document_title: Kingsman: The Secret Service

question_text: who played the princess in kingsman secret service

text: Kingsman: The Secret Service

text: Plot[edit]

text: Probationary secret agent Lee Unwin sacrifices himself to protect his superior Harry Hart while on a mission in the Middle East in 1997. Hart, blaming himself, returns to London to give Lee's widow Michelle and her young son Gary "Eggsy" a medal engraved with an emergency assistance number.

text: Seventeen years later, Eggsy, having dropped out of training for the Royal Marines despite his intelligence and capability, has become a stereotypical chav.[8][9] After being arrested for stealing a car, Eggsy calls the number. Hart arranges his release. Hart explains that he is a member of Kingsman, a private intelligence service founded by wealthy British individuals who lost their heirs in World War I. Hart, code name "Galahad", explains there is a position available, as agent "Lancelot" was killed by the assassin Gazelle while trying to rescue Professor James Arnold from kidnappers. Eggsy becomes Hart's candidate. Other candidates are eliminated through dangerous training tests run by operative "Merlin", until only Eggsy and Roxy, a candidate he befriended, are left. Eggsy is unable to complete the final test – shooting a dog he has raised during the training process (unaware that the gun holds blanks) – and Roxy is named the new "Lancelot".

text: Meanwhile, Merlin discovers that Professor Arnold has returned to work as if nothing had happened. Hart attempts to interrogate him, but a chip in Professor Arnold's neck explodes, killing him. The detonation signal is traced to a facility owned by Internet billionaire and philanthropist Richmond Valentine, who has recently offered everyone in the world SIM cards that grant free lifetime cellular and Internet connectivity. Hart, impersonating a billionaire philanthropist, meets Valentine face-to-face. Hart learns of Valentine's connection to an obscure hate group's church in Kentucky, and travels there, wearing glasses containing a video transceiver. Eggsy watches as Valentine activates the SIM cards in the church, triggering a signal that causes the parishioners to become murderously violent. Hart's spy training leaves him as the only survivor. Outside the church Valentine explains what happened, then shoots Hart in the face.

text: Eggsy returns to Kingsman headquarters and finds that Chester "Arthur" King, Kingsman's leader, has a scar on his neck just like Professor Arnold's. King reveals that Valentine plans to transmit his "neurological wave" worldwide via satellite network, believing the resulting "culling" of the human race will avert its extinction. Only those Valentine has chosen, willing and unwilling, will be unaffected. King tries to poison Eggsy, but Eggsy switches glasses and King poisons himself.

text: Eggsy, Merlin and Roxy set out to stop Valentine. Roxy uses high-altitude balloons to destroy one of Valentine's satellites and break up the network, but Valentine quickly secures a replacement from a business associate. Merlin flies Eggsy to Valentine's base, where he masquerades as King. Eggsy is discovered by a failed Kingsman recruit, Charlie Hesketh, leading to both Eggsy and Merlin being cornered. On Eggsy's suggestion, Merlin activates the implanted chips' failsafe, killing almost everyone with a chip. An angry Valentine activates the signal and triggers worldwide pandemonium. Eggsy kills Gazelle and uses one of her sharpened prosthetic legs to impale Valentine and kill him, stopping the signal and ending the threat.

text: In a mid-credits scene, Eggsy, now a full Kingsman agent, offers his mother and half-sister a new home away from his abusive stepfather Dean, who flatly objects to Eggsy's suggestion. Eggsy then dispatches him in exactly the same manner that Hart dealt with one of Dean's henchmen earlier.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Colin Firth as Harry Hart / Galahad
Samuel L. Jackson as Richmond Valentine
Mark Strong as Merlin
Taron Egerton as Gary "Eggsy" Unwin
Michael Caine as Chester King / Arthur
Sophie Cookson as Roxanne "Roxy" Morton / Lancelot
Sofia Boutella as Gazelle
Samantha Womack as Michelle Unwin
Geoff Bell as Dean Baker
Edward Holcroft as Charles "Charlie" Hesketh
Mark Hamill as Professor James Arnold
Jack Davenport as James Spencer / Lancelot

text: Hanna Alström and Bjørn Floberg appear as Crown Princess Tilde of Sweden, and Swedish Prime Minister Morten Lindström, respectively. Jack Cutmore-Scott portrays Rufus Saville, and Lily Travers portrays Lady Sophie. Jonno Davies played Lee Unwin, Eggsy's father and a former Kingsman candidate who sacrificed himself to save Hart. Nicholas Banks, Nicholas Agnew, Rowan Polonski and Tom Prior portrayed, respectively, Digby Barker, Nathaniel, Piers and Hugo Higins, the other four Kingsman candidates. Fiona Hampton played Amelia, a Kingsman employee who masquerades as a candidate in order to "die" during the first test. Richard Brake played the interrogator during the penultimate test, Ralph Ineson the police interviewer after Eggsy's arrest, whereas Corey Johnson starred as a fanatic church leader, and Velibor Topić portrayed the biggest goon in the bar fight scene. Tobias Bakare and Theo Barklem-Biggs play Eggsy's friends Jamal and Ryan.

text: Production[edit]

text: The project originated when Mark Millar and Vaughn were at a bar discussing spy movies, lamenting that the genre had become too serious over the years and deciding to do "a fun one."[10] To have the time to make the film, Vaughn had to opt out of directing X-Men: Days of Future Past, which he called "a really tough decision".[10] He reasoned that if he did not do it, "somebody else ... [would] wake up and do a fun spy movie. Then I would have written a bloody screenplay that no one would want to make."[10] Colin Firth joined the cast to lead the film on 29 April 2013.[11] It was initially reported in 2013 that Leonardo DiCaprio was in talks to play a villain,[12] although Vaughn himself later denied that he was ever considered stating that he came as close to playing the role "as I am to becoming the Pope."[13] Instead the role of the villain went to Samuel L. Jackson, Jackson took the role, in part because of a career long dream to be in a James Bond movie. As he felt that this was unlikely to come true he took on the role stating "I felt like this was an opportunity to play a really great Bond villain.” [14] Jackson's character has a notable lisp, a choice he decided to make based partially on the stutter he had as a kid. [14]In September 2013, Vaughn cast Sophie Cookson for the female lead, preferring a newcomer over more obvious candidates like Emma Watson and Bella Heathcote.[15] Mark Hamill was cast as Professor James Arnold, a reference to his character in the source comic book being named "Mark Hamill".[16]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Principal photography began 6 October 2013 in Deepcut, Surrey,[17][18][19] on a budget reported to be one-third of the $200 million budget of Skyfall.[20] The Alexandra Road Estate in Camden[21] was used for Eggsy's home area, and some scenes were filmed at Imperial College London. The Black Prince Pub in Kennington, South London, was used for various fight scenes and the car chase. Savile Row in Mayfair was also employed as a location and the exterior of tailors Huntsman at No. 12, which provided the clothes, and James Lock & Co. in St James's, which provided the hats.[22] While rumours of several celebrity cameo parts were published, including Adele,[23] Elton John,[23][24] Lady Gaga,[25][26] and David Beckham,[23] none of these rumours proved to be true.

text: Music[edit]

text: In May 2014, it was reported that Henry Jackman and Matthew Margeson would be composing the music for the film,[27] while in July it was announced that Gary Barlow would be writing the music for the film. Additionally, a song from Take That's seventh studio album III, "Get Ready for It", played during the end credits.[28]

text: Release[edit]

text: The film's premiere was held in London on 14 January 2015, with director Vaughn and stars Firth, Egerton, and Strong attending, and Take That performing the film's theme live.[29] A regional premiere was held in Glasgow at exactly the same time as the London event, and live footage was streamed from the premiere to Glasgow.[30] Mark Millar also hosted a charity screening of the film ahead of its release in Glasgow to raise money for his old school, St. Bartholomews.[31] The film opened in the United Kingdom on 29 January 2015.[32] In the United States 20th Century Fox planned to release the film on 14 November 2014,[33] but later delayed it to 6 March 2015.[34] It was later moved up to 24 October 2014,[35] before being delayed again to 13 February 2015.[36] The film was released in most of Latin America and Indonesia, with the action scene set in the church removed. The scene, considered vital by the director and film critics, was excised almost completely, leaving only the set-up and immediate consequences.[37][38][39][40]

text: Marketing[edit]

text: The trade paperback collecting the comics miniseries was released on 14 January 2015.[41] Vaughn teamed up with luxury retailer Mr Porter to create a 60-piece clothing line based on the film. Mr Porter worked with the film's costume designer, Arianne Phillips, to design the bespoke suiting, while everything from the ties and shirts to eyewear, umbrellas, shoes and watches were designed by heritage brands such as Cutler and Gross, George Cleverley, Mackintosh and Bremont. The collaboration is the first of its kind, making Kingsman: The Secret Service the first film from which customers can buy all of the outfits they see.[42][43] The film also includes significant product placement for Adidas Originals.[44]

text: Home media[edit]

text: The film was released on digital HD on 15 May 2015 and on Blu-ray Disc and DVD on 9 June.[45][46]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: Kingsman: The Secret Service grossed $414.4 million worldwide; $24.2 million of the takings were generated from the UK market and $128.3 million from North America.[4]

text: Kingsman opened on 30 January 2015 in Sweden, UK, Ireland and Malta. In the UK the film opened with $6.5 million and debuted at second place (behind Big Hero 6).[47] The following weekend it opened in two additional countries: Australia and New Zealand. It debuted atop the box office in both countries and had a successful opening in Australia with $3.6 million.[48] In its third weekend, it earned $23 million from 4,844 screens in 39 countries. It topped the box office in three countries; Singapore, Hong Kong, and Thailand, the rest of which were dominated by Fifty Shades of Grey.[49] In its fourth weekend, it expanded to a total of 54 countries and grossed $33.4 million from 5,940 screens.[50] Its biggest opener outside of North America was in China where it earned $27.9 million.[51] Other high openings occurred in South Korea ($5.3 million)[49] Russia and the CIS ($3.6 million),[49] Taiwan ($3.4 million),[50] and France ($3.3 million).[50]

text: In the United States and Canada, the film opened on 13 February and was predicted to debut to around $28 million.[52] The film opened in 3,204 cinemas and grossed $10.4 million on its first day, $15.4 million on its second day and $10.4 million on its third day,[53] for a weekend gross of $36.2 million (an $11,300 per-cinema average), finishing second at the box office behind Fifty Shades of Grey.[54] During the four-day Presidents Day weekend it grossed $41.8 million.[55][56]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes sampled 230 critics and judged 74% of the reviews as positive, with an average rating of 6.8/10, calling the film "Stylish, subversive, and above all fun".[57] On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 58 out of 100, based on 39 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[58] The Movie Review Query Engine (MRQE) rates the film at 63 out of 100, based on 108 film critic reviews.[59] According to CinemaScore, audiences gave the film a grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale.[60]

text: Peter Travers of Rolling Stone said of the film, "This slam-bang action movie about British secret agents is deliriously shaken, not stirred ... Even when it stops making sense, Kingsman is unstoppable fun".[61] Jordan Hoffman, writing for The Guardian, said of the film, "The spirit of 007 is all over this movie, but Vaughn's script ... has a licence to poke fun. ... no one involved in the production can believe they're getting away with making such a batshit Bond." Comparing the film to those of Christopher Nolan, Hoffman said, "Despite the presence of grandfatherly Michael Caine, Kingsman's tone is about as far from the Christopher Nolan-style superhero film as you can get. Verisimilitude is frequently traded in for a rich laugh".[62] Peter Bradshaw, writing for The Guardian, called the film "a smirking spy spoof, weirdly charmless and dated in unintentional ways", commenting that "it is a film forever demanding to be congratulated on how “stylish” it is."[63]

text: Some reviewers were critical of the film's depiction of violence, which was considered to be too graphic for a comedy. Anthony Lane of The New Yorker stated, "Few recent movies have fetched quite as far as "Kingsman", and countless viewers will relish the brazen zest of its invention." However, Lane was critical of the film's use of stereotypes.[64] Manohla Dargis of The New York Times enjoyed the film, but criticised Vaughn's use of violence as a cinematic tool, calling it "narrative overkill".[65] Jason Ward of The Guardian wrote that "[e]verything about Kingsman exists to disguise the fact that it is solidly conservative". His examples include "[t]he depiction of Valentine's plan as a throwback to a less serious era of spy movies [which] is revealed as a feint, with the ulterior motive of undermining environmentalists".[66] Likewise, The A.V. Club's Ignatiy Vishnevetsky commented that, "Far from being a Team America-style send-up of gentleman spy movies, Kingsman is actually even more reactionary than the movies it's referencing; it traffics in the kind of Tory values Bond flicks merely suggest [...] the thing is, the movie is fun, at least from a visual design standpoint, even though it’s hard to separate its bespoke fashions, future-vintage gadgets, and aristocratic décor from its fusty worldview".[67] Peter Sobczynski of rogerebert.com, who gave the film two out of four stars, likened Vaughn's script to the spy film equivalent of Scream and also criticised the overuse of graphic violence, despite its cartoonish rendering.[68] Vaughn has faced some criticism for an anal sex gag at the end of the film that was a reference to the James Bond films.[69][70]

text: Franchise[edit]

text: #TBT to That Time Archer Met Kingsman[edit]

text: #TBT to That Time Archer Met Kingsman, also known as Throwback to That Time Archer Met Kingsman, is a 2017 animated short film set between Kingsman: The Secret Service and Kingsman: The Golden Circle. The short was unveiled at the 2017 Comic-Con’s Kingsman: The Golden Circle panel in Hall H, showing a meeting between Taron Egerton’s Eggsy and H. Jon Benjamin's Sterling Archer, who stumbles into the Kingsmen’s secret arsenal hidden in the bespoke suit shop. There, he helps himself to guns and alcohol. Fighting to reclaim the goods, Eggsy challenges Archer to “the most gentlemanly of competitions”: a drinking contest, while planning to kill him with a drugged glass. However, Archer instead drinks the bottle and passes out. Eggsy, insulted by Archer's behaviour, vows to go to America and "teach them a lesson".[71]

text: Kingsman: The Golden Circle[edit]

text: Millar and Vaughn stated that a sequel was possible if the film performs well at the box office, and Vaughn expressed interest in directing the sequel.[72][73] Vaughn also noted that he hoped to have Firth back in the sequel, and that Strong was interested in returning as well.[74][75] It was confirmed that Taron Egerton is contracted for the sequel.[76] When asked how they would incorporate Firth’s character into the sequel, Millar stated that various ideas have been discussed, including giving Harry Hart an evil brother, or perhaps turning the character into a ghost. Fox announced a sequel was in the works, but it was unclear if Vaughn would return to direct.[77] On 11 June 2015, it was confirmed Vaughn had begun writing the sequel, and that he might return to direct it.[78][79] Principal photography was set to begin in April 2016, with an 6 October 2017 release date.[7][80] It was reported that Julianne Moore was in talks to star as the new villain, and Halle Berry might sign on as the Head of the CIA.[81][82] On 18 March 2016, Edward Holcroft was also confirmed to reprise his role as Charles "Charlie" Hesketh.[83]

text: Vaughn later revealed the sequel's title to be Kingsman: The Golden Circle. The plot follows Eggsy and Merlin joining forces with "Statesman", their American counterpart after Kingsman was destroyed by the film's villain Poppy, played by Moore.[84] On 7 April 2016, Egerton revealed the first poster for the film, which strongly hinted that Firth would return for the film; the poster features Harry Hart's trademark pair of glasses with one of the eyes missing below the tagline (a borrowed quote from Mark Twain) stating "reports of my death have been greatly exaggerated."[85][86] Sophie Cookson will also reprise her role as Roxy Morton in the sequel.[87] The next day, Deadline reported that Pedro Pascal was in talks for the role of Jack Daniels.[88] On 12 April 2016, Elton John was in talks about joining the cast of the upcoming sequel.[89] The next day, Channing Tatum announced on his Twitter account that he was joining the cast.[90][91]


document_title: The Three Little Pigs

question_text: when did the three little pigs come out

question_tokens: when did the three little pigs come out

root

text: The Three Little Pigs

text: Traditional versions[edit]

text: The Three Little Pigs was included in The Nursery Rhymes of England (London and New York, c.1886), by James Halliwell-Phillipps.[1] The story in its arguably best-known form appeared in English Fairy Tales by Joseph Jacobs, first published in 1890 and crediting Halliwell as his source.[2] The story begins with the title characters being sent out into the world by their mother, to "seek out their fortune". The first little pig builds a house of straw, but a wolf blows it down and devours him. The second little pig builds a house of sticks, which the wolf also blows down, and the second little pig is also devoured. Each exchange between wolf and pig features ringing proverbial phrases, namely:

tag: p

text:
"Little pig, little pig, let me come in."
"not by the hair on my chinny chin chin."
"Then I'll huff, and I'll puff, and I'll blow your house down."[3]

text: The third little pig builds a house of bricks. The wolf fails to blow down the house. He then attempts to trick the pig out of the house by asking to meet him at various places, but he is outwitted each time. Finally, the wolf resolves to come down the chimney, whereupon the pig catches the wolf in a cauldron of boiling water, slams the lid on, then cooks and eats him. In some versions, the first and second little pigs are not eaten by the wolf after he demolishes their homes, but instead run to their brother's house, and after the wolf goes down the chimney he either dies like in the original, or runs away and never returns to eat the three little pigs, who all survive in either case.

text: The story uses the literary rule of three, expressed in this case as a "contrasting three", as the third pig's brick house turns out to be the only one which is adequate to withstand the wolf.[4] Variations of the tale appeared in Uncle Remus: His Songs and Sayings in 1881. The story also made an appearance in Nights with Uncle Remus in 1883, both by Joel Chandler Harris, in which the pigs were replaced by Brer Rabbit. Andrew Lang included it in The Green Fairy Book, published in 1892, but did not cite his source. In contrast to Jacobs's version, which left the pigs nameless, Lang's retelling cast the pigs as Browny, Whitey, and Blacky. It also set itself apart by exploring each pig's character and detailing interaction between them. The antagonist of this version is a fox, not a wolf. The pigs' houses are made either of mud, cabbage, or brick. Blacky, the third pig, rescues his brother and sister from the fox's den after the fox has been defeated.

text: Later adaptations[edit]

text: Disney cartoon[edit]

text: The most well-known version of the story is an award-winning 1933 Silly Symphony cartoon, which was produced by Walt Disney. The production cast the title characters as Fifer Pig, Fiddler Pig, and Practical Pig. The first two are depicted as both frivolous and arrogant. The story has been somewhat softened. The first two pigs still get their houses blown down, but escape from the wolf. Also, the wolf is not boiled to death but simply burns his behind and runs away. Three sequels soon followed in 1934, 1936 and 1939 respectively.

text: Fifer Pig, Fiddler Pig, Practical Pig and the Big Bad Wolf appeared in the 2001 series Disney's House of Mouse in many episodes, and again in Mickey's Magical Christmas: Snowed in at the House of Mouse. The three pigs can be seen in Walt Disney Parks and Resorts as greetable characters.[5]

text: Warner Brothers and MGM versions[edit]

text: In 1942, there was a Merrie Melodies version made that was a serious musical treatment, plus the usual Friz Freleng visual humor. It parodies both the Disney version, and Fantasia itself.

text: Other versions of the tale were also made. One was an MGM Tex Avery cartoon named Blitz Wolf, a 1942 wartime version with the Wolf as a Nazi. Another animated spoof was a 1952 Warner Brothers cartoon called The Turn-Tale Wolf, directed by Robert McKimson. This cartoon tells the story from the wolf's point of view and makes the pigs out to be the villains. Another Warner Brothers spoof was Friz Freleng's The Three Little Bops (1957), which depicts the three little pigs as jazz musicians who refuse to let the wolf join their band.

text: Subsequent retellings[edit]

text: In 1953, Tex Avery did a Droopy cartoon, "The Three Little Pups". In it, the wolf is a Southern-speaking dog catcher (voiced by Daws Butler) trying to catch Droopy and his brothers, Snoopy and Loopy, to put in the dog pound. Though successfully blowing the first two houses down, he meets his match when he fails to blow down Droopy's house of bricks. The dog catcher makes several failed attempts to destroy the house and catch the pups. His last failed attempt ended with him "going to television" where he is playing a cowboy on the TV show the pups were watching.

text: The 1989 parody, The True Story of the 3 Little Pigs!, is presented as a first-person narrative by the wolf, who portrays the entire incident as a misunderstanding; he had gone to the pigs to borrow some sugar, had destroyed their houses in a sneezing fit, ate the first two pigs to not waste food (since they'd died in the house collapse anyway), and was caught attacking the third pig's house after the pig had continually insulted him.[2]

text: The 1992 Green Jellö song, Three Little Pigs (and its claymation music video) sets the story in Los Angeles. The wolf drives a Harley Davidson motorcycle, the first little pig is an aspiring guitarist, the second is a cannabis smoking, dumpster diving evangelist and the third holds a Master of Architecture degree from Harvard University. In the end, with all three pigs barricaded in the brick house, the third pig calls 9-1-1. John Rambo is dispatched to the scene, and kills the wolf with a machine gun.

text: The 1993 children's book The Three Little Wolves and the Big Bad Pig inverts the cast and makes a few changes to the plot: the wolves build a brick house, then a concrete house, then a steel house, and finally a house of flowers. The pig is unable to blow the houses down, destroying them by other means, but eventually gives up his wicked ways when he smells the scent of the flower house, and becomes friends with the wolves.

text: The three pigs and the wolf appear in the four Shrek films, and the specials Shrek the Halls and Scared Shrekless.

text: In 2003 the Flemish company Studio 100 created a musical called Three Little Pigs (Dutch: De 3 Biggetjes), which follows the three daughters of the pig with the house of stone with new original songs, introducing a completely new story loosely based on the original story. The musical was specially written for the band K3, who play the three little pigs, Pirky, Parky and Porky (Dutch: Knirri, Knarri and Knorri).

text: In 2014 Peter Lund let the three little pigs live together in a village in the musical Grimm with Little Red Riding Hood and other fairy tale characters.

text: In 2015 Saturn Animation Studio, Canada, has produced an interactive adaptation of Three Little Pigs for all mobile devices.


document_title: Western world

question_text: where does the term the west come from

question_tokens: where does the term the west come from

text: Western world

text: Introduction[edit]

text: Western culture was influenced by many older great civilizations of the ancient Near East, such as Phoenicia, Minoan Crete, Sumer, Babylonia, and also Ancient Egypt. It originated in the Mediterranean basin and its vicinity; Greece and Rome are often cited as its originators. Over time, their associated empires grew first to the east and west to include the rest of the Mediterranean and Black Sea coastal areas, conquering and absorbing. Later, they expanded to the north of the Mediterranean Sea to include Western, Central, and Southeastern Europe. Christianisation of Ireland (5th century), Bulgaria, Serbia (9th century), Kievan Rus' (Russia, Ukraine, Belarus; 10th century), Scandinavia (12th century) and Lithuania (14th century) brought the rest of present-day European territory into Western civilisation.

text: Historians, such as Carroll Quigley in The Evolution of Civilizations,[9] contend that Western civilization was born around 500 AD, after the total collapse of the Western Roman Empire, leaving a vacuum for new ideas to flourish that were impossible in Classical societies. In either view, between the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the Renaissance, the West (or those regions that would later become the heartland of the culturally "western sphere") experienced a period of first, considerable decline,[10] and then readaptation, reorientation and considerable renewed material, technological and political development. This whole period of roughly a millennium is known as the Middle Ages, its early part forming the "Dark Ages", designations that were created during the Renaissance and reflect the perspective on history, and the self-image, of the latter period.

text: The knowledge of the ancient Western world was partly preserved during this period due to the survival of the Eastern Roman Empire and the institutions of the Catholic Church; it was also greatly expanded by the Arab importation[11][12] of both the Ancient Greco-Roman and new technology through the Arabs from India and China to Europe.[13][14] Since the Renaissance, the West evolved beyond the influence of the ancient Greeks and Romans and the Islamic world due to the Commercial,[15] Scientific,[16] and Industrial Revolutions,[17] and the expansion of the peoples of Western and Central European empires, and particularly the globe-spanning empires of the 18th and 19th centuries.[18] Numerous times, this expansion was accompanied by Christian missionaries, who attempted to proselytize Christianity.

text: Generally speaking, the current consensus would locate the West, at the very least, in the cultures and peoples of Europe (at least the European Union member states, EFTA countries, European microstates),[19][20] the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and parts of Latin America. There is debate among some as to whether Latin America is in a category of its own.[7][21][22] The Russian culture (particularly literature, music, painting, philosophy and architecture) is classified as a part of the Western culture.[citation needed]

text: Western culture[edit]

text:
History of
Western philosophy

Western philosophy

By era

Pre-Socratic
Ancient
Medieval
Renaissance
Modern
Contemporary

By century

16th
17th
18th
19th
20th
21st

See also

Religious philosophy

Buddhist
Christian
Hindu
Islamic
Jewish
Sikh

Eastern philosophy

Chinese
Indian
Iranian
Japanese
Korean

Western culture
Western world

v
t
e

tag: table

text: The term "Western culture" is used very broadly to refer to a heritage of social norms, ethical values, traditional customs, religious beliefs, political systems, and specific artifacts and technologies.

text: Specifically, Western culture may imply:

text:
a Biblical Christian cultural influence in spiritual thinking, customs and either ethic or moral traditions, around the Post-Classical Era and after.
European cultural influences concerning artistic, musical, folkloric, ethic and oral traditions, whose themes have been further developed by Romanticism.
a Graeco-Roman Classical and Renaissance cultural influence, concerning artistic, philosophic, literary, and legal themes and traditions, the cultural social effects of migration period and the heritages of Celtic, Germanic, Slavic and other ethnic groups, as well as a tradition of rationalism in various spheres of life, developed by Hellenistic philosophy, Scholasticism, Humanisms, the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment.

tag: ul

text: The concept of Western culture is generally linked to the classical definition of the Western world. In this definition, Western culture is the set of literary, scientific, political, artistic and philosophical principles that set it apart from other civilizations. Much of this set of traditions and knowledge is collected in the Western canon.[23]

text: The term has come to apply to countries whose history is strongly marked by European immigration or settlement, such as the Americas, and Oceania, and is not restricted to Europe.

text: Some tendencies that define modern Western societies are the existence of political pluralism, laicism, generalization of middle class, prominent subcultures or countercultures (such as New Age movements), increasing cultural syncretism resulting from globalization and human migration. The modern shape of these societies is strongly based upon the Industrial Revolution and the societies' associated social and environmental problems, such as class and pollution, as well as reactions to them, such as syndicalism and environmentalism.

text: Historical divisions[edit]

text: The geopolitical divisions in Europe that created a concept of East and West originated in the Roman Empire.[24] The Eastern Mediterranean was home to the highly urbanized cultures that had Greek as their common language (owing to the older empire of Alexander the Great and of the Hellenistic successors), whereas the West was much more rural in its character and more readily adopted Latin as its common language. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Western and Central Europe were substantially cut off from the East where Byzantine Greek culture and Eastern Christianity became founding influences in the Arab/Muslim world and among the Eastern and Southern Slavic peoples. Roman Catholic Western and Central Europe, as such, maintained a distinct identity particularly as it began to redevelop during the Renaissance. Even following the Protestant Reformation, Protestant Europe continued to see itself as more tied to Roman Catholic Europe than other parts of the perceived civilized world.

text: Use of the term West as a specific cultural and geopolitical term developed over the course of the Age of Exploration as Europe spread its culture to other parts of the world. In the past two centuries the term Western world has sometimes been used synonymously with Christian world because of the numerical dominance of Roman Catholicism and Protestantism compared to other Christian traditions, ancient Roman ideas, and heresies. As secularism rose in Europe and elsewhere during the 19th and 20th centuries, the term West came to take on less religious connotations and more political connotations, especially during the Cold War. Additionally, closer contacts between the West and Asia and other parts of the world in recent times have continued to cloud the use and meaning of the term.

text: Hellenic[edit]

text: The Hellenic division between the barbarians and the Greeks contrasted in many societies the Greek-speaking culture of the Greek settlements around the Mediterranean to the surrounding non-Greek cultures. Herodotus considered the Persian Wars of the early 5th century BC a conflict of Europa versus Asia (which he considered all land north and east of the Sea of Marmara, respectively). The terms "West" and "East" were not used by any Greek author to describe that conflict. The anachronistic application of those terms to that division entails a stark logical contradiction, given that, when the term "West" appeared, it was used in opposition to the Greeks and Greek-speaking culture.

text: Western society traces its cultural origins, at least partially, to Greek thought and Christian religion, thus following an evolution that began in ancient Greece and the Levant, continued through the Roman Empire, and spread throughout Europe. The inherently "Greek" classical ideas of history (which one might easily say they invented) and art may, however, be considered almost inviolate in the West, as their original spread of influence survived the Hellenic period of Roman classical antiquity, the Dark Ages, its resurgence during the Western Renaissance, and has managed somehow to keep and exert its pervasive influence down into the present age, with every expectation[by whom?] of it continuing to dominate any secular Western cultural developments.

text: However, the conquest of the Western parts of the Roman Empire by Germanic peoples and the subsequent dominance by the Western Christian Papacy (which held combined political and spiritual authority, a state of affairs absent from Greek civilization in all its stages), resulted in a rupture of the previously existing ties between the Latin West and Greek thought,[25] including Christian Greek thought. The Great Schism and the Fourth Crusade confirmed this deviation.

text: On the other hand, the Modern West, emerging after the Renaissance as a new civilization, has been greatly influenced by (its own interpretation of) Greek thought, which was preserved in the Roman Empire and the medieval Islamic world during the Medieval West's Dark Ages and transmitted from there by emigration of Greek scholars, courtly marriages, and Latin translations. The Renaissance in the West emerged partly from currents within the Roman (Byzantine) Empire.

text: Roman Empire[edit]

text: Ancient Rome (510 BC–AD 476) was a civilization that grew from a city-state founded on the Italian Peninsula about the 9th century BC to a massive empire straddling the Mediterranean Sea. In its 12-century existence, Roman civilization shifted from a monarchy, to a republic, to an autocratic empire. It came to dominate Western, Central and Southeastern Europe and the entire area surrounding the Mediterranean Sea through conquest using the Roman legions and then through cultural assimilation by giving Roman privileges and eventually citizenship to the whole empire. Nonetheless, despite its great legacy, a number of factors led to the eventual decline of the Roman Empire.

text: The Western Roman Empire provinces eventually were replaced by Germanic ruled kingdoms in the 5th century AD due to civil wars, corruption, and devastating Germanic invasions from such tribes as the Goths, the Franks and the Vandals.

text: The Eastern Roman Empire, governed from Constantinople, is usually referred to as the Byzantine Empire after 476, the traditional date for the "fall of the Western Roman Empire" and for the beginning of the Early Middle Ages. The Eastern Roman Empire survived the fall of the West, and protected Roman legal and cultural traditions, combining them with Greek and Christian elements, for another thousand years. The name Byzantine Empire was used after the Byzantine Empire ended, the inhabitants of the Byzantine Empire continued to call themselves Romans.

text: The Roman Empire succeeded the approximately 500-year-old Roman Republic (510 BC – 1st century BC), which had been weakened by the conflict between Gaius Marius and Sulla and the civil war of Julius Caesar against Pompey and Marcus Brutus. During these struggles hundreds of senators were killed, and the Roman Senate had been refilled with loyalists of the First Triumvirate and later those of the Second Triumvirate.

text: Several dates are commonly proposed to mark the transition from Republic to Empire, including the date of Julius Caesar's appointment as perpetual Roman dictator (44 BC), the victory of Caesar's heir Octavian at the Battle of Actium ( 2, 31 September BC), and the Roman Senate's granting to Octavian the honorific Augustus. (16, 27 January BC). Octavian/Augustus officially proclaimed that he had saved the Roman Republic and carefully disguised his power under republican forms: Consuls continued to be elected, tribunes of the plebeians continued to offer legislation, and senators still debated in the Roman Curia. However, it was Octavian who influenced everything and controlled the final decisions, and in final analysis, had the legions to back him up, if it became necessary.

text: Roman expansion began long before the empire and reached its zenith under emperor Trajan with the conquest of Dacia in AD 106. During this territorial peak, the Roman Empire controlled about 5 900 000 km² (2,300,000 sq.mi.) of land surface and had a population of 100 million. From the time of Caesar to the Fall of the Western Roman Empire, Rome dominated Western Eurasia (as well as the Mediterranean coast of northern Africa) comprising the majority of its population, and trading with population living outside it through trade routes. Ancient Rome has contributed greatly to the development of law, war, art, literature, architecture, technology and language in the Western world, and its history continues to have a major influence on the world today. Latin language has been the base from which Roman languages evolved and it has been the official language of the Catholic Church and all Catholic religious ceremonies all over Europe until 1967, as well as an or the official language of countries such as Poland (9th–18th centuries).[26]

text: The Roman Empire is where the idea of the "West" began to emerge. Due to Rome's central location at the heart of the Empire, "West" and "East" were terms used to denote provinces West and east of the capital itself. Therefore, Iberia (Portugal and Spain), Gaul (France), Mediterranean coast of North Africa (Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco) and Britannia were all part of the "West", while Greece, Cyprus, Anatolia, Lebanon, Syria, Israel, Palestine, Egypt, and Libya were part of the "East". Italy itself was considered central, until the reforms of Diocletian, with the idea of formally dividing the Empire into true two halves: Eastern and Western.

text: In 395, the Roman Empire formally split into a Western Roman Empire and an Eastern one, each with their own emperors, capitals, and governments, although ostensibly they still belonged to one formal Empire. The dissolution of the Western half (nominally in 476, but in truth a long process that ended by 500) left only the Eastern Roman Empire alive. For centuries, the East continued to call themselves Eastern Romans, while the West began to think in terms of Latins (those living in the old Western Empire) and Greeks (those inside the Roman remnant to the east).

text: Christian schism[edit]

text: This section may need to be rewritten entirely to comply with Wikipedia's quality standards. You can help. The discussion page may contain suggestions. (September 2015)

text: In the early 4th century, the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great established the city of Constantinople as the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. The Eastern Roman Empire included lands east of the Adriatic Sea and bordering on the Eastern Mediterranean and parts of the Black Sea. This division into Eastern and Western Roman Empires was reflected in the administration of the Roman Catholic and Eastern Greek Orthodox churches, with Rome and Constantinople debating over whether either city was the capital of Western religion.

text: As the Eastern (Orthodox) and Western (firstly Catholic, then Protestant as well) churches spread their influence, the line between Eastern and Western Christianity was moving. Its movement was affected by the influence of the Byzantine empire and the fluctuating power and influence of the Catholic church in Rome. Beginning in the Middle Ages religious cultural hegemony slowly waned in Europe generally. This process may have prompted the geographic line of religious division to approximately follow a line of cultural divide.

text: The influential American conservative political scientist, adviser and academic Samuel P. Huntington argued that this cultural division still existed during the Cold War as the approximate Western boundary of those countries that were allied with the Soviet Union. Others have fiercely criticized these views arguing they confuse the Eastern Roman Empire with Russia, especially considering the fact that the country that had the most historical roots in Byzantium, Greece, expelled communists and was allied with the West during the Cold War. Still, Russia accepted Eastern Christianity from the Byzantine Empire (by the Patriarch of Constantinople: Photios I) linking Russia very close to the Eastern Roman Empire world. Later on, in 16th century Russia created its own religious centre in Moscow. Religion survived in Russia beside severe persecution carrying values alternative to the communist ideology.

text: Under Charlemagne, the Franks established an empire that was recognized as the Holy Roman Empire by the Pope in Rome, offending the Roman Emperor in Constantinople. The crowning of the Emperor by the Pope led to the assumption that the highest power was the papal hierarchy, establishing, until the Protestant Reformation, the civilization of West Christendom. The Latin Rite Catholic Church of western and central Europe headed by the Pope split with the eastern, Greek-speaking Patriarchates during the Great Schism. Meanwhile, the extent of each expanded, as British Isles, Germanic peoples, Bohemia, Poland, Hungary, Scandinavia, Baltic peoples and the other non-Christian lands of the northwest were converted by the Western Church, while Greece, Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, Montenegro, Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, and Georgia were converted by the Eastern Church.

text: In this context, the Protestant reformation may be viewed as a schism within the Catholic Church. Martin Luther, in the wake of precursors, broke with the pope and with the emperor, backed by many of the German princes in an attempt to reform corruption within the church. These changes were adopted by the Scandinavian kings. Later, the commoner Jean Cauvin (John Calvin) assumed the religio-political leadership in Geneva, a former ecclesiastical city whose prior ruler had been the bishop. The English King later improvised on the Lutheran model, but subsequently many Calvinist doctrines were adopted by popular dissenters, leading to the English Civil War.

text: Both royalists and dissenters colonized North America, eventually resulting in an independent United States of America.

text: Colonial "West"[edit]

text: The Reformation, and consequent dissolution of West Christendom as even a theoretical unitary political body, resulted in the Thirty Years War. The war ended in the Peace of Westphalia, which enshrined the concept of the nation-state and the principle of absolute national sovereignty in international law.

text: These concepts of a world of nation-states, coupled with the ideologies of the Enlightenment, the coming of modernity, the Scientific Revolution,[28] and the Industrial Revolution,[29] produced powerful political and economic institutions that have come to influence (or been imposed upon) most nations of the world today. Historians agree that the Industrial Revolution was one of the most important events in history.[30]

text: This process of influence (and imposition) began with the voyages of discovery, colonization, conquest, and exploitation of Portugal and Spain it continued with the rise of the Dutch East India Company, and the creation and expansion of the British and French colonial empires. Due to the reach of these empires, Western institutions expanded throughout the world. Even after demands for self-determination from subject peoples within Western empires were met with decolonization, these institutions persisted. One specific example was the requirement that post-colonial societies were made to form nation-states (in the Western tradition), which often created arbitrary boundaries and borders that did not necessarily represent a whole nation, people, or culture, and are often the cause of international conflicts and friction even to this day. Though the overt colonial era has passed, Western nations, as comparatively rich, well-armed, and culturally powerful states, still wield a large degree of influence throughout the world.

text: Although not part of Western colonization process proper, Western culture entered Japan primarily in the so-called Meiji period (1868–1912), though earlier contact with the Portuguese, the Spaniards and the Dutch were also present in the recognition of European nations as strategically important to the Japanese. The traditional Japanese society was virtually overturned into an industrial and militarist power like Western countries such as the United Kingdom, the French Third Republic, and the German Empire.

text: Cold War context[edit]

text: During the Cold War, a new definition emerged. Earth was divided into three "worlds". The First World, analogous in this context to what was called the West, was composed of NATO members and other countries aligned with the United States. The Second World was the Eastern bloc in the Soviet sphere of influence, including the Soviet Union (15 republics including presently independent Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania) and Warsaw Pact countries like Poland, Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania, East Germany (now united with Germany), Czechoslovakia (now split into the Czech Republic and Slovakia).

text: The Third World consisted of countries, many of which were unaligned with either, and important members included India, Yugoslavia, Finland (Finlandization) and Switzerland (Swiss Neutrality); some include the People's Republic of China, though this is disputed, since the People's Republic of China, as communist, had friendly relations – at certain times – with the Soviet bloc, and had a significant degree of importance in global geopolitics. Some Third World countries aligned themselves with either the US-led West or the Soviet-led Eastern bloc.

text:
European trade blocs as of the late 1980s. EEC member states are marked in blue, EFTA – green, and Comecon – red.

East and West in 1980, as defined by the Cold War. The Cold War had divided Europe politically into East and West, with the Iron Curtain splitting Central Europe.

text: A number of countries did not fit comfortably into this neat definition of partition, including Switzerland, Sweden, Austria, and Ireland, which chose to be neutral. Finland was under the Soviet Union's military sphere of influence (see FCMA treaty) but remained neutral and was not communist, nor was it a member of the Warsaw Pact or Comecon but a member of the EFTA since 1986, and was west of the Iron Curtain. In 1955, when Austria again became a fully independent republic, it did so under the condition that it remain neutral, but as a country to the west of the Iron Curtain, it was in the United States' sphere of influence. Spain did not join the NATO until 1982, towards the end of the Cold War and after the death of the authoritarian Franco.

text: Modern definitions[edit]

text: The exact scope of the Western world is somewhat subjective in nature, depending on whether cultural, economic, spiritual or political criteria are employed.

text: Many anthropologists, sociologists and historians oppose "the West and the Rest" in a categorical manner.[31] The same has been done by Malthusian demographers with a sharp distinction between European and non-European family systems. Among anthropologists, this includes Durkheim, Dumont and Lévi-Strauss.[31]

text: As the term "Western world" does not have a strict international definition, governments do not use the term in legislation of international treaties and instead rely on other definitions.

text: Cultural definition[edit]

text: From a cultural and sociological approach the Western world is defined as including all cultures that are directly derived from and influenced by European cultures, i.e. Europe (at least the European Union member states, EFTA countries, European microstates);[19][20] in the Americas (e.g. Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Panama, Mexico, United States of America and Uruguay), in Africa (South Africa), and in Oceania (Australia and New Zealand). Together these countries constitute Western society.[8][32][33]

text: In the 20th century, Christianity declined in influence in many Western countries, mostly in the European Union where some member states have experienced falling church attendance and membership in recent years,[34] and also elsewhere. Secularism (separating religion from politics and science) increased. However, while church attendance is in decline, in some western countries (i.e. Italy, Poland and Portugal) more than half the people state that religion is important,[35] and most Westerners nominally identify themselves as Christians (e.g. 59% in the United Kingdom) and attend church on major occasions, such as Christmas and Easter. In the Americas, Christianity continues to play an important societal role, though in areas such as Canada, low level of religiosity is common as a result of experiencing processes of secularization similar to European ones. The official religions of the United Kingdom and some Nordic countries are forms of Christianity, even though the majority of European countries have no official religion. Despite this, Christianity, in its different forms, remains the largest faith in most Western countries.[36]

text: Christianity remains the dominant religion in the Western world, where 70% are Christians.[37] A 2011 Pew Research Center survey found that 76% of Europeans, 73% in Oceania, and about 86% in the Americas (90% in Latin America and 77% in North America) described themselves as Christians.[37][38][39][40]

text: Modern political definition[edit]

text: Countries of the Western world are generally considered to share certain fundamental political ideologies, including those of liberal democracy, the rule of law, human rights and gender equality. All of these are prerequisites, for example, for a state to become a full member of the European Union and therefore from a modern political point of view all European Union member states from Western, Central and Eastern Europe are considered part of the Western world.

text: Economic definition[edit]

text: Though the Cold War has ended, and some members of the former Eastern Bloc make a general movement towards liberal democracy and other beliefs held in common by traditionally Western states, most of the former Soviet republics (except Baltic states) are not considered Western because of the small presence of social and political reform, as well as the significant cultural, economic and political differences to what is known today as described by the term "The West": United States of America and Canada, European Union and European Free Trade Association member states, Australia and New Zealand.

text: The term "Western world" is sometimes interchangeably used with the term First World or developed countries, stressing the difference between First World and the Third World or developing countries. This usage occurs despite the fact that many countries that may be culturally "Western" are developing countries – in fact, a significant percentage of the Americas are developing countries. It is also used despite many developed countries or regions not being Western (e.g., Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, Hong Kong, Macao, Qatar, Israel), and therefore left out when "Western world" is used to denote developed countries.

text: The existence of "The North" implies the existence of "The South", and the socio-economic divide between North and South. The term "the North" has in some contexts replaced earlier usage of the term "the West", particularly in the critical sense, as a more robust demarcation than the terms "West" and "East". The North provides some absolute geographical indicators for the location of wealthy countries, most of which are physically situated in the Northern Hemisphere, although, as most countries are located in the northern hemisphere in general, some have considered this distinction equally unhelpful.

text: The 35 high-income countries in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), which include: Australia, Canada, Iceland, Israel, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South Korea, Switzerland, the United States and the countries of the EU (except for: Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Lithuania, Malta and Romania), are generally included in what used to be called developed world, although the OECD includes countries, namely Chile, Mexico and Turkey, that are not yet fully industrial countries, but newly industrialised countries. Although Andorra, Cyprus, Hong Kong, Macau, Malta, Liechtenstein, Monaco, San Marino, Singapore, Taiwan and Vatican City, are not members of the OECD, they might also be regarded as developed countries, because of their high living standards, high per capita incomes, and their social, economic and political structure are quite similar to those of the high income OECD countries.

text: Other views[edit]

text: A series of scholars of civilization, including Arnold J. Toynbee, Alfred Kroeber, and Carroll Quigley have identified and analyzed "Western civilization" as one of the civilizations that have historically existed and still exist today. Toynbee entered into quite an expansive mode, including as candidates those countries or cultures who became so heavily influenced by the West as to adopt these borrowings into their very self-identity; carried to its limit, this would in practice include almost everyone within the West, in one way or another. In particular, Toynbee refers to the intelligentsia formed among the educated elite of countries impacted by the European expansion of centuries past. While often pointedly nationalist, these cultural and political leaders interacted within the West to such an extent as to change both themselves and the West.[21]

text: The theologian and paleontologist Pierre Teilhard de Chardin conceived of the West as the set of civilizations descended from the Nile Valley Civilization of Egypt.[43]

text: Palestinian-American literary critic Edward Said uses the term occident in his discussion of orientalism. According to his binary, the West, or Occident, created a romanticized vision of the East, or Orient to justify colonial and imperialist intentions. This Occident-Orient binary focuses on the Western vision of the East instead of any truths about the East. His theories are rooted in Hegel's Master-slave dialectic: The Occident would not exist without the Orient and vice versa. Further, Western writers created this irrational, feminine, weak "Other" to contrast with the rational, masculine, strong West because of a need to create a difference between the two that would justify imperialist ambitions, Said influenced Indian-American theorist Homi K. Bhabha.

text: The term the "West" may also be used pejoratively by certain tendencies and especially critical of the influence of the traditional West, due to the history of most[citation needed][vague] of the members of the traditional West being previously involved, at one time or another, in outright imperialism and colonialism. Some of these critics also claim that the traditional West has continued to engage in what might be viewed as modern implementations of imperialism and colonialism, such as neoliberalism and globalization. (It should be noted that many Westerners who subscribe to a positive view of the traditional West are also very critical of neoliberalism and globalization, for their allegedly negative effects on both the developed and developing world.)

text: Allegedly, definitions of the term "Western world" that some may consider "ethnocentric" others consider "constructed" around one or another Western culture.[citation needed] The British writer Rudyard Kipling wrote about this contrast: East is East and West is West and never the twain shall meet, expressing his belief that somebody from the West "can never understand the Asian cultures" as the latter "differ too much" from the Western cultures. Some may view this alleged incompatibility as a precursor to Huntington's "clash of civilizations" theory.

text: From a very different perspective, it has also been argued that the idea of the West is, in part, a non-Western invention, deployed in the non-West to shape and define non-Western pathways through or against modernity.[44]

text: Definition by the statistics bureau of Norway[edit]

text: The official statistics bureau of Norway, Statistics Norway, has used a definition of the "West" as "EU28/EEA, United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand", and a definition of the "Rest of the World" as "Asia, Africa, Latin America, Oceania excluding Australia and New Zealand, and Europe outside EU/EEA", for the purpose of immigration statistics.[19][20]

text: Turkey[edit]

text: According to Samuel P. Huntington, Turkey, whose political leadership has systematically tried to Westernize the predominantly Muslim country with only 3% of its territory within Europe since the 1920s, is his chief example of a "torn country" that is attempting to join Western civilization. The country's elite started the Westernization efforts, beginning with Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, who took power as the first president of the modern Turkish nation-state in 1923, imposed western institutions and dress, removed the Arabic alphabet and embraced the Latin alphabet, joined NATO, and are seeking to join the European Union since the 1960s with very slow progress.[45]

text: Maps[edit]

text: The following maps aim to give a perspective of what separates the variously defined Western world from the rest of the world.

text: Europe[edit]

text:
Geopolitical Occident of Europe.

European Union and its member candidate countries.

European Union and European Free Trade Association.
  EU member states (as of 2013)
  EFTA member states

NATO has added 13 new members since the German reunification and the end of the Cold War.

text: World[edit]

text:
World map by quartiles of Human Development Index in 2014.

Western world defined by European Single Market and spread of the Romance languages (2017)

Countries with 50% or more Christians are colored purple while countries with 10% to 50% Christians are colored pink

The global distribution of Christians: countries coloured a darker shade have a higher proportion of Christians.[46]

Distribution of Roman Catholics

Distribution of Protestants

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
The Roman Forum (Rome)

The Parliament of the United Kingdom (London)

The National Assembly (Paris)

The Hungarian Parliament Building (Budapest)

The United States Congress (Washington, D.C.)

The Basilica of Saint Peter seen from the Castel Sant'Angelo (Vatican City)

The School of Athens depicts a fictional gathering of the most prominent thinkers of classical antiquity. Fresco by Raphael, 1510–1511


document_title: St. Pauli Girl

question_text: what kind of beer is st pauli girl

question_tokens: what kind of beer is st pauli girl

text: St. Pauli Girl

text: This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (December 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
St Pauli Girl

Location
Bremen, Germany

Owned by
Constellation Brands

Active beers

Name
Type

St Pauli Girl Lager
Pilsner

St Pauli Girl Special Dark
Dark lager

St Pauli Girl NA
Non-Alcoholic

text: St. Pauli Girl beers are brewed and bottled by the St. Pauli Brauerei, which is located within the Beck's brewery in Bremen, Germany.

text: The brand derives its name from the fact that the original brewery, which was established in 1857 by Lüder Rutenberg, was located next to the former St. Paul's Friary (de) in Bremen. There are currently three brands of beer brewed: St. Pauli Girl Lager, St. Pauli Girl Special Dark and St. Pauli Non-Alcoholic Malt Beverage. The beer is only produced for export and is not sold in Germany.

text: St Pauli Girl, like many German breweries, advertises that they brew all of their beers according to the Reinheitsgebot (German purity law) of 1516, even though they use culture yeast as an ingredient, which is not allowed by the 1516 law. The distinctive label depicting a woman wearing traditional outfits was introduced in the 19th century with the advent of the bottled beer. The local artist commissioned for the label drew his inspiration from the waitresses at the time.

text: St Pauli Girl's Beers were first introduced into select US markets in 1965. National Distribution began in 1975. St. Pauli Non-Alcoholic was first sold in the United States in 1991. The St Pauli Girl website claims that their beer is the number two selling German beer in the United States.[1]

text: St Pauli Girl spokesmodels[edit]

text: Since 1982, St. Pauli Girl Beer has chosen a model to represent the beer brand nationally each year and appear on the popular St. Pauli Girl poster.

text:
1977 The first year of St Pauli Girls Spokesmodel campaign
1984 Gail Star Smith
1988 Jennifer Fabello
1989 Jennifer Fabello
1990 Felice Schachter
1991 Katie Vogt
1998 Teresa Politi
1999 Playboy magazine's Playmate of the month January 1999 Jaime Bergman[2]
2000 Playboy magazine's Playmate of the month August 1998 Angela Little
2001 Playboy magazine's Playmate of the month March 1994 Neriah Davis[2]
2002 Playboy magazine's Playmate of the month January 1998 Heather Kozar[2]
2003 Playboy magazine's Playmate of the month July 1998 Lisa Dergan[2]
2004 Icelandic model and actress Berglind Icey
2005 Playboy magazine's Playmate of the month February 1999 Stacy Fuson
2006 model Brittany Evans
2007 model and actress Bobbi Sue Luther
2008 Playboy magazine's Playmate of the month January 2001 Irina Voronina
2009 Slovak model Katarina Van Derham[3][4]
2010 Katarina Van Derham
2011 American Model/Actress Jen England


document_title: Alpine skiing at the 2018 Winter Olympics

question_text: types of skiing in the winter olympics 2018

text: Qualification[edit]

text: A maximum of 320 quota spots were available to athletes to compete at the games. A maximum of twenty-two athletes could be entered by a National Olympic Committee, with a maximum of fourteen men or fourteen women. A total of sixteen countries also qualified for the inaugural team event. There were two qualification standards for the games: an A standard and a B standard.[3]

text: Competition schedule[edit]

text:
Date
Time
Event

13 February
11:30
15:00
Men's combined

15 February
10:00
13:45
Women's giant slalom

11:30
Men's downhill

16 February
10:00
13:15
Women's slalom

11:00
Men's super-G

17 February
12:00
Women's super-G

18 February
10:15
13:45
Men's giant slalom

21 February
11:00
Women's downhill

22 February
10:00
13:30
Men's slalom

11:30
15:00
Women's combined

24 February
11:00
Team event

Source:[4]   All times are (UTC+9)

text:
Men's downhill was postponed (high winds) from 11 to 15 February.[5]
Women's giant slalom was postponed (high winds) from 12 to 15 February.[6]
Women's slalom was postponed (high winds) from 14 to 16 February.[7]
Men's super-G was postponed (scheduling conflict) from 15 to 16 February.
Women's combined was moved forward 24 hours (due to scheduled high winds) from 23 to 22 February.[8]

text: Course information[edit]

text:
Date
Race
Start
elevation
Finish
elevation
Vertical
drop
Course
length
Average
gradient

15 February
Downhill – men
1,370 m (4,495 ft)
545 m (1,788 ft)
825 m (2,707 ft)
2.965 km (1.842 mi)
7001278000000000000♠27.8%

21 February
Downhill – women
1,275 m (4,183 ft)
545 m (1,788 ft)
730 m (2,395 ft)
2.775 km (1.724 mi)
7001263000000000000♠26.3%

13 February
Downhill – (SC) – men
1,195 m (3,921 ft)
545 m (1,788 ft)
650 m (2,133 ft)
2.050 km (1.274 mi)
7001317000000000000♠31.7%

22 February
Downhill – (SC) – women
 1,275 m (4,183 ft)
 545 m (1,788 ft)
 730 m (2,400 ft)
 2.775 km (1.724 mi)
7001263000000000000♠26.3%

16 February
Super-G – men
1,195 m (3,921 ft)
545 m (1,788 ft)
650 m (2,133 ft)
2.322 km (1.443 mi)
7001280000000000000♠28%

17 February
Super-G – women
1,130 m (3,707 ft)
545 m (1,788 ft)
585 m (1,919 ft)
2.010 km (1.249 mi)
7001291000000000000♠29.1%

18 February
Giant slalom – men
1,405 m (4,610 ft)
965 m (3,166 ft)
440 m (1,444 ft)
 1.326 km (0.824 mi)
7001332000000000000♠33.2%

15 February
Giant slalom – women
1,365 m (4,478 ft)
965 m (3,166 ft)
400 m (1,312 ft)
 1.250 km (0.777 mi)
7001320000000000000♠32.0%

22 February
Slalom – men
1,176 m (3,858 ft)
965 m (3,166 ft)
211 m (692 ft)
 0.575 km (0.357 mi)
7001367000000000000♠36.7%

16 February
Slalom – women
1,169 m (3,835 ft)
965 m (3,166 ft)
204 m (669 ft)
 0.556 km (0.345 mi)
7001367000000000000♠36.7%

13 February
Slalom – (SC) – men
745 m (2,444 ft)
545 m (1,788 ft)
200 m (656 ft)
 0.521 km (0.324 mi)
7001384000000000000♠38.4%

22 February
Slalom – (SC) – women
724 m (2,375 ft)
545 m (1,788 ft)
179 m (587 ft)
 0.515 km (0.320 mi)
7001348009999900000♠34.8%

24 February
Team event
1,041 m (3,415 ft)
961 m (3,153 ft)
80 m (262 ft)
 0.265 km (0.165 mi)
7001302000000000000♠30.2%

text: Estimates - data from official Olympic venue websites.[9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22]

text: Medal summary[edit]

text: Medal table[edit]

text:
Rank
Nation
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total

1
 Austria (AUT)
3
2
2
7

2
 Switzerland (SUI)
2
3
2
7

3
 Sweden (SWE)
2
0
0
2

4
 Norway (NOR)
1
4
2
7

5
 United States (USA)
1
1
1
3

6
 Italy (ITA)
1
0
1
2

7
 Czech Republic (CZE)
1
0
0
1

8
 France (FRA)
0
1
2
3

9
 Liechtenstein (LIE)
0
0
1
1

Total
11
11
11
33

text: Men's events[edit]

text:
Event
Gold
Silver
Bronze

Downhill[23]
details
Aksel Lund Svindal
 Norway
1:40.25
Kjetil Jansrud
 Norway
1:40.37
Beat Feuz
 Switzerland
1:40.43

Super-G[24]
details
Matthias Mayer
 Austria
1:24.44
Beat Feuz
 Switzerland
1:24.57
Kjetil Jansrud
 Norway
1:24.62

Giant slalom[25]
details
Marcel Hirscher
 Austria
2:18.04
Henrik Kristoffersen
 Norway
2:19.31
Alexis Pinturault
 France
2:19.35

Slalom[26]
details
André Myhrer
 Sweden
1:38.99
Ramon Zenhäusern
 Switzerland
1:39.33
Michael Matt
 Austria
1:39.66

Combined[27]
details
Marcel Hirscher
 Austria
2:06.52
Alexis Pinturault
 France
2:06.75
Victor Muffat-Jeandet
 France
2:07.54

text: Women's events[edit]

text:
Event
Gold
Silver
Bronze

Downhill[28]
details
Sofia Goggia
 Italy
1:39.22
Ragnhild Mowinckel
 Norway
1:39.31
Lindsey Vonn
 United States
1:39.69

Super-G[29]
details
Ester Ledecká
 Czech Republic
1:21.11
Anna Veith
 Austria
1:21.12
Tina Weirather
 Liechtenstein
1:21.22

Giant slalom[30]
details
Mikaela Shiffrin
 United States
2:20.02
Ragnhild Mowinckel
 Norway
2:20.41
Federica Brignone
 Italy
2:20.48

Slalom[31]
details
Frida Hansdotter
 Sweden
1:38.63
Wendy Holdener
 Switzerland
1:38.68
Katharina Gallhuber
 Austria
1:38.95

Combined[32]
details
Michelle Gisin
 Switzerland
2:20.90
Mikaela Shiffrin
 United States
2:21.87
Wendy Holdener
 Switzerland
2:22.34

text: Team event[edit]

text:
Event
Gold
Silver
Bronze

Mixed team[33]
details
 Switzerland (SUI)
Luca Aerni
Denise Feierabend
Wendy Holdener
Daniel Yule
Ramon Zenhäusern

 Austria (AUT)
Stephanie Brunner
Manuel Feller
Katharina Gallhuber
Katharina Liensberger
Michael Matt
Marco Schwarz
 Norway (NOR)
Sebastian Foss-Solevåg
Nina Haver-Løseth
Leif Kristian Nestvold-Haugen
Kristin Lysdahl
Jonathan Nordbotten
Maren Skjøld

text: Participating nations[edit]

text: A total of 322 athletes from 80 nations (including the IOC's designation of Olympic Athletes from Russia) were scheduled to participate (the numbers of athletes are shown in parentheses).[34]

text:
Albania (2)
 Andorra (3)
 Argentina (2)
 Armenia (1)
 Australia (3)
 Austria (22)
 Azerbaijan (1)
 Belarus (2)
 Belgium (4)
 Bolivia (1)
 Bosnia and Herzegovina (2)
 Brazil (1)
 Bulgaria (3)
 Canada (14)
 Chile (3)
 China (2)
 Colombia (1)
 Croatia (10)
 Cyprus (1)
 Czech Republic (9)
 Denmark (2)
 East Timor (1)
 Eritrea (1)
 Estonia (2)
 Finland (2)
 France (22)
 Georgia (2)
 Germany (14)
 Great Britain (4)
 Greece (2)
 Hong Kong (1)
 Hungary (4)
 Iceland (2)
 Iran (2)
 Ireland (2)
 Israel (1)
 Italy (20)
 Japan (4)
 Kazakhstan (2)
 Kenya (1)
 Kosovo (1)
 Kyrgyzstan (1)
 Latvia (2)
 Lebanon (2)
 Liechtenstein (2)
 Lithuania (2)
 Luxembourg (1)
 Macedonia (1)
 Madagascar (1)
 Malaysia (1)
 Malta (1)
 Mexico (2)
 Moldova (1)
 Monaco (2)
 Montenegro (2)
 Morocco (1)
 New Zealand (3)
 North Korea (3)
 Norway (11)
 Olympic Athletes from Russia (5)
 Pakistan (1)
 Philippines (1)
 Poland (3)
 Portugal (1)
 Puerto Rico (1)
 Romania (2)
 San Marino (1)
 Serbia (3)
 Slovakia (7)
 Slovenia (11)
 South Africa (1)
 South Korea (4)
 Spain (2)
 Sweden (10)
 Switzerland (22)
 Thailand (2)
 Turkey (2)
 Ukraine (2)
 United States (22)
 Uzbekistan (1)