document_title: Telephone numbers in the United Kingdom

question_text: how long is a uk mobile phone number

question_tokens: how long is a uk mobile phone number

text: Telephone numbers in the United Kingdom

text: Structure[edit]

text: Since 28 April 2001, almost all geographic numbers and most non-geographic numbers have 9 or 10 national (significant) numbers after the "0" trunk code. All mobile telephone numbers have 10 national (significant) numbers after the "0" trunk code. The overall structure of the UK's National Numbering Plan is:[1]

text:
Prefix

Service type

01

Geographic area codes.

02

Geographic area codes (introduced in 2000).

03

Non-geographic numbers charged at standard geographic area code rates (introduced 2007).

04

Reserved.

05

Corporate numbering and VoIP services (some VoIP services use 08 or geographic numbers). Freephone (toll free) on 0500 until June 2017.

06

Was reserved for possible use by personal numbering (PNS) instead of 070 following consumer confusion with mobile phones.

07

Mostly for mobile phones on 071xx, 072xx, 073xx, 074xx, 075xx, 07624, 077xx, 078xx, and 079xx. Personal numbering on 070. Pagers on 076xx.

08

Freephone (toll free) on 080, and Special Services (formerly known as local and national rate) on 084 and 087.

09

Premium Rate services (PRS).

text: A short sample of geographic numbers, set out in the officially approved (Ofcom) number groups:

text:
Number

Location

(020) xxxx xxxx

London

(024) 7xxx xxxx

Coventry

(029) xxxx xxxx

Cardiff

(0113) xxx xxxx

Leeds

(0114) xxx xxxx

Sheffield

(0121) xxx xxxx

Birmingham

(0117) xxx xxxx

Bristol

(0131) xxx xxxx

Edinburgh

(0141) xxx xxxx

Glasgow

(0161) xxx xxxx

Manchester

(01223)  xxxxxx

Cambridge

(01257)  xxxxxx

Chorley

(01382)  xxxxxx

Dundee

(01386)  xxxxxx

Evesham

(01935)  xxxxxx

Yeovil

(01865)  xxxxxx

Oxford

(01772)  xxxxxx

Preston

(01792)  xxxxxx

Swansea

(01204)  xxxxx

Bolton

(0153 96) xxxxx

Sedbergh

(0169 77) xxxx

Brampton

text: In the United Kingdom, area codes are two, three, four, or, rarely, five digits long (after the initial zero). Regions with shorter area codes, typically large cities, permit the allocation of more telephone numbers as the local number portion has more digits. Local customer numbers are four to eight figures long. The total number of digits is ten, but in a very few areas the total may be nine digits (after the initial zero). The "area code" is also referred to as an "STD (code)" (subscriber trunk dialling) or a "dialling code" in the UK.

text: The code allocated to the largest population is (020) for London. The code allocated to the largest area is (028) for all of Northern Ireland. The UK Numbering Plan also applies to three British Crown dependencies—Jersey, Guernsey and the Isle of Man—even though they are not part of the UK itself.

text: Format[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Possible number formats for UK telephone numbers are as follows:

text:
Number length

10 digits

9 digits

7 digits

4 digits

3 digits

Number formats

(01xx xx) xxxxx(01xxx) xxxxxx(01x1) xxx xxxx(011x) xxx xxxx(02x) xxxx xxxx03xx xxx xxxx055 xxxx xxxx056 xxxx xxxx070 xxxx xxxx07624 xxxxxx076 xxxx xxxx07xxx xxxxxx0800 xxx xxxx08xx xxx xxxx09xx xxx xxxx

(0169 77) xxxx(01xxx) xxxxx0500 xxxxxx0800 xxxxxx

0800 11110845 46 4x

1470                                                                                1471
1475
1477
1571

999112111123101
118105

text: Number ranges starting 01 can have National Significant Number (NSN) length as 10 or 9 digits. The 0800 range can have NSN length as 10, 9 or 7 digits. The 0845 range can have NSN length as 10 or 7 digits. The 0500 range has NSN length as 9 digits only. There are no telephone numbers in the UK with an NSN length of 8 digits.

text: Geographic numbering[edit]

text: Standard geographic numbers[edit]

text: Geographic telephone numbers in the UK always have nine or ten digits.

text: Four-digit area codes[edit]

text: Four-digit area codes have either six-digit subscriber numbers or a mix of five- and six-digit subscriber numbers.

text: (01xxx) xxxxxx

text: This is the format used by most areas. It has a four-digit area code (after the initial zero) and a six digit subscriber number, and is known as 4+6 format. These area codes were changed by adding a "1" directly after the initial zero as a part of PhONEday in 1995. Just short of 581 areas use this format, and the area codes range from 01200 to 01998. Almost all (01xxx) area codes now have only six digit subscriber numbers, but a small number of these areas also have some subscriber numbers only five digits in length (see next section).

text:
01224

Aberdeen
22 = AB

01244

Chester
24 = CH

01382

Dundee
38 = DU

01387

Dumfries (mixed)
38 = DU
local numbers cannot begin with 3

01452

Gloucester
45 = GL

01472

Grimsby
47 = GR

01473

Ipswich
47 = IP

01429

Hartlepool
42 = HA

01482

Hull
48 = HU

01539

Kendal (mixed)
53 = KE
local numbers cannot begin with 4, 5 or 6

01582

Luton
58 = LU

01670

Morpeth
67 = MP

01697

Brampton, North West (mixed)
69 = NW
local numbers cannot begin with 3, 4 or 7

01730

Petersfield
73 = PE

01736

Penzance
73 = PE

01772

Preston
77 = PR

01792

Swansea
79 = SW

01793

Swindon
79 = SW

01854

Ullapool
85 = UL

01947

Whitby
94 = WH

text: Six of the four-digit area codes are known as "mixed" areas as they share those four digits with the twelve five-digit area codes. This leads to a restriction as to which initial digits can be used for subscriber numbers within those four-digit area codes, e.g. in the 01387 four-digit area code, subscriber numbers cannot begin with a 3 because 013873 is a separate five-digit area code; likewise in the 01946 four-digit area code, subscriber numbers cannot begin with a 7 because 019467 is a separate five-digit area code.

text: (01xxx) xxxxx

text: This is used for forty smaller towns where some subscriber numbers within the area code have only five digits and is known as 4+5 format. The numbers therefore have only nine digits after the initial zero trunk code. These area codes were changed by adding a "1" directly after the initial zero as a part of PhONEday in 1995. These towns always have a mixture of six and five digit local numbers, each type allocated in specific DE blocks; e.g. in the 01647 area code numbers beginning 24xxx and 61xxx have five digits whereas all other DE blocks within that area code are allocated as six digit numbers. The number of places with five digit subscriber numbers and an 01xxx area code has declined rapidly in recent decades. There were 511 ranges allocated across 56 different area codes in January 1998. The Big Number Change removed many, especially in Northern Ireland, and by July 2005 there were only 329 ranges in 42 codes. By April 2010 this had reduced to 324 ranges in 40 codes, with the same number still in November 2012. The 40 area codes are listed in the table below.

text:
01204

Bolton
20 = BO
61-64

01208

Bodmin
20 = BO
72-79

01254

Blackburn
25 = BL
51-57, 59

01276

Camberley
27 = CR
20-29, 31-38, 61-66

01297

Axminster
29 = AX
20-24, 32-35

01298

Buxton
29 = BX
22-28, 70-74, 77-79, 83-85

01363

Crediton
36 = CN
82-85

01364

Ashburton, Devon
36 = DN
72, 73

01384

Dudley
38 = DU
70, 74-79

01386

Evesham
38 = EV
40, 41, 45, 47-49

01404

Honiton
40 = HO
41-47

01420

Alton, Hampshire
42 = HA
22, 23, 80-89

01460

Chard, Ilminster
46 = IM
30, 52-55, 57, 61-68, 72-78

01461

Gretna
46 = GN
40

01480

Huntingdon
48 = HU
52

01488

Hungerford
48 = HU
71-73

01524

Lancaster (mixed)
52 = LA
32-37, 39, 60-69
local numbers cannot begin with 2

01527

Redditch

60-69

01562

Kidderminster
56 = KM
60, 66-69

01566

Launceston
56 = LN
86

01606

Northwich, Winsford
60 = NO
40-49, 74-77, 79

01629

Matlock
62 = MA
55-57

01635

Newbury
63 = NE
30-39, 40-49

01647

Moretonhampstead
64 = MH
24, 61

01659

Sanquhar, Nithsdale
65 = NL
50, 58, 66, 67, 74

01695

Skelmersdale/Ormskirk

50-54

01726

St Austell
72 = SA
61, 63-69, 70-77

01744

St Helens
74 = SH
20-29

01750

Selkirk
75 = SK
20-23, 32, 42, 52, 62, 76, 82

01768

Penrith (mixed)
76 = PN
882, 883, 884, 886, 887, 888
local numbers cannot begin with 3, 4 or 7

01827

Tamworth
82 = TA
50-59, 60-69

01837

Okehampton

52-55, 82, 83, 89

01884

Tiverton
88 = TV
32-35, 38

01900

Workington
90 = WO
61-68, 85

01905

Worcester
90 = WO
20-29

01935

Yeovil
93 = YE
83

01946

Whitehaven (mixed)
94 = WH
61-68
local numbers cannot begin with 7

01949

Whatton
94 = WH
20, 21, 81

01963

Wincanton
96 = WN
23, 31-34

01995

Garstang, Wyre
99 = WY
61

text: Three-digit area codes[edit]

text: Three-digit area codes always have seven-digit subscriber numbers and always begin 011x or 01x1.

text: (01x1) xxx xxxx

text: This is the geographic number format for the first round of five large cities moved to all figure dialling in the 1960s, and subsequently also used in the metropolitan county of Tyne and Wear, eastern County Durham and south-eastern Northumberland from the 1980s onwards. These six areas have a three-digit area code matching the pattern 1x1 (after the initial zero) and a seven digit subscriber number, and this is known as 3+7 format. These area codes were changed by adding a "1" directly after the initial zero as a part of PhONEday in 1995.

text:
0121

Birmingham
formerly 021 (2 = B)

0131

Edinburgh
formerly 031 (3 = E)

0141

Glasgow
formerly 041 (4 = G)

0151

Liverpool
formerly 051 (5 = L)

0161

Manchester
formerly 061 (6 = M)

0171

Used for Inner London from 1990 until 2000

0181

Used for Outer London from 1990 until 2000

0191

County of Tyne and Wear, eastern County Durham,south-eastern Northumberland
formerly 091 (9 = tYne)

text: (011x) xxx xxxx

text: This is the geographic number format for the second round of large cities and towns moved to brand-new three-digit area codes. Five of these were moved in 1995 as a part of PhONEday, with Reading then following a year later. At the time of the change, an extra digit was added to the subscriber number. These six areas have a three-digit area code matching the pattern 11x, with a seven-digit subscriber number, and this is known as 3+7 format. The first three digits of the local number identifies a small area within the town or city. The former Reading area code had already been changed once, by adding a "1" directly after the initial zero as a part of PhONEday in 1995.

text:
0113

Leeds
formerly 0532 (53 = LE)

0114

Sheffield
formerly 0742 (74 = SH)

0115

Nottingham
formerly 0602 (60 = NO)

0116

Leicester
formerly 0533 (53 = LE)

0117

Bristol
formerly 0272 (27 = BR)

0118

Reading
formerly 0734, then 01734 (73 = RE)

text: Two-digit area codes[edit]

text: Two-digit area codes always have eight-digit subscriber numbers and always begin 02.

text: (02x) xxxx xxxx

text: This is the newest geographic number format. It is used for the third tier of large cities and for Northern Ireland, and was formed as a part of the Big Number Change in 2000. The new area code is much shorter than the old one, and begins 02 unlike the previous 01 area codes. Numbers in these five areas are commonly misquoted, e.g. London as 0207 or Cardiff as 02920. The numbers consist of a two-digit area code matching the pattern 02x, and an eight-digit subscriber number, and this is known as 2+8 format.

text: The first four digits of the local number identifies a small area within the town or city. At the time of the change, the subscriber part of the number gained an extra digit in London, those in Northern Ireland gained two or three digits, and the subscriber part of the number in the other areas gained two digits. All of these areas were also subject to a previous code change, one that added a "1" directly after the initial zero, as a part of PhONEday in 1995.

text:
020

London
(020) 3xxx xxxx new since 2005.(020) 7xxx xxxx formerly 0171 and(020) 8xxx xxxx formerly 0181 (both 1995–2000),071 and 081 (1990–1995), 01 (1960s-1990)

023

Southampton
(023) 8xxx xxxx formerly 01703 (70 = SO)

Portsmouth
(023) 9xxx xxxx formerly 01705 (70 = PO)

024

Coventry
(024) 7xxx xxxx formerly 01203 (20 = CO)

028

Northern Ireland

(028) 25xx xxxx Ballymena formerly (01266) xxxxxx

(028) 28xx xxxx Larne formerly (01574) xxxxxx

(028) 37xx xxxx Armagh formerly (01861) xxxxxx

(028) 71xx xxxx Derry[2][3] formerly (01504) xxxxxx

(028) 82xx xxxx Omagh formerly (01662) xxxxxx

(028) 90xx xxxx Belfast formerly (01232) xxxxxx

(028) 92xx xxxx Lisburn formerly (01846) xxxxxx

(028) 95xx xxxx Belfast new number range

029

Cardiff
(029) 2xxx xxxx formerly 01222 (22 = CA)

text: Five-digit area codes[edit]

text:
Five-digit area codes have either five-digit subscriber numbers or a mix of four- and five-digit subscriber numbers.
Five-digit area codes always share their first four digits with four-digit area codes.

text: (01xx xx) xxxxx and (01xx xx) xxxx

text: This is the oldest geographic number format and is used for twelve smaller towns and villages where the subscriber number is either five or (in one area code) four digits long. These are known as 5+5 and 5+4 format. Therefore, the STD code and the subscriber number does not always total ten digits after the initial zero trunk code. These area codes were changed by adding a "1" directly after the initial zero as a part of PhONEday in 1995. The number of places using these two formats has declined rapidly in recent decades and Brampton is the last place in the UK with four-digit local numbers.

text:
0138 73

Langholm

0152 42

Hornby

0153 94

Hawkshead

0153 95

Grange-over-Sands

0153 96

Sedbergh

0169 73

Wigton

0169 74

Raughton Head

0169 77

Brampton[4][5]

0176 83

Appleby

0176 84

Pooley Bridge

0176 87

Keswick

0194 67

Gosforth

text: The above twelve area codes and their six 'parent' area codes (01387, 01524, 01539, 01697, 01768 and 01946) are known as 'Mixed' areas due to multiple area codes sharing the same SABC digits.

text: National dialling only ranges[edit]

text: These ranges have subscriber numbers beginning with the digits "0" or "1", e.g.:

text:
0169 77 0xxxx

Brampton

01332 050xxx

Derby

01382 006xxx

Dundee

0141 005 xxxx

Glasgow

0117 101 xxxx

Bristol

0118 00x xxxx

Reading

020 0003 xxxx

London

text:
Currently, these numbers are mostly used as the termination points for non-geographic numbers, and by some automated systems such as alarms. As such they are not usually meant to be directly dialled. These numbers have been problematic as some mobile phone operators in the UK do not allow access to these ranges,[6] and there may also be difficulty accessing these numbers from outside the UK.
Regulator Ofcom proposes that in future these numbers be released for wider, general-purpose use in up to 70 area codes facing number shortage.[7]
In order to avoid confusion with codes beginning with these digits, the area code must always be dialled, even from within the same geographic exchange. Accordingly, if these numbers are eventually released for general use, Ofcom proposes completely removing the ability to dial locally without the area code in areas affected. This occurred on 1 November 2012 for the 01202 area code, which covers Bournemouth.[8]

text: Recently, the carrier TalkTalk have inadvertently released parts of the 020 0011 range to the general public,[9] with these numbers currently being in use. For example, the charity Give a Car used the number 020 0011 1664 for a while, but recently switched to a proper London number.

text: Mobile telephones[edit]

text: 07xxx xxxxxx—mobile phones and WiFi numbers.

text: Individual mobile phone companies are allocated different ranges within the 073xx, 074xx, 075xx, 07624, 077xx, 078xx and 079xx area codes. Changes to mobile phone numbers in the Big Number Change were mostly straight replacements, such as Vodafone customers on the 0378 block became 07778.

text:
073xx xxxxxx

Mobile phones (in use since November 2014)

074xx xxxxxx

Mobile phones (in use since November 2009)

075xx xxxxxx

Mobile phones (in use since May 2007)

07624 xxxxxx

Mobile phones on the Isle of Man

077xx xxxxxx

Mobile phones (former 03xx and 04xx—mostly Vodafone and O2 (formerly Cellnet))

078xx xxxxxx

Mobile phones (former 05xx, 06xx and 08xx—mostly Vodafone and O2 (formerly Cellnet))

079xx xxxxxx

Mobile phones (former 09xx—mostly EE (formerly  Orange and one2one))

07911 2xxxxx  07911 8xxxxx

WiFi numbers (e.g. 3G/LTE-enabled tablet computers)

text: Since the advent of Mobile number portability, mobile phone number prefixes can no longer be relied on to determine the current operator of a particular mobile phone – only the original operator.

text: Pagers and personal numbering[edit]

text: 07x xxxx xxxx—pagers and personal numbering (PNS).

text: 070 and 076 numbers are often charged at a much higher rate than calling the similar-looking 07xxx mobile telephone numbers.

text:
070 xxxx xxxx

Personal numbering

076 xxxx xxxx

Pagers (excluding 07624, used for mobile phones on the Isle of Man)

text: Personal numbers beginning 070 are regulated by Phone-paid Services Authority.

text: Non-geographic numbering[edit]

text: Non-geographic numbers charged at geographic rate[edit]

text: 03xx xxx xxxx—"UK-wide" numbering.

text: On 27 July 2006, Ofcom announced that companies will soon be able to use an "03" non-geographic number, in place of other non-geographic numbers (such as 0870 or 0845 numbers). Callers would be charged at the same rate as if they were calling a geographic number (01 or 02).[10] This means that customers who are benefiting from inclusive minutes on mobile phone or landline calling plans would also be able to call these numbers using their inclusive minutes.[11] On 13 February 2007, Ofcom released more details on their plans for the 03 range and announced that allocations of 03 numbers to providers would begin in March 2007. Whilst 01, 02 and 07 numbers can receive text messages, currently the majority of cellular network providers do not support the sending of text messages to 03 numbers. Three different ranges of numbers were announced; those beginning 030x are reserved for qualifying public bodies and non-profit organisations, those beginning 033x, which are available for allocation to anyone, and those beginning 034x and 037x which will be used for migration from the matching 084x and 087x number ranges respectively. Ofcom itself began using 03 numbers on 13 November 2007 for public use.[12]

text:
030x xxx xxxx

For qualifying public bodies and non-profit organisations as defined by Ofcom

033x xxx xxxx

For any end user

034x xxx xxxx

Migration range for operators who have 084x numbers

037x xxx xxxx

Migration range for operators who have 087x numbers

text: Corporate and VoIP numbering[edit]

text: 05x xxxx xxxx—Corporate and VoIP numbering.

text: Unlike 03 numbers there is no uniform pricing for 05 numbers; BT charge a number of different rates depending on the number dialled.[13] Some are charged at geographic rate, others not. Other operators are not required to charge the same rates as BT for calling 05 numbers.

text:
055 xxxx xxxx

Corporate Numbering (but also used by BT for its Broadband Voice service)

056 xxxx xxxx

Allocated by Ofcom for LIECS (Location Independent Electronic Communications Services), e.g. VoIP services

text: Freephone numbers[edit]

text: 0500 xxxxxx—Freephone services allocated before 1999.

text: Until July 2017, the 0500 range was used for some freephone services which were originally provided by Mercury Communications Ltd (now Cable & Wireless Worldwide). These numbers were different from the rest of the 05 range in that they are only 9 digits in length after the 0 trunk code, e.g. 0500 007 007 (National Savings and Investments), 0500 2 88 2 91 (BBC Radio 2, 88 to 91 FM), 0500 600 600 (Crimewatch), 0500 600 700 (Watchdog[clarification needed]), and 0500 909 693 (BBC Radio 5 Live, 909 and 693 kHz). Numerous universities, government departments, airlines, banks and businesses also used these numbers. They were allocated before the general trend of using longer numbers started in 1997 and long before the rest of the 05 range was assigned to corporate and VoIP numbering after 2000.

text:
0500 xxxxxx[notes 2]

Special Services - No charge to Customer a.k.a. "Freephone"

Free to call from landline, up to 40p per minute from mobile.

text: The range was withdrawn by Ofcom in July 2017[14] as a result of a series of consultations starting from 2012[15]

text: 0800 xxxxxx, 0800 xxx xxxx and 0808 xxx xxxx—Freephone services.

text:
0800 xxxxxx[notes 3]

Special Services - No charge to Customer a.k.a. "Freephone"

Free to call from landline, and was up to 40p per minute from mobile, until July 2015 when calls to 080 numbers from mobiles became free. Calls to certain charity and similar services were always free from most mobiles.0808 9xx xxxx numbers are used by freephone internet services.

0800 xxx xxxx

0808 xxx xxxx

text: There is one short "special" number in this range, 0800 1111 for Childline.

text: Additionally, numbers in the range 0808 80x xxxx are reserved for not-for-profit helplines and as such are usually free to call from most mobile telephones. A number of other numbers can also called for free from mobiles,[16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23] but this varies by network.

text: Fixed-rate or special-rate services[edit]

text: 084x xxx xxxx and 087x xxx xxxx—Non-geographic fixed-rate, or special-rate services.

text: With the exception of 080x freephone numbers, 08xx numbers are charged above geographic rates, with some of the extra revenue going to the terminating telco. This additional revenue may be shared with the subscriber, but is often used instead to subsidise additional network services, such as fax-to-email, virtual office applications, call queuing, voicemail and easy number redirection. None of these call management services is exclusive to 08xx numbers, and they could be provided on any number range.

text:
0845 xxx xxxx

Special Services basic rate
Up to 5p a minute, varies daytime/evening/weekend, from BT landline, other providers may charge more; up to 42p a minute from mobiles.

0844 00x xxxx

Special Services basic rate
Non-BT Discount Scheme—Internet Services incorporating unmetered access up to and including 5p for BT customers

0844 01x xxxxto0844 09x xxxx

currently unused

0844 1xx xxxx

currently unused

0844 2xx xxxxto0844 9xx xxxx

Up to 4.26p a minute (plus VAT), varies daytime/evening/weekend, from BT landline, other providers may charge more; up to 42p a minute from mobiles.

0843 xxx xxxx

Up to 4.26p a minute (plus VAT), but fixed (e.g. always 3p/minute or always 4p/minute) from BT landline, other providers may charge more; up to 42p a minute from mobiles.

0842 xxx xxxx

Up to 4.26p a minute (plus VAT), but fixed (e.g. always 3p/minute or always 4p/minute) from BT landline, other providers may charge more; up to 42p a minute from mobiles.

text: There were a few short "special" number in this range, such as 0845 46 47 for NHS Direct; this was closed in 2014 and replaced by NHS 111 except in Wales, where the transition took place in 2015.

text:
0870 xxx xxxx

Non-Geographic Number
Up to 8p a minute (plus VAT), varies daytime/evening/weekend (charged at no more than the caller would pay for a call to a Geographic Number) from landline; up to 42p a minute from mobiles.

0871 0xx xxxx

Special Services higher rate
Internet Services metered access, up to and including 10p/minute for BT customers.

0871 1xx xxxx

currently unused

0871 2xx xxxxto0871 9xx xxxx

Up to 8.5p a minute (plus VAT) but fixed (e.g. always 6p/minute or always 8.5p/minute) from BT landline, other providers may charge more; up to 50p a minute from mobiles.

0872 xxx xxxx

Up to 8.5p a minute (plus VAT) but fixed (e.g. always 6p/minute or always 8.5p/minute) from BT landline, other providers may charge more; up to 50p a minute from mobiles.

0873 xxx xxxx

Up to 8.5p a minute (plus VAT) but fixed (e.g. always 6p/minute or always 8.5p/minute) from BT landline, other providers may charge more; up to 50p a minute from mobiles.

text: The usage of 0871, 0872 and 0873 numbers is regulated by PhonepayPlus.[24]

text:
There is widespread confusion about the cost of calling 084 and 087 numbers. They often do not qualify for discounts and bundled minutes, and can be prohibitively expensive when called from mobiles and payphones. Many major companies persist in misdescribing them as "Local Rate", "Lo Call" (often as 'locall rate' which can be easily misread as 'local rate') or "National Rate" for which the Advertising Standards Authority can take action.[25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35]
[36][37][37][38]

text: In the future, it is likely[clarification needed] that users of 084 and 087 numbers will have to declare the service charge element of the call cost when advertising their phone number, whilst telecoms companies will need to inform their customers about their access charge for calling each number range. Additionally, the EU Consumer Rights Directive requires that many entities that held 084 and 087 numbers will no longer be allowed to use them. The directive bans the usage of numbers that cost more than calling a geographic number for customer service and complaints lines, and other such purposes.[39][40]

text: From 1 July 2015, the charge for calls to 084, 087, 09 and 118 numbers will be split into two parts: An access charge (payable to the company you make your phone calls with - e.g. BT, EE, Sky, etc.) and a service charge (the part of the call that goes to the company offering the service).  A list of these new access charges can be found here, which is updated regularly with new information when available.  Source: [1]

text: Other 08xx number ranges[edit]

text: 08xx xxx xxxx—Internet for schools and Inbound routing codes.

text:
0820 xxx xxxx

Special Services: Internet for schools

0899 9xx xxxx

Inbound routing codes

text: Premium rate content services (PRS and SES)[edit]

text: 09xx xxx xxxx—Premium Rate Content Services

text: Numbers in the 09xx range are charged at the highest rates of any calls within the United Kingdom, and are controlled by various regulations regarding their use. The regulator is Phone-paid Service Authority formally known as PhonepayPlus,[24] formerly known as ICSTIS (and they also cover 070 (PNS), 0871, 0872, 0873 and 118xxx (DQ) services). There are a large number of charge bands, some with high pence-per-minute rates, others with a high fixed-price for the entire call.

text:
090x xxx xxxx

Premium rate content services (PRS)

0908 xxx xxxx0909 xxx xxxx

Sexual entertainment services (SES) (not available for new allocations)

091x xxx xxxx

Premium rate non-content services (PRS)

098x xxx xxxx

Sexual entertainment services (SES)

text: The earlier unused 092x xxx xxxx - 099x xxx xxxx allocation for "Broadband Internet Services" no longer exists and was removed from the number plan in 2005.

text: Crown dependencies[edit]

text: Although calls from UK landlines to landlines in the islands are charged at the same rate as those to other UK landlines (i.e. they are not treated as international calls), calls may be excluded from calling plans offering unlimited UK fixed line calls.

text: Mobile operators may also charge more for calls to the islands and these calls are usually excluded from calling plans. Calls and SMS messages sent to island mobile phone numbers are not charged at the same rate as calls to UK mobile phone numbers.

text: Guernsey[edit]

text:
(01481) xxxxxx

Fixed line

48 = GU

(01481) 832xxx

Fixed line (Sark)

(01481) 833xxx

07781 xxxxxx

Sure mobile phones and pagers

07839 xxxxxx

Airtel Vodafone mobile phones

07911 xxxxxx

Wave Telecom mobile phones, not for UK

text: This area code is also used for Alderney and Sark.

text: Jersey[edit]

text:
(01534) xxxxxx

Fixed line

53 = JE

07509 xxxxxx

Jersey Telecom mobile phones and pagers

07797 xxxxxx

07937 xxxxxx

07700 xxxxxx

Sure mobile network

07829 xxxxxx

Airtel Vodafone mobile network

text: Several Jersey companies also have non-geographic numbers allocated.[41]

text: Isle of Man[edit]

text:
(01624) xxxxxx

Fixed line

62 = MA

07624 xxxxxx

Mobile phones and paging services

07524 xxxxxx

Mobile phones additional capacity

07924 xxxxxx

text: On the Isle of Man, both fixed (01624) and mobile phone (07624) numbers can be dialled locally in the six-digit format.

text: Fictitious numbers[edit]

text: Ofcom has also reserved certain number ranges for use in television dramas and films, so as to avoid the risk of people having their telephone numbers displayed, and receiving unwanted calls. This is similar to the use of fictitious telephone numbers in the United States and Canada starting with the digits 555.

text: In most of the large cities with three-digit area codes a range of numbers is reserved, usually all the numbers starting with the digits 496. For fictitious numbers in other areas the area code 01632 is reserved; this code is not in use, although 0632 was used for Newcastle upon Tyne until the late 1980s (63 = NE) and briefly reallocated for use by premium rate services in the 1990s. There are also reserved ranges for fictitious mobile, freephone, and premium rate numbers.[42][43]

text: The Post Office even produced dial centre labels for use in advertisements and film/TV with a mythical exchange called VINcent plus four digits. The numerical equivalent of VIN was 846 and all the caller got was the speaking clock (i.e. 846 is also numerical equivalent of TIM) in the big city "Director" areas.[44]

text: At around the same time as the other Big Number Change changes, Ofcom revised their recommendations to update the prefixes, add additional areas, and increase the size of the allocation from 10 to 1000 numbers per block. Those changes are listed in the Big Number Change article.

text: In Coronation Street, the fictional Manchester suburb of Weatherfield uses the unallocated range (0161) 715 xxxx.[45]

text: Special service numbers[edit]

text: Emergency services and helplines[edit]

text: The UK has two free emergency numbers—the traditional 999, which is still widely used, and the EU standard 112, which can be used in all member states of the European Union. Both 999 and 112 are used to contact all emergency services: Police, Fire Service, Ambulance Service, and Coastguard. (Standard advice for Mountain Rescue or Cave Rescue is to ask the emergency operator for the police, who oversee the communication with these two services.[46][47][48])

text: Both numbers can be called from mobile phones with the keylock on, or without entering the PIN where that would otherwise be required. Although some mobile phones allow emergency calls to be attempted without a SIM card, at present the UK networks reject such calls. Since November 2009, an emergency call can be made through any UK mobile network as long as there is a SIM for any valid UK network in the handset. Although UK VOIP phone providers are required to offer 999 / 112 service this is subject to a registration for the service and with a verified service address and users need to be aware such service may not work in a power blackout; However International VOIP providers may not provide this service.

text: The chargeable number 101 was introduced for non-urgent crime and community safety calls on a trial basis in 2006. In Wales, the scheme was taken forward by all four police forces, who adopted the number for non-emergency calls on a permanent basis in early 2009. In England the scheme was on trial until 2012, when it was adopted nationwide and the cost to call changed from 10p per call to 15p per call. In Northern Ireland, the number was introduced by the Police Service of Northern Ireland in March 2014.[49]

text: The operator is obtained via 100 from landlines, while directory enquiries, formerly 192, is now provided in the 118xxx range, e.g. 118 212, 118 800, 118 500, 118 118, by different companies. International Operator assistance is reached through 155.

text: From early 2010, the pan-European 116 number range came into use for social helplines. The first three numbers allocated were Missing People using 116 000 for a missing children helpline, the NSPCC ChildLine on 116 111, and Samaritans using 116 123 for an emotional support helpline. A recent consultation for the numbers 116 106 and 116 117 has yet to see any result.

text: The National Health Service (NHS) can be reached on 111 for non-emergency calls (from landlines and mobiles only). In other European countries the number 116 117 is used for a similar purpose.

text: Local electricity network operators can be reached on 105 to report power cuts.[50]

text: Two telephone helplines within the regular code space have only eight digits, namely 0800 1111 for ChildLine and 0845 4647 for NHS Direct in Wales.

text: Speaking clock[edit]

text: Since the mid-1990s speaking clock services have been available throughout Britain using the number 123. Before this, exchanges in "Director" areas (Birmingham, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Liverpool, London and Manchester) dialled 846 (TIM), later changing to 123, and main exchanges in "non-Director" areas originally used "952", later changing to "80" with the introduction of STD and eventually to "8081" as other recorded services were introduced on 80X1 codes. Some mobile operators allocate other services to 123—such as customer services or voicemail etc.

text: Automated services and access codes[edit]

text: Short codes beginning with 1 are reserved for telecom service providers' own functionality; some of the most well-known are codes for use with Caller Display:

text:
141

Withhold number
when normally released

1470

Release number
when normally withheld

1471

Call return
caller may press 3 to return call on most networks

1475

1471 erasure
removes details of last call from 1471 service.  May need to be prefixed with 1470 if number is normally withheld

1477

Automatic Call Trace

Stores number (even if withheld) of nuisance caller at terminating exchange for subsequent investigation and enforcement,
but service is seldom enabled by default

1571

Voicemail service
For people who do not have answering machines.If there is a new message, the dial tone will be stuttered.

#31#

Withhold number

141 equivalent for use on mobile networks

text: Many fixed line telephone subscribers, e.g. BT,[51] Virgin Media,[52] SkyTalk Sky, TalkTalk and PlusNet have the opportunity to use an automated messaging service which takes messages when the called number is either engaged ("busy") or not answered within a given time. This can be accessed by calling 1571.

text: For fixed line users, it is possible to override the carrier pre-selection (CPS) on a per-call basis, dialling a special code before the number, e.g. 1280 for BT, 1664 for LowerCall, or 1844 for Daisy. Ofcom defines the range for these as: "124 to 140, 143 to 146, 148 to 149, 160 to 169, and 181 to 189 inclusive. Numbers of up to 5-digits used to access an Indirect Access Provider (‘Type B Access Codes’)".[53]

text: History[edit]

text: Telephone numbers in Overseas Territories[edit]

text: Telephone numbers in British Overseas Territories do not come under the UK telephone numbering plan. These calls are treated as international calls. Below are the access codes for the overseas territories:

text: North American Numbering Plan[edit]

text:
Anguilla +1-264
Bermuda +1-441
British Virgin Islands +1-284
Cayman Islands +1-345
Montserrat +1-664
Turks and Caicos Islands +1-649

text: Others[edit]

text:
British Antarctic Territory +44 (Shared with the UK)
British Indian Ocean Territory +246
Falkland Islands and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands +500
Gibraltar +350
Saint Helena and Tristan da Cunha +290
Ascension Island +247
Akrotiri and Dhekelia +357 (Shared with Cyprus)
Pitcairn Islands +64 (Shared with New Zealand)


document_title: Red-eared slider

question_text: where do red ear slider turtles lay eggs

root

text: Red-eared slider

text: Name[edit]

text: Red-eared sliders get their name from the small red stripe around their ears.. The "slider" in their name comes from their ability to slide off rocks and logs and into the water quickly. This species was previously known as Troost's turtle in honor of an American herpetologist; Trachemys scripta troostii is now the scientific name for another subspecies, the Cumberland slider.

tag: p

text: Taxonomy[edit]

text: The red-eared slider belongs to the order Testudines, which contains about 250 turtle species. It is a subspecies of Trachemys scripta. They were previously classified under the name Chrysemys scripta elegans.

text: The species Trachemys scripta contains three subspecies: T. s. elegans (red-eared slider), T. s. scripta (yellow-bellied slider), and T. s. troostii (Cumberland slider).[5]

text: Description[edit]

text: The carapace of this species can reach more than 40 cm (16 in) in length, but the average length ranges from 15 to 20 cm (6 to 8 in).[6] The females of the species are usually larger than the males. They typically live between 20 and 30 years, although some individuals have lived for more than 40 years.[7] Their life expectancy is shorter when they are kept in captivity.[8] The quality of their living environment has a strong influence on their lifespans and well being.

text: These turtles are poikilotherms, meaning they are unable to regulate their body temperatures independently; they are completely dependent on the temperature of their environment.[2] For this reason, they need to sunbathe frequently to warm themselves and maintain their body temperatures.

text: The shell is divided into two sections: the upper or dorsal carapace, and the lower, ventral carapace or plastron.[2] The upper carapace consists of the vertebral scutes, which form the central, elevated portion; pleural scutes that are located around the vertebral scutes; and then the marginal scutes around the edge of the carapace. The rear marginal scutes are notched. The scutes are bony keratinous elements. The carapace is oval and flattened (especially in the male) and has a weak keel that is more pronounced in the young.[9] The color of the carapace changes depending on the age of the turtle. The carapace usually has a dark green background with light and dark, highly variable markings. In young or recently hatched turtles, it is leaf green and gets slightly darker as a turtle gets older, until it is a very dark green, and then turns a shade between brown and olive green. The plastron is always a light yellow with dark, paired, irregular markings in the centre of most scutes. The plastron is highly variable in pattern. The head, legs, and tail are green with fine, irregular, yellow lines. The whole shell is covered in these stripes and markings that aid in camouflaging an individual.

text: Turtles also have a complete skeletal system, with partially webbed feet that help them to swim and that can be withdrawn inside the carapace along with the head and tail. The red stripe on each side of the head distinguishes the red-eared slider from all other North American species and gives this species its name, as the stripe is located behind the eyes where their (external) ears would be. These stripes may lose their color over time.[8] Some individuals can also have a small mark of the same color on the top of their heads. The red-eared slider does not have a visible outer ear or an external auditory canal; instead, it relies on a middle ear entirely covered by a cartilaginous tympanic disc.[10]

text: The main internal organs of these reptiles are the lungs, heart, stomach, liver, intestines, and the urinary bladder. A cloaca serves both excretory and reproductive functions.

text: Sexual dimorphism[edit]

text: Some dimorphism exists between males and females.[11]

text: Red-eared slider young look practically identical regardless of their sex, making it difficult to determine their sex. However, there is another method to determine their sex, by inspecting the markings under their carapace. These markings will fade as the turtles age. It is much easier to distinguish the sex of adults, as the shells of mature males are smaller than those of females.[12] Male red-eared sliders reach sexual maturity when their carapaces' diameters measure 10 cm (3.9 in) and females reach maturity when their carapaces measure 15 cm. Both male and females reach sexual maturity at five to six years. The male is normally smaller than the female, although this parameter is sometimes difficult to apply as individuals being compared could be of different ages.

text: Males have longer claws on their front feet than the females; this helps them to hold on to a female during mating and is used during courtship displays.[13] The male's tail is thicker and longer, it has a dark coloured retractable sexual organ known as their penis, inside the tail. Typically, the cloacal opening of the female is at or under the rear edge of the carapace, while the male's opening occurs beyond the edge of the carapace. The male's plastron is slightly concave, while that of the female is completely flat. The male's concave plastron also helps to stabilize the male on the female's carapace during mating.[14] Older males can sometimes have a dark greyish-olive green melanistic coloration, with very subdued markings. The red stripe on the sides of the head may be difficult to see or be absent. The female's appearance is substantially the same throughout her life.

text: Distribution and habitat[edit]

text: The red-eared slider originated from the area around the Mississippi River and the Gulf of Mexico, in warm climates in the southeastern United States. Their native areas range from the southeast of Colorado to Virginia and Florida. In nature, they inhabit areas with a source of still, warm water, such as ponds, lakes, swamps, creeks, streams, or slow-flowing rivers. They live in areas of calm water where they are able to leave the water easily by climbing onto rocks or tree trunks so they can warm up in the sun. Individuals are often found sunbathing in a group or even on top of each other. They also require abundant aquatic plants, as these are the adults' main food, although they are omnivores.[15] Turtles in the wild always remain close to water unless they are searching for a new habitat or when females leave the water to lay their eggs.

text: Owing to their popularity as pets, red-eared sliders have been released or escaped into the wild in many parts of the world.[16] The turtle is considered one of the world’s worst invasive species.[17] Feral populations are now found in Australia, Europe, South Africa, the Caribbean Islands, Israel, Bahrain, the Mariana Islands, Guam, and southeast and far-east Asia.[18][19] In Australia, it is illegal for members of the public to import, keep, trade, or release red-eared sliders, as they are regarded as an invasive species[20] - see below. Their import has been banned by the European Union[21] as well as specific EU member countries.[22] In 2015 Japan announced it was planning to ban the import of red-eared sliders, but it would probably not take effect until 2020.[23] Invasive red-eared sliders cause negative impacts in the ecosystems they occupy because they have certain advantages over the native populations, such as a lower age at maturity, higher fecundity rates, and larger body size, which gives them a competitive advantage at basking and nesting sites, as well as when exploiting food resources.[24] They also transmit diseases and displace the other turtle species with which they compete for food and breeding space.[25]

text: Behavior[edit]

text: Red-eared sliders are almost entirely aquatic, but as they are cold-blooded, they leave the water to sunbathe to regulate their temperature.

text: Hibernation[edit]

text: Red Eared Sliders do not hibernate, but actually brumate; while they become less active, they do occasionally rise to the surface for food or air. Brumation can occur to varying degrees. In the wild, red-eared sliders brumate over the winter at the bottoms of ponds or shallow lakes. They generally become inactive in October, when temperatures fall below 10 °C (50 °F).[9] During this time, the turtles enter a state of sopor, during which they do not eat or defecate, they remain nearly motionless, and the frequency of their breathing falls. Individuals usually brumate underwater, but they have also been found under banks and rocks, and in hollow stumps. In warmer winter climates, they can become active and come to the surface for basking. When the temperature begins to drop again, however, they quickly return to a brumation state. Sliders generally come up for food in early March to as late as the end of April.

text: During brumation, T. s. elegans can survive anaerobically for weeks, producing ATP from glycolysis. The turtle's metabolic rate drops dramatically, with heart rate and cardiac output dropping by 80% to minimise energy requirements.[26][27] The lactic acid produced is buffered by minerals in the shell, preventing acidosis.[28] Red-eared sliders kept captive indoors should not brumate.

text: Reproduction[edit]

text: Courtship and mating activities for red-eared sliders usually occur between March and July, and take place under water. During courtship, the male swims around the female and flutters or vibrates the back side of his long claws on and around her face and head, possibly to direct pheromones towards her.[29] The female swims toward the male and, if she is receptive, sinks to the bottom for mating. If the female is not receptive, she may become aggressive towards the male. Courtship can last 45 minutes, but mating takes only 10 minutes.[25]

text: On occasion, a male may appear to be courting another male, and when kept in captivity may also show this behaviour towards other household pets. Between male turtles, it could be a sign of dominance and may preclude a fight. Young turtles may carry out the courtship dance before they reach sexual maturity at five years of age, but they are unable to mate.[30]

text: After mating, the female spends extra time basking to keep her eggs warm.[30] She may also have a change of diet, eating only certain foods, or not eating as much as she normally would. A female can lay between two and 30 eggs depending on body size and other factors.[18] One female can lay up to five clutches in the same year, and clutches are usually spaced 12 to 36 days apart.[31] The time between mating and egg-laying can be days or weeks. The actual egg fertilization takes place during the egg-laying. This process also permits the laying of fertile eggs the following season, as the sperm can remain viable and available in the female's body in the absence of mating. During the last weeks of gestation, the female spends less time in the water and smells and scratches at the ground, indicating she is searching for a suitable place to lay her eggs. The female excavates a hole, using her hind legs, and lays her eggs in it.[32]

text: Incubation takes 59 to 112 days.[18] Late-season hatchlings may spend the winter in the nest and emerge when the weather warms in the spring. Just prior to hatching, the egg contains 50% turtle and 50% egg sac. A new hatchling breaks open its egg with its egg tooth, which falls out about an hour after hatching. This egg tooth never grows back. Hatchlings may stay inside their eggshells after hatching for the first day or two. If they are forced to leave the eggshell before they are ready, they will return if possible. When a hatchling decides to leave the shell, it still has a small sac protruding from its plastron. The yolk sac is vital and provides nourishment while visible, and several days later it will have been absorbed into the turtle's belly. The sac must be absorbed, and does not fall off. The split must heal on its own before the turtle is able to swim. The time between the egg hatching and water entry is 21 days.

text: Damage to or inordinate motion of the protruding egg yolk, enough to allow air into the turtle's body, results in death. This is the main reason for marking the top of turtle eggs if their relocation is required for any reason. An egg turned upside down will eventually terminate the embryo's growth by the sac smothering the embryo. If it manages to reach term, the turtle will try to flip over with the yolk sac, which would allow air into the body cavity and cause death. The other fatal danger is water getting into the body cavity before the sac is absorbed completely and while the opening has not completely healed yet.

text: The sex of red-eared sliders is determined by the incubation temperature during critical phases of the embryos' development. Only males are produced when eggs are incubated at temperatures of 22–27 °C (72–81 °F), whereas females develop at warmer temperatures.[33] Colder temperatures result in the death of the embryos.

text: Red-eared sliders as pets[edit]

text: Red-eared slider turtles are the world’s most commonly traded reptile, due to their relatively low price, small size and easy maintenance.[34][35] As with other turtles, tortoises, and box turtles, individuals that survive their first year or two can be expected to live generally around 30 years. But they are an infection risk, and when they mature they can inflict painful bites, which results in many being dumped into the wild with negative ecological, social and economic impacts.[36]

text: Infection risks and United States federal regulations on commercial distribution[edit]

text: Reptiles are asymptomatic (meaning they suffer no adverse side effects) carriers of bacteria of the genus Salmonella.[37] This has given rise to justifiable concerns given the many instances of infection of humans caused by the handling of turtles,[38] which has led to restrictions in the sale of red-eared sliders in the USA. A 1975 U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulation bans the sale (for general commercial and public use) of both turtle eggs and turtles with a carapace length of less than 4 in (10 cm). This regulation comes under the Public Health Service Act, and is enforced by the FDA in cooperation with state and local health jurisdictions. The ban was enacted because of the public health impact of turtle-associated salmonellosis. Turtles and turtle eggs found to be offered for sale in violation of this provision are subject to destruction in accordance with FDA procedures. A fine of up to $1,001 and/or imprisonment for up to one year is the penalty for those who refuse to comply with a valid final demand for destruction of such turtles or their eggs.[39] Many stores and flea markets still sell small turtles due to an exception in the FDA regulation which allows turtles under 4 in (10 cm) to be sold "for bona fide scientific, educational, or exhibition purposes, other than use as pets."[40] As with many other animals and inanimate objects, the risk of Salmonella exposure can be reduced by following basic rules of cleanliness. Small children must be taught to wash their hands immediately after they finish playing with the turtle, feeding it, or changing its water.

text: US state law[edit]

text: Some states have other laws and regulations regarding possession of red-eared sliders because they can be an invasive species where they are not native and have been introduced through the pet trade. Now, it is illegal in Florida to sell any wild-type red-eared slider, as they interbreed with the local yellow-bellied slider population — Trachemys scripta scripta is another subspecies of pond sliders, and hybrids typically combine the markings of the two subspecies. However, unusual color varieties such as albino and pastel red-eared sliders, which are derived from captive breeding, are still allowed for sale.[41]

text: An invasive species in Australia[edit]

text: In Australia, breeding populations have been found in New South Wales and Queensland, and individual turtles have been found in the wild in Victoria, the Australian Capital Territory and Western Australia.[42]

text: Red-eared slider turtles are considered a significant threat to native turtle species - they mature more quickly, grow larger, produce more offspring and are more aggressive.[42] Numerous studies provide evidence that red-eared slider turtles can out-compete native turtles for food and nesting and basking sites.[43] Because red-eared slider turtles eat plants as well as animals, they could also have a negative impact on a range of native aquatic species, including rare frogs.[44] There is also a significant risk that red-eared slider turtles will transfer diseases and parasites to native reptile species. There is evidence that a malaria-like parasite was spread to two wild turtle populations in Lane Cove River, Sydney.[45]

text: Social and economic costs are also likely to be substantial. The Queensland government has invested close to $1 million AUD in eradication programs to date.[42] As outlined in the foregoing section, the turtle may also have significant public health costs due to the impacts of turtle-associated salmonella on human health. Outbreaks in multiple states and fatalities in children, associated with handling salmonella-infected turtles, have been recorded in the USA.[46] Salmonella can also spread to humans when turtles contaminate drinking water.[47]

text: There have been varying degrees of action by state governments to date, ranging from ongoing eradication efforts by the Queensland government to very little action by the government of New South Wales.[48] Experts have ranked the species as high priority for management in Australia and are calling for a national prevention and eradication strategy, including a concerted education and compliance program to stop the illegal trade, possession and release of slider turtles.[49]

text: In popular culture[edit]

text: Within the second volume of the Tales of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, the popular comic book heroes were revealed as specimens of the red-eared slider. The popularity of the Turtles led to a craze for keeping them as pets in Great Britain, and subsequent ecological havoc as turtles were accidentally or deliberately released into the wild.[50]


document_title: Geocentric model

question_text: who challenged the aristotelian model of a geocentric universe

question_tokens: who challenged the aristotelian model of a geocentric universe

text: Geocentric model

text: Ancient Greece[edit]

text: The geocentric model entered Greek astronomy and philosophy at an early point; it can be found in pre-Socratic philosophy. In the 6th century BC, Anaximander proposed a cosmology with Earth shaped like a section of a pillar (a cylinder), held aloft at the center of everything. The Sun, Moon, and planets were holes in invisible wheels surrounding Earth; through the holes, humans could see concealed fire. About the same time, Pythagoras thought that the Earth was a sphere (in accordance with observations of eclipses), but not at the center; they believed that it was in motion around an unseen fire. Later these views were combined, so most educated Greeks from the 4th century BC on thought that the Earth was a sphere at the center of the universe.[12]

text: In the 4th century BC, two influential Greek philosophers, Plato and his student Aristotle, wrote works based on the geocentric model. According to Plato, the Earth was a sphere, stationary at the center of the universe. The stars and planets were carried around the Earth on spheres or circles, arranged in the order (outwards from the center): Moon, Sun, Venus, Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, fixed stars, with the fixed stars located on the celestial sphere. In his "Myth of Er", a section of the Republic, Plato describes the cosmos as the Spindle of Necessity, attended by the Sirens and turned by the three Fates. Eudoxus of Cnidus, who worked with Plato, developed a less mythical, more mathematical explanation of the planets' motion based on Plato's dictum stating that all phenomena in the heavens can be explained with uniform circular motion. Aristotle elaborated on Eudoxus' system.

text: In the fully developed Aristotelian system, the spherical Earth is at the center of the universe, and all other heavenly bodies are attached to 47–55 transparent, rotating spheres surrounding the Earth, all concentric with it. (The number is so high because several spheres are needed for each planet.) These spheres, known as crystalline spheres, all moved at different uniform speeds to create the revolution of bodies around the Earth. They were composed of an incorruptible substance called aether. Aristotle believed that the moon was in the innermost sphere and therefore touches the realm of Earth, causing the dark spots (macula) and the ability to go through lunar phases. He further described his system by explaining the natural tendencies of the terrestrial elements: Earth, water, fire, air, as well as celestial aether. His system held that Earth was the heaviest element, with the strongest movement towards the center, thus water formed a layer surrounding the sphere of Earth. The tendency of air and fire, on the other hand, was to move upwards, away from the center, with fire being lighter than air. Beyond the layer of fire, were the solid spheres of aether in which the celestial bodies were embedded. They, themselves, were also entirely composed of aether.

text: Adherence to the geocentric model stemmed largely from several important observations. First of all, if the Earth did move, then one ought to be able to observe the shifting of the fixed stars due to stellar parallax. In short, if the Earth was moving, the shapes of the constellations should change considerably over the course of a year. If they did not appear to move, the stars are either much farther away than the Sun and the planets than previously conceived, making their motion undetectable, or in reality they are not moving at all. Because the stars were actually much further away than Greek astronomers postulated (making movement extremely subtle), stellar parallax was not detected until the 19th century. Therefore, the Greeks chose the simpler of the two explanations. Another observation used in favor of the geocentric model at the time was the apparent consistency of Venus' luminosity, which implies that it is usually about the same distance from Earth, which in turn is more consistent with geocentrism than heliocentrism. In reality, that is because the loss of light caused by Venus' phases compensates for the increase in apparent size caused by its varying distance from Earth. Objectors to heliocentrism noted that terrestrial bodies naturally tend to come to rest as near as possible to the center of the Earth. Further barring the opportunity to fall closer the center, terrestrial bodies tend not to move unless forced by an outside object, or transformed to a different element by heat or moisture.

text: Atmospheric explanations for many phenomena were preferred because the Eudoxan–Aristotelian model based on perfectly concentric spheres was not intended to explain changes in the brightness of the planets due to a change in distance.[13] Eventually, perfectly concentric spheres were abandoned as it was impossible to develop a sufficiently accurate model under that ideal. However, while providing for similar explanations, the later deferent and epicycle model was flexible enough to accommodate observations for many centuries.

text: Ptolemaic model[edit]

text: Although the basic tenets of Greek geocentrism were established by the time of Aristotle, the details of his system did not become standard. The Ptolemaic system, developed by the Hellenistic astronomer Claudius Ptolemaeus in the 2nd century AD finally standardised geocentrism. His main astronomical work, the Almagest, was the culmination of centuries of work by Hellenic, Hellenistic and Babylonian astronomers. For over a millennium European and Islamic astronomers assumed it was the correct cosmological model. Because of its influence, people sometimes wrongly think the Ptolemaic system is identical with the geocentric model.

text: Ptolemy argued that the Earth was a sphere in the center of the universe, from the simple observation that half the stars were above the horizon and half were below the horizon at any time (stars on rotating stellar sphere), and the assumption that the stars were all at some modest distance from the center of the universe. If the Earth was substantially displaced from the center, this division into visible and invisible stars would not be equal.[n 9]

text: Ptolemaic system[edit]

text: In the Ptolemaic system, each planet is moved by a system of two spheres: one called its deferent; the other, its epicycle. The deferent is a circle whose center point, called the eccentric and marked in the diagram with an X, is removed from the Earth. The original purpose of the eccentric was to account for the difference in length of the seasons (northern autumn was about five days shorter than spring during this time period) by placing the Earth away from the center of rotation of the rest of the universe. Another sphere, the epicycle, is embedded inside the deferent sphere and is represented by the smaller dotted line to the right. A given planet then moves around the epicycle at the same time the epicycle moves along the path marked by the deferent. These combined movements cause the given planet to move closer to and further away from the Earth at different points in its orbit, and explained the observation that planets slowed down, stopped, and moved backward in retrograde motion, and then again reversed to resume normal, or prograde, motion.

text: The deferent-and-epicycle model had been used by Greek astronomers for centuries along with the idea of the eccentric (a deferent which is slightly off-center from the Earth), which was even older. In the illustration, the center of the deferent is not the Earth but the spot marked X, making it eccentric (from the Greek ἐκ ec- meaning "from," and κέντρον kentron meaning "center"), from which the spot takes its name. Unfortunately, the system that was available in Ptolemy's time did not quite match observations, even though it was considerably improved over Hipparchus' system. Most noticeably the size of a planet's retrograde loop (especially that of Mars) would be smaller, and sometimes larger, than expected, resulting in positional errors of as much as 30 degrees. To alleviate the problem, Ptolemy developed the equant. The equant was a point near the center of a planet's orbit which, if you were to stand there and watch, the center of the planet's epicycle would always appear to move at uniform speed; all other locations would see non-uniform speed, like on the Earth. By using an equant, Ptolemy claimed to keep motion which was uniform and circular, although it departed from the Platonic ideal of uniform circular motion. The resultant system, which eventually came to be widely accepted in the west, seems unwieldy to modern astronomers; each planet required an epicycle revolving on a deferent, offset by an equant which was different for each planet. It predicted various celestial motions, including the beginning and end of retrograde motion, to within a maximum error of 10 degrees, considerably better than without the equant.

text: The model with epicycles is in fact a very good model of an elliptical orbit with low eccentricity. The well known ellipse shape does not appear to a noticeable extent when the eccentricity is less than 5%, but the offset distance of the "center" (in fact the focus occupied by the sun) is very noticeable even with low eccentricities as possessed by the planets.

text: To summarize, Ptolemy devised a system that was compatible with Aristotelian philosophy and managed to track actual observations and predict future movement mostly to within the limits of the next 1000 years of observations. The observed motions and his mechanisms for explaining them include:

text:
The Ptolemaic System

Object(s)
Observation
Modeling mechanism

Stars
Motion of entire sky E to W in ~24 hrs ("first motion")
Stars: Daily motion E to W of sphere of stars, carrying all other spheres with it; normally ignored; other spheres have additional motions

Sun
Motion yearly W to E along ecliptic
Motion of Sun's sphere W to E in year

Sun
Non-uniform rate along ecliptic (uneven seasons)
Eccentric orbit (Sun's deferent center off Earth)

Moon
Monthly motion W to E compared to stars
Monthly W to E motion of Moon's sphere

The 5 planets
General motion W to E through zodiac
Motion of deferents W to E; period set by observation of planet going around the ecliptic

Planets
Retrograde motion
Motion of epicycle in same direction as deferent. Period of epicycle is time between retrograde motions (synodic period).

Planets
Variations in speed through the zodiac
Eccentric per planet

Planets
Variations in retrograde timing
Equants per planet (Copernicus used a pair of epicycles instead)

Planets
Size of deferents, epicycles
Only ratio between radius of deferent and associated epicycle determined; absolute distances not determined in theory

Interior planets
Average greatest elongations of 23° (Mercury) and 46° (Venus)
Size of epicycles set by these angles, proportional to distances

Interior planets
Limited to movement near the Sun
Center their deferent centers along the Sun–Earth line

Exterior planets
Retrograde only at opposition, when brightest
Radii of epicycles aligned to Sun–Earth line

tag: table

text: The geocentric model was eventually replaced by the heliocentric model. The earliest heliocentric model, Copernican heliocentrism, could remove Ptolemy's epicycles because the retrograde motion could be seen to be the result of the combination of Earth and planet movement and speeds. Copernicus felt strongly that equants were a violation of Aristotelian purity, and proved that replacement of the equant with a pair of new epicycles was entirely equivalent. Astronomers often continued using the equants instead of the epicycles because the former was easier to calculate, and gave the same result.

text: It has been determined, in fact, that the Copernican, Ptolemaic and even the Tychonic models provided identical results to identical inputs. They are computationally equivalent. It wasn't until Kepler demonstrated a physical observation that could show that the physical sun is directly involved in determining an orbit that a new model was required.

text: The Ptolemaic order of spheres from Earth outward is:[15]

text:
Moon
Mercury
Venus
Sun
Mars
Jupiter
Saturn
Fixed Stars
Primum Mobile ("First Moved")

tag: ol

text: Ptolemy did not invent or work out this order, which aligns with the ancient Seven Heavens religious cosmology common to the major Eurasian religious traditions. It also follows the decreasing orbital periods of the moon, sun, planets and stars.

text: Islamic astronomy and geocentrism[edit]

text: Muslim astronomers generally accepted the Ptolemaic system and the geocentric model,[16] but by the 10th century texts appeared regularly whose subject matter was doubts concerning Ptolemy (shukūk).[17] Several Muslim scholars questioned the Earth's apparent immobility[18][19] and centrality within the universe.[20] Some Muslim astronomers believed that the Earth rotates around its axis, such as Abu Sa'id al-Sijzi (d. circa 1020).[21][22] According to al-Biruni, Sijzi invented an astrolabe called al-zūraqī based on a belief held by some of his contemporaries "that the motion we see is due to the Earth's movement and not to that of the sky."[22][23] The prevalence of this view is further confirmed by a reference from the 13th century which states:

text: According to the geometers [or engineers] (muhandisīn), the Earth is in constant circular motion, and what appears to be the motion of the heavens is actually due to the motion of the Earth and not the stars.[22]

text: Early in the 11th century Alhazen wrote a scathing critique of Ptolemy's model in his Doubts on Ptolemy (c. 1028), which some have interpreted to imply he was criticizing Ptolemy's geocentrism,[24] but most agree that he was actually criticizing the details of Ptolemy's model rather than his geocentrism.[25]

text: In the 12th century, Arzachel departed from the ancient Greek idea of uniform circular motions by hypothesizing that the planet Mercury moves in an elliptic orbit,[26][27] while Alpetragius proposed a planetary model that abandoned the equant, epicycle and eccentric mechanisms,[28] though this resulted in a system that was mathematically less accurate.[29] Alpetragius also declared the Ptolemaic system as an imaginary model that was successful at predicting planetary positions but not real or physical. His alternative system spread through most of Europe during the 13th century.[30]

text: Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (1149–1209), in dealing with his conception of physics and the physical world in his Matalib, rejects the Aristotelian and Avicennian notion of the Earth's centrality within the universe, but instead argues that there are "a thousand thousand worlds (alfa alfi 'awalim) beyond this world such that each one of those worlds be bigger and more massive than this world as well as having the like of what this world has." To support his theological argument, he cites the Qur'anic verse, "All praise belongs to God, Lord of the Worlds," emphasizing the term "Worlds."[20]

text: The "Maragha Revolution" refers to the Maragha school's revolution against Ptolemaic astronomy. The "Maragha school" was an astronomical tradition beginning in the Maragha observatory and continuing with astronomers from the Damascus mosque and Samarkand observatory. Like their Andalusian predecessors, the Maragha astronomers attempted to solve the equant problem (the circle around whose circumference a planet or the center of an epicycle was conceived to move uniformly) and produce alternative configurations to the Ptolemaic model without abandoning geocentrism. They were more successful than their Andalusian predecessors in producing non-Ptolemaic configurations which eliminated the equant and eccentrics, were more accurate than the Ptolemaic model in numerically predicting planetary positions, and were in better agreement with empirical observations.[31] The most important of the Maragha astronomers included Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi (d. 1266), Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī (1201–1274), Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi (1236–1311), Ibn al-Shatir (1304–1375), Ali Qushji (c. 1474), Al-Birjandi (d. 1525), and Shams al-Din al-Khafri (d. 1550).[32] Ibn al-Shatir, the Damascene astronomer (1304–1375 AD) working at the Umayyad Mosque, wrote a major book entitled Kitab Nihayat al-Sul fi Tashih al-Usul (A Final Inquiry Concerning the Rectification of Planetary Theory) on a theory which departs largely from the Ptolemaic system known at that time. In his book, Ibn al-Shatir, an Arab astronomer of the fourteenth century, E. S. Kennedy wrote "what is of most interest, however, is that Ibn al-Shatir's lunar theory, except for trivial differences in parameters, is identical with that of Copernicus (1473–1543 AD)." The discovery that the models of Ibn al-Shatir are mathematically identical to those of Copernicus suggests the possible transmission of these models to Europe.[33] At the Maragha and Samarkand observatories, the Earth's rotation was discussed by al-Tusi and Ali Qushji (b. 1403); the arguments and evidence they used resemble those used by Copernicus to support the Earth's motion.[18][19]

text: However, the Maragha school never made the paradigm shift to heliocentrism.[34] The influence of the Maragha school on Copernicus remains speculative, since there is no documentary evidence to prove it. The possibility that Copernicus independently developed the Tusi couple remains open, since no researcher has yet demonstrated that he knew about Tusi's work or that of the Maragha school.[34][35]

text: Geocentrism and rival systems[edit]

text: The examples and perspective in this article may not include all significant viewpoints. Please improve the article or discuss the issue. (June 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Not all Greeks agreed with the geocentric model. The Pythagorean system has already been mentioned; some Pythagoreans believed the Earth to be one of several planets going around a central fire.[36] Hicetas and Ecphantus, two Pythagoreans of the 5th century BC, and Heraclides Ponticus in the 4th century BC, believed that the Earth rotated on its axis but remained at the center of the universe.[37] Such a system still qualifies as geocentric. It was revived in the Middle Ages by Jean Buridan. Heraclides Ponticus was once thought to have proposed that both Venus and Mercury went around the Sun rather than the Earth, but this is no longer accepted.[38] Martianus Capella definitely put Mercury and Venus in orbit around the Sun.[39] Aristarchus of Samos was the most radical. He wrote a work, which has not survived, on heliocentrism, saying that the Sun was at the center of the universe, while the Earth and other planets revolved around it.[40] His theory was not popular, and he had one named follower, Seleucus of Seleucia.[41]

text: Copernican system[edit]

text: In 1543, the geocentric system met its first serious challenge with the publication of Copernicus' De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres), which posited that the Earth and the other planets instead revolved around the Sun. The geocentric system was still held for many years afterwards, as at the time the Copernican system did not offer better predictions than the geocentric system, and it posed problems for both natural philosophy and scripture. The Copernican system was no more accurate than Ptolemy's system, because it still used circular orbits. This was not altered until Johannes Kepler postulated that they were elliptical (Kepler's first law of planetary motion).

text: With the invention of the telescope in 1609, observations made by Galileo Galilei (such as that Jupiter has moons) called into question some of the tenets of geocentrism but did not seriously threaten it. Because he observed dark "spots" on the moon, craters, he remarked that the moon was not a perfect celestial body as had been previously conceived. This was the first time someone could see imperfections on a celestial body that was supposed to be composed of perfect aether. As such, because the moon's imperfections could now be related to those seen on Earth, one could argue that neither was unique: rather, they were both just celestial bodies made from Earth-like material. Galileo could also see the moons of Jupiter, which he dedicated to Cosimo II de' Medici, and stated that they orbited around Jupiter, not Earth.[42] This was a significant claim as it would mean not only that not everything revolved around Earth as stated in the Ptolemaic model, but also showed a secondary celestial body could orbit a moving celestial body, strengthening the heliocentric argument that a moving Earth could retain the Moon.[43] Galileo's observations were verified by other astronomers of the time period who quickly adopted use of the telescope, including Christoph Scheiner, Johannes Kepler, and Giovan Paulo Lembo.[44]

text: In December 1610, Galileo Galilei used his telescope to observe that Venus showed all phases, just like the Moon. He thought that while this observation was incompatible with the Ptolemaic system, it was a natural consequence of the heliocentric system.

text: However, Ptolemy placed Venus' deferent and epicycle entirely inside the sphere of the Sun (between the Sun and Mercury), but this was arbitrary; he could just as easily have swapped Venus and Mercury and put them on the other side of the Sun, or made any other arrangement of Venus and Mercury, as long as they were always near a line running from the Earth through the Sun, such as placing the center of the Venus epicycle near the Sun. In this case, if the Sun is the source of all the light, under the Ptolemaic system:

text: If Venus is between Earth and the Sun, the phase of Venus must always be crescent or all dark.

text: If Venus is beyond the Sun, the phase of Venus must always be gibbous or full.

text: But Galileo saw Venus at first small and full, and later large and crescent.

text: This showed that with a Ptolemaic cosmology, the Venus epicycle can be neither completely inside nor completely outside of the orbit of the Sun. As a result, Ptolemaics abandoned the idea that the epicycle of Venus was completely inside the Sun, and later 17th century competition between astronomical cosmologies focused on variations of Tycho Brahe's Tychonic system (in which the Earth was still at the center of the universe, and around it revolved the Sun, but all other planets revolved around the Sun in one massive set of epicycles), or variations on the Copernican system.

text: Gravitation[edit]

text: Johannes Kepler analysed Tycho Brahe's famously accurate observations and afterwards constructed his three laws in 1609 and 1619, based on a heliocentric view where the planets move in elliptical paths. Using these laws, he was the first astronomer to successfully predict a transit of Venus (for the year 1631). The change from circular orbits to elliptical planetary paths dramatically improved the accuracy of celestial observations and predictions. Because the heliocentric model by Copernicus was no more accurate than Ptolemy's system, new observations were needed to persuade those who still held on to the geocentric model. However, Kepler's laws based on Brahe's data became a problem which geocentrists could not easily overcome.

text: In 1687, Isaac Newton stated the law of universal gravitation, described earlier as a hypothesis by Robert Hooke and others. His main achievement was to mathematically derive Kepler's laws of planetary motion from the law of gravitation, thus helping to prove the latter. This introduced gravitation as the force that both kept the Earth and planets moving through the heavens and also kept the air from flying away. The theory of gravity allowed scientists to construct a plausible heliocentric model for the solar system quickly. In his Principia, Newton explained his system of how gravity, previously thought of as an occult force (that is, an unexplained force), directed the movements of celestial bodies, and kept our solar system in its working order. His descriptions of centripetal force[45] were a breakthrough in scientific thought which used the newly developed differential calculus, and finally replaced the previous schools of scientific thought, i.e. those of Aristotle and Ptolemy. However, the process was gradual.

text: Several empirical tests of Newton's theory, explaining the longer period of oscillation of a pendulum at the equator and the differing size of a degree of latitude, gradually became available over the period 1673–1738. In addition, stellar aberration was observed by Robert Hooke in 1674 and tested in a series of observations by Jean Picard over ten years finishing in 1680. However, it was not explained until 1729 when James Bradley provided an approximate explanation in terms of the Earth's revolution about the sun.

text: In 1838, astronomer Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel measured the parallax of the star 61 Cygni successfully, and disproved Ptolemy's claim that parallax motion did not exist. This finally confirmed the assumptions made by Copernicus, provided accurate, dependable scientific observations, and displayed truly how far away stars were from Earth.

text: A geocentric frame is useful for many everyday activities and most laboratory experiments, but is a less appropriate choice for solar-system mechanics and space travel. While a heliocentric frame is most useful in those cases, galactic and extra-galactic astronomy is easier if the sun is treated as neither stationary nor the center of the universe, but rotating around the center of our galaxy, and in turn our galaxy is also not at rest in the cosmic background.

text: Relativity[edit]

text: Albert Einstein and Leopold Infeld wrote in The Evolution of Physics (1938): "Can we formulate physical laws so that they are valid for all CS (=coordinate systems), not only those moving uniformly, but also those moving quite arbitrarily, relative to each other? If this can be done, our difficulties will be over. We shall then be able to apply the laws of nature to any CS. The struggle, so violent in the early days of science, between the views of Ptolemy and Copernicus would then be quite meaningless. Either CS could be used with equal justification. The two sentences, 'the sun is at rest and the Earth moves', or 'the sun moves and the Earth is at rest', would simply mean two different conventions concerning two different CS. Could we build a real relativistic physics valid in all CS; a physics in which there would be no place for absolute, but only for relative, motion? This is indeed possible!"[46]

text: Despite giving more respectability to the geocentric view than Newtonian physics does,[47] relativity is not geocentric. Rather, relativity states that the Sun, the Earth, the Moon, Jupiter, or any other point for that matter could be chosen as a center of the solar system with equal validity.[48] For this reason Robert Sungenis, a modern geocentrist, spent much of Volume I of his book Galileo Was Wrong: The Church Was Right critiquing and trying to unravel the Special and General theories of Relativity.[49]

text: Relativity agrees with Newtonian predictions that regardless of whether the Sun or the Earth are chosen arbitrarily as the center of the coordinate system describing the solar system, the paths of the planets form (roughly) ellipses with respect to the Sun, not the Earth. With respect to the average reference frame of the fixed stars, the planets do indeed move around the Sun, which due to its much larger mass, moves far less than its own diameter and the gravity of which is dominant in determining the orbits of the planets. (In other words, the center of mass of the solar system is near the center of the Sun.) The Earth and Moon are much closer to being a binary planet; the center of mass around which they both rotate is still inside the Earth, but is about 4,624 km (2,873 mi) or 72.6% of the Earth's radius away from the centre of the Earth (thus closer to the surface than the center).[citation needed]

text: What the principle of relativity points out is that correct mathematical calculations can be made regardless of the reference frame chosen, and these will all agree with each other as to the predictions of actual motions of bodies with respect to each other. It is not necessary to choose the object in the solar system with the largest gravitational field as the center of the coordinate system in order to predict the motions of planetary bodies, though doing so may make calculations easier to perform or interpret. A geocentric coordinate system can be more convenient when dealing only with bodies mostly influenced by the gravity of the Earth (such as artificial satellites and the Moon), or when calculating what the sky will look like when viewed from Earth (as opposed to an imaginary observer looking down on the entire solar system, where a different coordinate system might be more convenient).

text: Religious and contemporary adherence to geocentrism[edit]

text: The Ptolemaic model of the solar system held sway into the early modern age; from the late 16th century onward it was gradually replaced as the consensus description by the heliocentric model. Geocentrism as a separate religious belief, however, never completely died out. In the United States between 1870 and 1920, for example, various members of the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod published articles disparaging Copernican astronomy, and geocentrism was widely taught within the synod during that period.[50] However, in the 1902 Theological Quarterly, A. L. Graebner claimed that the synod had no doctrinal position on geocentrism, heliocentrism, or any scientific model, unless it were to contradict Scripture. He stated that any possible declarations of geocentrists within the synod did not set the position of the church body as a whole.[51]

text: Articles arguing that geocentrism was the biblical perspective appeared in some early creation science newsletters pointing to some passages in the Bible, which, when taken literally, indicate that the daily apparent motions of the Sun and the Moon are due to their actual motions around the Earth rather than due to the rotation of the Earth about its axis. For example, in Joshua 10:12, the Sun and Moon are said to stop in the sky, and in Psalms the world is described as immobile.[52] Psalms 93:1 says in part "the world is established, firm and secure".) Contemporary advocates for such religious beliefs include Robert Sungenis (president of Bellarmine Theological Forum and author of the 2006 book Galileo Was Wrong).[53] These people subscribe to the view that a plain reading of the Bible contains an accurate account of the manner in which the universe was created and requires a geocentric worldview. Modern geocentrism is pseudoscientific,[54] and most contemporary creationist organizations reject such perspectives.[n 10]

text: After all, Copernicanism was the first major victory of science over religion, so it's inevitable that some folks would think that everything that's wrong with the world began there.

text: Morris Berman quotes a 2006 survey that show currently some 20% of the U.S. population believe that the sun goes around the Earth (geocentricism) rather than the Earth goes around the sun (heliocentricism), while a further 9% claimed not to know.[57] Polls conducted by Gallup in the 1990s found that 16% of Germans, 18% of Americans and 19% of Britons hold that the Sun revolves around the Earth.[58] A study conducted in 2005 by Jon D. Miller of Northwestern University, an expert in the public understanding of science and technology,[59] found that about 20%, or one in five, of American adults believe that the Sun orbits the Earth.[60] According to 2011 VTSIOM poll, 32% of Russians believe that the Sun orbits the Earth.[61]

text: Historical positions of the Roman Catholic hierarchy[edit]

text: The famous Galileo affair pitted the geocentric model against the claims of Galileo. In regards to the theological basis for such an argument, two Popes addressed the question of whether the use of phenomenological language would compel one to admit an error in Scripture. Both taught that it would not. Pope Leo XIII (1878–1903) wrote:

text: we have to contend against those who, making an evil use of physical science, minutely scrutinize the Sacred Book in order to detect the writers in a mistake, and to take occasion to vilify its contents. ... There can never, indeed, be any real discrepancy between the theologian and the physicist, as long as each confines himself within his own lines, and both are careful, as St. Augustine warns us, "not to make rash assertions, or to assert what is not known as known". If dissension should arise between them, here is the rule also laid down by St. Augustine, for the theologian: "Whatever they can really demonstrate to be true of physical nature, we must show to be capable of reconciliation with our Scriptures; and whatever they assert in their treatises which is contrary to these Scriptures of ours, that is to Catholic faith, we must either prove it as well as we can to be entirely false, or at all events we must, without the smallest hesitation, believe it to be so." To understand how just is the rule here formulated we must remember, first, that the sacred writers, or to speak more accurately, the Holy Ghost "Who spoke by them, did not intend to teach men these things (that is to say, the essential nature of the things of the visible universe), things in no way profitable unto salvation." Hence they did not seek to penetrate the secrets of nature, but rather described and dealt with things in more or less figurative language, or in terms which were commonly used at the time, and which in many instances are in daily use at this day, even by the most eminent men of science. Ordinary speech primarily and properly describes what comes under the senses; and somewhat in the same way the sacred writers-as the Angelic Doctor also reminds us – "went by what sensibly appeared", or put down what God, speaking to men, signified, in the way men could understand and were accustomed to.

text: Maurice Finocchiaro, author of a book on the Galileo affair, notes that this is "a view of the relationship between biblical interpretation and scientific investigation that corresponds to the one advanced by Galileo in the "Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina".[62] Pope Pius XII (1939–1958) repeated his predecessor's teaching:

text: The first and greatest care of Leo XIII was to set forth the teaching on the truth of the Sacred Books and to defend it from attack. Hence with grave words did he proclaim that there is no error whatsoever if the sacred writer, speaking of things of the physical order "went by what sensibly appeared" as the Angelic Doctor says, speaking either "in figurative language, or in terms which were commonly used at the time, and which in many instances are in daily use at this day, even among the most eminent men of science". For "the sacred writers, or to speak more accurately – the words are St. Augustine's – the Holy Spirit, Who spoke by them, did not intend to teach men these things – that is the essential nature of the things of the universe – things in no way profitable to salvation"; which principle "will apply to cognate sciences, and especially to history", that is, by refuting, "in a somewhat similar way the fallacies of the adversaries and defending the historical truth of Sacred Scripture from their attacks".

text: In 1664, Pope Alexander VII republished the Index Librorum Prohibitorum (List of Prohibited Books) and attached the various decrees connected with those books, including those concerned with heliocentrism. He stated in a Papal Bull that his purpose in doing so was that "the succession of things done from the beginning might be made known [quo rei ab initio gestae series innotescat]".[63]

text: The position of the curia evolved slowly over the centuries towards permitting the heliocentric view. In 1757, during the papacy of Benedict XIV, the Congregation of the Index withdrew the decree which prohibited all books teaching the Earth's motion, although the Dialogue and a few other books continued to be explicitly included. In 1820, the Congregation of the Holy Office, with the pope's approval, decreed that Catholic astronomer Giuseppe Settele was allowed to treat the Earth's motion as an established fact and removed any obstacle for Catholics to hold to the motion of the Earth:

text: The Assessor of the Holy Office has referred the request of Giuseppe Settele, Professor of Optics and Astronomy at La Sapienza University, regarding permission to publish his work Elements of Astronomy in which he espouses the common opinion of the astronomers of our time regarding the Earth’s daily and yearly motions, to His Holiness through Divine Providence, Pope Pius VII. Previously, His Holiness had referred this request to the Supreme Sacred Congregation and concurrently to the consideration of the Most Eminent and Most Reverend General Cardinal Inquisitor. His Holiness has decreed that no obstacles exist for those who sustain Copernicus' affirmation regarding the Earth's movement in the manner in which it is affirmed today, even by Catholic authors. He has, moreover, suggested the insertion of several notations into this work, aimed at demonstrating that the above mentioned affirmation [of Copernicus], as it has come to be understood, does not present any difficulties; difficulties that existed in times past, prior to the subsequent astronomical observations that have now occurred. [Pope Pius VII] has also recommended that the implementation [of these decisions] be given to the Cardinal Secretary of the Supreme Sacred Congregation and Master of the Sacred Apostolic Palace. He is now appointed the task of bringing to an end any concerns and criticisms regarding the printing of this book, and, at the same time, ensuring that in the future, regarding the publication of such works, permission is sought from the Cardinal Vicar whose signature will not be given without the authorization of the Superior of his Order.[64]

text: In 1822, the Congregation of the Holy Office removed the prohibition on the publication of books treating of the Earth's motion in accordance with modern astronomy and Pope Pius VII ratified the decision:

text: The most excellent [cardinals] have decreed that there must be no denial, by the present or by future Masters of the Sacred Apostolic Palace, of permission to print and to publish works which treat of the mobility of the Earth and of the immobility of the sun, according to the common opinion of modern astronomers, as long as there are no other contrary indications, on the basis of the decrees of the Sacred Congregation of the Index of 1757 and of this Supreme [Holy Office] of 1820; and that those who would show themselves to be reluctant or would disobey, should be forced under punishments at the choice of [this] Sacred Congregation, with derogation of [their] claimed privileges, where necessary.[65]

text: The 1835 edition of the Catholic Index of Prohibited Books for the first time omits the Dialogue from the list.[62] In his 1921 papal encyclical, In praeclara summorum, Pope Benedict XV stated that, "though this Earth on which we live may not be the center of the universe as at one time was thought, it was the scene of the original happiness of our first ancestors, witness of their unhappy fall, as too of the Redemption of mankind through the Passion and Death of Jesus Christ".[66] In 1965 the Second Vatican Council stated that, "Consequently, we cannot but deplore certain habits of mind, which are sometimes found too among Christians, which do not sufficiently attend to the rightful independence of science and which, from the arguments and controversies they spark, lead many minds to conclude that faith and science are mutually opposed."[67] The footnote on this statement is to Msgr. Pio Paschini's, Vita e opere di Galileo Galilei, 2 volumes, Vatican Press (1964). Pope John Paul II regretted the treatment which Galileo received, in a speech to the Pontifical Academy of Sciences in 1992. The Pope declared the incident to be based on a "tragic mutual miscomprehension". He further stated:

text: Cardinal Poupard has also reminded us that the sentence of 1633 was not irreformable, and that the debate which had not ceased to evolve thereafter, was closed in 1820 with the imprimatur given to the work of Canon Settele. ... The error of the theologians of the time, when they maintained the centrality of the Earth, was to think that our understanding of the physical world's structure was, in some way, imposed by the literal sense of Sacred Scripture. Let us recall the celebrated saying attributed to Baronius "Spiritui Sancto mentem fuisse nos docere quomodo ad coelum eatur, non quomodo coelum gradiatur". In fact, the Bible does not concern itself with the details of the physical world, the understanding of which is the competence of human experience and reasoning. There exist two realms of knowledge, one which has its source in Revelation and one which reason can discover by its own power. To the latter belong especially the experimental sciences and philosophy. The distinction between the two realms of knowledge ought not to be understood as opposition.[68]

text: Orthodox Judaism[edit]

text: A few Orthodox Jewish leaders maintain a geocentric model of the universe based on the aforementioned Biblical verses and an interpretation of Maimonides to the effect that he ruled that the Earth is orbited by the sun.[69][70] The Lubavitcher Rebbe also explained that geocentrism is defensible based on the theory of Relativity, which establishes that "when two bodies in space are in motion relative to one another, ... science declares with absolute certainty that from the scientific point of view both possibilities are equally valid, namely that the Earth revolves around the sun, or the sun revolves around the Earth", although he also went on to refer to people who believed in geocentrism as "remaining in the world of Copernicus".[71]

text: The Zohar implies: "The entire world and those upon it, spin round in a circle like a ball", both those at the bottom of the ball and those at the top. All God's creatures, wherever they live on the different parts of the ball, look different (in color, in their features) because the air is different in each place, but they stand erect as all other human beings.

text: Therefore, there are places in the world where, when some have light, others have darkness; when some have day, others have night.

text: While geocentrism is important in Maimonides' calendar calculations,[72] the great majority of Jewish religious scholars, who accept the divinity of the Bible and accept many of his rulings as legally binding, do not believe that the Bible or Maimonides command a belief in geocentrism.[70][73]

text: Islam[edit]

text: Prominent cases of modern geocentrism in Islam are very isolated. Very few individuals promoted a geocentric view of the universe. One of them was Ahmed Raza Khan Barelvi, a Sunni scholar of Indian subcontinent. He rejected the heliocentric model and wrote a book[74] that explains the movement of the sun, moon and other planets around the Earth. The Grand Mufti of Saudi Arabia from 1993 to 1999, Ibn Baz also promoted the geocentric view between 1966 and 1985.

text: Planetariums[edit]

text: The geocentric (Ptolemaic) model of the solar system is still of interest to planetarium makers, as, for technical reasons, a Ptolemaic-type motion for the planet light apparatus has some advantages over a Copernican-type motion.[75] The celestial sphere, still used for teaching purposes and sometimes for navigation, is also based on a geocentric system[76] which in effect ignores parallax. However this effect is negligible at the scale of accuracy that applies to a planetarium.