document_title: Chinese Buddhism

question_text: an influential religion to enter china along the silk route during the han dynasty was

question_tokens: an influential religion to enter china along the silk route during the han dynasty was

text: Chinese Buddhism

text: History[edit]

text: Various legends tell of the presence of Buddhism in Chinese soil in very ancient times. Nonetheless, the scholarly consensus is that Buddhism first came to China in the first century CE during the Han dynasty, through missionaries from India.

text: Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE)[edit]

text: Earliest historical arrivals[edit]

text: Generations of scholars have debated whether Buddhist missionaries first reached Han China via the maritime or overland routes of the Silk Road. The maritime route hypothesis, favored by Liang Qichao and Paul Pelliot, proposed that Buddhism was originally practiced in southern China, the Yangtze River and Huai River region, where prince Ying of Chu (present day Jiangsu) was jointly worshipping the Yellow Emperor, Laozi, and Buddha in 65 CE.[citation needed] The overland route hypothesis, favored by Tang Yongtong, proposed that Buddhism disseminated eastward through Yuezhi and was originally practiced in western China, at the Han capital Luoyang (present day Henan), where Emperor Ming of Han established the White Horse Temple in 68 CE. Rong Xinjiang, a history professor at Peking University, reexamined the overland and maritime hypotheses through a multi-disciplinary review of recent discoveries and research, including the Gandhāran Buddhist Texts, and concluded:

text: The view that Buddhism was transmitted to China by the sea route comparatively lacks convincing and supporting materials, and some arguments are not sufficiently rigorous. Based on the existing historical texts and the archaeological iconographic materials discovered since the 1980s, particularly the first-century Buddhist manuscripts recently found in Afghanistan, the commentator believes that the most plausible theory is that Buddhism reached China from the Greater Yuezhi of northwest India and took the land route to reach Han China. After entering into China, Buddhism blended with early Daoism and Chinese traditional esoteric arts and its iconography received blind worship.[2]

text: Traditional accounts[edit]

text: A number of popular accounts in historical Chinese literature have led to the popularity of certain legends regarding the introduction of Buddhism into China. According to the most popular one, Emperor Ming of Han (28–75 CE) precipitated the introduction of Buddhist teachings into China. The (early 3rd to early 5th century) Mouzi Lihuolun first records this legend:

text: In olden days Emperor Ming saw in a dream a god whose body had the brilliance of the sun and who flew before his palace; and he rejoiced exceedingly at this. The next day he asked his officials: "What god is this?" the scholar Fu Yi said: "Your subject has heard it said that in India there is somebody who has attained the Dao and who is called Buddha; he flies in the air, his body had the brilliance of the sun; this must be that god."[3]

text: The emperor then sent an envoy to Tianzhu (Southern India) to inquire about the teachings of the Buddha.[4] Buddhist scriptures were said to have been returned to China on the backs of white horses, after which White Horse Temple was named. Two Indian monks also returned with them, named Dharmaratna and Kaśyapa Mātaṅga.

text: An 8th-century Chinese fresco at Mogao Caves near Dunhuang in Gansu portrays Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141–87 BCE) worshiping statues of a golden man; "golden men brought in 121 BCE by a great Han general in his campaigns against the nomads". However, neither the Shiji nor Book of Han histories of Emperor Wu mentions a golden Buddhist statue (compare Emperor Ming above).

text: The first translations[edit]

text: The first documented translation of Buddhist scriptures from various Indian languages into Chinese occurs in 148 CE with the arrival of the Parthian prince-turned-monk An Shigao (Ch. 安世高). He worked to establish Buddhist temples in Luoyang and organized the translation of Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, testifying to the beginning of a wave of Central Asian Buddhist proselytism that was to last several centuries. An Shigao translated Buddhist texts on basic doctrines, meditation, and abhidharma. An Xuan (Ch. 安玄), a Parthian layman who worked alongside An Shigao, also translated an early Mahāyāna Buddhist text on the bodhisattva path.

text: Mahāyāna Buddhism was first widely propagated in China by the Kushan monk Lokakṣema (Ch. 支婁迦讖, active c. 164–186 CE), who came from the ancient Buddhist kingdom of Gandhāra. Lokakṣema translated important Mahāyāna sūtras such as the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra, as well as rare, early Mahāyāna sūtras on topics such as samādhi, and meditation on the buddha Akṣobhya. These translations from Lokakṣema continue to give insight into the early period of Mahāyāna Buddhism. This corpus of texts often includes emphasizes ascetic practices and forest dwelling, and absorption in states of meditative concentration:[5]

text: Paul Harrison has worked on some of the texts that are arguably the earliest versions we have of the Mahāyāna sūtras, those translated into Chinese in the last half of the second century CE by the Indo-Scythian translator Lokakṣema. Harrison points to the enthusiasm in the Lokakṣema sūtra corpus for the extra ascetic practices, for dwelling in the forest, and above all for states of meditative absorption (samādhi). Meditation and meditative states seem to have occupied a central place in early Mahāyāna, certainly because of their spiritual efficacy but also because they may have given access to fresh revelations and inspiration.

text: Early Buddhist schools[edit]

text: During the early period of Chinese Buddhism, the Indian early Buddhist schools recognized as important, and whose texts were studied, were the Dharmaguptakas, Mahīśāsakas, Kāśyapīyas, Sarvāstivādins, and the Mahāsāṃghikas.[6]

text: The Dharmaguptakas made more efforts than any other sect to spread Buddhism outside India, to areas such as Afghanistan, Central Asia, and China, and they had great success in doing so.[7] Therefore, most countries which adopted Buddhism from China, also adopted the Dharmaguptaka vinaya and ordination lineage for bhikṣus and bhikṣuṇīs. According to A.K. Warder, in some ways in those East Asian countries, the Dharmaguptaka sect can be considered to have survived to the present.[8] Warder further writes that the Dharmaguptakas can be credited with effectively establishing Chinese Buddhism during the early period:[9]

text: It was the Dharmaguptakas who were the first Buddhists to establish themselves in Central Asia. They appear to have carried out a vast circling movement along the trade routes from Aparānta north-west into Iran and at the same time into Oḍḍiyāna (the Suvastu valley, north of Gandhāra, which became one of their main centres). After establishing themselves as far west as Parthia they followed the "silk route", the east-west axis of Asia, eastwards across Central Asia and on into China, where they effectively established Buddhism in the second and third centuries A.D. The Mahīśāsakas and Kāśyapīyas appear to have followed them across Asia into China. [...] For the earlier period of Chinese Buddhism it was the Dharmaguptakas who constituted the main and most influential school, and even later their Vinaya remained the basis of the discipline there.

text: Six Dynasties (220-589)[edit]

text: Early translation methods[edit]

text: Initially, Buddhism in China faced a number of difficulties in becoming established. The concept of monasticism and the aversion to social affairs seemed to contradict the long-established norms and standards established in Chinese society. Some even declared that Buddhism was harmful to the authority of the state, that Buddhist monasteries contributed nothing to the economic prosperity of China, that Buddhism was barbaric and undeserving of Chinese cultural traditions.[10] However, Buddhism was often associated with Daoism in its ascetic meditative tradition, and for this reason a concept-matching system was used by some early Indian translators, to adapt native Buddhist ideas onto Daoist ideas and terminology.[11][12]

text: Buddhism appealed to Chinese intellectuals and elites and the development of gentry Buddhism was sought as an alternative to Confucianism and Daoism, since Buddhism's emphasis on morality and ritual appealed to Confucianists and the desire to cultivate inner wisdom appealed to Daoists. Gentry Buddhism was a medium of introduction for the beginning of Buddhism in China, it gained imperial and courtly support. By the early 5th century Buddhism was established in south China.[13] During this time, Indian monks continued to travel along the Silk Road to teach Buddhism, and translation work was primarily done by foreign monks rather than Chinese.

text: The arrival of Kumārajīva (334–413 CE)[edit]

text: When the famous monk Kumārajīva was captured during the Chinese conquest of the Buddhist kingdom of Kucha, he was imprisoned for many years. When he was released in AD 401, he immediately took a high place in Chinese Buddhism and was appraised as a great master from the West. He was especially valued by Emperor Yao Xing of the state of Later Qin, who gave him an honorific title and treated him like a god. Kumārajīva revolutionized Chinese Buddhism with his high quality translations (from AD 402-413), which are still praised for their flowing smoothness, clarity of meaning, subtlety, and literary skill. Due to the efforts of Kumārajīva, Buddhism in China became not only recognized for its practice methods, but also as high philosophy and religion. The arrival of Kumārajīva also set a standard for Chinese translations of Buddhist texts, effectively doing away with previous concept-matching systems.

text: The translations of Kumārajīva have often remained more popular than those of other translators. Among the most well-known are his translations of the Diamond Sutra, the Amitabha Sutra, the Lotus Sutra, the Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra, the Mūlamadhyamakakārikā, and the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra.

text: A completed Sūtra Piṭaka[edit]

text: Around the time of Kumārajīva, the four major Sanskrit āgamas were also translated into Chinese. Each of the āgamas was translated independently by a different Indian monk. These āgamas comprise the only other complete surviving Sūtra Piṭaka, which is generally comparable to the Pali Sutta Pitaka of Theravada Buddhism. The teachings of the Sūtra Piṭaka are usually considered to be one of the earliest teachings on Buddhism and a core text of the Early Buddhist Schools in China.

text: Early Chinese Buddhist traditions[edit]

text: Due to the wide proliferation of Buddhist texts available in Chinese and the large number of foreign monks who came to teach Buddhism in China, much like new branches growing from a main tree trunk, various specific focus traditions emerged. Among the most influential of these was the practice of Pure Land Buddhism established by Hui Yuan, which focused on Amitābha Buddha and his western pure land of Sukhāvatī. Other early traditions were the Tiantai, Huayan and the Vinaya school.[14] Such schools were based upon the primacy of the Lotus Sūtra, the Avataṃsaka Sūtra, and the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya, respectively, along with supplementary sūtras and commentaries. The Tiantai founder Zhiyi wrote several works that became important and widely read meditation manuals in China such as the "Concise samatha-vipasyana", and the "Great samatha-vipasyana."

text: Southern and Northern Dynasties (420 to 589) and Sui Dynasty (589–618 CE)[edit]

text: Chán: pointing directly to the mind[edit]

text: In the 5th century, the Chán (Zen) teachings began in China, traditionally attributed to the Buddhist monk Bodhidharma, a legendary figure.[note 1] The school heavily utilized the principles found in the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra, a sūtra utilizing the teachings of Yogācāra and those of Tathāgatagarbha, and which teaches the One Vehicle (Skt. Ekayāna) to buddhahood. In the early years, the teachings of Chán were therefore referred to as the "One Vehicle School."[26] The earliest masters of the Chán school were called "Laṅkāvatāra Masters", for their mastery of practice according to the principles of the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra.

text: The principal teachings of Chán were later often known for the use of so-called encounter stories and koans, and the teaching methods used in them. Nan Huai-Chin identifies the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra and the Diamond Sūtra (Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra) as the principle texts of the Chán school, and summarizes the principles succinctly:

text: The Zen teaching was a separate transmission outside the scriptural teachings that did not posit any written texts as sacred. Zen pointed directly to the human mind to enable people to see their real nature and become buddhas.[27]

text: Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE)[edit]

text: Xuanzang's journey to the west[edit]

text: During the early Tang dynasty, between 629 and 645, the monk Xuanzang journeyed to India and visited over one hundred kingdoms, and wrote extensive and detailed reports of his findings, which have subsequently become important for the study of India during this period. During his travels he visited holy sites, learned the lore of his faith, and studied with many famous Buddhist masters, especially at the famous center of Buddhist learning at Nālanda University. When he returned, he brought with him some 657 Sanskrit texts. Xuanzang also returned with relics, statues, and Buddhist paraphernalia loaded onto twenty-two horses.[28] With the emperor's support, he set up a large translation bureau in Chang'an (present-day Xi'an), drawing students and collaborators from all over East Asia. He is credited with the translation of some 1,330 fascicles of scriptures into Chinese. His strongest personal interest in Buddhism was in the field of Yogācāra, or "Consciousness-only".

text: The force of his own study, translation and commentary of the texts of these traditions initiated the development of the Faxiang school in East Asia. Although the school itself did not thrive for a long time, its theories regarding perception, consciousness, karma, rebirth, etc. found their way into the doctrines of other more successful schools. Xuanzang's closest and most eminent student was Kuiji who became recognized as the first patriarch of the Faxiang school. Xuanzang's logic, as described by Kuiji, was often misunderstood by scholars of Chinese Buddhism because they lack the necessary background in Indian logic.[29] Another important disciple was the Korean monk Woncheuk.

text: Xuanzang's translations were especially important for the transmission of Indian texts related to the Yogācāra school. He translated central Yogācāra texts such as the Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra and the Yogācārabhūmi Śāstra, as well as important texts such as the Mahāprajñāpāramitā Sūtra and the Bhaiṣajyaguruvaidūryaprabharāja Sūtra (Medicine Buddha Sūtra). He is credited with writing or compiling the Cheng Weishi Lun (Vijñaptimātratāsiddhi Śāstra) as a commentary on these texts. His translation of the Heart Sūtra became and remains the standard in all East Asian Buddhist sects. The proliferation of these sūtras expanded the Chinese Buddhist canon significantly with high quality translations of some of the most important Indian Buddhist texts.

text: Caves, art, and technology[edit]

text: The popularization of Buddhism in this period is evident in the many scripture-filled caves and structures surviving from this period. The Mogao Caves near Dunhuang in Gansu province, the Longmen Grottoes near Luoyang in Henan and the Yungang Grottoes near Datong in Shanxi are the most renowned examples from the Northern, Sui and Tang Dynasties. The Leshan Giant Buddha, carved out of a hillside in the 8th century during the Tang Dynasty and looking down on the confluence of three rivers, is still the largest stone Buddha statue in the world.

text: Monks and pious laymen spread Buddhist concepts through story-telling and preaching from sutra texts. These oral presentations were written down as bianwen (transformation stories) which influenced the writing of fiction by their new ways of telling stories combining prose and poetry. Popular legends in this style included Mulian Rescues His Mother, in which a monk descends into hell in a show of filial piety.

text: Making duplications of Buddhist texts was considered to bring meritorious karma. Printing from individually carved wooden blocks and from clay or metal movable type proved much more efficient than hand copying and eventually eclipsed it. The Diamond Sūtra (Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra) of 868 CE, a Buddhist scripture discovered in 1907 inside the Mogao Caves, is the first dated example of block printing.[30]

text: Arrival of Esoteric Buddhism[edit]

text: The Kaiyuan's Three Great Enlightened Masters, Śubhakarasiṃha, Vajrabodhi, and Amoghavajra, established Esoteric Buddhism in China from AD 716 to 720 during the reign of emperor Xuanzong. They came to Daxing Shansi (大行善寺, Great Propagating Goodness Temple), which was the predecessor of Temple of the Great Enlightener Mahavairocana. Daxing Shansi was established in the ancient capital Chang'an, today's Xi'an, and became one of the four great centers of scripture translation supported by the imperial court. They had translated many Buddhist scriptures, sutra and tantra, from Sanskrit to Chinese. They had also assimilated the prevailing teachings of China: Daoism and Confucianism, with Buddhism, and had further evolved the practice of the Esoteric school.

text: They brought to the Chinese a mysterious, dynamic, and magical teaching, which included mantra formula and detailed rituals to protect a person or an empire, to affect a person's fate after death, and, particularly popular, to bring rain in times of drought. It is not surprising, then, that all three masters were well received by the emperor Tang Xuanzong, and their teachings were quickly taken up at the Tang court and among the elite. Mantrayana altars were installed in temples in the capital, and by the time of emperor Tang Daizong (r. 762-779) its influence among the upper classes outstripped that of Daoism. However, relations between Amoghavajra and Daizong were especially good. In life the emperor favored Amoghavajra with titles and gifts, and when the master died in 774, he honored his memory with a stupa, or funeral monument. The Esoteric Buddhist lineage of China (and almost all of Buddhism in China at the time) was nearly wiped out by the Emperor Tang Wuzong, leading to the Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution. Historically, the Hanmi Chinese Esoteric School of Buddhism was also thought to have been lost when Emperor Tang Wuzong banned the teaching. Huiguo, the last known disciple of Amoghavajra, left China with Kukai traveling to Japan to establish the Japanese Esoteric school of Buddhism, later known as Shingon.

text: A disciple of Amoghavajra, Huisu, secretly continued the lineage in China and has been passed on through one master per generation. In 1989 the 48th Maha-Acharya Master Huiling of the Chinese Esoteric School passed the teaching to the 49th Lineage Bearer Master Yu Tian Jian who revived the school.

text: The Esoteric Buddhist lineages transmitted to Japan under the auspices of the monks Kūkai and Saicho, later formulated the teachings transmitted to them to create the Shingon sect and the Tendai sect.

text: Tang state repression of 845[edit]

text: There were several components that led to opposition of Buddhism. One factor is the foreign origins of Buddhism, unlike Daoism and Confucianism. Han Yu wrote, "Buddha was a man of the barbarians who did not speak the language of China and wore clothes of a different fashion. His sayings did not concern the ways of our ancient kings, nor did his manner of dress conform to their laws. He understood neither the duties that bind sovereign and subject, nor the affections of father and son."

text: Other components included the Buddhists' withdrawal from society, since the Chinese believed that Chinese people should be involved with family life. Wealth, tax-exemption status and power of the Buddhist temples and monasteries also annoyed many critics.

text: As mentioned earlier, persecution came during the reign of Emperor Wuzong in the Tang Dynasty. Wuzong was said to hate the sight of Buddhist monks, who he thought were tax-evaders. In 845, he ordered the destruction of 4,600 Buddhist monasteries and 40,000 temples. More than 400,000 Buddhist monks and nuns then became peasants liable to the Two Taxes (grain and cloth).[34] Wuzong cited that Buddhism was an alien religion, which is the reason he also persecuted the Christians in China. David Graeber argues that Buddhist institutions had accumulated so much precious metals which the government needed to secure the money supply.[35] Ancient Chinese Buddhism never fully recovered from the persecution.[36][37]

text: Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period (907–960/979)[edit]

text: The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (simplified Chinese: 五代十国; traditional Chinese: 五代十國; pinyin: Wǔdài Shíguó) was an era of political upheaval in China, between the fall of the Tang Dynasty and the founding of the Song Dynasty. During this period, five dynasties quickly succeeded one another in the north, and more than 12 independent states were established, mainly in the south. However, only ten are traditionally listed, hence the era's name, "Ten Kingdoms". Some historians, such as Bo Yang, count eleven, including Yan and Qi, but not Northern Han, viewing it as simply a continuation of Later Han. This era also led to the founding of the Liao Dynasty.

text: After the fall of the Tang Dynasty, China was without effective central control during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. China was divided into several autonomous regions. Support for Buddhism was limited to a few areas. The Hua-yen and T'ien-t'ai schools suffered from the changing circumstances, since they had depended on imperial support. The collapse of T'ang society also deprived the aristocratic classes of wealth and influence, which meant a further drawback for Buddhism. Shenxiu's Northern Chán School and Henshui's Southern Chán School didn't survive the changing circumstances. Nevertheless, Chán emerged as the dominant stream within Chinese Buddhism, but with various schools developing various emphasises in their teachings, due to the regional orientation of the period. The Fayan school, named after Fa-yen Wen-i (885-958) became the dominant school in the southern kingdoms of Nan-T'ang (Jiangxi, Chiang-hsi) and Wuyue (Che-chiang).[38]

text: Song Dynasty (960–1279)[edit]

text: The Song Dynasty is divided into two distinct periods: the Northern Song and Southern Song. During the Northern Song (Chinese: 北宋, 960–1127), the Song capital was in the northern city of Bianjing (now Kaifeng) and the dynasty controlled most of inner China. The Southern Song (Chinese: 南宋, 1127–1279) refers to the period after the Song lost control of northern China to the Jin dynasty. During this time, the Song court retreated south of the Yangtze River and established their capital at Lin'an (now Hangzhou). Although the Song Dynasty had lost control of the traditional birthplace of Chinese civilization along the Yellow River, the Song economy was not in ruins, as the Southern Song Empire contained 60 percent of China's population and a majority of the most productive agricultural land.[39]

text: During the Song Dynasty, Chán (禪) was used by the government to strengthen its control over the country, and Chán grew to become the largest sect in Chinese Buddhism. An ideal picture of the Chán of the Tang period was produced, which served the legacy of this newly acquired status.[40]

text: In the early Song Dynasty "Chán-Pure Land syncretism became a dominant movement."[41] Buddhist ideology began to merge with Confucianism and Daoism, due in part to the use of existing Chinese philosophical terms in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. Various Confucian scholars of the Song dynasty, including Zhu Xi (wg: Chu Hsi), sought to redefine Confucianism as Neo-Confucianism.

text: During the Song Dynasty, in 1021 CE, it is recorded that there were 458,855 Buddhist monks and nuns actively living in monasteries.[34] The total number of monks was 397,615, while the total number of nuns was recorded as 61,240.[34]

text: Yuan Dynasty (1279–1368)[edit]

text: During the Yuan Dynasty, the Mongol emperors made Esoteric Buddhism an official religion of China, and Tibetan lamas were given patronage at the court.[42] A common perception was that this patronage of lamas caused corrupt forms of tantra to become widespread.[42] When the Mongol Yuan Dynasty was overthrown and the Ming Dynasty was established, the Tibetan lamas were expelled from the court, and this form of Buddhism was denounced as not being an orthodox path.[42]

text: Ming dynasty (1368–1644)[edit]

text: According to Weinstein, by the Ming Dynasty, the Chan school was so firmly established that all monks were affiliated with either the Linji school or the Caodong school.[43]

text: During the Ming Dynasty, Hanshan Deqing was one of the great reformers of Chinese Buddhism.[44] Like many of his contemporaries, he advocated the dual practice of the Chán and Pure Land methods, and advocated the use of the nianfo ("Mindfulness of the Buddha") technique to purify the mind for the attainment of self-realization.[44] He also directed practitioners in the use of mantras as well as scripture reading. He was also renowned as a lecturer and commentator, and admired for his strict adherence to the precepts.[44]

text: According to Jiang Wu, for Chan masters in this period such as Hanshan Deqing, training through self-cultivation was encouraged, and clichéd or formulaic instructions were despised.[45] Eminent monks who practiced meditation and asceticism without proper Dharma transmission were acclaimed for having acquiring "wisdom without a teacher."[45]

text: Qing dynasty (1644-1911)[edit]

text: The Qing court endorsed the Gelukpa School of Tibetan Buddhism.[46] Early in the Taiping rebellion, the Taiping rebels targeted Buddhism. In the Battle of Nanjing (1853), the Taiping army butchered thousands of monks in Nanjing[citation needed]. But from the middle of the Taiping rebellion, Taiping leaders took a more moderate approach, demanding that monks should have licences.[citation needed]

text: Around 1900, Buddhists from other Asian countries showed a growing interest in Chinese Buddhism. Anagarika Dharmapala visited Shanghai in 1893,[47] intending "to make a tour of China, to arouse the Chinese Buddhists to send missionaries to India to restore Buddhism there, and then to start a propaganda throughout the whole world", but eventually limiting his stay to Shanghai.[47] Japanese Buddhist missionaries were active in China in the beginning of the 20th century.[47]

text: Republic of China (established 1912)[edit]

text: The modernisation of China led to the end of the Chinese Empire, and the installation of the Republic of China, which lasted on the mainland until the Communist Revolution and the installation of the People's Republic of China on the in 1949 which saw the ROC government went on an exodus to Taiwan.

text: Under influence of the western culture, attempts were being made to revitalize Chinese Buddhism.[48] Most notable were the Humanistic Buddhism of Taixu, and the revival of Chinese Chán by Hsu Yun.[48] Hsu Yun is generally regarded as one of the most influential Buddhist teachers of the 19th and 20th centuries. Other influential teachers in the early 20th century included Pure land Buddhist Yin Guang (印光)[49] and artist Hong Yi. Layman Zhao Puchu worked much on the revival.

text: Until 1949, monasteries were built in the Southeast Asian countries, for example by monks of Guanghua Monastery, to spread Chinese Buddhism. Presently, Guanghua Monastery has seven branches in the Malay Peninsula and Indonesia.[50] Several Chinese Buddhist teachers left mainland China during the Communist Revolution, and settled in Hong Kong and Taiwan.

text: Master Hsing Yun (1927–present) is the founder of Fo Guang Shan monastery and lay organization the Buddha's Light International Association. Born in Jiangsu Province in mainland China, he entered the Sangha at the age of 12, and came to Taiwan in 1949. He founded Fo Guang Shan monastery in 1967, and the Buddha's Light International Association in 1992. These are among the largest monastic and lay Buddhist organizations in Taiwan from the late 20th to early 21st centuries. He advocates Humanistic Buddhism, which the broad modern Chinese Buddhist progressive attitude towards the religion.

text: Master Sheng Yen (1930-2009) was the founder of the Dharma Drum Mountain, a Buddhist organization based in Taiwan. During his time in Taiwan, Sheng Yen was well known as one of the progressive Buddhist teachers who sought to teach Buddhism in a modern and Western-influenced world.

text: Master Wei Chueh was born in 1928 in Sichuan, mainland China, and ordained in Taiwan. In 1982, he founded Lin Quan Temple in Taipei County and became known for his teaching on Ch'an practices by offering many lectures and seven-day Ch'an retreats.

text: People's Republic of China (established 1949)[edit]

text: Chinese Buddhist Association[edit]

text: Unlike Catholicism and other branches of Christianity, there was no organization in China that embraced all monastics in China, nor even all monastics within the same sect. Traditionally each monastery was autonomous, with authority resting on each respective abbot. In 1953, the Chinese Buddhist Association was established at a meeting with 121 delegates in Beijing. The meeting also elected a chairman, 4 honorary chairmen, 7 vice-chairmen, a secretary general, 3 deputy secretaries-general, 18 members of a standing committee, and 93 directors. The 4 elected honorary chairmen were the Dalai Lama, the Panchen Lama, the Grand Lama of Inner Mongolia, and Venerable Master Hsu Yun.[51]

text: Reform and opening up – Second Buddhist Revival[edit]

text: Since the reform and opening up period in the 1970s, a new revival of Chinese Buddhism has been taking place.[52][53][54][55] Ancient Buddhist temples are being restored and new Buddhist temples are being built.

text: Chinese Buddhist temples, administrated by local governments, have become increasingly commercialized by sales of tickets, incense, or other religious items; soliciting donations; and even the listing of temples on the stock market and local governments obtain large incomes. In October 2012, the State Administration for Religious Affairs announced a crackdown on religious profiteering.[56] Many sites have done enough repairs and have already cancelled ticket fares and are receiving voluntary donation instead.[57][58]

text: The 108-metre-high Guan Yin of the South Sea of Sanya statue was enshrined on April 24, 2005 with the participation of 108 eminent monks from various Buddhist groups from Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan, and tens of thousands of pilgrims. The delegation also included monks from the Theravada and Tibetan Buddhist traditions.[59][60] China is one of the countries with the most of the world's highest statues, many of which are Buddhist statues.

text: In April 2006 China organized the World Buddhist Forum, an event now held every two years, and in March 2007 the government banned mining on Buddhist sacred mountains.[61] In May of the same year, in Changzhou, the world's tallest pagoda was built and opened.[62][63][64] In March 2008 the Taiwan-based organizations Tzu Chi Foundation and Fo Guang Shan were approved to open a branch in mainland China.[65][66]

text: Currently, there are about 1.3 billion Chinese living in the People's Republic. Surveys have found that around 18.2% to 20% of this population adheres to Buddhism.[67] Furthermore, PEW found that another 21% of the Chinese population followed Chinese folk religions that incorporated elements of Buddhism.[68]

text: Chinese Buddhism in Southeast Asia[edit]

text: Chinese Buddhism is mainly practiced by ethnic Han-Chinese in Southeast Asia.

text: Chinese Buddhism in the West[edit]

text: The first Chinese master to teach Westerners in North America was Hsuan Hua, who taught Chán and other traditions of Chinese Buddhism in San Francisco during the early 1960s. He went on to found the City Of Ten Thousand Buddhas, a monastery and retreat center located on a 237-acre (959,000 m²) property near Ukiah, California. Chuang Yen Monastery and Hsi Lai Temple are also large centers.

text: Sheng Yen also founded dharma centers in the USA.

text: Sects[edit]

text: Esoteric Buddhism[edit]

text: In China and countries with large Chinese populations such as Taiwan, Malaysia, and Singapore, Esoteric Buddhism is most commonly referred to as the Chinese term Mìzōng (密宗), or "Esoteric School." Traditions of Chinese Esoteric Buddhism are most commonly referred to as referred as Tángmì (唐密), "Tang Dynasty Esoterica," or Hànchuán Mìzōng (漢傳密宗), "Han Transmission Esoteric School" (Hànmì 漢密 for short), or Dōngmì (東密), "Eastern Esoterica," separating itself from Tibetan and Newar traditions. These schools more or less share the same doctrines as Shingon, and in some cases, Chinese monks have traveled to Japan to train and to be given esoteric transmission at Mount Koya and Mount Hiei.

text: Unrecognised sects[edit]

text: There are many sects and organisations proclaiming a Buddhist identity and pursuit (fo or fu: "awakening", "enlightenment") that are not recognised as legitimate Buddhism by the Chinese Buddhist Association and the government of the People's Republic of China. This group includes:

text:
Dajiang Foguo (大江佛国 "Land of Awakening of the Great River")[69]
Fo Dang / Fo Guo (佛党 "Party of Awakening" / 佛国 "Nation of Awakening")[69]
Fo Shengmen (佛圣门 "Holy Gate of Awakening")[69]
Guanyin Famen (观音法门 "Guanyin Gateway")[70]
Guanyin Buddhism [Awakening Teaching] (观音佛教 Guānyīn Fójiào) or Guanyin Church (观音会 Guānyīn Huì)[69]
Buddhism [Awakening Teaching] of the Lord of Heaven of Infinite Thriving of the Mountain of Longevity (寿山万隆天主佛教 Shòushān Wànlóng Tiānzhǔ Fójiào)[69]
Church of the Heaven and the Earth of the Immortal Awakened Ones (天地佛仙会 Tiāndì Fúxiān Huì)[69]
Wulian Jingang Dadao ("Great Way of the Innumerable Attendants of Awakening")[69]
Gate of Awakening of the Numinous Mountain of the Western Heaven (西天灵山佛门 Xītiān Língshān Fómén)[69]
Yuandun Famen (圆顿法门 "Gateway of the Cycle End")[70]
Yuan Nong Foheguo (元农佛和国 "Yuan Peasants' Nation of Awakening")[69]

text: Vajrayana movements:

text:
Gateway of the Hidden Flower (华藏宗门 Huácáng Zōngmén, popularised as "Huazang")
True Awakening Tradition (真佛宗 Zhēnfó Zōng)[70]

text: Teachings[edit]

text: Basic concepts[edit]

text: Chinese Buddhism incorporates elements of traditional Buddhism and Taoism.

text: Common practices include

text:
praying with incense
paying respect to dead ancestors during Qingming and Hungry Ghost festival
praying to multitude of deities such as Guanyin, Deva who resides in the heavenly realm
recognition of existence of ghosts and hell realm
reincarnation (超生)
retribution (報應)
people affinity (緣份)
perform religious ceremonies to help the soul find peace (超渡)
vegetarianism and compassion towards all living beings[71]

text: Incense burning[edit]

text: During the Zhou dynasty, Chinese believed that smoke resulting from burning wood act as a bridge between the human world and the spirits.[72] When Buddhism reached China, this wood evolved into sandalwood incense which were originally burned by Indian Buddhists so they could concentrate better.[72]

text: It can be seen that incense burning as it is known today is a merger between Chinese culture and Buddhist culture.

text: Laypeople in Chinese Buddhism[edit]

text: In Chinese Buddhism, lay practitioners have traditionally played an important role, and lay practice of Buddhism has had similar tendencies to those of monastic Buddhism in China.[73] Many historical biographies of lay Buddhists are available, which give a clear picture of their practices and role in Chinese Buddhism. In addition to these numerous biographies, there are accounts from Jesuit missionaries such as Matteo Ricci which provide extensive and revealing accounts to the degree Buddhism penetrated elite and popular culture in China.[73]

text: Traditional practices such as meditation, mantra recitation, mindfulness of Amitābha Buddha, asceticism, and vegetarianism were all integrated into the belief systems of ordinary people.[73] It is known from accounts in the Ming Dynasty that lay practitioners often engaged in practices from both the Pure Land and Chán traditions, as well as the study of the Buddhist sūtras. The Heart Sūtra and the Diamond Sūtra were the most popular, followed by the Lotus Sūtra and the Avataṃsaka Sūtra.[73]

text: Laypeople were also commonly devoted to the practice of mantras, and the Mahā Karuṇā Dhāraṇī and the Cundī Dhāraṇī were very popular.[73] Robert Gimello has also observed that in Chinese Buddhist communities, the esoteric practices of Cundī enjoyed popularity among both the populace and the elite.[74]

text: Mahāyāna figures such as Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva, Kṣitigarbha Bodhisattva, Amitābha Buddha, and the Medicine Buddha, were all widely known and revered. Beliefs in karma and rebirth were held at all levels of Chinese society, and pilgrimages to well-known monasteries and the four holy mountains of China were undertaken by monastics and lay practitioners alike.[73]

text: Festivals[edit]

text: These are the holy days that Chinese Buddhists celebrate by visiting temples to make offerings of prayers, incense, fruits, flowers and donations. On such days they observe the moral precepts very strictly as well as a full day's vegetarian diet, a practice originally from China.

text: The dates given are based on the Chinese calendar system so that 8.4 means the Eighth day of the fourth month in Chinese calendar and so on.

text:
8.12 — Enlightenment Day of Śākyamuni Buddha
1.1 — Birthday of Maitreya Buddha
9.1 — Birthday of Śakra, Lord of the Devas
8.2 — Renunciation Day of Śākyamuni Buddha
15.2 — Mahāparinirvāṇa Day of Śākyamuni Buddha
19.2 — Birthday of Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara (Guan Yin)
21.2 — Birthday of Bodhisattva Samantabhadra
4.4 — Birthday of Bodhisattva Mañjuśrī
8.4 — Birthday of Śākyamuni Buddha
15.4 — Vesak Day
13.5 — Birthday of Bodhisattva Sangharama (Qie Lan)
3.6 — Birthday of Skanda (Wei Tuo)
19.6 — Enlightenment Day of Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara
13.7 — Birthday of Bodhisattva Mahāsthāmaprāpta
15.7 — Ullambana Festival Ghost Festival
24.7 — Birthday of Bodhisattva Nagarjuna
30.7 — Birthday of Bodhisattva Kṣitigarbha
22.8 — Birthday of Dīpaṃkara Buddha (an ancient buddha)
19.9 — Renunciation Day of Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara
30.9 — Birthday of Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha (Medicine Buddha)
5.10 — Anniversary of the death of Bodhidharma
17.11 — Birthday of Amitābha Buddha


document_title: Hershey–Chase experiment

question_text: what was the key factor that allowed hershey and chase

root

text: Hershey–Chase experiment

text: Historical background[edit]

text: In the early twentieth century, biologists thought that proteins carried genetic information.[4] This was based on the belief that proteins were more complex than DNA.[4] Phoebus Levene's influential "tetranucleotide hypothesis", which incorrectly proposed that DNA was a repeating set of identical nucleotides, supported this conclusion.[5] The results of the Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment, published in 1944, suggested that DNA was the genetic material, but there was still some hesitation within the general scientific community to accept this, which set the stage for the Hershey–Chase experiment.[4][6]

tag: p

text: Hershey and Chase, along with others who had done related experiments, confirmed that DNA was the biomolecule that carried genetic information.[1] Before that, Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty had shown that DNA led to the transformation of one strain of Streptococcus pneumoniae to another that was more virulent.[7] The results of these experiments provided evidence that DNA was the biomolecule that carried genetic information.

text: Methods and results[edit]

text: Hershey and Chase needed to be able to examine different parts of the phages they were studying separately, so they needed to isolate the phage subsections. Viruses were known to be composed of a protein shell and DNA, so they chose to uniquely label each with a different elemental isotope. This allowed each to be observed and analyzed separately. Since phosphorus is contained in DNA but not amino acids, radioactive phosphorus-32 was used to label the DNA contained in the T2 phage. Radioactive sulfur-35 was used to label the protein sections of the T2 phage, because sulfur is contained in amino acids but not DNA.[1]

text: Hershey and Chase inserted the radioactive elements into the bacteriophages by adding the isotopes to separate media within which bacteria were allowed to grow for 4 hours before bacteriophage introduction. When the bacteriophages infected the bacteria, the progeny contained the radioactive isotopes in their structures. This procedure was performed once for the sulfur-labeled phages and once for phosphorus-labeled phages.[1] The labeled progeny were then allowed to infect unlabeled bacteria. The phage coats remained on the outside of the bacteria, while genetic material entered. Disruption of phage from the bacteria by agitation in a blender followed by centrifugation allowed for the separation of the phage coats from the bacteria. These bacteria were lysed to release phage progeny. The progeny of the phages that were originally labeled with 32P remained labeled, while the progeny of the phages originally labeled with 35S were unlabeled. Thus, the Hershey–Chase experiment helped confirm that DNA, not protein, is the genetic material.

text: Hershey and Chase showed that the introduction of deoxyribonuclease (referred to as DNase), an enzyme that breaks down DNA, into a solution containing the labeled bacteriophages did not introduce any 32P into the solution. This demonstrated that the phage is resistant to the enzyme while intact. Additionally, they were able to plasmolyze the bacteriophages so that they went into osmotic shock, which effectively created a solution containing most of the 32P and a heavier solution containing structures called “ghosts” that contained the 35S and the protein coat of the virus. It was found that these “ghosts” could adsorb to bacteria that were susceptible to T2, although they contained no DNA and were simply the remains of the original bacterial capsule. They concluded that the protein protected the DNA from DNAse, but that once the two were separated and the phage was inactivated, the DNAse could hydrolyze the phage DNA.[1] However, it subsequently became clear that in some viruses, RNA is the genetic material.

text: Experiment and conclusions[edit]

text: Hershey and Chase were also able to prove that the DNA from the phage is inserted into the bacteria shortly after the virus attaches to its host. Using a high speed blender they were able to force the bacteriophages from the bacterial cells after adsorption. The lack of 32P labeled DNA remaining in the solution after the bacteriophages had been allowed to adsorb to the bacteria showed that the phage DNA was transferred into the bacterial cell. The presence of almost all the radioactive 35S in the solution showed that the protein coat that protects the DNA before adsorption stayed outside the cell.[1]

text: Hershey and Chase concluded that DNA, not protein, was the genetic material. They determined that a protective protein coat was formed around the bacteriophage, but that the internal DNA is what conferred its ability to produce progeny inside a bacterium. They showed that, in growth, protein has no function, while DNA has some function. They determined this from the amount of radioactive material remaining outside of the cell. Only 20% of the 32P remained outside the cell, demonstrating that it was incorporated with DNA in the cell's genetic material. All of the 35S in the protein coats remained outside the cell, showing it was not incorporated into the cell, and that protein is not the genetic material.[1]

text: Hershey and Chase's experiment concluded that little sulfur containing material entered the bacterial cell. However no specific conclusions can be made regarding whether material that is sulfur-free enters the bacterial cell after phage adsorption. Further research was necessary to conclude that it was solely bacteriophages' DNA that entered the cell and not a combination of protein and DNA where the protein did not contain any sulfur.[1]

text: Discussion[edit]

text: Confirmation[edit]

text: Hershey and Chase concluded that protein was not likely to be the hereditary genetic material. However, they did not make any conclusions regarding the specific function of DNA as hereditary material, and only said that it must have some undefined role.[1][4]

text: Confirmation and clarity came a year later in 1953, when James D. Watson and Francis Crick correctly hypothesized, in their journal article "Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid", the double helix structure of DNA, and suggested the copying mechanism by which DNA functions as hereditary material. Furthermore, Watson and Crick suggested that DNA, the genetic material, is responsible for the synthesis of the thousands of proteins found in cells. They had made this proposal based on the structural similarity that exists between the two macromolecules, that is, both protein and DNA are linear sequences of amino acids and nucleotides respectively.[8]

text: Other experiments[edit]

text: Once the Hershey–Chase experiment was published, the scientific community generally acknowledged that DNA was the genetic code material. This discovery led to a more detailed investigation of DNA to determine its composition as well as its 3D structure. Using X-ray crystallography, the structure of DNA was discovered by James Watson and Francis Crick with the help of previously documented experimental evidence by Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin.[9] Knowledge of the structure of DNA led scientists to examine the nature of genetic coding and, in turn, understand the process of protein synthesis. George Gamow proposed that the genetic code was composed of sequences of three DNA base pairs known as triplets or codons which represent one of the twenty amino acids.[10] Genetic coding helped researchers to understand the mechanism of gene expression, the process by which information from a gene is used in protein synthesis. Since then, much research has been conducted to modulate steps in the gene expression process. These steps include transcription, RNA splicing, translation, and post-translational modification which are used to control the chemical and structural nature of proteins.[11] Moreover, genetic engineering gives engineers the ability to directly manipulate the genetic materials of organisms using recombinant DNA techniques. The first recombinant DNA molecule was created by Paul Berg in 1972 when he combined DNA from the monkey virus SV40 with that of the lambda virus.[12]

text: Experiments on hereditary material during the time of the Hershey-Chase Experiment often used bacteriophages as a model organism. Bacteriophages lend themselves to experiments on hereditary material because they incorporate their genetic material into their host cell's genetic material (making them useful tools), they multiply quickly, and they are easily collected by researchers.[4]

text: Legacy[edit]

text: The Hershey–Chase experiment, its predecessors, such as the Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment, and successors served to unequivocally establish that hereditary information was carried by DNA. This finding has numerous applications in forensic science, crime investigation and genealogy. It provided the background knowledge for further applications in DNA forensics, where DNA fingerprinting uses data originating from DNA, not protein sources, to deduce genetic variation.[13]


document_title: My Name Is Earl (season 4)

question_text: how many episodes in my name is earl season 4

text: My Name Is Earl (season 4)

text:
My Name Is Earl (season 4)

DVD cover

Country of origin
United States

No. of episodes
27

Release

Original network
NBC

Original release
September 25, 2008 – May 14, 2009

Season chronology

← Previous
Season 3

List of My Name Is Earl episodes

tag: table

text: The fourth and final season of My Name Is Earl originally aired from September 25, 2008 to May 14, 2009 on NBC.

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Season four began on September 25, 2008.[1] Greg Garcia said in a press interview that Season 4 would have Earl get back to doing things on the list since season 3 had Earl go through prison, coma, and relationship.[2]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
Prod.
code

70
1
"The Magic Hour"
Eyal Gordin
Timothy Stack
September 25, 2008 (2008-09-25)
077

While Joy creates Make-A-Wish T-shirts so her boys can line jump at the grand opening of an amusement park, Earl remembers when he stole a pony from a boy named Buddy whose Make-A-Wish dream was to ride it in a parade. when Earl goes to make amends with Buddy's parents, he discovers that Buddy (Seth Green) is still alive. Buddy does not want a pony, but he wants Earl's help to produce a sci-fi action film called 2 The Max. With Buddy as the title character, they cast Randy as the president, Joy and Patty as assistants, Catalina as a terrorist, and other townsfolk for other parts. Although Randy turns out to be a good actor, everyone gets tired of Buddy's perfectionistic directing, and they eventually quit. Buddy tells Earl to throw him a premiere in two weeks while he edits and finishes the film. On the big night, everyone turns up, except Buddy. His mother tells Earl that Buddy had finally died of his terminal illness (it is revealed that whenever Buddy was storming off the set, he was actually getting some treatments). Earl wants to tell everyone of Buddy's death after the screening, but finds that Buddy used the movie to help himself achieve many of his dreams. As well as crossing Buddy off his list, Earl also finds the movie to have inspired many others to follow their own dreams.

71
2
"Monkeys Take a Bath"
Greg Garcia
Greg Garcia
September 25, 2008 (2008-09-25)
078

Earl and Randy try to make amends for pranking their childhood neighbors, the Clarks. But when they discover more skeletons in the closet than they had expected, the brothers find themselves needing to sort out some family issues between their parents. Meanwhile, Joy buys a marble game from the Hickeys' garage sale, claiming Willie the One-Eyed Mailman's glass eye in the process.
(Note: This episode aired as the second half-hour with "The Magic Hour" as the season premiere.)

72
3
"Joy in a Bubble"
Michael Fresco
Jessica Goldstein & Chrissy Pietrosh
October 2, 2008 (2008-10-02)
071

Earl's attempt to give Joy the hot tub she's always wanted backfires as Joy contracts a rare flesh-eating infection on her big toe, and is forced to stay quarantined in a make-shift bubble part of the trailer. While she is out of commission, Earl must take care of Joy's everyday activities such as learning the gossip from the ladies at the hair salon, shopping for meat out of a guy's trunk, and protesting the ice cream cart vendor's sales. Earl is concerned the kids were having problems making friends when he sees they were not invited to a birthday party, but later discovers that it's because of Joy's bad behavior and not the kids.

73
4
"Stole an RV"
Chris Koch
Kat Likkel & John Hoberg
October 2, 2008 (2008-10-02)
073

To cross Jerry (Jerry Van Dyke) off of his list, Earl can't just return the RV he stole, mostly because Randy had blown it up. Earl and Randy visit Jerry and discover he has lost all will to live until they restore him by bringing back the keepsakes he had in his trailer. Jerry then becomes highly motivated to get back one more keepsake: to cut off the ear of his army squad mate Joel (John Amos) as revenge for being ditched during a battle in the Korean War. Meanwhile, Joy encounters the legendary "pigsquatch" in the trailer park. She tries to capture it in order to make some money as a sideshow exhibit, but the pig dies from a drug overdose and they are unable to move it.

74
5
"Sweet Johnny"
Eyal Gordin
Kat Likkel & John Hoberg
October 9, 2008 (2008-10-09)
072

Earl decides it's time to make it up to local stunt man Sweet Johnny (David Arquette) for sleeping with his girlfriend. When Earl finds Sweet Johnny, he discovers Johnny has an amnesia in which he forgets everything that happened that day, and has been planning to do a stunt involving tying balloons to a lawn chair. Meanwhile, after being carjacked, Joy buys a gun but Darnell does not approve because of her disregard of gun safety.

75
6
"We've Got Spirit"
Eyal Gordin
Hilary Winston
October 16, 2008 (2008-10-16)
070

Earl wants to take Kenny to attend a cheerleading camp, only to find out that the person who really wanted to become a male cheerleader was not Kenny but Randy. They register for camp, where they discover part of the instructor Kimmy (Jenna Elfman)'s face was ruined by a wild badger, and that they are allocated to a squad by town among a motley crew of girls who have always finished last in everything. Earl and Randy work hard to represent Camden, but the squad hits a setback when Kimmy tells them that Earl and Randy cannot be in the squad. Meanwhile, Joy is upset that her son Dodge thinks of Catalina as beautiful, and tries to make herself look more glamorous to him, much to Darnell's chagrin.

76
7
"Quit Your Snitchin'"
Chris Koch
Matt Ward
October 23, 2008 (2008-10-23)
076

Earl tries to surprise Randy by giving him a Ford Ranchero, but it is stolen. Earl tries to get it back, but the thieves think Earl has crossed over from being a crook to being a citizen / victim, so he is no longer covered by the criminal code of ethics of not stealing from each other. Earl struggles with the idea of going to the police, despite Joy's protests that snitches are the lowest of the low. When he does, he ends up being labelled as a snitch everywhere he goes, until he eventually decides to fight fire with fire.

77
8
"Little Bad Voodoo Brother"
Chris Koch
Alan Kirschenbaum
October 30, 2008 (2008-10-30)
074

While Earl is busy planning a Halloween party for Dodge and Earl Jr., Randy wants to be a big brother mentor. He takes on Catalina's visiting nephew O-Scar under his wing, but when O-Scar is caught stealing tips, Randy tries his best to confront him and tells him to return the money. The boy then appears to go into some sort of trance, which Randy takes to be voodoo, especially when he make dolls. Earl tries to convince Randy and O-Scar that voodoo is fake, and that karma is the real force behind things. After the nephew steals some of Joy's hair, Joy leads the locals in a mob intent on getting their hands on him. Randy and Earl have no choice but to defend the boy from the clutches of the mob.

78
9
"Sold a Guy a Lemon Car"
John Putch
Michael Pennie
November 6, 2008 (2008-11-06)
075

A mysterious man named Lloyd (Courtney Gains)[2] moves next door to Earl and Randy, and makes a lot of noise at night building something. Earl and Randy think Lloyd might be a terrorist, and realize it is the same guy to whom they had sold a lemon car. Lloyd had since resold the lemon to another person, and it was repeatedly sold to other suckers. Lloyd loses faith in humanity, thinking they are all scum, so Earl must convince him otherwise before he activates the bomb. Meanwhile, Joy becomes obsessed with winning a science fair so that she can buy a necklace designed by Jane Seymour with the $500 prize money.

79
10
"Earl and Joy's Anniversary"
Michael Fresco
Danielle Sanchez-Witzel
November 13, 2008 (2008-11-13)
079

When Earl works on repairing the hole in the bar at the Crab Shack, he recalls how he had ruined his and Joy's first wedding anniversary. Randy had eaten the wedding cake, and later throws a surprise party on behalf of Earl where he had inadvertently invited Joy's previous sexual partners in her little black book instead of her friends. One of the said ex's was Earl's more successful and handsome cousin Blake (Jason Priestley), who makes Earl feel less than adequate as a husband. Killer bees invade Camden, locking down the Crab Shack, and trapping Darnell, Catalina, Patty and Kenny in a phone booth.

80
11
"Nature's Game Show"
Eyal Gordin
Hunter Covington
November 20, 2008 (2008-11-20)
080

A series of tornadoes hit Camden County, causing Earl to lose his list, and the townsfolk scrambling to take loose items off the ground according to Finders, keepers. Catalina, who was upset about the rule, uses a found gun to get her stuff back and a bunch of everything else, but when the next tornado knocks the gun out of her hand with a Bible, she has a religious awakening, as well as Patty the daytime hooker. Randy, who survived being hurled from a boat onto the motel roof, wants to fly during the next tornado, thinking he is invincible. Meanwhile, Darnell cannot stand Joy's arguing, but Joy takes offense when Darnell tells her that he is smarter than her.

81
12
"Reading Is a Fundamental Case"
Michael Fresco
Mike Mariano
December 4, 2008 (2008-12-04)
082

While reading to children, Earl reminisces about a recent list item that he and Randy righted. It all began when Earl found his old friend Raynard (Ewen Bremner) living in the wild and keeping company with a raccoon.
The episode is dedicated to Garcia's newborn son Gump in the Amigos de Garcia Productions logo stating: "Happy Birthday, Gump!"

82
13
"Orphan Earl"
Marc Buckland
Michael Shipley
December 11, 2008 (2008-12-11)
081

Earl discovers that Joy has continued a holiday scam they started years before, and has expanded the scam to include her friends.

83
14
"Got the Babysitter Pregnant"
Mike Mariano
Story by : Patrick McCarthy, Erika Kaestle and Vali Chandrasekaran
Teleplay by : Vali Chandrasekaran
January 8, 2009 (2009-01-08)
083

After having his heart broken by the babysitter, a young Earl goes to drastic measures to make sure she and her boyfriend pay the ultimate price. Now older and wiser, Earl decides it's time to cross them off his list. When he finds the couple and their live-in, obnoxious, grown son, he believes karma wants him to help the freeloader learn how to make it on his own. But when Earl finds that the lesson in tough love also applies to Randy, he realizes the difficulty in kicking someone out of the nest. Meanwhile, Joy struggles to tell Darnell that she lost his beloved pet turtle.

84
15
"Darnell Outed"
Eyal Gordin
Ralph Greene
January 15, 2009 (2009-01-15)
084

When auditions for Erik Estrada's new competition show Estrada or Nada come to Camden, Earl encourages Joy to go for her childhood dream of becoming famous and try out, thus allowing him to cross an item off his list, as he had screwed up her chance of being on Fear Factor by accidentally destroying her audition tape. Joy, initially reluctant, steals Randy's audition spot, but makes a fool of herself. Her crazy antics are a cause for concern when Darnell receives a startling phone call.

85
16
"Darnell Outed: Part 2"
Eyal Gordin
Story by : Alan Kirschenbaum, Jessica Goldstein & Chrissy Pietrosh
Teleplay by : Hunter Covington & Matt Ward
January 22, 2009 (2009-01-22)
085

After losing his Witness Protection cover, Darnell must pack up the family and they have to assume a new identity. Earl and Randy try to mail themselves to Darnell's forwarding address, only to discover that the mail goes to an undisclosed dumpster. There they find a letter from Estrada or Nada inviting Joy back to the show if she can get enough text message votes by phone.

86
17
"Randy's List Item"
Paul Burke Pedreira
Bobby Bowman
February 5, 2009 (2009-02-05)
086

When Randy wins $250. from a scratcher lottery ticket, and is hit by a bike, sending the ticket blowing away, he thinks it is Karma, and gets inspired to make his own List like Earl's. One of the items coincides with an item from Earl's list, where they are to make amends for ruining a friendship with former trailer park neighbor Zeke and his brother Arlo. Earl and Zeke had done a lot of things together, mainly to win T-shirts, but Randy got jealous and tricked Earl into thinking Zeke stole his Andrew Dice Clay belt buckle, causing Earl to burn the T-shirts. After meeting Zeke, Earl is able to be friends with him again, and they do more activities together, but Arlo gets upset and burns the shirts. Randy comes up with an idea to have Zeke and Arlo be on good terms again. Meanwhile, Joy, Darnell and their family are relocated multiple times in the witness protection program, mainly because Joy is not satisfied with the living conditions.

87
18
"Friends with Benefits"
Allison Liddi-Brown
Jessica Goldstein & Chrissy Pietrosh
February 12, 2009 (2009-02-12)
090

When Mr. Turtle finds his way home after being lost, Earl sets off to return him to Darnell, who now lives in an upscale community with his family, thanks to Witness Protection. Meanwhile, adjusting to her new wealthy lifestyle proves difficult when Joy struggles to fit in with her trophy-wife neighbors. Back in Camden, Randy unwittingly shares a bed with a guy named Jim, who has a crush on him. Guest stars Morgan Fairchild as Carol and Joan Van Ark as Janine, two of Joy's neighbors.

88
19
"My Name Is Alias"
Eyal Gordin
Matthew W. Thompson
February 19, 2009 (2009-02-19)
089

Darnell's father (Danny Glover) arrives in Camden claiming he needs to make amends with his son. Earl and Randy smell trouble and go to warn Joy and Darnell. Unfortunately, trouble follows them there and the family reunion results in Darnell and his dad going on one last super-secret, undercover operation.

89
20
"Chaz Dalton's Space Academy"
Marc Buckland
Hilary Winston
March 5, 2009 (2009-03-05)
087

Earl returns to a space camp in order to make up for ruining the space suit that his childhood hero Chaz Dalton wore in space. He finds that Chaz has been treating the kids well, so when he goes to a space launch facility to try to get a replacement suit, he sees a picture of Chaz Dalton and realizes that his childhood hero is not the same person. He recruits the real Chaz Dalton to take over the camp, but the real Chaz has become a disoriented mess, and is no good with kids. Meanwhile, Darnell gets in touch with his old friends using a social networking website called BuddyBook, but when Joy tries it out, she is unable to get any friends from the people she knows.

90
21
"Witch Lady"
Eyal Gordin
Michael Shipley & Matt Ward
March 19, 2009 (2009-03-19)
088

Earl tries to atone to a woman known as the Crazy Witch Lady (Betty White) whom he had harassed and mocked many kids when he was a kid. He has tea with her, but then finds himself abducted by the lady and placed in her basement. Soon Randy is captured and the others including Joy, Darnell, Catalina, Kenny, Stuart, and Patty. Also, Joy tries to prove that she has a nice side.

91
22
"Pinky"
Greg Garcia
Greg Garcia
March 26, 2009 (2009-03-26)
092

Earl helps Randy find his first love, a girl with pink hair called Pinky. Randy learns Earl had come between them all those years ago, lying to Pinky by writing a note saying that Skipper (Randy) had broken up with her. They agree to reunite on a bridge, but Randy discovers that Pinky is actually Joy.

92
23
"Bullies"
Eyal Gordin
Vali Chandrasekaran & Hunter Covington
April 16, 2009 (2009-04-16)
091

Earl attempts to cross off another list item for bullying a classmate from when he was briefly in Catholic school, Wally Panzer (Matthew Willig), whom Earl dubbed "Pansy." Wally has since become a very strong gym rat, so Earl, under the alias Cliff, agrees to help him to re-enter the Mr. Camden bodybuilding competition. Meanwhile, Randy takes drastic measures to avoid Joy's bullying, trying out shark adrenaline; however, he ends up going crazy when he injects the entire vial. He reveals that Cliff is Earl, and then goes on a rampage, fighting Wally, and then going after joy.

93
24
"Gospel"
Ken Whittingham
Mike Mariano & Deweyne Lamar Lee
April 23, 2009 (2009-04-23)
093

Earl returns a stolen church organ to Reverend Greene (Faizon Love), a former "gangsta" who went by the nickname "Hash Brown". At first, Reverend Greene forgives Earl, but they discover that Earl had wronged Greene multiple times on the list. During a church service where Earl was a guest, Greene learns that Earl had slept with his wife, and reverts to being his thug Hash Brown ways. Meanwhile, a drunken Joy runs into Catalina with a riding mower and traps her in a tool shed. When Catalina threatens to contact the cops, Joy makes it an abduction and turns to Darnell, who concludes that Catalina should be killed.

94
25
"Inside Probe: Part 1"
Greg Garcia
Greg Garcia
April 30, 2009 (2009-04-30)
094

An episode of the news show Inside Probe, guest hosted by Geraldo Rivera, airs on television after being held for eight years because of Darnell's witness protection. The show focuses on the mysterious disappearance of the Crab Shack's owner Ernie Belcher, and goes into the background of Camden 's most notorious crooks (Earl and his friends). Earl and Randy become prime suspects in the murder of Ernie Belcher, and even get Randy to confess that they did it, but race car driver Michael Waltrip provides them a solid alibi.

95
26
"Inside Probe: Part 2"
Greg Garcia
Michael Pennie & Timothy Stack
May 7, 2009 (2009-05-07)
095

The Inside Probe investigation continues as other speculations arise including people seeing a bright light in the sky, suggesting alien abduction. They look into the history of Camden in the American Civil War where they had formed an independent country called The Central. They also look into a fetish video side business that Ernie had been involved in. Eventually, they discover that Ernie had been videotaping women in the Crab Shack's ladies' restroom, and had fallen into the deep freshly laid concrete floor in a freak accident, leaving only his nose to be exposed like a doorstop.

96
27
"Dodge's Dad"
Chris Koch
Alan Kirschenbaum & Danielle Sanchez-Witzel
May 14, 2009 (2009-05-14)
096

After being reminded of ruining Dodge's Career Day a few years earlier, Earl agrees to appear again. Awkward questions remind Earl that Dodge doesn't know that Earl isn't his natural father. Under pressure, Joy reveals that Little Chubby – the richest businessman in Camden – is Dodge's real dad. Earl tries to get Little Chubby to do his duty to Dodge; Little Chubby responds to Earl's efforts by freezing his bank account and having him evicted from the motel. Eventually a DNA test reveals that Dodge's father is not Little Chubby but Earl himself: the conception occurred during a Halloween party, at which Earl and Little Chubby wore similar costumes. Even more surprising, Darnell is not Earl Jr's father. Because the series was unexpectedly cancelled, the mystery remains unsolved.


document_title: We Shall Overcome: The Seeger Sessions

question_text: bruce springsteen we shall overcome the seeger sessions songs

text: We Shall Overcome: The Seeger Sessions

text: Background[edit]

text: This is Springsteen's first and so far only album of entirely non-Springsteen material and contains his interpretation of thirteen folk music songs made popular by activist folk musician Pete Seeger. As an activist and artist of folk music, Seeger did not write any of the songs on the album. His life's work focused on popularizing and promoting the ethic of local, historical musical influences and recognizing the cultural significance that folk music embodies.

text: The record began in 1997, when Springsteen recorded "We Shall Overcome" for the Where Have All the Flowers Gone: the Songs of Pete Seeger tribute album, released the following year. Springsteen had not known much about Seeger given his rock and roll upbringing and orientation, and proceeded to investigate and listen to his music.[2] While playing them in his house, his 10-year-old daughter said, "Hey, that sounds like fun," which caused Springsteen to get interested in further exploring the material and genre.[3]

text: Via Soozie Tyrell, the violinist in the E Street Band, Springsteen hooked up with a group of lesser-known musicians from New Jersey and New York City, and they recorded in an informal, large band setting in Springsteen's Colts Neck, New Jersey farm.[2] In addition to Tyrell, previous Springsteen associates The Miami Horns as well as wife Patti Scialfa augmented the proceedings. This group would become The Sessions Band. The subsequent Bruce Springsteen with The Seeger Sessions Band Tour expanded on the album's musical approach.

text: Release[edit]

text: The album, like its predecessor Devils and Dust, has been released on DualDisc, in a CD/DVD double disc set, and as a set of two vinyl records.

text: For the DualDisc and CD/DVD sets, the full album is on the CD(-side), while the DVD(-side) side features a PCM Stereo version of the album and a short film about the making and recording of the album. Two bonus songs also appear on the DVD(-side).

text: On October 3, 2006, the album was reissued as We Shall Overcome: The Seeger Sessions - American Land Edition with five additional tracks (the two bonus tracks from before and three new numbers that had been introduced and heavily featured on the tour), new videos, an expanded documentary and liner notes. Rather than a DualDisc release, the American Land Edition was released with separate CD and DVDs. Added sales were minimal.

text: Reception[edit]

text:
Professional ratings

Review scores

Source
Rating

AllMusic
[4]

The A.V. Club
B+[5]

Entertainment Weekly
A–[6]

The Guardian
[7]

The Observer
[8]

Pitchfork Media
8.5/10[9]

Rolling Stone
[10]

Spin
[11]

Uncut
[12]

The Village Voice
B[13]

text: We Shall Overcome received widespread acclaim from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 82, based on 25 reviews.[14] In his review for AllMusic, Stephen Thomas Erlewine praised Springsteen's modern take on Seeger's repertoire of folk songs and said that it is the liveliest album of his career: "It's a rambunctious, freewheeling, positively joyous record unlike any other in Springsteen's admittedly rich catalog."[4] David Browne of Entertainment Weekly felt that Springsteen successfully imbues the songs with a "rock & roll energy" rather than an adherence to folk's blander musical aesthetic.[6] Rolling Stone magazine's Jonathan Ringen believed that he relied on folk and Americana styles on the album in order to "find a moral compass for a nation that's gone off the rails", particularly on the implicitly political "Oh, Mary Don't You Weep", "Eyes on the Prize", and "We Shall Overcome".[10] Gavin Martin of Uncut called it "a great teeming flood of Americana" and "a powerful example of how songs reverberate through the years to accrue contemporary meaning".[12]

text: In a less enthusiastic review, Neil Spencer of The Observer wrote that the songs chosen for the album lack intrigue and edge, and are "mostly too corny to have much drama restored to them".[8] Robert Christgau panned We Shall Overcome in his consumer guide for The Village Voice, wherein he gave it a "B",[13] which is assigned to bad albums he reviews as the "dud of the month" in his column.[15] He felt that Springsteen relies too much on a rural drawl and overblown sound when folk music requires subtlety and viewed the album as the worst case of his histrionic singing.[13]

text: Seeger himself was pleased by the result, saying "It was a great honor. [Springsteen]'s an extraordinary person, as well as an extraordinary singer."[3] We Shall Overcome was voted the 19th best album of the year in the Pazz & Jop, an annual critics poll run by The Village Voice.[16] In 2007, it won the Grammy Award for Best Traditional Folk Album at the 49th Grammy Awards.[citation needed] By January 2009, the album had sold 700,000 copies in the United States.[17] the RIAA certified it with gold record status.

text: Track listing[edit]

text: All songs traditional or public domain with unknown songwriters, arranged by Bruce Springsteen, unless otherwise noted.

text:
No.
Title
Writer(s)
Length

1.
"Old Dan Tucker"

2:31

2.
"Jesse James"
Billy Gashade
3:47

3.
"Mrs. McGrath"

4:19

4.
"O Mary Don't You Weep"

6:05

5.
"John Henry"

5:07

6.
"Erie Canal"
Thomas S. Allen
4:03

7.
"Jacob's Ladder"

4:28

8.
"My Oklahoma Home"
Bill and Agnes "Sis" Cunningham
6:03

9.
"Eyes on the Prize"
Traditional; additional lyrics by Alice Wine
5:16

10.
"Shenandoah"

4:52

11.
"Pay Me My Money Down"

4:32

12.
"We Shall Overcome"
Rev. Charles Tindley (lyrics); Adaptation by Guy Carawan, Frank Hamilton, Zilphia Horton, Pete Seeger
4:53

13.
"Froggie Went A-Courtin'"

4:33

text:
[show]DualDisc bonus tracks

No.
Title
Writer(s)
Length

14.
"Buffalo Gals"

3:12

15.
"How Can I Keep from Singing?"
attr. Robert Wadsworth Lowry, additional lyrics by Doris Plenn
2:19

text:
[show]American Land Edition bonus tracks

No.
Title
Writer(s)
Length

14.
"Buffalo Gals"

3:12

15.
"How Can I Keep from Singing?"
attr. Robert Wadsworth Lowry, additional lyrics by Doris Plenn
2:19

16.
"How Can a Poor Man Stand Such Times and Live?"
Blind Alfred Reed, additional lyrics by Bruce Springsteen
3:22

17.
"Bring 'Em Home"
Pete Seeger with new verse by Jim Musselman & elements from "When Johnny Comes Marching Home"
3:35

18.
"American Land"
Springsteen, inspired by "He Lies In The American Land" by Andrew Kovaly/Pete Seeger
4:44

text: Unreleased outtakes[edit]

text: A handful of outtakes went unreleased from the final cut of the album. Springsteen would later release some of these on the American Land version of the album while songs such as the instrumental "Once Upon a Time in the West" was released on the We All Love Ennio Morricone album, a cover of Pete Seeger's "Hobo's Lullaby" made its way onto the Give Us Your Poor charity album. A re-recorded version of Springsteen's "The Ghost of Tom Joad", which featured Pete Seeger, was released on the Sowing the Seeds charity album. A studio version of "Bring 'Em Home" was also released by Sony as an internet download. During these sessions Springsteen also first recorded "Long Walk Home". This version remains unreleased although it was performed during this tour and would eventually be re-recorded for his next album, 2007's Magic. Two live versions of "American Land" were released however the studio recording from these sessions has yet to surface. Springsteen would re-record the song for his 2012 album, Wrecking Ball.[18]

text:
"American Land"
"Long Walk Home"
"I Come and Stand At Every Door"
"Pretty Boy Floyd"
"Michael, Row Your Boat Ashore"
"If I Had a Hammer"
"Worried Man Blues"

tag: ul

text: Personnel[edit]

text:
Bruce Springsteen – lead vocals, guitar, harmonica, B-3 organ, and percussion
Sam Bardfeld – violin
Art Baron – tuba
Frank Bruno – guitar
Jeremy Chatzky – upright bass
Mark Clifford – banjo
Larry Eagle – drums and percussion
Charles Giordano – B-3 organ, piano, and accordion
Ed Manion – saxophone
Mark Pender – trumpet, backing vocals
Richie "La Bamba" Rosenberg – trombone, backing vocals
Patti Scialfa – backing vocals
Soozie Tyrell – violin, backing vocals


document_title: Pygostyle

question_text: where does the term parsons nose come from

text: Pygostyle

text: Evolution[edit]

text: Pygostyles probably began to evolve very early in the Cretaceous period, perhaps 140-130 million years ago. The earliest known species to have evolved a pygostyle were members of the Confuciusornithidae.[citation needed] The structure provided an evolutionary advantage, as a completely mobile tail as found in species such as Archaeopteryx is detrimental to its use for flight control. Modern birds still develop longer caudal vertebrae in their embryonic state, which later fuse to form a pygostyle.

text: There are two main types of pygostyle:[citation needed] one, found in Confuciusornithidae, Enantiornithes, and some other Mesozoic birds, as well as in some oviraptorosaurs like Nomingia, is long and rod- or dagger blade-like. None of the known fossils with such pygostyles show traces of well-developed rectrices. The tail feathers in these animals consisted of downy fuzz and sometimes 2–4 central "streamers" such as those found in some specimens of Confuciusornis or in Paraprotopteryx.[1]

text: By contrast, the function of the pygostyle in the terrestrial Nomingia is not known. It is notable however that its older relative Caudipteryx had no pygostyle but a "fan" of symmetrical feathers which were probably used in social display. Perhaps such ornaments were widespread in Caenagnathoidea and their relatives, and ultimately the oviraptorosaurian pygostyle evolved to help support them. The related Similicaudipteryx, described in 2008, also had a rod-like pygostyle, associated with a fan of tail feathers.[2]

text: The other pygostyle type is plowshare-shaped. It is found in Ornithurae (living birds and their closest relatives), and in almost all flying species is associated with an array of well-developed rectrices used in maneuvering. The central pair of these attach directly to the pygostyle, just as in Confuciusornis. The other rectrices of Ornithurae are held in place and moved by structures called bulbi rectricium (rectricial bulbs), a complex feature of fat and muscles located on either side of the pygostyle. The oldest known species with such a pygostyle is Hongshanornis longicresta.[3]

text: As evidenced by the oviraptorosaurian cases, the pygostyle evolved at least twice, and rod-shaped pygostyles seem to have evolved several times, in association with shortening of the tail but not necessarily with a retractable fan of tail feathers. In other words, the pygostyles of oviraptorosaurs and Confuciusornis were likely weight-saving measures, and the specialized "true" pygostyles of ornithurans were adapted from these later to improve flight performance.[1]

text: The bird clade Pygostylia was named in 1996, by Luis Chiappe, for the presence of this feature and roughly corresponds to its appearance in the bird family tree, though the feature itself is not included in its definition.[4] In 2001, Jacques Gauthier and Kevin de Queiroz (2001) re-defined Pygostylia to refer specifically to the apomorphy of a short tail bearing an avian pygostyle.

text: Etymology[edit]

text: Look up pygostyle in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: "Pygostyle" is of Ancient Greek origin, literally meaning "rump pillar".

text: The phrase "parson's nose" comes from the notion that an English parson may 'have his nose up in the air', upturned like the chicken's rear end. The term must have been known as early as around 1400 AD, when a carpenter had been contracted to provide new choir stalls for St Mary's Church, Nantwich.[verification needed] The vicar was either slow to pay the artisan, or did not pay at all. In retaliation, on the last misericord in the stalls, the carpenter carved a bird with an image of that Vicar's face with protuberant nose as rump. The carving is still visible today.[5]

text: A similar derivation applies to the phrase "Pope's nose", which may have originated as a derogatory term meant to demean Catholics in England during the late 17th century.[citation needed]

text: "Sultan's nose" probably was coined some time during the Early Modern era wars against the Ottoman Empire.[citation needed]

text: As food[edit]

text: Turkey tail or turkey butt has an international exportation market in places such as Micronesia, Samoa, and Ghana. The turkey tail is commonly exported from America because it is considered unhealthy and cut off of the normal turkey.[6] After World War II, cheap imported turkey tails became popular in Samoa. Because the cut is so fatty, to combat obesity it was banned from 2007 to 2013, only allowed back when Samoa joined the World Trade Organization. The meat is otherwise used in pet food.[7]

text: Footnotes[edit]

text:
^ Jump up to: a b Clarke et al. (2006)
Jump up ^ Xu, X.; Zheng, X.; You, H. (2010). "Exceptional dinosaur fossils show ontogenetic development of early feathers". Nature. 464 (7293): 1338–1341. doi:10.1038/nature08965. PMID 20428169.
Jump up ^ O'Connor, J.K.; Gao, K.-Q.; Chiappe, L.M. (2010). "A new ornithuromorph (Aves: Ornithothoraces) bird from the Jehol Group indicative of higher-level diversity" (PDF). Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 30 (2): 311–321. doi:10.1080/02724631003617498.
Jump up ^ Chiappe, L. (1997). "The Chinese early bird Confuciusornis and the paraphyletic status of Sauriurae". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 17 (3): 37A. doi:10.1080/02724634.1997.10011028.
Jump up ^ "The Building and Contents of St Mary's Nantwich". St Mary's PCC, Nantwich. parsonsnose.jpg. Retrieved 2012-02-29.
Jump up ^ Singer, Merrill (2014). "Following the turkey tails: neoliberal globalization and the political ecology of health" (PDF). Journal of Political Ecology. 21: 436–451.
Jump up ^ Robert Siegel (2013-05-09). "Samoans Await The Return Of The Tasty Turkey Tail". NPR.

tag: ol


document_title: Where the Heart Is (2000 film)

question_text: forney's sister in where the heart is

question_tokens: forney 's sister in where the heart is

text: Where the Heart Is (2000 film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: Novalee Nation (Natalie Portman) is seventeen years old and seven months pregnant. She sets off on a road trip from Tennessee to California with her boyfriend, Willy Jack Pickens (Dylan Bruno) in an old, broken down 1963 Plymouth. When driving through Sequoyah, Oklahoma, Novalee asks Willy Jack to stop at the local Walmart so that she can go to the restroom and buy new shoes. Willy Jack drives off leaving behind her and her new Polaroid camera. Having no other place to go she walks back inside and meets Thelma "Sister" Husband (Stockard Channing). After Sister presents her with a buckeye tree, Novalee also meets Moses Whitecotton (Keith David), a local photographer who advises her to give her baby a strong name. A sickly Novalee is forced to live in the Walmart, undetected. Meanwhile Willy Jack is charged with fraternizing with a minor, and stealing from a convenience store. During his tenure in prison he composes a country song, "Beat of the Heart."

text: Novalee soon meets Forney Hull (James Frain), the surly librarian who looks after his alcoholic sister Mary Elizabeth (Margaret Hoard). During a thunderstorm Novalee, alone at Walmart, goes into labor. Forney, who is now in awe of Novalee, and had seen her enter the store at closing time, smashes through the window to help deliver her child. Novalee instantly becomes a media darling, and in hospital is befriended by Nurse Lexie Coop (Ashley Judd), who has four children by three different men. Novalee names her daughter Americus. Her estranged mother Mama Lil (Sally Field), visits after hearing of the news on television but Novalee soon realises to her dismay and disgust that money had been Mama Lil's only motive. Sister Husband arrives and offers to take in Novalee and Americus.

text: Three years later, Novalee begins a career as a photographer with the help of Moses. When a tornado blows through Sequoyah, Sister Husband is killed. In memory of Sister, Novalee shoots a picture of Americus and the still-standing buckeye tree amidst the damage from the storm. After the funeral, Novalee finds out that she is the beneficiary of Sister's estate, totaling around $40,000. Novalee builds a new home for herself and Americus on Sister's land.

text: Upon being released from prison and making it to Nashville, Willy Jack becomes a one-hit-wonder after a slow start with the song he wrote in jail. He teams with the grizzled and cranky music agent, Ruth Meyers (Joan Cusack), who gives him a makeover and the stage name "Billy Shadow." At the same time, Novalee is also in Las Vegas to accept an award in a photo contest she has won. Novalee and Willy Jack just miss meeting each other. Ruth Meyers, who has gotten in his hotel room, informs Willy Jack that his old cellmate, Tommy Reynolds, is suing him claiming he is the true writer of Beat of a Heart, now a major radio hit, and terminates her connections with Willy Jack. Novalee returns to Sequoyah after the awards event without realizing how close she came to seeing Willy Jack.

text: One day, Novalee receives a call from Brownie, Lexie's oldest child. She rushes over to find Lexie bruised and battered and learns that Lexie's new love interest started to molest her two eldest children and nearly beat her to death as she attempted to protect them. Lexie's injuries hinder her nursing job and she and her children have to move in with Novalee and Americus. Lexie breaks down feeling guilty and angry. She tearfully tells Novalee that she ignored her kid's dislike for her boyfriend.

text: Mary Elizabeth later passes away and when Forney does not appear at the funeral, Novalee finds him in a hotel and comforts him. They act on their feelings they have denied for so long and spend the night together. Forney confesses his love for her. Novalee confides in Lexie that she has never considered good enough for Forney and is confused about her own feelings for.

text: Novalee learns that Lexie is seeing someone new. Lexie is embarrassed to admit "Ernie" is an exterminator and does not have quite the physical attributes that have in the past attracted her interest. Lexie eventually falls in love with Ernie (Bob Coonrod) after learning he gave his ex-wife his restored 1967 Chevy Camaro in exchange for custody of his step-daughter whom he adopted as his own. They get married, and Lexie tells Novalee that she's pregnant.

text: After Forney returns from his sister's burial on the east coast, Novalee feels deeply that she is not good enough for him, knowing he has a chance of going back to school. Knowing his life would be a dead end staying with her in Sequoyah, she struggles through lying to him saying she does not love him. Heartbroken and rejected by Novalee, Forney returns to school in Maine.

text: Severely depressed at his ruined career following the lawsuit, Willy Jack becomes an alcoholic and starts popping pills while driving with a woman across country. He wanders off drunk and collapses on a railroad track where he is unable to move as a train approaches. On Americus's 5th birthday, Novalee picks up a newspaper and sees an article about Willy Jack having lost his legs some months before and recently being robbed of his wheelchair. Novalee visits Willy Jack in the hospital and he confesses his whole life would've been different if he hadn't left her. Novalee, realizing he is now a pathetically changed man, is able to finally forgive and let go of Willy Jack.

text: Novalee realizes that her lies are similar mistakes with Forney. She drives Willy Jack home to Tennessee and then continues to Maine to find Forney at a college. Novalee tells him she really does love him and they return to Oklahoma and marry. The final scene is of their wedding, which takes place in a Walmart.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Natalie Portman as Novalee Nation
Ashley Judd as Lexie Coop
Stockard Channing as Thelma "Sister" Husband
Joan Cusack as Ruth Meyers
James Frain as Forney Hull
Dylan Bruno as Willy Jack Pickens
Keith David as Moses Whitecotton
Richard Andrew Jones as Mr. Sprock
Sally Field as Mama Lil
Angee Hughes as Religious woman
Margaret Hoard as Mary Elizabeth Hull
Mackenzie Fitzgerald as Americus Nation
David Alvarado as Tommy Reynolds
Richard Nance as Johnny DeSotto
Bob Coonrod as Ernie
Cody Linley as Brownie Coop
Adrian Garza as Young Brownie (uncredited)

text: Differences between novel and film[edit]

text:
Novalee finds the number 5 unlucky in the movie, and the number 7 unlucky in the novel.
Sister Husband has brown hair in the movie, and blue hair in the novel.
In the novel, Lexie marries Leon Yoder.
In the film, Forney returns to school. In the novel, Forney instead travels for some time before settling in Chicago.
Novalee's marriage to Forney only occurs in the film.
In the novel, Lexie is obese. She is constantly trying new fad diets and weight loss schemes. This aspect of her character is removed from the film version.
In the novel, Benny Goodluck gives Novalee a buckeye tree for good luck. In the film, the buckeye tree was given to Novalee by Sister Husband.
In the novel, Moses has a wife named Certain whom Novalee also becomes close with. She is entirely omitted from the film, as is Benny Goodluck.

text: Music[edit]

text: Original music for the film was produced by Mason Daring. A soundtrack of the original music was released by RCA Records, as well as a music compilation soundtrack featuring songs used in the film by artists such as Emmylou Harris, Lyle Lovett, Martina McBride, and John Hiatt.

text: The song "That's the Beat of a Heart" was performed by The Warren Brothers and Sara Evans. A music video was made for the song, which is included as a bonus extra on the DVD release, and features a number of scenes from the film.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: The film received mostly negative reviews. Metacritic gives it a score of 30% based on reviews from 28 critics.[1] Rotten Tomatoes gives it a 35% approval rating, based on reviews from 97 critics, with the sites consensus stating that the film's "poor script and messy plot undermines the decent cast."[2]

text: Box office[edit]

text: The film opened in theaters in the United States on April 28, 2000. Where the Heart Is accumulated (USD)$8,292,939 in its opening weekend, opening at number 4.

text: The film went on to make $33,772,838 at the North American box office, and an additional $7,090,880 internationally for a worldwide total of $40,863,718.[3]