document_title: Coinage of India

question_text: first dynasty to issue gold coins in india

text: Coinage of India

text: Post Maha Janapadas period (600 BCE – 200 BCE)[edit]

text: Punch-marked coins are a type of early Coinage of India, dating to between about the 6th and 2nd centuries BCE.

text: The first coins in India were minted around the 6th century BCE by the Mahajanapadas of the Indo-Gangetic Plain, and certainly before the invasion of Alexander the Great in the 4th century BCE. The coins of this period were punch-marked coins called Puranas, Karshapanas or Pana. Several of these coins had a single symbol, for example, Saurashtra had a humped bull, and Dakshin Panchala had a Swastika, others, like Magadha, had several symbols. These coins were made of silver of a standard weight but with an irregular shape. This was gained by cutting up silver bars and then making the correct weight by cutting the edges of the coin.[10]

text: They are mentioned in the Manu, Panini, and Buddhist Jataka stories and lasted three centuries longer in the south than the north (600 BCE – 300 CE).[11]

text:
Shurasena
Surashtra[12]

Early coins of India (400 BCE – 100 CE) were made of silver and copper, and bore animal and plant symbols on them.[1]

text: Classical period (300 BCE – 1100 CE)[edit]

text: Coins of the Mauryas[edit]

text: The Mauryan Empire coins were punch marked with the royal standard to ascertain their authenticity.[13] The Arthashastra, written by Kautilya, mentions minting of coins but also indicates that the violation of the Imperial Maurya standards by private enterprises may have been an offence.[13] Kautilya also seemed to advocate a theory of bimetallism for coinage, which involved the use of two metals, copper and silver, under one government.[14]

text:
Maurya Empire coinage

Hoard of mostly Mauryan coins.

Silver punch mark coin of the Maurya empire, with symbols of wheel and elephant. 3rd century BCE.[citation needed]

Mauryan coin with arched hill symbol on reverse.[citation needed]

Mauryan Empire coin. Circa late 4th-2nd century BCE.[citation needed]

Mauryan Empire, Emperor Salisuka or later. Circa 207-194 BCE.[15]

text: Introduction of cast die-struck technique (end of 3rd century BCE)[edit]

text: Punch marked coins were replaced at the fall of the Maurya Empire by cast, die-struck coins.[16] Each individual coins was first cast by pouring a molten metal, usually copper or silver, into a cavity formed by two molds. These were then usually die-struck while still hot, first on just one side, and then later on the two sides. The coin devices are Indian, but it is thought that this coin technology was introduced from the West, either from the Achaemenid Empire or from the neighboring Greco-Bactrian kingdom.[17]

text: Coins of the Indo-Greeks[edit]

text: The Indo-Greek kings introduced Greek types, and among them the portrait head, into the Indian coinage, and their example was followed for eight centuries.[18] Every coin has some mark of authority in it, this is what known as "types". It appears on every Greek and Roman coin.[18] Demetrios was the first Bactrian king to strike square copper coins of the Indian type, with a legend in Greek on the obverse, and in Kharoshthi on the reverse.[18] Copper coins, square for the most part, are very numerous. The devices are almost entirely Greek, and must have been engraved by Greeks, or Indians trained in the Greek traditions. The rare gold staters and the splendid tetradrachms of Bactria disappear.[18] The silver coins of the Indo-Greeks, as these later princes may conveniently be called, are the didrachm and the hemidrachm. With the exception of certain square hemidrachms of Apollodotos and Philoxenos, they are all round, are struck to the Persian (or Indian) standard, and all have inscriptions in both Greek and Kharoshthi characters.[18]

text: Coinage of Indo-Greek kingdom began to increasingly influence coins from other regions of India by the 1st century BCE.[1] By this time a large number of tribes, dynasties and kingdoms began issuing their coins; Prākrit legends began to appear.[1] The extensive coinage of the Kushan empire (1st–3rd centuries CE) continued to influence the coinage of the Guptas (320 to 550 CE) and the later rulers of Kashmir.[1]

text: During the early rise of Roman trade with India up to 120 ships were setting sail every year from Myos Hormos to India.[19] Gold coins, used for this trade, was apparently being recycled by the Kushan empire for their own coinage. In the 1st century CE, the Roman writer Pliny the Elder complained about the vast sums of money leaving the Roman empire for India:

text:
“
India, China and the Arabian peninsula take one hundred million sesterces from our empire per annum at a conservative estimate: that is what our luxuries and women cost us. For what percentage of these imports is intended for sacrifices to the gods or the spirits of the dead? - Pliny, Historia Naturalis 12.41.84.
”

text: The trade was particularly focused around the regions of Gujarat, ruled by the Western Satraps, and the tip of the Indian peninsular in Southern India. Large hoards of Roman coins have been found and especially in the busy maritime trading centers of South India.[20] The South Indian kings reissued Roman-like coinage in their own name, either producing their own copies or defacing real ones in order to signify their sovereignty.[21]

text: Coins of the Sakas and the Pahlavas (200 BCE – 400 CE)[edit]

text: During the Indo-Scythians period whose era begins from 200 BCE to 400 CE, a new kind of the coins of two dynasties were very popular in circulation in various parts of the then India and parts of central and northern South Asia (Sogdiana, Bactria, Arachosia, Gandhara, Sindh, Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar).[18] These dynasties were Saka and The Pahlavas.After the conquest of Bactria by the Sakas in 135 BCE there must have been considerable intercourse sometimes of a friendly, sometimes of a hostile character, between them and the Parthians, who occupied the neighboring territory.[18]

text: Maues, whose coins are found only in the Punjab, was the first king of what may be called the Azes group of princes. His silver is not plentiful; the finest type is that with a "biga" (two-horsed chariot) on the obverse, and this type belongs to a square Hemi drachm, the only square aka silver coin known. His most common copper coins, with an elephant's head on the obverse and a "Caduceus" (staff of the god Hermes) on the reverse are imitated from a round copper coin of Demetrius. On another copper square coin of Maues the king is represented on horseback. This striking device is characteristic both of the Saka and Pahlava coinage; it first appears in a slightly different form on coins of the Indo-Greek Hippostratos; the Gupta kings adopted it for their "horseman" type, and it reappears in Medieval India on the coins of numerous Hindu kingdoms until the 14th century CE.[18]

text: Coins of Kanishka and Huvishka (100 CE – 200 CE)[edit]

text: Kanishka's copper coinage which came into the scene during 100–200 CE was of two types: one had the usual "standing king" obverse, and on the rarer second type the king is sitting on a throne. At about the same time there was Huvishka's copper coinage which was more varied; on the reverse, as on Kanishka's copper, there was always one of the numerous deities; on the obverse the king was portrayed (1) riding on an elephant, or (2) reclining on a couch, or (3) seated cross-legged, or (4) seated with arms raised.

text: Coinage of the Guptas Empire (320 CE – 480 CE)[edit]

text: The Gupta Empire produced large numbers of gold coins depicting the Gupta kings performing various rituals, as well as silver coins clearly influenced by those of the earlier Western Satraps by Chandragupta II.[1]

text: The splendid gold coinage of Guptas, with its many types and infinite varieties and its inscriptions in Sanskrit, are the finest examples of the purely Indian art that we possess.[18] Their era starts from around 320 with Chandragupta I's accession to the throne.[18]Son of Chandragupta I-Samudragupta, the real founder of the Gupta Empire had coinage made of gold only.[18] There were seven different varieties of coins that appeared during his reign.[18] Out of them the archer type is the most common and characteristic type of the Gupta dynasty coins, which were struck by at least eight succeeding kings and was a standard type in the kingdom.[18]

text: The silver coinage of Guptas starts with the overthrow of the Western Satraps by Chandragupta II. Kumaragupta and Skandagupta continued with the old type of coins (the Garuda and the Peacock types) and also introduced some other new types.[18] The copper coinage was mostly confined to the era of Chandragupta II and was more original in design. Eight out of the nine types known to have been struck by him have a figure of Garuda and the name of the King on it. The gradual deterioration in design and execution of the gold coins and the disappearance of silver money, bear ample evidence to their curtailed territory.[18] The percentage of gold in Indian coins under the reign of Gupta rulers showed a steady financial decline over the centuries as it decreases from 90% pure gold under Chandragupta I (319-335) to a mere 75-80% under Skandagupta (467).

text: Coinage of the Rajputs (900 CE – 1400 CE)[edit]

text: The coins of various Rajput princes's ruling in Hindustan and Central India were usually of gold, copper or billon, very rarely silver. These coins had the familiar goddess of wealth, Lakshmi on the obverse. In these coins, the Goddess was shown with four arms than the usual two arms of the Gupta coins; the reverse carried the Nagari legend. The seated bull and horseman were almost invariable devices on Rajput copper and bullion coins.[18]

text: Late Middle Ages – contemporary history (1300 CE – 2000 CE)[edit]

text: The Alf Coins of King Akbar (1582 CE – 1610 CE)[edit]

text: Political orders in Medieval India were based on a relationship and association of power by which the supreme ruler, especially a monarch was able to influence the actions of the subjects.[23]

text: In order for the relationship to work, it had to be expressed and communicated in the best possible way. In other words, power was by nature declarative from the point of view of its intelligibility and comprehensibility to the audience and required modes of communication to take effect by means of which sovereign power was articulated in the 16th century India.[23]

text: An examination was done of a series of coins officially issued and circulated by the Mughal emperor Akbar (r 1556-1605) to illustrate and project a particular view of time, religion, and political supremacy being fundamental and co-existing in nature.

text: Coins constitute part of the evidence that project the transmission of religious and political ideas in the last quarter of the 16th century.

text: The word 'Alf' refers to the millennium.[23] The following are the extraordinary decisions, though bizarre, were taken by King Akbar.

text:
The date in coins were written in words and not in figures.
If the intention was to refer to the year 1000 (yak hazar) of the Islamic calendar (hijri era) as is traditionally believed, the expression adopted for it (Alf) was unorthodox and eccentric.
Akbar, ultimately and more importantly, commanded Alf to be imprinted on the coins in 990 hijri (1582 CE ), or ten years before the date (1000 hijri) was due.

text: The order was a major departure and extremely unconventional and eccentric from the norm of striking coins in medieval India. Till the advent of Alf, all gold and silver coins had been stuck with figure of the current hijri year.[23]

text: Akbar's courtier and critic, Abdul Badani, presents and explains in brevity the motive for these unconventional decisions while describing the events that took place in 990 hijri (1582 CE):

text: And having thus convinced himself that the thousand years from the prophethood of the apostle (B'isat I Paighambar) the duration for which Islam [lit. religion] would last was now over, and nothing prevented him from articulating the desires he so secretly held in his heart, and the space became empty of the theologians (ulema) and mystics (mashaikh) who had carried awe and dignity and no need was felt for them: he [Akbar] felt himself at liberty to refute the principles of Islam and to institute new regulations, obsolete and corrupt but considered precious by his pernicious beliefs. The first order, which was given to write the date Alf on coins (Dar Sikka tank half Navisand) and to write the Tarikh-i-Alfi [history of the millennium] from the demise (Rihlat) of the prophet (Badauni II: 301).[23]

text: The evidence, both textual and numismatic, actually makes it clear that Akbar's decisions to mint the Alf coins and commission the Tarikh-i-Alfi were based on a new communication and interpretation of the terminal dates of the Islamic millennium.

text: What the evidence doesn't explain is the source of the idea as well as the reason for persisting with the same date on the imperial coinage even after the critical year had passed.[23]

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
Queen Kumaradevi and King Chandragupta I on a coin of their son Samudragupta 380 CE.

Gold coin of Gupta era, depicting a Gupta king holding a bow, 300 CE.

Alf coin of king Akbar

Maratha Empire, Chhatrapati Shivaji, Gold hon, c. 1674–80 CE.

Silver Rupee coin of Rudra Simha of Ahom kingdom, 1696 CE.

Maratha Kingdom of Baroda, Sayaji Rao III, 1870 CE.

Gold coin of Raja Raja Chola I, 985–1014 CE.


document_title: List of extinct animals of the British Isles

question_text: when was the last bear killed in the uk

question_tokens: when was the last bear killed in the uk

root

text:
Arctic lemming – c. 8000 BC
Arctic fox - c. (unknown)
†Eurasian aurochs – c. 1000 BC
Barbary macaque - c. 30,000 BC
†Cave bear – c. 15,000 BC
Coypu – 1978 (nonnative)
Elk Alces alces
Eurasian beaver – 1526 (reintroduced)
Eurasian brown bear – c. 1000 AD
Eurasian lynx – c. AD 400
Grey whale – c. 598 BC
Eurasian wolf – AD 1680 in Britain, AD 1786 in Ireland
†Irish elk – c. 6000 BC
Narrow-headed vole – c. 8000 BC
Steppe pika – c. 8000 BC
Root vole – c. 1500 BC
Saiga antelope – c. 10,000 BC
Steppe lemming – c. 8000 BC
†Tarpan – c. 7000 BC
Walrus – c. 1000 BC (Occasional Visitor) [2]
Wild Boar – c. 1400 (Reintroduced) [3]
Wisent – c. 3000 BC
Wolverine – c. 6000 BC
†Woolly mammoth – c. 10,000 BC
†Woolly rhinoceros – c. 10,000 BC
†Cave lion – c. 10,000 BC
†Scimitar cat - c. 30,000 BC[4]
†Cave hyena - c. 11,000 BC
†European jaguar - c. (unknown)
†European Ice Age leopard - c. 24,000 BC
†European gazelle - c. (unknown)

tag: ul

text: Birds[edit]

text:
Fea's petrel – Iron Age
Dalmatian pelican – c. 1000 BC
Eurasian spoonbill – 15th century (re-established)
Little egret – late medieval period (re-established)
Osprey – 1916 (re-established)
White-tailed eagle – 1916 (reintroduced)
Western marsh harrier – late 19th century (re-established)
Northern goshawk – late 19th century (possibly reintroduced)
Western capercaillie – 1780s (reintroduced)
Great bustard – 19th century (reintroduced)
Common crane – late medieval period (now re-established)
Pied avocet – 19th century (re-established)
Kentish plover – 20th century (last breeding record 1979)[5]
†Great auk – 1844
White stork – 1416
Red-backed shrike – 1989 (as a regular breeding bird)
Wryneck (as a regular breeding bird)

text: Fish[edit]

text:
†Houting
Burbot

text: Amphibians[edit]

text:
Agile frog – c. 1000 AD
Moor frog – c. 1000 AD
European tree frog – 1986

text: Reptiles[edit]

text: European pond terrapin – ≤ 3000 BC

text: Insects[edit]

text: Beetles[edit]

text:
Agonum sahlbergi (ground beetle) – 1914
Blue stag beetle – 19th century
Graphoderus bilineatus (water beetle) – 1906
Harpalus honestus (ground beetle) – 1905
Horned dung beetle – 1957
Ochthebius aeneus (water beetle) – 1913
Platydema violaceum (tenebrionid) – 1957
Rhantus aberratus (water beetle) – 1904
Scybalicus oblongiusculus (ground beetle) – 1926
Teretrius fabricii (histerid) – 1907

text: Bees, wasps and ants[edit]

text:
Andrena polita (mining bee) – 1934
Bombus pomorum, apple bumblebee – 1864[6]
Bombus cullumanus, Cullum's bumblebee – 1941[6]
Eucera tuberculata (mining bee) – 1941
Halictus maculatus (mining bee) – 1930
Mellinus crabroneus (digger wasp) – c. 1950
Odynerus reniformis (mason wasp) – 1915
Odynerus simillimus (mason wasp) – 1905
Short-haired bumblebee – 1989[6]

text: Flies[edit]

text: Merodon clavipes

text: Butterflies and moths[edit]

text: General reference: Waring et al., 2009.[7]

tag: p

text:
Aporia crataegi, black-veined white – 1925
Borkhausenia minutella – 1950
Conformist (moth) –
Euclemensia woodiella (moth) – 1829
Flame brocade (moth) – 1919
Frosted yellow (moth) – 1914
Gypsy moth – 1907; reappeared 1995[8]
Isle of Wight wave (moth) – 1931
Large chequered skipper – c. 1989 (non-native, Channel Islands)
Large copper – 1865
Many-lined (moth) – 1875
Map – c. 1914 (non-native)
Mazarine blue – 1906
Orache moth – 1915
Reed tussock (moth) – 1875
Scarce black arches (moth) – 1898 (transitory resident)
Speckled beauty (moth) – 1898
Union rustic (moth) – 1919
Viper's bugloss (moth) –1969[9]

text: Dragonflies and damselflies[edit]

text:
Norfolk damselfly – 1957
Orange-spotted emerald (dragonfly) – 1957

text: Caddisflies[edit]

text:
Hydropsyche bulgaromanorum (caddis fly) – 1926
Hydropsyche exocellata (caddis fly) – 1901

text: Crustaceans[edit]

text: Artemia salina (brine shrimp) – after 1758[10][11]

text: Molluscs[edit]

text: Land snails[edit]

text:
Fruticicola fruticum
Cernuella neglecta

text: † – Species is extinct worldwide

text: Reintroduction and re-establishment[edit]

text: The white-tailed eagle has been successfully re-established on the west coast of Scotland.[12] Having clung on in parts of Wales[13], Red kites have been successfully re-established in parts of England and Scotland.[14] Ongoing projects involve both these species: the corncrake into parts of England and Scotland, and the great bustard on Salisbury Plain.

text: European beavers have been reintroduced to parts of Scotland, and there are plans to bring them back to other parts of Britain. A five-year trial reintroduction at Knapdale in Argyll started in 2009 and concluded in 2014.[15] A few hundred beavers live wild in the Tay river basin, as a result of escapes from a wildlife park.[16] A similar reintroduction trial is being undertaken on the River Otter in Devon, England.[17] In 2016, beavers were recognised as a British native species, and will be protected under law.[18]

text: In 2008, moose were released into a fenced reserve on the Alladale Estate in the Highlands of Scotland. Reindeer were re-established in 1952; approximately 150–170 reindeer live around the Cairngorms region in Scotland.

text: In 1998, MAFF, now known as DEFRA released a report concerning the presence of two populations of wild boar living freely in the UK[19]. These boar are thought to have escaped from wildlife parks, zoos and from farms where they are farmed for their meat, and gone on to establish breeding populations[20][21].

text: The northern clade pool frog was reintroduced from Swedish stock in 2005, to a single site in Norfolk, England, following detailed research to prove that it had been native prior to its extinction around 1993.

text: The large blue butterfly has been successfully re-established from Swedish stock at a number of sites, but few of these are open-access. There are also several successful cases of the establishment of new populations of heath fritillary.

text: There have been calls for the reintroduction of the lynx, brown bear and grey wolf to the UK.[22]


document_title: Cabinet of Namibia

question_text: who is the minister of youth in namibia

question_tokens: who is the minister of youth in namibia

text: Cabinet of Namibia

text: Lists of Cabinets of Namibia[edit]

text: Current Cabinet (2015–)[edit]

text: The current Cabinet was announced on 19 March 2015. The position of Vice-President was established for the first time, as well as five ministries with two Deputy Ministers each. While the deputies are not Cabinet members their double appointments still significantly increased the number of top positions in public administration.[3][4]

text: A major Cabinet reshuffle occurred in February 2018 when two ministers were fired, the vice president retired on health grounds, and several other rotations took place.[5] In the wake of the February Cabinet reshuffle the number of deputy ministers was reduced again to one per ministry, with the Office of the Vice-President the only exception. This move was announced as a cost-cutting measure.[6][7]

text:
President: Hage Geingob
Vice President: Nickey Iyambo (until February 2018), Nangolo Mbumba
Prime Minister: Saara Kuugongelwa-Amadhila
Deputy Prime Minister and Minster of Foreign Affairs: Netumbo Nandi-Ndaitwah

Deputy: Peya Mushelenga (until February 2018), Christine ǁHoebes
Deputy: Maureen Hinda (until February 2018)

Attorney-General: Albert Kawana
Director General of the National Planning Commission and Minister of Economic Planning: Tom Alweendo (until February 2018), Obeth Kandjoze

Deputy: Lucia Iipumbu (until February 2018), Piet van der Walt

Minister of Agriculture, Water and Forestry: John Mutorwa (until February 2018), Alpheus ǃNaruseb

Deputy: Theo Diergaardt
Deputy: Anna Shiweda

Minister of Defence: Penda ya Ndakolo

Deputy: Billy Mwaningange

Minister of Education, Arts and Culture: Katrina Hanse-Himarwa

Deputy: Anna Nghipondoka

Minister of Environment and Tourism: Pohamba Shifeta

Deputy: Tommy Nambahu (until February 2018), Bernadette Jagger

Minister of Finance: Calle Schlettwein

Deputy: Natangwe Ithete

Minister of Fisheries and Marine Resources: Bernhard Esau

Deputy: Chief Samuel Ankama (until February 2018), Sylvia Makgone

Minister of Gender Equality and Child Welfare: Doreen Sioka

Deputy: Lucia Witbooi

Minister of Health and Social Services: Berhard Haufiku

Deputy: Juliet Kavetuna

Minister of Higher Education, Training and Innovation: Itah Murangi-Kandjii

Deputy: Becky Ndoze-Ojo

Minister of Home Affairs and Immigration: Pendukeni Iivula-Ithana (until February 2018), Frans Kapofi

Deputy: Erastus Uutoni

Minister of Industrialisation, Trade and SME Development: Immanuel Ngatjizeko (until February 2018), Tjekero Tweya

Deputy: Piet van der Walt (until February 2018), Lucia Iipumbu

Minister of Information and Communication Technology: Tjekero Tweya (until February 2018), Stanley Simataa

Deputy: Stanley Simaata (until February 2018), Engel Nawatiseb

Minister of Justice: Albert Kawana (until February 2018), Sackeus Shanghala

Deputy: Lidwina Shapwa

Minister of Labour, Industrial Relations and Employment Creation: Erkki Nghimtina

Deputy: Alpheus Muheua (until February 2018), Tommy Nambahu

Minister of Land Reform: Utoni Nujoma

Deputy: Bernadus Swartbooi (until December 2016),[8] Priscilla Boois (from December 2016)[9]

Minister of Mines and Energy: Obeth Kandjoze (until February 2018), Tom Alweendo

Deputy: Kornelia Shilunga

Minister of Poverty Eradication and Social Welfare: Bishop Zephania Kameeta

Deputy: Priscilla Beukes
Deputy: Reverend Aino Kapewangolo

Minister of Presidential Affairs: Frans Kapofi (until February 2018), Immanuel Ngatjizeko

Deputy: Christine ǁHoebes (until February 2018)

Minister of Public Enterprises: Leon Jooste

Deputy: Engel Nawatiseb (until February 2018), Veikko Nekundi

Minister of Safety and Security: Charles Namoloh

Deputy: Daniel Kashikolo

Minister of Sport, Youth and National Service: Jerry Ekandjo (until February 2018), Erastus Utoni

Deputy: Agnes Tjongarero

Minister of Urban and Rural Development: Sophia Shaningwa (until February 2018), Peya Mushelenga

Deputy: Derek Klazen
Deputy: Sylvia Makgone (until February 2018), Chief Samuel Ankama

Minister of Veterans' Affairs: Nickey Iyambo

Deputy for the recognition of the disabled: Alexia Manombe-Ncube
Deputy for the recognition of marginalised people: Royal /Ui/o/oo
Deputy for the recognition of veterans of the fight for independence: Hilma Nicanor

Minister of Works and Transport: Alpheus ǃNaruseb (until February 2018), John Mutorwa

Deputy: Sankwasa James Sankwasa
Deputy: Kilus Nguvauva

text: This Cabinet was appointed in 2010. The SWAPO congress end of November 2012 resulted in "one of the biggest Cabinet reshuffles the country has seen since independence".[10]

text:
President: Hifikepunye Pohamba
Prime Minister: Nahas Angula (2010-2012), Hage Geingob (2012-2015)[10]
Deputy Prime Minister: Marco Hausiku
Speaker of Parliament: Theo-Ben Gurirab

Deputy Speaker: Loide Kasingo

Minister of Trade and Industry: Hage Geingob (2010-2012), Calle Schlettwein (2012-2015)[10]

Deputy: Tjekero Tweya

Minister of Justice: Pendukeni Iivula-Ithana (2010-2012), Utoni Nujoma (2012-2015)[10]

Deputy: Tommy Nambahu

Minister of Safety and Security: Nangolo Mbumba (2010-2012), Immanuel Ngatjizeko (2012-2015)[10]

Deputy: Erastus Uutoni

Minister of Presidential Affairs and Attorney General: Albert Kawana

Deputy: none

Minister of Defence: Charles Namoloh (2010-2012), Nahas Angula (2012-2015)[10]

Deputy: Lempy Lucas (2010-2012), Petrus Iilonga (2012-2015)[10]

Minister of Home Affairs and Immigration: Rosalia Nghidinwa (2010-2012), Pendukeni Iivula-Ithana (2012-2015)[10]

Deputy: Elia Kaiyamo

Minister of Finance: Saara Kuugongelwa-Amadhila

Deputy: Calle Schlettwein (2010-2012), vacant as from 4 December 2012[11]

Minister of Regional and Local Government, Housing and Rural Development: Jerry Ekandjo (2010-2012), Charles Namoloh (2012-2015)[10]

Deputy: Priscilla Beukes

Minister of Foreign Affairs: Utoni Nujoma (2010-2012), Netumbo Nandi-Ndaitwah (2012-)[10]

Deputy: Peya Mushelenga

Minister of Health: Richard Kamwi

Deputy: Petrina Haingura

Minister of Education : Abraham Iyambo (until 2 February 2013), David Namwandi (from 21 February 2013)

Deputy: David Namwandi (until 20 February 2013), Silvia Makgone (from 21 February 2013)[12]

Minister of Lands and Resettlement: Alpheus ǃNaruseb

Deputy: Theo Diergaardt (appointed January 2011)[13]

Minister of Works and Transport: Erkki Nghimtina

Deputy: Chief Samuel Ankama (2010-2012), Chief Kilus Nguvauva (2012-2015)[10]

Minister of Agriculture, Water and Forestry: John Mutorwa

Deputy: Petrus Iilonga (2010-2012), Lempy Lucas (2012-)[10]

Minister of Environment and Tourism: Netumbo Nandi-Ndaitwah (2010-2012), Uahekua Herunga (2012-2015)[10]

Deputy: Uahekua Herunga (2010-2012), Pohamba Shifeta (2012-)[10]

Minister of Labour and Social Welfare: Immanuel Ngatjizeko (2010-2012), Doreen Sioka (2012-2015)[10]

Deputy: Alpheus Muheua

Minister of Veterans' Affairs: Nickey Iyambo

Deputy: Hilma Nicanor (appointed in January 2011)[13]

Minister of Gender Equality and Child Welfare: Doreen Sioka (2010-2012), Rosalia Nghidinwa (2012-2015)[10]

Deputy: Angelika Muharukua

Minister of Information and Information Technology: Joel Kaapanda

Deputy: Stanley Simataa

Minister of Fisheries and Marine Resources: Bernard Esau

Deputy: Chief Kilus Nguvauva (2010-2012), Chief Samuel Ankama (2012-2015)[10]

Minister of Mines and Energy: Isak Katali

Deputy: Willem Isaacks

Minister of Youth, National Service, Sport and Culture: Kazenambo Kazenambo (2010-2012), Jerry Ekandjo (2012-2015)[10]

Deputy: Pohamba Shifeta (2010-2012), Juliet Kavetuna (2012-2015)[10]

Auditor General: Junias Kandjeke[14]

text: Below is a list of the cabinet of the Republic of Namibia from appointment in 2005 until replacement in 2010:

text:
President: Hifikepunye Pohamba
Prime Minister: Nahas Angula
Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs: Marco Hausiku
Minister of Defense: Major General Charles Ndaxu Namoloh
Minister of Veterans Affairs: Ngarikutuke Tjiriange
Minister of Education: Nangolo Mbumba

Deputy: Rebecca Ndjoze-Ojo

Minister of Finance: Saara Kuugongelwa-Amadhila
Minister of Safety and Security: Nickey Iyambo
Minister of Trade and Industry: Immanuel Ngatjizeko (2005-2008),[15] Hage Geingob (2008-2010)[16]

Deputy: Bernhardt Esau

Minister of Home Affairs and Immigration: Rosalia Nghidinwa
Minister of Information and Broadcasting: Joel Kaapanda

Deputy: Raphael Dinyando[17]

Minister of Justice: Pendukeni Iivula-Ithana
Minister of Mines and Energy: Erkki Nghimtina
Minister of Labour and Social Welfare: Immanuel Ngatjizeko

Deputy: Petrus Iilonga

Minister of Health and Social Service: Richard Kamwi
Minister of Agriculture, Water, and Forestry: John Mutorwa
Minister of Fisheries and Marine Resources: Abraham Iyambo
Minister of Environment and Tourism: Netumbo Nandi-Ndaitwah
Minister of Lands and Resettlement: Alpheus ǃNaruseb
Minister of Local and Regional Government, Housing and Rural Development: Jerry Ekandjo

Deputy: Kazenambo Kazenambo[18]

Minister of Works, Transport and Communication: Helmut Angula

Deputy: Paulus Kapia until October 2005, then Steve Mogotsi[19]

Minister of Gender Equality and Child Welfare: Marlene Mungunda

Deputy: Angelika Muharukua[20]

Minister of Youth, National Service, Sport, and Culture: Willem Konjore[21]

Deputy: Pohamba Shifeta[22]

Minister of Presidential Affairs: Albert Kawana
National Planning Commission Director: Peter Katjavivi
Namibia Central Intelligence Service Director: Lukas Hangula


document_title: Thorax

question_text: where is the diaphragm located on the human body

text: Thorax

text: Structure[edit]

text: In humans and other hominids, the thorax is the chest region of the body between the neck and the abdomen, along with its internal organs and other contents. It is mostly protected and supported by the rib cage, spine, and shoulder girdle.

text: Contents[edit]

text: The contents of the thorax include the heart and lungs and the thymus gland); the (major and minor pectoral muscles, trapezius muscles and neck muscle); internal structures such as the diaphragm, esophagus, trachea and a part of the sternum known as the xiphoid process). Arteries and veins are also contained – (aorta, superior vena cava, inferior vena cava and the pulmonary artery); bones (the shoulder socket containing the upper part of the humerus, the scapula, sternum, thoracic portion of the spine, collarbone, and the rib cage and floating ribs).

text: External structures are the skin and nipples.

text: The chest[edit]

text: In the human body, the region of the thorax between the neck and diaphragm in the front of the body is called the chest. The corresponding area in an animal can also be referred to as the chest.

text: The shape of the chest does not correspond to that part of the thoracic skeleton that encloses the heart and lungs. All the breadth of the shoulders is due to the shoulder girdle, and contains the axillae and the heads of the humeri. In the middle line the suprasternal notch is seen above, while about three fingers' breadth below it a transverse ridge can be felt, which is known as the sternal angle and this marks the junction between the manubrium and body of the sternum. Level with this line the second ribs join the sternum, and when these are found the lower ribs can often be counted. At the lower part of the sternum, where the seventh or last true ribs join it, the ensiform cartilage begins, and above this there is often a depression known as the pit of the stomach.

text: Bones[edit]

text: The bones of the thorax, called the "thoracic skeleton" is a component of the axial skeleton.

text: It consists of the ribs and sternum.The ribs of the thorax are numbered in ascending order from 1-12. 11 & 12 are known as floating ribs because they have no anterior attachment point in particular the cartilage attached to the sternum, as 1-7 are, and therefore are termed "floating". Whereas ribs 8-10 are termed false ribs as their costal cartilage articulates with the costal cartilage of the rib above.

text: Anatomical landmarks[edit]

text: The anatomy of the chest can also be described through the use of anatomical landmarks. The nipple in the male is situated in front of the fourth rib or a little below; vertically it lies a little external to a line drawn down from the middle of the clavicle; in the female it is not so constant. A little below it the lower limit of the great pectoral muscle is seen running upward and outward to the axilla; in the female this is obscured by the breast, which extends from the second to the sixth rib vertically and from the edge of the sternum to the mid-axillary line laterally. The female nipple is surrounded for half an inch by a more or less pigmented disc, the areola. The apex of a normal heart is in the fifth left intercostal space, three and a half inches from the mid-line.

text: Clinical significance[edit]

text: Different types of diseases or conditions that affect the chest include pleurisy, flail chest, atelectasis, and the most common condition, chest pain. These conditions can be hereditary or caused by birth defects or trauma. Any condition that lowers the ability to either breathe deeply or to cough is considered a chest disease or condition.

text: Injury[edit]

text: Injury to the chest (also referred to as chest trauma, thoracic injury, or thoracic trauma) results in up to ¼ of all deaths due to trauma in the United States.[4]

text: The major pathophysiologies encountered in blunt chest trauma involve derangements in the flow of air, blood, or both in combination. Sepsis due to leakage of alimentary tract contents, as in esophageal perforations, also must be considered. Blunt trauma commonly results in chest wall injuries (e.g., rib fractures). The pain associated with these injuries can make breathing difficult, and this may compromise ventilation. Direct lung injuries, such as pulmonary contusions (see the image below), are frequently associated with major chest trauma and may impair ventilation by a similar mechanism.

text: Pain[edit]

text: Chest pain can be the result of multiple issues including respiratory problems, digestive issues, musculoskeletal complications. The pain can trigger cardiac issues as well. Not all pain that is felt is associated with the heart, but it should not be taken lightly either. Symptoms can be different depending on the cause of the pain.[5] While cardiac issues cause feelings of sudden pressure in the chest or a crushing pain in the back, neck and arms, pain that is felt due to non cardiac issues gives a burning feeling along the digestive tract or pain when deep breaths are attempted. Different people feel pains differently for the same condition. Only a patient truly knows if the symptoms are mild or serious.

text: Chest pain may be a symptom of myocardial infarctions. If this condition is present in the body, discomfort will be felt in the chest that is similar to a heavy weight placed on the body. Sweating, shortness of breath, lightheadedness, and irregular heartbeat may also be experienced. If heart attack occurs, the bulk of damage is caused during the first six hours, so getting the proper treatment quickly as possible is important. Some people, especially those who are elderly or have diabetes, may not have typical chest pain but may have many of the other symptoms of a heart attack. It is important that these patients and their care givers have a good understanding of heart attack symptoms.

text: Non-cardiac causes of chest pain[edit]

text: Just like with a heart attack, not all chest pain is suffered because of a condition involving the heart. Chest wall pain can be experienced after an increase in activity. Persons who add exercise to their daily routine generally feel this type of pain at the beginning. It is important to monitor the pain to ensure that it is not a sign of something more serious. Pain can also be experienced in persons who have an upper respiratory infection. This virus is also accompanied by fever and cough. Shingles is another viral infection that can give symptoms of chest or rib pain before a rash develops. Injuries to the rib cage or sternum is also a common cause of chest pain. It is generally felt when deep breaths are taken or during cough.

text: Atelectasis[edit]

text: Another non cardiac cause of chest pain is atelectasis. It is a condition that suffered when a portion of the lung collapses from being airless. When bronchial tubes are blocked, this condition develops and causes patients to feel shortness of breath. The most common cause of atelectasis is when a bronchi that extends from the windpipe is blocked and traps air. The blockage may be caused by something inside the bronchus, such as a plug of mucus, a tumour, or an inhaled foreign object such as a coin, piece of food, or a toy.[6] It is possible for something outside of the bronchus to cause the blockage.

text: Pneumothorax[edit]

text: Pneumothorax is the condition where air or gas can build up in the pleural space. It can occur without a known cause or as the result of a lung disease or acute lung injury.[7] The size of the pneumothorax changes as air or gas builds up, so a medical procedure can release the pressure with a needle. If it is untreated, blood flow can be interrupted and cause a drop in blood pressure known as tension pneumothorax. It is possible for smaller cases to clear up on their own. Symptoms of this condition are often felt only on one side of the lung or as a shortness of breath.

text: Other animals[edit]

text: In tetrapods[edit]

text: In mammals, the thorax is the region of the body formed by the sternum, the thoracic vertebrae, and the ribs. It extends from the neck to the diaphragm, and does not include the upper limbs. The heart and the lungs reside in the thoracic cavity, as well as many blood vessels. The inner organs are protected by the rib cage and the sternum. Thoracic vertebrae are also distinguished in birds, but not in reptiles.

text: In arthropods[edit]

text: In insects, crustaceans, and the extinct trilobites, the thorax is one of the three main divisions (or tagmata) of the creature's body, each of which is in turn composed of multiple segments. It is the area where the wings and legs attach in insects, or an area of multiple articulating plates in trilobites. In most insects, the thorax itself is composed of three segments; the prothorax, the mesothorax, and the metathorax. In extant insects, the prothorax never has wings, though legs are always present in adults; wings (when present) are restricted to at least the mesothorax, and typically also the metathorax, though the wings may be reduced or modified on either or both segments. In the Apocritan Hymenoptera, the first abdominal segment is fused to the metathorax, where it forms a structure known as the propodeum. Accordingly, in these insects, the functional thorax is composed of four segments, and is therefore typically called the mesosoma to distinguish it from the "thorax" of other insects.

text: Each thoracic segment in an insect is further subdivided into various parts, the most significant of which are the dorsal portion (the notum), the lateral portion (the pleuron; one on each side), and the ventral portion (the sternum). In some insects, each of these parts is composed of one to several independent exoskeletal plates with membrane between them (called sclerites), though in many cases the sclerites are fused to various degrees.

text: Additional Images[edit]

text:
Volume rendering of a high resolution computed tomography of the thorax. The anterior thoracic wall, the airways and the pulmonary vessels anterior to the root of the lung have been digitally removed in order to visualize the different levels of the pulmonary circulation.

Thorax. Anterior view.

Thorax. Anterior view.


document_title: The Rose (film)

question_text: who did bette midler portray in the rose

text: The Rose (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: In late 1969, Mary Rose Foster (Bette Midler) is a famous rock and roll diva known as The Rose. Although a success, she is burnt out and lonely but is kept working by her gruff, greedy manager and promoter Rudge Campbell (Alan Bates). Though loud and brassy, Rose is an insecure alcoholic and former drug user who seems to crave approval in her life. As such, she is determined to return to her hometown, now as a superstar. After being humiliated by a country singing star named Billy Ray (Harry Dean Stanton) whose songs she performs in her show, Rose takes off with a limousine driver named Huston Dyer (Frederic Forrest) and begins a romance with him. Rudge thinks Huston is just another hanger on, but Rose thinks she has finally met her true love. Huston tells her that he is actually an AWOL sergeant from the Army, and she tells him of her past in Florida. They have a rocky relationship and her lifestyle of "Sex, Drugs, and Rock & Roll", constant touring, and Huston's jealousy over Rose's lesbian lover Sarah lead her to an inevitable breakdown at a tour stop in Memphis. Huston and Rose break up and she returns to her hometown of Jacksonville, Florida with PFC Mal, whom she met in Texas, as a security escort, telling him about her past.

text: Arriving at the stadium for afternoon rehearsals for her concert, Rose repeats her intention to take a one-year break from performing, leading Rudge to tell her she will be in breach of contract and tells her she's fired (a ploy, his "ace in the hole", to keep her performing). Dyer reappears and they realize that they can now leave and be together. she takes him on a tour of bars and music joints in her town. Their reunion ends when Rudge reaches her on their car phone and convinces her to return for the concert, causing Dyer to give up and immediately grab a ride out-of-town with a trucker. Finally, Rose collapses on stage and dies (from an overdose of alcohol, barbiturates and heroin) in the opening minutes of her long-awaited homecoming concert.

text: This is allusion to the oft-repeated story of a certain strain of Los Angeles heroin being especially potent as it circulated in late September and early October 1970, claiming not only the life of Janis Joplin but many other people as well as leaving many others with permanent disabilities.[citation needed]

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Bette Midler as Mary Rose Foster (The Rose)
Alan Bates as Rudge Campbell
Frederic Forrest as Huston Dyer
Harry Dean Stanton as Billy Ray
Barry Primus as Dennis
David Keith as Pfc. Mal
Sandra McCabe as Sarah Willingham
Will Hare as Mr. Leonard
James Keane as Sam
Doris Roberts as Mrs. Foster
Danny Weis as Danny, Band Leader and Guitarist of "The Rose Band"
Steve Hunter - Guitar The Rose Band
Sylvester as drag queen
Michael Greer as Emcee ("Baby Jane")

text: Production[edit]

text: The film was originally offered to Ken Russell, who chose instead to direct Valentino. Russell has described this decision as the biggest mistake of his career.[6] At one point, Michael Cimino was also slated to direct.[7]

text: Reception[edit]

text: The Rose has an 86% "Fresh" rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 14 reviews.[8] The film earned North American rentals of $19.1 million.[9]

text: Awards and honors[edit]

text:
Golden Globes: Best Actress - Musical/Comedy (Bette Midler), Best Original Song - The Rose (Amanda McBroom), New Star of the Year in a Motion Picture - Female (Bette Midler)
National Society of Film Critics Awards: Best Supporting Actor (Frederic Forrest)

text:
Academy Awards: Best Actress (Bette Midler), Best Supporting Actor (Frederic Forrest), Best Editing (Robert L. Wolfe and Carroll Timothy O'Meara) and Best Sound (Theodore Soderberg, Douglas O. Williams, Paul Wells, and Jim Webb)[5]
Golden Globes: Best Picture - Musical/Comedy, Best Supporting Actor in a Motion Picture (Frederic Forrest)
BAFTA Awards: Best Actress (Bette Midler), Best Sound (Theodore Soderberg, Douglas O. Williams, Paul Wells, James E. Webb)
César Awards: Best Foreign Film (Mark Rydell)

text: Others[edit]

text: The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:

text:
2004: AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs:

"The Rose" – #83[10]

text: Home video[edit]

text: The Criterion Collection released the film on Blu-ray and DVD on May 19, 2015.[11]


document_title: Sorry, Wrong Number

question_text: what is the setting of the story sorry wrong number

text: Sorry, Wrong Number

text: Plot[edit]

text: Leona Stevenson (Barbara Stanwyck) is the spoiled, bedridden daughter of wealthy businessman James Cotterell (Ed Begley). One day, while listening to what seems to be a crossed telephone connection, she hears two men planning a woman's murder. The call cuts off without Leona learning very much other than it is scheduled for 11:15 p.m., when a passing train will hide any sounds. She calls the telephone company and the police, but with few concrete details, they can do nothing. Complicating matters, her husband Henry (Lancaster) is overdue and their servants have the night off, leaving her all alone in a Manhattan apartment.

text: As she makes a number of phone calls trying to locate Henry, Leona inadvertently begins to piece together the mystery. The story is told mostly in flashbacks. When Leona reaches Henry's secretary, Elizabeth Jennings (Dorothy Neumann), she learns that he took an attractive Mrs. Lord to lunch and did not return to the office. Mrs. Lord turns out to be the former Sally Hunt (Ann Richards). Leona stole then-drug-store-employee Henry from Sally, and married him against her father's wishes. Sally is now the wife of Fred Lord (Leif Erickson), a lawyer in the district attorney's office. From overheard conversations, she learned that her husband was close to resolving an investigation that involves Henry somehow. Sally became so concerned that she followed her husband and two associates to a mysterious meeting in a seemingly abandoned house on Staten Island. The house, according to a "no trespassing" sign, belongs to a W. Evans. Sally arranged to meet Henry for lunch, but before she could warn him, he left the table and did not return. Later, Sally calls Leona with more news. The house on Staten Island has burned down, and three men, including someone named Morano (William Conrad), have been arrested. Waldo Evans (Harold Vermilyea), however, has escaped.

text: Leona then receives a message from Henry stating he has gone out of town on business he had forgotten about and will not be back until Sunday.

text: Leona next gets in touch with Dr. Alexander (Wendell Corey), a specialist she had come to New York to see regarding her lifelong heart troubles. Alexander reveals that he gave Henry her prognosis 10 days before, something that Henry kept from her. Henry had married Leona without being aware of her health problems. He first found out when she had a heart attack after they quarreled about his attempt to get a job on his own, rather than being a do-nothing vice president in his father-in-law's business. (James Cotterell, however, sabotaged his job interview.) Her attacks became more and more frequent, until she finally took to her bed about a year ago. Alexander, however, diagnosed Leona's problems as purely psychosomatic; nothing is wrong with her physically.

text: Leona has got into hysterics and phones a hospital, asking to hire a nurse for the night. The receptionist tells her that they are short staffed and she can only have a nurse if the doctor feels it isn't an emergency. She thinks it is only 11:00pm but discovers her clock has stopped, sending her into worse hysterics.

text: Then Leona receives a telephone call from Waldo Evans, a chemist working for her father. He reluctantly discloses that Henry recruited him to steal valuable chemicals from the Cotterell drug company to sell to Morano. Later, Henry decided to bypass Morano when Evans was transferred to the New Jersey plant. Morano, however, showed up with two thugs and intimidated Henry into signing an IOU for $200,000 for his lost profits, due in three months. When Henry protested that he did not have that much money, Morano pointed out that Leona must have a large insurance policy. However, with Morano now in custody, Evans stresses that Henry no longer has to raise the now-overdue sum. Waldo leaves Leona with a telephone number to call to locate Henry, but when she calls the number she discovers to her horror that it is for the city morgue.

text: When Henry finally calls from a train station in New Haven, Connecticut, Leona gives him Evans' message. Seeing that it is only minutes from 11:15, he pleads with her to go to the balcony and scream for help, but she protests that she cannot, though she can hear somebody downstairs. When the intruder enters her bedroom, she begs for her life, then screams. The intruder strangles and kills Leona. Unaware of the policemen about to apprehend him, Henry frantically calls back, only to have a man answer, "Sorry, wrong number."

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Barbara Stanwyck as Leona Stevenson
Burt Lancaster as Henry J. Stevenson
Ann Richards as Sally Hunt Lord
Wendell Corey as Dr. Philip Salvador
Harold Vermilyea as Waldo Evans
Ed Begley as James Cotterell
Leif Erickson as Fred Lord
William Conrad as Morano
John Bromfield as Joe - Detective
Jimmy Hunt as Peter Lord
Dorothy Neumann as Elizabeth Ramsey
Paul Fierro as Harpootlian
Bill Cartledge as Page Boy (uncredited)
Holmes Herbert as Wilkins Mineral (uncredited)

text: Production[edit]

text: Sorry, Wrong Number conforms to many of the conventions of film noir. The movie plays in real time, with many flashbacks to flesh out the story. Stanwyck's bedroom window overlooks the night skyline of Manhattan. The film is shot very dark, with looming shadows and a circling camera used to maintain a high level of suspense.[4]

text: Hollywood's Production Code Administration initially objected to elements of Fletcher's screenplay, including its depiction of drug trafficking, and the script was significantly revised to win approval.[5]

text: For her role in the film, Stanwyck was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress.

text: Radio play[edit]

text: Lucille Fletcher's play originally aired on the Suspense radio program on May 25, 1943, essentially a one-woman show with Agnes Moorehead as Mrs. Stevenson. The play was reprised seven times, each starring Moorehead. The final broadcast was on February 14, 1960.

text: Orson Welles called Sorry, Wrong Number "the greatest single radio script ever written".[6]

text: In 2015, the May 25, 1943 broadcast was deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant" by the Library of Congress and selected for inclusion in the National Recording Registry.

text: Adaptations[edit]

text: 1950 Lux Radio Theatre Version[edit]

text: Another radio version – an adaptation of the film – was broadcast January 9, 1950, on Lux Radio Theatre. Barbara Stanwyck recreated her screen role

text: 1946 TV Broadcast[edit]

text: Sorry, Wrong Number was made into a television play broadcast on station WCBW-TV (now WCBS-TV) in New York on January 30, 1946, starring Mildred Natwick and G. Swayne Gordon.[7]

text: 1954 TV Broadcast[edit]

text: A second live teleplay was broadcast on November 4, 1954, as the fourth episode of the CBS anthology series Climax!, starring Lillian Bronson, adapted by Fletcher herself, with music provided by her then-husband, Bernard Herrmann.[8]

text: 1958 Australian TV Version[edit]

text: A version was produced for Australian television in 1958 starring Georgie Sterling.[9][10] Sterling had performed in the play on radio in 1948.[11]

text: 1989 US TV Movie[edit]

text: Another television version aired in 1989, starring Loni Anderson, Patrick Macnee and Hal Holbrook. It was directed by Tony Wharmby and adapted by Ann Louise Bardach.[12]

text: 1948 Radio Parody[edit]

text: On 17 October 1948, Stanwyck did a parody of Sorry, Wrong Number on The Jack Benny Program.[13]

text: Other media[edit]

text: Clips from Sorry, Wrong Number were used for the 1982 comedy-mystery Dead Men Don't Wear Plaid, the 1991 thriller Dead Again and the 2014 action-thriller Jack Ryan: Shadow Recruit. The latter two films were directed by Kenneth Branagh.


document_title: Hair transplantation

question_text: where do they get the hair for a hair transplant

text: Hair transplantation

text: Procedure

text: Pre-operative assessment and planning

text: At an initial consultation, the surgeon analyzes the patient's scalp, discusses their preferences and expectations, and advises them on the best approach (e.g. single vs. multiple sessions) and what results might reasonably be expected. Pre-operative folliscopy will help to know the actual existing density of hair, so that postoperative results of newly transplanted hair grafts can be accurately assessed. Some patients may benefit with preoperative topical minoxidil application and vitamins.[citation needed]

text: For several days prior to surgery the patient refrains from using any medicines which might result in intraoperative bleeding and resultant poor grafting. Alcohol and smoking can contribute to poor graft survival. Post operative antibiotics are commonly prescribed to prevent wound or graft infections.[citation needed]

text: Harvesting methods

text: Transplant operations are performed on an outpatient basis, with mild sedation (optional) and injected local anesthesia. The scalp is shampooed and then treated with an antibacterial agent prior to the donor scalp being harvested.

text: There are several different techniques for harvesting hair follicles, each with their own advantages and disadvantages. Regardless of the harvesting technique, proper extraction of the hair follicle is paramount to ensure the viability of the transplanted hair and avoid transection, the cutting of the hair shaft from the hair follicle. Hair follicles grow at a slight angle to the skin's surface, so transplanted tissue must be removed at a corresponding angle.

text: There are two main ways in which donor grafts are extracted today: strip excision harvesting, and follicular unit extraction.

text: Strip harvesting

text: Strip harvesting is the most common technique for removing hair and follicles from a donor site. The surgeon harvests a strip of skin from the posterior scalp, in an area of good hair growth. A single-, double-, or triple-bladed scalpel is used to remove strips of hair-bearing tissue from the donor site. Each incision is planned so that intact hair follicles are removed. The excised strip is about 1–1.5 x 15–30 cm in size. While closing the resulting wound, assistants begin to dissect individual follicular unit grafts, which are small, naturally formed groupings of hair follicles, from the strip. Working with binocular Stereo-microscopes, they carefully remove excess fibrous and fatty tissue while trying to avoid damage to the follicular cells that will be used for grafting. The latest method of closure is called 'Trichophytic closure' which results in much finer scars at the donor area.

text: Strip harvesting will leave a thin linear scar in the donor area, which is typically covered by a patient's hair even at relatively short lengths. The recovery period is around 2 weeks and will require the stitches/staples to be removed by medical personnel or sub cuticular suturing can be done.

text: Follicular unit extraction (FUE)

text: With Follicular Unit Extraction or FUE harvesting, individual follicular units containing 1 to 4 hairs are removed under local anesthesia; this micro removal typically uses tiny punches of between 0.6mm and 1.0mm in diameter. The surgeon then uses very small micro blades or fine needles to puncture the sites for receiving the grafts, placing them in a predetermined density and pattern, and angling the wounds in a consistent fashion to promote a realistic hair pattern. The technicians generally do the final part of the procedure, inserting the individual grafts in place.

text: FUE takes place in a single long session or multiple small sessions. The FUE procedure is more time consuming than strip surgery. An FUE surgery time varies according to the surgeons experience, speed in harvesting and patient characteristics. The procedue can take anywhere from a couple hours to extract 200 grafts for a scar correction to a surgery over two consecutive days for a megasession of 2,500 to 3,000 grafts.[1] With the FUE Hair Transplant procedure there are restrictions on patient candidacy.[2] Clients are selected for FUE based on a fox test,[3] though there is some debate about the usefulness of this in screening clients for FUE.

text: FUE can give very natural results. The advantage over strip harvesting is that FUE harvesting negates the need for large areas of scalp tissue to be harvested, so there is no linear incision on the back of the head and it doesn't leave a linear scar. Because individual follicles are removed, only small, punctate scars remain which are virtually not visible and any post-surgical pain and discomfort is minimized. As no suture removal is required, recovery from Micro Grafting FUE is less than 7 days.

text: Disadvantages include increased surgical times and higher cost to the patient.[4] It is challenging for new surgeons because the procedure is physically demanding and the learning curve to acquire the skills necessary is lengthy and tough.[5] Some surgeons note that FUE can lead to a lower ratio of successfully transplanted follicles as compared to strip harvesting.

text: Follicular unit transplant

text: Follicular unit transplant (FUT) is the traditional hair transplant method which involves extracting a linear strip of hair bearing skin from the back or the side of the scalp. The strip is then dissected to separate individual grafts.

text: Robotic hair restoration

text: Robotic hair restoration devices utilize cameras and robotic arms to assist the surgeon with the FUE procedure. In 2009, NeoGraft became the first robotic surgical device FDA approved for hair restoration.[6] The ARTAS System was FDA approved in 2011 for use in harvesting follicular units from brown-haired and black-haired men.[7] Despite the advantages of robotic hair restoration systems, there are still some disadvantages such as the size of the punches being relatively large in comparison to what is used in other methods of FUE, and the high costs associated with the devices.[8]

text: Types of surgery

text: There are a number of applications for hair transplant surgery, including:

text:
Androgenetic alopecia
Eyebrow transplant
Frontal hair line lowering or reconstruction (naturally high hairlines without an existing hair loss condition)

text: If donor hair numbers from the back of the head are insufficient, it is possible to perform body hair transplantation (BHT) on appropriate candidates who have available donor hair on the chest, back, shoulders, torso and/or legs. Body hair transplant surgery can only be performed by the FUE harvesting method and, so, requires the skills of an experienced FUE surgeon. However, there are several factors for a potential BHT candidate to consider prior to surgery. These include understanding the natural difference in textural characteristics between body hair and scalp hair, growth rates, and having realistic expectations about the results of BHT surgery.

text: Post-operative care

text: Advances in wound care allow for semi-permeable dressing, which allow seepage of blood and tissue fluid, to be applied and changed at least daily. The vulnerable recipient area must be shielded from the sun, and shampooing is started two days after the surgery. Some surgeons will have the patient shampoo the day after surgery. Shampooing is important to prevent scabs from forming around the hair shaft. Scabs adhere to the hair shaft and increase the risk of losing newly transplanted hair follicles during the first 7 to 10 days post-op.

text: During the first ten days, some of the transplanted hairs, inevitably traumatized by their relocation, may fall out. This is referred to as "shock loss". After two to three months new hair will begin to grow from the moved follicles. The patient's hair will grow normally, and continue to thicken through the next six to nine months. Any subsequent hair loss is likely to be only from untreated areas. Some patients elect to use medications to retard such loss, while others plan a subsequent transplant procedure to deal with this eventuality.

text: Side effects

text: Hair thinning, known as "shock loss", is a common side effect that is usually temporary. Bald patches are also common, as fifty to a hundred hairs can be lost each day. Post-operative hiccups have also been seen in around 5% of transplant patients.[citation needed]

text: History

text: The use of both scalp flaps, in which a band of tissue with its original blood supply is shifted to the continue bald area, and free grafts dates back to the 19th century. In 1897, Menahem Hodara successfully implanted hair taken from the unaffected areas of the scalp on to the scars that were left bald by favus. Modern transplant techniques began in Japan in the 1930s,[9] where surgeons used small grafts, and even "follicular unit grafts" to replace damaged areas of eyebrows or lashes, but not to treat baldness. Their efforts did not receive worldwide attention at the time, and the traumas of World War II kept their advances isolated for another two decades.

text: The modern era of hair transplantation in the western world was ushered in the late 1950s, when New York dermatologist Norman Orentreich began to experiment with free donor grafts to balding areas in patients with male pattern baldness. Previously it had been thought that transplanted hair would thrive no more than the original hair at the "recipient" site. Orentreich demonstrated that such grafts were "donor dominant," as the new hairs grew and lasted just as they would have at their original home.[10]

text: Advancing the theory of donor dominance, Walter P. Unger, M.D. defined the parameters of the "Safe Donor Zone" from which the most permanent hair follicles could be extracted for hair transplantation.[11] As transplanted hair will only grow in its new site for as long as it would have in its original one, these parameters continue to serve as the fundamental foundation for hair follicle harvesting, whether by strip method or FUE.

text: For the next twenty years, surgeons worked on transplanting smaller grafts, but results were only minimally successful, with 2–4 mm "plugs" leading to a doll's head-like appearance. In the 1980s, strip excisions began to replace the plug technique, and Carlos Uebel in Brazil popularized using large numbers of small grafts, while in the United States William Rassman began using thousands of “micrografts” in a single session.[12]

text: In the late 1980s, B.L. Limmer introduced the use of the stereo-microscope to dissect a single donor strip into small micrografts.

text: The follicular unit hair transplant procedure has continued to evolve, becoming more refined and minimally invasive as the size of the graft incisions have become smaller. These smaller and less invasive incisions enable surgeons to place a larger number of follicular unit grafts into a given area. With the new "gold standard" of ultra refined follicular unit hair transplantation, over 50 grafts can be placed per square centimeter, when appropriate for the patient.[13]

text: Surgeons have also devoted more attention to the angle and orientation of the transplanted grafts. The adoption of the “lateral slit” technique in the early 2000s, enabled hair transplant surgeons to orient 2 to 4 hair follicular unit grafts so that they splay out across the scalp's surface. This enabled the transplanted hair to lie better on the scalp and provide better coverage to the bald areas. One disadvantage however, is that lateral incisions also tend to disrupt the scalp's vascularity more than sagittals. Thus sagittal incisions transect less hairs and blood vessels assuming the cutting instruments are of the same size. One of the big advantages of sagittals is that they do a much better job of sliding in and around existing hairs to avoid follicle transection. This certainly makes a strong case for physicians who do not require shaving of the recipient area. The lateral incisions bisect existing hairs perpendicular (horizontal) like a T while sagittal incisions run parallel (vertical) alongside and in between existing hairs. The use of perpendicular (lateral/coronal) slits versus parallel (sagittal) slits, however, has been heavily debated in patient-based hair transplant communities. Many elite hair transplant surgeons typically adopt a combination of both methods based on what is best for the individual patient.

text: Research and future techniques

text: Stem cells and dermal papilla cells have been discovered in hair follicles. Research on these follicular cells may lead to successes in treating baldness through hair multiplication (HM), also known as hair cloning.