document_title: Sorus

question_text: where are the spore containing sori of a fern found

text: Sorus

text: A sorus (pl. sori) is a cluster of sporangia (structures producing and containing spores) in ferns and fungi. This New Latin word is from Ancient Greek σωρός (sōrós ‘stack, pile, heap’).

text: In lichens and other fungi, the sorus is surrounded by an external layer. In some red algae it may take the form of a depression into the thallus.

text: In ferns, these form a yellowish or brownish mass on the edge or underside of a fertile frond. In some species, they are protected during development by a scale or film of tissue called the indusium, which forms an umbrella-like cover.

text: Sori occur on the sporophyte generation, the sporangia within producing haploid meiospores. As the sporongia mature, the indusium shrivels so that spore release is unimpeded. The sporangia then burst and release the spores.

text: The shape, arrangement, and location of the sori are often valuable clues in the identification of fern taxa. Sori may be circular or linear. They may be arranged in rows, either parallel or oblique to the costa, or randomly. Their location may be marginal or set away from the margin on the frond lamina. The presence or absence of indusium is also used to identify fern taxa.

text: Gallery[edit]

text: Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sorus.

tag: table

text:
Sorus Phlebodium aureum 50x

Scattered sori

Linear sori

Sori covering a frond's entire underside (acrostichoid)

Fern sorus with immature sporangia

Circular sori with mature sporangia

Sori with indusia at different stages of development.

Fungal sori of the Meadowsweet Rust gall.

Large sori

Polypodium vulgare

Sword fern. The indusia have opened, revealing the sporangia. Scale bar, 1 mm


document_title: Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen

question_text: who dies in transformers revenge of the fallen

root

text: Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen

text: Plot[edit]

text: In 17,000 B.C., the Seven Primes travel across the galaxy to create Energon with star-absorbing machines named Sun Harvesters. One of them, later known as The Fallen, defies their sole rule to never destroy planetso imprison him before he can harvest the planet's Sun using the Matrix of Leadership. The Primes then sacrifice themselves to hide the Matrix in an unknown location.

tag: p

text: In the present day, two years after Megatron's defeat, the Autobots and the U.S. military have formed the Non-biological Extraterrestrial Species Treaty (NEST), a classified international task force, to eliminate the surviving Decepticons. In Shanghai, the Autobots intercept two Decepticons, Demolisher and Sideways. Sideways is killed by the Autobot Sideswipe, while Optimus Prime kills Demolisher, but not before he warns them of the Fallen's return. At NEST's secure headquarters in Diego Garcia, National Security Adviser Theodore Galloway concludes the Decepticons are still on Earth to hunt the Autobots, since Megatron's corpse is at the bottom of the Laurentian Abyss and the last known AllSpark shard is secured in the base. Soundwave hacks into a military satellite, overhears the information, and sends Ravage to retrieve the shard.

text: Meanwhile, Sam Witwicky is preparing to attend college, leaving his girlfriend Mikaela Banes and guardian Bumblebee behind. He finds a smaller AllSpark shard and picks it up, causing him to start seeing Cybertronian symbols. The shard's energy pulse turns the appliances in the kitchen into murderous Transformers, who attack Sam and his family. After Bumblebee destroys the rampaging appliances, Sam gives the shard to Mikaela, who later captures the Decepticon Wheelie when he attempts to steal it. The Constructicons, upon discovering Megatron's location, travel to the Laurentian Abyss and resurrect Megatron using the stolen shard and parts torn off from one of their own allies. Megatron then travels to one of Saturn's moons, where he reunites with his master, the Fallen, who orders him to capture Sam alive and kill Optimus, the only Transformer who can defeat the Fallen.

text: Sam, Mikaela, and his college roommate Leo are attacked by Alice, a Decepticon Pretender posing as a college student. After killing her, they are captured by Megatron, Starscream, and the Decepticon Grindor, but Optimus and Bumblebee arrive and rescue the humans. Optimus fights Megatron, Starscream, and Grindor alone as Megatron reveals that the symbols in Sam's mind will lead the Decepticons to a new Energon source. After killing Grindor, Optimus is killed by Megatron. The other Autobots arrive and repel Megatron and Starscream before they could recapture Sam. As Sam goes into hiding with Mikaela, Leo, Bumblebee, Wheelie, and the Autobot twins Skids and Mudflap, the Decepticons launch devastating simultaneous attacks around the world, destroying ships in the Second Fleet and damaging Paris. The Fallen hijacks Earth's telecommunications systems, demanding that Sam be handed to him.

text: Sam, Mikaela, and Leo enlist the help of former Sector Seven agent, Seymour Simmons, who reveals that the Transformers visited Earth eons ago and the most ancient, known as Seekers, remained on Earth, hiding in secret. With help from Wheelie, they track down a Decepticon Seeker named Jetfire at the Smithsonian Air and Space Museum. They use their shard to revive Jetfire, who teleports the group to Egypt and explains the story of the Fallen. Jetfire and Wheelie turn against the Decepticons, and order them to locate the Matrix, which could revive Optimus. Sam's group finds the Matrix in Petra, but it disintegrates into dust in Sam's hands. Undeterred, Sam stuffs the Matrix's remains into his sock.

text: Meanwhile, NEST forces and the Autobots land near the Giza pyramid complex but are attacked by a large force of Decepticons. During the battle, many Constructicons combine to form Devastator, who destroys one of the pyramids to reveal the Sun Harvester inside, before he is killed by a destroyer's railgun called in by Simmons. Ravage and the Decepticon Rampage attempt to spring a trap with Sam's captured parents as bait, in order to force Sam to give them the Matrix, but Bumblebee interferes and kills them both. Major William Lennox and Master Sergeant Robert Epps call in an airstrike, which kills a majority of the Decepticon ground forces. However, Megatron manages to shoot Sam, seemingly killing him, before retreating upon getting attacked. Nearing his death, the Primes contact Sam through a vision, telling him the Matrix is earned, not found, and that he earned the right to bear it. They restore Sam's life and the Matrix, which he uses to revive Optimus.

text: The Fallen teleports to their location and steals the Matrix from Optimus, then returns to the pyramid with Megatron and activates the Sun Harvester. Jetfire, who was gravely wounded during the battle by Scorponok but did manage to kill his attacker, sacrifices himself in order to transplant his parts to Optimus, which give him immense strength and the ability to fly. Optimus knocks the Fallen and Megatron off the pyramid, destroying the Sun Harvester in the process. In the battle, Optimus disables Megatron and kills the Fallen; vowing vengeance, Megatron retreats with Starscream. The

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Shia LaBeouf as Sam Witwicky
A recent high school graduate who is unwittingly drawn again into the Autobot cause to unravel an ancient mystery implanted into his mind by the now-destroyed Allspark.
Megan Fox as Mikaela Banes
Sam's girlfriend who he trusted the Allspark fragment to begin unravel.
Josh Duhamel as Maj. William Lennox
An Army Rangers Major who establishes the NEST movement to help the Autobots with their battle against the remaining Decepticons.
Tyrese Gibson as CMSgt. Robert Epps
A U.S. Air Force sergeant in Lennox's team who leads NEST's SWAT unit.
John Turturro as Seymour Simmons
A former agent of the recently terminated Sector 7 who now runs a meat shop in New York City with his mother.
Ramón Rodríguez as Leo Spitz
A college roommate of Sam's who runs an online conspiracy blog and is obsessed with the Transformers.
Kevin Dunn as Ron Witwicky
Sam's father.
Julie White as Judith Witwicky
Sam's mother.
Isabel Lucas as Alice
A female pretender sent to spy on Sam in college who transforms into an Alice in Wonderland android.
John Benjamin Hickey as Theo Galloway
A national security adviser who often chastises NEST for their destructive tactics.
Glenn Morshower as U.S. Marine Corps General Morshower
The supervisor of NEST.
Matthew Marsden as Graham
A NEST officer.
Rainn Wilson as Prof. R. A. Colan
Sam and Leo's astronomy teacher.
Marc Evan Jackson as Commander
U.S. Central Command
Katie Lowes as April the Residential Assistant

tag: ul

text: Voices[edit]

text:
Peter Cullen as Optimus Prime
The leader of the Autobots who transforms into a blue and red 1994 Peterbilt 379 semi-trailer truck. He is said to be the only Transformer capable of defeating The Fallen.
Mark Ryan as Jetfire
An ancient Decepticon-turned-Autobot Seeker who transforms into a Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird.[a]
Reno Wilson as Mudflap
An Autobot infiltrator and Skids' twin who transforms into a red 2007 Chevrolet Trax.
Jess Harnell as Ironhide
The Autobot weapons specialist and Optimus' new second-in-command who transforms into a black 2006 GMC Topkick C4500.
Robert Foxworth as Ratchet
The Autobot medical officer who transforms into a yellow 2004 search and rescue Hummer H2 ambulance.
André Sogliuzzo as Sideswipe
The Autobot combat instructor who transforms into a silver 2009 Chevrolet Corvette Stingray concept car.
Grey DeLisle as Arcee
A female Autobot who transforms into a pink Ducati 848.[b]
Hugo Weaving as Megatron
The Fallen's apprentice and the leader of the Decepticons who transforms into a Cybertronian hover tank.
Tony Todd as The Fallen
A rogue Prime who is the first and founder of the Decepticons, as well as the master of Megatron.
Charlie Adler as Starscream
Megatron's second-in-command who transforms into a Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor.
Frank Welker as:

Soundwave
The Decepticon communications officer who transforms into a Cybertronian satellite.
Devastator
A massive Decepticon who is the combination of eight Constructicons.
Reedman, a razor-thin Decepticon composed of thousands of minuscule bead-like Decepticons.[c]

Tom Kenny as:

Wheelie
A former Decepticon drone and later an Autobot who transforms into a blue radio-controlled toy monster truck.
Skids
An Autobot messenger and Mudflap's twin who transforms into a green 2007 Chevrolet Beat.

Calvin Wimmer voices Demolishor (credited as "Wheelbot")
A huge Constructicon who transforms into a red and white Terex O&K RH 400 excavator. He hides out in Shanghai with the Decepticon Sideways.
John DiCrosta as Scalpel (credited as "Doctor")
A spider-like Decepticon who transforms into a microscope.
Michael York as Prime #1
One of the Seven Primes.
Kevin Michael Richardson as:

Prime #2
One of the Seven Primes.
Rampage (credited as "Skipjack")
A Constructicon who transforms into a red Caterpillar D9T bulldozer. He forms the left leg of Devastator.

Robin Atkin Downes as Prime #3
One of the Seven Primes

text: Non-speaking characters[edit]

text:
Jolt
An Autobot technician who transforms into a blue Chevrolet Volt.
Sideways
A Decepticon surveillance agent who transforms into a silver Audi R8; he hides out in Shanghai alongside Demolishor.
Scorponok
A scorpion-like Decepticon who was a minion of Blackout in the previous installment; he makes a cameo in this film.
Scrapper
A Constructicon who transforms into a yellow Caterpillar 992G scoop loader. He forms the right arm of Devastator.
Mixmaster
A Constructicon who transforms into a black and silver Mack concrete mixer truck. He forms the head of Devastator.
Scrapmetal
A Constructicon who transforms into a yellow Volvo EC700C crawler excavator fitted with a Stanley UP 45SV attachment. His spare parts are used to resurrect Megatron.
Long Haul
A Constructicon who transforms into a green Caterpillar 773B dump truck. He forms the right leg of Devastator.
Scavenger
A large Constructicon who shares the same model of Demolishor; Scavenger is not seen in robot mode. He forms the torso of Devastator.
Hightower
A Constructicon who transforms into a yellow KOBELCO CKE2500 II crawler crane; Hightower is not seen in robot mode. He forms the left arm of Devastator.
Overload
A Constructicon who transforms into a red KW Dart D4661 Tractor Truck articulated dump truck; Overload is not seen in robot mode. He forms the lower torso of Devastator.
Ravage
A feline-like beast sent down by Soundwave to steal the spark from the NEST HQ in order to revive Megatron.

text: Several clones of Scrapper, Mixmaster, Bonecrusher, Long Haul and Rampage are seen during the final battle in Egypt. An unnamed Decepticon bulldozer and dump truck, possibly clones of Rampage and Long Haul, were seen combining to form Devastator's left hand and left leg, respectively.

text:
Jump up ^ Mark Ryan also voices Bumblebee, but the character is not listed in the credits.
Jump up ^ Grey DeLisle also voices Chromia and Elita-One, but the characters are not listed in the credits.
Jump up ^ Frank Welker also voices Ravage and Grindor, but the characters are not listed in the credits.

tag: ol

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: Major hurdles for film's initial production stages included the 2007–2008 Writers Guild of America strike as well as the threat of strikes by other guilds. Prior to a potential Directors Guild of America strike, Bay began creating animatics of action sequences featuring characters rejected for the 2007 film. This would allow animators to complete sequences if the Directors Guild of America went on strike in July 2008, which ultimately did not happen.[4][5] Bay considered making a small project in between Transformers and its sequel, but decided against the idea, saying "you have your baby and you don't want someone else to take it".[6]

text: Screenwriters Roberto Orci and Alex Kurtzman, who had written the first film, originally passed on the opportunity to write a sequel due to schedule conflicts. The studio began courting other writers in May 2007, but were unimpressed with other pitches and eventually convinced Orci and Kurtzman to return.[4] The studio also hired Ehren Kruger, who had impressed Bay and Hasbro president Brian Goldner with his knowledge of the Transformers mythology.[7] The writing trio were paid $8 million.[4] Screenwriting was interrupted by the 2007–2008 Writers Guild of America strike, but to avoid production delays, the writers spent two weeks writing a treatment, which they handed in the night before the strike began.[8] Bay then expanded the outline into a 60-page scriptment,[9] which included more action, humor, and characters.[8][10] The three writers spent four months finishing the screenplay while "locked" in two hotel rooms by Bay; Kruger wrote in his own room and the trio would check on each other's work twice a day.[11]

text: Orci described the film's theme as "being away from home", with the Autobots contemplating living on Earth as they cannot restore Cybertron, while Sam goes to college.[12] He wanted the focus between the robots and humans "much more evenly balanced",[13] "the stakes [to] be higher", and more focused on the science fiction elements.[14] Orci added he wanted to "modulate" the humor more,[15] and felt he managed the more "outrageous" jokes by balancing them with a more serious plot approach to the Transformers' mythology.[16] Bay concurred that he wanted to please fans by making the tone darker,[17] and that "mums will think it[']s safe enough to bring the kids back out to the movies."[18] Two elements were added late into the film: the Autobot Jolt—as General Motors wanted to advertise the Chevrolet Volt—and the railgun that kills Devastator, a new acquisition by the U.S. Military.[19]

text: In September 2007, Paramount announced a late June 2009 release date for the sequel to Transformers.[20] The film was given a $200 million budget, which was $50 million more than the first film,[21] and some of the action scenes rejected for the original were written into the sequel.[22] Producer Lorenzo di Bonaventura later stated the studio proposed filming two sequels simultaneously, but he and Bay agreed that the idea was not the right direction for the series.[23]

text: Prior to the first film's release, producer Tom DeSanto had "a very cool idea" to introduce the Dinobots,[24] while Bay was interested in including an aircraft carrier, which was dropped from the 2007 film.[25] Orci claimed they did not incorporate these characters into Revenge of the Fallen because they could not think of a way to justify the Dinobots' choice of form,[12] and were unable to fit in the aircraft carrier.[26] Orci also admitted he was dismissive of the Dinobots because he does not like dinosaurs, saying "I recognize I am weird in that department."[27] However, he became fonder of them during filming because of their popularity with fans.[28] He added "I couldn't see why a Transformer would feel the need to disguise himself in front of a bunch of lizards. Movie-wise, I mean. Once the general audience is fully on board with the whole thing, maybe Dinobots in the future."[29] When asked on the subject, Michael Bay said he hated the Dinobots and they had never been in consideration for being featured in the movies.[30]

text: During production, Bay attempted to create a misinformation campaign to increase debate over what Transformers would be appearing in the film, as well as to try to throw fans off from the story of the film; however, Orci confessed it was generally unsuccessful.[26] The studio went as far as to censor MTV and Comic Book Resources interviews with Mowry and Furman, who confirmed Arcee and The Fallen would be in the picture.[31] Bay told Empire that Megatron would not be resurrected, claiming his new tank form was a toy-only character,[21] only for Orci to confirm Megatron would return in the film in February 2009.[32] Bay also claimed he faked the leaking of daily call sheets from the first week of filming, that revealed Ramón Rodríguez's casting,[33] and the appearance of Jetfire and the twins.[34]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Inspired by its use in Christopher Nolan's The Dark Knight, three action sequences in Revenge of the Fallen were shot using IMAX cameras.[17] Although screenwriter Roberto Orci suggested that the IMAX footage would be 3D,[35] Bay later said he found 3D too "gimmicky". Bay added that shooting in IMAX was easier than using stereoscopic cameras.[36]

text: The majority of interior scenes for the film were shot in the former Hughes Aircraft soundstages at Playa Vista.[37] From June 2–4, the production filmed an action sequence at the Bethlehem Steel site in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, which was used to represent a portion of Shanghai.[9][38] Afterwards, they shot at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center.[39] The crew moved to Philadelphia on June 9, where they shot at a defunct PECO Richmond power station, the University of Pennsylvania, Drexel University, the Eastern State Penitentiary, Fairmount Park, Philadelphia City Hall, Rittenhouse Square, historic Chancellor Street (which represents a street near Place de la Concorde in Paris), and Wanamaker's.[40][41][42][43] The production moved to Princeton University on June 22.[44] Filming there angered some students at the University of Pennsylvania, believing Bay had chosen to reshoot scenes at Princeton and script Princeton's name in the film. One shot that was filmed in the University of Pennsylvania was the party scene, filmed at what students call "The Castle". "The Castle" is home to the prestigious Psi Upsilon Fraternity. However, neither the University of Pennsylvania nor Princeton gave Bay permission to be named in the film because of a scene that both institutions felt "did not represent the school" in which Sam's mother ingests marijuana-laced brownies.[45]

text: Bay scheduled a break for filming beginning on June 30, turning his attention to animation and second unit scenes because of the potential guild strike.[46] Shooting for the Shanghai battle later continued in Long Beach, California.[47] In September, the crew shot at Holloman Air Force Base and White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico. The two locations were used for Qatar in Transformers and stood in for Egypt in this film.[48] A scale model in Los Angeles was also used for some close-ups of the pyramids.[21] Shooting at Tucson International Airport and the 309th Aerospace Maintenance and Regeneration Group's aircraft boneyard took place in October under the fake working title Prime Directive (a reference to Star Trek).[49] Filming also took place at Camp Pendleton and Davis–Monthan Air Force Base.[37]

text: The first unit then shot for three days in Egypt at the Giza pyramid complex and Luxor. The shoot was highly secretive, but according to producer Lorenzo di Bonaventura, a crew of 150 Americans and "several dozen local Egyptians" ensured a "remarkably smooth" shoot.[50] Bay earned the Egyptian government's approval to film at the pyramids by contacting Zahi Hawass, whom Bay said "put his arm around me and said, 'Don't hurt my pyramids.'"[37] A 50-foot-tall (15 m) camera crane was used at the location.[21] Bay stated he found the climax of the first film to be weak, partly because it was shot across five different city blocks, making the action confusing and hard to follow. On this film, the final battle in Egypt was devised to make it easier to follow the action.[51]

text: Four days were then spent in Jordan; the Royal Jordanian Air Force aided in filming at Petra, Wadi Rum and Salt because King Abdullah II is a big fan of science fiction movies.[52][53] Filming continued at the Place de la Concorde in Paris with second unit shots of the Eiffel Tower and the Arc de Triomphe.[54] The cast and crew finished principal photography on the aircraft carrier USS John C. Stennis on November 2, 2008.[55]

text: Effects[edit]

text: Hasbro became more involved in the designs of the robots than the company was for Transformers.[15] The company, along with Takara Tomy, suggested to the filmmakers that combining robots be the main draw for the sequel.[56] They insisted on keeping the alternate modes of some of the returning characters similar so that consumers would not have to buy toys of the same characters.[57] Bay used real F-16 Fighting Falcon and tank fire when filming the battles.[23] Many of the new Autobot cars supplied by General Motors were brightly colored to look distinctive on screen.[58] Revenge of the Fallen features 46 robots, while the original movie had 14.[59]

text: Scott Farrar returned as visual effects supervisor and anticipated moodier use of lighting as well as deeper roles for the Decepticons.[clarification needed] He stated that with the bigger deadline, post-production would become a "circus".[60] The producers expected that with a bigger budget and the special effects worked out, the Transformers would have a larger role. Peter Cullen recalled, "Don Murphy mentioned to me, 'Only because of the tremendous expense to animate Optimus Prime, he'll be in just a certain amount of [Transformers].' But he said, 'Next time, if the movie is a success, you're gonna be in it a ton.'"[61] Michael Bay hoped to include more close-ups of the robots' faces.[62] The heads had to be designed with more pieces in order to express emotions in a more convincing way.[59] Farrar said the animators implemented more "splashes and the hits and the fighting on dirt or moving, banging into trees, [...] things splinter and break, [the robots] spit, they outgas, they sweat, they snort." Shooting in the higher resolution of IMAX required up to 72 hours to render a single frame of animation.[63][64] While ILM used 15 terabytes for Transformers, they used 140 for the sequel.[53] Particularly problematic effects were the lighting, with scenes such as Jetfire inside the Smithsonian requiring 41 light sources, and the destruction of the pyramid, which appears in about five shots and required seven months to simulate the behavior of the blocks.[59] Orci hinted the majority of the Decepticons were entirely computer-generated in both robot and alternate modes, making it easier to write additional scenes for them in post-production.[65] Rendering the Devastator took over 85% of ILM's render farm capacity, and the complexity of the scene and having to render it at IMAX resolution caused one computer to "explode".[66]

text: Music[edit]

text: The score to Revenge of the Fallen was composed by Steve Jablonsky, who reunited with director Michael Bay to record his score with a 71-piece ensemble of the Hollywood Studio Symphony at the Sony Scoring Stage.[67] Jablonsky and his score producer Hans Zimmer composed various interpretations of a song by Linkin Park called "New Divide" for the score.[68]

text: Marketing[edit]

text: An additional $150 million was spent to market the film globally.[69] Hasbro's Revenge of the Fallen toy line included new molds of new and returning characters, as well as 2007 figures with new mold elements or new paint schemes.[70] The first wave was released on May 30, although Bumblebee and Soundwave debuted beforehand.[71] The second wave came in August 2009, which introduced toys such as 2¼-inch human action figures that fit inside the transforming robots, and non-transforming replicas of the cars that can be used on a race track. Product placement partners on the film include Burger King, 7-Eleven, LG phones, Kmart, Wal-Mart, YouTube, Nike, Inc. and M&M's, as well as Jollibee in the Philippines.[72] General Motors' financial troubles limited its involvement in promotion of the sequel, although Paramount acknowledged with or without GM, their marketing campaign was still very large and had the foundation of the 2007 film's success.[73][74][75] Kyle Busch drove a Revenge of the Fallen decorated car at Infineon Raceway on June 21, 2009,[76] while Josh Duhamel drove a 2010 Camaro at the Indianapolis 500.[77] At the movie's launch in China, a version of Bumblebee was constructed using a Volkswagen Jetta.[78]

text: Printed media[edit]

text: Chris Mowry and artist Alex Milne, who had collaborated on The Reign of Starscream comic book, reunited for IDW Publishing's prequel to the film. Originally set to be a five-part series entitled Destiny,[79] it was split into two simultaneously published series, titled Alliance and Defiance. Alliance is drawn by Milne and began in December 2008; it focuses on the human and Autobot perspectives.[80] Defiance, which started the following month, is drawn by Dan Khanna and is set before either film, showing the beginnings of the war.[81]

text: After the 2007 film, and serving as a bridge between the two films, Alan Dean Foster wrote Transformers: The Veiled Threat,[82] originally titled Infiltration. During the writing, Foster collaborated with IDW to make sure their stories did not contradict each other.[83]

text: The first printed media directly related to the second film was a 32-page coloring and activity book by publisher HarperCollins, which became available on May 5, 2009 and was the first official source to openly give out key plot points to the film.[84] On June 1, 2009 DK Publishing published a 96-page book entitled Transformers: The Movie Universe, which intended to provide factual data on the characters of the film.[85]

text: On June 10, 2009, the comic book adaptation of the film, written by Simon Furman was released.[86] Additionally, Alan Dean Foster also wrote the novelization for the film.[87] Meanwhile, Dan Jolley wrote Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen: The Junior Novel, a 144-page book oriented at a younger audience than the one by Foster.[88] Lastly, a book titled Transformers: The Art of the Movies was released, documenting behind-the scenes aspects of the making of the film.

text: Other minor tie-in publications include Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen: The Last Prime, Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen: The Reusable Sticker Book, Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen: Made You Look!, Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen: Rise of the Decepticons, Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen: Spot the 'Bots', Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen: Mix and Match, Operation Autobot, When Robots Attack and Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen 2010 Wall Calendar.

text: Video game[edit]

text: Revenge of the Fallen video games are available on the following platforms:

text:
PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 (Developed by Luxoflux and published by Activision)[89][90]
Games for Windows (Developed by Beenox), which is similar to the PS3 and Xbox 360 version[91]
Wii and PlayStation 2 (Developed by Krome Studios)[92]
PlayStation Portable (Developed by Savage Entertainment)[93]
Nintendo DS (Developed by Vicarious Visions), which is separated into two games, Autobots and Decepticons.[94]

text: Release[edit]

text: Revenge of the Fallen premiered on June 8, 2009 in Tokyo, Japan.[95] After its UK release on June 19, 2009, it was released in regular and IMAX theaters in North America on June 24[96] (though some theaters held limited-access advance screenings on June 22). The IMAX release featured additional scenes of extended robot fighting sequences, which were not seen in the regular theatre version.[97]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, Revenge of the Fallen has an approval rating of 19% based on 244 reviews, with an average rating of 3.9/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen is a noisy, underplotted, and overlong special effects extravaganza that lacks a human touch."[98] On Metacritic gave the film an average score of 35 out of 100, based on 32 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".[99] In CinemaScore polls, however, users gave the film a "B+", compared to the "A" that the original film had scored.[100]

text: Actor Shia LaBeouf was unimpressed with the film, stating "We got lost. We tried to get bigger. It's what happens to sequels. It's like, how do you top the first one? You've got to go bigger. Michael Bay went so big that it became too big, and I think you lost the anchor of the movie...You lost a bit of the relationships. Unless you have those relationships, then the movie doesn't matter. Then it's just a bunch of robots fighting each other."[101] Bay has admitted his disappointment with the film and has apologized, saying the film was "crap" and blaming the 2007–2008 Writers' Strike, saying "It was very hard to put (the sequel) together that quickly after the writers' strike (of 2007–08)".[102]

text: According to The Washington Post, Revenge of the Fallen was Bay's worst-reviewed film at the time of release, faring even worse than Pearl Harbor (2001).[103] Betsy Sharkey of the Los Angeles Times described the film as "in-your-face, ear-splitting and unrelenting. It's easy to walk away feeling like you've spent 2 hours in the mad, wild, hydraulic embrace of a car compactor".[104]

text: Roger Ebert, who had given the 2007 film three stars,[105] gave the sequel only one, calling it "...a horrible experience of unbearable length", a phrase which later became the title of his third bad-movie-reviews collection. Later in his review, Ebert discouraged movie-goers from seeing the film by saying "If you want to save yourself the ticket price, go into the kitchen, cue up a male choir singing the music of hell, and get a kid to start banging pots and pans together. Then close your eyes and use your imagination."[106] He later wrote on his blog about the film, "The day will come when Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen will be studied in film classes and shown at cult film festivals. It will be seen, in retrospect, as marking the end of an era. Of course there will be many more CGI-based action epics, but never again one this bloated, excessive, incomprehensible, long (149 minutes) or expensive ($200 million)."[107] Ebert would continue to lambast the film (and, sometimes, the Transformers franchise in general) in other movie reviews and responses to letters and emails sent to him. Rolling Stone critic Peter Travers did not give the film any stars, considering that "Revenge of the Fallen has a shot at the title 'Worst Movie of the Decade'."[108] Which he later did name it the "worst film of the decade". Other reviewers, while still critical, were less damning of the film, The A.V. Club gave the film a "C-", complaining about the writing and length, but mentioning the effects and action scenes were impressive.[109] Among positive reviews, Robbie Collin of News of the World remarked "It's bigger. Badder. Boobier. And many other words beginning with B, including boneheadedly brilliant.",[110] Amy Biancolli of The Houston Chronicle called it "a well-oiled, loudly revving summer action vehicle that does all that's required, and then some",[111] Jordan Mintzer from Variety said it "takes the franchise to a vastly superior level of artificial intelligence",[112] and Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly wrote that "Revenge of the Fallen may be a massive overdose of popcorn greased with motor oil. But it knows how to feed your inner 10-year-old's appetite for destruction."[113]

text: On a year-end poll administered by Moviefone, the film was voted the "worst film of 2009", and Fox's performance the worst by an actress that year.[114] Comcast ranked the film as the 4th worst sequel of all time.[115] Empire named the film the 25th worst movie ever made.[116] In June 2009, David Germain from the Associated Press called the film the "worst-reviewed $400 million hit ever".[117]

text:
"On every level this movie is as bankrupt as GM. [...] Transformers: The Revenge of The Fallen is beyond bad, it carves out its own category of godawfulness."

— Peter Travers, American film critic[108]

text: There was considerable negative reaction to the characters Mudflap and Skids, who some perceived as embodying racist stereotypes. Manohla Dargis of The New York Times said that "the characters [...] indicate that minstrelsy remains as much in fashion in Hollywood as when, well, Jar Jar Binks was set loose by George Lucas".[118] Critic Scott Mendelson said "To say that these two are the most astonishingly racist caricatures that I've ever seen in a mainstream motion picture would be an understatement."[119] Harry Knowles, founder of Ain't It Cool News, went further, asking his readers "not to support this film" because "you'll be taking [your children] to see a film with the lowest forms of humor, stereotypes, and racism around."[120] Bay (the director) has attempted to defend the film as "good clean fun" and insisted that "We're just putting more personality in."[121] Writers Roberto Orci and Alex Kurtzman responded to the controversy with "It's really hard for us to sit here and try to justify it. I think that would be very foolish, and if someone wants to be offended by it, it's their right. We were very surprised when we saw it, too, and it's a choice that was made. If anything, it just shows you that we don't control every aspect of the movie."[122]

text: Another major complaint about the film was Bay's usage of the IMAX format. Instead of using IMAX for complete unbroken sequences similar to director Christopher Nolan's approach for The Dark Knight, Bay chose to use the format primarily on a shot-by-shot basis, combining conventional 35mm footage and IMAX shots in the same sequence. That approach, combined with rapid cutting, created a jarring, highly unpleasant experience for most moviegoers.[123]

text: Box office[edit]

text: Despite mostly negative reviews from critics, the film was a box office success. Revenge of the Fallen grossed $16 million from midnight showings, at the time the most ever for a Wednesday midnight debut.[124] The film proceeded to beat Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix's record ($44.2 million) for the biggest Wednesday opening in history,[125] bringing in $62 million in total receipts on its first day (until The Twilight Saga: Eclipse topped this record with $68.5 million in 2010),[126] additionally ranking it as the second biggest opening day ever at the time, behind The Dark Knight.[127] The film grossed $108.9 million on its first weekend, the seventh-largest in history at the time, and brought in $200 million in its first five days, putting it in second place behind The Dark Knight's $203.7 million for the all-time biggest five-day opening.[128] Its gross from Friday to Sunday was also the biggest June opening weekend for one year, breaking Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban's record ($93.7 million), until Toy Story 3 claimed that record the following year ($110.3 million).[129]

text: Revenge of the Fallen remained #1 at the box office for two weeks straight by a close margin. Initial studio estimates showed a tie between it and that weekend's new release Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs, but the actual totals showed Revenge of the Fallen taking the #1 spot yet again with $42.3 million.[130] Also, it was the first film of 2009 to reach the $300 million mark in North America.[131] On July 27, a month after its release, the movie reached $379.2 million in the US, which brought it into the top 10 highest-grossing movies ever in that country as of August 2009.[132] Revenge of the Fallen closed its box office run with $402.1 million in the US & Canada and $836.3 million worldwide, being the twenty-fifth highest-grossing film of all time domestically, and the 84th highest-grossing film of all time.[133] Among 2009 films, it was the second highest grossing in the United States and Canada, behind Avatar,[134] and fourth globally behind Avatar, Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, and Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs.[135] As of 2013, the film marks as the second highest-grossing Hasbro film of all time, behind only its sequel Transformers: Dark of the Moon. Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold over 53 million tickets in the US.[136]

text: Home media[edit]

text: The film was released on October 20, 2009 in two-disc Blu-ray and DVD editions, and a single-disc DVD version.[137] Michael Bay has revealed that the Blu-ray release of the film, produced by Charles de Lauzirika, will feature variable aspect ratio for the scenes shot in IMAX format. A special IMAX edition is available exclusively at Wal-Mart.[138] Home versions include over three hours of bonus content and several interactive features, including "The AllSpark Experiment", which reveals Michael Bay's plans for a third movie in the series. At Target, the DVD and Blu-ray versions includes a transformable Bumblebee case. Both two-disc editions are the first to include Paramount's Augmented Reality feature, which allows the user to handle a 3D model of Optimus Prime on a computer by moving the package in front of a webcam.[139] First week sales of the DVD reached 7.5 million copies, making it the best-selling DVD of 2009. The Blu-ray version had the best first-week sales of 2009, with 1.2 million units.[140]

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text: Revenge of the Fallen was among the films shortlisted for the Best Visual Effects at the 82nd Academy Awards,[141] but was only nominated for Best Sound Mixing (Greg P. Russell, Gary Summers and Geoffrey Patterson), eventually losing to The Hurt Locker.[142] The film won five Scream Awards, for Best Actress (Megan Fox), Breakout Performance-Female (Isabel Lucas), Best Sequel, Best F/X, and Scream Song of the Year ("New Divide");[143] and two Teen Choice Awards, for Choice Summer Movie Star: Female (Megan Fox) and Choice Summer Movie Star: Male (Shia LaBeouf).[144] Revenge of the Fallen was also nominated for the Saturn Award for Best Science Fiction Film but lost to Avatar,[145] Satellite Awards for Best Visual Effects and Best Sound,[146] a VES Award for Outstanding Visual Effects in a Visual Effects Driven Feature Motion Picture,[147] a SAG Award for Outstanding Performance by a Stunt Ensemble,[148] and an MTV Movie Award for Best WTF Moment (Isabel Lucas turning into a Decepticon).[149] Shia LaBeouf, the film and Megan Fox was nominated for a Nickelodeon Kids Choice Awards for Favorite Movie Actor, Favorite Movie and Favorite Movie Actress, but all lost to Taylor Lautner, Alvin and the Chipmunks: The Squeakquel and Miley Cyrus, respectively.

text: On the other hand, it was nominated for seven Razzie Awards including Worst Actress for Megan Fox (also for Jennifer's Body), Worst Supporting Actress for Julie White, Worst Screen Couple (for Shia LaBeouf and Megan Fox) and Worst Prequel, Remake, Rip-Off or Sequel,[150] winning three in the Worst Picture, Worst Director, and Worst Screenplay categories at the 30th Golden Raspberry Awards.[151]

text: Sequels[edit]

text: The third film, Dark of the Moon was released June 29, 2011. The fourth film, Age of Extinction was released June 27, 2014. The fifth film, The Last Knight was released on June 21, 2017.


document_title: Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses

question_text: who are the leaders of the jehovah witnesses

text: Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses

text: History[edit]

text: Since its incorporation in 1884, the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania has been directed by a president and board of directors. Until January 1976, the president exercised complete control of doctrines, publications and activities of the Watch Tower Society and the religious denominations with which it was connected—the Bible Students and Jehovah's Witnesses.[11][12][13] When the Society's second president, J. F. Rutherford, encountered opposition from directors in 1917, he dismissed them. In 1925 he overruled the Watch Tower Society's editorial committee when it opposed publication of an article about disputed doctrines regarding the year 1914. In 1931, the editorial committee was dissolved.[14][15]

text: In 1943 The Watchtower described the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society as the "legal governing body" of anointed Jehovah's Witnesses.[16] A year later, in an article opposing the democratic election of congregation elders, the magazine said the appointment of such ones was the duty of "a visible governing body under Jehovah God and his Christ."[17] For several years, the role and specific identity of the governing body remained otherwise undefined. A 1955 organizational handbook stated that "the visible governing body has been closely identified with the board of directors of this corporation."[18] Referring to events related to their 1957 convention, a 1959 publication said "the spiritual governing body of Jehovah’s witnesses watched the developments [then] the president of the Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society [acted]."[19] The 1970 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses noted that the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania was the organization used to plan the activity of Jehovah's Witnesses and provide them with "spiritual food", then declared: "So really the governing body of Jehovah's Witnesses is the board of directors of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania."[20]

text: On October 1, 1971, Watch Tower Society vice-president Frederick Franz addressed the annual meeting of the Pennsylvania corporation in Buckingham, Pennsylvania, stating that the legal corporation of the Watch Tower Society was an "agency" or "temporary instrument" used by the Governing Body on behalf of the "faithful and discreet slave".[21] Three weeks later, on October 20, four additional men joined the seven members of the Society's board of directors on what became known as a separate, expanded Governing Body.[22] The board of directors had until then met only sporadically, usually to discuss the purchase of property or new equipment, leaving decisions about Watch Tower Society literature to the president and vice-president, Nathan Knorr and Fred Franz.[21][23] The Watchtower of December 15, 1971 was the first to unambiguously capitalize the term "Governing Body of Jehovah's witnesses" as the defined group leading the denomination, with a series of articles explaining its role and its relationship with the Watch Tower Society.[2][24]

text: The focus on the new concept of "theocratic" leadership was accompanied by statements that the structure was not actually new: The Watch Tower declared that "a governing body made its appearance" some time after the formation of Zion's Watch Tower Society in 1884,[25] though it had not been referred to as such at the time.[11] The article stated that Watch Tower Society president Charles Taze Russell had been a member of the governing body.[25] The 1972 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses stated that following Rutherford's death in 1942 "one of the first things that the governing body decided upon was the inauguration of the Theocratic Ministry School" and added that the "governing body" had published millions of books and Bibles in the previous thirty years.[26] Former member of the Governing Body, Raymond Franz, stated that the actions of presidents Russell, Rutherford and Knorr in overriding and failing to consult with directors proved the Bible Students and Jehovah's Witnesses had been under a monarchical rule until 1976, leaving no decisions to any "governing body".[27]

text: In 1972, a Question From Readers article in The Watchtower further reinforced the concept of the "Governing Body"; the magazine said the term referred to an agency that administers policy and provides organizational direction, guidance and regulation and was therefore "appropriate, fitting and Scriptural."[24][28] Organizational changes at the highest levels of the Watch Tower Society in 1976 significantly increased the powers and authority of the Governing Body.[29] The body has never had a legal corporate existence and operates through the Watch Tower Society and its board of directors.[30]

text: Reorganization[edit]

text: After its formal establishment in 1971, the Governing Body met regularly but, according to Raymond Franz, only briefly; Franz claims meetings were sometimes as short as seven minutes,[31] to make decisions about branch appointments and conduct that should be considered disfellowshipping offenses.[32][33] Franz claims that in 1971 and again in 1975, the Governing Body debated the extent of the authority it should be given.[34] The Governing Body voted in December 1975 to establish six operating committees to oversee the various administrative requirements of the organization's worldwide activities that formerly had been under the direction of the president; furthermore, each branch overseer was to be replaced by a branch committee of at least three members.[35] The change, which took effect on January 1, 1976, was described in the Watch Tower Society's 1993 history book, Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom, as "one of the most significant organizational readjustments in the modern-day history of Jehovah's Witnesses."[36]

text: Headquarters purge[edit]

text: In 1980, dissent arose among members of the Governing Body regarding the significance of 1914 in Jehovah's Witnesses' doctrines. According to former Witnesses James Penton and Heather and Gary Botting, internal dissatisfaction with official doctrines continued to grow, leading to a series of secret investigations and judicial hearings. Consequently, dissenting members were expelled from the Brooklyn headquarters staff in the same year.[37][38][39] Raymond Franz claimed he was forced to resign from the Governing Body, and he was later disfellowshipped from the group.

text: The Watch Tower Society responded to the dissent with a more severe attitude regarding the treatment of expelled Witnesses.[37][38][40] In his 1997 study of the denomination, Penton concluded that since Raymond Franz's expulsion in 1980, the Governing Body displayed an increased level of conservatism, sturdy resistance to changes of policy and doctrines, and an increased tendency to isolate dissidents within the organization by means of disfellowshipping.[41]

text: Helpers[edit]

text: The April 15, 1992 issue of The Watchtower carried an article entitled Jehovah’s Provision, the “Given Ones” which drew a parallel between ancient non-Israelites who had been assigned temple duties (the "Nethinim" and "sons of the servants of Solomon") and Witness elders in positions of responsibility immediately under the oversight of the Governing Body who did not profess to be "anointed".[42]

text: Both that issue of The Watchtower and the 1993 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses carried the same announcement:

text: In view of the tremendous increase worldwide, it seems appropriate at this time to provide the Governing Body with some additional assistance. Therefore it has been decided to invite several helpers, mainly from among the great crowd, to share in the meetings of each of the Governing Body Committees, that is, the Personnel, Publishing, Service, Teaching, and Writing Committees. Thus, the number attending the meetings of each of these committees will be increased to seven or eight. Under the direction of the Governing Body committee members, these assistants will take part in discussions and will carry out various assignments given them by the committee. This new arrangement goes into effect May 1, 1992. For many years now, the number of the remnant of anointed Witnesses has been decreasing, while the number of the great crowd has increased beyond our grandest expectations.[43][44]

text: Each of the current Governing Body members served as a committee "helper" before being appointed to the Governing Body itself.[45][46][47] The appointment of helpers to the Governing Body committees was described in 2006 as "still another refinement."[48]

text: 2000 and beyond[edit]

text: Until 2000, the directors and officers of the Watch Tower Society were members of the Governing Body. Since then, members of the ecclesiastical Governing Body have not served as directors of any of the various corporations used by Jehovah's Witnesses, and the Governing Body has delegated such administrative responsibilities to other members of the group.[49]

text: Committees[edit]

text: The Governing Body functions by means of its six committees, which carry out various administrative functions.[50] Each committee is assisted by "helpers," who do not necessarily profess to be of the "anointed". Governing Body meetings are held weekly in closed session.[51] According to Raymond Franz, decisions of the body were required to be unanimous until 1975, after which a two-thirds majority of the full body was required, regardless of the number present.[52][53]

text:
The Personnel Committee arranges for volunteers to serve in the organization's headquarters and worldwide branch offices, which are each referred to as Bethel. It oversees arrangements for the personal and spiritual assistance of Bethel staff, as well as the selection and invitation of new Bethel members.
The Publishing Committee supervises the printing, publishing and shipping of literature, as well as legal matters involved in printing, such as obtaining property for printing facilities. It is responsible for overseeing factories, properties, and financial operations of corporations used by Jehovah’s Witnesses.
The Service Committee supervises the evangelical activity of Jehovah's Witnesses, which includes traveling overseers, pioneers, and the activities of congregation publishers. It oversees communication between the international headquarters, branch offices, and the congregations. It examines annual reports of preaching activity from the branches. It is responsible for inviting members to attend the Gilead school, the Bible School for Single Brothers,[54] and the Traveling Overseers’ School, and for assigning graduates of these schools to their places of service.[55][56]
The Teaching Committee arranges congregation meetings, circuit assemblies, and regional and international conventions as well as various schools for elders, ministerial servants, pioneers and missionaries, such as Gilead school. It supervises preparation of material to be used in teaching, and oversees the development of new audio and video programs.
The Writing Committee supervises the writing and translation of all material published by the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, including scripts for dramas and talk outlines. It responds to questions about scriptural, doctrinal, and moral issues, specific problems in the congregations, and the standing of members in congregations.
The Coordinator's Committee deals with emergencies, disaster relief and other matters, such as investigations. It comprises the coordinators, or a representative, from each of the other Governing Body committees and a secretary who is also a member of the Governing Body. It is responsible for the efficient operation of the other committees.

text: Representatives[edit]

text: Initially, the Governing Body directly appointed all congregation elders.[57] By 1975, the appointment of elders and ministerial servants was said to be "made directly by a governing body of spirit-anointed elders or by them through other elders representing this body."[58] In 2001, The Watchtower, stated that recommendations for such appointments were submitted to branch offices.[59] As of September 2014, circuit overseers appoint elders and ministerial servants after discussion with congregation elders, without consulting with the branch office.[60]

text: The Governing Body continues to directly appoint branch office committee members and traveling overseers,[60][61] and only such direct appointees are described as "representatives of the Governing Body."[62][63]

text: Relationship with "faithful and discreet slave"[edit]

text: The Governing Body is said to provide "spiritual food" for Jehovah's Witnesses worldwide.[64][65][66] Until late 2012, the Governing Body described itself as the representative[50][67] and "spokesman" for God's "faithful and discreet slave class" (approximately 11,800 Witnesses who profess to be anointed) who are collectively said to be God's "prophet"[68] and "channel for new spiritual light".[69][70] The Governing Body does not consult with the other anointed Witnesses whom it was said to represent when formulating policy and doctrines or approving material for publications and conventions; the authority of the Governing Body was presumed to be analogous to that of the older men of Jerusalem in cases such as the first-century circumcision issue.[71] The majority of Witnesses who profess to be anointed have no authority to contribute to the development or change of doctrines.[72][73][74] Anointed Witnesses are instructed to remain modest and avoid "wildly speculating about things that are still unclear," instead waiting for God to reveal his purposes[74] in The Watchtower.[75]

text: In 2009, The Watchtower indicated that the dissemination of "new spiritual light" is the responsibility of only "a limited number" of the "slave class", asking: "Are all these anointed ones throughout the earth part of a global network that is somehow involved in revealing new spiritual truths? No."[76] In 2010 the society said that "deep truths" were discerned by "responsible representatives" of the "faithful and discreet slave class" at the group's headquarters, and then considered by the entire Governing Body before making doctrinal decisions.[77] In August 2011, the Governing Body cast doubt on other members' claims of being anointed, stating that "A number of factors—including past religious beliefs or even mental or emotional imbalance—might cause some to assume mistakenly that they have the heavenly calling." The Governing Body also stated that "we have no way of knowing the exact number of anointed ones on earth; nor do we need to know", and that it "does not maintain a global network of anointed ones."[78] At the 2012 Annual Meeting of the Watch Tower Society, the "faithful and discreet slave" was redefined as referring to the Governing Body only and the terms are now synonymous.[79]

text: Governing Body members[edit]

text: Current[edit]

text: The following people are members of the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses[80] (year appointed in parentheses):

text:
Kenneth Cook (2018)[81]
Samuel F. Herd (1999)[82]
Geoffrey Jackson (2005)[83]
Mark Stephen Lett (1999)[82]
Gerrit Lösch (1994)[84]
Anthony Morris III (2005)[83]
Mark Sanderson (2012)[85]
David H. Splane (1999)[82]

text: Former[edit]

text: Prior to 1971, various Watch Tower Society directors were informally identified as members of the "governing body". Jehovah's Witnesses publications began capitalizing Governing Body as a proper noun in 1971; The Watchtower that year announced "The present Governing Body comprises eleven anointed witnesses of Jehovah." These eleven members are indicated in italics in the list below.[86][87] Years active are shown in parentheses. All members served until their deaths unless specified.

text:
Thomas J. Sullivan (1932–1974)[88][89][90]
Grant Suiter (1938–1983)[91][92]
Nathan Homer Knorr (1940–1977)—4th President of Watch Tower Society[93][94]
Frederick William Franz (1944–1992)—5th President of Watch Tower Society[95][96]
Lyman Alexander Swingle (1945–2001)[97]
Milton George Henschel (1947–2003)—6th President of Watch Tower Society[88]
John O. Groh (1965–1975)[88]
Raymond Franz (1971–1980)[39][88][98][99][100] – Resigned
George D. Gangas (1971–1994)[101]
Leo K. Greenlees (1971–1984)[102][103] – Resigned
William K. Jackson (1971–1981)[88]
William Lloyd Barry (1974–1999)[104][105]
John C. Booth (1974–1996)[106]
Ewart C. Chitty (1974–1979)[107][108] – Resigned
Charles J. Fekel (1974–1977)[109]
Theodore Jaracz (1974–2010)[110][111][112]
Karl F. Klein (1974–2001)[113]
Albert D. Schroeder (1974–2006)[114]
Daniel Sydlik (1974–2006)[115]
Carey W. Barber (1977–2007)[116]
John E. Barr (1977–2010)[117][118]
Martin Pötzinger (1977–1988)[119]
Guy Hollis Pierce (1999–2014)[6][120]


document_title: Seven churches of Asia

question_text: which church was given a letter in the book of revelation

text: Seven churches of Asia

text: Description[edit]

text: The "churches" in this context refers to the community or local congregations of Christians living in each city, and not merely to the building or buildings in which they gathered for worship.[1][2]

text: In an early part of the Revelation, on the Greek island of Patmos, Jesus Christ instructs John of Patmos to: "Write on a scroll what you see and send it to the seven churches: to Ephesus, and to Smyrna, and to Pergamum, and to Thyatira, and to Sardis, and to Philadelphia, and to Laodicea."[3]

text: The Churches[edit]

text: The seven Churches are named for their locations. The Revelation provides descriptions of each Church.

text:
Ephesus (Revelation 2:1-7) - the church known for having laboured hard and not fainted, and separating themselves from the wicked; admonished for having forsaken its first love (2:4)
Smyrna (Revelation 2:8-11) - the church admired for its tribulation and poverty; forecast to suffer persecution (2:10)
Pergamum (Revelation 2:12-17) - the church located at 'Satan's seat'; needed to repent of allowing false teachers (2:16)
Thyatira (Revelation 2:18-29) - the church known for its charity, whose "latter works are greater than the former"; held the teachings of a false prophetess (2:20)
Sardis (Revelation 3:1-6) - the church that has a good name; cautioned to fortify itself and return to God through repentance (3:2-3)
Philadelphia (Revelation 3:7-13) - the church steadfast in faith, that had kept God's word and endured patiently (3:10)
Laodicea, near Denizli (see Laodicean Church) (Revelation 3:14-22) - the church that was lukewarm and insipid (to God) (3:16)

text: Seven messages[edit]

text: The letters follow a common pattern. For example: the Lord first addresses each church and identifies himself,[4] then defines things that he knows about the church in question.[5] After this, a challenge or reproach is given,[6] followed by a promise.[7] In all seven cases the admonition is included, "He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the churches",[8] although sometimes this comes before the promise and sometimes after.

text: Although the letters differ in length in accord with the needs of each community, all conclude with an appeal to hold fast and to listen to what the Spirit is saying to the churches. Each church is promised that everyone who conquers will be rewarded by Christ.

text: Some historicists typically interpret the seven churches as representing seven different periods in the history of the Western Church from the time of Paul until the return of Jesus Christ.[9] Scofield states that "these messages by their very terms go beyond the local assemblies mentioned."[10] He is of the opinion that the letters have a prophetic purpose disclosing the seven phases of the spiritual history of the Church. Other writers, such as Clarence Larkin,[11] Henry Hampton Halley,[12] Merrill Unger,[13] and William M. Branham[14] also have posited the view that the seven churches preview the history of the global Church.

text: Historicism has been criticized by the Eastern Orthodox Fr. Dimitri Cozby, who writes that historicists take a greatly oversimplified view of church history: "Since dispensationalism is Protestant in origin its 'Church history' is strictly Western. The dispensations take into account almost nothing of Orthodox history after the period of the early councils which we share with the West."[15]

text: Angels of the churches[edit]

text: Chapters 2-3 of the Revelation have specific messages for each of the seven churches. The message of each of the seven letters is directed to the angel of the particular church that is mentioned.

text: Origen[16] explains that these "angels" are the guardian angels of the churches, a view upheld by Henry Alford. But Epiphanius[17] explicitly rejects this view, and, in accordance with the imagery of the passage, explains it as the bishops.

text: John sees a vision of the Son of man, who walks among seven lampstands and has seven stars in his right hand. Revelation 1:20 states that "The seven stars are the angels of the seven churches, and the seven lampstands are the seven churches." The comparison of a teacher to a star is scriptural.[18]

text: Augustine of Hippo's reason for interpreting angels of the churches as the prelates of the church is that St. John speaks of them as falling from their first charity, which is not true of the angels.[19][20] Others would say that the falling away relates to the churches, not to the messengers, as each of the seven letters conclude with the words "He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the churches."

text: the Amplified Bible states that Revelation 2:2 through to 3:18, “your” and “you” are in the singular, referring to the angel of each church. Much of what is said is rebuke and admonishment, so if the angels are heavenly beings, they may serve in some way as representatives of the sinful people in their churches. Jewish tradition maintained that every nation and individual has a guardian angel, and that when God is about to punish a nation, He first punishes its angel. There is even a story of Michael, the guardian angel of Israel, being rebuked by God for the sins committed in the time of Ezekiel. So the original readers of Revelation might have assumed that the angels here are the guardian angels of the individual churches, sharing responsibility for the actions of the members.

text: In the New Testament, the Greek word for angels (άγγελος) is not only used for heavenly angels, but also used for human messengers, such as John the Baptist (Matthew 11:10,Mark 1:2,Luke 7:27) and God's prophets (Revelation 22:8-9)[21] C.I. Scofield has noted that "The natural explanation of the 'messengers' is that they were men sent by the seven churches to ascertain the state of the aged apostle ... but they figure any who bear God's messages to a church."[22]