document_title: List of Brooklyn Nine-Nine episodes

question_text: when does brooklyn nine nine season 5 episode 12

text: List of Brooklyn Nine-Nine episodes

text: Series overview[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Originally aired

First aired
Last aired

1
22
September 17, 2013 (2013-09-17)
March 25, 2014 (2014-03-25)

2
23
September 28, 2014 (2014-09-28)
May 17, 2015 (2015-05-17)

3
23
September 27, 2015 (2015-09-27)
April 19, 2016 (2016-04-19)

4
22
September 20, 2016 (2016-09-20)
May 23, 2017 (2017-05-23)

5
22[5]
September 26, 2017 (2017-09-26)
May 20, 2018 (2018-05-20)[5]

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Season 1 (2013–14)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
Prod.
code
U.S. viewers
(millions)

1
1
"Pilot"
Phil Lord & Christopher Miller
Dan Goor & Michael Schur
September 17, 2013 (2013-09-17)
101
6.17[6]

2
2
"The Tagger"
Craig Zisk
Norm Hiscock
September 24, 2013 (2013-09-24)
102
4.03[7]

3
3
"The Slump"
Julie Anne Robinson
Prentice Penny
October 1, 2013 (2013-10-01)
105
3.43[8]

4
4
"M.E. Time"
Troy Miller
Gil Ozeri
October 8, 2013 (2013-10-08)
106
3.34[9]

5
5
"The Vulture"
Jason Ensler
Laura McCreary
October 15, 2013 (2013-10-15)
104
3.43[10]

6
6
"Halloween"
Dean Holland
Lesley Arfin
October 22, 2013 (2013-10-22)
107
3.77[11]

7
7
"48 Hours"
Peter Lauer
Luke Del Tredici
November 5, 2013 (2013-11-05)
103
3.84[12]

8
8
"Old School"
Beth McCarthy-Miller
Gabe Liedman
November 12, 2013 (2013-11-12)
109
3.26[13]

9
9
"Sal's Pizza"
Craig Zisk
Lakshmi Sundaram
November 19, 2013 (2013-11-19)
108
3.36[14]

10
10
"Thanksgiving"
Jorma Taccone
Luke Del Tredici
November 26, 2013 (2013-11-26)
110
3.69[15]

11
11
"Christmas"
Jake Szymanski
Dan Goor
December 3, 2013 (2013-12-03)
111
3.66[16]

12
12
"Pontiac Bandit"
Craig Zisk
Norm Hiscock & Lakshmi Sundaram
January 7, 2014 (2014-01-07)
113
3.44[17]

13
13
"The Bet"
Julian Farino
Laura McCreary
January 14, 2014 (2014-01-14)
112
3.53[18]

14
14
"The Ebony Falcon"
Michael Blieden
Prentice Penny
January 21, 2014 (2014-01-21)
114
4.55[19]

15
15
"Operation: Broken Feather"
Julie Anne Robinson
Dan Goor & Michael Schur
February 2, 2014 (2014-02-02)
116
15.07[20]

16
16
"The Party"
Michael Engler
Gil Ozeri & Gabe Liedman
February 4, 2014 (2014-02-04)
115
3.22[21]

17
17
"Full Boyle"
Craig Zisk
Norm Hiscock
February 11, 2014 (2014-02-11)
117
2.88[22]

18
18
"The Apartment"
Tucker Gates
David Quandt
February 25, 2014 (2014-02-25)
118
2.66[23]

19
19
"Tactical Village"
Fred Goss
Luke Del Tredici
March 4, 2014 (2014-03-04)
119
2.61[24]

20
20
"Fancy Brudgom"
Victor Nelli, Jr.
Laura McCreary
March 11, 2014 (2014-03-11)
120
2.49[25]

21
21
"Unsolvable"
Ken Whittingham
Prentice Penny
March 18, 2014 (2014-03-18)
121
2.50[26]

22
22
"Charges and Specs"
Akiva Schaffer
Gabe Liedman & Gil Ozeri
March 25, 2014 (2014-03-25)
122
2.59[27]

text: Season 2 (2014–15)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
Prod.
code
U.S. viewers
(millions)

23
1
"Undercover"
Dean Holland
Luke Del Tredici
September 28, 2014 (2014-09-28)
201
5.46[28]

24
2
"Chocolate Milk"
Fred Goss
Gabe Liedman
October 5, 2014 (2014-10-05)
202
3.31[29]

25
3
"The Jimmy Jab Games"
Rebecca Asher
Lakshmi Sundaram
October 12, 2014 (2014-10-12)
203
4.51[30]

26
4
"Halloween II"
Eric Appel
Prentice Penny
October 19, 2014 (2014-10-19)
204
5.22[31]

27
5
"The Mole"
Victor Nelli, Jr.
Laura McCreary
November 2, 2014 (2014-11-02)
205
3.41[32]

28
6
"Jake and Sophia"
Michael McDonald
Tricia McAlpin & David Phillips
November 9, 2014 (2014-11-09)
206
3.99[33]

29
7
"Lockdown"
Linda Mendoza
Luke Del Tredici
November 16, 2014 (2014-11-16)
208
4.53[34]

30
8
"USPIS"
Ken Whittingham
Brian Reich
November 23, 2014 (2014-11-23)
207
3.04[35]

31
9
"The Road Trip"
Beth McCarthy-Miller
Brigitte Munoz-Liebowitz
November 30, 2014 (2014-11-30)
209
3.11[36]

32
10
"The Pontiac Bandit Returns"
Max Winkler
Matt O'Brien
December 7, 2014 (2014-12-07)
210
4.32[37]

33
11
"Stakeout"
Tristram Shapeero
Laura McCreary & Tricia McAlpin
December 14, 2014 (2014-12-14)
211
3.52[38]

34
12
"Beach House"
Tim Kirkby
Lakshmi Sundaram & David Phillips
January 4, 2015 (2015-01-04)
212
6.12[39]

35
13
"Payback"
Victor Nelli, Jr.
Norm Hiscock & Brigitte Munoz-Liebowitz
January 11, 2015 (2015-01-11)
213
3.29[40]

36
14
"The Defense Rests"
Jamie Babbit
Prentice Penny & Matt O'Brien
January 25, 2015 (2015-01-25)
214
2.79[41]

37
15
"Windbreaker City"
Craig Zisk
Gabe Liedman
February 8, 2015 (2015-02-08)
215
2.59[42]

38
16
"The Wednesday Incident"
Claire Scanlon
Laura McCreary
February 15, 2015 (2015-02-15)
216
2.08[43]

39
17
"Boyle-Linetti Wedding"
Dean Holland
Matt O'Brien
March 1, 2015 (2015-03-01)
217
3.61[44]

40
18
"Captain Peralta"
Eric Appel
Dan Goor
March 8, 2015 (2015-03-08)
218
3.11[45]

41
19
"Sabotage"
Jay Karas
Brian Reich
March 15, 2015 (2015-03-15)
219
2.96[46]

42
20
"AC/DC"
Linda Mendoza
Kylie Condon
April 26, 2015 (2015-04-26)
222
2.78[47]

43
21
"Det. Dave Majors"
Michael McDonald
Gabe Liedman & Lakshmi Sundaram
May 3, 2015 (2015-05-03)
220
2.72[48]

44
22
"The Chopper"
Phil Traill
Tricia McAlpin & David Phillips
May 10, 2015 (2015-05-10)
221
2.56[49]

45
23
"Johnny and Dora"
Dean Holland
Luke Del Tredici
May 17, 2015 (2015-05-17)
223
2.35[50]

text: Season 3 (2015–16)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
Prod.
code
U.S. viewers
(millions)

46
1
"New Captain"
Michael Schur
Matt Murray
September 27, 2015 (2015-09-27)
301
3.14[51]

47
2
"The Funeral"
Claire Scanlon
Luke Del Tredici
October 4, 2015 (2015-10-04)
302
4.10[52]

48
3
"Boyle's Hunch"
Trent O'Donnell
Tricia McAlpin
October 11, 2015 (2015-10-11)
304
2.75[53]

49
4
"The Oolong Slayer"
Michael McDonald
Gabe Liedman
October 18, 2015 (2015-10-18)
303
2.57[54]

50
5
"Halloween III"
Michael McDonald
David Phillips
October 25, 2015 (2015-10-25)
305
4.38[55]

51
6
"Into the Woods"
Linda Mendoza
Andrew Guest
November 8, 2015 (2015-11-08)
306
2.65[56]

52
7
"The Mattress"
Dean Holland
Laura McCreary
November 15, 2015 (2015-11-15)
307
2.69[57]

53
8
"Ava"
Tristram Shapeero
Matt O'Brien
November 22, 2015 (2015-11-22)
308
3.88[58]

54
9
"The Swedes"
Eric Appel
Matt Murray
December 6, 2015 (2015-12-06)
309
3.95[59]

55
10
"Yippie Kayak"
Rebecca Asher
Lakshmi Sundaram
December 13, 2015 (2015-12-13)
310
3.82[60]

56
11
"Hostage Situation"
Max Winkler
Phil Augusta Jackson
January 5, 2016 (2016-01-05)
312
2.73[61]

57
12
"9 Days"
Dean Holland
Justin Noble
January 19, 2016 (2016-01-19)
311
2.37[62]

58
13
"The Cruise"
Michael Spiller
Tricia McAlpin
January 26, 2016 (2016-01-26)
313
2.38[63]

59
14
"Karen Peralta"
Bruce McCulloch
Alison Agosti & Gabe Liedman
February 2, 2016 (2016-02-02)
314
2.24[64]

60
15
"The 9–8"
Nisha Ganatra
David Phillips
February 9, 2016 (2016-02-09)
315
2.28[65]

61
16
"House Mouses"
Claire Scanlon
Andrew Guest
February 16, 2016 (2016-02-16)
316
2.18[66]

62
17
"Adrian Pimento"
Maggie Carey
Luke Del Tredici
February 23, 2016 (2016-02-23)
317
2.13[67]

63
18
"Cheddar"
Alex Reid
Jessica Polonsky
March 1, 2016 (2016-03-01)
318
1.85[68]

64
19
"Terry Kitties"
Michael McDonald
Phil Augusta Jackson & Tricia McAlpin
March 15, 2016 (2016-03-15)
319
1.95[69]

65
20
"Paranoia"
Payman Benz
Gabe Liedman
March 29, 2016 (2016-03-29)
320
2.02[70]

66
21
"Maximum Security"
Victor Nelli, Jr.
Laura McCreary
April 5, 2016 (2016-04-05)
321
2.71[71]

67
22
"Bureau"
Ryan Case
David Phillips & Alison Agosti
April 12, 2016 (2016-04-12)
322
2.07[72]

68
23
"Greg and Larry"
Dan Goor
Andrew Guest & Phil Augusta Jackson
April 19, 2016 (2016-04-19)
323
2.02[73]

text: Season 4 (2016–17)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
Prod.
code
U.S. viewers
(millions)

69
1
"Coral Palms Pt. 1"
Michael McDonald
Dan Goor
September 20, 2016 (2016-09-20)
401
2.39[74]

70
2
"Coral Palms Pt. 2"
Trent O'Donnell
Tricia McAlpin
September 27, 2016 (2016-09-27)
402
2.34[75]

71
3
"Coral Palms Pt. 3"
Payman Benz
Justin Noble
October 4, 2016 (2016-10-04)
403
2.40[76]

72
4
"The Night Shift"
Tristram Shapeero
Matt Murray
October 11, 2016 (2016-10-11)
404
2.13[77]

73
5
"Halloween IV"
Claire Scanlon
Phil Augusta Jackson
October 18, 2016 (2016-10-18)
405
2.05[78]

74
6
"Monster in the Closet"
Nisha Ganatra
Andrew Guest
November 15, 2016 (2016-11-15)
407
2.18[79]

75
7
"Mr. Santiago"
Alex Reid
Neil Campbell
November 22, 2016 (2016-11-22)
408
2.19[80]

76
8
"Skyfire Cycle"
Michael McDonald
David Phillips
November 29, 2016 (2016-11-29)
406
2.34[81]

77
9
"The Overmining"
Dean Holland
Luke Del Tredici
December 6, 2016 (2016-12-06)
409
2.31[82]

78
10
"Captain Latvia"
Jaffar Mahmood
Matt Lawton
December 13, 2016 (2016-12-13)
410
2.15[83]

79

80
11

12
"The Fugitive"
Rebecca Asher

Ryan Case
Carol Kolb

Justin Noble & Jessica Polonsky
January 1, 2017 (2017-01-01)
411

412
3.49[84]

81
13
"The Audit"
Beth McCarthy Miller
Carly Hallam Tosh
April 11, 2017 (2017-04-11)
413
1.91[85]

82
14
"Serve & Protect"
Michael Schur
Andrew Guest & Alexis Wilkinson
April 18, 2017 (2017-04-18)
414
1.91[86]

83
15
"The Last Ride"
Linda Mendoza
David Phillips
April 25, 2017 (2017-04-25)
415
1.88[87]

84
16
"Moo Moo"
Maggie Carey
Phil Augusta Jackson
May 2, 2017 (2017-05-02)
418
1.72[88]

85
17
"Cop-Con"
Giovani Lampassi
Andy Gosche
May 9, 2017 (2017-05-09)
416
1.61[89]

86
18
"Chasing Amy"
Luke Del Tredici
Matt Lawton
May 9, 2017 (2017-05-09)
417
1.61[89]

87
19
"Your Honor"
Michael McDonald
David Phillips & Carly Hallam Tosh
May 16, 2017 (2017-05-16)
419
1.65[90]

88
20
"The Slaughterhouse"
Victor Nelli Jr.
Neil Campbell
May 16, 2017 (2017-05-16)
420
1.38[90]

89
21
"The Bank Job"
Matthew Nodella
Carol Kolb
May 23, 2017 (2017-05-23)
421
1.78[91]

90
22
"Crime and Punishment"
Dan Goor
Justin Noble & Jessica Polonsky
May 23, 2017 (2017-05-23)
422
1.50[91]

text: Season 5 (2017−18)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
Prod.
code
U.S. viewers
(millions)

91
1
"The Big House Pt. 1"
Tristram Shapeero
Luke Del Tredici
September 26, 2017 (2017-09-26)
501
2.00[92]

92
2
"The Big House Pt. 2"
Michael McDonald
Justin Noble
October 3, 2017 (2017-10-03)
502
1.74[93]

93
3
"Kicks"
Eric Appel
Andrew Guest
October 10, 2017 (2017-10-10)
503
1.68[94]

94
4
"HalloVeen"
Jamie Babbit
Dan Goor
October 17, 2017 (2017-10-17)
504
1.69[95]

95
5
"Bad Beat"
Kat Coiro
Carol Kolb
November 7, 2017 (2017-11-07)
505
1.50[96]

96
6
"The Venue"
Cortney Carrillo
Matt Lawton
November 14, 2017 (2017-11-14)
506
1.65[97]

97
7
"Two Turkeys"
Alex Reid
David Phillips
November 21, 2017 (2017-11-21)
508
1.66[98]

98
8
"Return to Skyfire"
Linda Mendoza
Neil Campbell
November 28, 2017 (2017-11-28)
507
1.73[99]

99
9
"99"
Payman Benz
Andy Bobrow
December 5, 2017 (2017-12-05)
509
1.94[100]

100
10
"Game Night"
Tristram Shapeero
Justin Noble & Carly Hallam Tosh
December 12, 2017 (2017-12-12)
510
1.81[101]

101
11
"The Favor"
Victor Nelli Jr.
Aeysha Carr
December 12, 2017 (2017-12-12)
511
1.81[101]

102
12
"Safe House"
Nisha Ganatra
Andy Gosche
March 18, 2018 (2018-03-18)
512
1.92[102]

103
13
"The Negotiation"
Linda Mendoza
Phil Augusta Jackson
March 25, 2018 (2018-03-25)
513
1.83[103]

104
14
"The Box"
Claire Scanlon
Luke Del Tredici
April 1, 2018 (2018-04-01)
516
1.78[104]

105
15
"The Puzzle Master"
Akiva Schaffer
Lang Fisher
April 8, 2018 (2018-04-08)
514
1.74[105]

106
16
"NutriBoom"
Trent O'Donnell
David Phillips
April 15, 2018 (2018-04-15)
515
1.79[106]

107
17
"DFW"
Jaffar Mahmood
Jeff Topolski
April 15, 2018 (2018-04-15)
518
1.48[106]

108
18
"Gray Star Mutual"
Giovani Lampassi
Jessica Polonsky
April 22, 2018 (2018-04-22)
517
1.77[107]

109
19
"Bachelor/ette Party"[108]
TBA
TBA
April 29, 2018 (2018-04-29)
519
TBD

110
20
"Show Me Going"[109]
TBA
TBA
May 6, 2018 (2018-05-06)
520
TBD

111
21
"White Whale"[110]
TBA
TBA
May 13, 2018 (2018-05-13)
521
TBD

112
22
"Jake & Amy"[111]
TBA
TBA
May 20, 2018 (2018-05-20)
522
TBD


document_title: Anglo-Zulu War

question_text: who was the leader of the zulu in south africa who led the fight against the british

root

text: Anglo-Zulu War

text: Background[edit]

text: British Empire[edit]

text: By the 1850s the British Empire had colonies in southern Africa bordering on various Boer settlements, native African kingdoms such as the Zulus, and numerous indigenous tribal areas and states. Various interactions with these followed an expansionist policy. Cape Colony had been formed after the Anglo–Dutch Treaty of 1814 permanently ceded the Dutch colony of Cape Town to Britain, and its territory expanded very substantially through the 1800s. The Colony of Natal was a British colony in south-eastern Africa that had been proclaimed a British colony on 4 May 1843 after the British government had annexed the Boer Republic of Natalia. Matters were brought to a head when three sons and a brother of the Zulu chief Sirayo organized a raid into Natal and carried off two women who were under British protection.

tag: p

text: The discovery of diamonds in 1867 near the Vaal River, some 550 miles (890 km) northeast of Cape Town, ended the isolation of the Boers in the interior and changed South African history. The discovery triggered a diamond rush that attracted people from all over the world, which turned Kimberley into a town of 50,000 within five years and drew the attention of British imperial interests. In the 1870s, the British annexed West Griqualand, site of the Kimberley diamond discoveries.

text: In 1874 Lord Carnarvon, Secretary of State for the Colonies, who had successfully brought about federation in Canada in 1867, thought that a similar scheme might work in South Africa. The South African plan called for a ruling white minority over a subjugated black majority, which would provide a large pool of cheap labor for the British sugar plantations and mines.[7] Carnarvon, in an attempt to extend British influence in 1875, approached the Boer states of the Orange Free State and the Transvaal Republic and tried to organize a federation of the British and Boer territories, but the Boer leaders turned him down.

text: In 1877, Sir Bartle Frere was made High Commissioner for Southern Africa by Lord Carnarvon. Carnarvon appointed Frere to the position on the understanding that he would work to enforce Carnarvon's confederation plan and, in return, Frere could then become the first British governor of a federated southern African dominion. Frere was sent to South Africa as High Commissioner to bring it about. One of the obstacles to such a scheme was the presence of the independent states of the South African Republic, informally known as the Transvaal Republic, and the Kingdom of Zululand. Bartle Frere wasted no time in putting the scheme forward and manufacturing a casus belli against the Zulu by exaggerating the significance of a number of recent incidents.[8]

text: By 1877, Sir Theophilus Shepstone, the British Secretary for Native Affairs in Natal, annexed the Transvaal Republic for Britain using a special warrant. The Transvaal Boers objected but as long as the Zulu threat remained, found themselves between two threats; they feared that if they took up arms to resist the British annexation actively, King Cetshwayo and the Zulus would take the opportunity to attack. The successive British annexations, and in particular the annexation of West Griqualand, however caused a climate of simmering unease for the Boer republics.

text: Shepstone, in his capacity as British governor of Natal, had expressed concerns about the Zulu army under King Cetshwayo and the potential threat to Natal — especially given the adoption by some of the Zulus of old muskets and other out of date firearms. In his new role of Administrator of the Transvaal, he was now responsible for protecting the Transvaal and had direct involvement in the Zulu border dispute from the side of the Transvaal. Persistent Boer representations and Paul Kruger's diplomatic manoeuvrings added to the pressure. There were incidents involving Zulu paramilitary actions on either side of the Transvaal/Natal border, and Shepstone increasingly began to regard King Cetshwayo, as having permitted such "outrages," and to be in a "defiant mood." King Cetshwayo now found no defender in Natal save the bishop of Natal, John Colenso.

text: Colenso advocated for native Africans in Natal and Zululand who had been unjustly treated by the colonial regime in Natal. In 1874 he took up the cause of Langalibalele and the Hlubi and Ngwe tribes in representations to the Colonial Secretary, Lord Carnarvon. Langalibalele had been falsely accused of rebellion in 1873 and, following a charade of a trial, was found guilty and imprisoned on Robben Island. In taking the side of Langalibalele against the Colonial regime in Natal and Theophilus Shepstone, the Secretary for Native Affairs, Colenso found himself even further estranged from colonial society in Natal.

text: Bishop Colenso's concern about the misleading information that was being provided to the Colonial Secretary in London by Shepstone and the Governor of Natal prompted him to champion the cause of the Zulus against Boer oppression and official encroachments. He was a prominent critic of Sir Bartle Frere's efforts to depict the Zulu kingdom as a threat to Natal. Colenso's campaigns revealed the dark, racist foundation underpinning the colonial regime in Natal and made him enemies among the colonists.

text: British Prime Minister Disraeli's Tory administration in London did not want a war with the Zulus. "The fact is," wrote Sir Michael Hicks Beach, who would replace Carnarvon as Secretary of State for the Colonies, in November 1878, "that matters in Eastern Europe and India ... wore so serious an aspect that we cannot have a Zulu war in addition to other greater and too possible troubles." However, Sir Bartle Frere had already been into the Cape Colony as governor and high commissioner since 1877 with the brief of creating a Confederation of South Africa from the various British colonies, Boer Republics and native states and his plans were well advanced. He had concluded that the powerful Zulu kingdom stood in the way of this, and so was receptive to Shepstone's arguments that King Cetshwayo and his Zulu army posed a threat to the peace of the region. Preparations for a British invasion of the Zulu kingdom had been underway for months. In December 1878, notwithstanding the reluctance of the British government to start yet another colonial war, Frere presented Cetshwayo with an ultimatum that the Zulu army be disbanded and the Zulus accept a British resident. This was unacceptable to the Zulus as it effectively meant that Cetshwayo, had he agreed, would have lost his throne.

text: Zulu Kingdom[edit]

text: Shaka Zulu, the first Zulu king, had, through war and conquest, built the small Zulu tribe into the Zulu Kingdom which by 1825 encompassed an area of around 11,500 square miles (30,000 km2). In 1828 he was assassinated at Dukuza by one of his inDunas and two of his half-brothers, one of whom, Dingane kaSenzangakhona, succeeded him as king. By the 1830s migrating Boers came into conflict with the Zulu Kingdom, then ruled by Dingane. Dingane suffered a crushing defeat on 16 December 1838, when he attacked a group of 470 Voortrekker settlers led by Pretorius at the Battle of Blood River. Dingane's half brother, Mpande kaSenzangakhona, then defected with some 17,000 followers and allied with the Boers against Dingane. Dingane was assassinated and Mpande became king of the Zulu empire.

text: In 1839, the Boer Voortrekkers, under Pretorius, formed the Boer Republic of Natalia, south of the Tugela, and west of the British settlement of Port Natal (now Durban). Mpande and Pretorius maintained peaceful relations. However, in 1842, war broke out between the British and the Boers, resulting in the British annexation of Natalia. Mpande shifted his allegiance to the British, and remained on good terms with them.

text: In 1843, Mpande ordered a purge of perceived dissidents within his kingdom. This resulted in numerous deaths, and the fleeing of thousands of refugees into neighbouring areas, including the British-controlled Natal. Many of these refugees fled with cattle, the main measure of the Zulu wealth. Mpande began raiding the surrounding areas, culminating in the invasion of Swaziland in 1852. However, the British pressured him into withdrawing, which he did shortly. At this time, a battle for the succession broke out between two of Mpande's sons, Cetshwayo and Mbuyazi. This culminated in 1856 with the Battle of Ndondakusuka, which left Mbuyazi dead. Cetshwayo then set about usurping his father's authority. When Mpande died of old age in 1872, Cetshwayo took over as ruler.

text: In 1861, Umtonga, a brother of Cetshwayo, and another son of Zulu king Mpande, fled to the Utrecht district, and Cetshwayo assembled an army on that frontier. According to claims later brought forward by the Boers, Cetshwayo offered the farmers a strip of land along the border if they would surrender his brother. The Boers complied on the condition that Umtonga's life was spared, and in 1861 Mpande signed a deed transferring this land to the Boers. The south boundary of the land added to Utrecht ran from Rorke's Drift on the Buffalo to a point on the Pongola River.

text: The boundary was beaconed in 1864, but when in 1865 Umtonga fled from Zululand to Natal, Cetshwayo, seeing that he had lost his part of the bargain (for he feared that Umtonga might be used to supplant him, as Mpande had been used to supplant Dingane), caused the beacon to be removed, and also claimed the land ceded by the Swazis to Lydenburg. The Zulus asserted that the Swazis were their vassals and therefore had no right to part with this territory. During the year a Boer commando under Paul Kruger and an army under Cetshwayo were posted to defend the newly acquired Utrecht border. The Zulu forces took back their land north of the Pongola. Questions were also raised as to the validity of the documents signed by the Zulus concerning the Utrecht strip; in 1869 the services of the lieutenant-governor of Natal, then Robert William Keate, were accepted by both parties as arbitrator, but the attempt then made to settle disagreements proved unsuccessful.

text: Cetshwayo permitted European missionaries in Zululand. However, the activities of the missionaries were unwelcome to Cetshwayo. Though he did not harm or persecute[8] the missionaries themselves, several converts were killed. The missionaries, for their part, were a source of hostile reports.[9] While numerous Zulus of rival factions fled into Natal and some of the surrounding areas, Cetshwayo continued and maintained the peaceful relations with the Natal colonists that had prevailed for decades. Such was the political background when Cetshwayo became absolute ruler of the Zulus upon his father's death in 1873.

text: As ruler, Cetshwayo set about reviving the military methods of his uncle Shaka as far as possible. He formed new age-set regiments and even succeeded in equipping his regiments with a few antiquated muskets and other outdated firearms.[10] Most Zulu warriors were armed with an iklwa (the Zulu refinement of the assegai thrusting spear) and a shield made of cowhide.[11][f] The Zulu army drilled in the personal and tactical use and coordination of this weapons system. While some Zulus also had firearms, their marksmanship training was poor and the quality and supply of powder and shot dreadful.[12] The Zulu attitude towards firearms was that: "The generality of Zulu warriors, however, would not have firearms – the arms of a coward, as they said, for they enable the poltroon to kill the brave without awaiting his attack."[13]

text: Boundary Commission and Ultimatum[edit]

text: The tension between Cetshwayo and the Transvaal over border disputes continued. Sir Theophilus Shepstone, whom Cetshwayo regarded as his friend, had supported him in the border dispute, but in 1877 he led a small force into the Transvaal and persuaded the Boers to give up their independence. Shepstone became administrator of the Transvaal, and in that role saw the border dispute from the other side.[14] Shepstone claimed to have evidence supporting the Boer position but, ultimately, he failed to provide any. In a meeting with Zulu notables at Blood River in October 1877, Shepstone attempted to placate the Zulu with paternal speeches, however they were unconvinced and accused Shepstone of betraying them. Shepstone's subsequent reports to Carnarvon then began to paint the Zulu as an aggressive threat where he had previously presented Cetshwayo in a most favourable light.[15]

text: In February 1878 a commission was appointed by Henry Bulwer, the lieutenant-governor of Natal since 1875, to report on the boundary question. The commission reported in July and found almost entirely in favour of the contention of the Zulu. However, Sir Henry Bartle Frere, then high commissioner and still pressing forward with Carnarvon's federation plan, characterized the award as "one-sided and unfair to the Boers,"[g] stipulated that on the land being given to the Zulu, the Boers living on it should be compensated if they left or protected if they remained. In addition, Frere planned to use the meeting on the boundary commission report with the Zulu representatives to also present a surprise ultimatum he had devised that would allow British forces under Lord Chelmsford, which he had previously been instructed to use only in defense against a Zulu invasion of Natal, to instead invade Zululand. Three incidents occurred in late July, August and September which Frere seized upon as his casus belli and were the basis for the ultimatum to which Frere knew Cetshwayo could not comply,[4][16] giving Frere a pretext to attack the Zulu kingdom.[5][17]

text: The first two incidents related to the flight into Natal of two wives of Sihayo kaXonga and their subsequent seizure and execution by his brother and sons and were described thus:

text: The third incident occurred in September, when two men were detained while on a sand bank of the Thukela River near the Middle Drift. Sir Bartle Frere described this matter in a despatch to Sir Michael Hicks Beach, who had replaced Carnarvon as Secretary of State for the Colonies:

text: By themselves, these incidents were flimsy grounds upon which to found an invasion of Zululand. Bulwer did not initially hold Cetshwayo responsible for what was clearly not a political act in the seizure and murder of the two women.

text: Cetshwayo also treated the complaint rather lightly, responding

text: The original complaint carried to Cetshwayo from the lieutenant-governor was in the form of a request for the surrender of the culprits. The request was subsequently transformed by Sir Bartle Frere into a 'demand'. Frere wrote to Hicks Beach, 30 September 1878:

text: In reply, in at least three dispatches, 17 October, 21 November and 18 December, Hicks Beach emphatically states that war is to be avoided and a British invasion of Zululand prohibited. From 21 November dispatch:

text: After considerable discussion and exchanges of views between Sir Bartle Frere and Sir Henry Ernest Gascoyne Bulwer, it was decided to arrange a meeting with representatives of the Zulu king. The ostensible reason for this indaba was to present the findings of the long-awaited Boundary Commission to the Zulu people. The occasion was also to be used to present the king with an ultimatum.

text: By the time the ultimatum was presented, the two infractions by Sihayo’s sons and the roughing up of Smith and Deighton were only part of the justification used, as several matters had arisen in the meantime. One of these was Cetshwayo’s apparent breaking of promises he had given to the then Mr Theophilus Shepstone at the king’s 'coronation' in 1872. This farcical piece of theatre had been agreed to by Cetshwayo simply to satisfy the wishes of Shepstone and meant nothing to the Zulu people. Indeed, his real Zulu installation had taken place several weeks earlier when he had been acclaimed by his izinduna.[24] A second addition to the ultimatum, which seems almost like an afterthought, required the surrender of Mbelini kaMswati. Mbelini was the son of a Swazi king who unsuccessfully disputed the succession with his brother, resulting in his exile from the kingdom. He took refuge with Cetshwayo and was granted land in the region of the Intombe River in western Zululand. (It is entirely possible that Cetshwayo regarded him as a useful buffer between him and the Boers of the Transvaal.) Here, he took up residence on the Tafelberg, a flat-topped mountain overlooking the river. Something of a brigand, Mbelini made raids on anyone in his area, Boer and Zulu alike, accruing cattle and prisoners in the process. With the annexation of the Transvaal, Britain had also to deal with Mbelini and because Frere was convinced that the bandit chief was in the pay of the Zulu king, his surrender was included in the ultimatum. The light in which Mbelini was regarded is shown in a paragraph from a memorandum written by Sir Henry Bulwer:

text: Frere has been accused of chicanery by taking deliberate advantage of the length of time it took for correspondence to pass between South Africa and London to conceal his intentions from his political masters or at least defer giving them the necessary information until it was too late for them to act. The first intimation to the British government of his intention to make 'demands' on the Zulu was in a private letter to Hicks Beach written on 14 October 1878. The letter only arrived in London on 16 November and by then messengers had already been despatched from Natal to the Zulu king to request the presence of a delegation at the Lower Tugela on 11 December for the purpose of receiving the Boundary Commission’s findings. Had Hicks Beach then sent off a telegraph forbidding any action other than the announcement of the boundary award, it might have arrived in South Africa just in time to prevent the ultimatum being presented. No prohibition was sent and could hardly be expected to have been, for Hicks Beach had no means of knowing the urgency of the events that were in train. Nowhere in Frere’s letter was there anything to indicate how soon he intended to act, nor was there anything to suggest how stringent his demands would be.

text: In January 1879 Hicks Beach wrote to Bartle Frere:

text: Hicks Beach had earlier admitted his helplessness with regard to the Frere's actions in a telling note to his Prime Minister:

text: Frere wanted to provoke a conflict with the Zulus and in that goal he succeeded. Cetshwayo rejected the demands of 11 December, by not responding by the end of the year. A concession was granted by Bartle Frere until 11 January 1879, after which Bartle Frere deemed a state of war to exist. The British forces intended for the defense of Natal had already been on the march with the intention to attack the Zulu kingdom. On 10 January they were poised on the border. On 11 January, they crossed the border and invaded Zululand.

text: Terms of the Ultimatum[edit]

text: The terms which were included in the ultimatum delivered to the representatives of King Cetshwayo on the banks of the Thukela river at the Ultimatum Tree on 11 December 1878. No time was specified for compliance with item 4, twenty days were allowed for compliance with items 1–3, that is, until 31 December inclusive; ten days more were allowed for compliance with the remaining demands, items 4–13. The earlier time limits were subsequently altered so that all expired on 10 January 1879.

text:
Surrender of Sihayo’s three sons and brother to be tried by the Natal courts.
Payment of a fine of five hundred head of cattle for the outrages committed by the above and for Cetshwayo’s delay in complying with the request of the Natal Government for the surrender of the offenders.
Payment of a hundred head of cattle for the offence committed against Messrs. Smith and Deighton.
Surrender of the Swazi chief Umbilini and others to be named hereafter, to be tried by the Transvaal courts.
Observance of the coronation promises.
That the Zulu army be disbanded and the men allowed to go home.
That the Zulu military system be discontinued and other military regulations adopted, to be decided upon after consultation with the Great Council and British Representatives.
That every man, when he comes to man’s estate, shall be free to marry.
All missionaries and their converts, who until 1877 lived in Zululand, shall be allowed to return and reoccupy their stations.
All such missionaries shall be allowed to teach and any Zulu, if he chooses, shall be free to listen to their teaching.
A British Agent shall be allowed to reside in Zululand, who will see that the above provisions are carried out.
All disputes in which a missionary or European is concerned, shall be heard by the king in public and in presence of the Resident.
No sentence of expulsion from Zululand shall be carried out until it has been approved by the Resident.[28]

tag: ol

text: For his part, Cetshwayo strenuously attempted to avoid war with the British and, should it occur, limit its scope and effects. He ordered his troops to defend their country only if attacked and not to carry the war beyond its borders. He directed them to avoid killing any of the invaders other than the regular British soldiers in their red coats.

text: British Invasion and Repulse[edit]

text: The pretext for the war had its origins in border disputes between the Zulu leader, Cetshwayo, and the Boers in the Transvaal region. Following a commission enquiry on the border dispute which reported in favour of the Zulu nation in July 1878, Sir Henry Bartle Frere, acting on his own, added an ultimatum to the commission meeting, much to the surprise of the Zulu representatives who then relayed it to Cetshwayo. Cetshwayo had not responded by the end of the year, so an extension was granted by Bartle Frere until 11 January 1879. Cetshwayo returned no answer to the demands[h][17] of Bartle Frere, and in January 1879 a British force under Lieutenant General Frederick Augustus Thesiger, 2nd Baron Chelmsford invaded Zululand, without authorization by the British Government.[4][16]

text: Lord Chelmsford, the Commander-in-Chief of British forces during the war, initially planned a five-pronged invasion of Zululand composed of over 15,000 troops in five columns and designed to encircle the Zulu army and force it to fight as he was concerned that the Zulus would avoid battle. In the event, Chelmsford settled on three invading columns with the main center column, now consisting of some 7800 men comprising the previously called No. 3 Column and Durnford's No. 2 Column,[i] under his direct command. He moved his troops from Pietermaritzburg to a forward camp at Helpmekaar, past Greytown. On 9 January 1879 they moved to Rorke's Drift, and early on 11 January commenced crossing the Buffalo River into Zululand.[29] Three columns were to invade Zululand, from the Lower Tugela, Rorke's Drift, and Utrecht respectively, their objective being Ulundi, the royal capital.

text: While Cetshwayo's army numbered perhaps 35,000 men, it was essentially a militia force which could be called out in time of national danger.[j] It had a very limited logistical capacity and could only stay in the field a few weeks before the troops would be obliged to return to their civilian duties.[30] Zulu warriors were armed primarily with Assegai thrusting spears, known in Zulu as iklwa, clubs, some throwing spears and shields made of cowhide.[k][31]

text: The initial entry of all three columns was unopposed. On 22 January the centre column, which had advanced from Rorke's Drift, was encamped near Isandlwana; on the morning of that day Lord Chelmsford split his forces and moved out to support a reconnoitering party, leaving the camp in charge of Colonel Pulleine. The British were outmanoeuvred by the main Zulu army nearly 20,000 strong led by Ntshingwayo kaMahole Khoza. Chelmsford was lured eastward with much of his centre column by a Zulu diversionary force while the main Impi attacked his camp. Chelmsford's decision not to set up the British camp defensively, contrary to established doctrine, and ignoring information that the Zulus were close at hand were decisions that the British were soon to regret. The ensuing Battle of Isandlwana was the greatest victory that the Zulu kingdom would enjoy during the war. The British centre column was wrecked and its camp annihilated with heavy casualties as well as the loss of all its supplies, ammunition and transport. The defeat left Chelmsford no choice but to hastily retreat out of Zululand. In the battle's aftermath, a party of some 4,000 Zulu reserves mounted an unauthorised raid on the nearby British army border post of Rorke's Drift and were driven off after 10 hours of ferocious fighting.

text: While the British central column under Chelmsford's command was thus engaged, the right flank column on the coast, under Colonel Charles Pearson, crossed the Tugela River, skirmished with a Zulu impi that was attempting to set up an ambush at the Inyezane River, and advanced as far as the deserted missionary station of Eshowe, which he set about fortifying. On learning of the disaster at Isandlwana, Pearson made plans to withdraw back beyond the Tugela River. However, before he had decided whether or not to put these plans into effect, the Zulu army managed to cut off his supply lines, and the Siege of Eshowe had begun.

text: Meanwhile, the left flank column at Utrecht, under Colonel Evelyn Wood, had originally been charged with occupying the Zulu tribes of north-west Zululand and preventing them from interfering with the British central column's advance on Ulundi. To this end Wood set up camp at Tinta's Kraal, just 10 miles south of Hlobane Mountain, where a force of 4,000 Zulus had been spotted. He planned to attack them on 24 January, but on learning of the disaster at Isandlwana, he decided to withdraw back to the Kraal. Thus one month after the British invasion, only their left flank column remained militarily effective, and it was too weak to conduct a campaign alone. The first invasion of Zululand had been a failure.[l]

text: It had never been Cetshwayo's intention to invade Natal, but to simply fight within the boundaries of the Zulu kingdom. Chelmsford used the next two months to regroup and build a fresh invading force with the initial intention of relieving Pearson at Eshowe. The British government rushed seven regiments of re-inforcements to Natal, along with two artillery batteries.

text: On 12 March, an armed escort of stores marching to Luneberg, was defeated by about 500 Zulus at the Battle of Intombe; the British force suffered 80 killed[m] and all the stores were lost. The first troops arrived at Durban on 7 March. On the 29th a column, under Lord Chelmsford, consisting of 3,400 British and 2,300 African soldiers, marched to the relief of Eshowe, entrenched camps being formed each night.

text: Chelmsford ordered Sir Evelyn Wood's troops to attack the abaQulusi Zulu stronghold in Hlobane. Lieutenant Colonel Redvers Buller, led the attack on Hlobane on 28 March. However, as the Zulu main army of 20,000 men approached to help their besieged tribesmen, the British force began a retreat which turned into a rout and were pursued by 1,000 Zulus of the abaQulusi who inflicted some 225 casualties on the British force.

text: The next day 20,000 Zulu warriors[n] attacked Wood's 2,068 men in a well-fortified camp at Kambula, apparently without Cetshwayo's permission. The British held them off in the Battle of Kambula and after five hours of heavy attacks the Zulus withdrew with heavy losses but were pursued by British mounted troops, who killed many more fleeing and wounded warriors. British losses amounted to 83 (28 killed and 55 wounded), while the Zulus lost up to 2,000 killed.[o] The effect of the battle of Kambula on the Zulu army was severe. Their commander Mnyamana tried to get the regiments to return to Ulundi but many demoralised warriors simply went home.[32]

text: While Woods was thus engaged, Chelmsford's column was marching on Eshowe. On 2 April this force was attacked en route at Gingindlovu, the Zulu being repulsed. Their losses were heavy, estimated at 1,200 while the British only suffered two dead and 52 wounded. The next day they relieved Pearson's men. They evacuated Eshowe on 5 April, after which the Zulu forces burned it down.

text: Second Invasion and the Defeat of the Zulus[edit]

text: The new start of the larger, heavily reinforced second invasion[p] was not promising for the British. Despite their successes at Kambula, Gingindlovu and Eshowe, they were right back where they had started from at the beginning of January. Nevertheless, Chelmsford had a pressing reason to proceed with haste – Sir Garnet Wolseley was being sent to replace him, and he wanted to inflict a decisive defeat on Cetshwayo's forces before then. With yet more reinforcements arriving, soon to total 16,000 British and 7,000 Native troops, Chelmsford reorganised his forces and again advanced into Zululand in June, this time with extreme caution building fortified camps all along the way to prevent any repeat of Isandlwana.

text: One of the early British casualties was the exiled heir to the French throne, Imperial Prince Napoleon Eugene, who had volunteered to serve in the British army and was killed on 1 June while out with a reconnoitering party.

text: Cetshwayo, knowing that the newly reinforced British would be a formidable opponent, attempted to negotiate a peace treaty. Chelmsford was not open to negotiations, as he wished to restore his reputation before Wolseley relieved him of command, and he proceeded to the royal kraal of Ulundi, intending to defeat the main Zulu army. On 4 July, the armies clashed at the Battle of Ulundi, and Cetshwayo's forces were decisively defeated.

text: Aftermath[edit]

text:
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tag: table

text: After the battle of Ulundi the Zulu army dispersed, most of the leading chiefs tendered their submission, and Cetshwayo became a fugitive. Wolseley, having relieved Chelmsford after Ulundi, took over the final operations. On 28 August the king was captured and sent to Cape Town (It is said that scouts spotted the water-carriers of the king, distinctive because the water was carried above, not upon, their heads). His deposition was formally announced to the Zulu. Wolseley wasted no time in discarding Bartle Frere's confederation scheme and drew up a new scheme which divided Zululand into thirteen chiefdoms headed by compliant chiefs which ensured that the Zulus would no longer unite under a single king and made internal divisions and civil wars inevitable. The dynasty of Shaka was deposed, and the Zulu country portioned among eleven Zulu chiefs, including Usibepu, John Dunn, a white adventurer, and Hlubi, a Basuto chief allied to the British in the war.

text: Chelmsford received a Knight Grand Cross of Bath, largely because of Ulundi, however, he was severely criticized by the Horse Guards investigation[33] and he would never serve in the field again.[34] Bartle Frere was relegated to a minor post in Cape Town.

text: Following the conclusion of the Anglo-Zulu War, Bishop Colenso interceded on behalf of Cetshwayo with the British government and succeeded in getting him released from Robben Island and returned to Zululand in 1883.

text: A Resident (Melmoth Osborn) was appointed to be the channel of communication between the chiefs and the British government. This arrangement led to much bloodshed and disturbance, and in 1882 the British government determined to restore Cetshwayo to power. In the meantime, however, blood feuds had been engendered between the chiefs Usibepu (Zibebu) and Hamu on the one side and the tribes who supported the ex-king and his family on the other. Cetshwayo's party (who now became known as the Usuthu) suffered severely at the hands of the two chiefs, who were aided by a band of white freebooters.

text: When Cetshwayo was restored Usibepu was left in possession of his territory, while Dunn's land and that of the Basuto chief (the country between the Tugela River and the Umhlatuzi, i.e. adjoining Natal) was constituted a reserve, in which locations were to be provided for Zulu unwilling to serve the restored king. This new arrangement proved as futile as had Wolseley's. Usibepu, having created a formidable force of well-armed and trained warriors, and being left in independence on the borders of Cetshwayo's territory, viewed with displeasure the re-installation of his former king, and Cetshwayo was desirous of humbling his relative. A collision very soon took place; Usibepu's forces were victorious, and on 22 July 1883, led by a troop of mounted Boer mercenary troops, he made a sudden descent upon Cetshwayo's kraal at Ulundi, which he destroyed, massacring such of the inmates of both sexes as could not save themselves by flight. The king escaped, though wounded, into Nkandla forest. After appeals to Melmoth Osborn he moved to Eshowe, where he died soon after.

text: Last veterans[edit]

text:
Colour Sergeant (later Lieutenant-Colonel) Frank Bourne, DCM (1854–1945). Last survivor of Rorke's Drift.[35]
Private Charles Wallace Warden (died 8 March 1953)
Henry "Harry" Figg R.N. (died 23 May 1953)[36]

tag: ul

text: Anglo-Zulu War In Film[edit]

text: Two film dramatisations of the war are:

text:
Zulu (1964), which is based on the Battle at Rorke's Drift, and
Zulu Dawn (1979), which deals with the Battle of Isandlwana.

text: Monty Python's The Meaning of Life (1983) also features the war in a comedic sketch in which men in tiger suits steal a British soldier's leg.


document_title: Blond

question_text: where does blonde hair green eyes come from

text: Blond

text: Etymology, spelling, and grammar

text: Origins and meanings

text: The word "blond" is first documented in English in 1481[1] and derives from Old French blund, blont, meaning "a colour midway between golden and light chestnut".[2] It gradually eclipsed the native term "fair", of same meaning, from Old English fæġer, causing "fair" later to become a general term for "light complexioned". This earlier use of "fair" survives in the proper name Fairfax, from Old English fæġer-feahs meaning "blond hair".

text: The French (and thus also the derived English) word "blond" has two possible origins. Some linguists[citation needed] say it comes from Medieval Latin blundus, meaning "yellow", from Old Frankish blund which would relate it to Old English blonden-feax meaning "grey-haired", from blondan/blandan meaning "to mix" (Cf. blend). Also, Old English beblonden meant "dyed", as ancient Germanic warriors were noted for dyeing their hair. However, linguists who favor a Latin origin for the word say that Medieval Latin blundus was a vulgar pronunciation of Latin flavus, also meaning "yellow". Most authorities, especially French, attest the Frankish origin. The word was reintroduced into English in the 17th century from French, and was for some time considered French; in French, "blonde" is a feminine adjective; it describes a woman with blonde hair.[3]

text: Usage

text: "Blond", with its continued gender-varied usage, is one of few adjectives in written English to retain separate masculine and feminine grammatical genders. Each of the two forms, however, is pronounced identically. American Heritage's Book of English Usage propounds that, insofar as "a blonde" can be used to describe a woman but not a man who is merely said to possess blond(e) hair, the term is an example of a "sexist stereotype [whereby] women are primarily defined by their physical characteristics."[4] The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) records that the phrase "big blond beast" was used in the 20th century to refer specifically to men "of the Nordic type" (that is to say, blond-haired).[5] The OED also records that blond as an adjective is especially used with reference to women, in which case it is likely to be spelt "blonde", citing three Victorian usages of the term. The masculine version is used in the plural, in "blonds of the European race",[5] in a citation from 1833 Penny cyclopedia, which distinguishes genuine blondness as a Caucasian feature distinct from albinism.[6]

text: By the early 1990s, "blonde moment" or being a "dumb blonde" had come into common parlance to mean "an instance of a person, esp. a woman... being foolish or scatter-brained."[7] Another hair color word of French origin, brunet(te) (from the same Germanic root that gave "brown"), functions in the same way in orthodox English. The OED gives "brunet" as meaning "dark-complexioned" or a "dark-complexioned person", citing a comparative usage of brunet and blond to Thomas Henry Huxley in saying, "The present contrast of blonds and brunets existed among them."[8] "Brunette" can be used, however, like "blonde", to describe a mixed-gender populace. The OED quotes Grant Allen, "The nation which resulted... being sometimes blonde, sometimes brunette."[9]

text: "Blond" and "blonde" are also occasionally used to refer to objects that have a color reminiscent of fair hair. For example, the OED records its use in 19th-century poetic diction to describe flowers, "a variety of clay ironstone of the coal measures", "the colour of raw silk",[5] a breed of ray, lager beer, and pale wood.[10]

text: Varieties

text: Various subcategories of blond hair have been defined to describe the different shades and sources of the hair color more accurately. Common examples include the following:

text:
ash-blond:[11] ashen or grayish blond.
 bleached blond, bottle blond, or peroxide blond:[12] terms used to refer to artificially colored blond hair.
 blond/flaxen:[13][14] when distinguished from other varieties, "blond" by itself refers to a light but not whitish blond, with no traces of red, gold, or brown; this color is often described as "flaxen".
 dirty blond[15] or dishwater blond:[16] dark blond with flecks of golden blond and brown.
 golden blond: a darker to rich, golden-yellow blond (found mostly in Northeastern Europe, i.e., Russia, Estonia[citation needed]).
honey blond: dark iridescent blond.
 platinum blond[17] or towheaded:[18][19] whitish-blond; almost all platinum blonds are children, although it is found on people in Northern Europe. "Platinum blond" is often used to describe bleached hair, while "towheaded" generally refers to natural hair color.[citation needed]
 sandy blond:[20][21] grayish-hazel or cream-colored blond.
 strawberry blond[22] or Venetian blond: reddish blond[23][24][25][26][27]
 yellow: yellow-blond ("yellow" can also be used to refer to hair which has been dyed yellow).[citation needed]

text:
A woman with long blonde hair

A young man with light blond hair

A woman with long blonde hair from behind

text: Evolution of blond hair

text: Natural lighter hair colors occur most often in Europe and less frequently in other areas.[28] In Northern European populations, the occurrence of blond hair is very frequent.[clarification needed] The hair color gene MC1R has at least seven variants in Europe, giving the continent a wide range of hair and eye shades. Based on a genetic research carried out at three Japanese universities, the date of the genetic mutation that resulted in blond hair in Europe has been isolated to about 11,000 years ago during the last ice age.[29]

text: A typical explanation found in the scientific literature for the evolution of light hair is related to the evolution of light skin, and in turn the requirement for vitamin D synthesis and northern Europe's seasonal less solar radiation.[30] Lighter skin is due to a low concentration in pigmentation, thus allowing more sunlight to trigger the production of vitamin D. In this way, high frequencies of light hair in northern latitudes are a result of the light skin adaptation to lower levels of solar radiation, which reduces the prevalence of rickets caused by vitamin D deficiency. The darker pigmentation at higher latitudes in certain ethnic groups such as the Inuit is explained by a greater proportion of seafood in their diet and by the climate which they live in, because in the polar climate there is more ice or snow on the ground, and this reflects the solar radiation onto the skin, making this environment lack the conditions for the person to have blond, brown or red hair, light skin and blue, grey or green eyes.

text: An alternative hypothesis was presented by Canadian anthropologist Peter Frost, who claims blond hair evolved very quickly in a specific area at the end of the last ice age by means of sexual selection.[31] According to Frost, the appearance of blond hair and blue eyes in some northern European women made them stand out from their rivals, and more sexually appealing to men, at a time of fierce competition for scarce males.[31][32]

text: Recent archaeological and genetic study published in 2014 found that seven "Scandinavian hunter-gatherers" found in the 7,700-year-old Motala archaeological site in southern Sweden had both light skin gene variants, SLC24A5 and SLC45A2, and that they had a third gene, HERC2/OCA2, which causes blue eyes and also contributes to lighter skin and blond hair.[33] Genetic research published in 2014 and 2015 also indicates that Yamnaya Proto-Indo-Europeans who migrated to Europe in the Bronze Age were overwhelmingly dark-eyed (brown), dark-haired and had a skin colour that was moderately light, though somewhat darker than that of the average modern European.[34] Light pigmentation traits had already existed in pre-Indo-European Europeans (both farmers and hunter-gatherers), and long-standing philological attempts to correlate them with the arrival of Indo-Europeans from the steppes were misguided.[35]

text: It is now hypothesized by researchers that blond hair evolved more than once. Published in May 2012 in Science, a study of people from the Solomon Islands in Melanesia found that an amino acid change in TYRP1 produced blonde hair.[36][37]

text: Prevalence

text: Blond hair is most common in light-skinned infants and children,[38] so much so that the term "baby blond" is often used for very light colored hair. Babies may be born with blond hair even among groups where adults rarely have blond hair, although such natural hair usually falls out quickly. Blond hair tends to turn darker with age, and many children's blond hair turns light, medium, dark brown or black before or during their adult years.[38] Because blond hair tends to turn brunette with age, natural blond hair is rare in adulthood;[39][40] according to the sociologist Christie Davies, only around five percent of adults in Europe and North America are naturally blond.[39] A study conducted in 2003 concluded that only four percent of American adults are naturally blond.[40] Nonetheless, a significant majority of Caucasian women (perhaps as high as three in four) dye their hair blond, a significantly higher percentage than for any other hair color.[39][41]

text: Europe

text: Blond hair is most common in Scandinavia and the Baltic Sea countries, where true blondism is believed to have originated. The pigmentation of both hair and eyes is lightest around the Baltic Sea, and darkness increases regularly and almost concentrically around this region.[43]

text: In France, according to a source published 1939, blondism is more common in Normandy, and less common in the Pyrenees and the Mediterranean seacoast; 26% of French population has blond or light brown hair.[44] A 2007 study of French females showed that by then roughly 20% were blonde, although half of these blondes were fully fake. Roughly ten percent of French females are natural blondes, of which 60% bleach their hair to a lighter nuance of blonde.[45]

text: In Portugal, an average 11% of the population shows traces of blondism, peaking at 14.3–15.1% blondes in Povoa de Varzim in northern Portugal.[46][47] In northern Spain, 17% of the population shows traces of blondism, but in southern Spain just 2% of the people are blond.[48] In Italy, a study of Italian men conducted by Ridolfo Livi between 1859 and 1863 on the records of the National Conscription Service showed that 8.2% of Italian men exhibited blond hair. Blondism frequency varies among regions from 12.6% in Veneto, to 1.7% in Sardinia.[49] In a more detailed study from the 20th century geneticist Renato Biasutti,[50] the regional contrasts of blondism frequency are better shown, with a greater occurrence in the northern regions where the figure could be over 20%, and a lesser occurrence in the south such as Sardinia where the frequency was less than 2.4%. With the exception of Benevento and the surrounding area where various shades of blond hair were present in 10%–14.9% of the population, other southern regions averaged between 2.5% and 7.4%.[51]

text: Africa

text: Blondism is a common sight among Berbers of North Africa, especially in the Rif and Kabyle region. Blondism frequency varies among Berbers from 1% among Jerban Berbers and 4% among Mozabite Berbers and Shawia Berbers, to 11% among Kabyle Berbers.[52] In South Africa where there is a significant population of whites, mainly from Dutch and English ancestry, blondes may account for 3-4% of the South African population.

text: A number of blonde naturally mummified bodies of common people (i.e. not proper mummies) dating to Roman times have been found in the Fagg El Gamous cemetery in Egypt. "Of those whose hair was preserved 54% were blondes or redheads, and the percentage grows to 87% when light-brown hair color is added."[53] Excavations have been ongoing since the 1980s. Burials seem to be clustered by hair-colour.[54]

text: Oceania

text: Aboriginal Australians, especially in the west-central parts of the continent, have a high frequency of natural blond-to-brown hair.[citation needed] Blondness is also found in some other parts of the South Pacific, such as the Solomon Islands,[36][37] Vanuatu, and Fiji, again with higher incidences in children. Blond hair in Melanesians is caused by an amino acid change in the gene TYRP1.[36] This mutation is at a frequency of 26% in the Solomon Islands and is absent outside of Oceania.[36]

text: Asia

text: Blonde hair can be found in any region of Asia, including West Asia, East Asia, Central Asia, and South Asia. In these parts of Asia blond hair is generally seen among children and usually turns into a shade of dark brown in adulthood. Environmental factors, for example sun exposure and nutrition status, often contribute to changes in hair color in Asia.[55] Genetic research published in 2014, 2015 and 2016 found that Yamnaya Proto-Indo-Europeans, who migrated to Europe in the early Bronze Age were overwhelmingly dark-eyed (brown) and dark-haired, and had a skin colour that was moderately light, though somewhat darker than that of the average modern European.[34] While light pigmentation traits had already existed in pre-Indo-European Europeans (both farmers and hunter-gatherers), long-standing philological attempts to correlate them with the arrival of Indo-Europeans from the steppes were misguided.[35]

text: According to genetic studies, Yamnaya Proto-Indo-European migration to Europe led to Corded Ware culture, where Yamnaya Proto-Indo-Europeans mixed with "Scandinavian hunter-gatherer" women who carried genetic alleles HERC2/OCA2, which causes combination of blue eyes and blond hair.[56][57][33] Proto-Indo-Iranians who split from Corded Ware culture formed the Andronovo culture and are believed to have spread genetic alleles HERC2/OCA2 that cause blonde hair to parts of West Asia, Central Asia and South Asia.[57] Genetic analysis in 2014 also found that people of the Afanasevo culture which flourished in the Altai Mountains were genetically identical to Yamnaya Proto-Indo-Europeans and that they did not carry genetic alleles for blonde hair or light eyes.[58][56][57] The Afanasevo culture was later replaced by a second wave of Indo-European invaders from the Andronovo culture, who were a product of Corded Ware admixture that took place in Europe, and carried genetic alleles that cause blond hair and light eyes.[58][56][57] In 2009 and 2014, genomic study of Tarim mummies discovered in the Tarim Basin in present-day Xinjiang, China, showed that they were also a product of a Corded Ware admixture and were genetically closer to the Andronovo culture (which split from Corded Ware culture)[57] than to the Yamnaya culture or Afanasevo culture.[59][58]

text: Today, higher frequencies of light hair in Asia are more prevalent among Pamiris, Kalash, Nuristani and Uyghur children than in adult populations of these ethnic groups.[60] About 75% of Russia is geographically considered North Asia; however, the Asian portion of Russia contributes to only an estimate of 20% of Russia's total population.[61] North Asia's population has an estimate of 1-19% with light hair.[62][63] From the times of the Russian Tsardom of the 17th century through the Soviet Union rule in the 20th century, many ethnic Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, Lithuanians, Latvians, and Estonians were settled in or exiled en masse to Siberia and Central Asia. Blond hair is often seen in these groups, whereas the indigenous peoples are more likely to be dark haired.[64][65][66] For instance, their descendants currently contribute to an estimated 25% of Kazakhstan's total population.[67]

text: Americas

text: Many actors and actresses in Latin America and Hispanic United States have blond hair, blue eyes, and pale skin.[68][69][70][71][72][73][74][75][76]

text: Historical cultural perceptions

text: Ancient Greece

text: Most people in ancient Greece had dark hair and, as a result of this, the Greeks found blond hair immensely fascinating.[77] In the Homeric epics, Menelaus the king of the Spartans is, together with some other Achaean leaders, portrayed as blond.[78] Other blond characters in the Homeric poems are Peleus, Achilles, Meleager, Agamede, and Rhadamanthys.[78] Aphrodite, the Greek goddess of love and beauty, was often described as golden-haired and portrayed with this color hair in art.[79] Aphrodite's master epithet in the Homeric epics is Χρυσεη (Khryseē), which means "golden".[80] The traces of hair color on Greek korai probably reflect the colors the artists saw in natural hair;[81] these colors include a broad diversity of shades of blond, red, and brown.[81] The minority of statues with blond hair range from strawberry blond up to platinum blond.[81]

text: Sappho of Lesbos (c. 630-570 BC) wrote that purple-colored wraps as headdress were good enough, except if the hair was blonde: "...for the girl who has hair that is yellower than a torch [it is better to decorate it] with wreaths of flowers in bloom."[82] Sappho also praises Aphrodite for her golden hair, stating that since gold metal is free from rust, the goddess's golden hair represents her freedom from ritual pollution.[80] Sappho's contemporary Alcman of Sparta praised golden hair as one of the most desirable qualities of a beautiful woman,[80] describing in various poems "the girl with the yellow hair" and a girl "with the hair like purest gold."[80]

text: In the fifth century BC, the sculptor Pheidias may have depicted the Greek goddess of wisdom Athena's hair using gold in his famous statue of Athena Parthenos, which was displayed inside the Parthenon.[83] The Greeks thought of the Thracians who lived to the north as having reddish-blond hair.[84] Because many Greek slaves were captured from Thrace, slaves were stereotyped as blond or red-headed.[84] "Xanthias" (Ξανθίας), meaning "reddish blond", was a common name for slaves in ancient Greece[84][85] and a slave by this name appears in many of the comedies of Aristophanes.[85]

text: The most famous statue of Aphrodite, the Aphrodite of Knidos, sculpted in the fourth century BC by Praxiteles, represented the goddess's hair using gold leaf[86] and contributed to the popularity of the image of Aphrodite as a blonde goddess.[87] Greek prostitutes frequently dyed their hair blond using saffron dyes or colored powders.[88] Blond dye was highly expensive, took great effort to apply, and smelled repugnant,[88] but none of these factors inhibited Greek prostitutes from dying their hair.[88] As a result of this and the natural rarity of blond hair in the Mediterranean region, by the fourth century BC, blond hair was inextricably associated with prostitutes.[88] The comic playwright Menander (c. 342/41 – c. 290 BC) protests that "no chaste woman ought to make her hair yellow."[88] At another point, he deplores blonde hair dye as dangerous: "What can we women do wise or brilliant, who sit with hair dyed yellow, outraging the character of gentlewomen, causing the overthrow of houses, the ruin of nuptials, and accusations on the part of children?"[88] Historian and Egyptologist Joann Fletcher asserts that the Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great and members of the Macedonian-Greek Ptolemaic dynasty of Hellenistic Egypt had blond hair, such as Arsinoe II and Berenice II, while Cleopatra VII was likely a redhead given her appearance in a near-contemporary Roman painting from Herculaneum.[89] Historian Michael Grant notes that Ptolemy II Philadelphus, pharaoh and husband to queen Arsinoe II, also had blonde hair.[90]

text:
The male figure of the Etruscan sarcophagus known as the Sarcophagus of the Spouses (Louvre, Paris), 520-510 BC

The goddess Hera (according to the description on the cup); tondo of an Attic white-ground kylix from Vulci, c. 470 BC

Terracotta vase in the shape of Dionysus' head, c. 410 BC; on display in the Ancient Agora Museum in Athens, housed in the Stoa of Attalus

Pottery vessel of Aphrodite in a shell; from Attica, Classical Greece, discovered at Phanagoria, Taman Peninsula (Bosporan Kingdom, southern Russia), early 4th century BC, Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg

An ancient Greek pottery (terracotta) figurine from Taras (modern Taranto), Magna Graecia, Altes Museum

A mosaic of the Kasta Tomb in Amphipolis depicting the abduction of Persephone by Pluto, 4th century BC

A youth pours a libation to a dead man sitting in a naiskos; from an Apulian red-figure volute-krater pelike, 340–320 BC

Stag Hunt Mosaic, possibly depicting Alexander the Great, Pella, Greece, 4th century BC.

Alexander the Great (left), wearing a kausia and fighting an Asiatic lion with his friend Craterus (detail); late 4th-century BC mosaic from Pella[91]

Female acrobat shooting an arrow with a bow in her feet; Gnathia style pelike; 4th century BC

Gnathia ware, southern Italy (Magna Graecia), Apulian vase painting, 310-260 BC, Kinský Palace (Prague)

Apulian red-figure Oinochoe with Lid by the Ganymed Painter (Oinochoe) and Armidale Painter (Lid): head in a calyx between tendrils. About 340-310 BC. Antikensammlung Kiel.

Detail of a krater with volutes in terracotta; Greek art from Southern Italy, c. 330-320 BC.

A Gnathia-style ceramic vessel from ancient Magna Graecia (Apulia, Italy), depicting a blond winged youth with a Phrygian cap, with lion head spouts, by the "Toledo" painter, c. 300 BC

Woman's head on an alabastron in gnathia style; Apulian vase painting, Magna Graecia, Antikensammlung Kiel

text:
Color reconstruction of statue of a young girl from the Parthenon in Athens, 520 BC. Based on analysis of trace pigments.

East Frieze detail (6th-5th century BC) representing the battle of Troy, Achilles against Memnon; color reproduction of the Treasury of Siphnos - Delphi, Archaeological Museum of Delphi

Reconstructed polychromy of a vase-shaped tombstone from Athens, c. 330 BC, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen

The Greek goddess Artemis. Color reconstruction of a 1st-century AD statue found in Pompeii. Reconstructed using analysis of trace pigments. It was an imitation of Greek statues of the 6th century BC.

The Treu Head, 2nd century AD. Color reconstruction of marble head of likely a goddess. The head was found at the Esquiline Hill, Rome, and preserves numerous colour traces.

text: Roman Empire

text: During the early years of the Roman Empire, blond hair was associated with prostitutes.[92] The preference changed to bleaching the hair blond when Greek culture, which practiced bleaching, reached Rome, and was reinforced when the legions that conquered Gaul returned with blond slaves.[93] Sherrow also states that Roman women tried to lighten their hair, but the substances often caused hair loss, so they resorted to wigs made from the captives’ hair.[94] According to Francis Owens,[95] Roman literary records describe a large number of well-known Roman historical personalities as blond. In addition, 250 individuals are recorded to have had the name Flavius, meaning yellow, and there are various people named Rufus and Rutilius, meaning red haired and reddish-haired, respectively.

text: Juvenal wrote in a satirical poem that Messalina, Roman empress of noble birth, would hide her black hair with a blonde wig for her nightly visits to the brothel: sed nigrum flavo crinem abscondente galero intravit calidum veteri centone lupanar.[96] In his Commentary on the Aeneid of Virgil, Maurus Servius Honoratus noted that the respectable matron was only black haired, never blonde.[97] In the same passage, he mentioned that Cato the Elder wrote that some matrons would sprinkle golden dust on their hair to make it reddish-color. Emperor Lucius Verus (r. 161 – 169 AD) was said to sprinkle gold-dust on his already "golden" blond hair to make it even blonder and brighter.[98] Commodus (r. 177-192), son of Marcus Aurelius (a co-emperor with Lucius Verus), likewise had naturally curly blond hair.[99]

text: From an ethnic point of view, Roman authors associated blond and red hair with the Gauls and the Germans: e.g., Virgil describes the hair of the Gauls as "golden" (aurea caesaries),[100] Tacitus wrote that "the Germans have fierce blue eyes, red-blond hair (rutilae comae), huge (tall) frames";[101] in accordance with Ammianus, almost all the Gauls were "of tall stature, fair and ruddy".[102] Celtic and Germanic peoples of the provinces, among the free subjects called peregrini, served in Rome's armies as auxilia, such as the cavalry contingents in the army of Julius Caesar.[103] Some became Roman citizens as far back as the 1st century BC, following a policy of Romanization of Gaul and Lesser Germania.[104] For instance, Gaius Julius Civilis, a prince of the Batavii, was a Roman citizen either by birth or naturalization (as indicated by his name).[105] Before the Constitutio Antoniniana, which granted citizenship to all free men of the empire in 212 AD, entire auxiliary cohorts were occasionally granted citizenship for their performance in battle.[106] Sometimes entire Celtic and Germanic tribes were granted citizenship, such as when emperor Otho granted citizenship to all of the Lingones in 69 AD.[107] By the 1st century BC, the Roman Republic had expanded its control into parts of western Germany, and by 85 AD the provinces of Germania Inferior and Germania Superior were formally established there.[108] Yet as late as the 4th century AD, Ausonius, a poet and tutor from Burdigala, wrote a poem about an Alemanni slave girl named Bissula, who he had recently freed after she'd been taken as a prisoner of war in the campaigns of Valentinian I, noting that her adopted Latin language marked her as a woman of Latium yet her blond-haired, blue-eyed appearance ultimately signified her true origins from the Rhine.[109]

text: Further south, the Iberian peninsula was originally inhabited by Celtiberians outside of Roman control. The gradual Roman conquest of Iberia was completed by the early 1st century AD.[110] The Romans established provinces such as Hispania Terraconensis that were inhabited largely by Gallaeci, whose red and blond-haired descendants (which also include those of Visigothic origins) have continued to inhabit northern areas of Spain such as Galicia and Portugal into the modern era.[110] During the medieval period Spanish ladies preferred to dye their hair black, yet by the time of the Renaissance in the 16th century the fashion (imported from Italy) was to dye their hair blond or red.[111]

text:
Roman fresco from Pompeii showing a Maenad in silk dress, 1st century AD

Ancient Roman fresco (detail) featuring Perseus and the head of Medusa, Stabiae, Italy, 1st century AD.

Fresco depicting a seated woman, from the Villa Arianna at Stabiae, 1st century AD

Heracles and Omphale, Pompeian Fourth Style (45–79 AD)

Roman fresco of a blond woman reading a text, Pompeian Fourth Style (60-79 AD), Pompeii

Mosaic of Aphrodite from Pompeii

A maenad holding a cupid, Pompeii, 1st century AD

Ancient Roman bust of Antinous, made during the reign of Hadrian (117–138 AD), National Archaeological Museum in Athens.

Remnants of a Roman bust of a youth with a blond beard, perhaps depicting Roman emperor Commodus (r. 177–192), National Archaeological Museum, Athens

Polychrome marble statue depicting the goddess Tyche holding the infant Plutus in her arms, 2nd century AD, Istanbul Archaeological Museum

Bust of Tiberius Julius Sauromates II (d. 210 AD), ruler of the Bosporan Kingdom in Roman Crimea, one of Rome's client states

A blond man in a Roman fresco from Klagenfurt, Austria, Landesmuseum für Kärnten

A mosaic from Tusculum depicting Athena, 3rd century AD

Roman mosaic depicting a feminine personification, from the Boathouse of Psyche in Daphne (suburb of Antioch), beginning of 3rd century AD, Louvre Museum

A boy holding a platter of fruits and what may be a bucket of crabs, in a kitchen with fish and squid, on the June panel from a mosaic depicting the months (3rd century)[112]

A mosaic of young boys hunting from the Villa Romana del Casale, Roman Sicily, 4th century AD

A Roman fresco depicting the goddess Diana hunting, 4th century AD, from the Via Livenza hypogeum in Rome

Mosaic depicting Odysseus, from La Olmeda, Spain, late 4th–5th centuries AD

Mosaic of a princess of Skyros (detail from a larger scene of the Iliad showing Achilles and Odysseus) from the villa of La Olmeda, Spain, late 4th–5th centuries AD

Achilles being adored by princesses of Skyros, a scene from the Iliad where Odysseus (Ulysses) discovers him dressed as a woman and hiding among the princesses at the royal court of Skyros. A late Roman mosaic from La Olmeda, Spain, 4th–5th centuries AD

text: Medieval Europe

text: Medieval Scadinavian art and literature often places emphasis on the length and color of a woman's hair,[113] considering long, blonde hair to be the ideal.[113] In Norse mythology, the goddess Sif has famously blonde hair, which some scholars have identified as representing golden wheat.[114] In the Old Norse Gunnlaug Saga, Helga the Beautiful, described as "the most beautiful woman in the world", is said to have hair that is "as fair as beaten gold" and so long that it can "envelope her entirely".[113] In the Poetic Edda poem Rígsþula, the blond man Jarl is considered to be the ancestor of the dominant warrior class. In Northern European folklore, supernatural beings value blonde hair in humans. Blonde babies are more likely to be stolen and replaced with changelings, and young blonde women are more likely to be lured away to the land of the beings.[115]

text: The Scandinavians were not the only ones to place strong emphasis on the beauty of blonde hair;[113] the French writer Christine de Pisan writes in her book The Treasure of the City of Ladies (1404) that "there is nothing in the world lovelier on a woman's head than beautiful blond hair."[113] In medieval artwork, female saints are often shown with long, shimmering blonde hair, which emphasizes their holiness and virginity.[116] At the same time, however, Eve is often shown with long, blonde hair, which frames her nude body and draws attention to her sexual attractiveness.[92][117] In medieval Gothic paintings of the crucifixion of Jesus, the figure of Mary Magdalene is shown with long, blond hair, which flows down her back unbound in contrast to most of the women in the scenes, who are shown with dark hair, normally covered by a scarf.[118] In the older versions of the story of Tristan and Iseult, Tristan falls in love with Iseult after seeing only a single lock of her long, blonde hair.[119] In fact, Iseult was so closely associated with blondness that, in the poems of Chrétien de Troyes, she is called "Iseult le Blonde".[119] In Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales (written from 1387 until 1400), the knight describes the beautiful princess Emily in his tale, stating, "yclothed was she fressh, for to devyse:/Hir yellow heer was broided in a tresse/Behinde hir bak, a yerde long, I gesse" (lines 1048-1050).[119]

text: Because of blond hair's relative commonness in northern Europe, especially among children, folk tales from these regions tend to feature large numbers of blond protagonists.[92][120] Although these stories may not have been seen by their original tellers as idealizing blond hair,[120] when they are read in cultures outside of northern Europe where blond hair "has rarity value", they may seem to connote that blond hair is a sign of special purity.[120]

text:
Fourteenth-century painting by Giusto de' Menabuoi of Adam and Eve being expelled from Eden by an angel, showing all three as blond

International Gothic showing Mary Magdalene covered by her long, blond hair as she is lifted by angels in SS. Johns' Cathedral in Toruń

Detail of the blond Virgin Mary from Leonardo da Vinci's Annunciation (c. 1472-1475)

Adam and Eve (1507) by Albrecht Dürer, showing Eve with blond hair

The Creation of Eve (1508 - 1512) by Michelangelo, showing Eve as blond

The End of the Song (1902) by Edmund Leighton, showing Iseult from medieval legend with long, blond hair

Loki cuts the hair of the goddess Sif in an illustration (1920) by Willy Pogany

text: Early twentieth-century racism

text: In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, blond hair, white skin, blue eyes, a tall stature, a long head, and an angled nose were deemed by scientific racists as hallmarks of the so-called "master race".[121][122] In the nineteenth century, this race was usually referred to as the "Germanic race",[121] but after the turn of the twentieth century, it came to be more commonly known as the "Nordic race".[121] German and Scandinavian scientists and academics throughout the early part of the twentieth century studied racial typology to the point of obsession[123] and debated the features of the Nordic race extensively.[123]

text: In the 1920s, the eugenicist Eugen Fischer invented the Fischer hair color table (Fischer Haarfarbentafel) to scientifically document hair color, which consisted of twenty-six bundles of cellulose fiber coated in non-fading colors attached to a palette and labeled with numbers.[124] Lighter colors were given higher numbers and darker ones were given lower numbers, with the distinction between "blond" and "brown" being set between seven and eight.[125] Fischer was a passionate supporter of Nazi eugenics and warned that the interbreeding of different races would result in the deterioration of modern civilization.[126] Dispute over the exact distinction between blond and brown hair was a heated debate among Norwegian anthropologists during this period,[127] with Halfdan Bryn arguing that the distinction should instead be set between six and seven.[128]

text: By the end of the 1920s, the International Federation of Eugenics Organizations (IFEO), the leading international eugenics organization, became increasingly dominated by proponents of the racial hygiene movement,[129] who sought to turn the organization into "Blond International", which would be "aimed at the purification and propagation of the Nordic race."[129] After the Nazi Party came to power in Germany in 1933, racial anthropology based on the ideas of genetic superiority and racial psychology "became increasingly hegemonic in Germany."[129] The Nazis revered blond hair as a quality of the herrenrasse ("master race").[122]

text: The idea of racial superiority, which once dominated the field of anthropology, has now been completely and unanimously rejected by modern scientists.[130] Modern scientists have also rejected the assertions and beliefs of pre-World War II racialists.[131] Classification of race based on physical characteristics such as hair color is seen as a "flawed, pseudo-scientific relic of the past."[130] Many modern scientists dispute whether the concept of "race" is even a useful classification for human beings at all.[131]

text: Modern cultural associations

text: Sexuality

text: In contemporary popular culture, blonde women are stereotyped as being more sexually attractive to men than women with other hair colors.[93] For example, Anita Loos popularized this idea in her 1925 novel Gentlemen Prefer Blondes.[93] Some women have reported they feel other people expect them to be more fun-loving after having lightened their hair.[93] The American novelist and screenwriter Raymond Chandler offers an appraisal of the blonde as social criticism in his novel The Long Goodbye (1953):

text: There are blondes and blondes and it is almost a joke word nowadays. All blondes have their points, except perhaps the metallic ones who are as blond as a Zulu under the bleach and as to disposition as soft as a sidewalk. There is the small cute blonde who cheeps and twitters, and the big statuesque blonde who straight-arms you with an ice-blue glare. There is the blonde who gives you the up-from-under look and smells lovely and shimmers and hangs on your arm and is always very tired when you take her home. She makes that helpless gesture and has that goddamned headache and you would like to slug her except that you are glad you found out about the headache before you invested too much time and money and hope in her. Because the headache will always be there, a weapon that never wears out and is as deadly as the bravo's rapier or Lucrezia's poison vial.

text: There is the soft and willing and alcoholic blonde who doesn't care what she wears as long as it is mink or where she goes as long as it is the Starlight Roof and there is plenty of dry champagne. There is the small perky blonde who is a little pal and wants to pay her own way and is full of sunshine and common sense and knows judo from the ground up and can toss a truck driver over her shoulder without missing more than one sentence out of the editorial in the Saturday Review. There is the pale, pale blonde with anemia of some non-fatal but incurable type. She is very languid and very shadowy and she speaks softly out of nowhere and you can't lay a finger on her because in the first place you don't want to and in the second place she is reading The Waste Land or Dante in the original, or Kafka or Kierkegaard or studying Provençal. She adores music and when the New York Philharmonic is playing Hindemith she can tell you which one of the six bass viols came in a quarter of a beat too late. I hear Toscanini can also. That makes two of them. And lastly there is the gorgeous show piece who will outlast three kingpin racketeers and then marry a couple of millionaires at a million a head and end up with a pale rose villa at Cap Antibes, an Alfa-Romeo town car complete with pilot and co-pilot, and a stable of shopworn aristocrats, all of whom she will treat with the affectionate absent-mindedness of an elderly duke saying goodnight to his butler.[132]

text: American novelist and short story writer F. Scott Fitzgerald, and chronicler of the Jazz Age, describes a blonde salesclerk working in Minneapolis, Minnesota in his short story "At Your Age" (1929):

text: Then looking up, he saw the blonde girl. She was a rare blonde, even in the Promised Land of Scandinavians, where pretty blondes were not rare. There was a warm color in her cheeks, lips and pink little hands that folded the powders into papers; her hair, in long braids twisted about her head, was shining and alive. She seemed to Tom suddenly the cleanest person he knew of, and he caught his breath as he stepped forward and looked into her gray eyes.

text: She looked back at him apparently without self-consciousness, [and] his heart raced with it wildly."[133][134]

text: Madonna popularized the short bleached blond haircut after the release of her third studio album True Blue and influenced both the 1980s fashion scene as well as many future female musicians like Christina Aguilera, Lady Gaga and Miley Cyrus.[135]

text: Lack of intelligence

text: Originating in Europe, the "blonde stereotype" is also associated with being less serious or less intelligent.[93] Blonde jokes are a class of jokes based on the stereotype of blonde women as unintelligent.[93][136] In Brazil, this extends to blonde women being looked down, as reflected in sexist jokes, as also sexually licentious.[137] It is believed the originator of the "dumb blonde" was an eighteenth-century blonde French prostitute named Rosalie Duthé whose reputation of being beautiful but dumb inspired a play about her called Les Curiosites de la Foire (Paris 1775).[93] Blonde actresses have contributed to this perception; some of them include Marilyn Monroe, Judy Holliday, Jayne Mansfield, and Goldie Hawn during her time at Laugh-In.[93]

text: The British filmmaker Alfred Hitchcock preferred to cast blonde women for major roles in his films as he believed that the audience would suspect them the least, comparing them to "virgin snow that shows up the bloody footprints", hence the term "Hitchcock blonde".[138] This stereotype has become so ingrained it has spawned counter-narratives, such as in the 2001 film Legally Blonde in which Elle Woods, played by Reese Witherspoon, succeeds at Harvard despite biases against her beauty and blonde hair.[93]

text: In the 1950s, the American actress Marilyn Monroe's screen persona centered on her blonde hair and the stereotypes associated with it, especially dumbness, naïveté, sexual availability and artificiality.[139] She often used a breathy, childish voice in her films, and in interviews gave the impression that everything she said was "utterly innocent and uncalculated", parodying herself with double entendres that came to be known as "Monroeisms".[140] For example, when she was asked what she had on in the 1949 nude photo shoot, she replied, "I had the radio on".[141] Monroe often wore white to emphasize her blondness, and drew attention by wearing revealing outfits that showed off her figure.[142] Although Monroe's typecast screen persona as a dim-witted but sexually attractive blonde was a carefully crafted act, audiences and film critics believed it to be her real personality and did not realize that she was only acting.[143]


document_title: NBA All-Star Game records

question_text: most assists in an nba all star game

question_tokens: most assists in an nba all star game

text: NBA All-Star Game records

text: Individual[edit]

text: MVPs[edit]

text: Most awards

text:
4 by Bob Pettit (1 shared award) (1956, 1958, 1959, 1962)
4 by Kobe Bryant (1 shared award) (2002, 2007, 2009, 2011)

text: Most consecutive awards

text:
2 by Bob Pettit (1 shared title) (1958, 1959)
2 by Russell Westbrook (2015, 2016)

text: All-Star selections[edit]

text: Most selections

text: 19 by Kareem Abdul-Jabbar

text: Most consecutive selections

text: 17 by Kobe Bryant

text: Most games played

text: 18 by Kareem Abdul-Jabbar

text: Most games started

text: 15 by Kobe Bryant

text: Scoring[edit]

text: Most points per game – career (3 games min.)

text: 28.7 by Anthony Davis

text: Most points – career

text: 314 by LeBron James

text: Most points – game

text: 52 by Anthony Davis (2017)

text: Most points – half

text: 30 by Anthony Davis (2017)

text: Most points – quarter

text:
20 by Glen Rice (1997)
20 by Anthony Davis (2017)

text: Minutes[edit]

text: Most minutes – career

text: 449 by Kareem Abdul-Jabbar

text: Most minutes – game

text:
42 by Oscar Robertson (1964)
42 by Bill Russell (1964)
42 by Jerry West (1964)
42 by Nate Thurmond (1967)

text: Most minutes per game

text: 32.7 by Bob Pettit

text: Rebounds[edit]

text: Most rebounds – career

text: 197 by Wilt Chamberlain

text: Most offensive rebounds – career

text: 44 by Moses Malone

text: Most defensive rebounds – career

text: 98 by Tim Duncan

text: Most rebounds – game

text: 27 by Bob Pettit (1962)

text: Most rebounds per game

text: 16.2 by Bob Pettit

text: Most offensive rebounds – game

text: 10 by Kobe Bryant (2011)

text: Most defensive rebounds – game

text: 19 by Dikembe Mutombo (2001)

text: Most rebounds – half

text:
16 by Bob Pettit (1962)
16 by Wilt Chamberlain (1960)

text: Most rebounds – quarter

text: 10 by Bob Pettit (1962)

text: Assists[edit]

text: Most assists – career

text: 127 by Magic Johnson

text: Most assists – game

text: 22 by Magic Johnson (1984)

text: Most assists per game

text: 13.3 by Chris Paul

text: Most assists – half

text: 13 by Magic Johnson (1984)

text: Most assists – quarter

text: 9 by John Stockton (1989)

text: Field goals[edit]

text: Highest field goal percentage – career

text: .833 by Brandon Roy

text: Most field goals made – career

text: 129 by LeBron James

text: Most field goals made – game

text: 26 by Anthony Davis (2017)

text: Most field goals made – half

text: 15 by Anthony Davis (2017)

text: Most field goals made – quarter

text: 10 by Anthony Davis (2017)

text: Most field goals attempted – career

text: 238 by Kobe Bryant

text: Most field goals attempted – game

text: 39 by Anthony Davis (2017)

text: Most field goals attempted – half

text: 22 by Anthony Davis (2017)

text: Most field goals attempted – quarter

text: 15 by Anthony Davis (2017)

text: Free throws[edit]

text: Highest free throw percentage – career

text:
1.000 by Archie Clark
1.000 by Gary Payton
1.000 by Clyde Drexler

text: Most free throws made – career

text: 78 by Elgin Baylor

text: Most free throws made – game

text:
12 by Elgin Baylor (1962)
12 by Oscar Robertson (1965)

text: Most free throws made – half

text: 10 by Zelmo Beaty (1966)

text: Most free throws made – quarter

text:
9 by Zelmo Beaty (1966)
9 by Julius Erving (1978)

text: Most free throws attempted – career

text:
98 by Elgin Baylor
98 by Oscar Robertson

text: Most free throws attempted – game

text: 16 by Wilt Chamberlain (1962)

text: Most free throws attempted – half

text: 12 by Zelmo Beaty (1966)

text: Most free throws attempted – quarter

text: 11 by Julius Erving (1978)

text: Three-point shooting[edit]

text: Highest three point percentage – career

text: .600 by Glen Rice

text: Most three point field goals made – career

text: 31 by LeBron James

text: Most three point field goals made – game

text: 9 by Paul George (2016)

text: Most three point field goals made – half

text: 7 by Russell Westbrook (2016)

text: Most three point field goals attempted – career

text: 90 by LeBron James

text: Most three point field goals attempted – game

text: 19 by Paul George (2016)

text: Most three point field goals attempted – half

text:
11 by Kevin Durant (2014)
11 by Paul George (2016)

text: Steals[edit]

text: Most steals – career

text: 38 by Kobe Bryant

text: Most steals per game

text: 3.2 by Rick Barry

text: Most steals – game

text: 8 by Rick Barry (1975)

text: Most steals – half

text: 5 by Larry Bird (1986)

text: Most steals – quarter

text:
4 by Fred Brown (1976)
4 by Larry Bird (1986)
4 by Isiah Thomas (1989)

text: Blocks[edit]

text: Most blocks – career

text: 31 by Kareem Abdul-Jabbar

text: Most blocks per game

text: 2.0 by Alonzo Mourning

text: Most blocks – game

text: 6 by Kareem Abdul-Jabbar (1980)

text: Most blocks – half

text:
4 by Kareem Abdul-Jabbar (1980)
4 by Michael Jordan (1988)
4 by Hakeem Olajuwon (1994)

text: Most blocks – quarter

text: 4 by Kareem Abdul-Jabbar (1980)

text: Triple doubles[edit]

text:
Michael Jordan – 14 points, 11 rebounds, 11 assists in 26 minutes (1997)
LeBron James – 29 points, 12 rebounds, 10 assists in 32 minutes (2011)
Dwyane Wade – 24 points, 10 rebounds, 10 assists in 33 minutes (2012)
Kevin Durant – 21 points, 10 rebounds, 10 assists in 27 minutes (2017)

text: Team[edit]

text: Scoring[edit]

text:
Most points – team

196 by West All-Stars (2016)

Most points – both teams

374 (2017)

Most points in a half – team

104 by West All-Stars (2016)

Most points in a half – both teams

189 (2017)

Most points in a quarter – team

53 by West All-Stars (2016)
53 by East All-Stars (2017)

Most points in a quarter – both teams

101 (2017)

Fewest points – team

75 by East All-Stars (1953)

Fewest points – both teams

154 (1953)

Largest margin of victory

40 (153–113) by West All-Stars (1992)

Smallest margin of victory

1 (124–123) by East All-Stars (1965)
1 (108–107) by West All-Stars (1971)
1 (125–124) by West All-Stars (1977)
1 (111–110) by East All-Stars (2001)

text: Field goals[edit]

text:
Highest field goal percentage – team

0.653 (64/98) by West All-Stars (1992)

Highest field goal percentage – both teams

0.578 (162/280) (2017)

Lowest field goal percentage – team

0.292 (35/120) by West All-Stars (1966)

Lowest field goal percentage – both teams

0.362 (59/163) (1953)

Most field goals made – team

84 by West All-Stars (2017)

Most field goals made – both teams

162 (2017)

Most field goals made in a half – team

43 by West All-Stars (2017)

Most field goals made in a half – both teams

83 (2017)

Most field goals made in a quarter – team

22 by West All-Stars (2017)

Most field goals made in a quarter – both teams

42 (2017)

Fewest field goals made – team

25 by East All-Stars (1953)

Fewest field goals made – both teams

59 (1953)

Most field goals attempted – team

149 by West All-Stars (2016)

Most field goals attempted – both teams

286 (2016)

Most field goals attempted in a half – team

79 by West All-Stars (2016)

Most field goals attempted in a half – both teams

148 (2016)

Most field goals attempted in a quarter – team

41 by West All-Stars (2016)

Most field goals attempted in a quarter – both teams

77 (2016)

Fewest field goals attempted – team

66 by East All-Stars (1953)

Fewest field goals attempted – both teams

162 (1953)

text: Three-point field goals[edit]

text:
Most three-point field goals made – team

31 by West All-Stars (2016)

Most three-point field goals made – both teams

51 (2016)

Most three-point field goals attempted – team

80 by West All-Stars (2016)

Most three-point field goals attempted – both teams

139 (2016)

text: Free throws[edit]

text:
Highest free throw percentage – team

1.000 (18/18) by West All-Stars (1973)
1.000 (9/9) by East All-Stars (2014)
1.000 (4/4) by East All-Stars (2017)

Highest free throw percentage – both teams

0.875 (7/8) (2017)

Lowest free throw percentage – team

0.364 (4/11) by West All-Stars (2004)

Lowest free throw percentage – both teams

0.500 (16/32) (2004)
0.500 (11/22) (2007)
0.500 (14/28) (2008)

Most free throws made – team

40 by East All-Stars (1959)

Most free throws made – both teams

71(OT) (1987)
70 (1961)

Most free throws made in a half – team

26 by East All-Stars (1959)

Most free throws made in a half – both teams

36 (1961)

Most free throws made in a quarter – team

19 by East All-Stars (1986)

Most free throws made in a quarter – both teams

27 (1986)

Fewest free throws made – team

1 by West All-Stars (2016)

Fewest free throws made – both teams

4 (2016)

Most free throws attempted – team

57 by West All-Stars (1970)

Most free throws attempted – both teams

95 (1956)

Most free throws attempted in a half – team

31 by East All-Stars (1959)

Most free throws attempted in a half – both teams

57 (1962)

Most free throws attempted in a quarter – team

25 by West All-Stars (1970)

Most free throws attempted in a quarter – both teams

33 (1962)
33(OT) (1993)

Fewest free throws attempted – team

2 by West All-Stars (2016)

Fewest free throws attempted – both teams

7 (2016)

text: Rebounds[edit]

text:
Most rebounds recorded – team

83 by East All-Stars (1966)

Most rebounds recorded – both teams

151 (1960)

Most rebounds recorded in a half – team

51 by East All-Stars (1966)

Most rebounds recorded in a half – both teams

98 (1962)
98 (1966)

Most rebounds recorded in a quarter – team

30 by West All-Stars (1966)

Most rebounds recorded in a quarter – both teams

58 (1966)

Fewest rebounds recorded – team

37 by West All-Stars (1983)

Fewest rebounds recorded – both teams

89 (1983)

text: Assists[edit]

text:
Most assists – team

60 by West All-Stars (2017)

Most assists – both teams

103 (2017)

Most assists in a half – team

34 by West All-Stars (2017)

Most assists in a half – both teams

57 (2017)

Most assists in a quarter – team

19 by West All-Stars (2017)

Most assists in a quarter – both teams

29 (2017)

Fewest assists – team

15 by West All-Stars (1965)

Fewest assists – both teams

37 (1964)

text: Steals[edit]

text:
Most steals – team

24 by East All-Stars (1989)

Most steals- both teams

40 (1989)

text: Blocks[edit]

text:
Most blocks – team

16 by West All-Stars (1980 1OT)
12 by West All-Stars (1994)

Most blocks – both teams

25 (1980 1OT)
21 (1994)

text: All-Star Weekend records[edit]

text: Most Skills Challenge Contests won

text:
2 by Dwyane Wade (2006, 2007)
2 by Steve Nash (2005, 2010)
2 by Damian Lillard (2013, 2014)

text: Most consecutive Skills Challenge Contests won

text:
2 by Dwyane Wade (2006, 2007)
2 by Damian Lillard (2013, 2014)

text: Most Slam Dunk Contests won

text: 3 by Nate Robinson (2006, 2009, 2010)

text: Most consecutive Slam Dunk Contests won

text:
2 by Michael Jordan (1987, 1988)
2 by Jason Richardson (2002, 2003)
2 by Nate Robinson (2009, 2010)
2 by Zach LaVine (2015, 2016)

text: Most Three-Point Shootout Contests won

text:
3 by Larry Bird (1986, 1987, 1988)
3 by Craig Hodges (1990, 1991, 1992)

text: Most consecutive Three-Point Shootout Contests won

text: Youngest Slam Dunk Contest Champion

text: Kobe Bryant (18 years, 169 days)

text: Youngest Three-Point Shootout Contest Champion

text: Kyrie Irving (20 years, 330 days)

text: Youngest Skills Challenge Contest Champion

text: Karl-Anthony Towns (20 years, 90 days)

text: Other records[edit]

text: Attendance

text: 108,713 for the 2010 NBA All-Star Game which was held in Cowboys Stadium at Arlington, Texas — the largest attendance in history for any basketball game.

text: Youngest All-Star Game MVP

text: LeBron James (21 years, 51 days)

text: Oldest All-Star Game MVP

text: Shaquille O'Neal (36 years, 346 days)

text: Youngest Rising Stars Challenge MVP

text: Kyrie Irving (19 years, 338 days)