document_title: USB flash drive

question_text: how many writes does a flash drive have

question_tokens: how many writes does a flash drive have

text: USB flash drive

text: History[edit]

text: Patent controversy[edit]

text: USB flash drives were invented at M-Systems, an Israeli company, in a US patent filed in April 5, 1999 by Amir Ban, Dov Moran and Oron Ogdan, all M-Systems employees at the time.[7] The product was announced by the company in September 2000, and was first sold by IBM in 8MB capacity starting December 15, 2000.[8]

text: Pua Khein-Seng from Malaysia is considered by many to be the "Father of Pen Drive". He is notable for incorporating the world's first single chip USB flash controller. Pua hails from Sekinchan, Selangor, Malaysia. Pua founded Phison Electronics based in Taiwan with four other partners and is believed to have produced the world's first USB flash drive with system-on-chip technology.[9][10]

text: Competing claims have been made by Singaporean company Trek Technology and Chinese company Netac Technology,[11] Both Trek Technology and Netac Technology have attempted to enforce their patent claims. Trek won a Singaporean suit,[12][13] but a court in the United Kingdom revoked one of Trek's UK patents.[14] While Netac Technology has brought lawsuits against PNY Technologies,[15] Lenovo,[16] aigo,[17] Sony,[18][19][20] and Taiwan's Acer and Tai Guen Enterprise Co,[20] most companies that manufacture USB flash drives do not license Trek and Netac's patents.

text: First commercial product[edit]

text: Trek Technology and IBM began selling the first USB flash drives commercially in 2000. Trek Technology sold a model under the brand name "ThumbDrive", and IBM marketed the first such drives in North America with its product named the "DiskOnKey", which was developed and manufactured by the Israeli company M-Systems.[21] IBM's USB flash drive became available on December 15, 2000,[22] and had a storage capacity of 8 MB, more than five times the capacity of the then-common 3½-inch floppy disks (of 1440 KB).

text: In 2000, Lexar introduced a Compact Flash (CF) card with a USB connection, and a companion card read/writer and USB cable that eliminated the need for a USB hub.[citation needed]

text: Second generation[edit]

text: By 2003, most USB flash drives had USB 2.0 connectivity, which has 480 Mbit/s as the transfer rate upper bound; after accounting for the protocol overhead that translates to a 35 MB/s effective throughput.[23] That is considerably slower than what a hard disk drive or solid-state drive can achieve when connected via the SATA interface.[24]

text: Transfer rates may be given in megabytes per second (MB/s), megabits per second (Mbit/s), or in optical drive multipliers such as "180X" (180 times 150 KiB/s).[25] File transfer rates vary considerably among devices; typical fast drives from this generation claim to read at up to 30 MB/s and write at about half that rate, which is about 20 times faster than the theoretical transfer rate achievable by USB 1.1, which is limited to 12 Mbit/s (1.5 MB/s) with accounted overhead.[26] The effective transfer rate of a device is significantly affected by the data access pattern;[27] for example, small writes to random locations are much slower (and cause more wear) than long sequential writes.

text: Third generation[edit]

text: Like USB 2.0 before it, USB 3.0 dramatically improved data transfer rates compared to its predecessor. It was announced in late 2008, but consumer devices were not available until the beginning of 2010. The USB 3.0 interface specifies transfer rates up to 5 Gbit/s (625 MB/s), compared to USB 2.0's 480 Mbit/s (60 MB/s).[28]

text: All USB 3.0 devices are backward compatible with USB 2.0 ports.[28] As of April 2016[update] most consumer desktop and laptop computers have one or more USB 3.0 ports available on the back IO plane or through PCB headers. USB 3.0 expansion cards are also available to upgrade older systems.

text: Fourth generation[edit]

text: As of March 2015[update], some manufacturers have announced USB 3.1 type-C flash drives with read/write speeds of around 530 MB/s.[29]

text: Storage capacity[edit]

text: The first USB flash drive appeared on the market in late 2000, providing a storage capacity of 8 MB.[30][31] Later, the maximum available storage capacity gradually doubled (16 MB, 32 MB, etc.)[32][33] all the way up to reaching capacities of 512 GB[34] and 1 TB[35] by January 2013. As of January 2013[update], drives of up to 512 gigabytes (GB) were available.[36] A one-terabyte (TB) drive was unveiled at the 2013 Consumer Electronics Show and became available later that year.[37] As of July 2016, flash drives with anywhere from 8 to 256 GB are frequently sold, and less frequently 512 GB and 1 TB units.[1][2] At the 2017 International Consumer Electronics Show a 2 TB flash drive was announced.[38]

text: Design and implementation[edit]

text:
Internals of a typical USB flash drive

1
USB Standard-A, "male" plug

2
USB mass storage controller device

3
Test point

4
Flash memory chip

5
Crystal oscillator

6
LED (Optional)

7
Write-protect switch (Optional)

8
Space for second flash memory chip

tag: table

text: On a USB flash drive, one end of the device is fitted with a single Standard-A USB plug; some flash drives additionally offer a micro USB plug, facilitating data transfers between different devices.[39] Flash drives with a USB-C interface and other not so common interfaces (such as FireWire 400, FireWire 800, and ThunderBolt) are also available.

text: Inside the plastic casing is a small printed circuit board, which has some power circuitry and a small number of surface-mounted integrated circuits (ICs). Typically, one of these ICs provides an interface between the USB connector and the onboard memory, while the other is the flash memory. Drives typically use the USB mass storage device class to communicate with the host.

text: Technology[edit]

text: Flash memory combines a number of older technologies, with lower cost, lower power consumption and small size made possible by advances in microprocessor technology. The memory storage was based on earlier EPROM and EEPROM technologies. These had limited capacity, were slow for both reading and writing, required complex high-voltage drive circuitry, and could be re-written only after erasing the entire contents of the chip.

text: Hardware designers later developed EEPROMs with the erasure region broken up into smaller "fields" that could be erased individually without affecting the others. Altering the contents of a particular memory location involved copying the entire field into an off-chip buffer memory, erasing the field, modifying the data as required in the buffer, and re-writing it into the same field. This required considerable computer support, and PC-based EEPROM flash memory systems often carried their own dedicated microprocessor system. Flash drives are more or less a miniaturized version of this.

text: The development of high-speed serial data interfaces such as USB made semiconductor memory systems with serially accessed storage viable, and the simultaneous development of small, high-speed, low-power microprocessor systems allowed this to be incorporated into extremely compact systems. Serial access requires far fewer electrical connections for the memory chips than does parallel access, which has simplified the manufacture of multi-gigabyte drives.

text: Computers access modern[update] flash memory systems very much like hard disk drives, where the controller system has full control over where information is actually stored. The actual EEPROM writing and erasure processes are, however, still very similar to the earlier systems described above.

text: Many low-cost MP3 players simply add extra software and a battery to a standard flash memory control microprocessor so it can also serve as a music playback decoder. Most of these players can also be used as a conventional flash drive, for storing files of any type.

text: Essential components[edit]

text: There are typically five parts to a flash drive:

text:
Standard-A USB plug –  provides a physical interface to the host computer. Some USB flash drives use USB plug that does not protect the 4 contacts, with the possibility of plugging it into the USB port the other way around.
USB mass storage controller –  a small microcontroller with a small amount of on-chip ROM and RAM.
NAND flash memory chip(s) –  stores data (NAND flash is typically also used in digital cameras).
Crystal oscillator –  produces the device's main 12 MHz clock signal and controls the device's data output through a phase-locked loop.
Cover –  typically made of plastic or metal, protecting the electronics against mechanical stress and even possible short circuits.

tag: ul

text: Additional components[edit]

text: The typical device may also include:

text:
Jumpers and test pins – for testing during the flash drive's manufacturing or loading code into its microcontroller.
LEDs – indicate data transfers or data reads and writes.
Write-protect switches – Enable or disable writing of data into memory.
Unpopulated space – provides space to include a second memory chip. Having this second space allows the manufacturer to use a single printed circuit board for more than one storage size device.
USB connector cover or cap – reduces the risk of damage, prevents the entry of dirt or other contaminants, and improves overall device appearance. Some flash drives use retractable USB connectors instead. Others have a swivel arrangement so that the connector can be protected without removing anything.
Transport aid – the cap or the body often contains a hole suitable for connection to a key chain or lanyard. Connecting the cap, rather than the body, can allow the drive itself to be lost.
Some drives offer expandable storage via an internal memory card slot, much like a memory card reader.[40][41]

text: Size and style of packaging[edit]

text: Most USB flash drives weigh less than 30 g (1 ounce).[42] While some manufacturers are competing for the smallest size[43] with the biggest memory,[44] some manufacturers differentiate their products by using elaborate housings, which are often bulky and make the drive difficult to connect to the USB port. Because the USB port connectors on a computer housing are often closely spaced, plugging a flash drive into a USB port may block an adjacent port. Such devices may carry the USB logo only if sold with a separate extension cable. Such cables are USB-compatible but do not conform to the USB standard.[45][46]

text: USB flash drives have been integrated into other commonly carried items, such as watches, pens, and even the Swiss Army Knife; others have been fitted with novelty cases such as toy cars or Lego bricks. USB flash drives with images of dragons, cats or aliens are very popular in Asia.[47] The small size, robustness and cheapness of USB flash drives make them an increasingly popular peripheral for case modding.

text: File system[edit]

text: Most flash drives ship preformatted with the FAT32, or exFAT file systems. The ubiquity of the FAT32 file system allows the drive to be accessed on virtually any host device with USB support. Also, standard FAT maintenance utilities (e.g., ScanDisk) can be used to repair or retrieve corrupted data. However, because a flash drive appears as a USB-connected hard drive to the host system, the drive can be reformatted to any file system supported by the host operating system.

text: Longevity[edit]

text: The memory in flash drives is commonly engineered with multi-level cell (MLC) based memory that is good for around 3,000-5,000 program-erase cycles,[51] but some flash drives have single-level cell (SLC) based memory that is good for around 100,000 writes. There is virtually no limit to the number of reads from such flash memory, so a well-worn USB drive may be write-protected to help ensure the life of individual cells.

text: Estimation of flash memory endurance is a challenging subject that depends on the SLC/MLC/TLC memory type, size of the flash memory chips, and actual usage pattern. As a result, a USB flash drive can last from a few days to several hundred years.[52]

text: Regardless of the endurance of the memory itself, the USB connector hardware is specified to withstand only around 1,500 insert-removal cycles.[53]

text: Counterfeit products[edit]

text: Counterfeit USB flash drives are sometimes sold with claims of having higher capacities than they actually have. These are typically low capacity USB drives which are modified so that they emulate larger capacity drives (for example, a 2 GB drive being marketed as a 64 GB drive). When plugged into a computer, they report themselves as being the larger capacity they were sold as, but when data is written to them, either the write fails, the drive freezes up, or it overwrites existing data. Software tools exist to check and detect fake USB drives,[54][55] and in some cases it is possible to repair these devices to remove the false capacity information and use its real storage limit.[56]

text: File transfer speeds[edit]

text: Transfer speeds are technically determined by the slowest of three factors: the USB version used, the speed in which the USB controller device can read and write data onto the flash memory, and the speed of the hardware bus, especially in the case of add-on USB ports.

text: USB flash drives usually specify their read and write speeds in megabytes per second (MB/s); read speed is usually faster. These speeds are for optimal conditions; real-world speeds are usually slower. In particular, circumstances that often lead to speeds much lower than advertised are transfer (particularly writing) of many small files rather than a few very large ones, and mixed reading and writing to the same device.

text: In a typical well-conducted review of a number of high-performance USB 3.0 drives, a drive that could read large files at 68 MB/s and write at 46 MB/s, could only manage 14 MB/s and 0.3 MB/s with many small files. When combining streaming reads and writes the speed of another drive, that could read at 92 MB/s and write at 70 MB/s, was 8 MB/s. These differences differ radically from one drive to another; some drives could write small files at over 10% of the speed for large ones. The examples given are chosen to illustrate extremes....′[57]

text: Uses[edit]

text: Personal data transport[edit]

text: The most common use of flash drives is to transport and store personal files, such as documents, pictures and videos. Individuals also store medical information on flash drives for emergencies and disaster preparation.

text: Secure storage of data, application and software files[edit]

text: With wide deployment(s) of flash drives being used in various environments (secured or otherwise), the issue of data and information security remains important. The use of biometrics and encryption is becoming the norm with the need for increased security for data; on-the-fly encryption systems are particularly useful in this regard, as they can transparently encrypt large amounts of data. In some cases a secure USB drive may use a hardware-based encryption mechanism that uses a hardware module instead of software for strongly encrypting data. IEEE 1667 is an attempt to create a generic authentication platform for USB drives. It is supported in Windows 7 and Windows Vista (Service Pack 2 with a hotfix).[58]

text: Computer forensics and law enforcement[edit]

text: A recent development for the use of a USB Flash Drive as an application carrier is to carry the Computer Online Forensic Evidence Extractor (COFEE) application developed by Microsoft. COFEE is a set of applications designed to search for and extract digital evidence on computers confiscated from suspects.[59] Forensic software is required not to alter, in any way, the information stored on the computer being examined. Other forensic suites run from CD-ROM or DVD-ROM, but cannot store data on the media they are run from (although they can write to other attached devices, such as external drives or memory sticks).

text: Updating motherboard firmware[edit]

text: Motherboard firmware (including BIOS and UEFI) can be updated using USB flash drives. Usually, new firmware image is downloaded and placed onto a FAT16- or FAT32-formatted USB flash drive connected to a system which is to be updated, and path to the new firmware image is selected within the update component of system's firmware.[60] Some motherboard manufacturers are also allowing such updates to be performed without the need for entering system's firmware update component, making it possible to easily recover systems with corrupted firmware.[61]

text: Also, HP has introduced a USB floppy drive key, which is an ordinary USB flash drive with additional possilibility for performing floppy drive emulation, allowing its usage for updating system firmware where direct usage of USB flash drives is not supported. Desired mode of operation (either regular USB mass storage device or of floppy drive emulation) is made selectable by a sliding switch on the device's housing.[62][63]

text: Booting operating systems[edit]

text: Most current PC firmware permits booting from a USB drive, allowing the launch of an operating system from a bootable flash drive. Such a configuration is known as a Live USB.[64]

text: Original flash memory designs had very limited estimated lifetimes. The failure mechanism for flash memory cells is analogous to a metal fatigue mode; the device fails by refusing to write new data to specific cells that have been subject to many read-write cycles over the device's lifetime. Premature failure of a "live USB" could be circumvented by using a flash drive with a write-lock switch as a WORM device, identical to a live CD. Originally, this potential failure mode limited the use of "live USB" system to special-purpose applications or temporary tasks, such as:

text:
Loading a minimal, hardened kernel for embedded applications (e.g., network router, firewall).
Bootstrapping an operating system install or disk cloning operation, often across a network.
Maintenance tasks, such as virus scanning or low-level data repair, without the primary host operating system loaded.

text: As of 2011[update], newer flash memory designs have much higher estimated lifetimes. Several manufacturers are now offering warranties of 5 years or more. Such warranties should make the device more attractive for more applications. By reducing the probability of the device's premature failure, flash memory devices can now be considered for use where a magnetic disk would normally have been required. Flash drives have also experienced an exponential growth in their storage capacity over time (following the Moore's Law growth curve). As of 2013, single-packaged devices with capacities of 1 TB are readily available,[35] and devices with 16 GB capacity are very economical. Storage capacities in this range have traditionally been considered to offer adequate space, because they allow enough space for both the operating system software and some free space for the user's data.

text: Operating system installation media[edit]

text: Installers of some operating systems can be stored to a flash drive instead of a CD or DVD, including various Linux distributions, Windows 7 and newer versions, and macOS. In particular, Mac OS X 10.7 is distributed only online, through the Mac App Store, or on flash drives; for a MacBook Air with Boot Camp and no external optical drive, a flash drive can be used to run installation of Windows or Linux.

text: However, for installation of Windows 7 and later versions, using USB flash drive with hard disk drive emulation as detected in PC's firmware is recommended in order to boot from it. Transcend is the only manufacturer of USB flash drives containing such feature.

text: Furthermore, for installation of Windows XP, using USB flash drive with storage limit of at most 2 GB is recommended in order to boot from it.

text: Windows ReadyBoost[edit]

text: In Windows Vista and later versions, ReadyBoost feature allows flash drives (from 4 GB in case of Windows Vista) to augment operating system memory.[65]

text: Application carriers[edit]

text: Flash drives are used to carry applications that run on the host computer without requiring installation. While any standalone application can in principle be used this way, many programs store data, configuration information, etc. on the hard drive and registry of the host computer.

text: The U3 company works with drive makers (parent company SanDisk as well as others) to deliver custom versions of applications designed for Microsoft Windows from a special flash drive; U3-compatible devices are designed to autoload a menu when plugged into a computer running Windows. Applications must be modified for the U3 platform not to leave any data on the host machine. U3 also provides a software framework for independent software vendors interested in their platform.

text: Ceedo is an alternative product, with the key difference that it does not require Windows applications to be modified in order for them to be carried and run on the drive.

text: Similarly, other application virtualization solutions and portable application creators, such as VMware ThinApp (for Windows) or RUNZ (for Linux) can be used to run software from a flash drive without installation.

text: In October 2010, Apple Inc. released their newest iteration of the MacBook Air, which had the system's restore files contained on a USB hard drive rather than the traditional install CDs, due to the Air not coming with an optical drive.[66]

text: A wide range of portable applications which are all free of charge, and able to run off a computer running Windows without storing anything on the host computer's drives or registry, can be found in the list of portable software.

text: Backup[edit]

text: Some value-added resellers are now using a flash drive as part of small-business turnkey solutions (e.g., point-of-sale systems). The drive is used as a backup medium: at the close of business each night, the drive is inserted, and a database backup is saved to the drive. Alternatively, the drive can be left inserted through the business day, and data regularly updated. In either case, the drive is removed at night and taken offsite.

text:
This is simple for the end-user, and more likely to be done.
The drive is small and convenient, and more likely to be carried off-site for safety.
The drives are less fragile mechanically and magnetically than tapes.
The capacity is often large enough for several backup images of critical data.
Flash drives are cheaper than many other backup systems.

text: Flash drives also have disadvantages. They are easy to lose and facilitate unauthorized backups. A lesser setback for flash drives is that they have only one tenth the capacity of hard drives manufactured around their time of distribution.

text: Audio players[edit]

text: Many companies make small solid-state digital audio players, essentially producing flash drives with sound output and a simple user interface. Examples include the Creative MuVo, Philips GoGear and the first generation iPod shuffle. Some of these players are true USB flash drives as well as music players; others do not support general-purpose data storage. Other applications requiring storage, such as digital voice or sound recording, can also be combined with flash drive functionality.[67]

text: Many of the smallest players are powered by a permanently fitted rechargeable battery, charged from the USB interface. Fancier devices that function as a digital audio player have a USB host port (type A female typically).

text: Media storage and marketing[edit]

text: Digital audio files can be transported from one computer to another like any other file, and played on a compatible media player (with caveats for DRM-locked files). In addition, many home Hi-Fi and car stereo head units are now equipped with a USB port. This allows a USB flash drive containing media files in a variety of formats to be played directly on devices which support the format. Some LCD monitors for consumer HDTV viewing have a dedicated USB port through which music and video files can also be played without use of a personal computer.

text: Artists have sold or given away USB flash drives, with the first instance believed to be in 2004 when the German punk band Wizo released the Stick EP, only as a USB drive. In addition to five high-bitrate MP3s, it also included a video, pictures, lyrics, and guitar tablature.[68] Subsequently, artists including Nine Inch Nails and Kylie Minogue[69] have released music and promotional material on USB flash drives. The first USB album to be released in the UK was Kiss Does... Rave, a compilation album released by the Kiss Network in April 2007.[70]

text: Brand and product promotion[edit]

text: The availability of inexpensive flash drives has enabled them to be used for promotional and marketing purposes, particularly within technical and computer-industry circles (e.g., technology trade shows). They may be given away for free, sold at less than wholesale price, or included as a bonus with another purchased product.

text: Usually, such drives will be custom-stamped with a company's logo, as a form of advertising. The drive may be blank, or preloaded with graphics, documentation, web links, Flash animation or other multimedia, and free or demonstration software. Some preloaded drives are read-only, while others are configured with both read-only and user-writable segments. Such dual-partition drives are more expensive.[71]

text: Flash drives can be set up to automatically launch stored presentations, websites, articles, and any other software immediately on insertion of the drive using the Microsoft Windows AutoRun feature.[72] Autorunning software this way does not work on all computers, and it is normally disabled by security-conscious users.

text: Arcades[edit]

text: In the arcade game In the Groove and more commonly In The Groove 2, flash drives are used to transfer high scores, screenshots, dance edits, and combos throughout sessions. As of software revision 21 (R21), players can also store custom songs and play them on any machine on which this feature is enabled. While use of flash drives is common, the drive must be Linux compatible.

text: In the arcade games Pump it Up NX2 and Pump it Up NXA, a specially produced flash drive is used as a "save file" for unlocked songs, as well as for progressing in the WorldMax and Brain Shower sections of the game.

text: In the arcade game Dance Dance Revolution X, an exclusive USB flash drive was made by Konami for the purpose of the link feature from its Sony PlayStation 2 counterpart. However, any USB flash drive can be used in this arcade game.

text: Conveniences[edit]

text: Flash drives use little power, have no fragile moving parts, and for most capacities are small and light. Data stored on flash drives is impervious to mechanical shock, magnetic fields, scratches and dust. These properties make them suitable for transporting data from place to place and keeping the data readily at hand.

text: Flash drives also store data densely compared to many removable media. In mid-2009, 256 GB drives became available, with the ability to hold many times more data than a DVD (54 DVDs) or even a Blu-ray disc (10 BDs).[73]

text: Flash drives implement the USB mass storage device class so that most modern operating systems can read and write to them without installing device drivers. The flash drives present a simple block-structured logical unit to the host operating system, hiding the individual complex implementation details of the various underlying flash memory devices. The operating system can use any file system or block addressing scheme. Some computers can boot up from flash drives.

text: Specially manufactured flash drives are available that have a tough rubber or metal casing designed to be waterproof and virtually "unbreakable". These flash drives retain their memory after being submerged in water, and even through a machine wash. Leaving such a flash drive out to dry completely before allowing current to run through it has been known to result in a working drive with no future problems. Channel Five's Gadget Show cooked one of these flash drives with propane, froze it with dry ice, submerged it in various acidic liquids, ran over it with a jeep and fired it against a wall with a mortar. A company specializing in recovering lost data from computer drives managed to recover all the data on the drive.[74] All data on the other removable storage devices tested, using optical or magnetic technologies, were destroyed.

text: Comparison with other portable storage[edit]

text: Tape[edit]

text: The applications of current data tape cartridges hardly overlap those of flash drives: on tape, cost per gigabyte is very low for large volumes, but the individual drives and media are expensive. Media have a very high capacity and very fast transfer speeds, but store data sequentially and are very slow for random access of data. While disk-based backup is now the primary medium of choice for most companies, tape backup is still popular for taking data off-site for worst-case scenarios and for very large volumes (more than a few hundreds of TB). See LTO tapes.

text: Floppy disk[edit]

text: Floppy disk drives are rarely fitted to modern computers and are obsolete for normal purposes, although internal and external drives can be fitted if required. Floppy disks may be the method of choice for transferring data to and from very old computers without USB or booting from floppy disks, and so they are sometimes used to change the firmware on, for example, BIOS chips. Devices with removable storage like older Yamaha music keyboards are also dependent on floppy disks, which require computers to process them. Newer devices are built with USB flash drive support.

text: Optical media[edit]

text: The various writable and rewritable forms of CD and DVD are portable storage media supported by the vast majority of computers as of 2008. CD-R, DVD-R, and DVD+R can be written to only once, RW varieties up to about 1,000 erase/write cycles, while modern NAND-based flash drives often last for 500,000 or more erase/write cycles.[75] DVD-RAM discs are the most suitable optical discs for data storage involving much rewriting.

text: Optical storage devices are among the cheapest methods of mass data storage after the hard drive. They are slower than their flash-based counterparts. Standard 12 cm optical discs are larger than flash drives and more subject to damage. Smaller optical media do exist, such as business card CD-Rs which have the same dimensions as a credit card, and the slightly less convenient but higher capacity 8 cm recordable MiniCD and MiniDVD. The small discs are more expensive than the standard size, and do not work in all drives.

text: Universal Disk Format (UDF) version 1.50 and above has facilities to support rewritable discs like sparing tables and virtual allocation tables, spreading usage over the entire surface of a disc and maximising life, but many older operating systems do not support this format. Packet-writing utilities such as DirectCD and InCD are available but produce discs that are not universally readable (although based on the UDF standard). The Mount Rainier standard addresses this shortcoming in CD-RW media by running the older file systems on top of it and performing defect management for those standards, but it requires support from both the CD/DVD burner and the operating system. Many drives made today do not support Mount Rainier, and many older operating systems such as Windows XP and below, and Linux kernels older than 2.6.2, do not support it (later versions do). Essentially CDs/DVDs are a good way to record a great deal of information cheaply and have the advantage of being readable by most standalone players, but they are poor at making ongoing small changes to a large collection of information. Flash drives' ability to do this is their major advantage over optical media.

text: Flash memory cards[edit]

text: Flash memory cards, e.g., Secure Digital cards, are available in various formats and capacities, and are used by many consumer devices. However, while virtually all PCs have USB ports, allowing the use of USB flash drives, memory card readers are not commonly supplied as standard equipment (particularly with desktop computers). Although inexpensive card readers are available that read many common formats, this results in two pieces of portable equipment (card plus reader) rather than one.

text: Some manufacturers, aiming at a "best of both worlds" solution, have produced card readers that approach the size and form of USB flash drives (e.g., Kingston MobileLite,[76] SanDisk MobileMate[77]) These readers are limited to a specific subset of memory card formats (such as SD, microSD, or Memory Stick), and often completely enclose the card, offering durability and portability approaching, if not quite equal to, that of a flash drive. Although the combined cost of a mini-reader and a memory card is usually slightly higher than a USB flash drive of comparable capacity, the reader + card solution offers additional flexibility of use, and virtually "unlimited" capacity. The ubiquity of SD cards is such that, circa 2011, due to economies of scale, their price is now less than an equivalent-capacity USB flash drive, even with the added cost of a USB SD card reader.

text: An additional advantage of memory cards is that many consumer devices (e.g., digital cameras, portable music players) cannot make use of USB flash drives (even if the device has a USB port), whereas the memory cards used by the devices can be read by PCs with a card reader.

text: External hard disk[edit]

text: Particularly with the advent of USB, external hard disks have become widely available and inexpensive. External hard disk drives currently cost less per gigabyte than flash drives and are available in larger capacities. Some hard drives support alternative and faster interfaces than USB 2.0 (e.g., IEEE 1394 and eSATA). For consecutive sector writes and reads (for example, from an unfragmented file), most hard drives can provide a much higher sustained data rate than current NAND flash memory, though mechanical latencies seriously impact hard drive performance.

text: Unlike solid-state memory, hard drives are susceptible to damage by shock (e.g., a short fall) and vibration, have limitations on use at high altitude, and although they are shielded by their casings, they are vulnerable when exposed to strong magnetic fields. In terms of overall mass, hard drives are usually larger and heavier than flash drives; however, hard disks sometimes weigh less per unit of storage. Like flash drives, hard disks also suffer from file fragmentation, which can reduce access speed.

text: Obsolete devices[edit]

text: Audio tape cassettes and high-capacity floppy disks (e.g., Imation SuperDisk), and other forms of drives with removable magnetic media, such as the Iomega Zip and Jaz drives, are now largely obsolete and rarely used. There are products in today's market that will emulate these legacy drives for both tape and disk (SCSI1/SCSI2, SASI, Magneto optic, Ricoh ZIP, Jaz, IBM3590/ Fujitsu 3490E and Bernoulli for example) in state-of-the-art Compact Flash storage devices – CF2SCSI.

text: Encryption and security[edit]

text: As highly portable media, USB flash drives are easily lost or stolen. All USB flash drives can have their contents encrypted using third-party disk encryption software, which can often be run directly from the USB drive without installation (for example, FreeOTFE), although some, such as BitLocker, require the user to have administrative rights on every computer it is run on.

text: Archiving software can achieve a similar result by creating encrypted ZIP or RAR files.[78][79]

text: Some manufacturers have produced USB flash drives which use hardware-based encryption as part of the design,[80] removing the need for third-party encryption software. In limited circumstances these drives have been shown to have security problems, and are typically more expensive than software-based systems, which are available for free.

text: A minority of flash drives support biometric fingerprinting to confirm the user's identity. As of mid-2005[update],[needs update] this was an expensive alternative to standard password protection offered on many new USB flash storage devices. Most fingerprint scanning drives rely upon the host operating system to validate the fingerprint via a software driver, often restricting the drive to Microsoft Windows computers. However, there are USB drives with fingerprint scanners which use controllers that allow access to protected data without any authentication.[81]

text: Some manufacturers deploy physical authentication tokens in the form of a flash drive. These are used to control access to a sensitive system by containing encryption keys or, more commonly, communicating with security software on the target machine. The system is designed so the target machine will not operate except when the flash drive device is plugged into it. Some of these "PC lock" devices also function as normal flash drives when plugged into other machines.

text: Controversies[edit]

text: Criticisms[edit]

text: Failures[edit]

text: Like all flash memory devices, flash drives can sustain only a limited number of write and erase cycles before the drive fails.[82][unreliable source?][83] This should be a consideration when using a flash drive to run application software or an operating system. To address this, as well as space limitations, some developers have produced special versions of operating systems (such as Linux in Live USB)[84] or commonplace applications (such as Mozilla Firefox) designed to run from flash drives. These are typically optimized for size and configured to place temporary or intermediate files in the computer's main RAM rather than store them temporarily on the flash drive.

text: When used in the same manner as external rotating drives (hard drives, optical drives, or floppy drives), i. e. in ignorance of their technology, USB drives' failure is more likely to be sudden: while rotating drives can fail instantaneously, they more frequently give some indication (noises, slowness) that they are about to fail, often with enough advance warning that data can be removed before total failure. USB drives give little or no advance warning of failure.[citation needed] Furthermore, when internal wear-leveling is applied to prolong life of the flash drive, once failure of even part of the memory occurs it can be difficult or impossible to use the remainder of the drive, which differs from magnetic media, where bad sectors can be marked permanently not to be used.[85]

text: Most USB flash drives do not include a write protection mechanism. This feature, which gradually became less common, consists of a switch on the housing of the drive itself, that prevents the host computer from writing or modifying data on the drive. For example, write protection makes a device suitable for repairing virus-contaminated host computers without the risk of infecting a USB flash drive itself. In contrast to SD cards, write protection on USB flash drives (when available) is connected to the drive circuitry, and is handled by the drive itself instead of the host (on SD cards handling of the write-protection notch is optional).

text: A drawback to the small size of flash drives is that they are easily misplaced or otherwise lost. This is a particular problem if they contain sensitive data (see data security). As a consequence, some manufacturers have added encryption hardware to their drives, although software encryption systems which can be used in conjunction with any mass storage medium will achieve the same result. Most drives can be attached to keychains or lanyards. The USB plug is usually retractable or fitted with a removable protective cap.

text: Storage capacity[edit]

text: Storage capacity of USB flash drives in 2013 was up to 1 TB while hard disk can be as large as 10 TB.[86] As of 2011, USB flash drives were more expensive per unit of storage than large hard drives, but were less expensive in capacities of a few tens of gigabytes.[87]

text: Robustness[edit]

text: Most USB-based flash technology integrates a printed circuit board with a metal tip, which is simply soldered on. As a result, the stress point is where the two pieces join. The quality control of some manufacturers does not ensure a proper solder temperature, further weakening the stress point.[88][89] Since many flash drives stick out from computers, they are likely to be bumped repeatedly and may break at the stress point. Most of the time, a break at the stress point tears the joint from the printed circuit board and results in permanent damage. However, some manufacturers produce discreet flash drives that do not stick out, and others use a solid metal uni-body that has no easily discernible stress point. SD cards serve as a good alternative to USB drives since they can be inserted flush.

text: Security threats[edit]

text: Flash drives may present a significant security challenge for some organizations. Their small size and ease of use allows unsupervised visitors or employees to store and smuggle out confidential data with little chance of detection. Both corporate and public computers are vulnerable to attackers connecting a flash drive to a free USB port and using malicious software such as keyboard loggers or packet sniffers.

text: For computers set up to be bootable from a USB drive, it is possible to use a flash drive containing a bootable portable operating system to access the files of the computer, even if the computer is password protected. The password can then be changed, or it may be possible to crack the password with a password cracking program and gain full control over the computer. Encrypting files provides considerable protection against this type of attack.

text: USB flash drives may also be used deliberately or unwittingly to transfer malware and autorun worms onto a network.

text: Some organizations forbid the use of flash drives, and some computers are configured to disable the mounting of USB mass storage devices by users other than administrators; others use third-party software to control USB usage. The use of software allows the administrator to not only provide a USB lock but also control the use of CD-RW, SD cards and other memory devices. This enables companies with policies forbidding the use of USB flash drives in the workplace to enforce these policies. In a lower-tech security solution, some organizations disconnect USB ports inside the computer or fill the USB sockets with epoxy.

text: Some of the security measures taken to prevent confidential data from being taken have presented some side effects such as curtailing user privileges of recharging mobile devices off the USB ports on the systems.

text: "Flash drives for freedom"[edit]

text: Flash drives with American movies and television shows were smuggled into North Korea by the Human Rights Foundation to spread pro-Western sentiment there in 2016.[90][91]

text: Naming[edit]

text: In 2005, Microsoft was using the term "USB Flash Drive" as the common name for these devices when they introduced the Microsoft USB Flash Drive Manager also known as a "usb drive" in Australia application.[92] Alternative names are commonly used, many of which are trademarks of various manufacturers.[a]

text: Current and future developments[edit]

text: Semiconductor corporations have worked to reduce the cost of the components in a flash drive by integrating various flash drive functions in a single chip, thereby reducing the part-count and overall package-cost.

text: Flash drive capacities on the market increase continually. High speed has become a standard for modern flash drives. Capacities exceeding 256 GB were available on the market as early as 2009.[73]

text: Lexar is attempting to introduce a USB FlashCard, which would be a compact USB flash drive intended to replace various kinds of flash memory cards. Pretec introduced a similar card, which also plugs into any USB port, but is just one quarter the thickness of the Lexar model.[93] Until 2008, SanDisk manufactured a product called SD Plus, which was a SecureDigital card with a USB connector.[94]

text: SanDisk has also introduced a new technology to allow controlled storage and usage of copyrighted materials on flash drives, primarily for use by students. This technology is termed FlashCP.


document_title: Chrysler 300C

question_text: what does the c stand for chrysler 300c

question_tokens: what does the c stand for chrysler 300c

root

text: Chrysler 300C

text: The Chrysler Corporation has used the designation Chrysler 300C to refer to two separate unrelated vehicles from different eras:

tag: p

text:
The 1957 Chrysler 300C is that year's version of the Chrysler 300 "letter series"; a large, high-performance luxury coupe sold in very limited numbers.
The 2005 Chrysler 300C, launched in 2004, the top-of-the-line Chrysler 300, usually outfitted with a 5.7L Hemi V8 Magnum engine.

text:
This article includes a list of related items that share the same name (or similar names).
If an internal link incorrectly led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.

text: Set indices on automobiles

text: All set index articles


document_title: List of national anthem performers at the Super Bowl

question_text: who sang the american anthem at the super bowl

text: Performances[edit]

text:
No.
Year
Venue
Performer(s)[1]

I
1967
Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, California
The Pride of Arizona, Michigan Marching Band, and UCLA choir

II
1968
Orange Bowl, Miami
GSU Tiger Marching Band

III
1969
Lloyd Geisler of the Washington National Symphony Orchestra[2]
An NFL.com reference ([1]) states that Anita Bryant performed the anthem, but NBC's broadcast of game, available from the Paley Center for Media's collection, shows that Geisler performed it.

IV
1970
Tulane Stadium, New Orleans
Al Hirt

V
1971
Orange Bowl, Miami
Tommy Loy (trumpet)

VI
1972
Tulane Stadium, New Orleans
U.S. Air Force Academy Chorale

VII
1973
Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum
Little Angels (children's choir) of Chicago's Holy Angels Church

VIII
1974
Rice Stadium, Houston, Texas
Charley Pride

IX
1975
Tulane Stadium, New Orleans
GSU Tiger Marching Band (2)

X
1976
Orange Bowl, Miami
Tom Sullivan

XI
1977
Rose Bowl, Pasadena, California
None (Vikki Carr sang "America the Beautiful")

XII
1978
Louisiana Superdome, New Orleans
Phyllis Kelly of Northeast Louisiana University

XIII
1979
Orange Bowl, Miami
The Colgate Thirteen

XIV
1980
Rose Bowl, Pasadena
Cheryl Ladd

XV
1981
Superdome, New Orleans
Helen O'Connell

XVI
1982
Pontiac Silverdome, Pontiac, Michigan
Diana Ross

XVII
1983
Rose Bowl, Pasadena
Leslie Easterbrook

XVIII
1984
Tampa Stadium, Tampa, Florida
Barry Manilow

XIX
1985
Stanford Stadium, Stanford, California
San Francisco Boys Chorus, San Francisco Girls Chorus, Piedmont Children's Chorus, and San Francisco Children's Chorus

XX
1986
Superdome, New Orleans
Wynton Marsalis (trumpet)

XXI
1987
Rose Bowl, Pasadena
Neil Diamond

XXII
1988
Jack Murphy Stadium, San Diego
Herb Alpert (trumpet)

XXIII
1989
Joe Robbie Stadium, Miami
Billy Joel

XXIV
1990
Superdome, New Orleans
Aaron Neville

XXV
1991
Tampa Stadium, Tampa
Whitney Houston with The Florida Orchestra directed by Jahja Ling

XXVI
1992
Metrodome, Minneapolis
Harry Connick, Jr.
ASL (American Sign Language): Lori Hilary

XXVII
1993
Rose Bowl, Pasadena
Garth Brooks
ASL: Marlee Matlin

XXVIII
1994
Georgia Dome, Atlanta
Natalie Cole
ASL: Courtney Keel Foley

XXIX
1995
Joe Robbie Stadium, Miami
Kathie Lee Gifford
ASL: Heather Whitestone

XXX
1996
Sun Devil Stadium, Tempe, Arizona
Vanessa L. Williams
ASL: Mary Kim Titla

XXXI
1997
Superdome, New Orleans
Luther Vandross
ASL: Erika Rachael Schwarz

XXXII
1998
Qualcomm Stadium, San Diego
Jewel
ASL: Phyllis Frelich

XXXIII
1999
Pro Player Stadium, Miami
Cher
ASL: Speaking Hands

XXXIV
2000
Georgia Dome, Atlanta
Faith Hill
ASL: Briarlake Elementary School Signing Choir

XXXV
2001
Raymond James Stadium, Tampa
Backstreet Boys
AASL: Tom Cooney

XXXVI
2002
Superdome, New Orleans
Mariah Carey
ASL: Joe Narcisse

XXXVII
2003
Qualcomm Stadium, San Diego
Dixie Chicks
ASL: Janet Maxwell

XXXVIII
2004
Reliant Stadium, Houston
Beyoncé
ASL: Suzanna Christy

XXXIX
2005
Alltel Stadium, Jacksonville, Florida
Combined choirs of the U.S. Military Academy, the U.S. Naval Academy, the U.S. Air Force Academy (2), and the U.S. Coast Guard Academy, and the U.S. Army Herald Trumpets
ASL: Wesley Tallent

XL
2006
Ford Field, Detroit
Aaron Neville (2) and Aretha Franklin,
Dr. John (piano accompaniment)
ASL: Angela LaGuardia

XLI
2007
Dolphin Stadium, Miami Gardens, Florida
Billy Joel (2)
ASL: Marlee Matlin (2)

XLII
2008
University of Phoenix Stadium, Glendale, Arizona
Jordin Sparks
ASL: A Dreamer[3]

XLIII
2009
Raymond James Stadium, Tampa, Florida
Jennifer Hudson
ASL: Kristen Santos

XLIV
2010
Sun Life Stadium, Miami Gardens
Carrie Underwood
ASL: Kinesha Battles

XLV
2011
Cowboys Stadium, Arlington, Texas
Christina Aguilera
ASL: Candice Villesca[4]

XLVI
2012
Lucas Oil Stadium, Indianapolis
Kelly Clarkson
ASL: Rachel Mazique[5]

XLVII
2013
Mercedes-Benz Superdome, New Orleans
Alicia Keys[6]
ASL: John Maucere[7]

XLVIII
2014
MetLife Stadium, East Rutherford, New Jersey
Renée Fleming
ASL: Amber Zion

XLIX
2015
University of Phoenix Stadium, Glendale, Arizona[8]
Idina Menzel
ASL: Treshelle Edmond[9]

50
2016
Levi's Stadium, Santa Clara, California
Lady Gaga
ASL: Marlee Matlin (3)[10]

LI
2017
NRG Stadium, Houston, Texas
Luke Bryan
ASL: Kriston Lee Pumphery[11].

LII
2018
U.S. Bank Stadium, Minneapolis, Minnesota
Pink
ASL: Alexandria Wailes[12].

text: Multiple and hometown performances[edit]

text: Acts that have performed three times:

text: Marlee Matlin (ASL), (XXVII, XLI, and 50)

text: Acts that have performed two times:

text:
GSU Tiger Marching Band (II and IX)
Billy Joel (XXIII and XLI)
Aaron Neville (XXIV and XL)
U.S. Air Force Academy Chorale[13] (VI and XXXIX)

text: Singers that performed in or near their hometown metropolitan area:

text:
Beyoncé (XXXVIII, Houston)
Aretha Franklin (XL, Detroit)
Al Hirt (IV, New Orleans)
Aaron Neville (XXIV & XL, New Orleans)
Diana Ross (XVI, Detroit)
Jordin Sparks (XLII, Phoenix)

text: Notable performances[edit]

text: The performance by Whitney Houston at Super Bowl XXV in 1991, during the Gulf War, had been for many years regarded as one of the best renditions ever.[14][15][16][17][18][19] It was released as a single a few weeks later, appeared on the album Whitney: The Greatest Hits, and was re-released as a single in 2001 shortly after the September 11 attacks.

text: The 1992 performance marked the first time American Sign Language was used alongside the lead singer.

text: Faith Hill performed the anthem at Super Bowl XXXIV in 2000.[20] It became popular in country radio. Following the September 11 attacks, her version entered the country singles chart at number 35, despite not being released as an official single, and reentered the same chart at number 49 in July 2002.[citation needed]

text: At Super Bowl XLVIII in 2014, in an emotional and groundbreaking performance, soprano Renée Fleming became the first opera singer to perform the national anthem,[21] scoring the highest ratings for a Fox Network program in its history, and the second-highest ratings for any television program in history.

text: Controversies[edit]

text: Just days after Super Bowl XXV, a report surfaced that Whitney Houston lip synced her performance. It was confirmed that she was actually singing into a dead microphone, but the performance heard in the stadium and on television was prerecorded.[22][14][15]

text: Since 1993, the NFL has required performers to supply a backup track.[14] This came after Garth Brooks walked out of the stadium prior to his XXVII performance. Only 45 minutes before kickoff, he refused to take the stage, due to a dispute with NBC. Brooks requested that the network premiere his new music video "We Shall Be Free" during the pregame. The network chose not to air the video, due to content some felt was disturbing imagery. Brooks had also refused to pre-record the anthem, which meant the league had nothing to play if he left. Television producers spotted Jon Bon Jovi in the grandstands, and were prepared to use him as a replacement. After last-minute negotiations, NBC agreed to air a clip of the video during the broadcast of the game,[23] and Brooks was coaxed back into the stadium and sang.[19]

text: Following the "wardrobe malfunction" controversy during Super Bowl XXXVIII in 2004, all scheduled performers for Super Bowl XXXIX were chosen under heavy scrutiny.[24] Game organizers decided not to use a popular music vocalist.[25] The combined choirs of the U.S. Military Academy, the Naval Academy, Air Force Academy, Coast Guard Academy, and the U.S. Army Herald Trumpets were invited to perform. This was the first time since the second inauguration of President Richard Nixon in 1973 that all four service academies sang together.[13][26]

text: Two days after Super Bowl XLIII, it was revealed that Jennifer Hudson also had lip synced.[14]

text: At the beginning of Super Bowl XLV, Christina Aguilera sang the lyrics incorrectly. Instead of singing "O'er the ramparts we watched, were so gallantly streaming", the pop star sang "What so proudly we watched at the twilight's last gleaming".[27][28] According to the New York Times, she also changed "gleaming" to "reaming".[29]

text: Other patriotic performances[edit]

text: The following Super Bowls featured other patriotic performances besides the national anthem. Since 2009, "America the Beautiful" is sung before the national anthem.[30]

text:
1969: Apollo 8 crew
1970: Apollo astronauts
1973: Apollo 17 crew

text:
1977: Vikki Carr (in place of the national anthem)
2001: Ray Charles
2002: Mary J. Blige, Marc Anthony and the Boston Pops Orchestra
2005: Alicia Keys and a tribute video to the recently deceased Ray Charles
2009: Faith Hill
2010: Queen Latifah
2011: Lea Michele
2012: Blake Shelton and Miranda Lambert
2013: Jennifer Hudson with the Sandy Hook Elementary School Chorus[31][32]
2014: Queen Latifah with the New Jersey Youth Chorus
2015: John Legend [9]
2016: U.S. Armed Forces Chorus [33]
2017: Phillipa Soo, Renee Elise Goldsberry and Jasmine Cephas Jones.[34]
2018: Leslie Odom Jr..[35].

text: 2003: Céline Dion


document_title: Isotopes of hydrogen

question_text: what is the mass number of hydrogen isotope that contains 2 neutrons

text: Isotopes of hydrogen

text: Hydrogen-1 (protium)[edit]

text: 1H (atomic mass 7000100782503224100♠1.007825032241(94) u) is the most common hydrogen isotope with an abundance of more than 99.98%. Because the nucleus of this isotope consists of only a single proton, it is given the formal name protium.

text: The proton has never been observed to decay, and hydrogen-1 is therefore considered a stable isotope. Some grand unified theories proposed in the 1970s predict that proton decay can occur with a half-life between 1031 and 1036 years. If this prediction is found to be true, then hydrogen-1 (and indeed all nuclei now believed to be stable) are only observationally stable. To date, however, experiments have shown that the minimum proton half-life is in excess of 1034 years.

text: Hydrogen-2 (deuterium)[edit]

text: 2H (atomic mass 7000201410177811000♠2.01410177811(12) u), the other stable hydrogen isotope, is known as deuterium and contains one proton and one neutron in its nucleus. The nucleus of deuterium is called a deuteron. Deuterium comprises 0.0026 – 0.0184% (by population, not by mass) of hydrogen samples on Earth, with the lower number tending to be found in samples of hydrogen gas and the higher enrichment (0.015% or 150 ppm) typical of ocean water. Deuterium on Earth has been enriched with respect to its initial concentration in the Big Bang and the outer solar system (about 27 ppm, by atom fraction) and its concentration in older parts of the Milky Way galaxy (about 23 ppm). Presumably the differential concentration of deuterium in the inner solar system is due to the lower volatility of deuterium gas and compounds, enriching deuterium fractions in comets and planets exposed to significant heat from the Sun over billions of years of solar system evolution.

text: Deuterium is not radioactive, and does not represent a significant toxicity hazard. Water enriched in molecules that include deuterium instead of protium is called heavy water. Deuterium and its compounds are used as a non-radioactive label in chemical experiments and in solvents for 1H-NMR spectroscopy. Heavy water is used as a neutron moderator and coolant for nuclear reactors. Deuterium is also a potential fuel for commercial nuclear fusion.

text: Hydrogen-3 (tritium)[edit]

text: 3H (atomic mass 7000301604928199000♠3.01604928199(23) u) is known as tritium and contains one proton and two neutrons in its nucleus. It is radioactive, decaying into helium-3 through β− decay with a half-life of 12.32 years.[4] Trace amounts of tritium occur naturally because of the interaction of cosmic rays with atmospheric gases. Tritium has also been released during nuclear weapons tests. It is used in thermonuclear fusion weapons, as a tracer in isotope geochemistry, and specialized in self-powered lighting devices.

text: The most common method of producing tritium is by bombarding a natural isotope of lithium, lithium-6, with neutrons in a nuclear reactor.

text: Tritium was once used routinely in chemical and biological labeling experiments as a radiolabel, which has become less common in recent times. D-T nuclear fusion uses tritium as its main reactant, along with deuterium, liberating energy through the loss of mass when the two nuclei collide and fuse at high temperatures.

text: 4H (atomic mass is 7000402643000000000♠4.02643(11) u) contains one proton and three neutrons in its nucleus. It is a highly unstable isotope of hydrogen. It has been synthesised in the laboratory by bombarding tritium with fast-moving deuterium nuclei.[5] In this experiment, the tritium nucleus captured a neutron from the fast-moving deuterium nucleus. The presence of the hydrogen-4 was deduced by detecting the emitted protons. It decays through neutron emission into hydrogen-3 (tritium) with a half-life of about 139 ± 10 yoctoseconds, or (1.39 ± 0.10) × 10−22 seconds.[6]

text: In the 1955 satirical novel The Mouse That Roared, the name quadium was given to the hydrogen-4 isotope that powered the Q-bomb that the Duchy of Grand Fenwick captured from the United States.

text: 5H is a highly unstable isotope of hydrogen. The nucleus consists of a proton and four neutrons. It has been synthesised in the laboratory by bombarding tritium with fast-moving tritium nuclei.[5][7] In this experiment, one tritium nucleus captures two neutrons from the other, becoming a nucleus with one proton and four neutrons. The remaining proton may be detected, and the existence of hydrogen-5 deduced. It decays through double neutron emission into hydrogen-3 (tritium) and has a half-life of at least 910 yoctoseconds (9.1 × 10−22 seconds).[6]

text: 6H decays either through triple neutron emission into hydrogen-3 (tritium) or quadruple neutron emission into hydrogen-2 (deuterium) and has a half-life of 290 yoctoseconds (2.9 × 10−22 seconds).[6]

text: 7H consists of a proton and six neutrons. It was first synthesised in 2003 by a group of Russian, Japanese and French scientists at RIKEN's Radioactive Isotope Beam Factory by bombarding hydrogen with helium-8 atoms. In the resulting reaction, all six of the helium-8's neutrons were donated to the hydrogen's nucleus. The two remaining protons were detected by the "RIKEN telescope", a device composed of several layers of sensors, positioned behind the target of the RI Beam cyclotron.[3] Hydrogen-7 has a half life of 23 yoctoseconds (2.3×10−23 seconds).

text: List of isotopes[edit]

text:
nuclide
symbol
Z(p)
N(n)
isotopic mass (u)
half-life
decay
mode(s)[8]
Daughter Isotope(s)[n 1]
nuclear
spin
representative
isotopic
composition
(mole fraction)[n 2]
range of natural
variation
(mole fraction)

1H
1
0
7000100782503224000♠1.00782503224(9)
Stable[n 3][n 4]
 1⁄2+
6999999885000000000♠0.999885(70)
6999999816000000000♠0.999816–6999999974000000000♠0.999974

2H (D)[n 5]
1
1
7000201410177811000♠2.01410177811(12)
Stable
1+
6996115000000000000♠0.000115(70)[n 6]
6995259999999999999♠0.000026–6996184000000000000♠0.000184

3H (T)[n 7]
1
2
7000301604928199000♠3.01604928199(23)
7008388789632000000♠12.32(2) y
β−
3He
 1⁄2+
Trace[n 8]

4H
1
3
7000402643000000000♠4.02643(11)
6978139000000000000♠1.39(10)×10−22 s
[6987737001184020000♠4.6(9) MeV]
n
3H
2−

5H
1
4
7000503531000000000♠5.03531(10)
>6978910000000000000♠9.1×10−22 s ?
2n
3H
( 1⁄2+)

6H
1
5
7000604496000000000♠6.04496(27)
6978290000000000000♠2.90(70)×10−22 s
[6987256348237920000♠1.6(4) MeV]
3n
3H
2−#

4n
2H

7H
1
6
7000705275000000000♠7.05275(108)#
6977229999999999999♠2.3(6)×10−23 s#
4n
3H
 1⁄2+#

text:
Jump up ^ Bold for stable isotopes
Jump up ^ Refers to that in water.
Jump up ^ Greater than 7041347133600000000♠1.1×1034 yr. See proton decay.
Jump up ^ This and 3He are the only stable nuclides with more protons than neutrons.
Jump up ^ Produced during Big Bang nucleosynthesis
Jump up ^ Tank hydrogen has a 2H abundance as low as 6995320000000000000♠3.2×10−5 (mole fraction).
Jump up ^ Produced during Big Bang nucleosynthesis, but not primordial, as all such atoms have since decayed to 3He
Jump up ^ Cosmogenic

tag: ol

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Commercially available materials may have been subjected to an undisclosed or inadvertent isotopic fractionation. Substantial deviations from the given mass and composition can occur.
Values marked # are not purely derived from experimental data, but at least partly from systematic trends. Spins with weak assignment arguments are enclosed in parentheses.
Uncertainties are given in concise form in parentheses after the corresponding last digits. Uncertainty values denote one standard deviation, except isotopic composition and standard atomic mass from IUPAC, which use expanded uncertainties.
Isotope abundances are given by IUPAC Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic Weights (CIAAW)

text: Decay chains[edit]

text: The majority of heavy hydrogen isotopes decay directly to 3H, which then decays to the stable isotope 3He. However, 6H has occasionally been observed to decay directly to stable 2H.

text: Note that the decay times are in yoctoseconds for all isotopes except 3H, which is expressed in years.


document_title: Natasha, Pierre & The Great Comet of 1812

question_text: original cast of natasha pierre and the great comet of 1812

text: Synopsis[edit]

text: Act 1[edit]

text: The story is set in Moscow, 1812, just before Napoleon's invasion of Russia and the burning of the city. As the story begins ("Prologue"), Pierre, a wealthy aristocrat, is having an existential crisis, living a slothful life of wine, philosophy, and inaction ("Pierre"). He is best friends with Prince Andrey Bolkonsky, who has left to go to war. Andrey has recently become engaged to the young, beautiful countess Natasha Rostova. Natasha and her cousin Sonya arrive in Moscow to stay the winter with Natasha's godmother, Marya D., while Natasha waits for Andrey to return from the war. Marya D. is an old friend of Pierre's ("Moscow"). Marya D. advises Natasha that she must visit her future in-laws, the demented old Prince Bolkonsky and his pitiable spinster daughter Mary ("The Private and Intimate Life of the House"), to win their affection in advance of the marriage, which is critical to the status and fortune of the Rostov family. However, Natasha's visit with Mary and Bolkonsky ends in disaster ("Natasha & Bolkonskys"), as Mary finds Natasha vain, Natasha finds Mary cold, and Bolkonsky behaves bizarrely. Natasha leaves their home missing Andrey more than ever ("No One Else").

text: The next night Natasha is introduced to decadent Moscow society after an extravagant performance at "The Opera". There she meets Prince Anatole Kuragin, a young and handsome man and, it turns out, a notorious rogue ("Natasha & Anatole"); their interaction leaves them both feeling confused.

text: Anatole, his friend Dolokhov, and Pierre go out drinking; they are met by Pierre's unpleasant wife, Hélène (Anatole's sister), who taunts Pierre and flirts with Dolokhov. Anatole plots with Dolokhov and Hélène to have the young woman he just met, although he is already married. Pierre finds his wife's familiarity with Dolokhov offensive and drunkenly challenges him to a duel, accidentally wounding Dolokhov. When it is Dolokhov's turn to shoot, Pierre stands openly in front of the bullet, but Dolokhov miraculously misses him ("The Duel"). Alone, Pierre reflects on his near-death experience and realizes that despite wasting his life, he wishes to live ("Dust and Ashes").

text: Natasha and her family go to church ("Sunday Morning"). Hélène finds it amusing to encourage her brother Anatole's conquest of the young countess Natasha, which she knows would lead to Natasha's ruin. Hélène visits Natasha and invites her to the ball that night ("Charming"). That night, Natasha is scared of what she feels for Anatole, Anatole tells her he loves her. He then kisses Natasha, leading her to fall in love with him in return ("The Ball").

text: Act 2[edit]

text: Anatole and Natasha make plans to elope (she still does not know that he is married), and Natasha tearfully breaks off her engagement with Andrey ("Letters"). Sonya finds out about the plan and realizes it will mean Natasha's ruin ("Sonya & Natasha"); Sonya determines to save Natasha from herself even if it means she will lose her closest friend ("Sonya Alone"). That evening Anatole and Dolokhov plan for the elopement ("Preparations"), and Dolokhov tries to change Anatole's mind with no success. Balaga, their trusted troika driver ("Balaga"), soon arrives to take them to Natasha's house and a wild party ensues as Anatole bids farewell to his friends. However, they are thwarted at the last moment by Marya D. ("The Abduction"). Marya D. scolds Natasha but then tries to comfort her with Sonya's help. Natasha screams at them, breaks down and waits for Anatole to come back for her all night ("In My House").

text: Marya D. calls on Pierre in the middle of the night ("A Call to Pierre"), begging him to handle the crisis, and Pierre finally learns that the object of Anatole's conquest is Natasha. Marya D. finds out that Anatole is married and tells a grief-stricken Natasha. Pierre, outraged, searches for Anatole ("Find Anatole"). When Pierre finds Anatole, he comes close to attacking him in rage, but instead gives him money and orders him to leave Moscow (”Pierre & Anatole”). Natasha poisons herself with arsenic ("Natasha Very Ill") but lives. The next day Andrey returns. Pierre explains the scandal to him and asks him to be compassionate, but Andrey is unable to forgive Natasha and will not ask for her hand in marriage again ("Pierre & Andrey"). Finally, Pierre visits Natasha ("Pierre & Natasha") and he comforts the distraught girl, giving her hope. After their meeting, Pierre experiences a moment of enlightenment himself while seeing The Great Comet of 1812 in the night sky.[2]

text: Music[edit]

text: Malloy's original score (orchestrated by the composer) merges Russian folk and classical music with indie rock and EDM influences. The piece is described by the composer as an "electropop opera" and is through-composed, with just one line of spoken dialogue, in Pierre and Natasha's only scene together.[3] On stage, nearly all of the actors play musical instruments augmenting the show's orchestra. Groban plays the accordion briefly, and plays large sections of the score on the orchestra's piano.[4]

text: The libretto contains many passages taken word-for-word from Aylmer and Louise Maude's 1922 translation of Tolstoy's novel.[2]

text: Musical numbers[edit]

text:
Act I

"Prologue" – Ensemble
"Pierre" – Pierre, Ensemble
"Moscow" – Marya D., Natasha, Sonya
"The Private and Intimate Life of the House" – Bolkonsky, Mary
"Natasha & Bolkonskys" – Mary, Natasha, Bolkonsky
"No One Else" – Natasha
"The Opera" – Natasha, Sonya, Marya D., Hélène, Ensemble
"Natasha & Anatole" – Natasha, Anatole
"The Duel" – Anatole, Dolokhov, Pierre, Hélène, Ensemble
"Dust and Ashes" – Pierre, Ensemble
"Sunday Morning" – Natasha, Sonya, Marya D.
"Charming" – Hélène
"The Ball" – Natasha, Anatole

Act II

"Letters" – Natasha, Pierre, Mary, Anatole, Ensemble
"Sonya & Natasha" – Sonya, Natasha
"Sonya Alone" – Sonya
"Preparations" – Anatole, Dolokhov, Pierre
"Balaga" – Balaga, Anatole, Dolokhov, Ensemble
"The Abduction" – Ensemble
"In My House" – Marya D., Natasha, Sonya
"A Call to Pierre" – Marya D., Pierre
"Find Anatole" – Pierre, Anatole, Hélène, Natasha
"Pierre & Anatole" – Pierre, Anatole
"Natasha Very Ill" – Sonya
"Pierre & Andrey" – Andrey, Pierre
"Pierre & Natasha" – Pierre, Natasha
"The Great Comet of 1812" – Pierre, Ensemble

text: Note: An aria for Natasha, "Natasha Lost", was cut from the Broadway production but is included on the original cast recording between number 8 ("Natasha & Anatole") and number 9 ("The Duel"). In addition, "Dust and Ashes" was added for the Broadway production.

text: Productions[edit]

text: Off-Broadway[edit]

text: Ars Nova[edit]

text: The musical premiered on October 16, 2012, at Ars Nova; directed by Rachel Chavkin[5] the show was staged as an immersive production, with action happening around and among the audience. The set designed by Mimi Lien and lights by Bradley King transformed Ars Nova into a Russian supper club. The creative team was completed by Paloma Young as costume designer, Matt Hubbs as sound designer, and Dave Malloy as musical director. The cast included Malloy as Pierre, Phillipa Soo as Natasha, Lucas Steele as Anatole, Amber Gray as Hélène, Brittain Ashford as Sonya, Nick Choksi as Dolokhov, Shaina Taub as Mary, Blake DeLong as Andrey/Prince Bolkonsky, Amelia Workman as Marya D. and Paul Pinto (who also served as associate music director) as Balaga. The show was the first production of Ars Nova to ever transfer to Broadway.

text: Kazino[edit]

text: In May 16, 2013, the show opened in the Meatpacking District at Kazino,[6] a temporary structure designed as an opulent Russian club, where the immersive production was staged, again by the same creative team. The cast reprised their roles, except Choksi, now replaced by Ian Lassiter, and Workman, replaced by Grace McLean. David Abeles took over the role of Pierre on July 9, 2013. The show closed on September 1, 2013.

text: The show opened for a 14-week limited engagement in September 2013 at the Kazino and moved to the Theater District, with the final cast of the previous production. On December 10, 2013, the two-disc cast recording was released. The show was extended and ran until March 2, 2014.

text: American Repertory Theater (A.R.T.)[edit]

text: The team behind the original production remounted the show at the American Repertory Theatre (A.R.T.) in Cambridge, Massachusetts, with performances beginning December 1, 2015 to January 2016. Now expanded to a proscenium stage, the set put audience onstage, with unique seating options, with banquette and dining tables added. Scott Stangland took over the role of Pierre, Denée Benton starred as Natasha, Lilli Cooper as Hélène, Nicholas Belton as Andrey/Prince Bolkonsky and the rest of the cast reprised their roles.

text: Broadway[edit]

text: The Broadway production at the Imperial Theatre began previews on October 18, 2016 and opened on November 14, 2016, starring Josh Groban as Pierre and Denée Benton as Natasha, both making their Broadway debuts, with choreography by Sam Pinkleton, sets by Mimi Lien, costumes by Paloma Young, lights by Bradley King, sound by Nicholas Pope and music direction by Or Matias.[7][8] With sets similar to the A.R.T. remounting, the production took the proscenium stage, but removed almost 200 seats from the audience to accommodate the design. Again, the options of stage seats, in banquettes or dining tables is available. The Broadway production cost about $14 million to stage.[9]

text: Following Groban's departure on July 2, 2017, Dave Malloy assumed the role of Pierre from July 3 to 9, 2017. Okieriete Onaodowan and Ingrid Michaelson assumed the roles of Pierre and Sonya on July 11 through August 13; Onaodowan was originally supposed to begin performances on July 3.[10] Mandy Patinkin was set to replace Onaodowan as Pierre on August 15 through September 3, 2017, but withdrew after criticism from Black Twitter.[11][12]

text: The Broadway production played its final performance on September 3, 2017, having played 32 previews and 336 performances.[13]

text: National Tour[edit]

text: Plans for a national tour of The Great Comet are underway with an expected launch in 2019

text: International productions[edit]

text: In September 2014, the show had its South American premiere, at Teatro Parapluie in Quito, Ecuador, in a Spanish language production.

text: Characters[edit]

text:
Character[14]
Voice[15]
Description[16]

Natasha Rostova
Soprano
G3–F#5

"Natasha is young": A nineteen-year-old ingenue who is innocent, doe-eyed, and profoundly, lethally romantic. She is betrothed to Andrey and loves him dearly. She goes to Moscow under the care of her godmother, Marya D, with her cousin and best friend Sonya. During her first 3 days there, she meets Anatole and falls for him.

Pierre Bezukhov
Baritenor
G2–B4

"Dear, bewildered, and awkward Pierre...rich, unhappily married Pierre": The illegitimate son of an aristocratic Russian family. Socially awkward with a melancholy streak, he is an outsider in society despite his wealth. He is a good friend of Andrey and keeps an eye on Natasha for him while Andrey is away at war.

Anatole Kuragin
Tenor
C3–C#5

"Anatole is hot": An aristocratic, seductive hedonist, who spends his money on women and wine. He is the brother of Hélène and best friend of Dolokhov. He is an otherworldly, David Bowie type. During the course of the show, he develops feelings and falls in love with Natasha.

Sonya Rostova
Mezzo
F#3–E5

"Sonya is good": Natasha's cousin and closest friend. She is fiercely dedicated to her cousin and will do anything and everything to keep her safe.

Hélène Bezukhova
Alto
E3–F5

"Hélène is a slut": Anatole's sister who married Pierre for money. She is highly sexualized and dedicated to her brother.

Marya Dmitriyevna
Alto
G3–E5

"Marya is old-school, a grand dame of Moscow": She is Natasha's godmother, an old friend of Pierre, and a very strict woman. However, she is also kind. Natasha and Sonya live with her during their time in the city. She loves Natasha very much, and is very protective of her.

Fedya Dolokhov
Baritone
D3–F4

"Dolokhov is fierce, but not too important": Anatole's friend and an extremely talented marksman. He is possibly having an affair with Hélène, Pierre's wife.

Andrey Bolkonsky/
Old Prince Bolkonsky
Baritone
Ab3–Eb4

"Andrey isn't here": He is fighting in the war for much of the show, and is betrothed to Natasha. He is serious and bitter.
"Old Prince Bolkonsky is crazy" and suffering from many age-related ailments. He is taken care of by his daughter Mary, but he torments her regardless.

Mary Bolkonskaya
Mezzo
G3–F5

"Mary is plain": the daughter of Bolkonsky and Andrey's sister. She lives at home with her father as his caretaker, where she is tormented and abused by him. She is confined to the home and has no friends.

Balaga
Baritone
A2–E4

"Balaga's just for fun": He's a famous troika driver, and assists Anatole with his plot for escaping Moscow to go to Poland. He is wild and mystical.

text: (Lines in quotations are lyrics from the opening song, "Prologue," which introduces the characters)[17]

text: Original principal casts[edit]

text:
Character
Ars Nova
(2012)
Off-Broadway
Kazino Meatpacking District (2013)
Off-Broadway
Kazino Times Square (2013)
American Repertory Theater
(2015)
Broadway
(2016)

Natasha Rostova
Phillipa Soo
Denée Benton

Pierre Bezukhov
Dave Malloy
David Abeles[18]
Scott Stangland
Josh Groban

Anatole Kuragin
Lucas Steele

Sonya Rostova
Brittain Ashford

Hélène Bezukhova
Amber Gray
Lilli Cooper
Amber Gray

Marya Dmitriyevna
Amelia Workman
Grace McLean

Fedya Dolokhov
Nick Choksi
Ian Lassiter
Nick Choksi

Andrey Bolkonsky/Old Prince Bolkonsky
Blake DeLong
Nicholas Belton

Mary Bolkonskaya
Gelsey Bell
Shaina Taub
Gelsey Bell

Balaga
Paul Pinto
Ashkon Davaran
Paul Pinto

text: Broadway Understudies[19][edit]

text:
For Natasha Rostova: Shoba Narayan, Lauren Zakrin
For Pierre Bezukhov: Scott Stangland (standby), Heath Saunders, Nick Gaswirth
For Anatole Kuragin: Josh Canfield, Blaine Alden Krauss
For Sonya Rostova: Ashley Pérez Flanagan, Courtney Bassett
For Hélène Bezukhova: Lulu Fall, Kennedy Caughell, Erica Dorfler
For Marya Dmitriyevna: Lulu Fall, Kennedy Caughell, Erica Dorfler
For Fedya Dolokhov: Azudi Onyejekwe, Ken Clark
For Andrey Bolkonsky/Old Prince Bolkonsky: Ken Clark, Blaine Alden Krauss
For Mary Bolkonskaya/Maid Servant: Courtney Bassett, Ashley Pérez Flanagan
For Balaga: Heath Saunders, Nick Gaswirth

text: Notable cast replacements[edit]

text:
Composer Dave Malloy temporarily replaced Josh Groban as Pierre on several performances from May 4 to June 27 and July 3 to July 9, 2017.[10] He replaced Scott Stangland as Pierre on August 22, 2017.[13]
Multi-platinum singer-songwriter Ingrid Michaelson temporarily replaced Brittain Ashford as Sonya on July 3 through August 13, 2017. Ashford returned to the role on August 15.[20][21]
Okieriete Onaodowan, best known for originating the roles of James Madison and Hercules Mulligan in the 2015 musical Hamilton, took over the role of Pierre from Dave Malloy on July 11 through August 13, 2017.[10][11][22]
Scott Stangland replaced Okieriete Onaodowan as Pierre from August 15 through 20, 2017.[13]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: The piece was very well received by the New York press; Charles Isherwood in the New York Times called it "a vibrant, transporting new musical," and both Times theater critics included the show on their Best of the Year lists.[23] The Times' classical critic, Anthony Tommasini, called it "a breathless, roughish and ravishing quasi-opera. This is a pastiche score of a cavalier sort. Mr. Malloy lifts styles with such abandon, making willful shifts – from punk riffs to agitated Broadway ballads, mock-pompous recitative to gritty Russian folk songs or drinking choruses with klezmer clarinets – that you lose track of what is being appropriated and really don't care."[24] Time Out New York gave the piece five out of five stars, and also included it on both critics' Best of lists, stating "this is theater like no other in New York. It grounds you and transports you at once, and leaves you beaming with pleasure.”[25]

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text: Original Off-Broadway production[edit]

text: Sources: TheaterMania[26] Internet Off-Broadway Database[27]Village Voice[28]

text:
Year
Award
Category
Nominee
Result

2013
Obie Award[29]
Special Citations
Dave Malloy & Rachel Chavkin
Won

Drama League Award[30]
Distinguished Performance Award
Phillipa Soo
Nominated

Outstanding Production of a Broadway or Off-Broadway Musical
Nominated

Drama Desk Award[31]
Outstanding Musical
Nominated

Outstanding Music
Dave Malloy
Nominated

Outstanding Lyrics
Nominated

Outstanding Director of a Musical
Rachel Chavkin
Nominated

Outstanding Costume Design
Paloma Young
Nominated

Off-Broadway Alliance Awards[32]
Best New Musical
Won

2014
Lucille Lortel Award[33]
Outstanding Musical
Nominated

Outstanding Director
Rachel Chavkin
Nominated

Outstanding Lead Actress in a Musical
Phillipa Soo
Nominated

Outstanding Featured Actor in a Musical
Lucas Steele
Won

Blake DeLong
Nominated

Outstanding Featured Actress in a Musical
Brittain Ashford
Nominated

Shaina Taub
Nominated

Outstanding Scenic Design
Mimi Lien
Won

Outstanding Costume Design
Paloma Young
Won

Outstanding Lighting Design
Bradley King
Nominated

Outstanding Sound Design
Matt Hubbs
Nominated

text: Original Cambridge production[edit]

text:
Year
Award
Category
Nominee
Result

2016
Elliot Norton Award[34][35]
Outstanding Musical Production by a Large Theatre
Won

Outstanding Design, Large Theatre
Won

Outstanding Director, Large Theatre
Rachel Chavkin
Won

Outstanding Performance by an Actor
Lucas Steele
Nominated

Scott Stangland
Won

Outstanding Performance by an Actress
Denée Benton
Nominated

Outstanding Ensemble, Large Theatre
Nominated

text: Original Broadway production[edit]

text:
Year
Award
Category
Nominee
Result

2017
Tony Award[36]
Best Musical
Nominated

Best Book of a Musical
Dave Malloy
Nominated

Best Original Score
Nominated

Best Orchestrations
Nominated

Best Actor in a Musical
Josh Groban
Nominated

Best Actress in a Musical
Denée Benton
Nominated

Best Featured Actor in a Musical
Lucas Steele
Nominated

Best Scenic Design in a Musical
Mimi Lien
Won

Best Costume Design in a Musical
Paloma Young
Nominated

Best Lighting Design in a Musical
Bradley King
Won

Best Direction of a Musical
Rachel Chavkin
Nominated

Best Choreography
Sam Pinkleton
Nominated

Drama Desk Awards[37]
Outstanding Director of a Musical
Rachel Chavkin
Won

Outstanding Set Design
Mimi Lien
Won

Outstanding Lighting Design for a Musical
Bradley King
Won

Outstanding Sound Design in a Musical
Nicholas Pope
Won

Drama League Award[38]
Outstanding Production of a Broadway or Off-Broadway Musical
Nominated

Distinguished Performance Award
Denée Benton
Nominated

Josh Groban
Nominated

Outer Critics Circle Award[39][40]
Outstanding Set Design
Mimi Lien
Won

Outstanding Lighting Design
Bradley King
Won

Outstanding Sound Design
Nicholas Pope
Nominated

Theatre World Award[41]
Denée Benton
Honoree

Josh Groban
Honoree

Amber Gray
Honoree

Dave Malloy
Special Award Honoree

Chita Rivera Awards for Dance and Choreography[42][43]
Outstanding Ensemble in a Broadway Show
Won

ACCA Award for Outstanding Broadway Chorus[44]
Sumayya Ali, Courtney Bassett, Josh Canfield, Kennedy Caughell, Ken Clark, Erica Dorfler, Lulu Fall, Ashley Pérez Flanagan, Paloma Garcia-Lee, Nick Gaswirth, Alex Gibson, Billy Joe Kiessling, Mary Spencer Knapp, Blaine Alden Krauss, Reed Luplau, Brandt Martinez, Andrew Mayer, Mary Page Nance, Shoba Narayan, Azudi Onyejekwe, Pearl Rhein, Celia Mei Rubin, Heath Saunders, Ani Taj, Cathryn Wake, Katrina Yaukey, and Lauren Zakrin
Recipient

Extraordinary Excellence in Diversity[45]
Recipient

text: Recordings[edit]

text: On December 10, 2013 Ghostlight Records released a two-disc original cast album of the entire score.[46] Later, another disc containing highlights from the show was released.

text: The original Broadway cast recording was released on May 19, 2017.

text: Book[edit]

text: On November 22, 2016 the book Natasha, Pierre, and the Great Comet of 1812: The Journey of a New Musical to Broadway was released. The book, edited and compiled by Steven Suskin, includes interviews with many of the original cast members, as well as the annotated script and photos of both the Kazino and Broadway casts. The book also includes a CD with five songs from the show: three from the original cast recording, and two featuring Josh Groban and a 25 piece orchestra.