

text: High-speed rail[edit]

text: In high-speed rail, passing trains are a significant safety problem as the safe distance from the platform edge increases with the speed of the passing train. A study done by the United States Department of Transportation in 1999 found that trains passing station platforms at speeds of 240 kilometres per hour (150 mph) can pose safety concerns to passengers on the platforms who are 2 metres (6.6 ft) away from the edge due to the aerodynamic effects created by pressure and induced airflow with speeds of 64 kilometres per hour (40 mph) to 95 kilometres per hour (59 mph) depending on the train body aerodynamic designs. Additionally, the airflow can cause debris to be blown out to the waiting passengers. If the passengers stand closer at 1 metre (3.3 ft), the risk increases with airflow that can reach speeds of 79 kilometres per hour (49 mph) to 116 kilometres per hour (72 mph).[3]

text: In United Kingdom, a guideline for platform safety specifies that for the platforms with train passing speeds between 160 kilometres per hour (99 mph) and 200 kilometres per hour (120 mph), there should be a yellow-line buffer zone of 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) and other warning signs. If trains can pass at speeds higher than 200 kilometres per hour (120 mph), the platforms should be inaccessible to passengers unless there are waiting rooms or screened areas to provide protection.[4] The European Union has a regulation for platforms that are close to tracks with train passing speeds of 250 kilometres per hour (160 mph) or more should not be accessible to passengers unless there is a lower speed limit for trains that intend to stop at the station or there are barriers to limit access.[5]

text: Markings[edit]

text: Platforms usually have some form of warnings or measures to keep passengers away from the tracks. The simplest measure is markings near the edge of the platform to demarcate the distance back that passengers should remain. Often a special tiled surface is used as well as a painted line, to help blind people using a walking aid, and help in preventing wheelchairs from rolling too near the platform edge.

text: In the US, Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 regulations require a detectable warning strip 24 inches (61 cm) wide, consisting of truncated dome bumps in a visually-contrasting color, for the full length of the platform.[6]

text: Curvature[edit]

text: Ideally platforms should be straight or slightly convex, so that the guard can see the whole train when preparing to close the doors. Platforms that have great curvature have blind spots that create a safety hazard. Mirrors or closed-circuit cameras may be used in these cases to view the whole platform. Also passenger carriages are straight, so doors will not always open directly onto a curved platform – often a platform gap is present. Usually such platforms will have warning signs, possibly auditory, such as London Underground's famous phrase "Mind the gap".

text: There may be moveable gap filler sections within the platform, extending once the train has stopped and retracting after the doors have closed. The New York City Subway employs these at 14th Street – Union Square on the IRT Lexington Avenue Line and at Times Square on the 42nd Street Shuttle, and formerly at the South Ferry outer loop station on the IRT Broadway – Seventh Avenue Line.

text: In the UK, recent rules require new platforms to be straight.[citation needed]

text: Notable examples[edit]

text: Longest[edit]

text: The longest railway platforms are:

text:
Gorakhpur railway station, Uttar Pradesh, India:1,366.33 m (4,483 ft) (longest in the world)[7]
Kollam Junction, Kerala, India:1,180.5 m (3,873 ft)[8][9][10][11][12]
Kharagpur, West Bengal, India: 1,072.5 m (3,519 ft)[13][14]
State Street subway, Chicago, Illinois, US: 1,067 m (3,501 ft) (longest in North America)
Bilaspur railway station, Chhattisgarh, India: 802 m (2,631 ft)
Cheriton Shuttle Terminal, Folkestone, United Kingdom: 791 m (2,595 ft) (longest in Europe)
Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh, India: 770 m (2,526 ft)
East Perth railway station, Perth, Western Australia: 770 m (2,526 ft) (longest in Australia)
Kalgoorlie railway station, Kalgoorlie, Western Australia: 760 m (2,493 ft)
Sonepur railway station, Sonepur, Bihar, India: 738 m (2,421 ft)[15]
Nabadwip Dham railway station, Nadia, West Bengal, India 720 m (2,362 ft)
Flinders Street Station, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia: 708 m (2,323 ft)[16]
Port Pirie, South Australia: 701 m (2,300 ft)
East Tsim Sha Tsui Station, Kowloon, Hong Kong: longest platform with platform screen doors: 300 m (984 ft)[17]

text: Sharpest curve[edit]

text: 203 m (666 ft or 10 chains) Wollstonecraft railway station, Sydney (high level platforms)[citation needed]


document_title: Mount Etna

question_text: when was the last time mount etna exploded

text: Mount Etna

text: Etymology / Folklore[edit]

text: The word Etna is from the Greek αἴθω (aithō), meaning "I burn", through an iotacist pronunciation.[8] In Classical Greek, it is called Αἴτνη (Aítnē),[9] a name given also to Catania and the city originally known as Inessa. In Latin it is called Aetna. In Arabic, it was called جبل النار Jabal al-Nār (the Mountain of Fire).[10]

text: It is also known as Mungibeddu in Sicilian and Mongibello or Montebello in Italian (the Italian word literally means "beautiful mountain"). According to another hypothesis, the term Mongibello comes from the Latin Mulciber (qui ignem mulcet, "who placates the fire"), one of the Latin names of the Roman god Vulcan.[citation needed] Another theory is that Mongibello came from Italian monte plus Arabic jabal, both meaning "mountain".

text: Now, the term Mongibello indicates the mountain's top area of the two central craters encompassing also the craters in the southeast and the northeast of the volcanic cone.

text: The name Mongibel is found in Arthurian Romance, as the name of the otherworld castle ( or realm ) of Morgan le Fay and her half-brother, King Arthur, localised at Etna, according to traditions concerning them derived from the stories told by the Breton conteurs who accompanied the Norman occupiers of Sicily. What were originally Welsh conceptions concerning a dwarf king of a paradisal, Celtic underworld became attached to the quasi-historic figure of Arthur as 'Ruler of the Antipodes' and were then transplanted into a Sicilian milieu, by Bretons impressed by the already otherworldly associations of the great, volcanic mountain of their new home. Mediaevalist Roger Sherman Loomis quotes passages from the works of Gervase of Tilbury and Caesarius of Heisterbach ( dating from the late twelfth century ) featuring accounts of Arthur's returning of a lost horse which had strayed into his subterranean kingdom beneath Etna. Caesarius quotes as his authority for the story a certain canon Godescalcus of Bonn, who considered it a matter of historic fact of the time of Emperor Henry's conquest of Sicily circa 1194. Caesarius employs in his account the Latin phrase in monte Gyber ( = 'within Etna' ) to describe the location of Arthur's kingdom.[11][12][13]

text: The Fada de Gibel of the Castle of Gibaldar ( Fairy of Etna ) appears in Jaufre, the only surviving Arthurian romance in the Occitan language, the composition of which is dated to between 1180 and 1230. However, in Jaufre, while it is clear from her name that the fairy queen in question is Morgan le Fay, the rich underworld queendom of which she is the mistress is accessed, not through a fiery grotto on the slopes of Etna, but through a 'fountain' ( i.e. a spring ) – a circumstance more in keeping with Morgan's original watery, rather than fiery, associations, before her incorporation into the folklore of Sicily.[14] For another Sicilian conception of the fairy realm or castle of Morgan le Fay – see Fata Morgana (mirage) re. an optical phenomenon common in the Strait of Messina.

text: History of volcanic eruptions[edit]

text: Geological history[edit]

text: Volcanic activity first took place at Etna about 500,000 years ago, with eruptions occurring beneath the sea off the ancient coastline of Sicily.[15] About 300,000 years ago, volcanism began occurring to the southwest of the summit (centre top of volcano) then, before activity moved towards the present centre 170,000 years ago. Eruptions at this time built up the first major volcanic edifice, forming a stratovolcano in alternating explosive and effusive eruptions. The growth of the mountain was occasionally interrupted by major eruptions, leading to the collapse of the summit to form calderas.

text: From about 35,000 to 15,000 years ago, Etna experienced some highly explosive eruptions, generating large pyroclastic flows, which left extensive ignimbrite deposits. Ash from these eruptions has been found as far away as south of Rome's border, 800 km (497 mi) to the north.

text: Thousands of years ago, the eastern flank of the mountain experienced a catastrophic collapse, generating an enormous landslide in an event similar to that seen in the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens. The landslide left a large depression in the side of the volcano, known as 'Valle del Bove' (Valley of the Ox). Research published in 2006 suggested this occurred around 8000 years ago, and caused a huge tsunami, which left its mark in several places in the eastern Mediterranean. It may have been the reason the settlement of Atlit Yam (Israel), now below sea level, was suddenly abandoned around that time.[16]

text: The steep walls of the valley have suffered subsequent collapses on numerous occasions. The strata exposed in the valley walls provide an important and easily accessible record of Etna's eruptive history.

text: The most recent collapse event at the summit of Etna is thought to have occurred about 2,000 years ago, forming what is known as the Piano Caldera. This caldera has been almost entirely filled by subsequent lava eruptions, but is still visible as a distinct break in the slope of the mountain near the base of the present-day summit cone.

text: Eruptions[edit]

text: Historical eruptions[edit]

text: Eruptions of Etna follow a variety of patterns. Most occur at the summit, where there are currently (as of 2008)[update] five distinct craters — the Northeast Crater, the Voragine, the Bocca Nuova, and the Southeast Crater Complex (2). Other eruptions occur on the flanks, which have more than 300 vents ranging in size from small holes in the ground to large craters hundreds of metres across. Summit eruptions can be highly explosive and spectacular, but rarely threaten the inhabited areas around the volcano. In contrast, flank eruptions can occur down to a few hundred metres altitude, close to or even well within the inhabited areas. Numerous villages and small towns lie around or on cones of past flank eruptions. Since the year AD 1600, at least 60 flank eruptions and countless summit eruptions have occurred; nearly half of these have happened since the start of the 20th century. Since 2000, Etna has had four flank eruptions — in 2001, 2002–2003, 2004–2005, and 2008–2009. Summit eruptions occurred in 2006, 2007–2008, January–April 2012, and again in July–October 2012.

text: The first known record of eruption at Etna is that of Diodorus Siculus.[17]

text: In 396 BC, an eruption of Etna reportedly thwarted the Carthaginians in their attempt to advance on Syracuse during the Second Sicilian War.

text: A particularly violent explosive (Plinian) summit eruption occurred in 122 BC, and caused heavy tephra falls to the southeast, including the town of Catania, where many roofs collapsed.[18] To help with reconstruction after the devastating effects of the eruption, the Roman government exempted the population of Catania from paying taxes for ten years.[citation needed]

text: The Roman poet Virgil gave what was probably a first-hand description of an eruption in the Aeneid.[19]

text: During the first 1500 years AD, many eruptions have gone unreported (or records have been lost); among the more significant are: (1) an eruption in about 1030 AD near Monte Ilice on the lower southeast flank, which produced a lava flow that travelled about 10 km, reaching the sea north of Acireale; the villages of Santa Tecla and Stazzo are built on the broad delta built by this lava flow into the sea; (2) an eruption in about 1160 (or 1224), from a fissure at only 350–450 m (1,148–1,476 ft) elevation on the south-southeast flank near the village of Mascalucia, whose lava flow reached the sea just to the north of Catania, in the area now occupied by the portion of the city named Ognina.[citation needed]

text: Etna's most destructive eruption since 122 BC started on 11 March 1669 and produced lava flows that destroyed at least 10 villages on its southern flank before reaching the city walls of the town of Catania five weeks later, on 15 April. The lava was largely diverted by these walls into the sea to the south of the city, filling the harbour of Catania. A small portion of lava eventually broke through a fragile section of the city walls on the western side of Catania and destroyed a few buildings before stopping in the rear of the Benedictine monastery, without reaching the centre of the town. Contrary to widespread reports of up to 15,000 (or even 20,000) human fatalities caused by the lava,[20] contemporaneous accounts written both in Italian and English[21] mention no deaths related to the 1669 eruption (but give very precise figures of the number of buildings destroyed, the area of cultivated land lost, and the economic damage). Therefore, it is uncertain where the enormous number of fatalities can be attributed. One possibility is confusion between this eruption and an earthquake that devastated southeast Sicily (including Catania) 24 years later in 1693. A study on the damage and fatalities caused by eruptions of Etna in historical times reveals that only 77 human deaths are attributable with certainty to eruptions of Etna, most recently in 1987 when two tourists were killed by a sudden explosion near the summit.[22]

text: Recent eruptions[edit]

text: A large lava flow from an eruption in 1928 led to the destruction of a population centre for the first time since the 1669 eruption. The eruption started high on Etna's northeast flank on 2 November. Then new eruptive fissures opened at decreasing elevations down the flank of the volcano. The third and most vigorous of these fissures opened late on 4 November at an unusually low elevation, approximately 1,200 m (3,937 ft) above sea-level, in a zone known as Ripe della Naca. The village of Mascali, lying down-slope of the Ripe della Naca, was almost completely destroyed in two days. Only a church and a few surrounding buildings survived in the north part of the village, called Sant'Antonino or "il quartiere". During the last days of the eruption, the flow interrupted the Messina-Catania railway line and destroyed the train station of Mascali. The event was used by Benito Mussolini's fascist regime for propaganda purposes, with the evacuation, aid, and rebuilding operations being presented as models of fascist planning. Mascali was rebuilt on a new site, and its church contains the Italian fascist symbol of the torch, placed above the statue of Jesus Christ. In early November 2008, the town of Mascali commemorated the 80th anniversary of the eruption and destruction of the village with a number of public events where eyewitnesses shared their memories of the eruption.[citation needed]

text: Other major 20th-century eruptions occurred in 1949, 1971, 1979, 1981, 1983 and 1991–1993. In 1971, lava buried the Etna Observatory (built in the late 19th century), destroyed the first generation of the Etna cable-car, and seriously threatened several small villages on Etna's east flank. In March 1981, the town of Randazzo on the northwestern flank of Etna narrowly escaped destruction by unusually fast-moving lava flows. That eruption was remarkably similar to one in 1928 that destroyed Mascali. The 1991–1993 eruption saw the town of Zafferana threatened by a lava flow, but successful diversion efforts saved the town with the loss of only one building a few hundred metres from the town's margin. Initially, such efforts consisted of the construction of earth barriers built perpendicularly to the flow direction; it was hoped that the eruption would stop before the artificial basins created behind the barriers would be completely filled. Instead, the eruption continued, and lava surmounted the barriers, heading directly toward Zafferana. Engineers then decided to use explosives near the source of the lava flow, to disrupt a very efficient lava tube system through which the lava travelled for up to 7 km (4 mi) without essentially losing heat and fluidity. The main explosion on 23 May 1992 destroyed the tube and forced the lava into a new artificial channel, far from Zafferana, and it would have taken months to re-establish a long lava tube. Shortly after the blasting, the rate of lava emission dropped, and during the remainder of the eruption (until 30 March 1993) the lava never advanced close to the town again.[23]

text: Following six years (1995–2001) of unusually intense activity at the four summit craters of Etna, the volcano produced its first flank eruption since 1991–1993 in July–August 2001. This eruption, which involved activity from seven distinct eruptive fissures mostly on the south slope of the volcano, was a mass-media eruption, because it occurred at the height of the tourist season and numerous reporters and journalists were already in Italy to cover the G8 summit in Genoa. It also occurred close to one of the tourist areas on the volcano, and thus was easily accessible. Part of the "Etna Sud" tourist area, including the arrival station of the Etna cable car, were damaged by this eruption, which otherwise was a rather modest-sized event by Etna standards.

text: In 2002–2003, a much larger eruption threw up a huge column of ash that could easily be seen from space and fell as far away as Libya, 600 km (370 mi) south across the Mediterranean Sea. Seismic activity in this eruption caused the eastern flanks of the volcano to slip by up to two metres, and many houses on the flanks of the volcano experienced structural damage. The eruption also completely destroyed the tourist station Piano Provenzana, on the northeastern flank of the volcano, and part of the tourist station "Etna Sud" around the Rifugio Sapienza on the south flank. Footage from the eruptions was recorded by Lucasfilm and integrated into the landscape of the planet Mustafar in the 2005 film Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith.[24] The Rifugio Sapienza is near the site of a cable car station which had previously been destroyed in the 1983 eruption; it has now been rebuilt. Following a rather silent, slow and non-destructive lava outflow on the upper southeastern flank between September 2004 and March 2005, intense eruptions occurred at the Southeast Crater in July–December 2006. These were followed by four episodes of lava fountaining, again at the Southeast Crater, on 29 March 11 April, 29 April and 7 May 2007. Ash emissions and Strombolian explosions started from a vent on the eastern side of the Southeast Crater in mid-August 2007.

text: On 4 September 2007 a spectacular episode of lava fountaining occurred from the new vent on the east side of the Southeast Crater, also producing a plume of ash and scoriae which fell over the east flank of the volcano. A lava flow travelled about 4.5 km (2.8 mi) into the uninhabited Valle del Bove. This eruption was visible far into the plains of Sicily, ending the following morning between the hours of 5 to 7 a.m. local time. Catania-Fontanarossa Airport shut down operations during the night for safety precautions.[verification needed]

text: An eruption on the morning of 13 May 2008, immediately to the east of Etna's summit craters was accompanied by a swarm of more than 200 earthquakes and significant ground deformation in the summit area. The eruption continued at a slowly diminishing rate for 417 days, until 6 July 2009, making this the longest flank eruption of Etna since the 1991–1993 eruption that lasted 473 days. Previous eruptions, in 2001, 2002–2003, and 2004–2005 had lasted 3 weeks, 3 months, and 6 months, respectively. Lava flows advanced 6.5 km during the first few days of this eruption but thereafter stagnated at much minor distances from the vents; during the last months of the eruption lava rarely advanced more than 1 km downslope.

text: Through January 2011 to February 2012, the summit craters of Etna were the site of intense activity. Frequent eruptions and ash columns forced the authorities to shut down the Catania airport on several occasions. [25][26][27][28][29][30] The July 2011 episode also endangered the Sapienza Refuge, the main tourist hub on the volcano, but the lava flow was successfully diverted.[31] In 2014, a flank eruption started involving lava flows and strombolian eruptions. This was the first flank eruption since 2008–09 [2]

text: On 3 December 2015, an eruption occurred which climaxed between 03:20 and 04:10 local time. The Voragine crater exhibited a lava fountain which reached 1 km (3,300 ft) in height, with an ash plume which reached 3 km (9,800 ft) in height.[32][33] The activity continued on the following days, with an ash plume that reached 7 km (23,000 ft) in height that forced Catania airport to shut down for a few hours.[34] Volcanic gas emissions from this volcano are measured by a Multi-Component Gas Analyzer System, which detects pre-eruptive degassing of rising magmas, improving prediction of volcanic activity.[35]

text: An eruption on 16 March 2017 injured 10 people, including a BBC News television crew, after magma exploded upon contact with snow.[36][37]

text: Volcanic explosivity index of recent eruptions[edit]

text: The Global Volcanism Program has assigned a volcanic explosivity index (VEI) to all of Mount Etna's eruptions since January 1955.[38]

text:
Volcanic explosivity index for Mount Etna's eruptions since January 1955

VEI
Number of eruptions (total=49)

VEI 0

1

VEI 1

17

VEI 2

24

VEI 3

7

text: Smoke rings[edit]

text: In the 1970s Etna erupted smoke rings,[39] one of the first captured events of this type, which are extremely rare. This happened again in 2000.[40] Video footage of 8 June 2000 event was captured by naturalist filmmaker Geoff Mackley.[41][42] Another event occurred on 11 April 2013.[43]

text: Geopolitical oddity[edit]

text: The borders of ten municipalities (Adrano, Biancavilla, Belpasso, Bronte (from two sides), Castiglione di Sicilia, Maletto, Nicolosi, Randazzo, Sant'Alfio, Zafferana Etnea) meet on the summit of Mount Etna, making this point one of elevenfold complexity, and the most complicated geopolitical multi-point anywhere north of the South Pole.[44][unreliable source?][original research?]

text: Facilities[edit]

text: Etna is one of Sicily's main tourist attractions, with thousands of visitors every year.[45] The most common route is through the road leading to Sapienza Refuge ski area, lying at the south of the crater at elevation of 1910 m.[46] From the Refuge, a cableway runs uphill to an elevation of 2500 m, from where the crater area at 2920 m is accessible.[47]

text: Ferrovia Circumetnea – Round-Etna railway – is a narrow-gauge railway constructed between 1889 and 1895. It runs around the volcano in a 110-km long semi-circle starting in Catania and ending in Riposto 28 km north of Catania.

text: There are two ski resorts on Etna: one at the Sapienza Refuge, with a chairlift and three ski lifts, and a smaller one on the north, at Piano Provenzana near Linguaglossa, with three lifts and a chairlift.[48]

text: Sapienza Refuge was the finish of Stage 9 of the 2011 Giro d'Italia and Stage 4 of the 2017 Giro.