document_title: Louisiana Purchase

question_text: where was the louisiana purchase signed in 1803

text: Louisiana Purchase

text: Background

text: Throughout the second half of the 18th century, Louisiana was a pawn on the chessboard of European politics.[2] It was controlled by the French, who had a few small settlements along the Mississippi and other main rivers. France ceded the territory to Spain in the secret Treaty of Fontainebleau (1762). Following French defeat in the Seven Years' War, Spain gained control of the territory west of the Mississippi and the British the territory to the east of the river.[3]

text: Following the establishment of the United States, the Americans controlled the area east of the Mississippi and north of New Orleans. The main issue for the Americans was free transit of the Mississippi to the sea. As the lands were being gradually settled by a few American migrants, many Americans, including Jefferson, assumed that the territory would be acquired "piece by piece." The risk of another power taking it from a weakened Spain made a "profound reconsideration" of this policy necessary.[2] New Orleans was already important for shipping agricultural goods to and from the areas of the United States west of the Appalachian Mountains. Pinckney's Treaty, signed with Spain on October 27, 1795, gave American merchants "right of deposit" in New Orleans, granting them use of the port to store goods for export. Americans used this right to transport products such as flour, tobacco, pork, bacon, lard, feathers, cider, butter, and cheese. The treaty also recognized American rights to navigate the entire Mississippi, which had become vital to the growing trade of the western territories.[3]

text: In 1798, Spain revoked the treaty allowing American use of New Orleans, greatly upsetting Americans. In 1801, Spanish Governor Don Juan Manuel de Salcedo took over from the Marquess of Casa Calvo, and restored the American right to deposit goods. However, in 1800 Spain had ceded the Louisiana territory back to France as part of Napoleon's secret Third Treaty of San Ildefonso.[4] The territory nominally remained under Spanish control, until a transfer of power to France on 30 November 1803, just three weeks before the formal cession of the territory to the United States on 20 December 1803.[5] A further ceremony was held in St. Louis, Upper Louisiana regarding the New Orleans formalities. The 9–10 March 1804 event is remembered as Three Flags Day.[6][7]

text: James Monroe and Robert R. Livingston had traveled to Paris to negotiate the purchase of New Orleans in January 1803. Their instructions were to negotiate or purchase control of New Orleans and its environs; they did not anticipate the much larger acquisition which would follow.[8]

text: The Louisiana Purchase was by far the largest territorial gain in U.S. history. Stretching from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains, the purchase doubled the size of the United States. Before 1803, Louisiana had been under Spanish control for forty years. Although Spain aided the rebels in the American Revolutionary War, the Spanish didn't want the Americans to settle in their territory.[9]

text: Although the purchase was thought of by some as unjust and unconstitutional, Jefferson determined that his constitutional power to negotiate treaties allowed the purchase of what became fifteen states. In hindsight, the Louisiana Purchase could be considered one of his greatest contributions to the United States.[10] On April 18, 1802, Jefferson penned a letter to United States Ambassador to France Robert Livingston. It was an intentional exhortation to make this supposedly mild diplomat strongly warn the French of their perilous course. The letter began:

text: The cession of Louisiana and the Floridas by Spain to France works most sorely on the U.S. On this subject the Secretary of State has written to you fully. Yet I cannot forbear recurring to it personally, so deep is the impression it makes in my mind. It completely reverses all the political relations of the U.S. and will form a new epoch in our political course. Of all nations of any consideration France is the one which hitherto has offered the fewest points on which we could have any conflict of right, and the most points of a communion of interests. From these causes we have ever looked to her as our natural friend, as one with which we never could have an occasion of difference. Her growth therefore we viewed as our own, her misfortunes ours. There is on the globe one single spot, the possessor of which is our natural and habitual enemy. It is New Orleans, through which the produce of three-eighths of our territory must pass to market, and from its fertility it will ere long yield more than half of our whole produce and contain more than half our inhabitants. France placing herself in that door assumes to us the attitude of defiance. Spain might have retained it quietly for years. Her pacific dispositions, her feeble state, would induce her to increase our facilities there, so that her possession of the place would be hardly felt by us, and it would not perhaps be very long before some circumstance might arise which might make the cession of it to us the price of something of more worth to her. Not so can it ever be in the hands of France. The impetuosity of her temper, the energy and restlessness of her character, placed in a point of eternal friction with us...

text: Jefferson's letter went on with the same heat to a much quoted passage about "the day that France takes possession of New Orleans." Not only did he say that day would be a low point in France's history, for it would seal America's marriage with the British fleet and nation, but he added, astonishingly, that it would start a massive shipbuilding program.[11]

text: Negotiation

text: While the transfer of the territory by Spain back to France in 1800 went largely unnoticed, fear of an eventual French invasion spread nationwide when, in 1801, Napoleon sent a military force to secure New Orleans. Southerners feared that Napoleon would free all the slaves in Louisiana, which could trigger slave uprisings elsewhere.[12] Though Jefferson urged moderation, Federalists sought to use this against Jefferson and called for hostilities against France. Undercutting them, Jefferson took up the banner and threatened an alliance with the United Kingdom, although relations were uneasy in that direction.[12] In 1801 Jefferson supported France in its plan to take back Saint-Domingue (present-day Haiti), which was then under control of Toussaint Louverture after a slave rebellion.

text: Jefferson sent Livingston to Paris in 1801[13] after discovering the transfer of Louisiana from Spain to France under the Third Treaty of San Ildefonso. Livingston was authorized to purchase New Orleans.

text: In January 1802, France sent General Charles Leclerc to Saint-Domingue (present-day Haiti) to re-establish slavery, which had been abolished by the constitution of the French Republic of 1795, as well as to reduce the rights of free people of color and take back control of the island from Toussaint Louverture. Louverture had fended off invasions of St. Domingue by the Spanish and British empires, but had also begun to consolidate power for himself on the island. Before the Revolution, France had derived enormous wealth from St. Domingue at the cost of the lives and freedom of the slaves. Napoleon wanted its revenues and productivity for France restored. Alarmed over the French actions and its intention to re-establish an empire in North America, Jefferson declared neutrality in relation to the Caribbean, refusing credit and other assistance to the French, but allowing war contraband to get through to the rebels to prevent France from regaining a foothold.[14]

text: In November 1803, France withdrew its 7,000 surviving troops from Saint-Domingue (more than two-thirds of its troops died there) and gave up its ambitions in the Western Hemisphere.[15] In 1804 Haiti declared its independence; but, fearing a slave revolt at home, Jefferson and Congress refused to recognize the new republic, the second in the Western Hemisphere, and imposed a trade embargo against it. This, together with later claims by France to reconquer Haiti, encouraged by the United Kingdom, made it more difficult for Haiti to recover after ten years of wars.[16]

text: In 1803, Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours, a French nobleman, began to help negotiate with France at the request of Jefferson. Du Pont was living in the United States at the time and had close ties to Jefferson as well as the prominent politicians in France. He engaged in back-channel diplomacy with Napoleon on Jefferson's behalf during a visit to France and originated the idea of the much larger Louisiana Purchase as a way to defuse potential conflict between the United States and Napoleon over North America.[17]

text: Jefferson disliked the idea of purchasing Louisiana from France, as that could imply that France had a right to be in Louisiana. Jefferson had concerns that a U.S. president did not have the constitutional authority to make such a deal. He also thought that to do so would erode states' rights by increasing federal executive power. On the other hand, he was aware of the potential threat that France could be in that region and was prepared to go to war to prevent a strong French presence there.[citation needed]

text: Throughout this time, Jefferson had up-to-date intelligence on Napoleon's military activities and intentions in North America. Part of his evolving strategy involved giving du Pont some information that was withheld from Livingston. He also gave intentionally conflicting instructions to the two.[citation needed] Desperate to avoid possible war with France, Jefferson sent James Monroe to Paris in 1803 to negotiate a settlement, with instructions to go to London to negotiate an alliance if the talks in Paris failed. Spain procrastinated until late 1802 in executing the treaty to transfer Louisiana to France, which allowed American hostility to build. Also, Spain's refusal to cede Florida to France meant that Louisiana would be indefensible. Monroe had been formally expelled from France on his last diplomatic mission, and the choice to send him again conveyed a sense of seriousness.

text: Napoleon needed peace with the United Kingdom to implement the Treaty of San Ildefonso and take possession of Louisiana. Otherwise, Louisiana would be an easy prey for the UK or even for the United States. But in early 1803, continuing war between France and the UK seemed unavoidable. On March 11, 1803, Napoleon began preparing to invade the UK.

text: As Napoleon had failed to re-enslave the emancipated population of Haiti, he abandoned his plans to rebuild France's New World empire. Without sufficient revenues from sugar colonies in the Caribbean, Louisiana had little value to him. Spain had not yet completed the transfer of Louisiana to France, and war between France and the UK was imminent. Out of anger towards Spain and the unique opportunity to sell something that was useless and not truly his yet, Napoleon decided to sell the entire territory.[18]

text: Although the foreign minister Talleyrand opposed the plan, on April 10, 1803, Napoleon told the Treasury Minister François de Barbé-Marbois that he was considering selling the entire Louisiana Territory to the United States. On April 11, 1803, just days before Monroe's arrival, Barbé-Marbois offered Livingston all of Louisiana for $15 million,[19] (equivalent to about $300 million in 2016 dollars,[20]) which averages to less than three cents per acre (7 ¢/ha).[21][22]

text: The American representatives were prepared to pay up to $10 million for New Orleans and its environs, but were dumbfounded when the vastly larger territory was offered for $15 million. Jefferson had authorized Livingston only to purchase New Orleans. However, Livingston was certain that the United States would accept the offer.[23]

text: The Americans thought that Napoleon might withdraw the offer at any time, preventing the United States from acquiring New Orleans, so they agreed and signed the Louisiana Purchase Treaty on April 30, 1803. On July 4, 1803, the treaty reached Washington, D.C.. The Louisiana Territory was vast, stretching from the Gulf of Mexico in the south to Rupert's Land in the north, and from the Mississippi River in the east to the Rocky Mountains in the west. Acquiring the territory would double the size of the United States, at a sum of less than 3 cents per acre.

text: Domestic opposition and constitutionality

text: Henry Adams and other historians have argued that Jefferson acted hypocritically with the Louisiana Purchase, due to his position as a strict constructionist regarding the Constitution since he stretched the intent of that document to justify his purchase.[24] This argument goes as follows:

text: The American purchase of the Louisiana territory was not accomplished without domestic opposition. Jefferson's philosophical consistency was in question because of his strict interpretation of the Constitution. Many people believed that he and others, including James Madison, were doing something they surely would have argued against with Alexander Hamilton. The Federalists strongly opposed the purchase, favoring close relations with Britain over closer ties to Napoleon, and were concerned that the United States had paid a large sum of money just to declare war on Spain.[citation needed]

text: Both Federalists and Jeffersonians were concerned over the purchase's constitutionality. Many members of the House of Representatives opposed the purchase. Majority Leader John Randolph led the opposition. The House called for a vote to deny the request for the purchase, but it failed by two votes, 59–57. The Federalists even tried to prove the land belonged to Spain, not France, but available records proved otherwise.[25]

text: The Federalists also feared that the power of the Atlantic seaboard states would be threatened by the new citizens in the West, whose political and economic priorities were bound to conflict with those of the merchants and bankers of New England. There was also concern that an increase in the number of slave-holding states created out of the new territory would exacerbate divisions between North and South as well. A group of Northern Federalists led by Senator Timothy Pickering of Massachusetts went so far as to explore the idea of a separate northern confederacy.

text: Another concern was whether it was proper to grant citizenship to the French, Spanish, and free black people living in New Orleans, as the treaty would dictate. Critics in Congress worried whether these "foreigners", unacquainted with democracy, could or should become citizens.[26]

text: Spain protested the transfer on two grounds: First, France had previously promised in a note not to alienate Louisiana to a third party and second, France had not fulfilled the Third Treaty of San Ildefonso by having the King of Etruria recognized by all European powers. The French government replied that these objections were baseless since the promise not to alienate Louisiana was not in the treaty of San Ildefonso itself and therefore had no legal force, and the Spanish government had ordered Louisiana to be transferred in October 1802 despite knowing for months that Britain had not recognized the King of Etruria in the Treaty of Amiens.[27]

text: Henry Adams claimed "The sale of Louisiana to the United States was trebly invalid; if it were French property, Bonaparte could not constitutionally alienate it without the consent of the French Chambers; if it were Spanish property, he could not alienate it at all; if Spain had a right of reclamation, his sale was worthless."[28] The sale of course was not "worthless"—the U.S. actually did take possession. Furthermore, the Spanish prime minister had authorized the U.S. to negotiate with the French government "the acquisition of territories which may suit their interests." Spain turned the territory over to France in a ceremony in New Orleans on November 30, a month before France turned it over to American officials.[29]

text: Other historians counter the above arguments regarding Jefferson's alleged hypocrisy by asserting that countries change their borders in two ways: (1) conquest, or (2) an agreement between nations, otherwise known as a treaty. The Louisiana Purchase was the latter, a treaty. The Constitution specifically grants the president the power to negotiate treaties (Art. II, Sec. 2), which is just what Jefferson did.[30]

text: Jefferson's Secretary of State, James Madison (the "Father of the Constitution"), assured Jefferson that the Louisiana Purchase was well within even the strictest interpretation of the Constitution. Treasury Secretary Albert Gallatin added that since the power to negotiate treaties was specifically granted to the president, the only way extending the country's territory by treaty could not be a presidential power would be if it were specifically excluded by the Constitution (which it was not). Jefferson, as a strict constructionist, was right to be concerned about staying within the bounds of the Constitution, but felt the power of these arguments and was willing to "acquiesce with satisfaction" if the Congress approved the treaty.[31]

text: The Senate quickly ratified the treaty, and the House, with equal alacrity, authorized the required funding, as the Constitution specifies.[32][33]

text: The opposition of New England Federalists to the Louisiana Purchase was primarily economic self-interest, not any legitimate concern over constitutionality or whether France indeed owned Louisiana or was required to sell it back to Spain should it desire to dispose of the territory. The Northerners were not enthusiastic about Western farmers gaining another outlet for their crops that did not require the use of New England ports. Also, many Federalists were speculators in lands in upstate New York and New England and were hoping to sell these lands to farmers, who might go west instead, if the Louisiana Purchase went through. They also feared that this would lead to Western states being formed, which would likely be Republican, and dilute the political power of New England Federalists.[32][34]

text: When Spain later objected to the United States purchasing Louisiana from France, Madison responded that America had first approached Spain about purchasing the property, but had been told by Spain itself that America would have to treat with France for the territory.[35]

text: Treaty signing

text: The Louisiana Purchase Treaty was signed on 30 April by Robert Livingston, James Monroe, and Barbé Marbois in Paris. Jefferson announced the treaty to the American people on July 4. After the signing of the Louisiana Purchase agreement in 1803, Livingston made this famous statement, "We have lived long, but this is the noblest work of our whole lives... From this day the United States take their place among the powers of the first rank."[36]

text: The United States Senate advised and consented to ratification of the treaty with a vote of twenty-four to seven on October 20. The Senators who voted against the treaty were: Simeon Olcott and William Plumer of New Hampshire, William Wells and Samuel White of Delaware, James Hillhouse and Uriah Tracy of Connecticut, and Timothy Pickering of Massachusetts.

text: On the following day, October 21, 1803, the Senate authorized Jefferson to take possession of the territory and establish a temporary military government. In legislation enacted on October 31, Congress made temporary provisions for local civil government to continue as it had under French and Spanish rule and authorized the President to use military forces to maintain order. Plans were also set forth for several missions to explore and chart the territory, the most famous being the Lewis and Clark Expedition.[37]

text: A timeline of legislation can be found at the Library of Congress: American Memory:The Louisiana Purchase Legislative Timeline--1803-1804.[38]

text: Formal transfers and initial organization

text: France turned over New Orleans, the historic colonial capital, on December 20, 1803, at the Cabildo, with a flag-raising ceremony in the Plaza de Armas, now Jackson Square. Just three weeks earlier, on November 30, 1803, Spanish officials had formally conveyed the colonial lands and their administration to France.

text: On March 9 and 10, 1804, another ceremony, commemorated as Three Flags Day, was conducted in St. Louis, to transfer ownership of Upper Louisiana from Spain to the French First Republic, and then from France to the United States. From March 10 to September 30, 1804, Upper Louisiana was supervised as a military district, under Commandant Amos Stoddard.[citation needed]

text: Effective October 1, 1804, the purchased territory was organized into the Territory of Orleans (most of which would become the state of Louisiana) and the District of Louisiana, which was temporarily under control of the governor and judicial system of the Indiana Territory. The following year, the District of Louisiana was renamed the Territory of Louisiana, aka Louisiana Territory (1805–1812).[citation needed]

text: New Orleans was the administrative capital of the Orleans Territory, and St. Louis was the capital of the Louisiana Territory.[citation needed]

text: Boundaries

text: A dispute soon arose between Spain and the United States regarding the extent of Louisiana. The territory's boundaries had not been defined in the 1762 Treaty of Fontainebleau that ceded it from France to Spain, nor in the 1801 Third Treaty of San Ildefonso ceding it back to France, nor the 1803 Louisiana Purchase agreement ceding it to the United States.[39]

text: The United States claimed Louisiana included the entire western portion of the Mississippi River drainage basin to the crest of the Rocky Mountains and land extending southeast to the Rio Grande and West Florida.[40] Spain insisted that Louisiana comprised no more than the western bank of the Mississippi River and the cities of New Orleans and St. Louis.[41] The dispute was ultimately resolved by the Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819, with the United States gaining most of what it had claimed in the west.[citation needed]

text: The relatively narrow Louisiana of New Spain had been a special province under the jurisdiction of the Captaincy General of Cuba while the vast region to the west was in 1803 still considered part of the Commandancy General of the Provincias Internas. Louisiana had never been considered one of New Spain's internal provinces.[42]

text: If the territory included all the tributaries of the Mississippi on its western bank, the northern reaches of the Purchase extended into the equally ill-defined British possession—Rupert's Land of British North America, now part of Canada. The Purchase originally extended just beyond the 50th parallel. However, the territory north of the 49th parallel (including the Milk River and Poplar River watersheds) was ceded to the UK in exchange for parts of the Red River Basin south of 49th parallel in the Anglo-American Convention of 1818.[citation needed]

text: The eastern boundary of the Louisiana purchase was the Mississippi River, from its source to the 31st parallel, though the source of the Mississippi was, at the time, unknown. The eastern boundary below the 31st parallel was unclear. The U.S. claimed the land as far as the Perdido River, and Spain claimed that the border of its Florida Colony remained the Mississippi River. In early 1804, Congress passed the Mobile Act, which recognized West Florida as part of the United States. The Adams–Onís Treaty with Spain (1819) resolved the issue upon ratification in 1821. Today, the 31st parallel is the northern boundary of the western half of the Florida Panhandle, and the Perdido is the western boundary of Florida.[citation needed]

text: Because the western boundary was contested at the time of the Purchase, President Jefferson immediately began to organize three missions to explore and map the new territory. All three started from the Mississippi River. The Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804) traveled up the Missouri River; the Red River Expedition (1806) explored the Red River basin; the Pike Expedition (1806) also started up the Missouri, but turned south to explore the Arkansas River watershed. The maps and journals of the explorers helped to define the boundaries during the negotiations leading to the Adams–Onís Treaty, which set the western boundary as follows: north up the Sabine River from the Gulf of Mexico to its intersection with the 32nd parallel, due north to the Red River, up the Red River to the 100th meridian, north to the Arkansas River, up the Arkansas River to its headwaters, due north to the 42nd parallel and due west to its previous boundary.

text: Slavery

text: Governing the Louisiana Territory was more difficult than acquiring it. Its European peoples, of ethnic French, Spanish and Mexican descent, were largely Catholic; in addition, there was a large population of enslaved Africans made up of a high proportion of recent arrivals, as Spain had continued the international slave trade. This was particularly true in the area of the present-day state of Louisiana, which also contained a large number of free people of color. Both present-day Arkansas and Missouri already had some slaveholders in the early 19th century.

text: During this period, south Louisiana received an influx of French-speaking refugee planters, who were permitted to bring their slaves with them, and other refugees fleeing the large slave revolt in Saint-Domingue, today's Haiti. Many Southern slaveholders feared that acquisition of the new territory might inspire American-held slaves to follow the example of those in Saint-Domingue and revolt. They wanted the US government to establish laws allowing slavery in the newly acquired territory so they could be supported in taking their slaves there to undertake new agricultural enterprises, as well as to reduce the threat of future slave rebellions.[43]

text: The Louisiana Territory was broken into smaller portions for administration, and the territories passed slavery laws similar to those in the southern states but incorporating provisions from the preceding French and Spanish rule (for instance, Spain had prohibited slavery of Native Americans in 1769, but some slaves of mixed African-Native American descent were still being held in St. Louis in Upper Louisiana when the U.S. took over).[44] In a freedom suit that went from Missouri to the US Supreme Court, slavery of Native Americans was finally ended in 1836.[44] The institutionalization of slavery under U.S. law in the Louisiana Territory contributed to the American Civil War a half century later.[43] As states organized within the territory, the status of slavery in each state became a matter of contention in Congress, as southern states wanted slavery extended to the west, and northern states just as strongly opposed new states being admitted as "slave states."

text: The Missouri Compromise of 1820 was a temporary solution.[citation needed]

text: Asserting U.S. possession

text: After the early explorations, the U.S. government sought to establish control of the region, since trade along the Mississippi and Missouri rivers was still dominated by British and French traders from Canada and allied Indians, especially the Sauk and Fox. The U.S. adapted the former Spanish facility at Fort Bellefontaine as a fur trading post near St. Louis in 1804 for business with the Sauk and Fox.[45] In 1808 two military forts with trading factories were built, Fort Osage along the Missouri River in western present-day Missouri and Fort Madison along the Upper Mississippi River in eastern present-day Iowa.[46] With tensions increasing with Great Britain, in 1809 Fort Bellefontaine was converted to a U.S. military fort, and was used for that purpose until 1826.

text: During the War of 1812, Great Britain and allied Indians defeated U.S. forces in the Upper Mississippi; the U.S. abandoned Forts Osage and Madison, as well as several other U.S. forts built during the war, including Fort Johnson and Fort Shelby. After U.S. ownership of the region was confirmed in the Treaty of Ghent (1814), the U.S. built or expanded forts along the Mississippi and Missouri rivers, including adding to Fort Bellefontaine, and constructing Fort Armstrong (1816) and Fort Edwards (1816) in Illinois, Fort Crawford (1816) in Prairie du Chien Wisconsin, Fort Snelling (1819) in Minnesota, and Fort Atkinson (1819) in Nebraska.[46]

text: Financing

text: The American government used $3 million in gold as a down payment, and issued bonds for the balance to pay France for the purchase. Earlier that year, Francis Baring and Company of London had become the U.S. government's official banking agent in London. Because of this favored position, the U.S. asked the Baring firm to handle the transaction. Francis Baring's son Alexander was in Paris at the time and helped in the negotiations.[47] Another Baring advantage was a close relationship with Hope and Company of Amsterdam. The two banking houses worked together to facilitate and underwrite the Purchase.

text: Because Napoleon wanted to receive his money as quickly as possible, the two firms received the American bonds and shipped the gold to France.[47] Napoleon used the money to finance his planned invasion of England, which never took place.[48]


document_title: List of state and union territory capitals in India

question_text: what is the name of india 29 state

question_tokens: what is the name of india 29 state

root

text: List[edit]

text:
No.

State orunion territory

Administrative capitals

Legislative capitals

Judiciary capitals

Year capital was established

The Former capital

1

Andaman and Nicobar Islands

Port Blair

Port Blair

Kolkata

1955

Calcutta (1945–1955)

2

Andhra Pradesh

Hyderabad (de jure to 2024)Amaravati (de facto from 2017)[3] [4] [a]

Amaravati [3]

Hyderabad

19562017

Kurnool (1953-1956)

3

Arunachal Pradesh

Itanagar

Itanagar

Guwahati

1986

4

Assam

Dispur

Guwahati

Guwahati

1975

Shillong[b] (1874–1952)

5

Bihar

Patna

Patna

Patna

1912

6

Chandigarh

Chandigarh[c]

 —

Chandigarh

1966

 —

7

Chhattisgarh

Naya Raipur[d]

Raipur

Bilaspur

2000

 —

8

Dadra and Nagar Haveli

Silvassa

 —

Mumbai

1945

Mumbai (1954–1961)  Panaji (1961–1987)

9

Daman and Diu

Daman

 —

Mumbai

1987

Ahmedabad (1961–1963) Panaji (1963–1987)

10

National Capital Territory of Delhi

New Delhi

New Delhi

New Delhi

1931

 —

11

Goa

Panaji[e]

Porvorim

Mumbai

1961

Panaji (1961–1987)

12

Gujarat

Gandhinagar

Gandhinagar

Ahmedabad

1960

Ahmedabad (1960–1970)

13

Haryana

Chandigarh

Chandigarh

Chandigarh

1966

 —

14

Himachal Pradesh

Shimla
Dharamshala (W/2nd)[8]

Shimla (Summer)
Dharamsala(Winter)

Shimla

1971
2017

Bilaspur (1950–1956)

15

Jammu and Kashmir

Srinagar (Summer)Jammu (Winter)

Srinagar (Summer)Jammu (Winter)

Srinagar (Summer)Jammu (Winter)

1947

 —

16

Jharkhand

Ranchi

Ranchi

Ranchi

2000

17

Karnataka

Bengaluru

Bengaluru

Bengaluru

1940

(Mysore)

18

Kerala

Thiruvananthapuram

Thiruvananthapuram

Kochi

1956

19

Lakshadweep

Kavaratti

Kavaratti

Kochi

1956

20

Madhya Pradesh

Bhopal

Bhopal

Jabalpur

1956

Nagpur[f] (1861–1956)

21

Maharashtra

Mumbai[g] Nagpur (W/2nd)[h]

Mumbai (S+B) Nagpur (W)[i]

Mumbai

1818  1960

 —

22

Manipur

Imphal

Imphal

Imphal

1947

 —

23

Meghalaya

Shillong

Shillong

Shillong

1970

 —

24

Mizoram

Aizawl

Aizawl

Guwahati

1972

 —

25

Nagaland

Kohima

Kohima

Guwahati

1963

 —

26

Odisha

Bhubaneswar

Bhubaneswar

Cuttack

1948

Cuttack (1936–1948)

27

Puducherry

Puducherry

Puducherry

Chennai

1954

Madras (1948–1954)

28

Punjab

Chandigarh

Chandigarh

Chandigarh

1966

29

Rajasthan

Jaipur

Jaipur

Jodhpur

1950

 —

30

Sikkim

Gangtok[j]

Gangtok

Gangtok

1890

 —

31

Tamil Nadu

Chennai[k]

Chennai

Chennai

1956

32

Telangana

Hyderabad[l]

Hyderabad

Hyderabad

2014

 —

33

Tripura

Agartala

Agartala

Agartala

1956

 —

34

Uttar Pradesh

Lucknow

Lucknow

Allahabad

1938

 —

35

Uttarakhand

Dehradun[m]

Dehradun

Nainital

2000

 —

36

West Bengal

Kolkata

Kolkata

Kolkata

1947

tag: table

tag: p

text: Explanatory notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ After the formation of Telangana, as per the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014, both states will share Hyderabad as their common capital for up to ten years. The new capital of Andhra Pradesh is going to be Amaravati, decided by the Andhra Pradesh government in April, 2016.

Jump up ^ Shilong was the joint capital of Assam and Meghalaya until 1971.[5]

Jump up ^ Chandigarh is the capital of the states of Punjab and Haryana, and is a Union Territory, separate from the two states.[6]

Jump up ^ Raipur is the interim capital of Chhattisgarh. The town of Naya Raipur 17 km from Raipur is envisaged as the state's new capital.

Jump up ^ Panaji was the capital of Goa from 1843 when it was ruled by the Portuguese.[7]

Jump up ^ Nagpur was the capital of Central Provinces and Berar which was a province from 1861 until 1950.[9] Central Province became the major constituent of Madhya Pradesh, after it was formed in 1950.[9] Nagpur remained the capital of the new state.[10] In 1956, Berar (Vidarbha) was separated from Madhya Pradesh, and merged with the Bombay State. Nagpur thus lost the status of a capital city. In 1960, under the Nagpur pact, Nagpur became the second capital of Maharashtra.[11]

Jump up ^ Mumbai / Bombay was the capital of Bombay Presidency which was a province until 1950. After that Bombay became the capital of Bombay State. Subsequently, Bombay State was split into Gujarat and Maharashtra in 1960.

Jump up ^ In 1960, under the Nagpur pact, Nagpur became the second capital of Maharashtra.[11] Although an official notification to this effect was only given in 1988. The India yearbook of the government of India still does not mention Nagpur, being either the second or winter capital of Maharashtra.

Jump up ^ Under the Nagpur pact, one of the preconditions for Vidarbha joining the state of Maharastra was that, at least one of the legislative sessions every year should be held in Nagpur. The winter session is held in Nagpur.[12]

Jump up ^ Gangtok has been the capital of Sikkim since 1890. Sikkim joined the Indian Union in 1975.[13]

Jump up ^ Chennai (Madras) was the capital of the Madras Presidency since 1839, which was redrawn as Madras State in 1956. Madras State was renamed as Tamil Nadu in 1968.

Jump up ^ After the formation of Telangana, as per the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014, both states will share Hyderabad as their common capital for ten years. The new Andhra Pradesh Capital City capital is going to be Amaravati, decided by the Andhra Pradesh government in April, 2016.

Jump up ^ Dehradun is the interim capital of Uttarakhand. The town of Gairsain is envisaged as the state's new capital.[14]

tag: ol


document_title: Ivy League

question_text: when did harvard become an ivy league school

question_tokens: when did harvard become an ivy league school

text: Ivy League

text: Members

text: Ivy League universities have some of the largest university financial endowments in the world, which allows the universities to provide many resources for their academic programs and research endeavors. As of 2014, Harvard University has an endowment of $36.4 billion.[9] Additionally, each university receives millions of dollars in research grants and other subsidies from federal and state governments.

text:
Institution
Location
Athletic nickname
Enrollment
2017 Endowment
Academic staff
Colors

Brown University
Providence, Rhode Island
Bears
7003864900000000000♠8,649
$3.5 billion[10]
7002736000000000000♠736[11]

Columbia University
New York City, New York
Lions
7004229200000000000♠22,920
$10.0 billion[12]
7003376300000000000♠3,763[13]

Cornell University
Ithaca, New York
Big Red
7004206330000000000♠20,633
$6.8 billion[14]
7003290800000000000♠2,908

Dartmouth College
Hanover, New Hampshire
Big Green
7003614100000000000♠6,141
$4.96 billion[15]
571

Harvard University
Cambridge, Massachusetts
Crimson
7004212250000000000♠21,225
$37.1 billion[16]
7003467100000000000♠4,671[17]

University of Pennsylvania
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Quakers
7004206430000000000♠20,643
$12.2 billion[18]
7003446400000000000♠4,464[18]

Princeton University
Princeton, New Jersey
Tigers
7003759200000000000♠7,592
$23.8 billion[19]
7003117200000000000♠1,172

Yale University
New Haven, Connecticut
Bulldogs
7004116660000000000♠11,666
$27.8 billion[20]
7003414000000000000♠4,140

text: History

text: Year founded

text:
Institution
Founded
Founding affiliation

Harvard University[21]
1636 as New College
Calvinist (Congregationalist Puritans)

Yale University
1701 as Collegiate School
Calvinist (Congregationalist)

University of Pennsylvania
1740 as Unnamed Charity School[22]
Nonsectarian,[23] founded by Church of England/Methodists members[24][25]

Princeton University
1746 as College of New Jersey
Nonsectarian,[26] founded by Calvinist Presbyterians[26]

Columbia University
1754 as King's College
Church of England

Brown University
1764 as the College in the English Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations
Baptist, founding charter promises "no religious tests" and "full liberty of conscience"[27]

Dartmouth College
1769
Calvinist (Congregationalist)

Cornell University
1865
Nonsectarian

text: Origin of the name

text: Students have long revered the ivied walls of older colleges. "Planting the ivy" was a customary class day ceremony at many colleges in the 1800s. In 1893, an alumnus told The Harvard Crimson, "In 1850, class day was placed upon the University Calendar.... the custom of planting the ivy, while the ivy oration was delivered, arose about this time."[29] At Penn, graduating seniors started the custom of planting ivy at a university building each spring in 1873 and that practice was formally designated as "Ivy Day" in 1874.[30] Ivy planting ceremonies are reported for Yale,[31] Simmons,[32] Bryn Mawr[33] and many others. Princeton's "Ivy Club" was founded in 1879.[34]

text: The first usage of Ivy in reference to a group of colleges is from sportswriter Stanley Woodward (1895–1965).

text: A proportion of our eastern ivy colleges are meeting little fellows another Saturday before plunging into the strife and the turmoil.

text: The first known instance of the term Ivy League being used appeared in The Christian Science Monitor on February 7, 1935.[3][36][37] Several sportswriters and other journalists used the term shortly later to refer to the older colleges, those along the northeastern seaboard of the United States, chiefly the nine institutions with origins dating from the colonial era, together with the United States Military Academy (West Point), the United States Naval Academy, and a few others. These schools were known for their long-standing traditions in intercollegiate athletics, often being the first schools to participate in such activities. However, at this time, none of these institutions made efforts to form an athletic league.

text: A common folk etymology attributes the name to the Roman numeral for four (IV), asserting that there was such a sports league originally with four members. The Morris Dictionary of Word and Phrase Origins helped to perpetuate this belief. The supposed "IV League" was formed over a century ago and consisted of Harvard, Yale, Princeton, and a fourth school that varies depending on who is telling the story.[38][39][40] However, it is clear that Harvard, Princeton, Yale and Columbia met on November 23, 1876 at the so-called Massasoit Convention to decide on uniform rules for the emerging game of American football, which rapidly spread.[41]

text: Pre–Ivy League

text: Seven out of the eight Ivy League schools were founded before the American Revolution; Cornell was founded just after the American Civil War. These seven were the primary colleges in the Northern and Middle Colonies, and their early faculties and founding boards were largely drawn from other Ivy League institutions. There were also some British graduates from the University of Cambridge, the University of Oxford, the University of St. Andrews, the University of Edinburgh, and elsewhere on their boards. Similarly, the founder of The College of William & Mary, in 1693, was a British graduate of the University of Edinburgh. Cornell provided Stanford University with its first president.

text: The influence of these institutions on the founding of other colleges and universities is notable. This included the Southern public college movement which blossomed in the decades surrounding the turn of the 19th century when Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina and Virginia established what became the flagship universities for each of these states. In 1801, a majority of the first board of trustees for what became the University of South Carolina were Princeton alumni. They appointed Jonathan Maxcy, a Brown graduate, as the university's first president. Thomas Cooper, an Oxford alumnus and University of Pennsylvania faculty member, became the second president of the South Carolina college. The founders of the University of California came from Yale, hence the school colors of University of California are Yale Blue and California Gold.[42]

text: Some of the Ivy League schools have identifiable Protestant roots, while others were founded as non-sectarian schools. Church of England King's College broke up during the Revolution and was reformed as public nonsectarian Columbia College. In the early nineteenth century, the specific purpose of training Calvinist ministers was handed off to theological seminaries, but a denominational tone and such relics as compulsory chapel often lasted well into the twentieth century. Penn and Brown were officially founded as nonsectarian schools. Brown's charter promised no religious tests and "full liberty of conscience", but placed control in the hands of a board of twenty-two Baptists, five Quakers, four Congregationalists, and five Episcopalians. Cornell has been strongly nonsectarian from its founding.

text: "Ivy League" is sometimes used as a way of referring to an elite class, even though institutions such as Cornell University were among the first in the United States to reject racial and gender discrimination in their admissions policies. This dates back to at least 1935.[43] Novels[44] and memoirs[45] attest this sense, as a social elite; to some degree independent of the actual schools.

text: After the Second World War, the present Ivy League institutions slowly widened their selection of their students. They had always had distinguished faculties; some of the first Americans with doctorates had taught for them; but they now decided that they could not both be world-class research institutions and be competitive in the highest ranks of American college sport; in addition, the schools experienced the scandals of any other big-time football programs, although more quietly.[46]

text: History of the athletic league

text: 19th and early 20th centuries

text: The first formal athletic league involving eventual Ivy League schools (or any US colleges, for that matter) was created in 1870 with the formation of the Rowing Association of American Colleges. The RAAC hosted a de facto national championship in rowing during the period 1870–1894. In 1895, Cornell, Columbia, and Penn founded the Intercollegiate Rowing Association, which remains the oldest collegiate athletic organizing body in the US. To this day, the IRA Championship Regatta determines the national champion in rowing and all of the Ivies are regularly invited to compete.

text: A basketball league was later created in 1902, when Columbia, Cornell, Harvard, Yale and Princeton formed the Eastern Intercollegiate Basketball League; they were later joined by Penn and Dartmouth.

text: In 1906, the organization that eventually became the National Collegiate Athletic Association was formed, primarily to formalize rules for the emerging sport of football. But of the 39 original member colleges in the NCAA, only two of them (Dartmouth and Penn) later became Ivies.

text: In February 1903, intercollegiate wrestling began when Yale accepted a challenge from Columbia, published in the Yale News. The dual meet took place prior to a basketball game hosted by Columbia and resulted in a tie. Two years later, Penn and Princeton also added wrestling teams, leading to the formation of the student-run Intercollegiate Wrestling Association, now the Eastern Intercollegiate Wrestling Association (EIWA), the first and oldest collegiate wrestling league in the US.[48]

text: In 1930, Columbia, Cornell, Dartmouth, Penn, Princeton and Yale formed the Eastern Intercollegiate Baseball League; they were later joined by Harvard, Brown, Army and Navy.

text: Before the formal establishment of the Ivy League, there was an "unwritten and unspoken agreement among certain Eastern colleges on athletic relations". The earliest reference to the "Ivy colleges" came in 1933, when Stanley Woodward of the New York Herald Tribune used it to refer to the eight current members plus Army.[3] In 1935, the Associated Press reported on an example of collaboration between the schools:

text: The athletic authorities of the so-called "Ivy League" are considering drastic measures to curb the increasing tendency toward riotous attacks on goal posts and other encroachments by spectators on playing fields.

text: Despite such collaboration, the universities did not seem to consider the formation of the league as imminent. Romeyn Berry, Cornell's manager of athletics, reported the situation in January 1936 as follows:

text: I can say with certainty that in the last five years—and markedly in the last three months—there has been a strong drift among the eight or ten universities of the East which see a good deal of one another in sport toward a closer bond of confidence and cooperation and toward the formation of a common front against the threat of a breakdown in the ideals of amateur sport in the interests of supposed expediency.

text: Please do not regard that statement as implying the organization of an Eastern conference or even a poetic "Ivy League". That sort of thing does not seem to be in the cards at the moment.[50]

text: Within a year of this statement and having held month-long discussions about the proposal, on December 3, 1936, the idea of "the formation of an Ivy League" gained enough traction among the undergraduate bodies of the universities that the Columbia Daily Spectator, The Cornell Daily Sun, The Dartmouth, The Harvard Crimson, The Daily Pennsylvanian, The Daily Princetonian and the Yale Daily News would simultaneously run an editorial entitled "Now Is the Time", encouraging the seven universities to form the league in an effort to preserve the ideals of athletics.[51] Part of the editorial read as follows:

text: The Ivy League exists already in the minds of a good many of those connected with football, and we fail to see why the seven schools concerned should be satisfied to let it exist as a purely nebulous entity where there are so many practical benefits which would be possible under definite organized association. The seven colleges involved fall naturally together by reason of their common interests and similar general standards and by dint of their established national reputation they are in a particularly advantageous position to assume leadership for the preservation of the ideals of intercollegiate athletics.[52]

text: The Ivies have been competing in sports as long as intercollegiate sports have existed in the United States. Rowing teams from Harvard and Yale met in the first sporting event held between students of two U.S. colleges on Lake Winnipesaukee, New Hampshire, on August 3, 1852. Harvard's team, "The Oneida", won the race and was presented with trophy black walnut oars from then presidential nominee General Franklin Pierce. The proposal did not succeed—on January 11, 1937, the athletic authorities at the schools rejected the "possibility of a heptagonal league in football such as these institutions maintain in basketball, baseball and track." However, they noted that the league "has such promising possibilities that it may not be dismissed and must be the subject of further consideration."[53]

text: Post–World War II

text: In 1945 the presidents of the eight schools signed the first Ivy Group Agreement, which set academic, financial, and athletic standards for the football teams. The principles established reiterated those put forward in the Harvard-Yale-Princeton Presidents' Agreement of 1916. The Ivy Group Agreement established the core tenet that an applicant's ability to play on a team would not influence admissions decisions:

text: The members of the Group reaffirm their prohibition of athletic scholarships. Athletes shall be admitted as students and awarded financial aid only on the basis of the same academic standards and economic need as are applied to all other students.[54]

text: In 1954, the presidents extended the Ivy Group Agreement to all intercollegiate sports, effective with the 1955–56 basketball season. This is generally reckoned as the formal formation of the Ivy League. As part of the transition, Brown, the only Ivy that hadn't joined the EIBL, did so for the 1954–55 season. A year later, the Ivy League absorbed the EIBL. The Ivy League claims the EIBL's history as its own. Through the EIBL, it is the oldest basketball conference in Division I.[55][56]

text: As late as the 1960s many of the Ivy League universities' undergraduate programs remained open only to men, with Cornell the only one to have been coeducational from its founding (1865) and Columbia being the last (1983) to become coeducational. Before they became coeducational, many of the Ivy schools maintained extensive social ties with nearby Seven Sisters women's colleges, including weekend visits, dances and parties inviting Ivy and Seven Sisters students to mingle. This was the case not only at Barnard College and Radcliffe College, which are adjacent to Columbia and Harvard, but at more distant institutions as well. The movie Animal House includes a satiric version of the formerly common visits by Dartmouth men to Massachusetts to meet Smith and Mount Holyoke women, a drive of more than two hours. As noted by Irene Harwarth, Mindi Maline, and Elizabeth DeBra, "The 'Seven Sisters' was the name given to Barnard, Smith, Mount Holyoke, Vassar, Bryn Mawr, Wellesley, and Radcliffe, because of their parallel to the Ivy League men’s colleges."[57]

text: In 1982 the Ivy League considered adding two members, with Army, Navy, and Northwestern as the most likely candidates; if it had done so, the league could probably have avoided being moved into the recently created Division I-AA (now Division I FCS) for football.[58] In 1983, following the admission of women to Columbia College, Columbia University and Barnard College entered into an athletic consortium agreement by which students from both schools compete together on Columbia University women's athletic teams, which replaced the women's teams previously sponsored by Barnard.

text: When Army and Navy departed the Eastern Intercollegiate Baseball League in 1992, all intercollegiate competition involving the eight schools became united under the Ivy League banner.

text: Academics

text: Admissions

text:
Admission statistics (Class of 2020)[59]

Applicants
Admission rates

Brown
32,390
9.01%[60]

Columbia
36,292
6.04%[61]

Cornell
44,966
13.96%[62]

Dartmouth
20,675
10.52%[63]

Harvard
39,041
5.22%[64]

Penn
38,918
9.4%[65]

Princeton
29,303
6.46%[66]

Yale
31,455
6.27%[67]

text: The Ivy League schools are highly selective, with acceptance rates since 2000 ranging from 6 to 16 percent at each of the universities. Admitted students come from around the world, although students from New England and the Northeastern United States make up a significant proportion of students.[68][69][70]

text: Prestige

text: Members of the League have been highly ranked by various university rankings.

text:
National academic rankings

University
(in alphabetical order)
ARWU
(2017)[71]
Forbes
(2017)[72]
USNWR
(2018)[73]
Washington Monthly
(2017)[74]

Brown
101-150
9
14
41

Columbia
8
14
5
16

Cornell
14
15
14
32

Dartmouth
201-300
12
11
27

Harvard
1
1
2
2

Penn
17
7
8
7

Princeton
6
4
1
11

Yale
11
3
3
10

text: Further, Ivy League members have produced many Nobel laureates, winners of the Nobel Prize and the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences. According to the Nobel Foundation's website, as of 2016 the number of prize-winners affiliated with each Ivy League university at the time of their awards is: Brown, 2; Columbia, 17; Cornell, 8; Dartmouth, 0; Harvard, 36; Penn, 4; Princeton, 14; and Yale, 8.[75] In addition, each university self-reports their number of affiliated Nobel laureates, but they use varying definitions for which Nobel winners they claim (for example, alumni, active faculty, former faculty, visiting faculty, adjunct faculty, etc.)

text: Collaboration

text: Collaboration between the member schools is illustrated by the student-led Ivy Council that meets in the fall and spring of each year, with representatives from every Ivy League school. The governing body of the Ivy League is the Council of Ivy Group Presidents, composed of each university president. During meetings, the presidents often discuss common procedures and initiatives for the universities.

text: Culture

text: Fashion and lifestyle

text: Different fashion trends and styles have emerged from Ivy League campuses over time, and fashion trends such as Ivy League and Preppy are styles often associated with the Ivy League and its culture.

text: Ivy League style is a style of men's dress, popular during the late 1950s, believed to have originated on Ivy League campuses. The clothing stores J. Press and Brooks Brothers represent perhaps the quintessential Ivy League dress manner. The Ivy League style is said to be the predecessor to the preppy style of dress.

text: Preppy fashion started around 1912 to the late 1940s and 1950s as the Ivy League style of dress.[76] J. Press represents the quintessential preppy clothing brand, stemming from the collegiate traditions that shaped the preppy subculture. In the mid-twentieth century J. Press and Brooks Brothers, both being pioneers in preppy fashion, had stores on Ivy League school campuses, including Harvard, Princeton, and Yale.

text: Some typical preppy styles also reflect traditional upper class New England leisure activities, such as equestrian, sailing or yachting, hunting, fencing, rowing, lacrosse, tennis, golf, and rugby. Longtime New England outdoor outfitters, such as L.L. Bean,[77] became part of conventional preppy style. This can be seen in sport stripes and colours, equestrian clothing, plaid shirts, field jackets and nautical-themed accessories. Vacationing in Palm Beach, Florida, long popular with the East Coast upper class, led to the emergence of bright colour combinations in leisure wear seen in some brands such as Lilly Pulitzer.[77] By the 1980s, other brands such as Lacoste, Izod[78] and Dooney & Bourke became associated with preppy style.

text: Today, these styles continue to be popular on Ivy League campuses, throughout the U.S., and abroad, and are oftentimes labeled as "Classic American style" or "Traditional American style".[79][80]

text: Social elitism

text: The Ivy League is often associated with the upper class White Anglo-Saxon Protestant community of the Northeast, Old Money, or more generally, the American upper middle and upper classes.[81][82][83][84] Although most Ivy League students come from upper middle- and upper-class families, the student body has become increasingly more economically and ethnically diverse. The universities provide significant financial aid to help increase the enrollment of lower income and middle class students.[85] Several reports suggest, however, that the proportion of students from less-affluent families remains low.[86][87]

text: Phrases such as "Ivy League snobbery"[88] are ubiquitous in nonfiction and fiction writing of the early and mid-twentieth century. A Louis Auchincloss character dreads "the aridity of snobbery which he knew infected the Ivy League colleges".[44] A business writer, warning in 2001 against discriminatory hiring, presented a cautionary example of an attitude to avoid (the bracketed phrase is his):

text: We Ivy Leaguers [read: mostly white and Anglo] know that an Ivy League degree is a mark of the kind of person who is likely to succeed in this organization.[89]

text: The phrase Ivy League historically has been perceived as connected not only with academic excellence, but also with social elitism. In 1936, sportswriter John Kieran noted that student editors at Harvard, Yale, Princeton, Cornell, Columbia, Dartmouth, and Penn were advocating the formation of an athletic association. In urging them to consider "Army and Navy and Georgetown and Fordham and Syracuse and Brown and Pitt" as candidates for membership, he exhorted:

text: It would be well for the proponents of the Ivy League to make it clear (to themselves especially) that the proposed group would be inclusive but not "exclusive" as this term is used with a slight up-tilting of the tip of the nose.[90]

text: Aspects of Ivy stereotyping were illustrated during the 1988 presidential election, when George H. W. Bush (Yale '48) derided Michael Dukakis (graduate of Harvard Law School) for having "foreign-policy views born in Harvard Yard's boutique."[91] New York Times columnist Maureen Dowd asked "Wasn't this a case of the pot calling the kettle elite?" Bush explained, however, that, unlike Harvard, Yale's reputation was "so diffuse, there isn't a symbol, I don't think, in the Yale situation, any symbolism in it.... Harvard boutique to me has the connotation of liberalism and elitism" and said Harvard in his remark was intended to represent "a philosophical enclave" and not a statement about class.[92] Columnist Russell Baker opined that "Voters inclined to loathe and fear elite Ivy League schools rarely make fine distinctions between Yale and Harvard. All they know is that both are full of rich, fancy, stuck-up and possibly dangerous intellectuals who never sit down to supper in their undershirt no matter how hot the weather gets."[93] Still, the last five presidents have all attended Ivy League schools for at least part of their education— George H. W. Bush (Yale undergrad), Bill Clinton (Yale Law School), George W. Bush (Yale undergrad, Harvard Business School), Barack Obama (Columbia undergrad, Harvard Law School), and Donald Trump (Penn undergrad).

text: U.S. presidents in the Ivy League

text: Of the forty-four men who have served as President of the United States, fifteen have graduated from an Ivy League university. Of them, eight have degrees from Harvard, five from Yale, three from Columbia, two from Princeton and one from Penn. Twelve presidents have earned Ivy undergraduate degrees. Three of these were transfer students: Donald Trump transferred from Fordham University, Barack Obama transferred from Occidental College and John F. Kennedy transferred from another Ivy, Princeton, where he had been class of 1939. John Adams was the first president to graduate from college, graduating from Harvard in 1755.

text:
President
School(s)
Graduation year

John Adams
Harvard University
1755

James Madison
Princeton University
1771

John Quincy Adams
Harvard University
1787

William Henry Harrison
University of Pennsylvania
(withdrew)

Rutherford B. Hayes
Harvard Law School
1845

Theodore Roosevelt
Harvard University
Columbia Law School
1880
(withdrew) (Awarded J.D. in 2008, class of 1882)[94]

William Howard Taft
Yale University
1878

Woodrow Wilson
Princeton University
1879

Franklin D. Roosevelt
Harvard University
Columbia Law School
1903
(withdrew) (Awarded J.D. in 2008, class of 1907)[95]

John F. Kennedy
Princeton University
Harvard University
(withdrew)
1940

Gerald Ford
Yale Law School
1941

George H. W. Bush
Yale University
1948

Bill Clinton
Yale Law School
1973

George W. Bush
Yale University
Harvard Business School
1968
1975

Barack Obama
Columbia University
Harvard Law School
1983
1991

Donald Trump
University of Pennsylvania
1968

text: Student demographics

text:
Racial and/or ethnic background (2011)[96]

Asian
Black
Hispanic
(of any race)
Non-Hispanic White
Other/
international
Unknown

Brown
14%
6%
10%
45%
14%
11%

Columbia
15%
8%
13%
41%
17%
6%

Cornell
17%
6%
10%
46%
13%
10%

Dartmouth
14%
8%
9%
48%
13%
8%

Harvard
12%
7%
9%
45%
22%
6%

Penn
19%
7%
8%
46%
13%
7%

Princeton
18%
7%
8%
49%
15%
3%

Yale
15%
6%
8%
58%
5%
8%

United States[97]
5%
13%
17%
63%
4%
NA

text: Geographic distribution

text: Students of the Ivy League largely hail from the Northeast, largely from the New York City, Boston, and Philadelphia areas. As all eight Ivy League universities are within the Northeast, it is no surprise that most graduates end up working and residing in the Northeast after graduation. An unscientific survey of Harvard seniors from the Class of 2013 found that 42% hailed from the Northeast and 55% overall were planning on working and residing in the Northeast.[98] Boston and New York City are traditionally where many Ivy League graduates end up living.[99][100][101][102]

text: Socioeconomics and social class

text: Students of the Ivy League, both graduate and undergraduate, come primarily from upper middle and upper class families. In recent years, however, the universities have looked towards increasing socioeconomic and class diversity, by providing greater financial aid packages to applicants from lower, working, and middle class American families.[85][103]

text: In 2013, 46% of Harvard undergraduate students came from families in the top 3.8% of all American households (i.e., over $200,000 annual income).[103] In 2012, the bottom 25% of the American income distribution accounted for only 3–4% of students at Brown, a figure that had remained unchanged since 1992.[104] In 2014, 69% of incoming freshmen students at Yale College came from families with annual incomes of over $120,000, putting most Yale College students in the upper middle and/or upper class. (The median household income in the U.S. in 2013 was $52,700.)[105]

text: In the 2011–2012 academic year, students qualifying for Pell Grants (federally funded scholarships on the basis of need) comprised 20% at Harvard, 18% at Cornell, 17% at Penn, 16% at Columbia, 15% at Dartmouth and Brown, 14% at Yale, and 12% at Princeton. Nationally, 35% of American university students qualify for a Pell Grant.[106]

text: Competition and athletics

text: Ivy champions are recognized in sixteen men's and sixteen women's sports. In some sports, Ivy teams actually compete as members of another league, the Ivy championship being decided by isolating the members' records in play against each other; for example, the six league members who participate in ice hockey do so as members of ECAC Hockey, but an Ivy champion is extrapolated each year. The Ivy League was the last Division I basketball conference to institute a conference postseason tournament; the first tournaments for men and women were held at the end of the 2016–17 season. The tournaments only award the Ivy League automatic bids for the NCAA Division I Men's and Women's Basketball Tournaments; the official conference championships continue to be awarded based solely on regular-season results.[107] Before the 2016–17 season, the automatic bids were based solely on regular-season record, with a one-game playoff (or series of one-game playoffs if more than two teams were tied) held to determine the automatic bid.[108] The Ivy League is one of only two Division I conferences which award their official basketball championships solely on regular-season results; the other is the Southeastern Conference.[109][110] Since its inception, an Ivy League school has yet to win either the men's or women's Division I NCAA Basketball Tournament.

text: On average, each Ivy school has more than 35 varsity teams. All eight are in the top 20 for number of sports offered for both men and women among Division I schools. Unlike most Division I athletic conferences, the Ivy League prohibits the granting of athletic scholarships; all scholarships awarded are need-based (financial aid).[111] In addition, the Ivies have a rigid policy against redshirting, even for medical reasons; an athlete loses a year of eligibility for every year enrolled at an Ivy institution.[112] Ivy League teams' non-league games are often against the members of the Patriot League, which have similar academic standards and athletic scholarship policies (although unlike the Ivies, the Patriot League allows redshirting).

text: In the time before recruiting for college sports became dominated by those offering athletic scholarships and lowered academic standards for athletes, the Ivy League was successful in many sports relative to other universities in the country. In particular, Princeton won 26 recognized national championships in college football (last in 1935), and Yale won 18 (last in 1927).[113] Both of these totals are considerably higher than those of other historically strong programs such as Alabama, which has won 15, Notre Dame, which claims 11 but is credited by many sources with 13, and USC, which has won 11. Yale, whose coach Walter Camp was the "Father of American Football," held on to its place as the all-time wins leader in college football throughout the entire 20th century, but was finally passed by Michigan on November 10, 2001. Harvard, Yale, Princeton and Penn each have over a dozen former scholar-athletes enshrined in the College Football Hall of Fame. Currently Dartmouth holds the record for most Ivy League football titles, with 18, followed closely by Harvard and Penn, each with 17 titles. In addition, the Ivy League has produced Super Bowl winners Kevin Boothe (Cornell), two-time Pro Bowler Zak DeOssie (Brown), Sean Morey (Brown), All-Pro selection Matt Birk (Harvard), Calvin Hill (Yale), Derrick Harmon (Cornell) and 1999 "Mr. Irrelevant" Jim Finn (Penn).

text: Beginning with the 1982 football season, the Ivy League has competed in Division I-AA (renamed FCS in 2006).[114] The Ivy League teams are eligible for the FCS tournament held to determine the national champion, and the league champion is eligible for an automatic bid (and any other team may qualify for an at-large selection) from the NCAA. However, the Ivy League has not played any postseason games at all since 1956 due to the league's concerns about the extended December schedule's effects on academics. For this reason, any Ivy League team invited to the FCS playoffs turns down the bid. The Ivy League plays a strict 10-game schedule, compared to other FCS members' schedules of 11 (or, in some seasons, 12) regular season games, plus post-season, which was most recently expanded in 2013 to five rounds with 24 teams, with a bye week for the top eight teams. Football is the only sport in which the Ivy League declines to compete for a national title.

text: In addition to varsity football, Penn, Princeton and Cornell also field teams in the eight-team Collegiate Sprint Football League, in which all players must weigh 172 pounds or less. Penn and Princeton are the last remaining founding members of the league from its 1934 debut, and Cornell is the next-oldest, joining in 1937. Yale and Columbia previously fielded teams in the league but no longer do so.

text: Teams

text:
Teams in Ivy League competition[115]

Sport
Men's
Women's

Baseball

8

-

Basketball

8

8

Cross-country

8

8

Fencing

6

7

Field hockey

-

8

Football

8

-

Golf

8

7

Ice hockey

6

6

Lacrosse

7

8

Rowing

7

7

Soccer

8

8

Softball

-

8

Squash

8

8

Swimming and diving

7

8

Tennis

8

8

Track and field (indoor)

8

8

Track and field (outdoor)

8

8

Volleyball

-

8

Wrestling

6

-

text: The Ivy League is home to some of the oldest college rugby teams in the United States. Although these teams are not "varsity" sports, they compete annually in the Ivy Rugby Conference.

text: Historical results

text:
Total championships won (1956–2017)

Institution
Ivy League
Championships
NCAA Team
Championships

Princeton University Tigers
476
12

Harvard University Crimson
415
4

Cornell University Big Red
231
5

University of Pennsylvania Quakers
210
3

Yale University Bulldogs
202
3

Dartmouth College Big Green
140
3

Brown University Bears
123
7

Columbia University Lions
105
11

text: The table above includes the number of team championships won from the beginning of official Ivy League competition (1956–57 academic year) through 2016-17. Princeton and Harvard have on occasion won ten or more Ivy League titles in a year, an achievement accomplished 10 times by Harvard and 24 times by Princeton, including a conference-record 15 championships in 2010–11. Only once has one of the other six schools earned more than eight titles in a single academic year (Cornell with nine in 2005–06). In the 38 academic years beginning 1979–80, Princeton has averaged 10 championships per year, one-third of the conference total of 33 sponsored sports.[116]

text: In the 12 academic years beginning 2005–06 Princeton has won championships in 31 different sports, all except wrestling and men's tennis.[117]

text: Rivalries

text: Rivalries run deep in the Ivy League. For instance, Princeton and Penn are longstanding men's basketball rivals;[118] "Puck Frinceton" T-shirts are worn by Quaker fans at games.[119] In only 11 instances in the history of Ivy League basketball, and in only seven seasons since Yale's 1962 title, has neither Penn nor Princeton won at least a share of the Ivy League title in basketball,[120] with Princeton champion or co-champion 26 times and Penn 25 times. Penn has won 21 outright, Princeton 19 outright. Princeton has been a co-champion 7 times, sharing 4 of those titles with Penn (these 4 seasons represent the only times Penn has been co-champion). Harvard won its first title of either variety in 2011, losing a dramatic play-off game to Princeton for the NCAA tournament bid, then rebounded to win outright championships in 2012, 2013, and 2014. Harvard also won the 2013 Great Alaska Shootout, defeating TCU to become the only Ivy League school to win the now-defunct tournament.

text: Rivalries exist between other Ivy league teams in other sports, including Cornell and Harvard in hockey, Harvard and Princeton in swimming, and Harvard and Penn in football (Penn and Harvard have won 28 Ivy League Football Championships since 1982, Penn-16; Harvard-12). During that time Penn has had 8 undefeated Ivy League Football Championships and Harvard has had 6 undefeated Ivy League Football Championships.[121] In men's lacrosse, Cornell and Princeton are perennial rivals, and they are the only two Ivy League teams to have won the NCAA tournament. In 2009, the Big Red and Tigers met for their 70th game in the NCAA tournament.[122] No team other than Harvard or Princeton has won the men's swimming conference title outright since 1972, although Yale, Columbia, and Cornell have shared the title with Harvard and Princeton during this time. Similarly, no program other than Princeton and Harvard has won the women's swimming championship since Brown's 1999 title. Princeton or Cornell has won every indoor and outdoor track and field championship, both men's and women's, every year since 2002–03, with one exception (Columbia women won indoor championship in 2012). Harvard and Yale are football and crew rivals although the competition has become unbalanced; Harvard has won all but one of the last 15 football games and all but one of the last 13 crew races.

text: Intra-conference football rivalries

text:
Teams
Name
Trophy
First met
Games played
Series record

Columbia-Cornell
Empire State Bowl
Empire Cup
1889
103 games
36–64–3

Cornell-Penn
None
Trustee's Cup
1893
122 games
46–71–5

Dartmouth-Princeton
None
Sawhorse Dollar
1897
95 games
48–43–4

Harvard-Yale
The Game
None
1875
132 games
59–65–8

Princeton-Yale
None
None
1873
138 games
52–76–10

text: The Yale-Princeton series is the nation's second longest, exceeded only by "The Rivalry" between Lehigh and Lafayette, which began later in 1884 but included two or three games in each of 17 early seasons.[123] For the first three decades of the Yale-Princeton rivalry, the two played their season-ending game at a neutral site, usually New York City, and with one exception (1890: Harvard), the winner of the game also won at least a share of the national championship that year, covering the period 1869 through 1903.[124][125] This phenomenon of a finale contest at a neutral site for the national title created a social occasion for the society elite of the metropolitan area akin to a Super Bowl in the era prior to the establishment of the NFL in 1920.[126][127] These football games were also financially profitable for the two universities, so much that they began to play baseball games in New York City as well, drawing record crowds for that sport also, largely from the same social demographic.[128] In a period when the only professional sports were fledgling baseball leagues, these high-profile early contests between Princeton and Yale played a role in popularizing spectator sports, demonstrating their financial potential and raising public awareness of Ivy universities at a time when few people attended college.

text: Extra-conference football rivalries

text:
Teams
Name
Trophy
First met
Games played
Series record

Brown-Rhode Island
None
Governor's Cup
1909
98 games
70–26–2

Columbia-Fordham
None
Liberty Cup
1890
22 games
12–10–0

Cornell-Colgate
None
None
1896
95 games
48–44–3

Dartmouth-New Hampshire
Granite Bowl
Granite Bowl Trophy
1901
37 games
17–18–2

Harvard-Holy Cross
None
None
1904
67 games
41–24–2

Penn-Lafayette
None
None
1882
90 games
63–23–4

Penn-Lehigh
None
None
1885
56 games
43-13

Princeton-Rutgers
None
None
1869
71 games
53–17–1

Yale-Army
None
None
1893
45 games
22–16–8

text: Championships

text: NCAA team championships

text: This list, which is current through July 1, 2015,[129] includes NCAA championships and women's AIAW championships (one each for Yale and Dartmouth). Excluded from this list are all other national championships earned outside the scope of NCAA competition, including football titles and retroactive Helms Foundation titles.

text:
School
Total
Men
Women
Co-ed
Nickname

Yale University
29[a]
26
3
0
Bulldogs

Princeton University
24[a]
19
4
1
Tigers

Columbia University
14
11
0
3
Lions

Harvard University
10[a]
7
2
1
Crimson

Brown University
7
0
7
0
Bears

Cornell University
5
5
0
0
Big Red

Dartmouth College
5[a]
1
1
3
Big Green

University of Pennsylvania
4
3
1
0
Quakers

text: ^ Jump up to: a b c d The NCAA started sponsoring the intercollegiate golf championship in 1939, but it retained the titles from the 41 championships previously conferred by the National Intercollegiate Golf Association in its records. Of these pre-NCAA titles, Yale, Princeton, Harvard and Dartmouth won 20, 11, 6 and 1, respectively.

text: Athletic facilities

text:
Football stadium
Basketball arena
Baseball field
Hockey rink
Soccer stadium

School[130]
Name
Capacity
Year
Name
Capacity
Year
Name
Capacity
Year
Name
Capacity
Year
Name
Capacity
Year

Brown
Brown Stadium
7004200000000000000♠20,000
1925
Pizzitola Sports Center
7003280000000000000♠2,800
1989
Murray Stadium
7003100000000000000♠1,000
1959
Meehan Auditorium
7003310000000000000♠3,100
1961
Stevenson Field
7003350000000000000♠3,500
1979

Columbia
Wien Stadium
7004170000000000000♠17,000
1984
Levien Gymnasium
7003340800000000000♠3,408
1974
Hal Robertson Field at Phillip Satow Stadium
N/A
N/A
Non-hockey school
Commisso Soccer Stadium
7003350000000000000♠3,500
1985

Cornell
Schoellkopf Field
7004255970000000000♠25,597
1915
Newman Arena
7003447200000000000♠4,472
1990
Hoy Field
7002500000000000000♠500
1922
Lynah Rink
7003426700000000000♠4,267
1957
Charles F. Berman Field
7003100000000000000♠1,000
2000

Dartmouth
Memorial Field
7004156000000000000♠15,600
1923
Leede Arena
7003210000000000000♠2,100
1986
Red Rolfe Field at Biondi Park
7003200000000000000♠2,000
2008
Thompson Arena
7003450000000000000♠4,500
1975
Burnham Field
7003160000000000000♠1,600
2007

Harvard
Harvard Stadium
7004308980000000000♠30,898
1903
Lavietes Pavilion
7003219500000000000♠2,195
1926
Joseph J. O'Donnell Field
7003160000000000000♠1,600
1898
Bright Hockey Center
7003285000000000000♠2,850
1956
Soldiers Field Soccer Stadium
7003250000000000000♠2,500
2010

Penn
Franklin Field
7004525930000000000♠52,593
1895
The Palestra
7003872200000000000♠8,722
1927
Meiklejohn Stadium
7002850000000000000♠850
2000
Class of 1923 Arena
7003250000000000000♠2,500
1972
Rhodes Field
7003170000000000000♠1,700
2002[131]

Princeton
Princeton University Stadium
7004278000000000000♠27,800
1998
Jadwin Gymnasium
7003685400000000000♠6,854
1969
Bill Clarke Field
7002850000000000000♠850
1961
Hobey Baker Memorial Rink
7003209400000000000♠2,094
1923
Roberts Stadium
7003300000000000000♠3,000
2008

Yale
Yale Bowl
7004614460000000000♠61,446
1914
Payne Whitney Gymnasium
7003310000000000000♠3,100
1932
Yale Field
7003620000000000000♠6,200
1927
Ingalls Rink
7003348600000000000♠3,486
1958
Reese Stadium
7003300000000000000♠3,000
1981

text: Other Ivies

text: The term Ivy is often used to connote a positive comparison to or association with the Ivy League, often along academic lines. The term has been used to describe the Little Ivies, a grouping of small liberal arts colleges in the Northeastern United States.[132] Other uses include the Southern Ivies, Hidden Ivies, and the Public Ivies. The 2007 edition of Newsweek's How to Get Into College Now, the editors designated 25 schools as "New Ivies".[133]

text: Ivy Plus

text: The term Ivy Plus is sometimes used to refer to the Ancient Eight plus several other schools for purposes of alumni associations,[134][135] university affiliations,[135][136][137][138] or endowment comparisons.[139][140][141][142] In his book Untangling the Ivy League, Zawel writes, "The inclusion of non–Ivy League schools under this term is commonplace for some schools and extremely rare for others. Among these other schools, Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Stanford University are almost always included. The University of Chicago and Duke University are often included as well."[135] In their 2015 book Acing Admissions, Mehta and Dixit write, "The [Ivy Plus schools] include, but are not limited to: Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Stanford University and Northwestern University. Besides selectivity, these Ivy Plus colleges are thought to share similar values around academic and professional excellence, intellectual curiosity, leadership and civil engagement."[143]