document_title: Johnny Manziel

question_text: who did johnny manziel play college football for

text: Johnny Manziel

text: Early life

text: Manziel was born in Tyler, Texas, on December 6, 1992, to Michelle (née Liberato) and Paul Manziel.[19] He has a younger sister named Meri. Manziel's great-great-grandfather Joseph immigrated to the United States in 1883 from the Mount Lebanon region of Syria in what is now Lebanon.[20] He is of Italian descent on his maternal side.[21] His family became wealthy through the Texas petroleum industry.[22]

text: Manziel grew up playing a variety of sports, including football, basketball, baseball, and golf. At Tivy High School in Kerrville, Texas, he focused on baseball and football. However, in football, sportswriters, coaches, and parents said he "achieved folk hero status" and was compared to quarterbacks like Brett Favre, Michael Vick, and Drew Brees.[23]

text: High school career

text: At Tivy High School, Manziel played football for four years, beginning with the freshman team in his first year. By the end of his first season, he played with the varsity team as a receiver. He began his sophomore year primarily as a receiver, but started the fourth game at quarterback. He shared that position for the remainder of the season, finishing with 1,164 yards passing, 806 rushing and 408 receiving for a combined 28 touchdowns. His junior year was his first as starting quarterback, and he completed that season with 2,903 passing yards, 1,544 rushing yards, 152 receiving yards and 55 touchdowns. That year, he was voted All-San Antonio Area Offensive Player of the Year as well as District 27-4A MVP.[23]

text: During Manziel's senior season, he compiled 228-of-347 (65.7%) passing for 3,609 yards with 45 touchdowns and five interceptions. He also had 170 carries for 1,674 yards and 30 touchdowns. He had one touchdown reception and returned a kickoff for a touchdown for a combined 77 touchdowns. That year, he was honored as District 28-4A MVP (unanimous selection), Class 4A First Team All-State (AP), San Antonio Express-News Offensive Player of the Year (second year in a row), the Associated Press Sports Editors Texas Player of the Year, Sub-5A First Team All-Area (SA Express-News), No. 1 QB in Texas by Dave Campbell's Texas Football, DCTF Top 300, PrepStar All-Region and Super-Prep All-Region.[24]

text: For Manziel's three years as a starter, he completed 520-of-819 passes (63.5%) for 7,626 yards and 76 touchdowns, rushed 531 times for 4,045 yards and 77 touchdowns and caught 30 passes for 582 yards and another five touchdowns. He was the only quarterback in America named as a Parade All-American his senior year, and he was also named The National High School Coaches Association (NHSCA) Senior Athlete of the Year in football.[25] He won the Mr. Texas Football award in 2010.

text: Manziel was highly recruited out of high school; in addition to Texas A&M, he received offers from Baylor, Colorado State, Iowa State, Louisiana Tech, Oregon, Rice, Stanford, Tulsa, and Wyoming.[26] Although he grew up a Texas Longhorns fan, the University of Texas did not recruit him. Although it was rumored that Texas wanted Manziel at defensive back, Texas coach Mack Brown said the rumor was not true.[27] Though Manziel originally committed to play for Oregon, he later changed his commitment to the Aggies, thanks to the influence of then-quarterbacks coach Tom Rossley.[28][29]

text:
Year
Team
Comp
Att
Pct
Yds
TD
INT
Rush att
Yds
Avg
TD

2008
Tivy
74
120
61.7%
1,109
11
5
123
835
6.8
15

2009
Tivy
211
349
60.5%
2,782
19
5
232
1,529
6.6
33

2010
Tivy
228
347
65.7%
3,609
45
5
170
1,674
9.8
30

Total
513
816
62.9%
7,500
75
15
525
4,038
7.3
78

text: Manziel was named to the NUC All World Game (started by David Schuman and National Underclassmen Combine) in 2010 where he rushed for over 100 yards and threw for over 200. It was the first time Manziel dominated on a national stage. He played in the game as a teammate with Oregon QB Marcus Mariota.

text:
US college sports recruiting information for high school athletes

Name
Hometown
High school / college
Height
Weight
40‡
Commit date

Johnny Manziel
QB
Kerrville, Texas
Tivy HS
6 ft 1 in (1.85 m)
190 lb (86 kg)
4.7
Feb 2, 2011

Recruiting star ratings: Scout:   Rivals:   247Sports: N/A    ESPN grade: 78

Overall recruiting rankings: Scout: 45 (QB); 31 (school)   Rivals: 97 (QB); 27 (school)  ESPN: 78 (QB)

Note: In many cases, Scout, Rivals, 247Sports, and ESPN may conflict in their listings of height and weight.
In these cases, the average was taken. ESPN grades are on a 100-point scale.

Sources:

"Texas A&M Football Commitments". Rivals.com. Retrieved December 14, 2011.
"2011 Texas A & M College Football Recruiting Commits". Scout.com. Retrieved December 14, 2011.
"ESPN". ESPN.com. Retrieved December 14, 2011.
"Scout.com Team Recruiting Rankings". Scout.com. Retrieved December 14, 2011.
"2011 Team Ranking". Rivals.com. Retrieved December 14, 2011.

text: College career

text: Manziel received an athletic scholarship to attend Texas A&M University, where he attended under coach Mike Sherman in 2011 and played for new coach Kevin Sumlin from 2012 to 2013.

text: Manziel was redshirted during the 2011 season and did not play in any games. He made the travel squad after enrolling with the college in January.[31]

text: 2012 season

text: Texas A&M faced uncertainty at the quarterback position when Ryan Tannehill left for the National Football League after the 2011 season. Manziel performed well during spring ball and fall practices and won the starting job over Jameill Showers and Matt Joeckel before the season began.[32] His first game was supposed to be against Louisiana Tech in Shreveport, Louisiana on Thursday, August 30, 2012, but the game was postponed until October 13 due to Hurricane Isaac hitting the Louisiana coast two days prior to game time.[33] Consequently, Manziel's college football debut was played as a redshirt freshman against the Florida Gators before a home crowd at Kyle Field.

text: Although Manziel began the season in relative obscurity, his play against Arkansas in which he broke Archie Manning's 43-year-old total offense record gained him some attention. Manziel produced 557 yards of total offense, breaking Manning's record of 540. Two games later, Manziel surpassed his own total offense record against #24 Louisiana Tech by achieving 576 yards of total offense, becoming the first player in SEC history to have two 500+ total offense games in one season. After Texas A&M's blowout of Auburn in the eighth game of the season, in which Manziel accounted for 3 passing and 2 rushing touchdowns through only the first half plus one series in the second, Manziel began showing up in national Heisman Watch lists.[citation needed]

text: Manziel was launched into the national scene after he led Texas A&M to a 29–24 victory over #1 Alabama in Tuscaloosa. In that game, Manziel accounted for 345 of A&M's 418 yards of offense, including two passing touchdowns. In the following days, Manziel became the frontrunner for the Heisman Trophy in most national watch lists and polls due to his performance during the game combined with other Heisman frontrunners faltering.[citation needed]

text: On November 24, during the game against the Missouri Tigers before a home crowd, Manziel left the game with an apparent knee injury late in the first quarter. He returned to the field for the next series of downs wearing a knee brace and finished the game with 439 yards of total offense, including 3 passing and 2 rushing touchdowns. During the game, he broke the single season record for offensive production in the SEC with 4600 yards, surpassing Cam Newton and Tim Tebow, notable recent Heisman Trophy winners. He also became the first freshman and only the fifth player in NCAA history to pass for 3000 and rush for 1,000 yards in a season, reaching that mark two games earlier than any other player. He won the SEC Freshman of the Year Award and College Football Performance National Freshman of the Year Award.[34] Manziel won the Davey O'Brien Award on December 6 and the Heisman Trophy on December 8, making him the first freshman ever to win either award.[4]

text: 2013 season

text: Texas A&M started the 2013 season with a No. 6 ranking in the Coaches Poll.[35] Prior to the season, some journalists argued that Manziel could suffer a sophomore slump,[36][37][38] while others felt that he will continue to have success.[39][40][41] Manziel's eligibility for the 2013 season was under question after reports surfaced that he had signed autographs for money in January 2013. On August 28, 2013, the NCAA reached an agreement with Texas A&M to suspend Manziel for the first half of the team's game against Rice (the first game of the season), after acknowledging that Manziel did not receive any money for the autographs.[42]

text: In the game against #1 Alabama, Manziel threw for a school record of 464 yards and 5 touchdowns in the 49–42 loss. His primary target during the game was Mike Evans, who compiled 7 receptions for a school record of 279 yards.[43] In the 51–41 win over Mississippi State, Manziel tied his single-game career-high five touchdowns, while also throwing for 446 yards but with 3 interceptions.[44] He was fifth in Heisman Trophy voting in 2013.

text:
Year
Team
Cmp
Att
Pct
Yds
TD
Int
Rtg
Rush att
Yds
Avg
TD

2012
Texas A&M
295
434
68.0%
3,706
26
9
155.3
201
1,410
7.0
21

2013
Texas A&M
300
429
69.9%
4,114
37
13
172.9
144
759
5.3
9

Total
595
863
68.9%
7,820
63
22
164.1
345
2,169
6.3
30

text: Baseball

text: As a Texas Rangers fan growing up, Manziel was a middle infielder at Tivy High School before foregoing his baseball career in favor of football. He played baseball through his junior year, but he skipped out on his senior season so he could graduate early and focus on preparing for his freshman football season at Texas A&M. Manziel's passion for the game of baseball, however, did not diminish after high school. He briefly discussed the possibility of playing collegiate ball with Texas A&M's baseball coaches, but that never came to fruition once he won the starting quarterback job as a redshirt freshman.[46]

text: In the 2014 Major League Baseball draft, Manziel was drafted in the 28th round (837th overall pick) by the San Diego Padres as a shortstop.[47][48]

text: Professional football career

text:
Pre-draft measurables

Ht
Wt
Arm length
Hand size
40‑yd dash
10-yd split
20-yd split
20‑ss
3‑cone
Vert jump
Broad
Wonderlic

5 ft 11 3⁄4 in
(1.82 m)
207 lb
(94 kg)
31 3⁄8 in
(0.80 m)
10 in
(0.25 m)
4.65 s
1.63 s
2.72 s
4.03 s
6.75 s
32 in
(0.81 m)
9 ft 5 in
(2.87 m)
32

All values from the NFL Combine[49]

text: In January 2014, Manziel announced that he would forgo his junior season and enter the 2014 NFL Draft.[50] He was projected to be a first-round pick, and as of January 15, 2014, his draft stock was reported to be rising by a consensus of experts who had him pegged as a top-5 pick.[51] Manziel elected to throw during Texas A&M's Pro Day on March 27, 2014, instead of during the NFL Combine. During his pro day, Manziel completed 64 of 66 passes to six different receivers. His pro day performance was well received by sports journalists.[52][53][54][55]

text: Prior to the 2014 NFL Draft, Manziel became one of the most polarizing athletes in pre-draft history, with scouting opinions varying from "undraftable" to "rare competitor".[56] Former NFL head coach Barry Switzer took it to a personal level, criticizing Manziel, saying: "I don’t like his antics. I think he's an arrogant little prick. I’ve said that and I’ll say it again."[57]

text: On draft day, 21 teams, including the Cleveland Browns, passed over Manziel. While Manziel was waiting to get drafted, he texted then-Browns quarterbacks coach Dowell Loggains that he wants to "wreck the league" in Cleveland. Loggains forwarded the text to head coach Mike Pettine, who made the decision to trade up to draft Manziel.[58] The Browns drafted him at the 22nd overall pick.[59]

text: 2014 season

text: On August 22, 2014, Manziel was fined $12,000 by the NFL for a hand gesture (flipping the bird) that he made in a preseason loss to the Washington Redskins.[60] Fellow quarterback Brian Hoyer was named the starter over Manziel for the opening regular-season game.[61]

text: On November 30, 2014, Manziel entered the game against the Buffalo Bills during the fourth quarter after an ineffective performance by starting quarterback Brian Hoyer. Manziel went 5 of 8 for 63 yards, and scored his first NFL touchdown on a 10-yard rush in the fourth quarter. The Browns lost 26–10.[62]

text: Manziel made his first NFL start in the Browns' Week 15 game against the Cincinnati Bengals.[63] Manziel completed 10 of 18 passes for 80 yards and two interceptions for a 27.3 passer rating while being sacked three times. The Browns lost 30–0.[64]

text: Manziel completed three of eight passes in his second career start against the Carolina Panthers on December 21, 2014. He left the game with a hamstring injury with less than two minutes remaining in the first half and was replaced by Hoyer. The Browns went on to lose 17–13.[65]

text: Manziel was ruled out for the Browns' regular season finale against the Baltimore Ravens.[66]

text: Overall, Manziel completed 18 of 35 passes for 176 yards and two interceptions, and rushed nine times for 29 yards and one touchdown. Manziel's work ethic and commitment were questioned by over 20 sources within the Cleveland Browns. An anonymous player even called Manziel's rookie season a "100 percent joke." Others within the organization were hopeful about Manziel's future, including cornerback Joe Haden.[67]

text: 2015 season

text: On August 27, Manziel was ruled out for the rest of the preseason with recurring pain in his right elbow. Manziel had been making noticeable improvement in his play.[68]

text: On September 13, Manziel was brought into the game against the New York Jets after starting QB Josh McCown was injured in the first half. Manziel scored his first career passing touchdown with a 54-yard pass to WR Travis Benjamin. However, Manziel committed three turnovers in the second half (two of them being fumbles) as the Jets won 31–10. Manziel started the Week 2 game against 2014 Heisman Trophy winner Marcus Mariota and the Tennessee Titans. He completed 8 of 15 passes for 172 yards and 2 touchdowns to Travis Benjamin in the 28–14 win.

text: Following McCown's recovery, Manziel did not take the field again until McCown suffered a shoulder injury in the fourth quarter of a Week 7 game against the St. Louis Rams. Manziel completed 4 of 5 passes for 27 yards in a 24–6 loss. In a Week 8 game against the Arizona Cardinals, Manziel again took the field in the fourth quarter after McCown suffered another injury. Manziel made his second start of the season in Week 9, completing 15 of 33 passes for 168 yards and one touchdown in a 31–10 loss to the Cincinnati Bengals. In Week 10, Manziel had his statistically best game against the Pittsburgh Steelers, completing 33 of 45 passes for 372 yards and one touchdown. Despite his efforts, however, the Browns lost 30–9.

text: Manziel was announced as the starting quarterback for the rest of the season on November 17.[69] However, Manziel was demoted to third-string quarterback behind McCown and Austin Davis a week later after videos surfaced of him partying in Texas over the bye week.[70] As a result, Manziel remained benched in favor of Davis when McCown suffered a season-ending collarbone injury in the subsequent game against the Baltimore Ravens. Manziel was promoted to starter again after the Bengals defeated the Davis-led Browns 37–3.[71] Despite throwing a maligned interception in his return performance, Manziel completed 21 of 31 passes for 270 yards and one touchdown in a 24–10 victory over the San Francisco 49ers, ending the Browns' seven-game losing streak.[72]

text: Manziel sat out the last game of the 2015 season with a concussion, with reports circulating that he was in Las Vegas instead of in Cleveland with the team that weekend.[73] The team confirmed that Manziel did miss a scheduled check-in on the morning of the last game of the season.[74] The Browns released him on March 11, 2016.[75]

text: Canadian Football League

text: Manziel had a workout in Buffalo, New York with the Canadian Football League's Hamilton Tiger-Cats, during which he was "put through a series of physical and medical tests" from August 23 to 24, 2017. He was not signed by the Tiger-Cats, who hold Manziel's CFL rights.[76] On September 2, Manziel's representatives requested a contract offer from the Tiger-Cats. According to CFL rules, the Tiger-Cats then had 10 days to offer Manziel a contract, trade his rights or relinquish his rights.[77][78] However, the CFL later extended the 10-day window so that the league could "facilitate a process of evaluation for the player."[79] Manziel also had a meeting with CFL commissioner Randy Ambrosie in September.[80] On September 27, the CFL announced that Manziel would not be allowed to sign with any CFL team for the 2017 season but would be able to sign with a team for the 2018 season if Manziel meets "certain conditions".[81]

text: On December 28, 2017, the CFL approved Manziel to play in the league. The Tiger-Cats had until January 7 to offer Manziel a contract or trade his rights. If neither was done, the team would lose his rights.[82] On January 7, the team confirmed that they had made Manziel an offer.[83] Not long after Manziel's agent, Eric Burkhardt, responded to the Tiger-Cats offer stating that Hamilton has until January 31, 2018 to offer his client a "fair deal". Failure to do so will result in Manziel turning his attention to "several other professional options".[84] Burkhardt is insisting that Manziel be paid in the same realm as Tiger-Cats' quarterback Zach Collaros was last season; i.e., something in the range of $500,000 to $550,000.[85]

text: Statistics

text:
Year
Team
GP
GS
Passing
Rushing

Cmp
Att
Pct
Yds
Y/A
TD
Int
Rtg
Att
Yds
Avg
TD

2014
CLE
5
2
18
35
51.4
175
5.0
0
2
42.0
9
29
3.2
1

2015
CLE
10
6
129
223
57.8
1,500
6.7
7
5
79.4
37
230
6.2
0

Career
15
8
147
258
57.0
1,675
6.5
7
7
74.4
46
259
5.6
1

text: Honors and accomplishments

text: College honors

text: Full-season awards

text:
2012 Heisman Trophy winner (first freshman to win)[87]
2012 Davey O'Brien National Quarterback Award winner (first freshman to win)[88]
2012 Manning Award winner (first freshman to win)[5]
2012 First-team All-American by:

text:
2012 Sporting News College Football Player of the Year[97]
2012 SEC Offensive Player of the Year[98]
2012 SEC Freshman of the Year[98]
2012 All-SEC First-Team Quarterback[98]
2013 Cotton Bowl Classic – Offensive MVP[99]
2012 ESPN.com All-Bowl Team[100]
2013 SEC Male Athlete of the Year[101]
2013 Chick-fil-A Bowl – Offensive MVP[102]

text: Weekly awards

text:
2-time Walter Camp National Offensive Player of the Week[91]
3-time AT&T All-America Player of the Week[103]
4-time SEC Offensive Player of the Week[104]
9-time SEC Freshman of the Week[104]

text: NCAA records and notes

text:
FBS freshman record: rushing yards by a quarterback, season (1,410)[5]
FBS freshman record: total offense, season (5,116)[5]
10th-most (at the time) single-season total offensive yards in NCAA FBS history[105]
Most games with 300 or more passing yards and 100+ rushing yards, career (4)[5]
FBS record: First freshman (and fifth player ever) in FBS history with 3,000 passing yards and 1,000 rushing yards, season[5]
FBS record: Rushing yards by a quarterback in a bowl game (229 yards)[5]
Only the fourth player to have 20 passing TDs and 20 rushing TDs, season[5]
Eclipsed the 7,000-yard barrier in total offense in his 19th career game, which is the fastest in NCAA FBS history by a four-year player[106]
Second freshman in FBS history to rush for 1,000 yards and pass for 2,000 yards[5]
First freshman to win the Heisman Trophy[5]
First freshman to win the Davey O'Brien National Quarterback Award[5]
First freshman to win the Manning Award[5]

text: SEC records and notes

text:
Most yards total offense in a game (576, breaking Archie Manning's 1969 record of 540 yards)[107]

The first three places on the SEC total offense in a game

576 yards
562 yards against No. 1 Alabama
557 yards two weeks before the 576 yards

Most yards total offense, season (5,116, breaking Cam Newton's 2010 record in two fewer games)
2nd-most yards total offense, season (4,873)
Most yards total offense, game average (383.3, breaking Tim Couch's 1998 record, of 377.4 yards)
Highest yards per play average (50 plays minimum), game (10.71, against Arkansas on September 29, 2012, breaking Steve Tanneyhill's record of 10.0 yards)
First SEC quarterback to pass for 3,000 yards and rush for 1,000 yards in one season
Second-most passing yards in a SEC single season, 4,114 passing yards[105]
Tied for third-most passing touchdowns in an SEC single season, 37 touchdowns[105]
Tied for second most rushing touchdowns in a single season[105]
Tied for 8th most scoring in a single season[105]
8th most passing yards in a single season[105]

text: Texas A&M records and notes

text:
Most total yards in a season with 5,116
Most yards passing yards in a game

The first three spots on the Texas A&M passing yards in a game

464 yards against No. 1 Alabama on September 14, 2013
454 yards against Auburn on October 19, 2013
453 yards against Arkansas on September 29, 2012

Most yards total offense in a game (576, breaking Archie Manning's 1969 record of 540 yards)[107]

The first 3 spots on the Texas A&M total offense in a game

576 yards
562 yards against #1 Alabama
557 yards two weeks before the 576 yards

In 10 games, Manziel had 4 of the top 10 games in total offense in Texas A&M history.
Logged 10 straight games with 300 or more total yards, 21 total games with 300+ yards.
Third Texas A&M quarterback to surpass 3,000 passing yards in a season.[108]
First Texas A&M quarterback to have multiple 3,000-yard seasons.[108]
Texas A&M career total touchdowns record with 94 touchdowns.[108]
Texas A&M career total yards record with 9,989 yards.[108]
Third Texas A&M quarterback to surpass 7,000 passing yards in a career.[108]
Most passing yards in a single season.[108]
Second Texas A&M quarterback to rush for 2,000 yards.[108]
The most rushing touchdowns in a single season.[108]
The most passing touchdowns in a single season.[108]
2nd in career passing touchdowns.[108]
2nd in career passing yards.[108]
Tied for 12th in career rushing touchdowns.[108]
15th in career rushing yards.[108]

text: Cleveland Browns records

text: Cleveland Browns franchise record for most rushing yards by a QB in a single game (108).[109]

text: Personal life and controversies

text: Manziel is a Christian.[110] Manziel is a friend of rap artist Drake and in April 2014, Drake released a track entitled "Draft Day", which includes a shoutout to Manziel.[111][112] He is currently engaged to Bre Tiesi as of March 10, 2017.[113]

text: June 2012 arrest

text: On June 29, 2012—before he was chosen as Texas A&M's starting quarterback and before his first college game—Manziel was arrested and charged with three misdemeanors—disorderly conduct, failure to produce identification, and possession of a fictitious driver's license. These charges stemmed from a late-night fight in College Station, Texas.[114] In July 2013, he pleaded guilty to failure to produce identification, and the other two charges were dismissed.[115]

text: Police reports stated that Manziel was with a friend who directed a racial slur at a man on the street. The man then approached the two of them and tried to get at the friend, but Manziel placed himself between the two men, saying his friend didn't mean it and he was going to take him home. The man continued pushing against Manziel to reach the other man, and Manziel eventually pushed back. At this point, the man swung at Manziel who then began fighting back. Shortly afterwards, the bicycle patrol officers arrived. Manziel was 19 at the time, and he presented to police officers a fake Louisiana driver's license that showed him to be 21 years of age. Manziel was taken into custody and reportedly spent the night in jail.[116][117] After the incident, Manziel eventually regained the favor of his team and head coach Kevin Sumlin, and was named the starting quarterback.[118] Sumlin's policy precluded freshmen from giving media interviews, and Manziel was unable to speak to reporters about his arrest until the end of the 2012 regular season. When reporters asked about the incident during his first press conference on November 27, Manziel stated that he had learned from the mistake and "had to make a lot of changes in [his] life."[119][120]

text: 2013 offseason

text: During the 2013 offseason at Texas A&M, Manziel drew significant media attention over his behavior off the field.[121][122][123][124][125][126] Notable incidents include his early departure from the Manning Passing Academy after allegedly oversleeping,[127] tweeting that he "can't wait to leave College Station" after receiving a parking ticket,[128] and getting kicked out of a University of Texas fraternity party.[129] An ESPN The Magazine article revealed his parents' concerns about his dealings with his newfound stardom.[130]

text: On August 4, ESPN reported that the NCAA was investigating whether Manziel accepted payments for autographs that he had signed in January 2013. The NCAA did not find any evidence that Manziel accepted money for the autographs, but reached an agreement with Texas A&M to suspend him for the first half of the season opener against Rice University, due to an "inadvertent violation" of NCAA rules.[42]

text: 2015 offseason

text: On February 4, Manziel entered a treatment program for unspecified reasons.[131]

text: On May 30, Manziel was involved in an incident with a heckler at the AT&T Byron Nelson golf tournament. The heckler had been continually asking for an autograph, to the point that Manziel became fed up and threw a water bottle at the man. The water bottle missed the heckler. Security and police were called, but no criminal charges were filed.[132]

text: 2015 season

text: During October of the 2015 season, Manziel was pulled over by a policeman after fighting in his car with his then girlfriend, Colleen Crowley. Although no charges were made, Manziel admitted to having had some alcoholic drinks earlier that afternoon.[8]

text: On November 24, a week after Manziel was announced as the Browns' starter for the remainder of the season, head coach Mike Pettine demoted Manziel to third string after a video of him partying surfaced on the Internet.[9] It was later revealed Manziel reportedly lied about the video.[10]

text: On January 2, 2016, Manziel was seen at Las Vegas' Planet Hollywood casino the night before the Browns played their final game of the 2015 season. Manziel was scratched from the final game because of a concussion. As word of his appearance at the casino spread across social media, he posted a photo on Instagram of himself and his dog at home.[11] The next day, Manziel failed to report to the Browns on Sunday morning when he was supposed to report to the team medic, which all players with concussions are supposed to do. Sports Illustrated's Peter King also added that the Browns are "so done with Manziel"[133] and he "wants to go to Dallas"[134]

text: On January 6, 2016, Manziel's marketing agency, LRMR, announced that it would no longer work with Manziel.[135] Manziel's agent, Erik Burkhardt, also announced that he would no longer represent Manziel.[136] On February 5, 2016, the Dallas Police Department announced that they are opening a criminal investigation with a claim of domestic violence involving his ex-girlfriend, Colleen Crowley.[137] Dallas police had originally closed the case, but re-opened it with allegations stemming from an altercation on January 30, 2016, at a downtown Dallas hotel. According to Crowley, Manziel forced her into a car, pulled her by the hair, and threatened to kill both her and himself. On April 24, Manziel was indicted by a Dallas grand jury on misdemeanor assault charges for the incident.[12]

text: On April 19, 2016, after just two months of representing him, agent Drew Rosenhaus terminated Manziel as a client, marking the first time in Rosenhaus' 27-year career he fired an NFL player.[138] On the same day, Nike ended its sponsorship with Manziel.[139]

text: On June 24, 2016, Manziel's attorney, Bob Hinton, accidentally sent a lengthy text message to the Associated Press relating to Manziel's defense in his domestic violence case. In the message, Hinton expressed concerns about Manziel's ability to stay clean, saying that he was given a receipt that suggests Manziel spent around $1,000 at The Gas Pipe, a drug paraphernalia store. On the same day, Manziel's father, Paul, told ESPN: "He's a druggie. It's not a secret that he's a druggie. Hopefully, he doesn't die before he comes to his senses. I mean, I hate to say it, but I hope he goes to jail. I mean, that would be the best place for him. I'm doing my job, and I'm going to move on. If I have to bury him, I'll bury him."[13]

text: On June 30, 2016, he was suspended for the first four games of the 2016 season for violating the NFL's substance abuse policy.[14] On September 5, Manziel returned to his alma mater to take classes.[140]

text: On December 2, 2016, Manziel and prosecutors finalized a plea agreement in which Manziel agreed to undergo counseling and have his conduct monitored by prosecutors for up to a year or face prosecution.[141]

text: 2017 offseason

text: Manziel has discussed making a potential comeback in professional football.[142]


document_title: Natural resource

question_text: natural resources can be divided into what two categories

root

text: Natural resource

text: Classification[edit]

text: There are various methods of categorizing natural resources, these include source of origin, stage of development, and by their renewability.

tag: p

text: On the basis of origin, natural resources may be divided into two types:

text:
Biotic — Biotic resources are obtained from the biosphere (living and organic material), such as forests and animals, and the materials that can be obtained from them. Fossil fuels such as coal and petroleum are also included in this category because they are formed from decayed organic matter.
Abiotic – Abiotic resources are those that come from non-living, non-organic material. Examples of abiotic resources include land, fresh water, air, rare earth metals and heavy metals including ores such as gold, iron, copper, silver, etc.

tag: ul

text: Considering their stage of development, natural resources may be referred to in the following ways:

text:
Potential resources — Potential resources are those that exist in a region and may be used in the future. For example, petroleum occurs with sedimentary rocks in various regions, but until the time it is actually drilled out and put into use, it remains a potential resource.
Actual resources — Actual resources are those that have been surveyed, their quantity and quality determined and are being used in present times. The development of an actual resource, such as wood processing depends upon the technology available and the cost involved.
Reserve resources — The part of an actual resource which can be developed profitably in the future is called a reserve resource.
Stock resources — Stock resources are those that have been surveyed but cannot be used by organisms due to lack of technology. For example: hydrogen.

text: Many natural resources can be categorized as either renewable or non-renewable:

text:
Renewable resources — Renewable resources can be replenished naturally. Some of these resources, like sunlight, air, wind, water, etc., are continuously available and their quantity is not noticeably affected by human consumption. Though many renewable resources do not have such a rapid recovery rate, these resources are susceptible to depletion by over-use. Resources from a human use perspective are classified as renewable so long as the rate of replenishment/recovery exceeds that of the rate of consumption. They replenish easily compared to Non-renewable resources.
Non-renewable resources – Non-renewable resources either form slowly or do not naturally form in the environment. Minerals are the most common resource included in this category. By the human perspective, resources are non-renewable when their rate of consumption exceeds the rate of replenishment/recovery; a good example of this are fossil fuels, which are in this category because their rate of formation is extremely slow (potentially millions of years), meaning they are considered non-renewable. Some resources actually naturally deplete in amount without human interference, the most notable of these being radio-active elements such as uranium, which naturally decay into heavy metals. Of these, the metallic minerals can be re-used by recycling them,[5] but coal and petroleum cannot be recycled.[6] Once they are completely used they take millions of years to replenish.

text: Extraction[edit]

text: Resource extraction involves any activity that withdraws resources from nature. This can range in scale from the traditional use of preindustrial societies, to global industry. Extractive industries are, along with agriculture, the basis of the primary sector of the economy. Extraction produces raw material which is then processed to add value. Examples of extractive industries are hunting, trapping, mining, oil and gas drilling, and forestry. Natural resources can add substantial amounts to a country's wealth,[7] however a sudden inflow of money caused by a resource boom can create social problems including inflation harming other industries ("Dutch disease") and corruption, leading to inequality and underdevelopment, this is known as the "resource curse".

text: Extractive industries represent a large growing activity in many less-developed countries but the wealth generated does not always lead to sustainable and inclusive growth. Extractive industry businesses often are assumed to be interested only in maximizing their short-term value, implying that less-developed countries are vulnerable to powerful corporations. Alternatively, host governments are often assumed to be only maximizing immediate revenue. Researchers argue there are areas of common interest where development goals and business cross. These present opportunities for international governmental agencies to engage with the private sector and host governments through revenue management and expenditure accountability, infrastructure development, employment creation, skills and enterprise development and impacts on children, especially girls and women.[8]

text: Depletion of resources[edit]

text: In recent years, the depletion of natural resources has become a major focus of governments and organizations such as the United Nations (UN). This is evident in the UN's Agenda 21 Section Two, which outlines the necessary steps to be taken by countries to sustain their natural resources.[9] The depletion of natural resources is considered to be a sustainable development issue.[10] The term sustainable development has many interpretations, most notably the Brundtland Commission's 'to ensure that it meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs',[11] however in broad terms it is balancing the needs of the planet's people and species now and in the future.[9] In regards to natural resources, depletion is of concern for sustainable development as it has the ability to degrade current environments[12] and potential to impact the needs of future generations.[10]

text:
"The conservation of natural resources is the fundamental problem. Unless we solve that problem, it will avail us little to solve all others."

Theodore Roosevelt[13]

tag: div

text: Depletion of natural resources is associated with social inequity. Considering most biodiversity are located in developing countries,[14] depletion of this resource could result in losses of ecosystem services for these countries.[15] Some view this depletion as a major source of social unrest and conflicts in developing nations.[16]

text: At present, with it being the year of the forest,[17] there is particular concern for rainforest regions which hold most of the Earth's biodiversity.[17] According to Nelson[18] deforestation and degradation affect 8.5% of the world's forests with 30% of the Earth's surface already cropped. If we consider that 80% of people rely on medicines obtained from plants and ¾ of the world's prescription medicines have ingredients taken from plants,[15] loss of the world's rainforests could result in a loss of finding more potential life saving medicines.[19]

text: The depletion of natural resources is caused by 'direct drivers of change'[18] such as Mining, petroleum extraction, fishing and forestry as well as 'indirect drivers of change' such as demography, economy, society, politics and technology.[18] The current practice of Agriculture is another factor causing depletion of natural resources. For example, the depletion of nutrients in the soil due to excessive use of nitrogen[18] and desertification.[9] The depletion of natural resources is a continuing concern for society. This is seen in the cited quote given by Theodore Roosevelt, a well-known conservationist and former United States president, who was opposed to unregulated natural resource extraction.

text: Protection[edit]

text: In 1982, the UN developed the World Charter for Nature, which recognized the need to protect nature from further depletion due to human activity. It states that measures need to be taken at all societal levels, from international to individual, to protect nature. It outlines the need for sustainable use of natural resources and suggests that the protection of resources should be incorporated into national and international systems of law.[20] To look at the importance of protecting natural resources further, the World Ethic of Sustainability, developed by the IUCN, WWF and the UNEP in 1990,[21] set out eight values for sustainability, including the need to protect natural resources from depletion. Since the development of these documents, many measures have been taken to protect natural resources including establishment of the scientific field and practice of conservation biology and habitat conservation, respectively.

text: Conservation biology is the scientific study of the nature and status of Earth's biodiversity with the aim of protecting species, their habitats, and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction.[22][23] It is an interdisciplinary subject drawing on science, economics and the practice of natural resource management.[24][25][26][27] The term conservation biology was introduced as the title of a conference held at the University of California, San Diego, in La Jolla, California, in 1978, organized by biologists Bruce A. Wilcox and Michael E. Soulé.

text: Habitat conservation is a land management practice that seeks to conserve, protect and restore, habitat areas for wild plants and animals, especially conservation reliant species, and prevent their extinction, fragmentation or reduction in range.[28]

text: Management[edit]

text: Natural resource management is a discipline in the management of natural resources such as land, water, soil, plants and animals, with a particular focus on how management affects the quality of life for both present and future generations.Hence sustainable development can be followed where there is a judicial use of resources which compromises the needs of the present generations as well as the future generations.

text: Management of natural resources involves identifying who has the right to use the resources and who does not for defining the boundaries of the resource.[29] The resources are managed by the users according to the rules governing of when and how the resource is used depending on local condition.[30]

text: A "...successful management of natural resources depends on freedom of speech, a dynamic and wide-ranging public debate through multiple independent media channels and an active civil society engaged in natural resource issues...",[31] because of the nature of the shared resources the individuals who are affected by the rules can participate in setting or changing them.[29] The users have rights to devise their own management institutions and plans under the recognition by the government. The right to resources includes land, water, fisheries and pastoral rights.[30] The users or parties accountable to the users have to actively monitor and ensure the utilisation of the resource compliance with the rules and to impose penalty on those peoples who violates the rules.[29] These conflicts are resolved in a quick and low cost manner by the local institution according to the seriousness and context of the offence.[30] The global science-based platform to discuss natural resources management is the World Resources Forum, based in Switzerland.

text: Natural Resources by country[edit]

text:
Value of Natural Resources by country (in USD Trillions), 2016[32]

Country
Value

Russia
75

United States
45

Saudi Arabia
34.4

Canada
33.2

Iran
27.3

China
23

Brazil
21.8

Australia
19.9

Iraq
15.9

Venezuela
14.3

tag: table


document_title: White stork

question_text: what is the white stork a symbol for in western culture

text: White stork

text: Taxonomy and evolution[edit]

text: English naturalist Francis Willughby wrote about the white stork in the 17th century, having seen a drawing sent to him by his friend and natural history enthusiast Sir Thomas Brown of Norwich. He named it Ciconia alba. They noted they were occasional vagrants to England, blown there by storms.[2][a] It was one of the many bird species originally described by Linnaeus in the landmark 1758 10th edition of his Systema Naturae,[4] where it was given the binomial name of Ardea ciconia. It was reclassified to (and was designated the type species of) the new genus Ciconia by French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson in 1760.[5][6] Both the genus and specific epithet, cǐcōnia, are the Latin word for "stork",[7] originally recorded in the works of Horace and Ovid.[8] The Latin word survives in most Romance languages (cicogna, cigüeña, cegonha and the like). The word stork is derived from the Old English word storc, and appeared in the 10th-century works the Erfurt Glossary, where the word is equated with Ciconia, and Aelfric's Homilies. The word is related to the Old High German storah, "stork", and similar words in many other European languages, all of which are descended from the Germanic sturko-z.[9]

text: There are two subspecies:

text:
C. c. ciconia, the nominate subspecies described by Linnaeus in 1758, breeds from Europe to northwest Africa and westernmost Asia, and in southern Africa, and winters mainly in Africa south of the Sahara Desert,[10] though some birds winter in India.[11]
C. c. asiatica, described by Russian naturalist Nikolai Severtzov in 1873, breeds in Turkestan and winters from Iran to India. It is slightly larger than the nominate subspecies.[10][12]

text: The stork family contains six genera in three broad groups: the open-billed and wood storks (Mycteria and Anastomus), the giant storks (Ephippiorhynchus, Jabiru and Leptoptilos), and the "typical" storks, Ciconia. The typical storks include the white stork and six other extant species,[13] which are characterised by straight pointed beaks and mainly black and white plumage.[14] Its closest relatives are the larger, black-billed Oriental white stork (Ciconia boyciana) of East Asia, which was formerly classified as a subspecies of the white stork,[10] and the maguari stork (C. maguari) of South America. Close evolutionary relationships within Ciconia are suggested by behavioural similarities and, biochemically, through analysis of both mitochondrial cytochrome b gene sequences and DNA-DNA hybridization.[15]

text: A Ciconia fossil representing the distal end of a right humerus has been recovered from Miocene beds of Rusinga Island, Lake Victoria, Kenya.[16] The 24–6 million year old fossil could have originated from either a white stork or a black stork (C. nigra), which are species of about the same size with very similar bone structures. The Middle Miocene beds of Maboko Island have yielded further remains.[16]

text: Description[edit]

text: The white stork is a large bird. It has a length of 100–115 cm (39–45 in),[b][17] and a standing height of 100–125 cm (39–49 in). The wingspan is 155–215 cm (61–85 in) and its weight is 2.3–4.5 kg (5.1–9.9 lb).[18][19] Like all storks, it has long legs, a long neck and a long straight pointed beak.[13] The sexes are identical in appearance, except that males are larger than females on average.[10] The plumage is mainly white with black flight feathers and wing coverts; the black is caused by the pigment melanin.[20] The breast feathers are long and shaggy forming a ruff which is used in some courtship displays.[21] The irises are dull brown or grey, and the peri-orbital skin is black. The adult has a bright red beak and red legs,[10] the colouration of which is derived from carotenoids in the diet. In parts of Spain, studies have shown that the pigment is based on astaxanthin obtained from an introduced species of crayfish (Procambarus clarkii) and the bright red beak colours show up even in nestlings, in contrast to the duller beaks of young white storks elsewhere.[22]

text: As with other storks, the wings are long and broad enabling the bird to soar.[23] In flapping flight its wingbeats are slow and regular. It flies with its neck stretched forward and with its long legs extended well beyond the end of its short tail. It walks at a slow and steady pace with its neck upstretched. In contrast, it often hunches its head between its shoulders when resting.[24] Moulting has not been extensively studied, but appears to take place throughout the year, with the primary flight feathers replaced over the breeding season.[21]

text: Upon hatching, the young white stork is partly covered with short, sparse, whitish down feathers. This early down is replaced about a week later with a denser coat of woolly white down. By three weeks, the young bird acquires black scapulars and flight feathers. On hatching the chick has pinkish legs, which turn to greyish-black as it ages. Its beak is black with a brownish tip.[21] By the time it fledges, the juvenile bird's plumage is similar to that of the adult, though its black feathers are often tinged with brown, and its beak and legs are a duller brownish-red or orange. The beak is typically orange or red with a darker tip.[24] The bills gain the adults' red colour the following summer, although the black tips persist in some individuals. Young storks adopt adult plumage by their second summer.[25]

text: Similar species[edit]

text: Within its range the white stork is distinctive when seen on the ground. The winter range of C. c. asiatica overlaps that of the Asian openbill, which has similar plumage but a different bill shape. When seen at a distance in flight, the white stork can be confused with several other species with similar underwing patterns, such as the yellow-billed stork, great white pelican and Egyptian vulture.[24] The yellow-billed stork is identified by its black tail and a longer, slightly curved, yellow beak. The white stork also tends to be larger than the yellow-billed stork.[26] The great white pelican has short legs which do not extend beyond its tail, and it flies with its neck retracted, keeping its head near to its stocky body, giving it a different flight profile.[27] Pelicans also behave differently, soaring in orderly, synchronised flocks rather than in disorganised groups of individuals as the white stork does.[28] The Egyptian vulture is much smaller, with a long wedge-shaped tail, shorter legs and a small yellow-tinged head on a short neck.[29] The common crane, which can also look black and white in strong light, shows longer legs and a longer neck in flight.[30]

text: Distribution and habitat[edit]

text: The nominate race of the white stork has a wide although disjunct summer range across Europe, clustered in the Iberian Peninsula and North Africa in the west, and much of eastern and central Europe, with 25% of the world's population concentrated in Poland,[31] as well as parts of western Asia. The asiatica population of about 1450 birds is restricted to a region in central Asia between the Aral Sea and Xinjiang in western China.[32][33] The Xinjiang population is believed to have become extinct around 1980.[34] Migration routes extend the range of this species into many parts of Africa and India. Some populations adhere to the eastern migration route, which passes across Israel into eastern and central Africa.[35][36]

text: A few records of breeding from South Africa have been known since 1933 at Calitzdorp, and about 10 birds have been known to breed since the 1990s around Bredasdorp.[37] A small population of white storks winters in India and is thought to derive principally from the C. c. asiatica population[12] as flocks of up to 200 birds have been observed on spring migration in the early 1900s through the Kurram Valley.[38] However, birds ringed in Germany have been recovered in western (Bikaner) and southern (Tirunelveli) India.[11][39] An atypical specimen with red orbital skin, a feature of the Oriental white stork, has been recorded[40] and further study of the Indian population is required.[12] North of the breeding range, it is a passage migrant or vagrant in Finland, Great Britain, Iceland, Ireland, Norway and Sweden, and west to the Azores and Madeira. In recent years, the range has expanded into western Russia.[41][42]

text: The white stork's preferred feeding grounds are grassy meadows, farmland and shallow wetlands. It avoids areas overgrown with tall grass and shrubs.[43] In the Chernobyl area of northern Ukraine, white stork populations declined after the 1986 nuclear accident there as farmland was succeeded by tall grass shrubs.[44] In parts of Poland, poor natural foraging grounds have forced birds to seek food at rubbish dumps since 1999.[45] White storks have also been reported foraging in rubbish dumps in the Middle East, North Africa and South Africa.[46]

text: The white stork breeds in greater numbers in areas with open grasslands, particularly grassy areas which are wet or periodically flooded, and less in areas with taller vegetation cover such as forest and shrubland.[47] They make use of grasslands, wetlands, and farmland on the wintering grounds in Africa.[37] White storks were probably aided by human activities during the Middle Ages as woodland was cleared and new pastures and farmland were created, and they were found across much of Europe, breeding as far north as Sweden. The population in Sweden is thought to have established in the 16th century after forests were cut down for agriculture. About 5000 pairs were estimated to breed in the 18th century which declined subsequently. The first accurate census in 1917 found 25 pairs and the last pair failed to breed around 1955.[48] The white stork is a rare visitor to the British Isles, as about 20 birds are seen in Britain every year, but there are no records of nesting.[49] A pair nested atop St Giles High Kirk in Edinburgh, Scotland in 1416.[50]

text: A decline in population began in the 19th century due to industrialisation and changes in agricultural methods. White storks no longer nest in many countries, and the current strongholds of the western population are in Portugal, Spain, Ukraine and Poland. In the Iberian Peninsula, populations are concentrated in the southwest, and have also declined due to agricultural practices.[47] A study published in 2005 found that the Podhale region in the uplands of southern Poland had seen an influx of white storks, which first bred there in 1931 and have nested at progressively higher altitudes since, reaching 890 m (3000 ft) in 1999. The authors proposed that this was related to climate warming and the influx of other animals and plants to higher altitudes.[51] White storks arriving in Poznań province (Greater Poland Voivodeship) in western Poland in spring to breed did so some 10 days earlier in the last twenty years of the 20th century than at the end of the 19th century.[52]

text: Migration[edit]

text: Systematic research into migration of white stork began with German ornithologist Johannes Thienemann who commenced bird ringing studies in 1906 at the Rossitten Bird Observatory, on the Curonian Spit in what was then East Prussia. Although not many storks passed through Rossitten itself, the observatory coordinated the large-scale ringing of the species throughout Germany and elsewhere in Europe. Between 1906 and the Second World War about 100,000, mainly juvenile, white storks were ringed, with over 2,000 long-distance recoveries of birds wearing Rossitten rings reported between 1908 and 1954.[53]

text: Routes[edit]

text: White storks fly south from their summer breeding grounds in Europe in August and September, heading for Africa.[43] There, they spend the winter in savannah from Kenya and Uganda south to the Cape Province of South Africa.[54] In these areas they congregate in large flocks which may exceed a thousand individuals.[24] Some diverge westwards into western Sudan and Chad, and may reach Nigeria.[35] In spring, the birds return north; they are recorded from Sudan and Egypt from February to April.[55] They arrive back in Europe around late March and April,[43] after an average journey of 49 days. By comparison, the autumn journey is completed in about 26 days. Tailwinds and scarcity of food and water en route (birds fly faster over regions lacking resources) increase average speed.[36]

text: To avoid a long sea crossing over the Mediterranean, birds from central Europe either follow an eastern migration route by crossing the Bosphorus to Turkey, traversing the Levant, then bypassing the Sahara Desert by following the Nile valley southwards, or follow a western route over the Strait of Gibraltar.[56] These migration corridors maximise help from the thermals and thus save energy.[57][58] The eastern route is by far the more important with 530,000 white storks using it annually, making the species the second commonest migrant there (after the European honey buzzard). The flocks of migrating raptors, white storks and great white pelicans can stretch for 200 km (125 mi).[59] The eastern route is twice as long as the western, but storks take the same time to reach the wintering grounds by either.[60]

text: Juvenile white storks set off on their first southward migration in an inherited direction but, if displaced from that bearing by weather conditions, they are unable to compensate, and may end up in a new wintering location. Adults can compensate for strong winds and adjust their direction to finish at their normal winter sites, because they are familiar with the location. For the same reason, all spring migrants, even those from displaced wintering locations, can find their way back to the traditional breeding sites.[61] An experiment with young birds raised in captivity in Kaliningrad and released in the absence of wild storks to show them the way revealed that they appeared to have an instinct to fly south, although the scatter in direction was large.[62]

text: Energetics[edit]

text: White storks rely on the uplift of air thermals to soar and glide the long distances of their annual migrations between Europe and Sub-Saharan Africa. For many, the shortest route would take them over the Mediterranean Sea; however, since air thermals do not form over water, they generally detour over land to avoid the trans-Mediterranean flights that would require prolonged energetic wing flapping.[63] It has been estimated that flapping flight metabolises 23 times more body fat than soaring flight per distance travelled.[64] Thus, flocks spiral upwards on rising warm air until they emerge at the top, up to 1,200–1,500 m (3,900–4,900 ft) above the ground (though one record from Western Sudan observed an altitude of 3,300 m (10,800 ft)).[55]

text: Long flights over water may occasionally be undertaken. A young white stork ringed at the nest in Denmark subsequently appeared in England, where it spent some days before moving on. It was later seen flying over St Mary's, Isles of Scilly, and arrived in a poor condition in Madeira three days later. That island is 500 km (320 mi) from Africa, and twice as far from the European mainland.[65] Migration through the Middle East may be hampered by the khamsin, winds bringing gusty overcast days unsuitable for flying. In these situations, flocks of white storks sit out the adverse weather on the ground, standing and facing into the wind.[55]

text: Behaviour[edit]

text: The white stork is a gregarious bird; flocks of thousands of individuals have been recorded on migration routes and at wintering areas in Africa. Non-breeding birds gather in groups of 40 or 50 during the breeding season.[24] The smaller dark-plumaged Abdim's stork is often encountered with white stork flocks in southern Africa.[66] Breeding pairs of white stork may gather in small groups to hunt, and colony nesting has been recorded in some areas.[67] However, groups among white stork colonies vary widely in size and the social structure is loosely defined; young breeding storks are often restricted to peripheral nests, while older storks attain higher breeding success while occupying the better quality nests toward the centres of breeding colonies.[68] Social structure and group cohesion is maintained by altruistic behaviours such as allopreening. White storks exhibit this behaviour exclusively at the nest site. Standing birds preen the heads of sitting birds, sometimes these are parents grooming juveniles, and sometimes juveniles preen each other.[69] Unlike most storks, it never adopts a spread-winged posture, though it is known to droop its wings (holding them away from its body with the primary feathers pointing downwards) when its plumage is wet.[70]

text: A white stork's droppings, containing faeces and uric acid, are sometimes directed onto its own legs, making them appear white.[26] The resulting evaporation provides cooling and is termed urohidrosis.[71] Birds that have been ringed can sometimes be affected by the accumulation of droppings around the ring leading to constriction and leg trauma.[72] The white stork has also been noted for tool use by squeezing moss in the beak to drip water into the mouths of its chicks.[73]

text: Communication[edit]

text: The adult white stork's main sound is noisy bill-clattering, which has been likened to distant machine gun fire. The bird makes these sounds by rapidly opening and closing its beak so that a knocking sound is made each time its beak closes. The clattering is amplified by its throat pouch, which acts as a resonator. Used in a variety of social interactions, bill-clattering generally grows louder the longer it lasts, and takes on distinctive rhythms depending on the situation—for example, slower during copulation and briefer when given as an alarm call. The only vocal sound adult birds generate is a weak barely audible hiss; however, young birds can generate a harsh hiss, various cheeping sounds, and a cat-like mew they use to beg for food. Like the adults, young also clatter their beaks.[74] The up-down display is used for a number of interactions with other members of the species. Here a stork quickly throws its head backwards so that its crown rests on its back before slowly bringing its head and neck forwards again, and this is repeated several times. The display is used as a greeting between birds, post coitus, and also as a threat display. Breeding pairs are territorial over the summer, and use this display, as well as crouching forward with the tails cocked and wings extended.[75]

text: Breeding and lifespan[edit]

text: The white stork breeds in open farmland areas with access to marshy wetlands, building a large stick nest in trees, on buildings, or on purpose-built man-made platforms.[76] Each nest is 1–2 m (3.3–6.6 ft) in depth, 0.8–1.5 m (2.6–4.9 ft) in diameter, and 60–250 kg (130–550 lb) in weight.[77] Nests are built in loose colonies.[68] Not persecuted as it is viewed as a good omen, it often nests close to human habitation; in southern Europe, nests can be seen on churches and other buildings. The nest is typically used year after year especially by older males. The males arrive earlier in the season and choose the nests. Larger nests are associated with greater numbers of young successfully fledged, and appear to be sought after.[78] Nest change is often related to a change in the pairing and failure to raise young the previous year, and younger birds are more likely to change nesting sites.[79] Although a pair may be found to occupy a nest, partners may change several times during the early stages and breeding activities begin only after a stable pairing is achieved.[80]

text: Several bird species often nest within the large nests of the white stork. Regular occupants are house sparrows, tree sparrows, and common starlings; less common residents include Eurasian kestrels, little owls, European rollers, white wagtails, black redstarts, Eurasian jackdaws, and Spanish sparrows.[81] Paired birds greet by engaging in up-down and head-shaking crouch displays, and clattering the beak while throwing back the head.[10] Pairs copulate frequently throughout the month before eggs are laid. High-frequency pair copulation is usually associated with sperm competition and high frequency of extra-pair copulation; however, extra-pair copulation is infrequent in white storks.[82]

text: A white stork pair raises a single brood a year. The female typically lays four eggs, though clutches of one to seven have been recorded.[74] The eggs are white, but often look dirty or yellowish due to a glutinous covering. They typically measure 73 mm × 52 mm (2.9 in × 2.0 in),[83] and weigh 96–129 g (3.4–4.6 oz),[74] of which about 11 g (0.39 oz) is shell.[83] Incubation begins as soon as the first egg is laid, so the brood hatches asynchronously, beginning 33 to 34 days later. The first hatchling typically has a competitive edge over the others. While stronger chicks are not aggressive towards weaker siblings, as is the case in some species, weak or small chicks are sometimes killed by their parents.[84][85] This behaviour occurs in times of food shortage to reduce brood size and hence increase the chance of survival of the remaining nestlings. White stork nestlings do not attack each other, and their parents' method of feeding them (disgorging large amounts of food at once) means that stronger siblings cannot outcompete weaker ones for food directly, hence parental infanticide is an efficient way of reducing brood size. Despite this, this behaviour has not commonly been observed.[84]

text: The temperature and weather around the time of hatching in spring is important; cool temperatures and wet weather increase chick mortality and reduce breeding success rates.[47] Somewhat unexpectedly, studies have found that later-hatching chicks which successfully reach adulthood produce more chicks than do their earlier-hatching nestmates.[86] The body weight of the chicks increases rapidly in the first few weeks and reaches a plateau of about 3.4 kg (7.5 lb) in 45 days. The length of the beak increases linearly for about 50 days.[87] Young birds are fed with earthworms and insects, which are regurgitated by the parents onto the floor of the nest. Older chicks reach into the mouths of parents to obtain food.[88] Chicks fledge 58 to 64 days after hatching.[89]

text: White storks generally begin breeding when about four years old, although the age of first breeding has been recorded as early as two years and as late as seven years.[21] The oldest known wild white stork lived for 39 years after being ringed in Switzerland,[90] while captive birds have lived for more than 35 years.[10]

text: Feeding[edit]

text: White storks consume a wide variety of animal prey. They prefer to forage in meadows that are within roughly 5 km (3 mi) of their nest and sites where the vegetation is shorter so that their prey is more accessible.[43] Their diet varies according to season, locality and prey availability. Common food items include insects (primarily beetles, grasshoppers, locusts and crickets), earthworms, reptiles, amphibians, particularly frog species such as the edible frog (Pelophylax kl. esculentus) and common frog (Rana temporaria) and small mammals such as voles, moles and shrews. Less commonly, they also eat bird eggs and young birds, fish, molluscs, crustaceans and scorpions. They hunt mainly during the day, swallowing small prey whole, but killing and breaking apart larger prey before swallowing.[67] Rubber bands are mistaken for earthworms and consumed, occasionally resulting in fatal blockage of the digestive tract.[91]

text: Birds returning to Latvia during spring have been shown to locate their prey, moor frogs (Rana arvalis), by homing in on the mating calls produced by aggregations of male frogs.[92]

text: The diet of non-breeding birds is similar to that of breeding birds, but food items are more often taken from dry areas.[93] White storks wintering in western India have been observed to follow blackbuck to capture insects disturbed by them.[94] Wintering white storks in India sometimes forage along with the woolly-necked stork (Ciconia episcopus).[95] Food piracy has been recorded in India with a rodent captured by a western marsh harrier appropriated by a white stork, while Montagu's harrier is known to harass white storks foraging for voles in some parts of Poland.[96][97]

text: Parasites and diseases[edit]

text: White stork nests are habitats for an array of small arthropods, particularly over the warmer months after the birds arrive to breed. Nesting over successive years, the storks bring more material to line their nests and layers of organic material accumulate within them. Not only do their bodies tend to regulate temperatures within the nest, but excrement, food remains and feather and skin fragments provide nourishment for a large and diverse population of free-living mesostigmatic mites. A survey of twelve nests found 13,352 individuals of 34 species, the most common being Macrocheles merdarius, M. robustulus, Uroobovella pyriformis and Trichouropoda orbicularis, which together represented almost 85% of all the specimens collected. These feed on the eggs and larvae of insects and on nematodes, which are abundant in the nest litter. These mites are dispersed by coprophilous beetles, often of the family Scarabaeidae, or on dung brought by the storks during nest construction. Parasitic mites do not occur, perhaps being controlled by the predatory species. The overall effect of the mite population is unclear, the mites may have a role in suppressing harmful organisms (and hence be beneficial), or they may themselves have an adverse effect on nestlings.[98][99]

text: The birds themselves host species belonging to more than four genera of feather mites.[100] These mites, including Freyanopterolichus pelargicus[101][102] and Pelargolichus didactylus[102] live on fungi growing on the feathers. The fungi found on the plumage may feed on the keratin of the outer feathers or on feather oil.[103] Chewing lice such as Colpocephalum zebra tend to be found on the wings, and Neophilopterus incompletus elsewhere on the body.[104]

text: The white stork also carries several types of internal parasites, including Toxoplasma gondii[105] and intestinal parasites of the genus Giardia.[106] A study of 120 white stork carcasses from Saxony-Anhalt and Brandenburg in Germany yielded eight species of trematode (fluke), four cestode (tapeworm) species, and at least three species of nematode.[107] One species of fluke, Chaunocephalus ferox, caused lesions in the wall of the small intestine in a number of birds admitted to two rehabilitation centres in central Spain, and was associated with reduced weight. It is a recognised pathogen and cause of morbidity in the Asian openbill (Anastomus oscitans).[108] More recently, the thorough study performed by J. Sitko and P. Heneberg in the Czech Republic in 1962–2013 suggested that the central European white storks host 11 helminth species. Chaunocephalus ferox, Tylodelphys excavata and Dictymetra discoidea were reported to be the dominant ones. The other species found included Cathaemasia hians, Echinochasmus spinulosus, Echinostoma revolutum, Echinostoma sudanense, Duboisia syriaca, Apharyngostrigea cornu, Capillaria sp. and Dictymetra discoidea. Juvenile white storks were shown to host less species, but the intensity of infection was higher in the juveniles than in the adult storks.[109]

text: West Nile virus (WNV) is mainly a bird infection that is transmitted between birds by mosquitos.[110] Migrating birds appear to be important in spread of the virus,[111] the ecology of which remains poorly known.[112] On 26 August 1998, a flock of about 1,200 migrating white storks that had been blown off course on their southward journey landed in Eilat, in southern Israel. The flock was stressed as it had resorted to flapping flight to return to its migratory route, and a number of birds died. A virulent strain of West Nile virus was isolated from the brains of eleven dead juveniles. Other white storks subsequently tested in Israel have shown anti-WNV antibodies.[113] In 2008 three juvenile white storks from a Polish wildlife refuge yielded seropositive results indicating exposure to the virus, but the context or existence of the virus in Poland is unclear.[114]

text: Conservation[edit]

text: The white stork's decline due to industrialisation and agricultural changes (principally the draining of wetlands and conversion of meadows to crops such as maize) began in the 19th century: the last wild individual in Belgium was seen in 1895, in Sweden in 1955, in Switzerland in 1950 and in the Netherlands in 1991. However, the species has since been reintroduced to many regions.[115] It has been rated as least concern by the IUCN since 1994, after being evaluated as near threatened in 1988.[1] The white stork is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies.[116] Parties to the agreement are required to engage in a wide range of conservation strategies described in a detailed action plan. The plan is intended to address key issues such as species and habitat conservation, management of human activities, research, education, and implementation.[117] Threats include the continued loss of wetlands, collisions with overhead power lines, use of persistent pesticides (such as DDT) to combat locusts in Africa, and largely illegal hunting on migration routes and wintering grounds.[10]

text: A large population of white storks breeds in central (Poland, Ukraine and Germany) and southern Europe (Spain and Turkey). In a 2004/05 census, there were 52,500 pairs in Poland, 30,000 pairs in Ukraine, 20,000 pairs in Belarus, 13,000 pairs in Lithuania (the highest known density of this species in the world), 10,700 pairs in Latvia, and 10,200 in Russia. There were around 5,500 pairs in Romania, 5,300 in Hungary and an estimated 4,956 breeding pairs in Bulgaria.[118] In Germany, the majority of the total 4,482 pairs were in the eastern region, especially in the states of Brandenburg and Mecklenburg-Vorpommern (1296 and 863 pairs in 2008 respectively).[119] Apart from Spain and Portugal (33,217 and 7,684 pairs in 2004/05 respectively), populations are generally much less stable. The Danish population declined to just three pairs in 2005. In the eastern Mediterranean region Turkey has a sizeable population of 6195 pairs, and Greece 2139 pairs. In Western Europe the white stork remains a rare bird despite conservation efforts. In 2004 France had only 973 pairs, and the Netherlands 528 pairs.[118] In Armenia the population of the White Stork is slightly increasing in the period between 2005 and 2015, and by last data makes 652 pairs.[120][121][122]

text: In the early 1980s, the population had fallen to fewer than nine pairs in the entire upper Rhine River valley, an area closely identified with the white stork for centuries. Conservation efforts successfully increased the population of birds there to 270 pairs (in 2008), largely due to the actions of the Association for the Protection and Reintroduction of Storks in Alsace and Lorraine.[123] The reintroduction of zoo-reared birds has halted further declines in Italy, the Netherlands, and Switzerland. There were 601 pairs breeding in Armenia and around 700 pairs in the Netherlands in 2008,[124] and few pairs also breed in South Africa, typically recent colonists from within the normal wintering population.[10] In Poland, electric poles have been modified with a platform at the top to prevent the white stork's large nest from disrupting the electricity supply, and sometimes nests are moved from an electric pole to a man-made platform.[77] Introductions of zoo-reared birds in the Netherlands has been followed up by feeding and nest-building programs by volunteers.[124] Similar reintroduction programs are taking place in Sweden,[125] and Switzerland,[126] where 175 pairs were recorded breeding in 2000.[127] Long term viability of the population in Switzerland is unclear as breeding success rates are low, and supplementary feeding does not appear to be of benefit.[126]

text: Cultural associations[edit]

text: Due to its large size, predation on vermin, and nesting behaviour close to human settlements and on rooftops, the white stork has an imposing presence that has influenced human culture and folklore.[65] The Hebrew word for the white stork is chasidah (חסידה), meaning "merciful" or "kind".[128] Greek and Roman mythology portray storks as models of parental devotion, and it was believed that they did not die of old age, but flew to islands and took the appearance of humans[citation needed]. The bird is featured in at least three of Aesop's Fables: The Fox and the Stork, The Farmer and the Stork, and The Frogs Who Desired a King.[129] Storks were also thought to care for their aged parents, feeding them and even transporting them, and children's books depicted them as a model of filial values. A Greek law called Pelargonia, from the Ancient Greek word pelargos for stork, required citizens to take care of their aged parents.[10] The Greeks also held that killing a stork could be punished with death.[130] It was allegedly protected in Ancient Thessaly as it hunted snakes, and widely held to be Virgil's "white bird".[131] Roman writers noted the white stork's arrival in spring, which alerted farmers to plant their vines.[132]

text: Followers of Islam revered storks because they made an annual pilgrimage to Mecca on their migration.[133] Some of the earliest understanding on bird migration were initiated by an interest in white storks; Pfeilstörche ("arrow storks") were found in Europe with African arrows embedded in their bodies. A well-known example of such a stork found in the summer of 1822 in the German town of Klütz in Mecklenburg was made into a mounted taxidermy specimen, complete with the ornate African arrow, that is now in the University of Rostock.[134]

text: Storks have little fear of humans if not disturbed, and often nest on buildings in Europe. In Germany, the presence of a nest on a house was believed to protect against fires. They were also protected because of the belief that their souls were human.[136] German and Dutch households would encourage storks to nest on houses, sometimes by constructing purpose-built high platforms, to bring good luck.[128] Poles, Lithuanians and Ukrainians believe that storks bring harmony to a family on whose property they nest.[137]

text: The white stork is a popular motif on postage stamps, and it is featured on more than 120 stamps issued by more than 60 stamp-issuing entities.[138] It is the national bird of Lithuania and Belarus,[139] and it was a Polish mascot at the Expo 2000 Fair in Hanover.[140] In the 19th century, storks were also thought to only live in countries having a republican form of government.[141] Polish poet Cyprian Kamil Norwid mentioned storks in his poem Moja piosnka (II) ("My Song (II)"):[142]

text:
For the land where it's a great travesty
To harm a stork's nest in a pear tree,
For storks serve us all ...
I am homesick, Lord! ...

text: Storks and childbirth[edit]

text: According to European folklore, the stork is responsible for bringing babies to new parents. The legend is very ancient, but was popularised by a 19th-century Hans Christian Andersen story called The Storks.[133] German folklore held that storks found babies in caves or marshes and brought them to households in a basket on their backs or held in their beaks. These caves contained adebarsteine or "stork stones". The babies would then be given to the mother or dropped down the chimney. Households would notify when they wanted children by placing sweets for the stork on the window sill.[128] From there the folklore has spread around the world to the Philippines and countries in South America.[128] Birthmarks on the back of the head of newborn baby, nevus flammeus nuchae, are sometimes referred to as stork-bite.[143]

text: In Slavic mythology and religion, storks were thought to carry unborn souls from Vyraj to Earth in spring and summer.[144] This belief still persists in the modern folk culture of many Slavic countries, in the simplified child story that "storks bring children into the world".[145] Storks were seen by the Slavs as bringing luck, and killing one would bring misfortune.[146] A long-term study that showed a spurious correlation between the numbers of stork nests and human births is widely used in the teaching of basic statistics as an example to highlight that correlation does not necessarily indicate causation.[147][148] The child-bringing myth has appeared in different forms in history. Children of African American slaves were sometimes told that white babies were brought by storks, while black babies were born from buzzard eggs.[149]

text: Psychoanalyst Marvin Margolis suggests the enduring nature of the stork fable of the newborn is linked to its addressing a psychological need, in that it allays the discomfort of discussing sex and procreation with children. Birds have long been associated with the maternal symbols from pagan goddesses such as Juno to the Holy Ghost, and the stork may have been chosen for its white plumage (depicting purity), size (in that it is big enough to carry an infant), and flight at high altitude (likened to flying between Earth and Heaven).[128] The fable and its relation to the internal world of the child have been discussed by Sigmund Freud,[128] and Carl Jung.[150] In fact, Jung recalled being told the story himself upon the birth of his own sister.[151] The traditional link with the newborn continues with their use in advertising for such products as nappies and birth announcements.[128]

text: There were negative aspects to stork folklore as well; a Polish folk tale relates how God made the stork's plumage white, while the Devil gave it black wings, imbuing it with both good and evil impulses. They were also associated with handicapped or stillborn babies in Germany, explained as the stork having dropped the baby en route to the household, or as revenge or punishment for past wrongdoing. A mother who was confined to bed around the time of childbirth was said to have been "bitten" by the stork.[128] In Denmark, storks were said to toss a nestling off the nest and then an egg in successive years.[128] In medieval England, storks were also associated with adultery, possibly inspired by their courtship rituals. Their preening and posture saw them linked with the attribute of self-conceit.[152]

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ The universally accepted starting point of modern taxonomy for animals is set at 1758, with the publishing of Linnaeus' 10th edition of Systema Naturae, although scientists had been coining names in the previous century.[3]
Jump up ^ By convention, length is measured from the tip of the bill to the tip of the tail on a dead bird (or skin) laid on its back.

tag: ol


question_text: who was last person to be executed in us

text: List of offenders executed in the United States in 2017[edit]

text:
Number
Date of execution
Name
Date of birth
Age of offender
Gender
Ethnicity
State
Method
Source

At execution
At offense
Age difference

1
000000002017-01-11-0000January 11, 2017
Wilkins, Christopher ChubascoChristopher Chubasco Wilkins
000000001968-09-29-0000September 29, 1968
48
37
11
Male
White
Texas
Lethal injection
[1]

2
000000002017-01-18-0000January 18, 2017
Gray, Ricky JavonRicky Javon Gray
000000001977-03-09-0000March 9, 1977
39
28
Black
Virginia

3
000000002017-01-26-0000January 26, 2017
Edwards, Terry DarnellTerry Darnell Edwards
000000001973-08-10-0000August 10, 1973
43
15
Texas
[2]

4
000000002017-01-31-0000January 31, 2017
Christeson, Mark AnthonyMark Anthony Christeson
000000001979-02-20-0000February 20, 1979
37
18
19
White
Missouri

5
000000002017-03-07-0000March 7, 2017
Ruiz, Jr., RolandoRolando Ruiz, Jr.
000000001972-07-04-0000July 4, 1972
44
20
24
Hispanic
Texas
[3][4]

6
000000002017-03-14-0000March 14, 2017
Bigby, James EugeneJames Eugene Bigby
000000001955-04-05-0000April 5, 1955
61
32
29
White
[5][6]

7
000000002017-04-20-0000April 20, 2017
Lee, Ledell T.Ledell T. Lee
000000001965-07-31-0000July 31, 1965
51
27
24
Black
Arkansas
[7]

8
000000002017-04-24-0000April 24, 2017
Jones, Jr., Jack HaroldJack Harold Jones, Jr.
000000001964-08-10-0000August 10, 1964
52
30
22
White

9
Williams, Marcel WayneMarcel Wayne Williams
000000001970-08-20-0000August 20, 1970
46
24
Black

10
000000002017-04-27-0000April 27, 2017
Williams, Kenneth DewayneKenneth Dewayne Williams
000000001979-02-23-0000February 23, 1979
38
20
18
[8]

11
000000002017-05-17-0000May 17, 2017
Ledford III, John W.John W. Ledford III
000000001971-12-29-0000December 29, 1971
45
25
White
Georgia

12
000000002017-05-26-0000May 26, 2017
Arthur, Thomas Douglas “Tommy”Thomas Douglas “Tommy” Arthur
000000001941-12-20-0000December 20, 1941
75
40
35
Alabama
[9]

13
000000002017-06-08-0000June 8, 2017
Melson, Robert BryantRobert Bryant Melson
000000001971-06-05-0000June 5, 1971
46
22
24
Black
[10]

14
000000002017-07-06-0000July 6, 2017
Morva, William CharlesWilliam Charles Morva
000000001982-02-09-0000February 9, 1982
35
24
11
White
Virginia
[11]

15
000000002017-07-26-0000July 26, 2017
Phillips, Ronald RayRonald Ray Phillips
000000001973-10-10-0000October 10, 1973
43
19
24
Ohio
[12]

16
000000002017-07-27-0000July 27, 2017
Preyor, TaichinTaichin Preyor
000000001970-09-02-0000September 2, 1970
46
33
13
Black
Texas
[13][14]

17
000000002017-08-24-0000August 24, 2017
Asay, Mark JamesMark James Asay
000000001964-03-12-0000March 12, 1964
53
23
30
White
Florida
[15]

18
000000002017-09-13-0000September 13, 2017
Otte, Gary WayneGary Wayne Otte
000000001971-12-21-0000December 21, 1971
45
20
25
Ohio
[16]

19
000000002017-10-05-0000October 5, 2017
Lambrix, Michael RayMichael Ray Lambrix
000000001960-03-29-0000March 29, 1960
57
22
35
Florida
[17]

20
000000002017-10-12-0000October 12, 2017
Pruett, Robert LynnRobert Lynn Pruett
000000001979-09-18-0000September 18, 1979
38
20
18
Texas
[18]

21
000000002017-10-19-0000October 19, 2017
McNabb, Torrey TwaneTorrey Twane McNabb
000000001977-06-09-0000June 9, 1977
40
20
Black
Alabama
[19]

22
000000002017-11-08-0000November 8, 2017
Hannon, Patrick CharlesPatrick Charles Hannon
000000001964-10-24-0000October 24, 1964
53
26
27
White
Florida
[20]

23
Cardenas Ramirez, RubenRuben Cardenas Ramirez
000000001970-04-07-0000April 7, 1970
47
21
Hispanic
Texas
[21][22]

Average:
47 years
25 years
22 years

text: Demographics[edit]

text:
Gender

Male
23
100%

Female
0
0%

Ethnicity

White
13
56%

Black
8
35%

Hispanic
2
9%

State

Texas
7
30%

Arkansas
4
17%

Alabama
3
13%

Florida
3
13%

Ohio
2
9%

Virginia
2
9%

Georgia
1
4%

Missouri
1
4%

Month

January
4
17%

February
0
0%

March
2
9%

April
4
17%

May
2
9%

June
1
4%

July
3
13%

August
1
4%

September
1
4%

October
3
13%

November
2
9%

December
0
0%

Age

30 - 39
5
22%

40 - 49
11
48%

50 - 59
5
22%

60 - 69
1
4%

70 - 79
1
4%

Day

Monday
2
9%

Tuesday
3
13%

Wednesday
7
30%

Thursday
10
43%

Friday
1
4%

Saturday
0
0%

Sunday
0
0%

Total
23
100%

text: Executions in recent years[edit]

text:
Number of executions

2018
9

2017
23

2016
20

Total
52

text: Double execution in Arkansas[edit]

text: On April 24, 2017, Arkansas carried out back-to-back executions. Convicted rapist and murderer Jack Jones, age 52, was pronounced dead at 7:20 pm Monday. Approximately three hours later, convicted rapist and murderer Marcel Williams, age 46, was pronounced dead at 10:33 pm. Jones was sentenced to death for the 1995 rape and murder of Mary Phillips (August 18, 1959 - June 6, 1995) and the near-fatal assault of her then-10-year-old daughter, Lacy Phillips (born July 9, 1984), during a botched robbery in Bald Knob, Arkansas. Williams was sent to death row for the 1994 rape and murder of 22-year-old Stacy Errickson, whom he kidnapped from a gas station in central Arkansas.

text: The last double execution in Arkansas was on September 8, 1999.[23] By conducting the double execution in 2017, Arkansas became the first U.S. state to put more than one inmate to death on the same day in 17 years. The last state to do so was Texas, which executed two murderers in August 2000. Oklahoma planned a double execution in 2014 but scrapped plans for the second one after the first (the execution of Clayton Lockett) went awry.[24]

text: Arkansas executed four men in an eight-day period in 1960. The only quicker pace included quadruple executions in 1926 and 1930.[24]