document_title: New York City water supply system

question_text: where does water come from in new york city

text: New York City water supply system

text: Responsibility for water supply, sewerage and wastewater treatment[edit]

text: Responsibility for the city water supply is shared among three institutions: the New York City Department of Environmental Protection ("DEP"), which operates and maintains the system and is responsible for investment planning; the New York City Municipal Water Finance Authority ("NYW"), which raises debt financing in the market to underwrite the system's costs; and the Water Board, which sets rates and collects user payments.

text: New York City Department of Environmental Protection[edit]

text: The DEP has a workforce of over 6,000 employees. It includes three bureaus in charge of, respectively, the upstate water supply system, New York City's water and sewer operations, and wastewater treatment:

text:
The Bureau of Water Supply manages, operates and protects New York City's upstate water supply system to ensure the delivery of a sufficient quantity of high quality drinking water. The Bureau is also responsible for the overall management and implementation of the provisions of the city's $1.5 billion Watershed Protection Program.
In addition to operating and maintaining the water supply and sewerage system, the Bureau of Water and Sewer Operations is also responsible for the operation of the Staten Island Bluebelt, an ecologically sound, cost-effective natural alternative to storm sewers, which occupies approximately 15 square miles (39 km2) of land in the South Richmond area of Staten Island. This project preserves streams, ponds and other wetland ("bluebelt") areas, allowing them to perform their natural function of conveying, storing and filtering storm water.
The Bureau of Wastewater Treatment operates 14 water pollution control plants treating an average of 1.5 billion US gallons (5,700,000 m3) of wastewater a day; 95 wastewater pump stations; eight dewatering facilities; 490 sewer regulators; and 7,000 miles (11,000 km) of intercepting sewers.[3]

text: New York City Municipal Water Finance Authority[edit]

text: The NYW finances the capital needs of the water and sewer system of the city through the issuance of bonds, commercial paper, and other debt instruments. It is a public-benefit corporation created in 1985 pursuant to the New York City Municipal Water Finance Authority Act. The Authority is administered by a seven-member Board of Directors. Four of the members are ex officio members: the Commissioner of Environmental Protection of the City, the Director of Management and Budget of the City, the Commissioner of Finance of the City, and the Commissioner of Environmental Conservation of the State. The remaining three members are public appointments: two by the Mayor, and one by the Governor.[4]

text: New York City Water Board[edit]

text: The New York City Water Board sets water and sewer rates for New York City sufficient to pay the costs of operating and financing the system, and collects user payments from customers for services provided by the water and wastewater utility systems of the City of New York. The five Board members are appointed to two-year terms by the Mayor.[5]

text: Overview of infrastructure[edit]

text: New York City's water system consists of aqueducts, distribution pipes, reservoirs, and water tunnels that channel drinking water to residents and visitors. A comprehensive raised-relief map of the system is on display at the Queens Museum of Art. Until the early 21st century, some places in southeastern Queens received their water from local wells of the former Jamaica Water Supply Company.[6]

text: Reservoirs and aqueducts[edit]

text: The water system has a storage capacity of 550 billion US gallons (2.1×109 m3) and provides over 1.2 billion US gallons (4,500,000 m3) per day of drinking water to more than eight million city residents, another one million users in four upstate counties bordering on the water supply system, and visitors to the region. Three separate sub-systems, each consisting of aqueducts and reservoirs, bring water from Upstate New York to the New York City:

text:
The New Croton Aqueduct, completed in 1890, brings water from the New Croton Reservoir in Westchester and Putnam counties.
The Catskill Aqueduct, completed in 1916, is significantly larger than New Croton and brings water from two reservoirs in the eastern Catskill Mountains.
The Delaware Aqueduct, completed in 1945, taps tributaries of the Delaware River in the western Catskill Mountains and provides approximately half of New York City's water supply.[7]

text: The latter two aqueducts provide 90% of New York City's drinking water. Water from both aqueducts is stored first in the large Kensico Reservoir and subsequently in the much smaller Hillview Reservoir closer to the city.

text: Brooklyn Reservoirs[edit]

text: Brooklyn has had many water reservoirs; they can be seen on an 1864 map of Brooklyn Waterworks.[8] They are listed below, from east to west:

text:
Hempstead Reservoir
Smith's Pond
Rockville Reservoir
Valley Stream Pond
Watts Pond
Clear Stream Reservoir
Brookfield Reservoir
Conselyea Pond
P. Cornells Pond
Springfield Pond
One Mile Pond
Jamaica Reservoir
Ridgewood Reservoir
Mount Prospect Reservoir

tag: ol

text: Tunnels and distribution system[edit]

text: From the Hillview reservoir water flows by gravity through three tunnels under New York City, where water rises again to the surface under natural pressure, through a number of shafts. The three tunnels are:

text:
New York City Water Tunnel No.1, completed in 1917. It runs from the Hillview Reservoir under the central Bronx, Harlem River, West Side, Midtown, and Lower East Side of Manhattan, and under the East River to Brooklyn where it connects to Tunnel 2. It is expected to undergo extensive repairs upon completion of Tunnel No. 3, in 2020.
New York City Water Tunnel No. 2, completed in 1935. It runs from the Hillview Reservoir under the central Bronx, East River, and western Queens to Brooklyn, where it connects to Tunnel 1 and the Richmond Tunnel to Staten Island. When completed, it was the longest large diameter water tunnel in the world.[9]
The uncompleted New York City Water Tunnel No. 3, the largest capital construction project in New York City's history (see below).[10]

text: The distribution system is made up of an extensive grid of water mains stretching approximately 6,500 miles (10,500 km).

text: Ongoing repairs and upgrades[edit]

text: The Croton Water Filtration Plant Project[edit]

text: In order to comply with federal and state laws regarding the filtration and disinfection of drinking water, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the New York State Department of Health called on the city to create a treatment plan to serve the Croton System. The underground filtration plant is under construction in Van Cortlandt Park. While the Bloomberg administration originally budgeted the project at $992 million in 2003, an audit by the city's comptroller placed the actual costs at $2.1 billion in August 2009.[11]

text: Delaware Aqueduct repair[edit]

text: The New York City water supply system leaks at a rate of up to 36 million US gallons (140,000 m3) per day.[12] A complex five-year project with an estimated $240 million construction cost was initiated in November 2008, to correct some of this leakage.

text: Water tunnel No. 3[edit]

text: The construction of Water tunnel No. 3 is intended to provide the city with a critical third connection to its Upstate New York water supply system, allowing the city to close tunnels No. 1 and No. 2 for repair for the first time of their history. The tunnel will eventually be more than 60 miles (97 km) long. Construction on the tunnel began in 1970, and its first and second phases are completed. The latter opened with a ceremony under Central Park, in 2013. Completion of all phases is not expected until at least 2020.[13]


document_title: History of the world's tallest buildings

question_text: how long were the pyramids the tallest structure

root

text: Definition of terms[edit]

text: Meaning of "building"[edit]

text: The earliest structures now known to be the tallest in the world were the Egyptian pyramids, with the Great Pyramid of Giza, at an original height of 146.5 metres (481 ft), being the tallest man–made structure in the world for over 3,800 years, until the construction of Lincoln Cathedral in 1300. From then until the completion of the Washington Monument (capped in 1884) the world's tallest buildings were churches or cathedrals. Later, the Eiffel Tower and, still later, some radio masts and television towers were the world's tallest structures.

tag: p

text: However, though all of these are structures, some are not buildings in the sense of being regularly inhabited or occupied. It is in this sense of being regularly inhabited or occupied that the term "building" is generally understood to mean when determining what is the world's tallest building. The non-profit international organization Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat (CTBUH), which maintains a set of criteria for determining the height of tall buildings, defines a "building" as "(A) structure that is designed for residential, business or manufacturing purposes" and "has floors".[1]

text: Tall churches and cathedrals occupy a middle ground: their lower areas are regularly occupied, but much of their height is in bell towers and spires which are not. Whether a church or cathedral is a "building" or merely a "structure" for the purposes of determining the title of "world's tallest building" is a subjective matter of definition (this article treats churches and cathedrals as buildings).

text: Determination of height[edit]

text: The Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat based in Chicago uses three different criteria for determining the height of a tall building, each of which may give a different result. "Height of the highest floor" is one criterion, and "height to the top of any part of the building" is another, but the default criterion used by the CTBUH is "height of the architectural top of the building", which includes spires but not antennae, masts or flag poles.[1]

text: Tallest buildings (13th century–1901)[edit]

text: Churches and cathedrals[edit]

text: From the 13th century until 1901, the world's tallest building was always a church or cathedral. In the 13th century Old St Paul's Cathedral with its spire was completed. Completed in the early 14th century, the central spire of Lincoln Cathedral surpassed it. In 1549 this spire collapsed, beginning a long sequence where the status of world's tallest building was borne by shorter and shorter buildings. On the collapse of Lincoln Cathedral's spire, then St. Mary's Church in Stralsund became the world's tallest building. In 1647, the bell tower of St. Mary's burned down, thus making the shorter Strasbourg Cathedral the world's tallest building.

text: It was not until the completion of the Ulm Minster in 1890 that the world's tallest building was again also the tallest building ever, surpassing the original configuration of Lincoln Cathedral.

text:
Years tallest
Name
Location
Height
Increase

13th century–1300
Old St Paul's Cathedral*
 London
149 metres (489 ft)
1.7%

1300–1549
Lincoln Cathedral*
 Lincoln
159.7 metres (524 ft)
6.7%

1549–1647
St. Mary's Church
 Stralsund
151 metres (495 ft)
-5.8%

1647–1874
Strasbourg Cathedral
 Strasbourg
142 metres (466 ft)
-6.3%

1874–1876
Church of St. Nicholas
 Hamburg
147 metres (482 ft)
3.4%

1876–1880
Rouen Cathedral
 Rouen
151 metres (495 ft)
2.6%

1880–1890
Cologne Cathedral
 Cologne
157.38 metres (516.3 ft)
4.1%

1890–1901
Ulm Minster*
 Ulm
161.53 metres (530.0 ft)
2.6%

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text: * – Also set record at time of completion as tallest building ever built.

text: The 524 feet (160 m) height of Lincoln Cathedral is disputed by some,[2] but accepted by most sources.[3][4][5][6][7][8] The completion date for the spire is given as 1311 rather than 1300 by some sources.[9] Also the 489 feet (149 m) height of the spire of Old St Paul's Cathedral, destroyed by lightning in 1561, is disputed, for example Christopher Wren (1632–1723) judged that an overestimate and gave a height of 460 feet (140 m).[10]

text: The top of the spire of the Antonelli Edifice in Turin, completed in 1889, is 167.5 metres (550 ft) tall. However, the upper part of the structure was destroyed by a 1953 tornado and rebuilt. If the original spire top was 167.5 metres (as claimed by some sources),[11] the Antonelli Edifice might have been the world's tallest building from 1889 to 1908.

text: Skyscrapers[edit]

text: In the 19th Century, a new kind of structure was developed in Shrewsbury, UK using an iron or steel internal structure (instead of the outer walls) to bear the building's weight. The taller of these buildings are called skyscrapers. The Ditherington Flax Mill was the first iron framed building, and for this reason is often seen as 'the world's first skyscraper', despite being only five storeys tall. This design feature would become standard in skyscrapers all across the world. The Ditherington Flax Mill was constructed 87 years before the Home Insurance Building in Chicago, which is often credited with being the first metal-framed building.

text: The buildings that were the tallest skyscrapers – but still shorter than the tallest church or cathedral – were:

text:
Years tallest
Name
Location
Height
Increase

1797–1884
Ditherington Flax Mill
 Shrewsbury
16 metres (52 ft)
0

1884–1890
Home Insurance Building
 Chicago
42 metres (138 ft)
6.15%

1890–1894
New York World Building
 New York
94 metres (308 ft)
136.92%

1894–1895
Manhattan Life Insurance Building
 New York
100 metres (330 ft)
7.14%

1895–1899
Milwaukee City Hall
 Milwaukee
108 metres (354 ft)
7.27%

1899–1908
Park Row Building
 New York
119 metres (390 ft)
10.17%

text: Tallest buildings (from 1901)[edit]

text: Multiple tall buildings taller than Ulm Minster were completed in 1901: 167 metres (548 ft) Philadelphia City Hall and 167.5 metres (550 ft) Mole Antonelliana. However, none of these was skyscraper by most definitions as they were supported like other pre-skyscraper tall buildings by thick outer walls.

text:
Years tallest
Name
Location
Height
Increase

1901–1908
Philadelphia City Hall
 Philadelphia
167 metres (548 ft)
3.4%

1908–1909
Singer Building
 New York City
186.57 metres (612.1 ft)
11.7%

1909–1913
Metropolitan Life Tower
 New York
213.36 metres (700.0 ft)
14.36%

1913–1930
Woolworth Building
 New York
241.4 metres (792 ft)
12.95%

1930
Bank of Manhattan Trust Building
 New York
283 metres (928 ft)
17.43%

1930–1931
Chrysler Building
 New York
318.8 metres (1,046 ft)
13.04%

1931–1972
Empire State Building
 New York
381 metres (1,250 ft)
19.1%

1972–1974
World Trade Center
 New York
417 metres (1,368 ft)
9.45%

1974–1998
Sears Tower
 Chicago
442 metres (1,450 ft)
6%

1998–2004
Petronas Towers
 Kuala Lumpur
451.9 metres (1,483 ft)
2.24%

2004–2010
Taipei 101
 Taipei
509.2 metres (1,671 ft)
12.68%

2010-
Burj Khalifa
 United Arab Emirates
828 metres (2,717 ft)
62.61%

text: The list of tallest buildings is based on the default metric of the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat (CTBUH), that of measuring to the highest architectural element. Other criteria would generate a different list. Shanghai World Financial Center is not on the above list, but it surpassed Taipei 101 in 2008 to become the building with the highest occupied floor. Using the criteria of highest tip (including antennae), the World Trade Center in New York City was the world's tallest building from 1972 to 2000, until the Sears Tower in Chicago (which already had a higher occupied floor than the World Trade Center) had its antenna extended to give that building the world's tallest tip; a title it held until the 2010 completion of Burj Khalifa. Petronas Towers and Taipei 101 were never the world's tallest buildings by the highest–tip criteria.

text: Since 2010, Burj Khalifa has been the tallest building by any criteria. It has the highest architectural element, tip and occupied floor, and is indeed the tallest structure of any kind ever built, surpassing the (now destroyed) 646.38 metres (2,120.7 ft) Warsaw Radio Mast.

text: Since the completion of the Washington Monument in 1884, the world's tallest building has not usually also been the world's tallest structure. The exceptions are 1930–1954, when the Chrysler Building and then the Empire State building surpassed the Eiffel Tower (to be surpassed in turn by a succession of broadcast masts, starting with the Griffin Television Tower in Oklahoma), and from 2010 with the completion of Burj Khalifa.

text: Charts[edit]

text: In this chart, time progresses from right to left. Note the early buildings that lost the title as their spires collapsed.

text: History of increment in height of skyscrapers[edit]

text: After the construction of the Home Insurance Building in Chicago in the 19th century, the incrementation in the height of skyscrapers began with the construction of the Chrysler Building, followed by the Empire State Building, in New York City. The Chrysler Building was the first building in the world to break the 300 metres (984 ft) barrier, and the Empire State Building was the first building to have more than 100 floors. It stands at 381 metres (1,250 ft) and has 102 floors. The next tallest skyscraper was the World Trade Center, which was completed in 1971. The north tower was 417 m (1,368 ft) and the south 415 m (1,362 ft) tall. It surpassed the height of the Empire State Building by 36 m (118 ft). Two years later the Sears Tower was built in Chicago, standing at 442 m (1,450 ft) with 110 floors, surpassing the height of the World Trade Center by 25 metres (82 ft). The Petronas Towers rose 10 meters above the Sears Tower, standing at a height of 452 m (1,483 ft) and each having 88 floors.

text: In 2004, the construction of Taipei 101 brought the height of skyscrapers to a new level, standing at 509 m (1,670 ft) with 101 floors. It is 59 metres (194 ft) taller than the previous record holders, the Petronas Towers. Burj Khalifa surpassed the height of Taipei 101 by 319 metres (1,047 ft) in 2009, making it 60% taller.[12] It has broken several skyscraper records, and it is almost twice as tall as the Empire State Building. Burj Khalifa has also broken the record of the world's tallest structure.

text: NOTE: The CTBUH defines a building as a supertall if it is 300 metres (984 ft) or taller.[13]

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text: History of supertall skyscrapers by location[edit]

text: Since the early skyscraper boom that took place in North America, the significant number of skyscrapers in North America have dominated the 100 tallest buildings in the world. In 1930, 99 of the 100 tallest buildings in the world were located in North America. In the future, this percentage is expected to decline to only 22 percent.[12] The predominance of skyscrapers in North America is decreasing due to the building of skyscraper construction in other parts of the world, especially in Asia, that are finally catching up to progress that began in North America in the 19th century.[citation needed]

text: In Asia, there has been an increase in the number of supertall skyscrapers beginning with the construction of Petronas Twin Towers. There are currently sixty buildings in the world's 100 tallest that are located in Asia (including the Middle East). However, skyscraper construction is still prevalent in the United States.[citation needed]

text: Increment in usage of skyscrapers[edit]

text: Since the skyscraper boom, the great majority of skyscrapers in the world were used predominantly as office space. From 1930 to 2000 the percentage of office towers never fell below 86 percent, but in the future it is expected to be as low as 46 percent.[12] In 2010 less than half of the 100 tallest buildings in the world were office towers with the majority utilized as residential and mixed use.[12] Today, only four out of the ten tallest buildings in the world, and twenty eight out of the fifty tallest in the world, are used primarily as offices.[14]

text: A mixed-use tall building contains two or more functions (uses), where each of the functions occupies a significant proportion of the tower's total space[A]. Support areas such as car parks and mechanical plant space do not contribute towards mixed-use status.[13]

text: Skyscrapers used as hotels and as residential space are generally smaller. There are only a few super tall skyscrapers of that type among the 100 tallest skyscrapers in the world. The tallest residential building in the world is 432 Park Avenue.[citation needed] There are few supertall hotel skyscrapers in the world.[citation needed] The Emirates Park Towers Hotel & Spa, Rose Tower and Burj Al Arab are the only three supertall hotels standing, while the topped-out Emirates Park Towers Hotel & Spa is currently the tallest hotel in the world at 377 m (1,237 ft).[citation needed]


document_title: Pir Panjal Range

question_text: which of these mountain ranges in india's longest railway tunnel constructed

question_tokens: which of these mountain ranges in india 's longest railway tunnel constructed

text: Pir Panjal Range

text: Peaks[edit]

text: Deo Tibba (6,001 m (19,688 ft)) and Indrasan (6,221 m (20,410 ft)) are two important peaks at the eastern end of the mountain range. They can be approached from both the Parvati-Beas Valley (Kulu District) and the Chandra (Upper Chenab) Valley (Lahaul and Spiti District) in Himachal Pradesh. The hill station of Gulmarg in Kashmir lies in this range.[2]

text: Passes[edit]

text: The Pir Panjal pass lies to the west of Srinagar.

text: The Banihal pass (2,832 m (9,291 ft)) lies at the head of the Vitasta river at the southern end of the Kashmir valley. Banihal and Qazigund lie on either side of the pass.

text: The Sinthan pass connects Jammu and Kashmir with Kishtwar.

text: Pir ki Gali connects Kashmir valley with Rajouri and Poonch via Mughal road. Pir ki Gali is the highest point of Mughal road (11500 ft approx) and lies to the south west of the Kashmir valley. Nearest town to Pir Ki Gali is Shupian, the apple town of Kashmir valley.

text: Rohtang La (altitude 3,978 m (13,051 ft)) is a mountain pass on the eastern Pir Panjal range connecting Manali in the Kullu Valley to Keylong in the Lahaul Valley.

text: Coordinates: 33°53′36″N 74°29′19″E / 33.89333°N 74.48861°E / 33.89333; 74.48861

text: Haji Pir Pass (altitude 2,637 m (8,652 ft)) on the western Pir Panjal range on the road between Poonch and Uri is in the area of Kashmir administered by Pakistan.

text: Tunnels[edit]

text: Jawahar Tunnel[edit]

text: The Jawahar Tunnel is a 2.5 km (1.6 mi) long tunnel through Pir Panjal mountain under the Banihal pass connects Banihal with Qazigund on the other side of the mountain. The Jawahar Tunnel was named after the first Prime Minister of India was constructed in early 1950s and commissioned in December 1956 to ensure snow-free passage throughout the year. It is at elevation of about 2,100 m (6,900 ft). It was designed for 150 vehicles per day but now used by more than 7,000 vehicles per day.[3] Therefore, a new wider and longer tunnel has been planned at a lower elevation.

text: Banihal Qazigund Road Tunnel[edit]

text: Construction of a new 8.45 km (5.25 mi) long twin-tube Banihal Qazigund Road Tunnel started in 2011. The new tunnel is at a lower elevation than the existing Jawahar tunnel and, when completed, would reduce the road distance between Banihal and Qazigund by 16 km (9.9 mi). It would also be less prone to snow avalanche as it will be at a lower elevation.[4]

text: Rohtang Tunnel[edit]

text: The Rohtang Tunnel is being built under the Rohtang Pass in the eastern Pir Panjal range of the Himalayas on the Leh-Manali Highway. With 8.8 km (5.5 mi) length, the tunnel will be the longest road tunnel in India and is expected to reduce the distance between Manali and Keylong by about 60 km (37 mi). The tunnel is at 3,100 metres (10,171 ft) elevation whereas the Rohtang pass is at 3,978 metres (13,051 ft) elevation. Lying on the Manali-Leh axis, this is one of the two routes to Ladakh..

text: Banihal Railway Tunnel[edit]

text: The Pir Panjal Railway Tunnel, an 11.215 kilometres (6.969 mi) railway tunnel, passes through the Pir Panjal Range in Jammu and Kashmir. It connects Quazigund and Banihal and is a part of the Udhampur-Srinagar-Baramulla railway project. The tunnel was commissioned on 26 June 2013 for regular service. It is India's longest and Asia's third longest railway tunnel.[5]