document_title: Hellenism (religion)

question_text: what is it called when you believe in greek gods

text: Hellenism (religion)

text: Groups and self-designations[edit]

text: Dodekatheism originated in and is practiced in Greece and in other countries. Leaders of the movement claimed in 2005 that there are as many as 2,000 adherents to the Hellenic tradition in Greece, with an additional 100,000 who have "some sort of interest".[1] No official estimates exist for devotees worldwide.

text: There are no official naming practices for this religion, but there does seem to be an informal naming convention, based on academically accepted descriptive definitions, adhered to by groups and most individual believers. Hellenism is the most common term, used chiefly as an identifier for the modern polytheistic religion by its adherents today but it can also refer to the ancient Greek religion and culture.[2] The term originally stems from a systematization and revival of Greek religion done by the Roman Emperor Julian. Julian used the term to describe traditional religion of the Greeks[3] (the word can also have other unrelated meanings in modern Greek). Additionally, subgroups use a variety of names to distinguish branches focusing on specific schools of thought, or modern traditions focusing on the public practices of individual city-states. These subgroups can be described as denominations. Hellenic religion, and Hellenic polytheism can be said to be used interchangeably to refer to the religion, and are synonymous. The phrase Hellenic Polytheistic Reconstructionism refers more to the methodology used by some practitioners to revive a version of the religion, than the religion itself. Not all Hellenic Polytheists are reconstructionists. Dodekatheism and Olympianism are other names, though less commonly used.

text: In Greece[edit]

text: The first Greek organization to openly support the religious revival of Hellenic religion was Ύπατο Συμβούλιο των Ελλήνων Εθνικών (Supreme Council of Ethnikoi Hellenes or YSEE), established in 1997,[4] and is publicly active. YSEE is a founding member of the World Congress of Ethnic Religions (now European Congress of Ethnic Religions) and hosted the seventh annual WCER Congress in June 2004.[5] YSEE is also a member of the European Union's action programme to combat discrimination. The organization primarily refers to the religion as the "Ethnic Polytheistic" or "genuine Hellenism"[6] and its practitioners as Ethnikoi Hellenes, "Ethnic [National] Hellenes".

text: Another very active organization since its founding at 2008 is Labrys religious community. Labrys has focused primarily on the religious aspects of Hellenism or Hellenic (Greek) polytheism, avoiding anti-Christian rhetoric and politics, establishing weekly public rituals [7] and engaging in other aspects of practical promotion of polytheism like theater and music.[8][9][10][11][12][13][14] Labrys has also promoted among Hellenes worldwide the need to actively practice household worship and the idea that family and community should be the starting points of religious practice.[15] The community has been organizing since 2008 the largest festival in Athens and also actively participates and supports the religious aspects of the oldest Hellenic festival in Greece, Promitheia[16] which is held every year on Mount Olympus. Labrys religious community has published the book about Hellenic Polytheism : Household Worship. Createspace. 2014-11-20. ISBN 9781503121881.  .

text: Other Greek organizations, such as Dodekatheon (Δωδεκάθεον, Dōdekátheon, Of the Twelve Gods),[17] the Helliniki Hetaireia Archaiophilon (Societas Hellenica Antiquariorum), and the Thyrsos use a combination of terms interchangeably, including ἑλληνικὴ θρησκεία (hellēnikē thrēskeîa, translated as "Hellenic religion"), Hellenic polytheistic religion, and Hellenism.[18][19]

text: Dodecatheon and YSEE both use the terms "traditional", "ethnic", and "genuine" to refer to their religious practices. Greek polytheist author Vlassis Rassias has written a popular series of books on "Christian persecutions against the Hellenes," and the "Church of the Hellenes" organization goes so far as to call for the wholesale extermination of Christianity,[20] while the Athens-based group Ellinais emphasizes "world peace and the brotherhood of man."[21]

text: Outside Greece[edit]

text: Outside Greece, Hellenic religious organizations began to emerge around 1998, with some individuals claiming to have been engaging in some form of traditional practice since the 1970s.[22]

text: In the United States, the Hellenic polytheist organization Hellenion[23] also identifies its practices as "Hellenic Pagan Reconstructionism" and emphasizes historical accuracy in its mission statement.[24] The group uses the term "Hellenismos" (Ἑλληνισμός, Hellēnismós) to describe the religion. Hellenion does not provide official membership numbers to the public, but an unofficial estimate of 43 members can be determined for 2007,[25] though this number can only give the roughest approximation, as Hellenion offers hardship waivers to those who cannot afford the typical membership fees.[26] In early 2010, the organization reported 1 demos (fully chartered local congregation) and 6 proto-demoi (start-up congregations not fully chartered with less than 3 members) established, which offer rituals and other events for members and frequently for the public as well.[27] Two of the six proto-demoi cannot be independently verified to exist. Hellenion offers legal clergy training,[28] basic adult religious education classes,[29] and other educational/training courses for its members.[30]

text: Another American group, Elaion, uses the term "Dodekatheism" (Greek: δώδεκα, dodeka, "twelve" + θεϊσμός, theïsmós, "belief in the gods") to describe their approach to the Hellenic religion.[31] No reported numbers for current membership levels are known to exist.

text: Other terms in common usage by Hellenic polytheists include "Greek reconstructionism" and "Hellenic Traditionalism", but the two are not synonymous.[32]

text: In Brazil, in Portuguese language, there's the website of RHB - Reconstrucionismo Helênico no Brasil,[33] built since 2003 by Brazilian members of Hellenion and other international groups, such as the American Neokoroi[34] and the Greek Thyrsos.[35]

text: Beliefs and practices[edit]

text: Hellenic polytheists worship the ancient Greek Gods, including the Olympians, nature divinities, underworld deities (chthonic gods) and heroes. Both physical and spiritual ancestors are honored. It is primarily a devotional or votive religion, based on the exchange of gifts (offerings) for the gods' blessings.[36] The ethical convictions of modern Hellenic polytheists are often inspired by ancient Greek virtues such as reciprocity, hospitality, self-control and moderation. The Delphic maxims, Tenets of Solon, the Golden Verses of Pythagoras, or even Aristotle's Ethics each function as complete moral codes that a Hellenic Polytheist may observe. Key to most ethical systems is the idea of kharis (or "charis", grace), to establish reciprocity between humanity and the gods, between individuals, and among community members.[37][38] Another key value in Hellenic Polytheism is eusebeia, often translated as piety. This implies a commitment to the worship of the Hellenic gods and action to back this up.

text: There is no central "ecclesia" (church/assembly) or hierarchical clergy, though some groups (i.e., Hellenion) do offer training in that capacity. Individual worshipers are generally expected to perform their own rituals and learn about the religion and the gods by reference to primary and secondary sources on ancient Greek religion and through personal experience of the gods. Information gained from such personal experiences is often referred to in Hellenic groups as "UPG" (Unverified Personal Gnosis), a term borrowed from Ásatrú, though now commonly used among many pagan religions.

text: Reconstructionism[edit]

text: In polytheism, Reconstructionism is a methodology which attempts to accurately base modern religious practice on culturally and historically genuine examples of ancient religious practices. The term is frequently used in the United States to differentiate between syncretic and eclectic Neopagan movements, and those based on the traditions, writings, history, and mythology of a specific ancient polytheistic culture.

text: In contrast to the eclectic traditions, Reconstructionists are very culturally oriented and attempt to reconstruct historical forms of religion and spirituality, in a modern context. Therefore, Kemetic, Canaanite, Hellenic, Roman, Celtic, Germanic, Baltic and Slavic Reconstructionists aim for the revival of historical practices and beliefs of Ancient Egypt, Ancient Canaan and Phoenicia, Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome, the Celts, the Germanic peoples, the Balts and the Slavs, respectively.

text: Most Hellenic polytheist groups unequivocally state that reconstructionism is not the only correct method of practicing the ancient Greek religion, but do identify a practice as Hellenic only when it embraces the humanistic values and ethical virtues of the ancient Greeks, demonstrates loyalty and reverence toward the Greek gods, and uses a religious structure that would be recognizable to an ancient Greek.[39][40][41][42] These groups make a clear distinction between themselves and the Neopagan movement, and identify some 'Hellenic' groups as "simply disguised as 'Hellenes' for reasons that exist hidden within the depths of their own minds." [43]

text: Revivalism[edit]

text: Revivalism focuses more on Hellenic Polytheism as a living, changing religion. Hellenic Revivalism allows more room for practitioners to decide what feels right to them. Most modern Hellenic Polytheists exist somewhere on a Reconstructionist to Revivalist spectrum.

text: Claims of continuity[edit]

text: Modern Hellenic polytheist organizations are "revivalist" or "reconstructionist" for the most part, but many adherents like Panagiotis Marinis from the group Dodecatheon in Greece, has stated that the religion of ancient Greece has survived throughout the intervening centuries, and that he, himself, was raised in a family that practiced this religion.[44] Whether or not they believe that the Hellenic polytheist religious tradition is continuous, there is evidence that Greek Hellenic polytheists within the modern country of Greece see the movement as an expression of Greek cultural heritage, in opposition to the Orthodox Christianity that is overwhelmingly dominant.[45][46]

text: Political controversy[edit]

text: The 2004 Summer Olympics stirred up several disputes concerning Hellenic polytheistic religion.

text:
Professor Giorgos Dontas, president of the Archaeological Society of Athens expressed public outrage at the destruction of ancient archaeological sites[which?] around the Parthenon and Acropolis in preparation for the Games.[47]
Prior to the Olympic Games, MSNBC correspondent Rehema Ellis in a story called It's Greek to Me: Group Tries to Restore Pagan Worship documented the vandalism and arson of a bookstore in Athens which sold books promoting ancient Greek religion. She also interviewed several adherents who were upset about the current state of affairs in Greece. Ellis said: "A contrast in this place where the Olympic Games were created to honour Zeus - now those praying to the ancient gods are criticized for putting too much faith in the past."
The Greek Society of the Friends of the Ancients objected to the commercial use of Athena and Phevos as the official mascots of the 2004 Summer Olympics held in Athens. They felt that the caricatured representations of the Greek Gods Athena and Phoebus were disrespectful and culturally insensitive.[48] In a BBC Radio interview on June 26, 2004, Dr. Pan. Marinis President of the Societas Hellenica Antiquariorum said that the mascots:

tag: ul

text: In May 2006 an Athens court granted official recognition to the veneration of the Ancient Greek pantheon. Referring to the ruling, Father Eustathios Kollas, who presides over a community of Greek Orthodox priests, said: "They are a handful of miserable resuscitators of a degenerate dead religion who wish to return to the monstrous dark delusions of the past."[49]


document_title: Gotham by Gaslight

question_text: whos jack the ripper in gotham by gaslight

root

text: Gotham by Gaslight

text: Plot Summaries[edit]

text: Gotham by Gaslight[edit]

text: In 1889, Bruce Wayne is on a tour of Europe which ends in Vienna. There he is studying under Dr. Freud. Bruce tells Freud that he has a recurring dream in which he recalls the murder of his parents and decides he must return to Gotham City. On the return trip, Bruce meets Jacob Packer, an old family friend whom he calls Uncle Jake, who also returned from a trip to Europe.

tag: p

text: Shortly after arriving, Inspector Gordon informs Wayne about criminal gangs currently operating in Gotham. Gordon also shows Bruce the case of a man who poisoned his wife and tried to commit suicide with the poison, which left him alive with a permanent grin. Bruce takes up the mantle of Batman to fight criminals on the street.

text: At the same time, a series of murders of women take place and some people begin to suspect that Batman is the murderer. It is soon discovered that Jack the Ripper has come to Gotham, as the murders in Gotham City seem to resemble the Ripper murders.

text: After a search of Wayne Manor, a bloody knife is found under Bruce's bed and Bruce is arrested. A trial is held in which Uncle Jake is Bruce's defense attorney. After the trial, Bruce is convicted of being the Ripper and sentenced to be hanged for his crimes. Bruce is imprisoned in Arkham Asylum.

text: Once Bruce is in prison, Gordon gives him all the documentation on the crimes. Bruce toils day and night to try to figure out how he can get the Ripper. Just one day before the execution, Bruce learns the identity of the Ripper by discovering he had the skill of a surgeon and used a knife that belonged to the medical group who worked with his father. Bruce escapes from prison with the help of Alfred and heads straight for the Ripper.

text: Batman interrupts the Ripper as he is about to claim his next victim. Batman chases the Ripper throughout Gotham and the two eventually come to a stop at the grave of Thomas and Martha Wayne, where it is revealed that Jacob Packer is the Ripper. Packer had been trained in medicine and law with the money of Thomas Wayne, but he was driven insane by Martha Wayne's rejection of his advances. Since then he was killing women who resemble Martha to silence the laughter of Martha he heard in his head.

text: Packer reveals that he hired an assassin to kill Bruce's parents. Gordon appears at this time with the police and Batman tells them to arrest Packer. Packer confesses that he is the Ripper and tries to kill Batman, but Gordon shoots Packer dead at the last minute. Batman disappears into the shadows, leaving Gordon to take in the body of Jack the Ripper.

text: Master of the Future[edit]

text: In 1892, three years later, Bruce has "retired" his alter-ego and is engaged to be married. Having brought his parents' murderer to justice, he has come to regard being Batman as a childish fancy, and intends to devote his life to more serious pursuits. Others believe that Gotham City needs Batman more than ever, namely now-Commissioner Gordon and Bruce's own fiancée, Julie (whom Batman rescued from a late-night assault).

text: At a City Council meeting, Mayor Tolliver (the former Police Commissioner who aggressively prosecuted Bruce as the suspected Ripper) is promoting Gotham's hosting of the "American Discovery Exposition" to market Gotham as the "City of the Future". The meeting is interrupted by the flamboyant Alexandre LeRoi, who demands that he be proclaimed master of the city, or else he will burn it to the ground. He leaps out the window before he can be arrested, and Tolliver insists that the fair proceed.

text: While the fairgrounds are being erected, a Maxim Gun on an automated carriage rolls in and opens fire. Bruce, in attendance, pushes Tolliver out of the line of fire and disables the machine.

text: On the opening day of the fair, LeRoi kidnaps Tolliver from his mansion and takes him aboard an airship, forcing him to watch as LeRoi focuses a giant burning glass on the fair's main pavilion, before LeRoi throws Tolliver over the side to his death. Bruce is desperate to act, when Alfred arrives with his costume.

text: With the police fully occupied, Julie runs into the burning pavilion to rescue a small girl, but both of them are trapped by falling debris. Batman saves them, then fashions an improvised glider and takes off after LeRoi's airship. The two men engage in a brutal rapier duel that disables LeRoi's robotic pilot "Antonio", causing the airship to drift off course and become unstable. Noticing this, Batman urges LeRoi to surrender and abandon ship, but LeRoi refuses to believe him. Batman jumps overboard, but LeRoi is trapped as the airship crashes into the ocean and explodes. More than a hundred people are killed by LeRoi's fires, but further fatalities and destruction are prevented by the Gotham Police and firefighters. LeRoi is presumed dead, although he is shown to have survived the crash.

text: Batman confronts Councilman Franklin Claypool, who confesses to being LeRoi's accomplice and providing him with information for his attack. Claypool secretly owns a large portion of Gotham City's slum housing, which he expected to sell profitably through his proposed redevelopment program, but the program was pushed aside by Tolliver in favor of the fair. LeRoi agreed to target Claypool's properties, allowing Claypool to collect a lucrative insurance payout, but Claypool never intended the deaths LeRoi's actions caused, and so does not resist when Gordon arrives to arrest him.

text: Bruce and Julie are walking along a hilltop overlooking the city, when she reveals that she recognized him at the fair, even through his mask. Apprehensively, he asks her what she plans to do, and she replies, what she has always done: continue to love and encourage him, especially now that they both agree that Gotham still needs Batman.

text: Publication history[edit]

text: Gotham by Gaslight, which retroactively became the first official Elseworlds publication, was initially released as a 52-page one-shot in February 1989. It was written by Brian Augustyn and pencilled by Mike Mignola, with inks by P. Craig Russell. Two years later, the 68-page sequel Batman: Master of the Future — also written by Augustyn, but with art by Eduardo Barreto — was released, this time officially labelled an Elseworlds publication.

text: In 2006, in the wake of the DC event Infinite Crisis (which reshuffled the DC Multiverse), the Gotham by Gaslight world was identified as "Earth-19".

text: Prior to its appearance in Countdown Presents: The Search for Ray Palmer: Gotham by Gaslight (January 2008), the two one-shot issues were collected into one 112-page trade paperback volume (which was released under the same name, and with the same Mignola cover as the one-shot release).

text: Collected editions[edit]

text: The two stories have been collected into a trade paperback.

text:
Gotham by Gaslight, August 2006, DC Comics, ISBN 1-4012-1153-4 (Titan Books, ISBN 1-84576-403-X), collects:

Gotham by Gaslight, 48 pages, DC Comics, November 1989, ISBN 0-930289-67-6 (Titan Books, December 1989, ISBN 1-85286-265-3)
Master of the Future, 63 pages, DC Comics, December 1991, ISBN 1-56389-015-1

text: Reception[edit]

text: IGN Comics ranked Gotham by Gaslight #11 on a list of the 25 greatest Batman graphic novels, saying that the comic is "as taut and well-conceived a graphic novel as you can find — Elseworlds or otherwise," they add, "quite simply, no other Elseworlds tale has managed such a brilliant concept nor executed it so perfectly."

text: Gotham by Gaslight was not the highest-ranking Elseworlds story on the list, as Batman & Dracula: Red Rain ranked higher at #9.[1]

text: Spin-offs[edit]

text: After the events of Identity Crisis, the Atom spent DC's missing year out of the limelight. In the weekly-sequel to the weekly event 52, Countdown, the Source Wall names Palmer as a key figure in impending DC Universe events. The search for Ray Palmer began in the Wildstorm Universe, and soon crossed onto the new 52 worlds created during the course of Infinite Crisis.

text: The first of these was called Countdown Presents: The Search for Ray Palmer: Gotham by Gaslight (January 2008) and was written by Gotham by Gaslight's original author, Brian Augustyn, relishing his chance to return to the world he had created.[2] The story saw Bob the Monitor accompany Jason Todd, Donna Troy, and Kyle Rayner (the latter three inhabitants of "New Earth") through the multiverse in search of multiuniversal counterparts to Ray Palmer. The group arrived on Earth-19, the Earth where the Batman of the earlier two Elseworlds storylines acted, there, they also encountered this Earth's counterpart of Blue Beetle and Man-Bat before they went to the next Earth for their continuing search. Their search would take them to worlds populated by characters from other Elseworlds stories, including those seen in the Batman & Dracula trilogy (Earth-43) and Superman: Red Son (Earth-30).

text: In other media[edit]

text: Film[edit]

text: Batman: Gotham by Gaslight is an animated adaptation released in 2018.[3] It features Bruce Greenwood as Batman and Jennifer Carpenter as Selina Kyle. The adaptation differs significantly from the original comic, and includes elements from both books.

text: Video games[edit]

text:
A video game based on the comic book was planned for release by Day 1 Studios (who also developed Fear 3). After THQ failed to secure the rights to the property, the game was canceled.[4] The developers released some concept illustration which revealed the game had a steampunk feel to it while being set in Victorian England and also test footage was released which revealed the misty Gothic settings and the character model for Batman. Reception to the leaked footage and concept illustration was positive, with viewers praising the setting, the cape physics and the different approach the developers were trying to achieve.[5]
Season pass holders for Batman: Arkham Origins, released in 2013, were awarded a special costume for Batman that was based on Gotham By Gaslight.[6]
The Gotham by Gaslight version of Batman was also introduced as a playable character in an update to the mobile version of Injustice: Gods Among Us in early 2018.[7]


document_title: Eobard Thawne

question_text: who killed barry allen's mom tv show

question_tokens: who killed barry allen 's mom tv show

text: Eobard Thawne

text: Publication history[edit]

text: Created by John Broome and Carmine Infantino, Eobard Thawne made his debut in The Flash #139 (September 1963).

text: Fictional character biography[edit]

text: In Thawne's first appearance, he found a time capsule in the 25th Century containing Barry Allen's Flash costume, and was able to use a Tachyon device to amplify the suit's speed energy, giving himself speedster abilities as long as he wore the costume. Reversing the costume's colors, Thawne adopted the moniker of "Professor Zoom" aka the "Reverse-Flash", and went on a crime spree. However, the time capsule also contained an atomic clock, which a scientist from Allen's time discovered would eventually cause a nuclear explosion upon being removed from the time capsule containing it. To prevent that disaster, The Flash traveled forward in time to find the clock. Encountering Zoom, Flash pursued and defeated him in the hope Zoom knew where the clock was. Unfortunately, that was not the case and the Flash later barely found the clock and brought it to an isolated area before it exploded in time and subsequently destroyed Thawne's costume.[3]

text: Blaming the Flash for his defeat, Thawne became obsessed with "replacing" the man and began travelling back in time to exact his revenge, using his knowledge of history to his advantage. When Iris West (Barry's wife) rejected his romantic pursuits, Thawne apparently killed Iris by vibrating his hand through the woman's skull. Shortly after Barry had found love again, Thawne returned and threatened to kill Fiona Webb (Allen's new fiancée) on their wedding day. Fearful that history was repeating itself, Allen inadvertently killed Thawne by breaking his neck.[4]

text: Post-Crisis and Zero Hour origin[edit]

text: In a post-Crisis extended origin, the storyline "The Return of Barry Allen" in The Flash #74-79 revealed that Eobard was once a scientist from the 25th Century who was obsessed with the Flash, even undergoing cosmetic surgery to resemble his hero. After obtaining the Cosmic Treadmill from an antique shop, Thawne gained all of the Flash's powers after replicating the electrochemical accident that created the hero, seeking to use the Treadmill to travel back in time and meet his idol. But due to a malfunction, Thawne arrived at the Flash Museum several years after Barry's death, where he discovered that he was destined to become "Professor Zoom" (the "Reverse-Flash") and die at the hands of his idol. As a result, the unstable Thawne convinced himself that he was Barry, and subsequently attacked Central City for "forgetting him". Wally West (the current Flash) ultimately tricked Thawne into returning to the 25th century with no memory of the incident. Despite this, Thawne still managed to bring the remains of his older self's costume with him, cluing him further into his destiny.

text: After the events of Zero Hour: Crisis in Time, it is revealed that Malcolm Thawne is Eobard's ancestor and Barry's long-lost twin brother, meaning that Barry is Eobard's great uncle.

text: The Flash: Rebirth[edit]

text: In 2009, Eobard was re-imagined as a major villain in the DC Universe by writer Geoff Johns in The Flash: Rebirth.[5] His resurrection is foreshadowed to occur in a near-future event, after which he would be responsible for Barry Allen's return and transformation into the Black Flash.[6][7] It is later revealed that because Thawne recreated the accident behind Barry's powers, he was able to lure Barry out of the Speed Force during the Final Crisis and temporarily turn his nemesis into the Black Flash.[8]

text: When Thawne reappears, he murders the revived Johnny Quick,[9] before proceeding to trap Barry and the revived Max Mercury inside the negative Speed Force. Thawne then attempts to kill Wally West's children through their connection to the Speed Force in front of Linda Park-West, only to be stopped by Jay Garrick and Bart Allen. Thawne defeats Jay and prepares to kill Bart, but Barry, Max, Wally, Jesse Quick and Impulse arrive to prevent the villain from doing so.[8][10] In the ensuing fight, Thawne reveals that he is responsible for every tragedy that has occurred in Barry's life, including the death of Nora Allen (Barry's mother). Thawne then decides to destroy everything the Flash holds dear by killing Iris before they even met.[10]

text: As Barry chases after Thawne, Wally joins in the time barrier. They reach him and in doing so, they become the lightning bolt that turns Barry into the Flash as they are able to stop Thawne from killing Iris. The Flashes push Thawne back through time, showing his past and future. They return to the present, where the Justice League, the Justice Society, and the Outsiders have built a device originally intended to disconnect Barry from the Speed Force as the Black Flash. Barry tosses Thawne in and Jay activates the device, severing his connection to the negative Speed Force. As the Flashes tie him up to stop him from running, back in the past Iris discovers Thawne's weapon and keeps it.[11]

text: In the present, he is imprisoned in the Iron Heights. Hunter Zolomon speaks to him, saying they can help each other be better. In Gorilla City, one of the apes warns that Professor Zoom has done something horrible to their jungles, something even they do not know.[11]

text: Blackest Night[edit]

text: In the 2009–2010 storyline "Blackest Night", Thawne's broken-necked corpse is reanimated as a member of the Black Lantern Corps. The black power ring downloaded the corpse's memories, resulting in it not knowing of Barry's death and resurrection. Declaring itself the new "Black Flash", the Black Lantern Zoom attacks Barry who manages to elude for the moment.[12] When Black Lantern Rogues attack Iron Heights, they encounter the living Thawne, their rings strangely malfunctioning, and displaying a strange symbol.[13] When the Black Lantern Zoom approaches his living counterpart, he stops moving, and is then frozen by Captain Cold's "cold grenade".[14] In the final issue, future Black Lantern Zoom is brought back to life by the white light of creation, and manages to escape.[15]

text: In the follow-up "Brightest Day" storyline, the present Professor Zoom is still imprisoned in Iron Heights.[16] When Deadman activates the White Power Battery, the Entity speaks to the twelve heroes and villains resurrected at the climax of the "Blackest Night" and tells each of them of their mission that must be accomplished in order to restore 'life' to the universe and prevent the Blackest Night from ever recurring. Zoom becomes the first to inadvertently fulfill his mission, which occurred in the events of The Flash: Rebirth when he freed Allen from the Speed Force following the resurrection. The Entity proclaims Zoom has completed his task, and his life is restored to him, later revealing that Zoom, having fulfilled his task, is now fully purged of all trace remnants of his Black Lantern ties – both present and future.[17] Zoom is released from Iron Heights by Captain Boomerang, who had hoped to better understand his version of the Entity's message. Zoom does not answer him directly, giving a cryptic response and eventually escaping as Captain Boomerang is confronted by the rest of the Rogues.[18]

text: Post-Infinite Crisis origin[edit]

text: Eobard uses his powers to completely rewrite his history; he erases his younger brother from existence and kills his parents when they try to interfere with his research.[19] Eobard later falls in love with a reporter who had been hired to interview him, and his future self wipes all of the reporter's romantic interests from existence. After finding out she did not return his affections, Eobard's future self traumatized the reporter when she was a child, causing her to be mute and institutionalized for the rest of her life so that he never met her.[19] He later had his younger self find the time capsule containing Barry Allen's costume to make himself the 25th century Flash. As the altered Eobard Thawne runs past him, he sheds a tear for his past self, saying "It won't last long. You will never find love. You will never be the Flash. Barry Allen destroyed my future. It's time I destroyed his".

text: Flashpoint[edit]

text: In the 2011 Flashpoint storyline, a new timeline is created through the alteration of history.[20] The Reverse-Flash reveals that his body is permanently connected to the Speed Force, enabling him to create the negative version of it, with which he escaped prison. He was unable to alter Barry's transformation into the Flash, however, as that would effectively erase himself from existence. Instead, Thawne decides to ruin Barry's life during the latter's childhood, erasing his best friend from existence to result in greater introversion on Barry's part, and various other torments such as killing his mother.[21] Thawne later reveals that the new timeline was created by Barry himself, who went back in time to stop the Reverse-Flash from killing his mother. After Thawne is killed by the Batman of this reality with an Amazonian sword, the Flash travels back in time to stop his younger self from altering history but instead, under the manipulations of Pandora, a third, new timeline is created, in which DC Comics' continuity takes place from 2011 onwards.[22]

text: The New 52[edit]

text: Flashpoint results in The New 52 reboot of DC's continuity. In this new timeline, Thawne's origin is re-established as hailing from the Central City of a 25th-century devoted to the Flash. As a child, Eobard witnessed his father murder his mother, and subsequently get arrested. One day, he is struck by lightning and gains the ability to control the flow of time around him making it appear as if he is moving at superhuman speeds similar to Zolomon's powers. Believing himself to have been "chosen" by the Speed Force to replace the Flash, Eobard dons a costume similar to the hero's and begins to terrorize the Gem Cities as "Zoom", demanding the citizens accept him as King. However, he is enraged when people rebel against him in the name of the Flash.[23] Jealous and bitter that, despite their similar powers, the Flash is worshiped and loved by the people, Eobard uses Rip Hunter's notes to travel back in time, where he starts recruiting four individuals "touched by the lightning" (Speed Force) across history, after "saving" them from situations he himself put them into, under the false pretense that he requires their help in order to vanquish the "evil menace", Flash.[24]

text: Thawne then makes an acquaintance with Dr. Henry Allen (the Flash's father), funding the research of Henry's research lab. But when Henry refuses to help him with an unknown cause, Zoom subsequently murders Nora in order to make the Flash endure what he had to and give them both an "equal start", and forces Henry to take the blame for his deed, with the threat of Barry's life. Laying low for many years, Professor Zoom reemerges following the defeat of William Selkirk, recruiting as an "acolyte" of his. Zoom and his acolytes then cause havoc in the city and put the blame on the Flash, desiring to destroy his nemesis's legacy.[25] Eobard then kidnaps Henry when the man escapes from prison with some inmates in order to divert Thawne's attention away from Barry, and forces Henry to construct a power-stealing glove. However, when his closest "ally" Magali (who has been keeping Eobard alive for centuries via powers) discover the truth about him, he uses the glove to steal her abilities of affecting the age of organic and inorganic matter, leading to his true nature being exposed to the rest of his acolytes who join forces with the Flash to destroy the device.

text: After the failure of his plan to become a god, Zoom then takes Henry to the Allen house, with Barry in pursuit. Revealing his backstory to Barry, Eobard proceeds to best Barry in combat, and is about to kill until the Flash realizes how Thawne's powers work, and then proceeds to counter them by moving time forward - finally defeating him. After talking Henry out of killing Thawne, Barry has him arrested and imprisoned at Iron Heights Penitentiary.[23]

text: DC Rebirth[edit]

text: In the DC Rebirth relaunch, Eobard first appears in Barry Allen's Speed Force vision, where the latter snaps Thawne's neck as he once did Pre-Crisis.[26][27] He is subsequently featured in another vision where he taunts Barry about his future.[28] The serial-killing speedster Godspeed later attempts to kill Eobard and every other inmate at Iron Heights, only to be stopped by the Flash.[29] Thawne is reverted to his pre-New 52 self after a wave of energy strikes him, and he recalls being killed by Batman (Thomas Wayne) during Flashpoint.[30] Seeking to teach the Dark Knight's son a lesson, Thawne attacks Bruce Wayne in the Batcave and destroys Thomas' letter as retribution. Thawne brutally beats Bruce and verbally taunts him before picking up the Button, which teleports him away to an unknown location. Thawne is then teleported back to the Batcave, having been bathed in radiation by a mysterious entity. As he collapses, Thawne says "God...I saw...God."[31] In the following issue, Batman and the Flash come across Thawne in possession of the Button shortly before his apparent death, and follow him in an attempt to prevent it.[32] As he follows the traces leading to the entity, Thawne muses that he may go back in time to raise his nemesis as a "family friend" after killing his mother, but he is seemingly killed and teleported back to the Batcave.[33]

text: Eobard's corpse is subsequently taken to S.T.A.R. Labs for further examination, but it is revealed that he was able to survive his near-death experience via his connection to the negative Speed Force, the energy of which grants him accelerated regeneration and healing. He is present at Iris West's house when she arrives with her nephew following Multiplex's attack at Barry's birthday party, shocking and terrifying the pair.[34]

text: Eobard brutally beats Wally West II, denouncing him as a fake, and then brings Iris to the future while Barry pursues them. Eobard shows the couple their future, and attempts to imprison Barry in the Negative Speed Force. This backfires as it leads to Barry absorbing the power of the Negative Speed Force and using it to strip Thawne of his speed. Barry declares that their rivalry is done, but Eobard vows that he will get back his powers and keep coming back to torment Barry, before being seemingly killed by Iris. Eobard later returns (possibly resurrected after regaining his connection to the Negative Speed Force) as a member of the Secret Society of Super Villains that kidnapped Deathstroke.

text: Powers and abilities[edit]

text: Even prior to gaining his metahuman abilities, Eobard Thawne already possessed genius-level intellect by the standards of the 25th Century. In The Flash: Rebirth, it is discovered that when he duplicated the accident that gave Barry Allen his powers, he created a negative Speed Force by corrupting the positive version of it. The Reverse-Flash is therefore able to travel at superhuman speeds faster than the speed of light, deliver blows of extreme force, run on water, generate vacuums, create after-images ("speed mirages") of himself, and vibrate his molecules to pass through solid objects. Unlike users of the original Speed Force, Thawne has the ability to travel through and manipulate time, being able to drastically alter history and completely erase people from existence (other speedsters cannot change the past without dramatic consequences). Thawne developed numerous new powers in the events leading up to Flashpoint, including the ability to cross over to other dimensions, create shockwaves across time and space at the snap of his fingers, absorb another's memories via physical contact, and alter the age of anyone or anything.[35] Thawne has also displayed low levels of superhuman strength, as well as electrokinetic abilities. The presence of his lightning is able to disrupt and fry nearby electronics, in addition to allowing him to manipulate magnetism.

text: During the New 52 reboot, Thawne gained the ability to slow down time. He retained his pre-New 52 counterpart's age altering abilities.[36] In the DC Rebirth relaunch, however, Thawne regained his connection to the negative Speed Force and therefore all of his original powers.[37]

text: Other versions[edit]

text: Impulse[edit]

text: In an alternate timeline created when Impulse kills an insect in the Devonian Age, most super-villains are government bureaucrats. Professor Zoom is the National Science Advisor to President-for-Life Julian Tremain.

text: In subsequent changes to the timeline, Zoom defected to the rebellion against Tremain led by Gorilla Grodd; turned into a gorilla fighting against an army of flying turtles led by Grodd, now a flying turtle himself; and was a gorilla in a modern society identical to that of ancient Egypt.[38]

text: In other media[edit]

text: Fan Series[edit]

text: This character is seen in the YouTube fan series Reverse Flash: Origins

text:
Colin K. Bass portrays Eobard Thawne/Reverse Flash.
This is a series that is currently airing on the Nerdbot YouTube channel.

text: Television[edit]

text:
The character is alluded to in the episode "Done With Mirrors" of the 1990 live-action series The Flash, when Barry Allen temporarily takes the pseudonym 'Professor Zoom' while investigating the Mirror Master.
Professor Zoom appears in Batman: The Brave and the Bold, voiced by John Wesley Shipp.[39] In the episode "Requiem for a Scarlet Speedster!", Zoom has conquered the 25th Century and captured the Flash (Barry Allen). Batman, Jay Garrick and Wally West later arrive to free Barry, who then engages Zoom in a fight around the world. The battle ends when the Flash glazes some sand to form a wall of glass to trip Zoom.

text: Arrowverse[edit]

text: Tom Cavanagh and Matt Letscher portray Eobard Thawne/Reverse-Flash in The CW's live-action Arrowverse as Dr. Harrison Wells and in his original likeness, respectively.[41][42]

text:
Professor Eobard Thawne is introduced on The Flash as a scientist from the future who duplicated the reaction that gave Barry Allen/The Flash his powers and became the hero's archenemy, the Reverse-Flash.[43] Eobard travelled back in time to the year 2000 to kill his nemesis as a child. When the 2024 Flash intervened, the Reverse-Flash murdered Barry's mother and framed his father instead, thus erasing this Flash from existence while unintentionally severing his own connection to the Speed Force, leaving him stranded in the 21st Century. Knowing that Dr. Harrison Wells would be responsible for creating metahumans in 2020, Eobard killed the scientist and assumed his identity. He then founded S.T.A.R. Labs and created a particle accelerator to turn Barry into the Flash and regain his own link to the Speed Force. Faking paralysis, "Dr. Wells" pushes Barry to run faster in hopes of using the latter's pure Speed Force connection to travel back to his time. After Eobard's secret is discovered, he is captured by the Flash, the Arrow, and Firestorm. Eobard then offers Barry a chance to travel back in time to save his mother in exchange for a time sphere to return to the future, but Barry ultimately chooses not to do so and returns to destroy Eobard's machine. As the Reverse-Flash prepares to kill the Flash, his ancestor Detective Eddie Thawne kills himself and seemingly erases Eobard from existence. A year later, Barry temporarily creates a new reality and restores a time remnant of Eobard to the timeline in the process.
Letscher plays Thawne's time remnant in season two of Legends of Tomorrow.[44] Victor Garber and Sean MacLean briefly play the character disguised as Professor Martin Stein and NASA astronaut John Swigert, respectively. Eobard forms his own legion of supervillains (composed of Damien Darhk, Malcolm Merlyn and Leonard Snart) to obtain the mystical Spear of Destiny to alter reality, but is ultimately erased from existence by the Black Flash due to his nature as a "time aberration".
Cavanagh reprises his role as Thawne in the 2017 four-part crossover event "Crisis on Earth-X".[45] Somehow surviving his erasure from existence at the end of The Flash's first season, Eobard travelled to Earth-X, a parallel universe where the Axis powers won World War II, and formed an alliance with the Nazi versions of Oliver Queen, Kara Zor-El and Tommy Merlyn there in an attempt to conquer Earth-1. When his allies are killed during the final battle, Thawne escapes and vows to return.

text: Film[edit]

text:
Professor Zoom appears as the main antagonist in Justice League: The Flashpoint Paradox (2013), voiced by C. Thomas Howell.[46] He hires the Rogues to ambush the Flash (Barry Allen) at the Flash Museum before betraying them by placing explosives on their belts to destroy the museum. However, the Justice League arrive to disarm the bombs and apprehend Zoom. When Barry travels back in time to prevent Nora Allen's murder, all of reality is altered, and Aquaman's Atlantean army is at war with Wonder Woman's Amazonian forces. Zoom enters this reality via the Speed Force and saves Lois Lane from the Amazonians to alert Barry of his presence. While Cyborg's metahuman team tries to put an end to the war, Zoom appears and beats Barry. As the Atlanteans' doomsday device destroys the world, Zoom is shot in the head by this reality's Batman. The Flash then taps into the Speed Force once more to stop his past self from altering time, effectively creating a new reality similar to the original.
The Reverse-Flash appears as the main antagonist in the film Lego DC Comics Super Heroes: The Flash, voiced by Dwight Schultz.
Professor Zoom returns as the main antagonist in Suicide Squad: Hell to Pay with C. Thomas Howell reprising his role. In the course of the film, it is revealed that Thawne is barely keeping himself alive after being fatally shot by the Flashpoint Batman, consolidating his speed to draw out the moment of his death, keeping himself alive despite having a large hole in his head. However, this leaves him with only a limited amount of speed force energy to use before he will exhaust the last of his power, which will kill him for good. He attempts to acquire a 'Get Out of Hell Free' card that would allow him to ascend to Heaven and escape his fate, but Bronze Tiger and Deadshot are able to take the card from him as Deadshot attracts his attention before Bronze Tiger cuts off Thawne's fingers as he holds the card as Deadshot fires multiple shoots at Zoom (forming an "X" in the villain's body) and shoots his head, killing him once and for all.

text: Video games[edit]

text:
Professor Zoom appears in various storylines in DC Universe Online.
Professor Zoom is one of the villains recruited by Brainiac to collect Starites in Scribblenauts Unmasked: A DC Comics Adventure. He teams up with Doppelgänger to compete against the Flash and Maxwell.
The Reverse-Flash appears as an unlockable playable character in Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham, voiced by Liam O'Brien.

text: Injustice[edit]

text:
Eobard Thawne is featured in Injustice: Gods Among Us. His Black Lantern design was a playable alternate skin for the Flash as part of a limited exclusive challenge. The 2.6 update for the iOS and Android mobile app introduced a Reverse-Flash card (based on Tom Cavanagh's portrayal and likeness on the TV series The Flash) that can be purchased in the Most Wanted Pack.[47]
The Reverse-Flash appears as a playable character in Injustice 2 via "premier skins", voiced again by Liam O'Brien.[48][49] After being trapped in a paradox when the Regime kills one of his ancestors, Reverse-Flash is left stranded in the 21st Century and joins Gorilla Grodd's "Society". He attempts to kill the Flash with Captain Cold and Deadshot, before being defeated by Wonder Woman at a bar in Metropolis.

text: Parodies[edit]

text: Eobard Thawne has made multiple appearances on Robot Chicken. Seth Green voices him in "Losin' the Wobble", where he robs a bank while the Flash, Superman and Wonder Woman stand idly by, commenting on how lame they think opposite-themed villains like the Reverse-Flash, Bizarro Superman and Negative Wonder Woman are. Matthew Senreich voices him in the Robot Chicken DC Comics Special 2: Villains in Paradise, where he is seen with the Legion of Doom. He makes a non-speaking cameo while fighting the Flash in the Robot Chicken DC Comics Special III: Magical Friendship. Tom Cavanagh reprises his role from the TV series The Flash in the episode "Ants on a Hamburger", where he appears as Harrison Wells.

text: Merchandise[edit]

text:
A DC Universe Action League mini figure of Professor Zoom was released in a two-pack with the Flash.[50]
A Reverse-Flash collectible statue was included in the Justice League: The Flashpoint Paradox Blu-ray combo pack.
A Professor Zoom mini figure was released in DC Direct's Blammoids line.[51]
A Reverse-Flash mini figure was released in Funko Mystery Minis' DC Comics wave.[52]
Funko has released three POP! vinyl figures of Eobard Thawne. The first being based on his appearance in the comic books, the second a Black Lantern exclusive, and the third a The Flash television series version.[53][54][55]
A 2-inch keychain of the Reverse-Flash was released in series 2 of the DC Comics Figural Keychain line.[56]
DC Collectibles has released a 6.75-inch action figure of the Reverse-Flash as part of the Amazon exclusive Blu-ray edition of the complete first season of the TV series The Flash in December 2015.[57]
A GameStop exclusive vinyl collectible of the Reverse-Flash has been released in Dorbz's The Flash wave.[58]


document_title: Stadion (running race)

question_text: who won first ancient olympic 200 yard race

text: Stadion (running race)

text: Stadion or stade (Ancient Greek: στάδιον) was an ancient running event, part of the Ancient Olympic Games and the other Panhellenic Games. It was one of the five major Pentathlon events. It was the premier event of the gymnikos agon (nude competition).[1] From the years 776 to 724 BC, the stadion was the only event that took place at the Olympic Games. The victor gave his name to the entire four-year Olympiad, which has allowed scholars to know the names of nearly every ancient Olympic stadion winner.[1]

text: The stadion was named after the building in which it took place, also called the stadion. This word became stadium in Latin, which became the English word stadium. There were other types of running events, but the stadion was the most prestigious; the winner was often considered to be the winner of an entire Games. Though a separate event, the stadion was also part of the ancient Pentathlon.

text: At the Olympic Games, the stadion (building) was big enough for 20 competitors, and the race was a 200 yd (180 m) sprint,[2] but the original stadion track in Olympia measures approximately 210 yd (190 m). The race began with a trumpet blow, with officials (the agonothetai - ἀγωνοθέται) at the starting blocks to make sure there were no false starts. There were also officials at the end to decide on a winner and to make sure no one had cheated. If the officials decided there was a tie, the race would be re-run. Runners started the race from a standing position, probably with their arms stretched out in front of them, instead of starting in a crouch like modern runners.[2] They ran naked on a packed earth track. By the fifth century, the track was marked by a stone-starting line, the balbis. Advancements in this stone starting block led to it having a set of double grooves (10–12 cm (3.9–4.7 in) apart) in which the runner placed his toes. The design of these grooves were intended to give the runner leverage for his start.[3]

text: The winner of the stadion in the first Olympic Games was Coroebus of Elis.

text: The race gave its name to the unit of length, the Stadion.


document_title: Pro Football Hall of Fame

question_text: who was selected for the 2018 football hall of fame

text: Pro Football Hall of Fame

text: History[edit]

text: The community of Canton, Ohio successfully lobbied the NFL to have the Hall of Fame built in their city for two reasons: first, the NFL was founded in Canton in 1920 (at that time it was known as the American Professional Football Association); second, the now-defunct Canton Bulldogs were a successful NFL team based in Canton during the first few years of the league. Groundbreaking for the building was held on August 11, 1962. The original building contained just two rooms, and 19,000 square feet (1,800 m2) of interior space.[4]

text: In April 1970, ground was broken for the first of many expansions. This first expansion cost $620,000, and was completed in May 1971. The size was increased to 34,000 square feet (3,200 m2) by adding another room. The pro shop opened with this expansion. This was also an important milestone for the Pro Football Hall of Fame, as yearly attendance passed the 200,000 mark for the first time. This was at least in some part due to the increase in popularity of professional football caused by the advent of the American Football League and its success in the final two AFL-NFL World Championship games.[4]

text: In November 1977, work began on another expansion project, costing US$1,200,000. It was completed in November 1978, enlarging the gift shop and research library, while doubling the size of the theater. The total size of the hall was now 50,500 square feet (4,690 m2), more than 2.5 times the original size.[4]

text: The building remained largely unchanged until July 1993. The Hall then announced yet another expansion, costing US$9,200,000, and adding a fifth room. This expansion was completed in October 1995. The building's size was increased to 82,307 square feet (7,647 m2). The most notable addition was the GameDay Stadium, which shows an NFL Films production on a 20-foot (6.1 m) by 42-foot (13 m) Cinemascope screen.[4]

text: In 2013, the Hall of Fame completed its largest expansion and renovation today. Currently, the Hall of Fame consists of 118,000 square feet.

text: An $800 million expansion project, Johnson Controls Hall of Fame Village, is underway and will be completed to coincide with the NFL's Centennial in 2020.[5]

text: Executive Directors/Presidents of Hall of Fame[edit]

text:
Dick McCann (April 4, 1962-November 1967)
Dick Gallagher  (April 1968-December 31, 1975)
Pete  Elliott  (February 1979-October 31, 1996)
John  Bankert  (November 1, 1996-December 31, 2005)
Steve  Perry  (April 24, 2006-January 2014)
David Baker (January 6, 2014-present)[6]

text: Inductees[edit]

text: Through 2017, all inductees except one, played some part of their professional career in the NFL (the lone exception is Buffalo Bills guard Billy Shaw, who played his entire career in the American Football League (AFL) prior to the 1970 AFL–NFL merger). Though several Hall of Famers have had AFL, Canadian Football League, World Football League, United States Football League, Arena Football League and/or Indoor Football League experience, and there is a division of the Hall devoted to alternative leagues such as this, to this point no players have made the Hall without having made significant contributions to either the NFL, AFL or All-America Football Conference. For CFL stars, there is a parallel Canadian Football Hall of Fame; only one player (Warren Moon) and one coach (Bud Grant) are in both halls.

text: The Chicago Bears have the most Hall of Famers among the league's franchises with either 34 or 28 enshrinees depending on whether you count players that only played a small portion of their careers with the team .[7]

text: Selection process[edit]

text: Selection Committee[edit]

text: Enshrinees are selected by a 48-person committee, largely made up of media members, officially known as the Selection Committee.[8]

text: Each city that has a current NFL team sends one representative from the local media to the committee. A city with more than one franchise sends a representative for each franchise.

text: There are also 15 at-large delegates including one representative from the Pro Football Writers Association. Except for the PFWA representative, who is appointed to a two-year term, all other appointments are open-ended and terminated only by death, incapacitation, retirement, or resignation.[8]

text: Voting procedure[edit]

text: To be eligible for the nominating process, a player or coach must have been retired for at least five years. Any other contributor such as a team owner or executive can be voted in at any time.[9]

text: Fans may nominate any player, coach or contributor by simply writing to the Pro Football Hall of Fame via letter or email. The Selection Committee is then polled three times by mail to eventually narrow the list to 25 semifinalists: once in March, once in September, and once in October. In November, the committee then selects 15 finalists by mail balloting. A Seniors and Contributors Committee, subcommittees of the overall Selection Committee, nominate Seniors (those players who completed their careers more than 25 years ago) and Contributors (individuals who made contributions to the game in areas other than playing or coaching).  The Seniors Committee and Contributors Committee add two or one finalist(s) on alternating years which makes a final ballot of 18 finalists under consideration by the full committee each year.[9] Committee members are instructed to only consider a candidate's professional football contributions and to disregard all other factors.[10]

text: The Selection Committee then meets on "Selection Saturday," the day before each Super Bowl game to elect a new class. To be elected, a finalist must receive at least 80 percent support from the Board, with at least four, but no more than eight, candidates being elected annually. Once a contributor is inducted into the Hall, they cannot be banished and remain an inductee forever.[10]

text: Enshrinement ceremony[edit]

text: The enshrinement ceremony is usually held during the first full weekend in August. An enshrinement celebration is held throughout the week in Canton surrounding the enshrinement ceremony.[11]

text: Enshrinees do not go into the Pro Football Hall of Fame as a member of a certain team. Rather, all of an enshrinee's affiliations are listed equally.[9] While the Baseball Hall of Fame plaques generally depict each of their inductees wearing a particular club's cap (with a few exceptions, such as Catfish Hunter and Greg Maddux), the bust sculptures of each Pro Football Hall of Fame inductee make no reference to any specific team. In addition to the bust that goes on permanent display at the Hall of Fame, inductees receive a distinctive Gold Jacket and previous inductees nearly always wear theirs when participating at new inductee ceremonies.

text: Previous induction ceremonies were held during the next day (Sunday from 1999–2005, Saturday in 2006), situated on the steps of the Hall of Fame building. Starting in 2002, the ceremony was moved to Fawcett Stadium, where it was held from 1963 to 1965. Since 2007, the enshrinement ceremony has been held on the Saturday night.[12]

text: Hall of Fame Game[edit]

text: The Hall of Fame Game, the annual NFL preseason opener, is played in Tom Benson Hall of Fame Stadium in Canton, Ohio. In 2017, the Hall of Fame Game was held for the first time on Thursday night. The preseason classic kicks off Enshrinement Week Powered by Johnson Controls and officially kicks off the NFL preseason.

text: Criticism[edit]

text: The Pro Football Hall of Fame uses only media representatives to select inductees. This, along with its policy of inducting only a maximum of seven players a year (six in certain years past), with a current maximum of two "senior" candidates and five "non-seniors," has been criticized by sports columnists, former players, and football fans.[11] Such critics would like to see solutions such as expanding the number of selectors, rotating panel members on and off the selection committee, and allowing former players to participate in the voting.[13] The small number of candidates elected each year has helped foster what some perceive as an inequality of representation at certain positions or in certain categories of player, with defensive players in general and defensive backs and outside linebackers in particular, special teams players, wide receivers, deserving players who primarily played on bad teams, and those from the "seniors" category, being slighted. This has included a 2009 New York Times article which criticized the Hall for not including punter Ray Guy on its ballot, also noting that the Hall did not have an inductee at the time representing the position.[13] (At least two inductees, Sammy Baugh and Yale Lary, punted in addition to playing other positions.) Guy was eventually inducted as part of the 2014 class for the Hall of Fame. There has also been criticism that certain players get overlooked because their team underproduced during their careers.[14]

text: The Pro Football Hall of Fame is unique among North American major league sports halls of fame in that officials have generally been excluded from the Hall; only one, 1966 inductee Hugh "Shorty" Ray, has been enshrined. The National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum, Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame and Hockey Hall of Fame have each inducted game officials as members. In part to rectify the lack of officials and other off-field contributors, the Hall of Fame added a “Contributors” committee beginning with the class of 2015, which will nominate officials, general managers, owners and other positions that have historically been overlooked by the committee at large.[15]

text: Another prominent absence from the Hall is sports-journalist Howard Cosell, who has yet to be awarded the Pete Rozelle Radio-Television Award despite his well-known association with Monday Night Football. An August 2010 Sports Illustrated article hints that Cosell may have even been "blacklisted" by the NFL.[16][17]

text: In 2015, the exclusion of Marvin Harrison from the yearly induction caused some to question the effect politics[clarification needed] has on the induction process. Harrison ranks 3rd all-time in receptions, was selected to the Pro Bowl eight times among many other individual records. He was also named as the hardest receiver to cover by veteran cornerbacks Champ Bailey and Charles Tillman. The duo of Harrison and quarterback Peyton Manning also hold the record for most receptions, touchdowns, and yards between any quarterback and wide receiver combo. Critics argue the induction committee is allowing age and wait time to overshadow production.[18][better source needed] Harrison was inducted into the Hall of Fame as part of the Class of 2016.

text: As the late 2010s approached, a number of controversial and polarizing figures began to reach eligibility for the Hall. Terrell Owens's exclusion from the Hall in his first two years of eligibility despite his strong individual statistics was a subject of public debate.[19] Owens was elected to the Hall of Fame in 2018.


document_title: Lacteal

question_text: what is the name of the lymphatic vessels located in the small intestine

text: Lacteal

text:
Lacteal

Transverse section of a villus, from the human intestine. X 350.
a. Basement membrane, here somewhat shrunken away from the epithelium.
b. Lacteal.
c. Columnar epithelium.
d. Its striated border.
e. Goblet cells.
f. Leucocytes in epithelium.
f’. Leucocytes below epithelium.
g. Bloodvessels.
h. Muscle cells cut across.

Villi of small intestine, showing bloodvessels and lymphatic vessels.

Dorlands
/Elsevier
l_01/12474659

Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]

tag: table

text: A lacteal is a lymphatic capillary that absorbs dietary fats in the villi of the small intestine.

text: Triglycerides are emulsified by bile and hydrolyzed by the enzyme lipase, resulting in a mixture of fatty acids, di- and monoglycerides.[1] These then pass from the intestinal lumen into the enterocyte, where they are re-esterified to form triacylglycerol. The triacylglycerol is then combined with phospholipids, cholesterol ester, and apolipoprotein B48 to form chylomicrons. These chylomicrons then pass into the lacteals, forming a milky substance known as chyle. The lacteals merge to form larger lymphatic vessels that transport the chyle to the thoracic duct where it is emptied into the bloodstream at the subclavian vein.[2][3]

text: At this point, the fats are in the bloodstream in the form of chylomicrons. Once in the blood, chylomicrons are subject to delipidation by lipoprotein lipase. Eventually, enough lipid has been lost and additional apolipoproteins gained, that the resulting particle (now referred to as a chylomicron remnant) can be taken up by the liver. From the liver, the fat released from chylomicron remnants can be re-exported to the blood as the triglyceride component of very low-density lipoproteins. Very low-density lipoproteins, also subject to delipidation by vascular lipoprotein lipase, delivers fats to tissues throughout the body and, in particular, the released fatty acids can be stored in adipose cells as triglycerides. As triglycerides are lost from very low-density lipoproteins, the lipoprotein particle becomes smaller and denser (since protein is denser than lipid) and ultimately becomes low-density lipoproteins. A great deal has been written about low-density lipoproteins because they are thought to be atherogenic.

text: Note that in contrast to any other route of absorption from the small intestine, the lymphatic system avoids first pass metabolism.


document_title: Parthenon

question_text: the inner sanctuary of the parthenon where the statue of athena is located in known as the

text: Parthenon

text: Etymology[edit]

text: The origin of the Parthenon's name is from the Greek word παρθενών (parthenon), which referred to the "unmarried women's apartments" in a house and in the Parthenon's case seems to have been used at first only for a particular room of the temple;[14] it is debated which room this is and how the room acquired its name. The Liddell–Scott–Jones Greek–English Lexicon states that this room was the western cella of the Parthenon, as does J. B. Bury.[7] Jamauri D. Green holds that the parthenon was the room in which the peplos presented to Athena at the Panathenaic Festival was woven by the arrephoroi, a group of four young girls chosen to serve Athena each year.[15] Christopher Pelling asserts that Athena Parthenos may have constituted a discrete cult of Athena, intimately connected with, but not identical to, that of Athena Polias.[16] According to this theory, the name of the Parthenon means the "temple of the virgin goddess" and refers to the cult of Athena Parthenos that was associated with the temple.[17] The epithet parthénos (παρθένος) meant "maiden, girl", but also "virgin, unmarried woman"[18] and was especially used for Artemis, the goddess of wild animals, the hunt, and vegetation, and for Athena, the goddess of strategy and tactics, handicraft, and practical reason.[19] It has also been suggested that the name of the temple alludes to the maidens (parthenoi), whose supreme sacrifice guaranteed the safety of the city.[20] Parthénos has also been applied to the Virgin Mary, Parthénos Maria, and the Parthenon had been converted to a Christian church dedicated to the Virgin Mary in the final decade of the sixth century.[21]

text: The first instance in which Parthenon definitely refers to the entire building is found in the writings of the 4th century BC orator Demosthenes. In 5th-century building accounts, the structure is simply called ho naos ("the temple"). The architects Iktinos and Callicrates are said to have called the building Hekatompedos ("the hundred footer") in their lost treatise on Athenian architecture,[22] and, in the 4th century and later, the building was referred to as the Hekatompedos or the Hekatompedon as well as the Parthenon; the 1st-century-AD writer Plutarch referred to the building as the Hekatompedos Parthenon.[23]

text: Because the Parthenon was dedicated to the Greek goddess Athena, it has sometimes been referred to as the Temple of Minerva, the Roman name for Athena, particularly during the 19th century.[24]

text: Function[edit]

text: Although the Parthenon is architecturally a temple and is usually called so, it is not really one in the conventional sense of the word.[25] A small shrine has been excavated within the building, on the site of an older sanctuary probably dedicated to Athena as a way to get closer to the goddess,[25] but the Parthenon never hosted the cult of Athena Polias, patron of Athens: the cult image, which was bathed in the sea and to which was presented the peplos, was an olivewood xoanon, located at an older altar on the northern side of the Acropolis.[26]

text: The colossal statue of Athena by Phidias was not related to any cult[27] and is not known to have inspired any religious fervour.[26] It did not seem to have any priestess, altar or cult name.[28] According to Thucydides, Pericles once referred to the statue as a gold reserve, stressing that it "contained forty talents of pure gold and it was all removable".[29] The Athenian statesman thus implies that the metal, obtained from contemporary coinage,[30] could be used again without any impiety.[28] The Parthenon should then be viewed as a grand setting for Phidias' votive statue rather than a cult site.[31] It is said[by whom?] in many writings of the Greeks that there were many treasures stored inside the temple, such as Persian swords and small statue figures made of precious metals.

text: Archaeologist Joan Breton Connelly has recently argued for the coherency of the Parthenon’s sculptural programme in presenting a succession of genealogical narratives that track Athenian identity back through the ages: from the birth of Athena, through cosmic and epic battles, to the final great event of the Athenian Bronze Age, the war of Erechtheus and Eumolpos.[32][33] She argues a pedagogical function for the Parthenon’s sculptured decoration, one that establishes and perpetuates Athenian foundation myth, memory, values and identity.[34][35] While some classicists, including Mary Beard, Peter Green, and Garry Wills[36][37] have doubted or rejected Connelly's thesis, an increasing number of historians, archaeologists, and classical scholars support her work. They include: J.J. Pollitt,[38] Brunilde Ridgway,[39] Nigel Spivey,[40] Caroline Alexander,[41] A.E. Stallings.[42]

text: Older Parthenon[edit]

text: The first endeavour to build a sanctuary for Athena Parthenos on the site of the present Parthenon was begun shortly after the Battle of Marathon (c. 490–488 BC) upon a solid limestone foundation that extended and levelled the southern part of the Acropolis summit. This building replaced a hekatompedon (meaning "hundred-footer") and would have stood beside the archaic temple dedicated to Athena Polias ("of the city"). The Older or Pre-Parthenon, as it is frequently referred to, was still under construction when the Persians sacked the city in 480 BC and razed the Acropolis.[8][43]

text: The existence of both the proto-Parthenon and its destruction were known from Herodotus,[44] and the drums of its columns were plainly visible built into the curtain wall north of the Erechtheon. Further physical evidence of this structure was revealed with the excavations of Panagiotis Kavvadias of 1885–90. The findings of this dig allowed Wilhelm Dörpfeld, then director of the German Archaeological Institute, to assert that there existed a distinct substructure to the original Parthenon, called Parthenon I by Dörpfeld, not immediately below the present edifice as had been previously assumed.[45] Dörpfeld's observation was that the three steps of the first Parthenon consisted of two steps of Poros limestone, the same as the foundations, and a top step of Karrha limestone that was covered by the lowest step of the Periclean Parthenon. This platform was smaller and slightly to the north of the final Parthenon, indicating that it was built for a wholly different building, now completely covered over. This picture was somewhat complicated by the publication of the final report on the 1885–90 excavations, indicating that the substructure was contemporary with the Kimonian walls, and implying a later date for the first temple.[46]

text: If the original Parthenon was indeed destroyed in 480, it invites the question of why the site was left a ruin for thirty-three years. One argument involves the oath sworn by the Greek allies before the Battle of Plataea in 479 BC[47] declaring that the sanctuaries destroyed by the Persians would not be rebuilt, an oath from which the Athenians were only absolved with the Peace of Callias in 450.[48] The mundane fact of the cost of reconstructing Athens after the Persian sack is at least as likely a cause. However, the excavations of Bert Hodge Hill led him to propose the existence of a second Parthenon, begun in the period of Kimon after 468 BC.[49] Hill claimed that the Karrha limestone step Dörpfeld thought was the highest of Parthenon I was in fact the lowest of the three steps of Parthenon II, whose stylobate dimensions Hill calculated at 23.51 by 66.888 metres (77.13 ft × 219.45 ft).

text: One difficulty in dating the proto-Parthenon is that at the time of the 1885 excavation the archaeological method of seriation was not fully developed; the careless digging and refilling of the site led to a loss of much valuable information. An attempt to discuss and make sense of the potsherds found on the Acropolis came with the two-volume study by Graef and Langlotz published in 1925–33.[50] This inspired American archaeologist William Bell Dinsmoor to attempt to supply limiting dates for the temple platform and the five walls hidden under the re-terracing of the Acropolis. Dinsmoor concluded that the latest possible date for Parthenon I was no earlier than 495 BC, contradicting the early date given by Dörpfeld.[51] Further, Dinsmoor denied that there were two proto-Parthenons, and held that the only pre-Periclean temple was what Dörpfeld referred to as Parthenon II. Dinsmoor and Dörpfeld exchanged views in the American Journal of Archaeology in 1935.[52]

text: Present building[edit]

text: In the mid-5th century BC, when the Athenian Acropolis became the seat of the Delian League and Athens was the greatest cultural centre of its time, Pericles initiated an ambitious building project that lasted the entire second half of the century. The most important buildings visible on the Acropolis today — the Parthenon, the Propylaia, the Erechtheion and the temple of Athena Nike — were erected during this period. The Parthenon was built under the general supervision of the artist Phidias, who also had charge of the sculptural decoration. The architects Ictinos and Callicrates began their work in 447 BC, and the building was substantially completed by 432, but work on the decorations continued until at least 431.

text: Architecture[edit]

text: The Parthenon is a peripteral octastyle Doric temple with Ionic architectural features. It stands on a platform or stylobate of three steps. In common with other Greek temples, it is of post and lintel construction and is surrounded by columns ("peripteral") carrying an entablature. There are eight columns at either end ("octastyle") and seventeen on the sides. There is a double row of columns at either end. The colonnade surrounds an inner masonry structure, the cella, which is divided into two compartments. At either end of the building the gable is finished with a triangular pediment originally occupied by sculpted figures. The columns are of the Doric order, with simple capitals, fluted shafts and no bases. Above the architrave of the entablature is a frieze of carved pictorial panels (metopes), separated by formal architectural triglyphs, typical of the Doric order. Around the cella and across the lintels of the inner columns runs a continuous sculptured frieze in low relief. This element of the architecture is Ionic in style rather than Doric.[53]

text: Measured at the stylobate, the dimensions of the base of the Parthenon are 69.5 by 30.9 metres (228 by 101 ft). The cella was 29.8 metres long by 19.2 metres wide (97.8 × 63.0 ft). On the exterior, the Doric columns measure 1.9 metres (6.2 ft) in diameter and are 10.4 metres (34 ft) high. The corner columns are slightly larger in diameter. The Parthenon had 46 outer columns and 23 inner columns in total, each column containing 20 flutes. (A flute is the concave shaft carved into the column form.) The roof was covered with large overlapping marble tiles known as imbrices and tegulae.[citation needed]

text: The Parthenon is regarded as the finest example of Greek architecture. The temple, wrote John Julius Cooper, "enjoys the reputation of being the most perfect Doric temple ever built. Even in antiquity, its architectural refinements were legendary, especially the subtle correspondence between the curvature of the stylobate, the taper of the naos walls and the entasis of the columns."[54] Entasis refers to the slight swelling, of 1/8 inch, in the centre of the columns to counteract the appearance of columns having a waist, as the swelling makes them look straight from a distance. The stylobate is the platform on which the columns stand. As in many other classical Greek temples,[55] it has a slight parabolic upward curvature intended to shed rainwater and reinforce the building against earthquakes. The columns might therefore be supposed to lean outwards, but they actually lean slightly inwards so that if they carried on, they would meet almost exactly a mile above the centre of the Parthenon; since they are all the same height, the curvature of the outer stylobate edge is transmitted to the architrave and roof above: "All follow the rule of being built to delicate curves", Gorham Stevens observed when pointing out that, in addition, the west front was built at a slightly higher level than that of the east front.[56]

text: It is not universally agreed what the intended effect of these "optical refinements" was; they may serve as a sort of "reverse optical illusion".[57] As the Greeks may have been aware, two parallel lines appear to bow, or curve outward, when intersected by converging lines. In this case, the ceiling and floor of the temple may seem to bow in the presence of the surrounding angles of the building. Striving for perfection, the designers may have added these curves, compensating for the illusion by creating their own curves, thus negating this effect and allowing the temple to be seen as they intended. It is also suggested that it was to enliven what might have appeared an inert mass in the case of a building without curves, but the comparison ought to be, according to Smithsonian historian Evan Hadingham, with the Parthenon's more obviously curved predecessors than with a notional rectilinear temple.[58]

text: Some studies of the Acropolis, including the Parthenon, conclude that many of its proportions approximate the golden ratio. The Parthenon's façade as well as elements of its façade and elsewhere can be circumscribed by golden rectangles.[59] This view that the golden ratio was employed in the design has been disputed in more recent studies.[60]

text: Sculpture[edit]

text: The cella of the Parthenon housed the chryselephantine statue of Athena Parthenos sculpted by Phidias and dedicated in 439 or 438 BC. The appearance of this is known from other images. The decorative stonework was originally highly coloured.[61] The temple was dedicated to Athena at that time, though construction continued until almost the beginning of the Peloponnesian War in 432. By the year 438, the sculptural decoration of the Doric metopes on the frieze above the exterior colonnade, and of the Ionic frieze around the upper portion of the walls of the cella, had been completed. In the opisthodomus (the back room of the cella) were stored the monetary contributions of the Delian League, of which Athens was the leading member.

text: Only a very small number of the sculptures remain in situ; most of the surviving sculptures are today (controversially) in the British Museum in London as the Elgin Marbles, and the Athens Acropolis Museum, but a few pieces are also in the Louvre, and museums in Rome, Vienna and Palermo.[62]

text: Metopes[edit]

text: The frieze of the Parthenon's entablature contained ninety-two metopes, fourteen each on the east and west sides, thirty-two each on the north and south sides. They were carved in high relief, a practice employed until then only in treasuries (buildings used to keep votive gifts to the gods).[citation needed] According to the building records, the metope sculptures date to the years 446–440 BC. The metopes of the east side of the Parthenon, above the main entrance, depict the Gigantomachy (mythical battles between the Olympian gods and the Giants). The metopes of the west end show Amazonomachy (mythical battle of the Athenians against the Amazons). The metopes of the south side show the Thessalian Centauromachy (battle of the Lapiths aided by Theseus against the half-man, half-horse Centaurs). Metopes 13–21 are missing, but drawings from 1674 attributed to Jaques Carrey indicate a series of humans; these have been variously interpreted as scenes from the Lapith wedding, scenes from the early history of Athens and various myths.[63] On the north side of the Parthenon, the metopes are poorly preserved, but the subject seems to be the sack of Troy.

text: The metopes present examples of the Severe Style in the anatomy of the figures' heads, in the limitation of the corporal movements to the contours and not to the muscles, and in the presence of pronounced veins in the figures of the Centauromachy. Several of the metopes still remain on the building, but, with the exception of those on the northern side, they are severely damaged. Some of them are located at the Acropolis Museum, others are in the British Museum, and one is at the Louvre museum.[citation needed]

text: In March 2011, archaeologists announced that they had discovered five metopes of the Parthenon in the south wall of the Acropolis, which had been extended when the Acropolis was used as a fortress. According to Eleftherotypia daily, the archaeologists claimed the metopes had been placed there in the 18th century when the Acropolis wall was being repaired. The experts discovered the metopes while processing 2,250 photos with modern photographic methods, as the white Pentelic marble they are made of differed from the other stone of the wall. It was previously presumed that the missing metopes were destroyed during the Morosini explosion of the Parthenon in 1687.[64]

text: Frieze[edit]

text: The most characteristic feature in the architecture and decoration of the temple is the Ionic frieze running around the exterior walls of the cella, which is the inside structure of the Parthenon. The bas-relief frieze was carved in situ; it is dated to 442 BC-438 BC.

text: One interpretation is that it depicts an idealized version of the Panathenaic procession from the Dipylon Gate in the Kerameikos to the Acropolis. In this procession held every year, with a special procession taking place every four years, Athenians and foreigners were participating to honour the goddess Athena, offering sacrifices and a new peplos (dress woven by selected noble Athenian girls called ergastines).

text: Joan Breton Connelly offers a mythological interpretation for the frieze, one that is in harmony with the rest of the temple’s sculptural programme which shows Athenian genealogy through a series of succession myths set in the remote past. She identifies the central panel above the door of the Parthenon as the pre-battle sacrifice of the daughter of King Erechtheus, a sacrifice that ensured Athenian victory over Eumolpos and his Thracian army. The great procession marching toward the east end of the Parthenon shows the post-battle thanksgiving sacrifice of cattle and sheep, honey and water, followed by the triumphant army of Erechtheus returning from their victory. This represents the very first Panathenaia set in mythical times, the model on which historic Panathenaic processions was based.[65][66]

text: Pediments[edit]

text: The traveller Pausanias, when he visited the Acropolis at the end of the 2nd century AD, only mentioned briefly the sculptures of the pediments (gable ends) of the temple, reserving the majority of his description for the gold and ivory statue of the goddess inside.

text: East pediment[edit]

text: The figures on the corners of the pediment depict the passage of time over the course of a full day. Tethrippa of Helios and Selene are located on the left and right corners of the pediment respectively. The horses of Helios's chariot are shown with livid expressions as they ascend into the sky at the start of the day; whereas the Selene's horses struggle to stay on the pediment scene as the day comes to an end.[67][68]

text: West pediment[edit]

text: The supporters of Athena are extensively illustrated at the back of the left chariot, while the defenders of Poseidon are shown trailing behind the right chariot. It is believed that the corners of the pediment are filled by Athenian water deities, such as Kephisos river, Ilissos river and nymph Callirhoe. This belief merges from the fluid character of the sculptures' body position which represents the effort of the artist to give the impression of a flowing river.,[69][70] Next to the left river god, there are the sculptures of the mythical king of Athens (Kekrops) with his daughters (Aglauros, Pandrosos, Herse). The statue of Poseidon was the largest sculpture in the pediment until it broke into pieces during Francesco Morosini's effort to remove it in 1688. The posterior piece of the torso was found by Lusieri in the groundwork of a Turkish house in 1801 and is currently held in British Museum. The anterior portion was revealed by Ross in 1835 and is now held in the Acropolis Museum of Athens.[71]

text: Every statue in the west pediment has a fully completed back, which would have been impossible to see when the sculpture was on the temple; this indicates that the sculptors put great effort into accurately portraying the human body.[70]

text: Athena Parthenos[edit]

text: The only piece of sculpture from the Parthenon known to be from the hand of Phidias[72] was the statue of Athena housed in the naos. This massive chryselephantine sculpture is now lost and known only from copies, vase painting, gems, literary descriptions and coins.[73]

text: Later history[edit]

text: Late antiquity[edit]

text: A major fire broke out in the Parthenon shortly after the middle of the third century AD[74][75] which destroyed the Parthenon's roof and much of the sanctuary's interior.[76] Heruli pirates are also credited with sacking Athens in 276, and destroying most of the public buildings there, including the Parthenon.[77] Repairs were made in the fourth century AD, possibly during the reign of Julian the Apostate.[78] A new wooden roof overlaid with clay tiles was installed to cover the sanctuary. It sloped at a greater incline than the original roof and left the building's wings exposed.[76]

text: The Parthenon survived as a temple dedicated to Athena for nearly one thousand years until Theodosius II decreed in 435 AD that all pagan temples in the Byzantine Empire be closed.[79] At some point in the fifth century, Athena's great cult image was looted by one of the emperors and taken to Constantinople, where it was later destroyed, possibly during the siege and sack of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade in 1204 AD.[80]

text: Christian church[edit]

text: The Parthenon was converted into a Christian church in the final decade of the sixth century AD[21] to become the Church of the Parthenos Maria (Virgin Mary), or the Church of the Theotokos (Mother of God). The orientation of the building was changed to face towards the east; the main entrance was placed at the building's western end, and the Christian altar and iconostasis were situated towards the building's eastern side adjacent to an apse built where the temple's pronaos was formerly located.[81][82][83] A large central portal with surrounding side-doors was made in the wall dividing the cella, which became the church's nave, from the rear chamber, the church's narthex.[81] The spaces between the columns of the opisthodomus and the peristyle were walled up, though a number of doorways still permitted access.[81] Icons were painted on the walls and many Christian inscriptions were carved into the Parthenon's columns.[78] These renovations inevitably led to the removal and dispersal of some of the sculptures. Those depicting gods were either possibly re-interpreted according to a Christian theme, or removed and destroyed.[citation needed]

text: The Parthenon became the fourth most important Christian pilgrimage destination in the Eastern Roman Empire after Constantinople, Ephesos, and Thessalonica.[84] In 1018, the emperor Basil II went on a pilgrimage to Athens directly after his final victory over the Bulgarians for the sole purpose of worshipping at the Parthenon.[84] In medieval Greek accounts it is called the Temple of Theotokos Atheniotissa and often indirectly referred to as famous without explaining exactly which temple they were referring to, thus establishing that it was indeed well known.[84]

text: At the time of the Latin occupation, it became for about 250 years a Roman Catholic church of Our Lady. During this period a tower, used either as a watchtower or bell tower and containing a spiral staircase, was constructed at the southwest corner of the cella, and vaulted tombs were built beneath the Parthenon's floor.[85]

text: Islamic mosque[edit]

text: In 1456, Ottoman Turkish forces invaded Athens and laid siege to a Florentine army defending the Acropolis until June 1458, when it surrendered to the Turks.[86] The Turks may have briefly restored the Parthenon to the Greek Orthodox Christians for continued use as a church.[87] Some time before the close of the fifteenth century, the Parthenon became a mosque.[88][89]

text: The precise circumstances under which the Turks appropriated it for use as a mosque are unclear; one account states that Mehmed II ordered its conversion as punishment for an Athenian plot against Ottoman rule.[90] The apse became a mihrab,[91] the tower previously constructed during the Roman Catholic occupation of the Parthenon was extended upwards to become a minaret,[92] a minbar was installed,[81] the Christian altar and iconostasis were removed, and the walls were whitewashed to cover icons of Christian saints and other Christian imagery.[93]

text: Despite the alterations accompanying the Parthenon's conversion into a church and subsequently a mosque, its structure had remained basically intact.[94] In 1667 the Turkish traveller Evliya Çelebi expressed marvel at the Parthenon's sculptures and figuratively described the building as "like some impregnable fortress not made by human agency".[95] He composed a poetic supplication that it, as "a work less of human hands than of Heaven itself, should remain standing for all time".[96] The French artist Jacques Carrey in 1674 visited the Acropolis and sketched the Parthenon's sculptural decorations.[97] Early in 1687, an engineer named Plantier sketched the Parthenon for the Frenchman Graviers d’Ortières.[76] These depictions, particularly those made by Carrey, provide important, and sometimes the only, evidence of the condition of the Parthenon and its various sculptures prior to the devastation it suffered in late 1687 and the subsequent looting of its art objects.[97]

text: Destruction[edit]

text: In 1687, the Parthenon was extensively damaged in the greatest catastrophe to befall it in its long history.[78] As part of the Great Turkish War (1683–1699), the Venetians sent an expedition led by Francesco Morosini to attack Athens and capture the Acropolis. The Ottoman Turks fortified the Acropolis and used the Parthenon as a gunpowder magazine – despite having been forewarned of the dangers of this use by the 1656 explosion that severely damaged the Propylaea – and as a shelter for members of the local Turkish community.[98] On 26 September a Venetian mortar round, fired from the Hill of Philopappus, blew up the magazine, and the building was partly destroyed.[99] The explosion blew out the building's central portion and caused the cella's walls to crumble into rubble.[94] Greek architect and archaeologist Kornilia Chatziaslani writes that "...three of the sanctuary’s four walls nearly collapsed and three-fifths of the sculptures from the frieze fell. Nothing of the roof apparently remained in place. Six columns from the south side fell, eight from the north, as well as whatever remained from eastern porch, except for one column. The columns brought down with them the enormous marble architraves, triglyphs and metopes."[76] About three hundred people were killed in the explosion, which showered marble fragments over nearby Turkish defenders[98] and caused large fires that burned until the following day and consumed many homes.[76]

text: Accounts written at the time conflict over whether this destruction was deliberate or accidental; one such account, written by the German officer Sobievolski, states that a Turkish deserter revealed to Morosini the use to which the Turks had put the Parthenon; expecting that the Venetians would not target a building of such historic importance. Morosini was said to have responded by directing his artillery to aim at the Parthenon.[76][98] Subsequently, Morosini sought to loot sculptures from the ruin and caused further damage in the process. Sculptures of Poseidon and Athena's horses fell to the ground and smashed as his soldiers tried to detach them from the building's west pediment.[82][100]

text: The following year, the Venetians abandoned Athens to avoid a confrontation with a large force the Turks had assembled at Chalcis; at that time, the Venetians had considered blowing up what remained of the Parthenon along with the rest of the Acropolis to deny its further use as a fortification to the Turks, but that idea was not pursued.[98]

text: After the Turks had recaptured the Acropolis they used some of the rubble produced by this explosion to erect a smaller mosque within the shell of the ruined Parthenon.[101] For the next century and a half, portions of the remaining structure were looted for building material and any remaining objects of value.[102]

text: The 18th century was a period of Ottoman stagnation; as a result, many more Europeans found access to Athens, and the picturesque ruins of the Parthenon were much drawn and painted, spurring a rise in philhellenism and helping to arouse sympathy in Britain and France for Greek independence. Amongst those early travellers and archaeologists were James Stuart and Nicholas Revett, who were commissioned by the Society of Dilettanti to survey the ruins of classical Athens. What they produced was the first measured drawings of the Parthenon published in 1787 in the second volume of Antiquities of Athens Measured and Delineated. In 1801, the British Ambassador at Constantinople, the Earl of Elgin, obtained a questionable firman (edict) from the Sultan, whose existence or legitimacy has not been proved until today, to make casts and drawings of the antiquities on the Acropolis, to demolish recent buildings if this was necessary to view the antiquities, and to remove sculptures from them.[citation needed]

text: Independent Greece[edit]

text: When independent Greece gained control of Athens in 1832, the visible section of the minaret was demolished; only its base and spiral staircase up to the level of the architrave remain intact.[103] Soon all the medieval and Ottoman buildings on the Acropolis were destroyed. However, the image of the small mosque within the Parthenon's cella has been preserved in Joly de Lotbinière's photograph, published in Lerebours's Excursions Daguerriennes in 1842: the first photograph of the Acropolis.[104] The area became a historical precinct controlled by the Greek government. Today it attracts millions of tourists every year, who travel up the path at the western end of the Acropolis, through the restored Propylaea, and up the Panathenaic Way to the Parthenon, which is surrounded by a low fence to prevent damage.[citation needed]

text: Dispute over the marbles[edit]

text: The dispute centres around the Parthenon Marbles removed by Thomas Bruce, 7th Earl of Elgin, from 1801 to 1803, which are in the British Museum. A few sculptures from the Parthenon are also in the Louvre in Paris, in Copenhagen, and elsewhere, but more than half are in the Acropolis Museum in Athens.[17][105] A few can still be seen on the building itself. The Greek government has campaigned since 1983 for the British Museum to return the sculptures to Greece.[105] The British Museum has steadfastly refused to return the sculptures,[106] and successive British governments have been unwilling to force the Museum to do so (which would require legislation). Nevertheless, talks between senior representatives from Greek and British cultural ministries and their legal advisors took place in London on 4 May 2007. These were the first serious negotiations for several years, and there were hopes that the two sides may move a step closer to a resolution.[107]

text: Restoration[edit]

text: In 1975, the Greek government began a concerted effort to restore the Parthenon and other Acropolis structures. After some delay, a Committee for the Conservation of the Acropolis Monuments was established in 1983.[108] The project later attracted funding and technical assistance from the European Union. An archaeological committee thoroughly documented every artifact remaining on the site, and architects assisted with computer models to determine their original locations. Particularly important and fragile sculptures were transferred to the Acropolis Museum. A crane was installed for moving marble blocks; the crane was designed to fold away beneath the roofline when not in use. In some cases, prior re-constructions were found to be incorrect. These were dismantled, and a careful process of restoration began.[109] Originally, various blocks were held together by elongated iron H pins that were completely coated in lead, which protected the iron from corrosion. Stabilizing pins added in the 19th century were not so coated, and corroded. Since the corrosion product (rust) is expansive, the expansion caused further damage by cracking the marble.[110]

text:
Restoration works in 2002.

Work in progress in 2007.

A reconstructed architrave block.

Wide-scale restoration in 2010.

Western side works in 2014.

text:
External video

 Sculpture from the Parthenon's East Pediment, Smarthistory[111]