document_title: Oklahoma State Cowboys football

question_text: when was the last time oklahoma state won a national championship in football

text: Oklahoma State Cowboys football

text: History[edit]

text: Early history (1900–1938)[edit]

text: The Oklahoma A&M Aggies (also referred to as the Tigers) played their first season of football in 1900 and joined their first conference for the start of the 1915 season, the Southwest Conference. In 1925, the Oklahoma A&M program joined the Missouri Valley Intercollegiate Athletic Association. In 1928, the MVIAA split into the Big Six Conference and the Missouri Valley Conference. A&M was the only large school that joined the smaller MVC.

text: Jim Lookabaugh era (1939–1949)[edit]

text: Jim Lookabaugh led the Aggies for eleven seasons, which included a 9–0 campaign and a national championship in 1945 which followed an 8–1 season the year before. Lookabaugh was an OSU alum who lettered in multiple sports. In October 2016, Oklahoma State was retroactively awarded the 1945 national championship by the American Football Coaches Association (AFCA). Lookabaugh stepped down after the 1949 season, finishing his tenure with a mark of 58–41–6.[2]

text: Jennings Whitworth era (1950–1954)[edit]

text: From 1950 to 1954, Jennings B. Whitworth coached at Oklahoma A&M, and compiled a 22–27–1 record, which included only one winning season, a 7–3 campaign in 1953. Whitworth departed A&M to accept the head coaching position at Alabama following the 1954 season.

text: In 1951, Oklahoma A&M players and coaches caused the Johnny Bright incident, a violent on-field assault against an African American player from Drake University, Johnny Bright; Oklahoma A&M administration would attempt to cover up and deny the incident for over half a century.

text: Cliff Speegle era (1955–1962)[edit]

text: Cliff Speegle took the reins of the Oklahoma A&M Cowboys. Under Speegle's tutelage, the Cowboys compiled a record of 36–42–3, which included three winning seasons from 1957 to 1959.[3] The losing record, combined with an 0–8 mark against rival Oklahoma, resulted in Speegle's firing following the 1962 season.

text: In 1956, A&M announced it was joining (or rejoining, depending on one's view) what had become the Big Seven for the 1958–59 academic year. As part of a transition period, the Cowboys went independent for two years. On May 15, 1957, Oklahoma A&M changed its name to Oklahoma State University. They officially became a part of the renamed Big Eight Conference in 1958.

text: Phil Cutchin era (1963–1968)[edit]

text: Longtime Bear Bryant assistant Phil Cutchin led Oklahoma State to its first win over Oklahoma in 20 years, but failed to bring success to Stillwater, compiling a mark of 19–38–2. Cutchin was replaced by the OSU administration eager to see a winning product on the field.[4]

text: Floyd Gass era (1969–1971)[edit]

text: Oklahoma State continued to struggle under head coach Floyd Gass, an OSU alum, who led the Cowboy football program for three seasons. During his tenure, he led the team to three straight losing seasons. Fan and administration support became increasingly hard to come by as the on-field production slipped. Despite the lack of football success, Gass would serve in multiple capactities at OSU, including athletics director for several years after his resignation as football coach.[5]

text: Dave Smith era (1972)[edit]

text: The Cowboys were finally able to enjoy a winning season —their first in nine years—in 1974 under the leadership of head coach Dave Smith. However, Smith wouldn't stick around, as he departed for the head coaching position at SMU after just one season in Stillwater.[6]

text: Jim Stanley era (1973–1978)[edit]

text: Jim Stanley, a two-time defensive coordinator at OSU, returned to Stillwater to become the head coach of the Cowboys in 1973. He coached them from 1973 to 1978, amassing a career record of 35–31–2. Stanley's Cowboys earned a Fiesta Bowl victory in 1974 and his 1976 team ended the season 9–3 finishing as a Big Eight tri-champions on their way to a Tangerine Bowl victory.[7] His success at Oklahoma State earned him many accolades, including being invited to coach three collegiate all-star games: the 1973 East–West Shrine Game, the 1977 Hula Bowl, and the 1977 Japan Bowl.

text: In 1978, the Big Eight Conference initiated an investigation into the OSU football program in response to allegations of violations of several NCAA rules and regulations while Stanley was head coach. Stanley successfully filed suit against the conference to require them to provide various due process protections in their final hearing on the charges.

text: Jimmy Johnson era (1979–1983)[edit]

text: In 1979, Jimmy Johnson got the head coaching job at Oklahoma State. Johnson's successful rebuilding of the inconsistent Cowboys football program is a hallmark in the long history of Cowboy football. In his final season, he led the Cowboys to an 8–4 record and a 24–14 victory over 20th-ranked Baylor in the Astro-Bluebonnet Bowl. The season included a season opening romp over then #12 ranked Arizona State in Tempe, and a Bedlam matchup between the #2 ranked Oklahoma Sooners and the #3-ranked Cowboys on November 24, 1984. A game in which the Cowboys ultimately lost, 24–14.[8]

text: In 1984, when he was offered the head coaching job at Miami, Jimmy Johnson was unsure if he wanted to leave Stillwater. His good friend Larry Lacewell told Johnson that if he wanted to win a national championship and eventually coach in the NFL he had to take the Miami job. Johnson soon after accepted the head coaching job at Miami.[9] Jimmy Johnson left OSU with an overall record of 29–25–3.[10]

text: Pat Jones era (1984–1994)[edit]

text: Pat Jones was promoted from assistant coach to head coach following Johnson's departure. He served as head coach of the Oklahoma State Cowboys from 1984 to 1994 after five years as an assistant under Jimmy Johnson. During his 11 years at Oklahoma State, he compiled a 62–60–3 record, including a 3–1 bowl game record. Jones was named Big Eight Coach of the Year in both 1984 and 1992. From 1984 to 1988, Jones led the Cowboys to the most successful period in school history at the time. With a talented roster that included running backs Barry Sanders and Thurman Thomas, wide receiver Hart Lee Dykes and quarterback Mike Gundy, they went 44–15 over this five-year stretch, including the school's first three-year stretch of ten-win seasons.

text: Running back Barry Sanders played for the Cowboys from 1986 to 1988. During his first two seasons at Oklahoma State, he backed up All-American Thurman Thomas. In 1987, Sanders led the nation in yards per kickoff return (31.6), while also rushing for over 600 yards and scoring 8 touchdowns. Thomas moved on to the NFL, and Sanders became the starter for his junior year.

text: In 1988, in what has been called the greatest individual season in college football history,[11] Sanders led the nation by averaging 7.6 yards per carry and over 200 yards per game, including rushing for over 300 yards in four games. Despite his massive workload of 344 carries, Sanders was still used as the team's punt and kickoff returner, adding another 516 yards on special teams. He set college football season records with 2,628 yards rushing, 3,248 total yards, 234 points, 39 touchdowns, 37 rushing touchdowns, 5 consecutive 200 yard games, scored at least 2 touchdowns in 11 consecutive games, and 9 times he scored at least 3 touchdowns.[12] Sanders also ran for 222 yards and scored 5 touchdowns in his three quarters of action in the 1988 Holiday Bowl, a game that is not included in the official NCAA season statistics.[13] Sanders learned of his Heisman Trophy win while he was with the team in Tokyo, Japan, preparing to face Texas Tech in the Coca-Cola Classic.[14] He chose to leave Oklahoma State before his senior season to enter the NFL draft.

text: Days after the 1988 season, Oklahoma State and the NCAA released the results of an unusual joint investigation into the football program. The investigation revealed several major violations dating prior to Johnson's tenure, principally involvement in a "bidding war" for Dykes out of high school. The Cowboys were banned from bowl games for three years and from live television for two years, and they were also limited to 20 scholarships from 1989 to 1992. Jones was not directly implicated in any wrongdoing; indeed, the investigation found that no violations had taken place in two years. He was unable to put together another winning team due to the sanctions, and left OSU after the 1994 season. In Jones' last six years, the Cowboys won only seven games in Big Eight play, including three seasons of winless conference records. Oklahoma State would need almost the entire decade of the 1990s to recover; with only one winning season coming between 1989 and 2001.

text: Bob Simmons era (1995–2000)[edit]

text: Bob Simmons came to OSU from his post as defensive line coach at Colorado to replace Jones. Simmons' teams were largely unsuccessful, and Simmons resigned under pressure following the 2000 season. His final record in Stillwater was 30–38 with just one winning campaign, an 8–4 season in 1997 that culminated in a loss in the Alamo Bowl.[15] In 1996, OSU joined with the other Big Eight schools and four schools from the old Southwest Conference to form the Big 12 Conference.

text: Les Miles era (2001–2004)[edit]

text: After Simmons' resignation, a coaching search produced Dirk Koetter as the new head coach. Hours after accepting the job, Koetter reneged on his offer in order to coach at Arizona State.[16]

text: The next two candidates were Les Miles, a former OSU offensive coordinator, and Mike Gundy, a former OSU player and coach. Miles was hired as head coach while Gundy was brought on as offensive coordinator. In his first year as head coach, Miles would achieve a 4–7 record. In the 2001 regular season finale, the underdog Cowboys would defeat the reigning National Champion Oklahoma Sooners in Norman 16–13. In 2002, Miles would post a 7–5 regular season record. The Cowboys again defeated the Oklahoma Sooners, this time in Stillwater. The team would go on to three straight bowl games in Miles's last three years as head coach ('02,'03,'04). Miles left after the 2004 season to take the head coaching position at LSU.[17]

text: Mike Gundy era (2005–present)[edit]

text: Mike Gundy was promoted from offensive coordinator and named immediately as Miles' successor and the 22nd head coach at Oklahoma State. Gundy is one of three head football coaches at Oklahoma State to have played for Oklahoma State, along with Jim Lookabaugh and Floyd Gass.

text: His first season saw the expulsion of eleven players from the team and the Cowboys struggled to a 4–7 record winning only one Big 12 conference game. In his second season, the Cowboy offense began to click and the Cowboys would finish 7–6 including a victory over the Alabama Crimson Tide in the Independence Bowl. In 2007, the Cowboys again posted a 6–6 regular season record and a bowl win over the Indiana Hoosiers in the Insight Bowl. After their second straight bowl appearance, Gundy was rewarded with a contract extension through the 2013 season.

text: After posting a 9–3 regular season record in 2008, Coach Gundy received a new seven-year contract worth $15.7 million. The contract, which extends through the 2015 season, was taken into effect on January 1, 2009.[18] Gundy's tenure as head coach of the Cowboys has seen the rise and expansion of not only his football program, but the football facilities as well. The Cowboys began the 2009 season ranked #9 in the country in the AP Top 25, but the dreams of a miracle season were crushed when the Pokes lost 45–35 to the unranked Houston Cougars at home the following week, and later finding out that star wide receiver Dez Bryant was ruled ineligible for the remainder of the season, for lying to the NCAA about having contact with 8-time pro bowler Deion Sanders, which wasn't an NCAA violation in the first place. The following year, Oklahoma State hired Offensive Coordinator Dana Holgorsen from the University of Houston. In 2010 coach Gundy recorded the first ever 11-win season in Oklahoma State history. What was supposed to be a rebuilding year turned into the best in school history.[19]

text: Under Gundy there have been a series of NFL quality wide receivers to come through Boone Pickens Stadium. These include Adarius Bowman, Dez Bryant, and Justin Blackmon.

text: On December 3, 2011, the Cowboys won their first Big-12 Championship in school history with a 44–10 victory over rival Oklahoma in the Bedlam Series. The nationally third-ranked Cowboys eventually went on to win the Tostitos Fiesta Bowl by beating fourth-ranked Stanford in overtime, 41–38, on January 2, 2012.

text: On October 29, 2016, Mike Gundy recorded his 100th victory as a head coach with a 37–20 win over # 10 West Virginia. In the process, notching his sixth victory over a top 10 ranked school. Mike Gundy is the only Oklahoma State football coach to record 100 victories, and only the 6th coach to reach such a milestone with his current school.[20]

text: Facilities[edit]

text: Oklahoma State plays in Boone Pickens Stadium on Lewis Field in Stillwater, Oklahoma. The original football field was inaugurated in 1913, and the first stand was built in 1920. At that time the field was repositioned from a north-south to an east-west configuration to avoid the strong prevailing winds of northern Oklahoma. To this day Boone Pickens Stadium is one of a very few major college football stadiums with an east-west configuration. By 1930 the capacity had risen to 13,000 and increased again in 1947. Major additions, including the first press box, brought the capacity to 30,000. In 1950 again seats were added and the total capacity increased to 39,000. The next renovations came in 1972 and for the next three decades the capacity hovered around 50,000. In 2003 alumnus T. Boone Pickens made a historic donation to the university for improvements to its athletic facilities, and it was announced that the stadium would be renamed in his honor. The announcement of the renovation came after two consecutive victories over the Oklahoma Sooners in the Bedlam Series. The latest renovation of the football stadium was completed in 2009, with the current capacity at 60,218.

text: In 2007, plans to build the Sherman E. Smith Training Center were unveiled. The 92,000 square foot indoor practice facility was completed in 2013.[21]

text: Current coaching staff[edit]

text:
Name
Position

Mike Gundy
Head Coach

Dan Hammerschmidt
Safeties

Mike Yurcich
Offensive Coordinator/Quarterbacks Coach

Glenn Spencer
Defensive Coordinator/Linebackers Coach

John Wozniak
Running Backs Coach

Tim Duffie
Cornerbacks Coach

Kasey Dunn
Receivers Coach

Jason McEndoo
Tight Ends/Cowboy Backs Coach

Josh Henson
Offensive Line Coach

Joe Bob Clements
Defensive Line Coach

text: Allegations of misconduct by Sports Illustrated[edit]

text: On September 10, 2013, Sports Illustrated published the first of 5 stories alleging misconduct during Les Miles tenure and extending into the Mike Gundy era. Writers Thayer Evans and George Dohrmann reportedly engaged in a 10-month-long investigation into wrongdoing throughout the early-mid 2000s of the Oklahoma State football program. The first installment "The Money" made allegations of illicit gifts, overzealous boosters, no-show jobs, and a bounty system in place.[22] The second installment, "The Academics" alleged academic fraud, steering athletes into easy pass or no-show classes, and grade tampering. The third installment, "The Drugs" painted a picture of a drug culture, in which the players were selling drugs, and the school did little to curtail drug usage. The fourth installment, "The Sex" was heavily edited by all accounts, considering its late online release time. This installment revealed a hostess program where the head coaches oversaw the application process, and writers implied the hostesses were expected to have sex with recruits. The final installment "The Fallout" told the tale of Artrell Woods, who had left school after a horrific accident from which he had recovered.

text: While at first shocking to fans and media, Oklahoma State immediately pledged transparency. Athletic Director Mike Holder held a press conference the day before the release and apologized for the bad publicity, and promised to investigate the claims. OSU then hired independent investigator, Charles Smrt to conduct a thorough investigation into the allegations. ESPN later debunked several of the claims in the story by simply calling OSU's registrar and obtaining a transcript from Tatum Bell that proved he was not in school during stated timelines. Further controversy began to surround the Sports Illustrated article when Jason Whitlock, a former colleague of Evans, claimed that he was a huge fan of the University of Oklahoma.[23] Dohrmann went on national syndicated radio with Doug Gottlieb and stated that Fath' Carter had two degrees from OSU.[24] When questioned by ESPN's Brett McMurphy, the registrars' office later stated that Fath' Carter had never graduated.[25] Brandon Weeden also was able to point to unprofessional behavior from Evans displayed during a press conference.[26] DeadSpin also found out that many crucial professors and tutors never were interviewed for the story.[27]

text: In June 2014, John Talley, a spokesperson for the FCA chapter at Oklahoma State had filed a lawsuit against Dohrmann, Time Inc., and Evans for false-light accusations which painted him as an overzealous booster.[28] In his lawsuit, Talley is seeking damages of $75,000. In July 2014, OSU confirmed that the NCAA had been investigating the allegations.[29]

text: On October 21, 2014, the NCAA and The Compliance Group, an independent investigation firm led by Charles Smrt, jointly released a statement that the allegations contained in the Sports Illustrated story were "fundamentally unfounded". The NCAA and the investigator had pored over 50,000 emails and had unfettered access to all areas of the compliance department and re-interviewed those who were quoted in the story. The report stated "Overall, several interviewees indicated that they reported to SI general information or incidents about college football but that the SI reporter indicated that the incident occurred at OSU." During the joint investigation, however, three lesser allegations – not related to the Sports Illustrated claims, and labeled as Level II violations- were uncovered

text: "During the period of fall 2007 through the spring of 2013, approximately 1,572 drug tests occurred of football players. There were 94 positives involving approximately 60 student-athletes per the policy. (According to the company used by the University to conduct its drug testing program, this positive rate per total number of tests is slightly less than the national average).

text: The institution examined the application of the policy in those 94 situations and believes that on four occasions, the applicable penalty per the policy was not applied and reported this information to the Enforcement Staff."[30]

text: Also, it was deemed that the Orange Pride spirit program was chartered under the football program, but a recent NCAA policy change in 2007 required spirit clubs to form under the admissions department. Because of these two minor violations, OSU was cited for a failure to monitor in these two instances. The total cost for the independent investigation amounted to $221,055.18.[31]

text: On January 22, 2015, Burns Hargis and other OSU officials visited the NCAA offices in Indianapolis to appeal to the NCAA. Even as Level II allegations, OSU officials considered them harsh and sought to have them reduced further. Hargis stated OSU's intent on having those Level II allegations reconsidered, possibly as Level III.

text: On April 24, 2015, the NCAA announced the sanctions against Oklahoma State would include an $8,500 fine and one-year probation to avoid further citings. The University self-imposed limits on the number of recruiting visits, off-campus evaluations, and the number of evaluation days in the fall and spring recruiting periods all of which will expire in 2016. The University is also not allowed to use the Orange Pride program to assist with recruiting visits for four years (2019–2020 season).[32] No scholarships were reduced and no postseason bans were put into place.[33]

text: Logos and uniforms[edit]

text: Throughout the 2000s, the Cowboys had four main uniform combinations. For the 2011 football season, it was revealed that Nike had created new uniforms for the Cowboys, offering three different helmet options in either gray, black, or white. New jerseys and pants consisting of black, orange, grey and white also came aboard, allowing for up to 48 different variations. The Cowboys debuted their new gray uniforms for the first game of the 2011 season. In a 2012 home game against Iowa State, the Cowboys debuted the new orange helmets, along with a new Pistol Pete decal. This would bring the different uniform combinations up to 64.[34]

text: The uniform combinations are chosen before the season by a committee of players and the Cowboys equipment manager, Wes Edwards. A few patterns have evolved since the origination of the multiple uniform era. Thursday night games during 2009, 2010, 2011, and in 2014 have involved black uniforms. Another trend has the Cowboys reverting to the traditional White Helmet/Traditional Brand Logo/Orange Jersey/White Pants for the home opener in 2012, 2013, and 2014. Bowl games for the 2012 Fiesta Bowl, the 2013 Heart of Dallas Bowl, and the high-profile 2014 season opener in the Cowboys Classic featured Oklahoma State wearing all black.

text: During the 2012 season, fans saw the addition of the orange helmet, and the addition of new decals. For the first time since 1979, the Cowboys took the field in "All Orange" against Iowa State for Homecoming. Also during the 2012 season, new carbon fiber gray helmets replaced the matte gray that had been used in 2011.

text: The Cowboys helmet logos include a Pistol Pete logo, as well as what fans refer to as "Phantom Pete". The "OSU" Branded logo was now featured in different variants, to reflect the helmet being worn. During 2013, OSU began incorporating a stripe down the center of their helmets for different variations. In 2014, OSU revealed two new helmet choices- a "classic Aggie" which paid homage to the bucking Aggie logo used in the 1940s and 1950s when the school was still called Oklahoma A&M Aggies. The other helmet was an Orange-Chrome with an oversized, off-center Pistol Pete. This was worn in a Thursday night victory over Texas Tech.

text: Past uniforms[edit]

text:
Oklahoma State's Uniforms for 2010 Season

2011 Season Opener Combination

Carbon Fiber Helmet

2014 Bucking Aggie Logo

2014 Orange Chrome Pete

2012 Oklahoma State Uniform

2013 Oklahoma State Uniform

text: Paddle people[edit]

text: The student section has a tradition of hitting orange paddles on the sideline wall at home games. This tradition apparently started in the early 1990s, and has since become an official group within the university. The orange paddles have the word "pokes" in bold letters written on them.

text: Rivalries[edit]

text: Oklahoma[edit]

text: The first Bedlam game was held at Island Park in Guthrie, Oklahoma. It was a cold, and very windy day with the temperatures well below the freezing mark. At one moment in the game when the Oklahoma A&M Aggies were punting, the wind carried the ball backwards behind the kicker. If the Oklahoma A&M squad recovered the ball it would be a touchback and if the University of Oklahoma squad recovered it, it would be a touchdown. The ball kept going backwards and rolled down a hill into the half-frozen creek. Since a touchdown was at stake, members of both teams dove into the icy waters to recover the ball. A member of the OU team came out with the ball and downed it for a touchdown, eventually winning the game 75–0.[2] Thus was the beginning of Bedlam.

text: Author Steve Budin, whose father was a New York bookie, has recently publicized the claim that the 1954 "Bedlam" game against rival OU was fixed by mobsters in his book Bets, Drugs, and Rock & Roll (ISBN 1-60239-099-1).[35] Allegedly, the mobsters threatened and paid off a cook to slip laxatives into a soup eaten by many OU Sooner starting players, causing them to fall violently ill in the days leading up to the game. OU was victorious in the end, but their 14–0 win did not cover the 20-point spread they had in their favor. However, many people involved in the 1954 contest do not recall any incident like the one purported by Budin to have occurred.[36] The University of Oklahoma leads the Bedlam Series in football 86–18–7 after claiming their 10th Big XII Conference Championship 38–20 against Oklahoma State on Dec 3, 2016.

text: Tulsa[edit]

text: The Cowboys also have a rivalry with Tulsa. Oklahoma State leads Tulsa in the all-time series 40–27–5, winning the most recent match up in 2017, 59–24.[37] Since 1990 Tulsa is 3–9 versus Oklahoma State with the Cowboys scoring at least 36 points in each of the last four contests. The Cowboys have a twenty-game home winning streak against Tulsa. The last time Tulsa won in Stillwater was 1951.[38]

text: Texas Tech[edit]

text: All-time Record versus current Big 12 Teams[edit]

text:
Opponent
Won
Lost
Tied
Percentage
Streak
First Meeting

Baylor
19
16
0
.543
Won 1
1914

Iowa State
30
18
3
.618
Won 5
1926

Kansas
36
29
2
.552
Won 7
1923

Kansas State
39
24
0
.619
Won 2
1908

Oklahoma
18
86
6
.191
Lost 2
1904

TCU
15
10
2
.593
Won 2
1915

Texas
7
24
0
.226
Won 2
1916

Texas Tech
21
21
3
.500
Won 9
1935

West Virginia
4
4
0
.500
Won 2
1928

Totals
188
232
16
.450

text: Conference (seasons as member)[edit]

text:
Independent (1901–1914)
Southwest Conference (1915–1924)
MVIAA (1925–1927)
Missouri Valley Conference (1928–1956)
Independent (1957–1959)
Big Eight Conference (1960–1995)
Big 12 Conference (1996–present)

text: Championships[edit]

text: OSU has 1 claimed national championship from 1945, retroactively awarded in 2016 by a committee representing the Coaches' Poll. [1], won 7 Missouri Valley Conference Championships, 2 Big Eight Conference Championships, and 1 Big 12 Conference Championship.

text: National championship seasons[edit]

text:
Season
Coach
Selectors
Record
Bowl

1945
Jim Lookabaugh
AFCA (Coaches)
9–0
Won Sugar Bowl

Claimed National Championships
1

text:
Year
Overall Record
Conference Record
Coach
Conference

1926
3–4–1

John Maulbetsch
Big Eight Conference

1930†
7–2–1

Lynn O. Waldorf
Missouri Valley Conference

1932
9–1–2

Lynn O. Waldorf
Missouri Valley Conference

1933†
6–2–1

Lynn O. Waldorf
Missouri Valley Conference

1944
8–1

Jim Lookabaugh
Missouri Valley Conference

1945+
9–0

Jim Lookabaugh
Missouri Valley Conference

1948
6–4

Jim Lookabaugh
Missouri Valley Conference

1953†
7–3

J.B. Whitworth
Missouri Valley Conference

1976†
9–3
5–2
Jim Stanley
Big Eight Conference

2011
12–1
8–1
Mike Gundy
Big 12 Conference

Total
10
–
–
–

text: † Denotes shared title

text: Individual honors[edit]

text: Heisman Trophy

text: Maxwell Award

text: Walter Camp Award

text: Ray Guy Award

text: Fred Biletnikoff Award

text: Lou Groza Award

text: Cowboys in the NFL[edit]

text: As of May 6, 2017.

text:
Dan Bailey, K – Dallas Cowboys
Justin Blackmon, WR – Jacksonville Jaguars
Dez Bryant, WR – Dallas Cowboys
Chris Carson, RB – Seattle Seahawks
Justin Gilbert, CB –
Kendall Hunter, RB –
Blake Jarwin, TE – Dallas Cowboys
Charlie Johnson, OT –
Ashton Lampkin, CB – Kansas City Chiefs
Orie Lemon, LB –
Emmanuel Ogbah, DE – Cleveland Browns
Russell Okung, OT – Los Angeles Chargers
Tyler Patmon, CB – Carolina Panthers
Kevin Peterson, CB – Los Angeles Rams
Brandon Pettigrew, TE –
Lenzy Pipkins, CB – Green Bay Packers
Joseph Randle, RB –
Ryan Robinson, DE –
Antonio Smith, DE – Houston Texans
Jordan Sterns, FS – Kansas City Chiefs
Lane Taylor, G – Green Bay Packers
Vincent Taylor, DT – Miami Dolphins
Brandon Weeden, QB – Houston Texans

text: Bowl games[edit]

text: The Cowboys have played in 27 bowl games, garnering a record of 17–10. They are 4–4 in the six major bowl games (Rose, Peach, Cotton Bowl Classic, Sugar, Fiesta & Orange), with their biggest win being over Stanford in the 2012 Fiesta Bowl, with the win making them finish 3rd in the final poll, the highest ever finish for a Cowboy team.[39]

text:
Season
Bowl
Opponent
Result

1944
Cotton Bowl Classic
TCU
W 34–0

1945
Sugar Bowl
St. Mary's
W 33–13

1948
Delta Bowl
William & Mary
L 0–20

1958
Bluegrass Bowl
Florida State
W 15–6

1974
Fiesta Bowl
BYU
W 16–6

1976
Tangerine Bowl
BYU
W 49–21

1981
Independence Bowl
Texas A&M
L 16–33

1983
Astro-Bluebonnet Bowl
Baylor
W 24–14

1984
Gator Bowl
South Carolina
W 21–14

1985
Gator Bowl
Florida State
L 23–34

1987
Sun Bowl
West Virginia
W 35–33

1988
Holiday
Wyoming
W 62–14

1997
Alamo Bowl
Purdue
L 20–33

2002
Houston Bowl
Southern Miss
W 33–23

2003
Cotton Bowl Classic
Mississippi
L 28–31

2004
Alamo Bowl
Ohio State
L 7–33

2006
Independence Bowl
Alabama
W 34–31

2007
Insight
Indiana
W 49–33

2008
Holiday Bowl
Oregon
L 31–42

2009
Cotton Bowl Classic
Mississippi
L 7–21

2010
Alamo Bowl
Arizona
W 36–10

2011
Fiesta Bowl
Stanford
W 41–38 (OT)

2012
Heart Of Dallas Bowl
Purdue
W 58–14

2013
Cotton Bowl Classic
Missouri
L 31–41

2014
Cactus Bowl
Washington
W 30–22

2015
Sugar Bowl
Mississippi
L 48–20

2016
Alamo Bowl
Colorado
W 38–8

2017
Camping World Bowl
Virginia Tech
TBD

text: Year by year records[edit]

text:
Year
Coach
Overall
Conference
Standing
Bowl/playoffs
Coaches#
AP°

No Coach (Independent) (1901–1905)

1901
—
2–3

N/A
N/A

1902
No team
—

N/A
N/A

1903
—
0–2–2

N/A
N/A

1904
—
0–4–1

N/A
N/A

1905
—
1–3–2

N/A
N/A

Boyd Hill (Independent) (1906)

1906
Hill
1–4–2

N/A
N/A

Ed Parry (Independent) (1907–1908)

1907
Parry
1–3–1

N/A
N/A

1908
Parry
4–3

N/A
N/A

Paul J. Davis (Independent) (1909–1914)

1909
Davis
5–3

N/A
N/A

1910
Davis
3–4

N/A
N/A

1911
Davis
5–2

N/A
N/A

1912
Davis
6–2

N/A
N/A

1913
Davis
4–3

N/A
N/A

1914
Davis
6–2–1

N/A
N/A

John G. Griffith (Southwest) (1915–1916)

1915
Griffith
4–5–1
0–3

N/A
N/A

1916
Griffith
4–4
0–3

N/A
N/A

E.A. Pritchard (Southwest) (1917–1918)

1917
Pritchard
4–5
1–2

N/A
N/A

1918
Pritchard
4–2
0–2

N/A
N/A

Jim Pixlee (Southwest) (1919–1920)

1919
Pixlee
3–3–2
0–2

N/A
N/A

1920
Pixlee
0–7–1
0–3

N/A
N/A

John Maulbetsch (Southwest) (1921–1924)

1921
Maulbetsch
5–4–1
1–1

N/A
N/A

1922
Maulbetsch
4–4–1
2–3

N/A
N/A

1923
Maulbetsch
2–8
1–3

N/A
N/A

1924
Maulbetsch
6–1–2
1–1–1

N/A
N/A

John Maulbetsch (Missouri Valley) (1925–1928)

1925
Maulbetsch
2–5–1
0–3–1

N/A
N/A

1926
Maulbetsch
3–4–1
3–0–1

N/A
N/A

1927
Maulbetsch
4–4
2–1

N/A
N/A

1928
Maulbetsch
1–7
0–1

N/A
N/A

Pappy Waldorf (Missouri Valley) (1929–1933)

1929
Waldorf
4–3–2
1–1

N/A
N/A

1930
Waldorf
7–2–1
2–0

N/A
N/A

1931
Waldorf
8–2–1
1–0

N/A
N/A

1932
Waldorf
9–1–2
3–0

N/A
N/A

1933
Waldorf
6–2–1
2–0

N/A
N/A

Albert Exendine (Missouri Valley) (1934–1935)

1934
Exendine
4–5–1
1–1

—
N/A

1935
Exendine
3–7
0–3

—
N/A

Ted Cox (Missouri Valley) (1936–1938)

1936
Cox
1–9
1–2

—
N/A

1937
Cox
4–6
2–2

—
N/A

1938
Cox
2–8
0–4

—
N/A

Jim Lookabaugh (Missouri Valley) (1939–1949)

1939
Lookabaugh
5–4–1
3–1

—
N/A

1940
Lookabaugh
6–3–1
4–1

—
N/A

1941
Lookabaugh
5–4
3–1

—
N/A

1942
Lookabaugh
6–3–1
4–1

—
N/A

1943
Lookabaugh
3–4
0–1

—
N/A

1944
Lookabaugh
8–1
1–0

W Cotton
—
N/A

1945
Lookabaugh
9–0
1–0

W Sugar
1
5

1946
Lookabaugh
3–7–1
1–1

—
N/A

1947
Lookabaugh
3–7
0–2

—
N/A

1948
Lookabaugh
6–4
2–0

L Delta
—
N/A

1949
Lookabaugh
4–4–2
2–1–1

—
N/A

J.B. Whitworth (Missouri Valley) (1950–1954)

1950
Whitworth
4–6–1
1–2–1

—
—

1951
Whitworth
3–7
3–2

—
—

1952
Whitworth
3–7
2–2

—
—

1953
Whitworth
7–3
3–1

—
—

1954
Whitworth
5–4–1
2–2

—
—

Cliff Speegle (Missouri Valley) (1955–1956)

1955
Speegle
2–8
1–3

—
—

1956
Speegle
3–5–2
2–1–1

Cliff Speegle (Independent) (1957–1959)

1957
Speegle
6–3–1

—
—

1958
Speegle
8–3

W Bluegrass
—
19

1959
Speegle
6–4

—
—

Cliff Speegle (Big Eight) (1960–1962)

1960
Speegle
3–7
2–5

—
—

1961
Speegle
4–6
2–5

—
—

1962
Speegle
4–6
2–5

—
—

Phil Cutchin (Big Eight) (1963–1968)

1963
Cutchin
1–8
0–6

—
—

1964
Cutchin
4–6
3–4

—
—

1965
Cutchin
3–7
2–5

—
—

1966
Cutchin
4–5–1
4–2–1

—
—

1967
Cutchin
4–5–1
3–4

—
—

1968
Cutchin
3–7
2–5

—
—

Floyd Gass (Big Eight) (1969–1971)

1969
Gass
5–5
3–4

—
—

1970
Gass
4–7
2–5

—
—

1971
Gass
4–6–1
2–5

—
—

Dave Smith (Big Eight) (1972)

1972
Smith
6–5
4–3

—
—

Jim Stanley (Big Eight) (1973–1978)

1973
Stanley
5–4–2
2–3–2

—
—

1974
Stanley
7–5
4–3

W Fiesta
—
—

1975
Stanley
7–4
3–4

—
—

1976
Stanley
9–3
5–2

W Tangerine
14
14

1977
Stanley
4–7
2–5

—
—

1978
Stanley
3–8
3–4

—
—

Jimmy Johnson (Big Eight) (1979–1983)

1979
Johnson
7–4
5–2

—
—

1980
Johnson
3–7–1
2–4–1

—
—

1981
Johnson
7–5
4–3

L Independence
—
—

1982
Johnson
4–5–2
3–2–2

—
—

1983
Johnson
8–4
3–4

W Bluebonnet
18
—

Pat Jones (Big Eight) (1984–1994)

1984
Jones
10–2
5–2

W Gator
5
7

1985
Jones
8–4
4–3

L Gator
—
—

1986
Jones
6–5
4–3

—
—

1987
Jones
10–2
5–2

W Sun
12
11

1988
Jones
10–2
5–2

W Holiday
11
11

1989
Jones
4–7
3–4

—
—

1990
Jones
4–7
2–5

—
—

1991
Jones
0–10–1
0–6–1

—
—

1992
Jones
4–6–1
2–4–1

—
—

1993
Jones
3–8
0–7

—
—

1994
Jones
3–7–1
0–6–1

—
—

Bob Simmons (Big Eight) (1995)

1995
Simmons
4–8
2–5

—
—

Bob Simmons (Big 12) (1996–2000)

1996
Simmons
5–6
2–6

—
—

1997
Simmons
8–4
5–3

L Alamo
24
24

1998
Simmons
5–6
3–5

—
—

1999
Simmons
5–6
3–5

—
—

2000
Simmons
3–8
1–7

—
—

Les Miles (Big 12) (2001–2004)

2001
Miles
4–7
2–6

—
—

2002
Miles
8–5
5–3

W Houston
—
—

2003
Miles
9–4
5–3

L Cotton
—
—

2004
Miles
7–5
4–4

L Alamo
—
—

Mike Gundy (Big 12) (2005–present)

2005
Gundy
4–7
1–7

—
—

2006
Gundy
7–6
3–5

W Independence
—
—

2007
Gundy
7–6
4–4

W Insight
—
—

2008
Gundy
9–4
5–3

L Holiday
18
16

2009
Gundy
9–4
6–2

L Cotton
25
—

2010
Gundy
11–2
6–2

W Alamo
10
13

2011
Gundy
12–1
8–1

W Fiesta
3
3

2012
Gundy
8–5
5–4

W Heart of Dallas
—
—

2013
Gundy
10–3
7–2

L Cotton
17
17

2014
Gundy
7–6
4–5

W Cactus
—
—

2015
Gundy
10–3
7–2

L Sugar Bowl
19
20

2016
Gundy
10–3
7–2

W Alamo Bowl
11
11

Total:
580–552–49

      National championship         Conference title         Conference division title or championship game berth

†Indicates Bowl Coalition, Bowl Alliance, BCS, or CFP / New Years' Six bowl.
#Rankings from final Coaches Poll.

text: Final rankings[edit]

text:
Season
Record
Conf
AP Rank
Coaches Rank

1945
9–0–0
(1–0–0)
5
1

1958
8–3–0
N/A
19
–

1976
9–3–0
(5–2–0)
14
14

1983
8–4–0
(5–2–0)
–
18

1984
10–2–0
(5–2–0)
7
5

1987
10–2–0
(5–2–0)
11
12

1988
10–2–0
(5–2–0)
11
11

1997
8–4
(5–3)
24
24

2008
9–4
(5–3)
16
18

2009
9–4
(6–2)
–
25

2010
11–2
(6–2)
13
10

2011
12–1
(8–1)
3
3

2013
10–3
(7–2)
17
17

2015
10–3
(7–2)
20
19

2016
10–3
(7–2)
11
11


document_title: Hirschsprung's disease

question_text: the most common presentation of hirschprung disease is which of the following

root

text: Hirschsprung's disease

text: Signs and symptoms[edit]

text: Typically, Hirschsprung's disease is diagnosed shortly after birth, although it may develop well into adulthood, because of the presence of megacolon, or because the baby fails to pass the first stool (meconium)[3] within 48 hours of delivery. Normally, 90% of babies pass their first meconium within 24 hours, and 99% within 48 hours. Other symptoms include green or brown vomit, explosive stools after a doctor inserts a finger into the rectum, swelling of the abdomen, excessive gas, and bloody diarrhea.

tag: p

text: Some cases are diagnosed later, into childhood, but usually before age 10.[3] The child may experience fecal retention, constipation, or abdominal distention.[3] With an incidence of one in 5,000 births, the most cited feature is absence of ganglion cells: notably in males, 75% have none in the end of the colon (rectosigmoid) and 8% lack ganglion cells in the entire colon. The enlarged section of the bowel is found proximally, while the narrowed, aganglionic section is found distally, closer to the end of the bowel. The absence of ganglion cells results in a persistent overstimulation of nerves in the affected region, resulting in contraction.

text: In some extremely rare cases, the absence of ganglion cells continues to spread after the corrective surgery, resulting in multiple surgeries.

text: Those patients who also have thyroid cancer may be able to digest food properly, but may not be able to use the nutrients properly.

text: Pathophysiology[edit]

text: The most accepted theory of the cause of Hirschsprung is a defect in the craniocaudal migration of neuroblasts originating from the neural crest that occurs during the first 12 weeks of gestation. Defects in the differentiation of neuroblasts into ganglion cells and accelerated ganglion cell destruction within the intestine may also contribute to the disorder.[4]

text: This lack of ganglion cells in the myenteric and submucosal plexus is well documented in Hirschsprung's disease.[3] With Hirschsprung's disease, the segment lacking neurons (aganglionic) becomes constricted, causing the normal, proximal section of bowel to become distended with feces. This narrowing of the distal colon and the failure of relaxation in the aganglionic segment are thought to be caused by the lack of neurons containing nitric oxide synthase.[3]

text: The equivalent disease in horses is lethal white syndrome.[5]

text: Genetic basis[edit]

text: Several genes and specific regions on chromosomes (loci) have been shown or suggested to be associated with Hirschsprung's disease:

text:
Type
OMIM
Gene
Locus

HSCR1
142623
RET
10q11.2

HSCR2
600155
EDNRB
13q22

HSCR3
600837
GDNF
5p13.1-p12

HSCR4
131242
EDN3
20q13.2-q13.3

HSCR5
600156
 ?
21q22

HSCR6
606874
 ?
3p21

HSCR7
606875
 ?
19q12

HSCR8
608462
 ?
16q23

HSCR9
611644
 ?
4q31-32

—
602229
SOX10
22q13

—
600423
ECE1
1p36.1

—
602018
NRTN
19p13.3

—
602595
SIP1
14q13-q21

—
191315
NTRK1
1q23.1

—
605802
ZEB2
2q22.3

tag: table

text: Hirschsprung's disease can also present as part of a multisystem disorder, such as Down syndrome, Bardet–Biedl syndrome, Waardenburg–Shah syndrome, Mowat–Wilson syndrome, Goldberg–Shprintzen megacolon syndrome, cartilage–hair hypoplasia, multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2, Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome, and congenital central hypoventilation syndrome.[6]

text: The RET proto-oncogene accounts for the highest proportion of both familial and sporadic cases, with a wide range of mutations scattered along its entire coding region.[7] A proto-oncogene is a gene that can cause cancer if it is mutated or over-expressed.

text: Research published in 2002 suggested that Hirschsprung's may be caused by the interaction between two proteins encoded by two variant genes. The RET proto-oncogene on chromosome 10 was identified as one of the two genes involved. The other protein with which RET must interact to cause Hirschsprung’s disease is termed EDNRB, and is encoded by the gene EDNRB located on chromosome 13.

text: Hirschsprung's disease, hypoganglionosis, gut dysmotility, gut transit disorders, and intussusception have been recorded with the dominantly inherited neurovisceral porphyrias (acute intermittent porphyria, hereditary coproporphyria, variegate porphyria). Children may require enzyme or DNA testing for these disorders, as they may not produce or excrete porphyrins before puberty.

text: RET proto-oncogene[edit]

text: RET is a gene that codes for proteins that assist cells of the neural crest in their movement through the digestive tract during the development of the embryo. Those neural crest cells eventually form bundles of nerve cells called ganglions. EDNRB codes for proteins that connect these nerve cells to the digestive tract. Thus, mutations in these two genes could directly lead to the absence of certain nerve fibers in the colon. Research suggests that several genes are associated with Hirschsprung’s disease.[8] Also, new research suggests that mutations in genomic sequences involved in regulating EDNRB have a bigger impact on Hirschsprung’s disease than previously thought.

text: RET can mutate in many ways and is associated with Down syndrome. Since Down syndrome is comorbid in 2% of Hirschsprung’s cases, a likelihood exists that RET is involved heavily in both Hirschsprung's disease and Down syndrome. RET is also associated with medullary thyroid cancer and neuroblastoma, which is a type of cancer common in children. Both of these disorders are more common in Hirschsprung’s patients than in the general population. One function that RET controls is the travel of the neural crest cells through the intestines in the developing fetus. The earlier the RET mutation occurs in Hirschsprung’s disease, the more severe the disorder becomes.

text: Other genes[edit]

text: Common and rare DNA variations in the neuregulin 1 (NRG1) and NRG3 (NRG3) were first shown to be associated with the disease in Chinese patients through a Genome Wide Association Study by the Hong Kong team in 2009 [9] and 2012, respectively[10] Subsequent studies in both Asian and Caucasian patients confirmed the initial findings by the University of Hong Kong. Both rare and common variants in these two genes have been identified in additional Chinese,[11] Thai, Korean, Indonesian and Spanish patients. These two genes are known to play a role in the formation of the enteric nervous system; thus, they are likely to be involved in the pathology of Hirschsprung's disease, at least in some cases.

text: Diagnosis[edit]

text: Definitive diagnosis is made by suction biopsy of the distally narrowed segment.[12] A histologic examination of the tissue would show a lack of ganglionic nerve cells. Diagnostic techniques involve anorectal manometry,[13] barium enema, and rectal biopsy. The suction rectal biopsy is considered the current international gold standard in the diagnosis of Hirschsprung's disease.[14]

text: Radiologic findings may also assist with diagnosis.[15] Cineanography (fluoroscopy of contrast medium passing anorectal region) assists in determining the level of the affected intestines.

text: Treatment[edit]

text: Treatment of Hirschsprung's disease consists of surgical removal (resection) of the abnormal section of the colon, followed by reanastomosis.

text: Colostomy[edit]

text: The first stage of treatment used to be a reversible colostomy. In this approach, the healthy end of the large intestine is cut and attached to an opening created on the front of the abdomen. The contents of the bowel are discharged through the hole in the abdomen and into a bag. Later, when the patient's weight, age, and condition are right, the "new" functional end of the bowel is connected with the anus. The first surgical treatment involving surgical resection followed by reanastomosis without a colostomy occurred as early as 1933 by Doctor Baird in Birmingham on a one-year-old boy.

text: Swenson, Soave, Duhamel, and Boley procedures[edit]

text: The Swedish-American surgeon, Orvar Swenson (1909–2012), who discovered the cause of Hirschsprung’s, first performed its surgical treatment, the pull-through surgery, in 1948.[16] The pull-through procedure repairs the colon by connecting the functioning portion of the bowel to the anus. The pull-through procedure is the typical method for treating Hirschsprung’s in younger patients. Swenson devised the original procedure, and the pull-through surgery has been modified many times.

text: Currently, several different surgical approaches are used, which include the Swenson, Soave, Duhamel, and Boley procedures. The Swenson procedure leaves a small portion of the diseased bowel. The Soave procedure, named after the Italian pediatric surgeon, Franco Soave (1917–1984), leaves the outer wall of the colon unaltered. The Boley procedure, pioneered by the American surgeon, Scott Boley (b. 1941), is a small modification of the Soave procedure, so the term "Soave-Boley" procedure is sometimes used.[17][18] The Duhamel procedure, named for the French pediatric surgeon, Bernard Duhamel (1917–1996), uses a surgical stapler to connect the good and bad bowel.

text: For the 15% of children who do not obtain full bowel control, other treatments are available. Constipation may be remedied by laxatives or a high-fiber diet. In those patients, serious dehydration can play a major factor in their lifestyles. A lack of bowel control may be addressed by a stoma, similar to a colostomy. The Malone antegrade colonic enema (ACE) is also an option.[19] In a Malone ACE, a tube goes through the abdominal wall to the appendix, or if available, to the colon. The bowel is then flushed daily.[20] Children as young as 6 years of age may administer this daily flush on their own.

text: If the affected portion of the lower intestine is restricted to the lower portion of the rectum, other surgical procedures may be performed, such as a posterior rectal myectomy.

text: The prognosis is good in 70% of cases. Chronic postoperative constipation is present in 7 to 8% of the operated cases. Postoperative enterocolitis, a severe manifestation, is present in the 10–20% of operated patients.

text: Associated syndromes[edit]

text:
Bardet–Biedl syndrome
Cartilage–hair hypoplasia[21]
Congenital central hypoventilation syndrome[22]
MEN2[23]
Mowat–Wilson syndrome[24]
Smith–Lemli–Opitz syndrome[25]
Trisomy 21 (Down syndrome) [26]
Waardenburg syndrome

tag: ul

text: Epidemiology[edit]

text: According to a 1984 study conducted in Maryland, Hirschsprung's disease appears in 18.6 per 100,000 live births.[27] In Japan, it occurs at a similar rate of about one in 5,000 births (20 per 100,000).[28] It is more common in male than female (4.32:1) and in white rather than nonwhite.[29] Nine percent of the Hirschsprung cases were also diagnosed as having Down syndrome.[27] Most cases are diagnosed before the patient is 10 years of age.[3]

text: History[edit]

text: The first report of Hirschsprung's disease dates to 1691,[30] when it was described by Dutch anatomist Frederik Ruysch.[31] However, the disease is named after Harald Hirschsprung, the Danish physician who first described two infants who died of this disorder in 1888.[32][33]

text: Hirschsprung’s disease is a congenital disorder of the colon in which certain nerve cells, known as ganglion cells, are absent, causing chronic constipation.[34] The lack of ganglion cells is in the myenteric plexus (Auerbach's plexus), which is responsible for moving food in the intestine. A barium enema is the mainstay of diagnosis of Hirschsprung’s, though a rectal biopsy showing the lack of ganglion cells is the only certain method of diagnosis.

text: The first publication on an important genetic discovery of the disease was from Martucciello Giuseppe et al. in 1992. The authors described a case of a patient with total colonic aganglionosis associated with a 46, XX, del 10 (q11.21 q21.2) karyotype.[35] The major gene of Hirschsprung disease was identified in this chromosomal 10 region, it was the RET proto-oncogene.[36]

text: The usual treatment is "pull-through" surgery where the portion of the colon that does have nerve cells is pulled through and sewn over the part that lacks nerve cells.[37] For a long time, Hirschsprung’s was considered a multifactorial disorder, where a combination of nature and nurture was considered to be the cause. However, in August 1993, two articles by independent groups in Nature Genetics said that Hirschsprung’s disease could be mapped to a stretch of chromosome 10.[38][39]

text: This research also suggested that a single gene was responsible for the disorder. However, the researchers were unable to isolate it.


document_title: When Calls the Heart

question_text: rosemary's friend on when calls the heart

question_tokens: rosemary 's friend on when calls the heart

text: When Calls the Heart

text: Plot[edit]

text: When Calls the Heart tells the story of Elizabeth Thatcher (Erin Krakow), a young teacher accustomed to her high-society life. She receives her first classroom assignment in Coal Valley, a small coal-mining town in Western Canada which is located just south of Robb, Alberta. There, life is simple—but often fraught with challenges. Elizabeth charms most everyone in Coal Valley, except Royal North West Mounted Police Constable Jack Thornton (Daniel Lissing). He believes Thatcher’s wealthy father has doomed the lawman's career by insisting he be assigned in town to protect the shipping magnate’s daughter. The town of Coal Valley was renamed Hope Valley in Episode 2, Season 2 after the coal mine was closed.

text: Living in this 1910 coal town, Elizabeth must learn the ways of the Canadian frontier movement if she wishes to thrive in the rural west on her own. Lori Loughlin portrays Abigail Stanton, whose husband, the foreman of the mine, and her only son—along with 45 other miners—have recently been killed in an explosion, which turns out to have been a tragic accident waiting to happen—a result of the mining-company site manager's irresponsible management and lack of due care in his management of the mine. The newly widowed women find their faith tested when they must go to work in the mine to keep a roof over their heads, food on the table, and compile a wage for the town's teacher.[9]

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Originally aired

First aired
Last aired

1
12
January 11, 2014 (2014-01-11)
March 29, 2014 (2014-03-29)

2
7
April 25, 2015 (2015-04-25)
June 13, 2015 (2015-06-13)

New Year's Wish
December 26, 2015 (2015-12-26)

3
8
February 21, 2016 (2016-02-21)
April 10, 2016 (2016-04-10)

Christmas
December 25, 2016 (2016-12-25)

4
10
February 19, 2017 (2017-02-19)
April 23, 2017 (2017-04-23)

The Christmas Wishing Tree
December 25, 2017 (2017-12-25)

5
10
February 18, 2018 (2018-02-18)
April 22, 2018 (2018-04-22)

text: Cast[edit]

text: Main[edit]

text:
Erin Krakow as Elizabeth Thatcher Thornton
Daniel Lissing as Jack Thornton (Seasons 1-5)
Lori Loughlin as Abigail Stanton
Jack Wagner as Bill Avery
Martin Cummins as Henry Gowen
Pascale Hutton as Rosemary LeVeaux Coulter
Kavan Smith as Leland Coulter

text: Recurring[edit]

text:
Paul Greene as Carson Shepherd
Gracyn Shinyei as Emily Montgomery
Loretta Walsh as Florence Blakeley
Erica Carroll as Dottie Ramsey
Mark Humphrey as Frank Hogan
Johannah Newmarch as Molly Sullivan
Mitchell Kummen as Gabe Montgomery
Logan Williams as Miles Montgomery
Ben Rosenbaum as Hickam
Carter Ryan Evancic as Cody Hastings
Chelah Horsdal as Cat Montgomery
Steve Bacic as Charles Spurlock
Kristina Wagner as Nora Avery
Aren Buchholz as Jesse Flynn
Charlotte Hegele as Julie Thatcher
Andrea Brooks as Faith Carter
Eva Bourne as Clara Stanton
Ava Grace Cooper as Opal
Max Lloyd-Jones as Tom Thornton
Brooke Shields as Charlotte Thornton
Devon Weigel as Viola Thatcher
Marcus Rosner as Charles Kensington
Mamie Laverock as Rosaleen Sullivan
Adrian Hough as Reverend Anderson
Lynda Boyd as Grace Thatcher
Will Verchere-Gopaulsingh as Caleb Dunbar
Ali Skovbye as Becky Hastings
Garwin Sanford as William Thatcher
Laura Bertram as Mary Dunbar
Derek Hamilton as Dewitt Graves
Niall Matter as Shane Cantrell (season 4)
Spencer Drever as Cyrus Rivera (season 4)
Josie Bissett as AJ Foster

text: Characters[edit]

text: This section may contain an excessive amount of intricate detail that may interest only a particular audience. Please help by spinning off or relocating any relevant information, and removing excessive detail that may be against Wikipedia's inclusion policy. (April 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
Elizabeth Thatcher Thornton is an independent, strong-minded, passionate and dedicated young teacher from the city. The middle daughter of William and Grace Thatcher, Elizabeth has two sisters, older sister Viola and younger sister Julie. Elizabeth finds herself in Coal Valley, a small community on the Canadian frontier in need of a teacher, and quickly discovers it is not an easy place to live, lacking the creature comforts and luxuries of her privileged life with her family. She soon meets the newly appointed and charismatic Mountie Jack Thornton and develops an immediate dislike for him. However, over time they become good friends, and develop an obvious attraction to one another. In the final episode of season 1, "Prelude to a Kiss," (also titled as "Final Adieu"), after overcoming many obstacles throughout the season, Jack tells Elizabeth, "You're the one, you're the only one" and they share a kiss. Throughout season 2, Elizabeth's feelings for Jack are high at times as well as low. Finally, in the season 2 finale, she admits that his job as a Mountie scares her. After being comforted both admitting that they love each other, Jack and Elizabeth kiss.
Jack Thornton is a laid back country boy. Jack is the son of Mountie Thomas Thornton and his wife Charlotte Thornton. Jack has a younger brother, Tom (named after his father). As a Mountie and a man of stout character and integrity, he often finds himself protecting and saving people. In season 1's "A Telling Silence," Jack finds a basset hound whom he names Rip (after Rip Van Winkle) and takes home with him. A source of comfort and companion in the small town, Jack often goes to Rip when times in his life are difficult. In season 2's "With All My Heart," Rip, who's afraid of thunder, hides in the mine shafts during a storm. Jack and Elizabeth search for him; in their search, their relationship grows stronger. Upon his first meeting of Elizabeth, he developed an instant dislike and it appeared she irritated him. However, he grew to like and then fall madly and completely in love with her over time. In "Rules of Engagement" (S.1), it is revealed that Jack was briefly engaged to Rosemary LeVeaux when she comes looking for him. However, they have both changed and realize that they cannot have a relationship as they once did ever again. In "Prelude to a Kiss" (S.1), Jack found out that Elizabeth may be leaving Coal Valley. Taking her on a walk and giving her a framed picture of them that he had sketched, he asks her not to leave Coal Valley and tells her, "You're the one, you're the only one." She replied that she was "not going anywhere", Coal Valley was where she belonged before they share a kiss. In season 2, Elizabeth and Jack share a hot-and-cold relationship until the finale, "With All My Heart." They both admit that they love each other and share another kiss. Jack's brother, Tom, is introduced season 2's "Trials of the Heart," and their rocky relationship continues until "Coming Together, Coming Apart." Jack gently reminds his younger brother how their father was so proud of him, but he wouldn't be proud of the way he was currently living. Both in tears, Jack tells his younger brother that he believes in him and that he can turn his life around. More recently, Jack has become good friends with the sawmill operator, Lee Coulter. In season 3, Jack begins the new year knowing that Elizabeth only has eyes for him and that her relationship with Charles is over for good. In "Hearts In Question," Jack's mother Charlotte shows up unexpectedly. She meets Elizabeth and is suspicious of her, but through staying her sees Elizabeth for who she really is: a trustworthy, dedicated teacher. In the season finale, "Prayers From The Heart," Jack is injured in a flood. But he miraculously recovers in time to serve as Lee's best man at his wedding.
Abigail Stanton is a Coal Valley woman who tragically lost her husband and son in the mining accident. Abigail is a very kind woman, and she stands strongly for the things she believes in. She is one of the first women to welcome Elizabeth and the two women quickly become friends. When Elizabeth accidentally burns down the little teacherage, Abigail gladly welcomes her into her home to live. After being complimented on her cooking, Abigail decides to open a cafe in Coal Valley. Together, Abigail and Elizabeth move into the rooms above the cafe. At the end of season 1, Abigail enjoys the company of Bill Avery, a Mountie, serving as a Forensic Investigator and friend of Jack Thornton's. In season 2, Abigail takes in her daughter-in-law, Clara, the wife of her late son Peter whom Abigail sees as the daughter she never had. With Bill's past being revealed, Abigail ends their friendship and spends more time with the new pastor, Frank Hogan. Also, she is a strong independent woman that is set on doing the things that are right and tries to help Elizabeth.
Bill Avery is a mysterious, quiet man. He first appears in season 1's "Rules of Engagement," in order to help Jack expose Mr. Gowen's wrongdoings. Bill is immediately attracted to widow Abigail Stanton. Things are going well until Abigail discovers a picture of Bill's family and his wedding ring. He later tells her that his son died, as well as his wife. However, his wife, Nora, comes to confront him in season 2's "Heart's Desire."
Henry Gowen is a cold, cynical man who formerly owned the coal mine. After the mine was shut down, Henry became the mayor of Hope Valley and still creates a cold, cynical presence whenever people are around him. Henry is highly disliked and feared in the town. He frequently uses bribery to get what he wants, which is never for the good of the town.
Rosemary "Rosie" LeVeaux Coulter is a flamboyant, enthusiastic actress from New York. She was briefly engaged to Jack Thornton, but they both realized that it wouldn't work out. Rosie immediately disliked Elizabeth and viewed her as "the competition," but eventually came to really care about Elizabeth, even if she has a hard time showing it. At the beginning of season 2, Rosemary began working at the cafe with Abigail and the two quickly became friends. Spending time with Abigail helped tone down some of Rosemary's enthusiasm and made her a more likable person. Rosemary even came to like Elizabeth, even if only on an acquaintance level. Truthfully, she cares about everyone in Hope Valley, especially Lee, with whom she shares an mutual attraction. When Rosie is not spending time with Lee, talking to Abigail, or dreaming about the glamorous life of an actress, she can often be found somewhere writing her weekly advice column for Hope Valley's newspaper! In season 3, Rosemary's friendship with Elizabeth deepened. Instead of viewing her as an adversary, she finds a friend in Elizabeth. Throughout season 3, Rosemary's relationship with Lee becomes more romantic. In "Heart Of A Hero," seeing that Lee needs to spend more time at the sawmill to help the new settlers find jobs, Rosemary tells Lee that the theatre doesn't have to be built. He insists, but she says how important his job is. He smiles and tells her he will one day build her theatre, telling her that she is "the best part of his life." The couple shares in their first kiss. In "A Gentle Heart," Lee is injured. Thinking he is asleep, Rosemary pours out her heart to him, telling how much she loves him. In "Heartbreak," Rosemary is offered a job in Hollywood filming. This has always been Rosemary's dream, to be an actress. Lee unselfishly tells her to do whatever she feels best, but it is obvious that the thought of her leaving Hope Valley hurts him. Rosemary considers her options and realizes that her place is in Hope Valley, with Lee. Lee then tells her that he has another "role" that he thinks would be perfect for her and proposes marriage. She happily accepts. In "Hearts In Question," Rosemary enthusiastically plans for their wedding. The couple weds in the season 3 finale "Prayers From The Heart," with Elizabeth and Abigail as her maids of honor.
Leland "Lee" Coulter is a kind, laidback, patient man who opens a sawmill in Hope Valley. When timber becomes Coal Valley's major source of natural resources, the town is renamed Hope Valley. He shares a mutual attraction to Rosemary and proves to be one of the few people who can outwit her. When she declines his romantic intentions, Lee recruits his friend, Molly Sullivan, to make Rosemary jealous; the ploy succeeds and Rosemary accepts his suit, appreciating Lee's good qualities. Despite her dramatic and occasionally prickly personality, Lee's compassion and patience never fails with her. With Rosemary's help, Lee beat Mr. Gowen at his own game in "Heart and Home." When not at work, Lee enjoys being with friends, including Jack Thornton, who shares Lee's simple and laidback outlook, allowing the men to discuss their lives and exchange romantic advice. In season 3, Lee's mill is unfortunately sabotaged by a man inside. Through Bill and Jack's investigation, they find the culprit. In season 3's "Heart Of A Hero," Rosemary unselfishly gives up the theatre that Lee promised to build her. Lee promises that one day, he will build her the theatre at a time when he isn't so involved with the sawmill and finding people jobs. In "A Gentle Heart," Lee is injured. Thinking Lee is asleep, Rosemary pours out her heart to Lee, telling him how afraid she was when she heard he had been injured. He however hears each and every word. She told him how much she loves him and to never leave her. In the episode "Heartbreak," Lee thinks Rosemary may leave Hope Valley when she is offered a movie job in Hollywood. When she gives up the movie, seeing her future in Hope Valley with him, he asks her to marry him. The couple weds in the season 3 finale, "Prayers From The Heart." Jack serves the role of Lee's best man.
Julie Thatcher is Elizabeth's hopeless romantic younger sister. She often gets herself into sticky situations by falling head over heels for men who aren't quite what they seem. In season 2 she gets involved with Jack's brother Tom, which causes trouble with her family and for Jack and Elizabeth's relationship.
Cat Montgomery is a kind, encouraging woman in Coal Valley. She is a widow and mother of three: Gabe, Miles, and Emily. Cat was one of the first mothers to show kindness to Elizabeth when she first came. She desperately wants her children to remember the good memories of their father as seen by her self-sacrificing acts in "Secrets and Lies." Possessing a great sense of teamwork and encouragement, Cat supports the women of Coal Valley while working in the mines in "Cease and Desist." She is good friends with Elizabeth and Abigail. In "These Games," she also helps Jack catch a thief.
Florence Blakeley is a feisty gossip in Hope Valley. She often has a pessimistic perspective and always seems to find the negative, even in a very positive situation. In "Heart and Home," Abigail told Florence what she really thought about her, which causes Florence to rein in her negativity somewhat, though she remains fairly outspoken. While not always likable, Florence adds spice to life in Hope Valley.
Molly Sullivan is a friend of Lee Coulter and Elizabeth Thatcher. Molly's husband was killed in the mine disaster. She has a daughter Rosaleen. In season 1's "A Telling Silence," Rosaleen has trouble in school because she misses her father so much. When she runs away, Elizabeth finds her in the mine, feeling guilty that she didn't bring her father his lunch the day of the disaster because she wanted to play with a friend instead. She fears her mother will blame her, but Elizabeth convinces her that Molly will "say that she loves her more than life itself." Molly is reunited with her daughter, to the joy of the town's people. In season 2's "With All My Heart," Lee feels it's time to "play hard to get" with Rosemary, so he enlists help from Molly. She pretends to be interested in him romantically. This ploy works and Rosemary admits that she does in fact like him. Molly is a kind woman and was among the first to welcome Elizabeth to town.
Clara Stanton is the wife of Abigail's late son Peter, and is a sweet, quiet, and sensitive young woman. Abigail never knew she had a daughter-in-law until season 2's "Trials of the Heart;" with Peter having married Clara only three days before he was killed. In "Heart's Desire," Abigail invites Clara to come live with her in Hope Valley, an offer that Clara accepts.
Charles Kensington III is an old friend of Elizabeth with whom she reconnects while in Hamilton. He is interested in her, though her feelings for Jack get in the way of their relationship.

text: Production[edit]

text: The series, originally planned to be filmed in Colorado, is filmed south of Vancouver, British Columbia, on a farm surrounded by vineyards. The fictional frontier town of Coal Valley was erected in late 2013. Some of the set trimmings and a stage coach came from the Hell on Wheels set.[10] The Thatcher home is the University Women's Club of Vancouver.[11]

text: The series was renewed for a second season,[12] which aired from April 25 to June 13, 2015. Hallmark Channel announced in July 2015 that the series had been renewed for a third season, which aired from February 21 to April 10, 2016,[13] with a sneak peek airing during the 2015 Christmas season.[14]

text: In mid-2016, it was announced that Season 4 would premiere on the Hallmark Channel Christmas Day with a two-hour special. On April 11, 2016, Lissing and Krakow announced via the series' Facebook page that Hallmark Channel had renewed the series for a fourth season, which aired from February 19 to April 23, 2017.[15][16]

text: Filming for season five began in Vancouver on August 22, 2017, and ended on December 21, 2017.[17][18]

text: Broadcast[edit]

text: The first season of the series was subsequently picked up by CBC Television for rebroadcast as a summer series in 2015.[19] The network has since aired all five seasons.[20][21] The series became available internationally on Netflix in August 2017.


document_title: Skye

question_text: what is the main town in the isle of skye

text: Skye

text: Etymology[edit]

text: The first written references to the island are Roman sources such as the Ravenna Cosmography, which refers to Scitis[14] and Scetis, which can be found on a map by Ptolemy.[15] One possible derivation comes from skitis, an early Celtic word for winged, which may describe how the island's peninsulas radiate out from a mountainous centre.[16] Subsequent Gaelic-, Norse- and English-speaking peoples have influenced the history of Skye; the relationships between their names for the island are not straightforward. Various etymologies have been proposed, such as the "winged isle" or "the notched isle"[17] but no definitive solution has been found to date; the place name may be from an earlier, non-Gaelic language.[18][19]

text: In the Norse sagas Skye is called Skíð, for example in the Hákonar saga Hákonarsonar[20] and a skaldic poem in the Heimskringla from c. 1230 contains a line that translates as "the hunger battle-birds were filled in Skye with blood of foemen killed".[21] The island was also referred to by the Norse as Skuy (misty isle),[16] Skýey or Skuyö (isle of cloud).[1] The traditional Gaelic name is An t-Eilean Sgitheanach (the island of Skye), An t-Eilean Sgiathanach being a more recent and less common spelling. In 1549 Donald Munro, High Dean of the Isles, wrote of "Sky": "This Ile is callit Ellan Skiannach in Irish, that is to say in Inglish the wyngit Ile, be reason it has mony wyngis and pointis lyand furth fra it, throw the dividing of thir foirsaid Lochis."[Note 2] but the meaning of this Gaelic name is unclear.[23]

text: Eilean a' Cheò, which means island of the mist (a translation of the Norse name), is a poetic Gaelic name for the island.[17][Note 3]

text: Geography[edit]

text: At 1,656 square kilometres (639 sq mi), Skye is the second-largest island in Scotland after Lewis and Harris. The coastline of Skye is a series of peninsulas and bays radiating out from a centre dominated by the Cuillin hills (Gaelic: An Cuiltheann). Malcolm Slesser suggested that its shape "sticks out of the west coast of northern Scotland like a lobster's claw ready to snap at the fish bone of Harris and Lewis"[9] and W. H. Murray, commenting on its irregular coastline, stated that "Skye is sixty miles [100 km] long, but what might be its breadth is beyond the ingenuity of man to state".[1][Note 4] Martin Martin, a native of the island, reported on it at length in a 1703 publication. His geological observations included a note that:

text: There are marcasites black and white, resembling silver ore, near the village Sartle: there are likewise in the same place several stones, which in bigness, shape, &c., resemble nutmegs, and many rivulets here afford variegated stones of all colours. The Applesglen near Loch-Fallart has agate growing in it of different sizes and colours; some are green on the outside, some are of a pale sky colour, and they all strike fire as well as flint: I have one of them by me, which for shape and bigness is proper for a sword handle. Stones of a purple colour flow down the rivulets here after great rains.

text: The Black Cuillin, which are mainly composed of basalt and gabbro, include twelve Munros and provide some of the most dramatic and challenging mountain terrain in Scotland.[9] The ascent of Sgùrr a' Ghreadaidh is one of the longest rock climbs in Britain and the Inaccessible Pinnacle is the only peak in Scotland that requires technical climbing skills to reach the summit.[16][26] These hills make demands of the hill walker that exceed any others found in Scotland[27] and a full traverse of the Cuillin ridge may take 15–20 hours.[28] The Red Hills (Gaelic: Am Binnean Dearg) to the south are also known as the Red Cuillin. They are mainly composed of granite that has weathered into more rounded hills with many long scree slopes on their flanks. The highest point of these hills is Glamaig, one of only two Corbetts on Skye.[29]

text: The northern peninsula of Trotternish is underlain by basalt, which provides relatively rich soils and a variety of unusual rock features. The Kilt Rock is named after the tartan-like patterns in the 105 metres (344 ft) cliffs. The Quiraing is a spectacular series of rock pinnacles on the eastern side of the main spine of the peninsula and further south is the rock pillar of the Old Man of Storr.[30]

text: Beyond Loch Snizort to the west of Trotternish is the Waternish peninsula, which ends in Ardmore Point's double rock arch. Duirinish is separated from Waternish by Loch Dunvegan, which contains the island of Isay. The loch is ringed by sea cliffs that reach 295 metres (967 ft) at Waterstein Head. Oolitic loam provides good arable land in the main valley. Lochs Bracadale and Harport and the island of Wiay lie between Duirinish and Minginish, which includes the narrower defiles of Talisker and Glen Brittle and whose beaches are formed from black basaltic sands.[31] Strathaird is a relatively small peninsula close to the Cuillin hills with only a few crofting communities,[32] the island of Soay lies offshore. The bedrock of Sleat in the south is Torridonian sandstone, which produces poor soils and boggy ground, although its lower elevations and relatively sheltered eastern shores enable a lush growth of hedgerows and crops.[33] The islands of Raasay, Rona, Scalpay and Pabay all lie to the north and east between Skye and the mainland.[1][16]

text: Towns and villages[edit]

text: Portree in the north at the base of Trotternish is the largest settlement (estimated population 2,264 in 2011)[34] and is the main service centre on the island. Broadford, the location of the island's only airstrip, is on the east side of the island and Dunvegan in the north-west is well known for its castle and the nearby Three Chimneys restaurant. The 18th-century Stein Inn on the Waternish coast is the oldest pub on Skye.[35] Kyleakin is linked to Kyle of Lochalsh on the mainland by the Skye Bridge, which spans the narrows of Loch Alsh. Uig, the port for ferries to the Outer Hebrides, is on the west of the Trotternish peninsula and Edinbane is between Dunvegan and Portree.[16] Much of the rest of the population lives in crofting townships scattered around the coastline.[36]

text: Climate[edit]

text: The influence of the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf Stream create a mild oceanic climate. Temperatures are generally cool, averaging 6.5 °C (43.7 °F) in January and 15.4 °C (59.7 °F) in July at Duntulm in Trotternish.[37][Note 5] Snow seldom lies at sea level and frosts are less frequent than on the mainland. Winds are a limiting factor for vegetation. South-westerlies are the most common and speeds of 128 km/h (80 mph) have been recorded. High winds are especially likely on the exposed coasts of Trotternish and Waternish.[39] In common with most islands of the west coast of Scotland, rainfall is generally high at 1,500–2,000 mm (59–79 in) per annum and the elevated Cuillin are wetter still.[39] Variations can be considerable, with the north tending to be drier than the south. Broadford, for example, averages more than 2,870 mm (113 in) of rain per annum.[40] Trotternish typically has 200 hours of bright sunshine in May, the sunniest month.[41] On 28 December 2015, the temperature reached 15 °C, beating the previous December record of 12.9 °C, set in 2013. On 9 May 2016, a temperature of 26.7 °C (80.1 °F) was recorded at Lusa in the south-east of the island.[42]

text:
hideClimate data for Duntulm, Skye

Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year

Record high °C (°F)
13.5
(56.3)
12.5
(54.5)
16.7
(62.1)
22.3
(72.1)
26.7
(80.1)
24.5
(76.1)
25.9
(78.6)
25.6
(78.1)
22.1
(71.8)
19.3
(66.7)
17.3
(63.1)
15.0
(59)
26.7
(80.1)

Average high °C (°F)
6.5
(43.7)
6.6
(43.9)
8.1
(46.6)
9.6
(49.3)
12.4
(54.3)
14.3
(57.7)
15.4
(59.7)
15.7
(60.3)
14.2
(57.6)
11.5
(52.7)
9.1
(48.4)
7.6
(45.7)
10.9
(51.6)

Average low °C (°F)
2.4
(36.3)
2.2
(36)
3.3
(37.9)
4.3
(39.7)
6.5
(43.7)
8.7
(47.7)
10.4
(50.7)
10.7
(51.3)
9.4
(48.9)
7.2
(45)
5.1
(41.2)
3.6
(38.5)
6.2
(43.2)

Record low °C (°F)
−4.0
(24.8)
−3.5
(25.7)
−4.1
(24.6)
−3.4
(25.9)
0.0
(32)
4.2
(39.6)
5.2
(41.4)
4.7
(40.5)
2.6
(36.7)
0.3
(32.5)
−4.5
(23.9)
−6.5
(20.3)
−6.5
(20.3)

Average precipitation mm (inches)
148.3
(5.84)
99.8
(3.93)
82.3
(3.24)
86.4
(3.40)
72.9
(2.87)
85.1
(3.35)
97.3
(3.83)
112
(4.41)
128.3
(5.05)
152.4
(6.00)
143
(5.63)
141.7
(5.58)
1,349.5
(53.13)

Source #1: Cooper (1983)[37]

Source #2: Met office for May and December record high,[43] bing weather [44]

text: History[edit]

text: Prehistory[edit]

text: A Mesolithic hunter-gatherer site dating to the 7th millennium BC at An Corran in Staffin is one of the oldest archaeological sites in Scotland. Its occupation is probably linked to that of the rock shelter at Sand, Applecross, on the mainland coast of Wester Ross where tools made of a mudstone from An Corran have been found. Surveys of the area between the two shores of the Inner Sound and Sound of Raasay have revealed 33 sites with potentially Mesolithic deposits.[45][46] Finds of bloodstone microliths on the foreshore at Orbost on the west coast of the island near Dunvegan also suggest Mesolithic occupation. These tools probably originate from the nearby island of Rùm.[47]

text: Rubha an Dùnain, an uninhabited peninsula to the south of the Cuillin, has a variety of archaeological sites dating from the Neolithic onwards. There is a 2nd or 3rd millennium BC chambered cairn, an Iron Age promontory fort and the remains of another prehistoric settlement dating from the Bronze Age nearby. Loch na h-Airde on the peninsula is linked to the sea by an artificial "Viking" canal that may date from the later period of Norse settlement.[48][49] Dun Ringill is a ruined Iron Age hill fort on the Strathaird peninsula, which was further fortified in the Middle Ages and may have become the seat of Clan MacKinnon.[50]

text: Early history[edit]

text: The late Iron Age inhabitants of the northern and western Hebrides were probably Pictish, although the historical record is sparse.[51] Three Pictish symbol stones have been found on Skye and a fourth on Raasay.[52] More is known of the kingdom of Dál Riata to the south; Adomnán's life of Columba, written shortly before 697, portrays the saint visiting Skye (where he baptised a pagan leader using an interpreter[53]) and Adomnán himself is thought to have been familiar with the island.[54] The Irish annals record a number of events on Skye in the later 7th and early 8th centuries – mainly concerning the struggles between rival dynasties that formed the background to the Old Irish language romance Scéla Cano meic Gartnáin.[55]

text: The Norse held sway throughout the Hebrides from the 9th century until after the Treaty of Perth in 1266. However, apart from placenames, little remains of their presence on Skye in the written or archaeological record. Apart from the name "Skye" itself, all pre-Norse placenames seem to have been obliterated by the Scandinavian settlers.[56] Viking heritage is claimed by Clan MacLeod and Norse tradition is celebrated in the winter fire festival at Dunvegan, during which a replica Viking long boat is set alight.[57]

text: Clans and Scottish rule[edit]

text: The most powerful clans on Skye in the post–Norse period were Clan MacLeod, originally based in Trotternish, and Clan Macdonald of Sleat. Following the disintegration of the Lordship of the Isles, the Mackinnons also emerged as an independent clan, whose substantial landholdings in Skye were centred on Strathaird.[58] Clan MacNeacail also have a long association with Trotternish,[59] and in the 16th century many of the MacInnes clan moved to Sleat.[60] The MacDonalds of South Uist were bitter rivals of the MacLeods, and an attempt by the former to murder church-goers at Trumpan in retaliation for a previous massacre on Eigg, resulted in the Battle of the Spoiling Dyke of 1578.[61]

text: After the failure of the Jacobite rebellion of 1745, Flora MacDonald became famous for rescuing Prince Charles Edward Stuart from the Hanoverian troops. Although she was born on South Uist her story is strongly associated with their escape via Skye and she is buried at Kilmuir in Trotternish.[62] Samuel Johnson and James Boswell's visit to Skye in 1773 and their meeting with Flora MacDonald in Kilmuir is recorded in Boswell's The Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides. Boswell wrote, "To see Dr Samuel Johnson, the great champion of the English Tories, salute Miss Flora MacDonald in the isle of Sky, [sic] was a striking sight; for though somewhat congenial in their notions, it was very improbable they should meet here".[63] Johnson's words that Flora MacDonald was "A name that will be mentioned in history, and if courage and fidelity be virtues, mentioned with honour" are written on her gravestone.[64] After this rebellion the clan system was broken up and Skye became a series of landed estates.[65]

text: Of the island in general, Johnson observed:

text: I never was in any house of the islands, where I did not find books in more languages than one, if I staid long enough to want them, except one from which the family was removed. Literature is not neglected by the higher rank of the Hebrideans. It need not, I suppose, be mentioned, that in countries so little frequented as the islands, there are no houses where travellers are entertained for money. He that wanders about these wilds, either procures recommendations to those whose habitations lie near his way, or, when night and weariness come upon him, takes the chance of general hospitality. If he finds only a cottage he can expect little more than shelter; for the cottagers have little more for themselves but if his good fortune brings him to the residence of a gentleman, he will be glad of a storm to prolong his stay. There is, however, one inn by the sea-side at Sconsor, in Sky, where the post-office is kept.

text: Skye has a rich heritage of ancient monuments from this period. Dunvegan Castle has been the seat of Clan MacLeod since the 13th century. It contains the Fairy Flag and is reputed to have been inhabited by a single family for longer than any other house in Scotland.[67] The 18th-century Armadale Castle, once home of Clan Donald of Sleat, was abandoned as a residence in 1925 but now hosts the Clan Donald Centre.[68] Nearby are the ruins of two more MacDonald strongholds, Knock Castle, and Dunscaith Castle (called "Fortress of Shadows"), the legendary home of warrior woman, martial arts instructor (and, according to some sources, Queen) Scáthach.[16][69] Caisteal Maol, built in the late 15th century near Kyleakin and once a seat of Clan MacKinnon, is another ruin.[50]

text: Clearances[edit]

text: In the late 18th century the harvesting of kelp became a significant activity[72] but from 1822 on cheap imports led to a collapse of this industry throughout the Hebrides.[73] During the 19th century, the inhabitants of Skye were also devastated by famine and Clearances. Thirty thousand people were evicted between 1840 and 1880 alone, many of them forced to emigrate to the New World.[2][74] For example, the settlement of Lorgill on the west coast of Duirinish was cleared on 4 August 1830. Every crofter under the age of seventy was removed and placed on board the Midlothian on threat of imprisonment, with those over that age being sent to the poorhouse.[75] The "Battle of the Braes" involved a demonstration against a lack of access to land and the serving of eviction notices. The incident involved numerous crofters and about 50 police officers. This event was instrumental in the creation of the Napier Commission, which reported in 1884 on the situation in the Highlands. Disturbances continued until the passing of the 1886 Crofters' Act and on one occasion 400 marines were deployed on Skye to maintain order.[76] The ruins of cleared villages can still be seen at Lorgill, Boreraig and Suisnish in Strath Swordale,[75][77] and Tusdale on Minginish.[71][78]

text: Overview of population trends[edit]

text:
Year
1755
1794
1821
1841
1881
1891
1931
1951
1961
1971
1981
1991
2001
2011

Population[6][16][79]
11,252
14,470
20,827
23,082
16,889
15,705
9,908
8,537
7,479
7,183
7,276
8,847
9,232
10,008

text: As with many Scottish islands, Skye's population peaked in the 19th century and then declined under the impact of the Clearances and the military losses in the First World War. From the 19th century until 1975 Skye was part of the county of Inverness-shire but the crofting economy languished and according to Slesser, "Generations of UK governments have treated the island people contemptuously."[80] a charge that has been levelled at both Labour and Conservative administrations' policies in the Highlands and Islands.[81][Note 6] By 1971 the population was less than a third of its peak recorded figure in 1841. However, the number of residents then grew by over 28 per cent in the thirty years to 2001.[16]

text: The changing relationship between the residents and the land is evidenced by Robert Carruthers's remark circa 1852 that, "There is now a village in Portree containing three hundred inhabitants." Even if this estimate is inexact the population of the island's largest settlement has probably increased sixfold or more since then.[34] During the period the total number of island residents has declined by 50 per cent or more.[16][Note 7]

text: The island-wide population increase of 4 per cent between 1991 and 2001 occurred against the background of an overall reduction in Scottish island populations of 3 per cent for the same period.[11] By 2011 the population had risen a further 8.4% to 10,008[6] with Scottish island populations as a whole growing by 4% to 103,702.[85]

text: Gaelic[edit]

text:
showPronunciation

Scots Gaelic:
An t-Eilean Sgitheanach

Pronunciation:
[əɲ tʰʲelan s̪kʲiə.anəx] ( listen)

Scots Gaelic:
Am Binnean Dearg

Pronunciation:
[əm ˈpiɲan ˈtʲɛɾak] ( listen)

Scots Gaelic:
An Corran

Pronunciation:
[əŋ ˈkʰɔrˠan] ( listen)

Scots Gaelic:
An Cuan Sgìth

Pronunciation:
[ən̪ˠ ˈkʰuən s̪kʲiː] ( listen)

Scots Gaelic:
An Tìr, an Cànan 's na Daoine

Pronunciation:
[ən̪ˠ ˈtʲʰiːɾʲ əŋ ˈkʰanan s̪nə ˈtɯːɲə] ( listen)

Scots Gaelic:
Eilean a' Cheò

Pronunciation:
[ˈelan ə ˈçɔː] ( listen)

Scots Gaelic:
Loch na h-Àirde

Pronunciation:
[ˈlˠ̪ɔx nə ˈhaːrˠtʲə] ( listen)

Scots Gaelic:
Mac na Mara

Pronunciation:
[ˈmaxk nə ˈmaɾə] ( listen)

Scots Gaelic:
Poit Dhubh

Pronunciation:
[ˈpʰɔhtʲ ˈɣu] ( listen)

Scots Gaelic:
Pràban na Linne

Pronunciation:
[ˈpʰɾaːpan nə ˈʎiɲə] ( listen)

Scots Gaelic:
Tè Bheag nan Eilean

Pronunciation:
[tʰʲeˈvek nə ˈɲelan] ( listen)

Scots Gaelic:
Sgiathan

Pronunciation:
[ˈs̪kʲiəhən] ( listen)

Scots Gaelic:
Sgitheanach

Pronunciation:
[ˈs̪kʲi.ənəx] ( listen)

text: Historically, Skye was overwhelmingly Gaelic-speaking, but this changed between 1921 and 2001. In both the 1901 and 1921 censuses, all Skye parishes were more than 75 per cent Gaelic-speaking. By 1971, only Kilmuir parish had more than three quarters Gaelic speakers while the rest of Skye ranged between 50 and 74 per cent. At that time, Kilmuir was the only area outside the Western Isles that had such a high proportion of Gaelic speakers.[86] In the 2001 census Kilmuir had just under half Gaelic speakers, and overall, Skye had 31 per cent, distributed unevenly. The strongest Gaelic areas were in the north and south-west of the island, including Staffin at 61 per cent. The weakest areas were in the west and east (e.g. Luib 23 per cent and Kylerhea 19 per cent). Other areas on Skye ranged between 48 per cent and 25 per cent.[86]

text: Government and politics[edit]

text: In terms of local government, from 1975 to 1996, Skye, along with the neighbouring mainland area of Lochalsh, constituted a local government district within the Highland administrative area. In 1996 the district was included into the unitary Highland Council, (Comhairle na Gàidhealtachd) based in Inverness and formed one of the new council's area committees.[88][89] Following the 2007 elections, Skye now forms a four-member ward called Eilean a' Cheò; it is currently represented by two independents, one Scottish National Party, and one Liberal Democrat councillor.[89]

text: Skye is in the Highlands and Islands electoral region and comprises a part of the Skye, Lochaber and Badenoch constituency of the Scottish Parliament, which elects one member under the first past the post basis to represent it. Kate Forbes is the current MSP for the SNP.[90] In addition, Skye forms part of the wider Ross, Skye and Lochaber constituency, which elects one member to the House of Commons in Westminster. The present MP Member of Parliament is Ian Blackford of the Scottish National Party, who took office after the SNP's sweep in the General Election of 2015. Prior to this, Charles Kennedy, a Liberal Democrat, had represented the area since the 1983 general election.[87]

text: Economy[edit]

text: The largest employer on the island and its environs is the public sector, which accounts for about a third of the total workforce, principally in administration, education and health. The second largest employer in the area is the distribution, hotels and restaurants sector, highlighting the importance of tourism. Key attractions include Dunvegan Castle, the Clan Donald Visitor Centre, and The Aros Experience arts and exhibition centre in Portree.[91] There are about a dozen large landowners on Skye, the largest being the public sector, with the Scottish Government owning most of the northern part of the island.[92][93] Glendale is a community-owned estate in Duirinish and the Sleat Community Trust, the local development trust, is active in various regeneration projects.[94][95][96]

text: Small firms dominate employment in the private sector. The Talisker Distillery, which produces a single malt whisky, is beside Loch Harport on the west coast of the island. Three other whiskies—Mac na Mara ("son of the sea"), Tè Bheag nan Eilean ("wee dram of the isles") and Poit Dhubh ("black pot")—are produced by blender Pràban na Linne ("smugglers den by the Sound of Sleat"), based at Eilean Iarmain.[97][98] These are marketed using predominantly Gaelic-language labels. The blended whisky branded as "Isle of Skye" is produced not on the island but by the Glengoyne Distillery at Killearn north of Glasgow, though the website of the owners, Ian Macleod Distillers Ltd., boasts a "high proportion of Island malts" and contains advertisements for tourist businesses in the island. There is also an established software presence on Skye, with Portree-based Sitekit having expanded in recent years.[99]

text: Crofting is still important, but although there are about 2,000 crofts on Skye only 100 or so are large enough to enable a crofter to earn a livelihood entirely from the land.[100] Cod and herring stocks have declined but commercial fishing remains important, especially fish farming of salmon and shellfish such as scampi.[101] The west coast of Scotland has a considerable renewable energy potential and the Isle of Skye Renewables Co-op has recently bought a stake in the Ben Aketil wind farm near Dunvegan.[102][103] There is a thriving arts and crafts sector.[104]

text: The unemployment rate in the area tends to be higher than in the Highlands as a whole, and is seasonal in nature, in part due to the impact of tourism. The population is growing and in common with many other scenic rural areas in Scotland, significant increases are expected in the percentage of the population aged 45 to 64 years.[105]

text: Transport[edit]

text: Skye is linked to the mainland by the Skye Bridge, while ferries sail from Armadale on the island to Mallaig, and from Kylerhea to Glenelg. Ferries also run from Uig to Tarbert on Harris and Lochmaddy on North Uist, and from Sconser to Raasay.[16][106]

text: The Skye Bridge opened in 1995 under a private finance initiative and the high tolls charged (£5.70 each way for summer visitors) met with widespread opposition, spearheaded by the pressure group SKAT (Skye and Kyle Against Tolls). On 21 December 2004 it was announced that the Scottish Executive had purchased the bridge from its owners and the tolls were immediately removed.[107]

text: Bus services run to Inverness and Glasgow, and there are local services on the island, mainly starting from Portree or Broadford. Train services run from Kyle of Lochalsh at the mainland end of the Skye Bridge to Inverness, as well as from Glasgow to Mallaig from where the ferry can be caught to Armadale.[108]

text: The Isle of Skye Airfield at Ashaig, near Broadford, is used by private aircraft and occasionally by NHS Highland and the Scottish Ambulance Service for transferring patients to hospitals on the mainland.[109]

text: The A87 trunk road traverses the island from the Skye Bridge to Uig, linking most of the major settlements. Many of the island's roads have been widened in the past forty years although there are still substantial sections of single track road.[4][16]

text: Culture, media and the arts[edit]

text: Students of Scottish Gaelic travel from all over the world to attend Sabhal Mòr Ostaig, the Scottish Gaelic college based near Kilmore in Sleat.[110] In addition to members of the Church of Scotland and a smaller number of Roman Catholics many residents of Skye belong to the Free Church of Scotland, known for its strict observance of the Sabbath.[Note 8]

text: Skye has a strong folk music tradition, although in recent years dance and rock music have been growing in popularity on the island. Gaelic folk rock band Runrig started in Skye and former singer Donnie Munro still works on the island.[112] Runrig's second single and a concert staple is entitled Skye, the lyrics being partly in English and partly in Gaelic[113] and they have released other songs such as "Nightfall on Marsco" that were inspired by the island.[114] Celtic fusion band the Peatbog Faeries are based on Skye.[115] Jethro Tull singer Ian Anderson owned an estate at Strathaird on Skye at one time.[116] Several Tull songs are written about Skye, including Dun Ringil, Broadford Bazaar, and Acres Wild (which contains the lines "Come with me to the Winged Isle, / Northern father's western child..." in reference to the island itself).[117] The Isle of Skye Music Festival featured sets from The Fun Lovin' Criminals and Sparks, but collapsed in 2007.[118][119] Electronic musician Mylo was born on Skye.[120]

text: The poet Sorley MacLean, a native of the Isle of Raasay, which lies off the island's east coast, lived much of his life on Skye.[121] The island has been immortalised in the traditional song "The Skye Boat Song" and is the notional setting for the novel To the Lighthouse by Virginia Woolf, although the Skye of the novel bears little relation to the real island.[122] John Buchan's descriptions of Skye, as featured in his Richard Hannay novel Mr Standfast, are more true to life.[123] I Diari di Rubha Hunis is a 2004 Italian language work of non-fiction by Davide Sapienza. The international bestseller, The Ice Twins, by S K Tremayne, published around the world in 2015–2016, is set in southern Skye, especially around the settlement and islands of Isleornsay.

text: Skye has been used as a location for a number of feature films. The Ashaig aerodrome was used for the opening scenes of the 1980 film Flash Gordon.[109] Stardust, released in 2007 and starring Robert De Niro and Michelle Pfeiffer, featured scenes near Uig, Loch Coruisk and the Quiraing.[125][126][127] Another 2007 film, Seachd: The Inaccessible Pinnacle, was shot almost entirely in various locations on the island.[128] Some of the opening scenes in Ridley Scott's 2012 feature film Prometheus were shot and set at the Old Man of Storr.[124] In 1973 The Highlands and Islands - a Royal Tour, a documentary about Prince Charles's visit to the Highlands and Islands, directed by Oscar Marzaroli, was shot partly on Skye.[129]

text: The West Highland Free Press is published at Broadford. This weekly newspaper takes as its motto An Tìr, an Cànan 's na Daoine ("The Land, the Language and the People"), which reflects its radical, campaigning priorities. The Free Press was founded in 1972 and circulates in Skye, Wester Ross and the Outer Hebrides.[130] Shinty is a popular sport played throughout the island and Portree-based Skye Camanachd won the Camanachd Cup in 1990.[131]

text: Wildlife[edit]

text: The Hebrides generally lack the biodiversity of mainland Britain,[132] but like most of the larger islands, Skye still has a wide variety of species. Observing the abundance of game birds Martin wrote:

text: There is plenty of land and water fowl in this isle—as hawks, eagles of two kinds (the one grey and of a larger size, the other much less and black, but more destructive to young cattle), black cock, heath-hen, plovers, pigeons, wild geese, ptarmigan, and cranes. Of this latter sort I have seen sixty on the shore in a flock together. The sea fowls are malls of all kinds—coulterneb, guillemot, sea cormorant, &c. The natives observe that the latter, if perfectly black, makes no good broth, nor is its flesh worth eating; but that a cormorant, which hath any white feathers or down, makes good broth, and the flesh of it is good food; and the broth is usually drunk by nurses to increase their milk.

text: Similarly, Samuel Johnson noted that:

text: At the tables where a stranger is received, neither plenty nor delicacy is wanting. A tract of land so thinly inhabited, must have much wild-fowl; and I scarcely remember to have seen a dinner without them. The moor-game is every where to be had. That the sea abounds with fish, needs not be told, for it supplies a great part of Europe. The Isle of Sky has stags and roebucks, but no hares. They sell very numerous droves of oxen yearly to England, and therefore cannot be supposed to want beef at home. Sheep and goats are in great numbers, and they have the common domestic fowls."

text: In the modern era avian life includes the corncrake, red-throated diver, kittiwake, tystie, Atlantic puffin, goldeneye and golden eagle. The eggs of the last breeding pair of white-tailed sea eagle in the UK were taken by an egg collector on Skye in 1916 but the species has recently been re-introduced.[134] The chough last bred on the island in 1900.[135][136] Mountain hare (apparently absent in the 18th century) and rabbit are now abundant and preyed upon by wild cat and pine marten.[137] The rich fresh water streams contain brown trout, Atlantic salmon and water shrew.[138][139] Offshore the edible crab and edible oyster are also found, the latter especially in the Sound of Scalpay.[140][141] There are nationally important horse mussel and brittlestar beds in the sea lochs[142] and in 2012 a bed of 100 million flame shells was found during a survey of Loch Alsh.[143] Grey Seals can be seen off the Southern coast.

text: Heather moor containing ling, bell heather, cross-leaved heath, bog myrtle and fescues is everywhere abundant. The high Black Cuillins weather too slowly to produce a soil that sustains a rich plant life, but each of the main peninsulas has an individual flora. The basalt underpinnings of Trotternish produce a diversity of Arctic and alpine plants including alpine pearlwort and mossy cyphal. The low-lying fields of Waternish contain corn marigold and corn spurry. The sea cliffs of Duirinish boast mountain avens and fir clubmoss. Minginish produces fairy flax, cats-ear and black bog rush.[144] There is a fine example of Brachypodium-rich ash woodland at Tokavaig in Sleat incorporating silver birch, hazel, bird cherry, and hawthorn.[145]

text: The local Biodiversity Action Plan recommends land management measures to control the spread of ragwort and bracken and identifies four non-native, invasive species as threatening native biodiversity: Japanese knotweed, rhododendron, New Zealand flatworm and mink. It also identifies problems of over-grazing resulting in the impoverishment of moorland and upland habitats and a loss of native woodland, caused by the large numbers of red deer and sheep.[146]