document_title: Wildlife of Karnataka

question_text: how many national parks are there in karnataka

text: Wildlife of Karnataka

text: National parks in Karnataka[edit]

text: Karnataka has five national parks.

text: Anshi National Park[edit]

text: This park is present in the Uttara Kannada district and spreads over an area of 250 km2. The altitude varies from 27 metres (89 ft)  to 937 metres (3,074 ft), and temperatures from 15.5 °C to 45 °C. Average annual rainfall is about 4,700 millimetres (185 in)  .

text:
Flora:[5] The area has semi-evergreen and evergreen forests. Some common tree species in the area are Calophylluum tomentosa, Calophyllum wightianum, Garcina cambogia, Garcina morealla, Knema attenuata, Hopea wightiana, Tetrameles nudiflora, Alstonia scholaris, Flacourtia montana, Machilis macarantha, Carallia brachiata, Artocarpus hirsutus, Artocarpus lacoocha and Cinnamomum zeylanicum.
Fauna:[5] Mammals in the park include Indian elephant, gaur, wild boar, sambar, chevrotain, muntjac, chital, gray langur, bonnet macaque, slender loris, Bengal tiger, jungle cat, Indian leopard, leopard cat, small Indian civet, common mongoose, golden jackal, dhol, sloth bear, Malabar giant squirrel, grizzled giant squirrel, Indian giant flying squirrel, and Indian crested porcupine. King cobra, python, cobra, rat snake, viper and krait are among the snakes that inhabit the park. Interesting birds include the great hornbill, Malabar pied hornbill and Ceylon frogmouth.

text: Bandipur National Park[edit]

text: It is situated within Chamarajanagar district covering an area of over 800 km2 and adjoins the states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala. In 1973, Bandipur became one of the first of India's tiger reserves and became a part of Project Tiger. In 1974, intention was declared under the Wildlife Protection Act to notify it as a national park.

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Flora:[5] The scrub jungles towards the eastern limits of the park consist of stunted trees, interspersed with bushes and open grassy patches. Towards its north-western fringes, there is a gradual shift in the vegetation from open dry deciduous forests to tropical mixed deciduous forests. These diverse habitats support an enormous diversity of animal life.
Fauna:[5] The mammals found here are Indian elephant (Elephas maximus indicus), gaur (Bos gaurus), sambar (Cervus unicolor), chital or spotted deer (Axis axis), muntjac (Muntiacus muntjak) or barking deer, mouse deer (Moschiola indica), bonnet macaque (Macaca radiata), slender loris (Loris tardigradus), red giant flying squirrel (Petaurista petaurista), Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris), Indian leopard (Panthera pardus), common palm civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus), small Indian civet (Viverricula indica), sloth bear (Melursus ursinus), dhole or Asiatic wild dog (Cuon alpinus), striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena), golden jackal (Canis aureus), ruddy mongoose (Herpestes smithii), smooth-coated otter (Lutrogale perspicillata), Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata). Among the 230 species[6] of birds identified here, some of the important groups include herons, storks, egrets, ducks, kites, eagles, falcons, quails, partridges, wildfowl, lapwings, sandpipers, pigeons, doves, parakeets, cuckoos, owls, nightjars, swifts, kingfishers, bee-eaters and munias. Reptiles like marsh crocodile (Crocodylus palustris), Indian pond terrapin, starred tortoise (Geochelone elegans), common Indian monitor (Varanus bengalensis), Indian chameleon (Chamaeleo zeylanicus), skinks (Mabuya spp.), geckos (Hemidactylus), common rat snake (Ptyas mucosus), Indian cobra (Naja naja), Russell's viper (Daboia russelli), common krait (Bungarus caeruleus), Indian python (Python molurus), checkered keelback, green whip snake, common Indian bronzeback (Dendrelaphis tristis) and trinket snake (Elaphe helena) are found here

text: Bannerghatta National Park[edit]

text: It is located in Bengaluru district and covers over 260.51 km2 of area. Altitude varies from 740 metres (2,428 ft) to 1,034 metres (3,392 ft), temperature from 20° to 35 °C and the average annual rainfall is 700 millimetres (28 in).

text:
Flora:[5] The area has dry deciduous forests and thorny scrub, with patches of moist deciduous forests along the streams. Tree species in the park include Anogeissus latifolia, Schleichera oleosae, Terminalia tomentosa, Terminalia arjuna, Grewia tilaefolia, Santalum album, Shorea talura, Emblica officinalis, Vitex altissima, Wrightia tinctoria, Randia sp., Ziziphus sp. and Albizzia sp.. Bamboos are common in the park, the dominant species being Dendrocalamus strictus. A small area of the park has plantations of Eucalyptus, Bauhinia purpurea, Samanea saman and Peltophorum pterocarpum.
Fauna:[5] Mammals in the park include Indian leopard, gaur, Indian elephant, golden jackal, fox, wild boar, sloth bear, sambar, spotted deer, barking deer, common langur, bonnet macaque, Indian crested porcupine and hare. A Bengal tiger has recently been sighted in the park.

text: Kudremukh National Park[edit]

text: Spread over an area of 600.32 km2, it encompasses regions in the districts of Dakshina Kannada, Udupi and Chikmagalur. Altitude varies from 134 metres (440 ft) to 1,892 metres (6,207 ft). The park has a pleasant climate, with temperatures ranging from 17° to 28 °C. Annual rainfall varies from 1,778 millimetres (70 in) to 6,350 millimetres (250 in), with an average of 4,000 millimetres (157 in). The rivers Nethravati, Tunga and Bhadra are believed to originate here at Ganga Moola.

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Flora:[5] The park has mostly evergreen and semi-evergreen forests. Shola grassland habitat is found at elevations above 1,400 metres (4,593 ft). Evergreen trees include Poeciloneuron indicum, Holigarna arnottiana, Artocarpus sp., Calophyllum sp., Alstonia scholaris, Canarium strictum, Syzygium cumini, Flacourtia montana, Symplocos spicata, Hopea parviflora, Mesua ferrea and Evodiaroxburghiana. There are also a few plantations of Eucalyptus, Casuarina and Acacia auriculiformis.
Fauna:[5] Mammals in the park include Bengal tiger, Indian leopard, dhole, golden jackal, lion-tailed macaque, common langur, sloth bear, gaur, sambar, spotted deer, barking deer, Malabar giant squirrel, Indian giant flying squirrel, Indian crested porcupine and mongoose. Reptiles are represented by snakes and tortoises. Bird species in the park include the Malabar trogon, great hornbill, Malabar whistling thrush and imperial pigeon.

text: Nagarahole National Park[edit]

text: Also known as Rajiv Gandhi (Nagarahole) National Park gets its name from the Nagara Hole (Snake River in Kannada) which runs eastwards through its centre. Nagarahole river flows through the park before it joins the Kabini river that also acts as a boundary between Nagarahole and Bandipur. The park covers an area of about 575 km2. The Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary of Kerala adjoins to the Southeast.

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Flora:[5] These forests are dominated by teak and rosewood. The eastern limits of the park consist of regenerating dry deciduous forests. The west region of the park contains tropical moist and semi-evergreen forests. Interspersed with these forests are swampy fallows called hadlus, which are dominated by grasses and are favoured grazing areas of many wild herbivores.
Fauna:[5] Some of the species of mammals found in this park are Indian elephant (Elephas maximus indicus), gaur (Bos gaurus), sambar (Cervus unicolor), chital or spotted deer or axis deer (Axis axis), muntjac or barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak), chevrotain or mouse deer (Moschiola indica), four horned antelope (Tetracerus quadricornis), giant fruit bat (Pteropus giganteus), Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris), Indian leopard (Panthera pardus), leopard cat (Felis bengalensis), jungle cat (Felis chaus), rusty spotted cat (Felis rubiginosa), common palm civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus), small Indian civet (Viverricula indica), sloth bear (Melursus ursinus), dhole or Asiatic wild dog (Cuon alpinus) and flying fox (Pteropus giganteus), the largest Indian bat. Among the 300 species[7] of birds identified in this park include herons, storks, egrets, ducks, kites, eagles, falcons, partridges, quails, peafowl, owls, lapwings, sandpipers, pigeons, doves, parakeets, cuckoos, nightjars, swifts, kingfishers, bee-eaters, barbets, swallows, larks, woodpeckers, shrikes and orioles. Reptiles include marsh crocodile (Crocodylus palustris), Indian pond terrapin, star tortoise, common Indian monitor lizard (Varanus bengalensis), forest calotes, southern green calotes, skinks (Mabuya spp.), geckos, spectacled cobra, Russell's viper, common krait, Indian python (Python molurus), checkered keelback, green whip snake, common Indian bronzeback, flying snake, wolf snake and trinket snake.

text: Wildlife sanctuaries[edit]

text: Karnataka also has the following 18 wildlife sanctuaries:

text:
Adichunchanagiri Wildlife Sanctuary:[8] This is located in Mandya district and is spread over 0.88 square kilometres (0.34 sq mi). This was created mainly for the conservation of peacocks. It also houses nearly 250 species of birds.[9]
Arabithittu Wildlife Sanctuary:[10] This is located in Mysore district and is spread over 13.5 square kilometres (5.2 sq mi). This park consists of eucalyptus and sandalwood plantations. Leopard, fox and spotted deer are some of the animal species found here. Also around 230 species[11] of birds have been observed here over the years.
Biligiriranga Swamy Temple Wildlife Sanctuary: This is located in the Chamarajanagar district and is spread over 539.58 square kilometres (208.33 sq mi). Some of the species of flora found here are Anogeissus latifolia, Grewia tilaefolia and Syzygium cumini. Species of mammals include elephants, tigers, leopards, sloth bear, gaur, barking deer and sambar. Among the 215 species of birds found here include Nilgiri wood pigeon, Malabar whistling thrush, yellow-throated bulbul, peregrine falcon, rufous-bellied hawk-eagle. An endangered amphibian, Icthyophis ghytinosus has been reported in this sanctuary.
Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary: This is located between the Chikkamagaluru and Shimoga districts and is spread over 492.46 square kilometres (190.14 sq mi). Common species of flora include Lagerstromia lanceolata, Adina cordifolia and Careya arborea.  Mammals include tiger, leopard, elephant, gaur, slender loris and pangolin.  Among the bird species found here are ruby-throated bulbul, shama, Malabar whistling thrush and paradise flycatcher.
Brahmagiri Wildlife Sanctuary: This is located in Kodagu district and is spread over an area of 181.80 square kilometres (70.19 sq mi).  The evergreen forests in this sanctuary include species like Cinnamomum zeylancium, Cedrela toona and Alstonia scholaris.  Bamboos are dominant here and include species like Bambusa bambos and Dendrocalamus strictus.  Mammals include elephant, gaur, tiger, jungle cat, bonnet macaque and Nilgiri marten.[5] Also around 300 species[7] of birds have been observed here over the years.
Cauvery Wildlife Sanctuary: It is spread across the districts of Bangalore, Mysore and Mandya and is spread over 102.59 square kilometres (39.61 sq mi).  Dry deciduous trees found in this park include species like Terminalia arjuna and Syzgium cumini.  Animal species found in this park include leopard, elephant, sambar and common otter.  This is also one of the last refuge of the highly endangered grizzled giant squirrel in Karnataka. Also around 300 species[7] of birds have been observed here over the years.  This sanctuary is also famous for mahseer fish (Tor species).
Dandeli Wildlife Sanctuary: This is located in Uttara Kannada district and is spread over 475.02 square kilometres (183.41 sq mi).  Common tree species found here are Dalbergia latifolia, Terminalia paniculata, T. Tomentosa and Vitex altissima.  Mammal species include elephant, gaur, wild boar, slender loris, Malabar giant squirrel and barking deer.
Daroji Sloth Bear Sanctuary: This is located in Bellary district and is spread over 55.87 square kilometres (21.57 sq mi). This sanctuary was mainly created for the conservation of sloth bears.
Malai Mahadeshwara Wildlife Sanctuary: Spread over 906 square kilometers (349.8 sq mi), MM Hills wildlife sanctuary came to being on 7th May 2013. Contiguous with BRT Tiger Reserve and Cauvery Wildlife Sanctuary, the sanctuary boasts of tiger, elephant, leopard, dhole, sambar, barking deer and others. The sanctuary is located in Chamarajanagar district, Kollegala taluk.
Melukote Temple Wildlife Sanctuary:[12] This is located in Mandya district and is spread over 45.82 square kilometres (17.69 sq mi). An endangered species of flora, Cycas circinalis is found here. Mammal species include wolf, leopard, blackbuck and pangolin. Also around 230 species[13] of birds have been observed here over the years.
Mookambika Wildlife Sanctuary: This is located in Udupi district and is spread over 247 square kilometres (95 sq mi). Some of the tree species found here are Dipterocarpus indicus, Calophyllum tomentosum and Hopea parviflora. An endangered species of climber Coscinium fenestratum has been recorded here. Slender loris, lion-tailed macaque, sambar and chital are some of the animals found here. The endangered cane turtle is also found here.
Nugu Wildlife Sanctuary: This is located in Mysore district and is spread over 30.32 square kilometres (11.71 sq mi). Common species of flora include Emblica officinalis, Santalum album and Dendrocalamus strictus. Mammals include elephant, gaur, leopard, spotted deer and common palm civet.
Pushpagiri Wildlife Sanctuary: This is located in Kodagu district and is spread over 102.59 square kilometres (39.61 sq mi). Some species of flora found here are Hopea parviflora, Schefflera capitata, Xanthalis tomentosa and Ochlandra rheedii. Mammals include elephant, tiger, slender loris, Nilgiri marten and bonnet macaque. Also around 230 species[7] of birds have been observed here over the years. Bird species include great pied hornbill, Malabar trogon and Nilgiri blackbird.
Ranibennur Blackbuck Sanctuary: This is located in Haveri district and is spread over 119.00 square kilometres (45.95 sq mi). Eucalyptus is the dominant species of trees found here. Cassia fistula, Prosopsis julifora and Zizyphus mauritania are other tree species found here. This sanctuary was created mainly for the conservation of blackbucks. This sanctuary is also a habitat for the endangered great Indian bustard.
Sharavathi Valley Wildlife Sanctuary: This is located in Shimoga district and is spread over 431.23 square kilometres (166.50 sq mi). Dipterocarpus indicus, Caryota urens and Dillenia pentagyna are some of the species of flora found here. Tiger, leopard, mouse deer, bonnet macaque and common langur are some of the animal species found here. Snakes are commonly found here. Paradise flycatcher, racket-tailed drongo and blue-throated barbet are some of the bird species found here.
Shettihalli Wildlife Sanctuary: This is located in Shimoga district and is spread over 395.60 square kilometres (152.74 sq mi). Cassia fistula, Kydia calycina and Wrightia tinctoria are some of the species of flora found here. Tiger, leopard, bonnet macaque and Malabar giant squirrel are some of the animal species found here.
Someshwara Wildlife Sanctuary: This is located in Udupi district and is spread over 88.40 square kilometres (34.13 sq mi). Machilus macrantha, Lophopetalum wightanium and Artocarpus hirsuta are some of the species of flora found here. Tiger, leopard, lion-tailed macaque and spotted deer are some of the animal species found here.
Talakaveri Wildlife Sanctuary: This is located in Kodagu district and is spread over 105.00 square kilometres (40.54 sq mi). Albizzia lebbek, Artocarpus lakoocha, Dysoxylum malabaricum and Mesua ferrea are some of the species of flora found here. Clawless otter, elephant, tiger, striped-necked mongoose and mouse deer are some of the animal species found here. Also around 300 species[7] of birds have been observed here over the years. Fairy bluebird, Malabar trogon and broadbill roller are some of the avian species found.

text: Bird sanctuaries[edit]

text:
Attiveri Bird Sanctuary: This is located in Uttara Kannada district and is spread over 2.23 km2. white ibis, little cormorant, pied kingfisher, common grey hornbill are some of the bird species found here.
Gudavi Bird Sanctuary: This is located in Shimoga district and is spread over 0.73 km2. The tree species that dominate this sanctuary are Vitex leucoxylon and Phyllanthus polyphyllus. 191 species of birds are recorded here including white ibis, pheasant-tailed jacana, purple moorhen and little grebe.
Ranganathittu Bird Sanctuary:[14] This is located in Mandya district and is spread over 0.67 km2. Among the tree species found here, is the unique Iphigenia mysorensis. Other tree species include Derris indica and Barringtonia racemosa. This sanctuary houses nearly 170 birds.[14] Birds like cormorants, darter, white ibis, great stone plover, cliff swallow, spoonbills, lesser whistling teal roost here all through the year.
Mandagadde Bird Sanctuary: It is located near the little village Mandagadde which is 30 km from the Shimoga town and is based on a small island on the Tunga River. It is mainly visited by migratory birds like median egret (Egretta intermedia), the little cormorant (Microcarbo niger), and the darter or snake bird (Aninga nufa).[15]
Kaggaladu Heronry: This is located in Tumkur district and is one of the largest painted stork sanctuaries in South India. Some of the birds that nest here are painted storks, grey herons, pelicans, black stilts and ducks.
Kokrebellur Pelicanry:[16] This is located in the town of Kokkare Bellur in Mandya district and is a haven for avian species like grey or spot-billed pelican (Pelecanus philippensis) and painted stork (Mycteria leucocephala). In fact the word Kokkare means stork in the Kannada language. Apart from pelicans and storks, 250 species of birds have been sighted here.[17][18]
Magadi Bird Sanctuary: Magadi Bird Sanctuary created at the Magadi tank, in Magadi village of Shirahatti Taluk, Gadag district. It is one of the Biodiversity hotspots of Karnataka, in North Karnataka. From Gadag it is 26 km, it is located on Gadag-Bangalore Road, from Shirahatti it is 8 km, and from Lakshmeshwara 11 km. Bar-headed goose is one of the bird migrates to Magadi wetlands of Gadag district. Normally birds eat fish, amphibians, molluscs, snakes etc., but migratory birds eating agricultural produce is both interesting and curious too. Winter habitat is on cultivation, it feeds on barley, rice and wheat and damage crops.
Bankapura Peacock Sanctuary: This is located in Haveri district and spread over an area of 139.10 acres (0.5629 km2). This sanctuary was created mainly for the conservation of peacocks.
Bonal Bird Sanctuary : This is located about 10 km from Shorapur city in Yadgir district.
Ramadevarabetta Vulture Sanctuary: This is located in Ramanagara and is home of the critically endangered Long-billed vulture (Gyps indicus).
Ghataprabha Bird Sanctuary: This is located in Belgaum district and is spread over 20.78 square kilometres (8.02 sq mi). This sanctuary is known for migratory birds like Demoiselle crane and European white stork.

text: Dangers to flora and fauna[edit]

text: Due to various issues, flora and fauna in some parts of Karnataka are being threatened. These issues include poaching, human–wildlife conflict, habitat destruction, pollution and introduction of invasive new species.

text: Poaching[edit]

text: Despite the best efforts of conservation activists, poaching remains one of the serious problems affecting the flora and fauna in the state. Between the years 1997-2001, a total of 98 elephants have succumbed to poaching in Karnataka.[19] Poaching has also affected the breeding of turtles like olive ridley on the beaches of Karnataka as well as otters on the river banks. Tigers are also another species that are threatened to extinction by poachers.[20] Sandalwood, famed for its sculptures and its aroma is frequently poached out of the forests of Karnataka. Teakwood, famed for the furniture is another species of flora affected by this problem. Staff-shortage, lack of adequate funds and unscientific anti-poaching camps are some of the reasons quoted for continued poaching activities.[20]

text: Habitat destruction[edit]

text: Some of the activities that are causing a destruction of habitat of flora and fauna in Karnataka are:

text:
Construction of dams and reservoirs: Construction of dams causes widespread flooding of surrounding areas causing destruction of species that inhabit the area. They also affect the flow of riverine species like fishes and disrupt their normal habits. An example is the construction of the Linganamakki reservoir in Shimoga district that caused the extinction of the grass, Hubbardia heptaneuron.[19]
Destruction of forest land for agriculture and other purposes: large tracts of forest land have been cleaned up for monoculture plantations like teak, coffee and rubber. This has led to the destruction of species that were dependent on the forest. An example of this is loss of special habitats in Karnataka such as Myristica swamps and high altitude grasslands. In the dry zone, they have adversely affected several species dependent on large tracts of scrub such as the wolf and the great Indian bustard.
Mining operations: Mining operations clear out large areas of land and cause destruction to the species dependent on them. An example is the Kudremukh Iron Ore Company Limited which mined iron ore within the boundaries of the protected Kudremukh National Park.[21]

text: Human–wildlife conflict[edit]

text: Due to the loss of habitat, more and more species of fauna have started to venture into human habitation causing a conflict between humans and fauna. A typical species affected by this is the elephant which ventures out of the forest into human cultivations thereby eating or destroying the crops. In some cases, the elephants have also caused human deaths like an incident that happened in Hassan district where a villager was trampled to death.[22] Precautionary measures (sometimes illegally) taken up by humans to prevent such mishaps like electric fencing have also led to disastrous consequences like electrocution of fauna.[23]

text: Pollution[edit]

text: Release of industrial waste and human effluents into rivers have caused significant damages to species that reside in rivers and riverbanks. Air pollution is also a significant cause of concern in metros like Bangalore where it has been found that air pollution is discolouring foliage including those of ornamental plants.[24] A comparison of the lichen flora of the garden Lal Bagh in Bangalore has revealed that 18 of the 22 species noted in 1980 were no longer present in 1997.[19] Pollution in rivers like Kabini, Kaveri and Ghataprabha has caused sharp reduction in populations of bird species, including beneficial insectivorous birds like drongos, as well as honeybees.[19]

text: Invasive new species[edit]

text: Introduction of new species into a habitat has caused serious consequences to the existing species of flora and fauna. A typical example is the introduction of the African catfish (Clarias gariepinus) in the lakes and rivers of Karnataka. This is a carnivorous fish and has caused serious damage to the indigenous fauna living in those lakes and rivers.[19] Weeds like Eupatorium, Lantana and Parthenium have invaded large tracts of land causing destruction. An increase in Eupatorium is attributed as one of the causes for the spread of the deadly Kyasanur forest disease (which has a morbidity rate of 10%) among humans since it harbors tick populations that are vectors for this disease.[19] Eucalyptus plantations in the Ranibennur blackbuck sanctuary has seriously harmed the extremely rare great Indian bustard.[19]

text: Conservation efforts[edit]

text: Various conservation activities are in progress to protect the biodiversity present in Karnataka. These activities are mostly done by the Forest Department of the State of Karnataka and other voluntary organisations.

text: Relocation of human population[edit]

text: The presence of human habitation within the core area of reserved forests poses many problems like human–wildlife conflict and destruction of habitat due to agriculture and cattle grazing. Systematic efforts have been made to relocate some of this population into proper zones outside the protected area. An example is the relocation of some villagers from Bhagawathi and Nassehalla habitations within the Kudremukh National Park to safer regions outside it.[25]

text: Usage of technology[edit]

text: New scientific methods are being used to protect the flora and fauna. Some of these are:

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Usage of satellites to detect forest fires so that they can easily be extinguished.[26]
Radio tracking of animals and usage of techniques like remote camera sampling to estimate the animal population.[27]
Installation of wireless stations and using wireless sets for easy communication among individuals involved in field trips and anti-poaching activities.[27]

text: Staff empowerment[edit]

text: It is highly important to keep up the morale of forest wardens and other staff members involved in anti-poaching activities and field trips. It is also necessary to keep them up-to-date on the technology and wildlife related laws. The following steps were implemented to address this issue:[27]

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Field kits were provided to the staff consisting of boots, rain gear and uniforms.
Conservation related award programs were announced to boost the morale of the staff.
Training programs were undertaken for the staff in the use of firearms against poachers, field craft and Indian wildlife laws

text: Recently discovered species[edit]

text: Many areas of Karnataka, especially in the forests of Malnad region are unexplored and new species of flora and fauna are discovered periodically. Some of the new species of flora discovered in Karnataka include Paracautleya bhatii (a ginger) and Isachne veldkampii (a grass), both of which were discovered near Manipal in Udupi district.[28] Two species of algae, Cosmarium bourrellyi and Cosmarium desikacharyi were discovered in a paddy field in Belgaum.[29] Other new species of flora discovered in Karnataka include Isoetes udupiensis[28] (a pteridophyte) and Pisolithus indicus (a fungus).[30]

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Some of the new species of fauna discovered include two species of ants, Dilobocondyla bangalorica which was discovered on the campus of Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore[31] and Discothyrea sringerensis which was discovered near Sringeri.[32] Three new species of frogs; Philautus luteolus, Philautus tuberohumerus[33] and Nyctibatrachus petraeus[34] have been discovered in Karnataka. Explorations in the Sharavathi river have yielded new fish species like Batasio sharavatiensis[35] (a bagrid catfish), Schistura nagodiensis[36] and Schistura sharavathiensis. Another fish species, Puntius coorgensis[37]
has been discovered near Bhagamandala in the Kaveri river. Some other species of fauna discovered in Karnataka include two species of whiteflies, Distinctaleyrodes setosus[38] and Aleurocanthus arecae[39]
and a caecilian, Gegeneophis madhavai.[40] Explorations in the soil around the Linganamakki reservoir has revealed eleven new species of earthworms.[41]

text: Endangered species[edit]

text: Karnataka is the home of few critically endangered species of flora that include evergreen trees like Dipterocarpus bourdilloni, Hopea erosa and Hopea jacobi, Croton lawianus (a small tree) and Pinnatella limbata (a type of moss).  Some of the critically endangered species of fauna found in Karnataka include Gyps indicus (the Indian vulture) and two species of frogs, Indirana gundia (found only in Gundia range, Sakleshpur) and Micrixalus kottigeharensis (found only near Kottigehara, Chikkamagaluru district).

text:
Some of the endangered species of flora include evergreen trees like Cynometra bourdillonii, Cynometra travancorica, Hopea glabra, Hopea parviflora, Hopea ponga, Hopea racophloea, Hopea wightiana, Shorea roxburghii and Tarenna agumbensis and flowering plants like Glochidion pauciflorum, Glochidion tomentosum, Ixora lawsoni and Syzygium stocksii. Other endangered trees found in Karnataka include Isonandra stocksii, Kingiodendron pinnatum, Maesa velutina, Myristica magnifica, Rapanea striata and
Xylosma latifolium.

text: Endangered species of fauna found in Karnataka include the Bengal tiger, Indian elephant, lion-tailed macaque, olive ridley turtle and dhole, the Indian wild dog. Many endangered species of amphibians are found here including frogs, Indirana brachytarsus, Microhyla sholigari, Minervarya sahyadris, Nyctibatrachus aliciae, Nyctibatrachus hussaini, Nyctibatrachus sanctipalustris, Philautus charius, Philautus wynaadensis, Ramanella mormorata and Rhacophorus lateralis and a toad, Bufo beddomii. Other endangered species of fauna include Hipposideros hypophyllus (the Kolar leaf-nosed bat) and Pseudomulleria dalyi (a mollusc).


document_title: The French Connection (film)

question_text: where was the french connection car chase filmed

root

text: The French Connection (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: In Marseille, an undercover police detective is following Alain Charnier (Fernando Rey), a wealthy French criminal who runs the largest heroin-smuggling syndicate in the world. The policeman is assassinated by Charnier's hitman, Pierre Nicoli (Marcel Bozzuffi). Charnier plans to smuggle $32 million worth of heroin into the United States by hiding it in the car of his unsuspecting friend, French television personality Henri Devereaux (Frédéric de Pasquale).

tag: p

text: In New York City, detectives Jimmy "Popeye" Doyle (Gene Hackman) and Buddy "Cloudy" Russo (Roy Scheider) are conducting an undercover stakeout in Brooklyn. After seeing a drug transaction take place in a bar, Cloudy goes in to make an arrest, but the suspect makes a break for it, cutting Cloudy on the arm with a knife. After catching up with their suspect and severely beating him, the detectives interrogate the man, who reveals his drug connection.

text: Later, Popeye and Cloudy go out for drinks at the Copacabana, where Popeye notices Salvatore "Sal" Boca (Tony Lo Bianco) and his young wife Angie (Arlene Farber) entertaining mob members involved in narcotics. They decide to tail the couple, and soon learn that the Bocas, who run a modest newsstand luncheonette, have criminal records: Sal for armed robbery and murder, and Angie for shoplifting. The detectives suspect that the Bocas, who frequent several nightclubs and drive expensive cars, are involved in some kind of criminal operation. They soon establish a link between the Bocas and lawyer Joel Weinstock (Harold Gary), who is part of the narcotics underworld.

text: Soon after, Popeye learns from an informant that a major shipment of heroin will arrive in the New York area. The detectives convince their supervisor, Walt Simonson (Eddie Egan), to wiretap the Bocas' phones, and they use several ruses to obtain additional information. Popeye and Cloudy are joined in the investigation by a federal agent named Mulderig (Bill Hickman). Popeye and Mulderig dislike each other based on having worked together in the past, with Mulderig holding Popeye responsible for the death of a policeman.

text: After Devereaux's vehicle arrives in New York City, Weinstock's chemist (Pat McDermott) tests a sample of the heroin and declares it the purest he has ever seen, establishing that the shipment could make as much as $32 million on a half-million dollar investment. Boca is impatient to make the purchase—reflecting Charnier's desire to return to France as soon as possible—while Weinstock, with more experience in smuggling, urges patience, knowing Boca's phone is tapped and that they are being investigated.

text: Charnier soon realizes he has been observed since his arrival in New York. He "makes" Popeye and escapes, waving tauntingly on the departing subway shuttle. To avoid being tailed, he has Sal Boca instead meet him in Washington D.C., where Boca asks for a delay to avoid the police. Charnier, however, wants to conclude the deal quickly so he can return to France. On the flight back to New York, Nicoli offers to kill Popeye, but Charnier objects, knowing that Popeye would be replaced by another policeman. Nicoli insists, however, saying they will be back in France before a replacement is assigned.

text: Soon after, Nicoli attempts to shoot Popeye from the roof of Doyle's apartment complex but misses. Popeye chases after the fleeing sniper, who boards an elevated train at the Bay 50th Street Station in Gravesend. Doyle commandeers a car and gives chase along Stillwell Avenue. Realizing he is being pursued, Nicoli works his way forward through the carriages, shoots a policeman who tries to intervene and then hijacks the motorman at gunpoint forcing him to drive straight through the next station, also shooting the train conductor who gets too close. The motorman passes out and they are just about to slam into another, stationary, train, when an emergency trackside brake engages violently hurling the assassin against a glass window. Popeye arrives limping, having wrecked the commandeered car, and sees the killer descending from the platform. When the killer sees Popeye, he turns to run but is shot dead by Popeye with a single shot.

text: After a lengthy stakeout, Popeye impounds Devereaux's Lincoln. In a police garage, he and his team take it apart piece by piece, searching for the drugs, but seemingly come up empty-handed. Then Cloudy notes that the vehicle's shipping weight is 120 pounds over its listed manufacturer's weight; they realize the contraband must still be in the car. This time they remove the rocker panels and discover the obloid packages of heroin concealed therein. The police then restore the car to its original condition and return it to Devereaux, who delivers the Lincoln to Charnier.

text: Charnier drives to an old factory on Wards Island to meet Weinstock and about a dozen others, and deliver the drugs. After Charnier has the rocker panels removed, Weinstock's chemist tests one of the bags and confirms its quality. Charnier removes the bags of drugs and hides the money, concealing it beneath the rocker panels of another car that was purchased at an auction of junk cars, which he will then take back to France. With their transaction complete, Charnier and Sal drive off in the Lincoln, but almost immediately hit a roadblock with a large contingent of police led by Popeye Doyle, who playfully waves to Charnier. The police chase the Lincoln back to the factory, where Sal is killed with two shotgun blasts during a shootout with the police and most of the other criminals surrender.

text: Charnier, however, escapes into the old warehouse and Popeye follows after him, with Cloudy joining in the hunt. When Popeye sees a shadowy figure in the distance, he empties his revolver a split-second after shouting a warning. The man whom Popeye kills, however, is not Charnier but Mulderig. Undaunted, Popeye tells Cloudy that he will get Charnier. After reloading his gun, Popeye runs into another room, and a few seconds later, a single gunshot is heard.

text: Title cards before the closing credits note that Joel Weinstock was indicted but had his case dismissed for "lack of proper evidence"; Angie Boca received a suspended sentence for an unspecified misdemeanor; Lou Boca received a reduced sentence; Devereaux served four years in a federal penitentiary for conspiracy; and Charnier was never caught. Popeye and Cloudy were transferred out of the narcotics division and reassigned.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Gene Hackman as Det. Jimmy "Popeye" Doyle
Fernando Rey as Alain "Frog One" Charnier
Roy Scheider as Det. Buddy "Cloudy" Russo
Tony Lo Bianco as Salvatore "Sal" Boca
Marcel Bozzuffi as Pierre Nicoli, Hit Man
Frédéric de Pasquale as Henri Devereaux
Bill Hickman as Bill Mulderig
Ann Rebbot as Mrs. Marie Charnier
Harold Gary as Joel Weinstock
Arlene Farber as Angie Boca
Eddie Egan as Walt Simonson
André Ernotte as La Valle
Sonny Grosso as Clyde Klein

tag: ul

text: Production[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: In an audio commentary track recorded by Friedkin for the Collector's Edition DVD release of the film, Friedkin notes that the film's documentary-like realism was the direct result of the influence of having seen Z, a French film. The film was among the earliest to show the World Trade Center: the completed North Tower and the partially completed South Tower are seen in the background of the scenes at the shipyard following Devereaux's arrival in New York.

text: Friedkin credits his decision to direct the movie to a discussion with film director Howard Hawks, whose daughter was living with Friedkin at the time. Friedkin asked Hawks what he thought of his movies, to which Hawks bluntly replied that they were "lousy." Instead Hawks recommended that he "Make a good chase. Make one better than anyone's done."[3]

text: Casting[edit]

text: Though the cast ultimately proved to be one of the film's greatest strengths, Friedkin had problems with casting choices from the start. He was strongly opposed to the choice of Hackman for the lead, and actually first considered Paul Newman (out of the budget range), then Jackie Gleason, Peter Boyle and a New York columnist, Jimmy Breslin, who had never acted before.[Note 2] However, Gleason, at that time, was considered box-office poison by the studio after his film Gigot had flopped several years before, Boyle declined the role after disapproving of the violent theme of the film, and Breslin refused to get behind the wheel of a car, which was required of Popeye's character for an integral car chase scene. Steve McQueen was also considered, but he did not want to do another police film after Bullitt and, as with Newman, his fee would have exceeded the movie's budget. Tough guy Charles Bronson was also considered for the role. Friedkin almost settled for Rod Taylor (who had actively pursued the role, according to Hackman), another choice the studio approved, before he went with Hackman.

text: The casting of Fernando Rey as the main French heroin smuggler, Alain Charnier (irreverently referred to throughout the film as "Frog One"), resulted from mistaken identity. Friedkin had seen Luis Buñuel's 1967 French film Belle de Jour and had been impressed by the performance of Francisco Rabal, who had a small role in the film. However, Friedkin did not know his name, and remembered only that he was a Spanish actor. He asked his casting director to find the actor, and the casting director instead contacted Rey, a Spanish actor who had appeared in several other films directed by Buñuel. After Rabal was finally reached, they discovered he spoke neither French nor English, and Rey was kept in the film.[Note 2] Ironically, after screening the film's final cut, Rey's French was deemed unacceptable by the filmmakers. They decided to dub his French while preserving his English dialogue.

text: Comparison to actual people[edit]

text: The plot centers on drug smuggling in the 1960s and early '70s, when most of the heroin illegally imported into the East Coast came to the United States through France (see French Connection). In addition to the two main protagonists, several of the fictional characters depicted in the film also have real-life counterparts. The Alain Charnier character is based upon Jean Jehan who was arrested later in Paris for drug trafficking, though he was not extradited since France does not extradite its citizens.[4] Sal Boca is based on Pasquale "Patsy" Fuca, and his brother Anthony. Angie Boca is based on Patsy's wife Barbara, who later wrote a book with Robin Moore detailing her life with Patsy. The Fucas and their uncle were part of a heroin dealing crew that worked with some of the New York City crime families.[5] Henri Devereaux, who takes the fall for importing the Lincoln to New York City, is based on Jacques Angelvin, a television actor arrested and sentenced to three to six years in a federal penitentiary for his role, serving about four before returning to France and turning to real estate.[6] The Joel Weinstock character is, according to the director's commentary, a composite of several similar drug dealers.[7]

text: Car chase[edit]

text: The film is often cited as containing one of the greatest car chase sequences in movie history.[8] The chase involves Popeye commandeering a civilian's car (a 1971 Pontiac LeMans) and then frantically chasing an elevated train, on which a hitman is trying to escape. The scene was filmed in Bensonhurst, Brooklyn roughly running under the BMT West End Line (currently the D train, then the B train) which runs on an elevated track above Stillwell Avenue, 86th Street and New Utrecht Avenue in Brooklyn, with the chase ending just north of the 62nd Street station. At that point, the train hits a train stop, but is going too fast to stop in time and collides with the train ahead of it, which has just left the station.[Note 3]

text: The most famous shot of the chase is made from a front bumper mount and shows a low-angle point of view shot of the streets racing by. Director of photography Owen Roizman, wrote in American Cinematographer magazine in 1972 that the camera was undercranked to 18 frames per second to enhance the sense of speed. Roizman's contention is borne out when you see a car at a red light whose muffler is pumping smoke at an accelerated rate. Other shots involved stunt drivers who were supposed to barely miss hitting the speeding car, but due to errors in timing, accidental collisions occurred and were left in the final film.[9] Friedkin said that he used Santana's cover of Fleetwood Mac's song "Black Magic Woman" during editing to help shape the chase sequence; though the song does not appear in the film, "it [the chase scene] did have a sort of pre-ordained rhythm to it that came from the music."[10]

text: The scene concludes with Doyle confronting Nicoli the hitman at the stairs leading to the subway and shooting him as he tries to run back up them. Many of the police officers acting as advisers for the film objected to the scene on the grounds that shooting a suspect in the back was simply murder, not self-defense, but director Friedkin stood by it, stating that he was "secure in my conviction that that's exactly what Eddie Egan (the model for Doyle) would have done and Eddie was on the set while all of this was being shot."[11][12]

text: Filming locations[edit]

text: The French Connection was filmed in the following locations:[13][14][15][16]

text:
50th Street and First Avenue, New York City (where Doyle waits outside the restaurant)
82nd Street and Fifth Avenue (near the Metropolitan Museum of Art), New York City, (Weinstock's apartment)
86th Street, Brooklyn, New York City (the chase scene)
91 Wyckoff Avenue, Bushwick, Brooklyn (Sal and Angie's Cafe)
940 2nd Avenue, New York City (where Charnier and Nicoli buy fruit and Popeye is watching)
177 Mulberry Street near Broome street, Little Italy, New York City (where Sal makes a drop)
Avenue De L'Amiral Ganteaume, Cassis, Bouches-du-Rhône, France (Charnier's house)
Château d'If, Marseille, Bouches-du-Rhône, France (where Charnier and Nicoli meet Devereaux)
Chez Fon Fon, Rue Du Vallon Des Auffes, Marseille, Bouches-du-Rhône, France (where Charnier dines)
Columbia Heights, Brooklyn, New York City, New York, USA (where Sal parks the Lincoln)
Le Copain, 891 First Ave, New York City, New York, USA (where Charnier dines)
Doral Park Avenue Hotel (now 70 Park Avenue Hotel), 38th Street and Park Avenue, New York City, New York, USA (Devereaux's hotel)
Dover street near by the Brooklyn Bridge, New York City, New York, USA (where Sal leaves the Lincoln)
Forest Avenue, Ridgewood, Queens, New York City, New York, USA
Grand Central Station Shuttle, Manhattan, New York City, New York, USA
Henry Hudson Parkway Route 9A at Junction 24 (car accident)
Marlboro Housing Project, Avenues V, W, and X off Stillwell Avenue, Brooklyn, New York, USA (where Popeye lives)
Marseille, Bouches-du-Rhône, France
Montee Des Accoules, Marseille, Bouches-du-Rhône, France
Onderdonk Avenue, Ridgewood, Queens, New York City
Plage du bestouan, Cassis, Bouches-du-Rhône, France
Putnam Avenue, Ridgewood, Queens, New York City
Randalls Island, East River, New York City
Ratner's Restaurant, 138 Delancey Street, New York City (where Sal and Angie emerge)
Remsen Street, Brooklyn, New York City (where Charnier and Nicoli watch the car being unloaded)
Rio Piedras (now demolished), 912 Broadway, Brooklyn, New York City (where the Santa Claus chase starts)
Rapid Park Garage, East 38th Street near Park Avenue, New York City (where Cloudy follows Sal)
Ronaldo Maia Flowers, 27 East 67th Street at Madison, New York City (where Charnier gives Popeye the slip)
The Roosevelt Hotel, 45th Street and Madison Avenue, Manhattan, New York City
Rue des Moulins off Rue Du Panier, Old Town of Marseille, Bouches-du-Rhône, France (where the French policeman with the bread walks)
La Samaritaine at 2 Quai Du Port, Marseille, Bouches-du-Rhône, France
South Street at Market Street at the foot of Manhattan Bridge, New York City (where Doyle emerges from a bar)
Triborough Bridge to Randall's Island toll bridge at the east end of 125th Street, New York City
Wards Island, New York City (the final shootout)
Washington, D.C., USA (where Charnier and Sal meet)
Westbury Hotel, 15 East 69th Street, Manhattan, New York City, New York, USA (Charnier's hotel)

text: Reception[edit]

text: According to Roger Greenspun, "the ads say that the time is just right for an out-and-out thriller like this, and I guess that you are supposed to think that a good old kind of movie has none too soon come around again. But The French Connection ... is in fact a very good new kind of movie, and that in spite of its being composed of such ancient material as cops and crooks, with thrills and chases, and lots of shoot-'em-up."[17]

text: In 2014, Time Out polled several film critics, directors, actors and stunt actors to list their top action films.[18] The French Connection was listed at 40th place on this list.[19]

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text:
Award
Category
Nominee
Result

Academy Awards, 1972[20][21]
Best Picture
Phillip D'Antoni
Won

Best Director
William Friedkin
Won

Best Actor
Gene Hackman
Won

Best Adapted Screenplay
Ernest Tidyman
Won

Best Film Editing
Gerald B. Greenberg
Won

Best Supporting Actor
Roy Scheider
Nominated

Best Cinematography
Owen Roizman
Nominated

Best Sound
Theodore Soderberg and
Christopher Newman
Nominated

American Cinema Editors, 1972[21]
Best Edited Feature Film
Gerald B. Greenberg
Nominated

BAFTA, 1973[21]
Best Actor
Gene Hackman
Won

Best Film Editing
Gerald B. Greenberg
Won

Best Direction
William Friedkin
Nominated

Best Film
Philip D'Antoni
Nominated

Best Sound Track
Christopher Newman
Theodore Soderberg
Nominated

David di Donatello Award, 1972[21]
Best Foreign Film
Philip D'Antoni
Won

Directors Guild of America, 1972[21]
Outstanding Directorial Achievement
William Friedkin
Won

Edgar Allan Poe Awards, 1972[21]
Best Motion Picture
Ernest Tidyman
Won

Golden Globe Awards, 1972[22]
Best Motion Picture
Phillip D'Antoni
Won

Best Director
William Friedkin
Won

Best Actor
Gene Hackman
Won

Best Screenplay
Ernest Tidyman
Nominated

Kansas City Film Critics Circle, 1972[21]
Best Actor
Gene Hackman
Won

Best Film
Ernest Tidyman
Won

National Society of Film Critics, 1972[21]
Best Actor
Gene Hackman
Nominated

New York Film Critics Circle, 1971[21]
Best Actor
Gene Hackman
Won

Best Film
Ernest Tidyman
Nominated

Writers Guild of America, 1972[21]
Best Drama Adaptation
Ernest Tidyman
Won

text: The American Film Institute recognizes The French Connection on several of its lists:

text:
AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies - #70
AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) - #93
AFI's 100 Years…100 Thrills - #8
AFI's 100 Years…100 Heroes and Villains: Jimmy "Popeye" Doyle - # 44 Hero

text: In 2012, the Motion Picture Editors Guild listed the film as the tenth best-edited film of all time based on a survey of its membership.[23]

text: Home video[edit]

text: The film has been issued in a number of home video formats. For a 2009 reissue on Blu-ray Disc, William Friedkin controversially altered the film's color timing to give it a "colder" look.[24] Cinematographer Owen Roizman, who was not consulted about the changes, dismissed the new transfer as "atrocious".[25] On March 18, 2012 a new Blu-ray transfer of the movie was released. This time the color-timing was supervised by both Friedkin and Roizman, and the desaturated and sometimes over-grainy look of the 2009 edition have been corrected.[26][27]

text: Sequels and adaptations[edit]

text:
While not a sequel, The Seven-Ups (1973) is closely related as it stars Roy Scheider and Tony Lo Bianco, was directed by producer Philip D'Antoni, with a story by Sonny Grosso, and features another famous car chase choreographed by Bill Hickman. The score for this film was also by Don Ellis.
French Connection II (1975) is a fictional sequel.
NBC-TV aired a made-for-TV movie, Popeye Doyle (1986), starring Ed O'Neill in the title role.


document_title: Constitution of Virginia

question_text: what three offices made up virginia's representative government

question_tokens: what three offices made up virginia 's representative government

text: Constitution of Virginia

text: Historic constitutions[edit]

text: The preparation of the first Virginia Constitution began in early 1776, in the midst of the early events of the American Revolution. Among those who drafted the 1776 Constitution were George Mason and James Madison. Thomas Jefferson was Virginia's representative to the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia at the time, and his drafts of the Virginia constitution arrived too late to be incorporated into the final document.[3]  James Madison's work on the Virginia Constitution helped him develop the ideas and skills that he would later use as one of the main architects of the United States Constitution.[4]

text: The 1776 Constitution declared the dissolution of the rule of Great Britain over Virginia and accused England's King George III of establishing a "detestable and insupportable tyranny". It also established separation of governmental powers, with the creation of the bicameral Virginia General Assembly as the legislative body of the state and the Governor of Virginia as the "chief magistrate" or executive. The accompanying Virginia Declaration of Rights, written primarily by Mason, focuses on guarantees of basic human rights and freedoms and the fundamental purpose of government. It, in turn, served as a model for a number of other historic documents, including the United States Bill of Rights.

text: Critically, the 1776 Constitution limited the right to vote primarily to property owners and men of wealth. This effectively concentrated power in the hands of the landowners and aristocracy of Southeastern Virginia.[1]  Dissatisfaction with this power structure would come to dominate Virginia's constitutional debate for almost a century.[5]

text: By the 1820s, Virginia was one of only two states that limited voting to landowners. In addition, because representation was by county rather than population, the residents of increasingly populous Western Virginia (the area that would become West Virginia in 1863) had grown discontented at their limited representation in the legislature.[5] Pressure increased until a constitutional convention was convened in 1829–1830. This convention became largely a contest between eastern Virginia planters of the slaveholding elite and the less affluent yeomen farmers of Western Virginia.  Issues of representation and suffrage dominated the debate.[6] Delegates to the convention included such prominent Virginians as James Madison, James Monroe, John Tyler, and John Marshall.[7]

text: The convention ultimately compromised by loosening suffrage requirements. It also reduced the number of delegates and senators to the Virginia General Assembly. The resulting constitution was ratified by a popular majority, though most of the voters in the western part of the state ended up voting against it.[8] Thus, the underlying intrastate tensions remained, and would have to be addressed later.

text: As of the 1840 census, the majority of the white residents of the state lived in western Virginia, but they were underrepresented in the legislature because of the continued property requirement for voting; not all held sufficient property to vote. This compounded their  dissatisfaction with the apportionment scheme adopted in 1830, which was based on counties rather than population, thus giving disproportionate power to the fewer, but propertied whites who lived in the eastern part of the state and kept a grip on the legislature. As the state legislature also elected the governor and the United States senators, Western Virginians felt they had little influence on state leadership.  Their attempts to win electoral reform in the Virginia legislature were defeated each time. Some began to openly discuss the abolition of slavery or secession from the state.[9]  Ultimately, the eastern planters could not continue to ignore their discontent, and a new constitutional convention was called to resolve the continuing tensions.

text: The most significant change adopted in the 1851 Constitution was elimination of the property requirement for voting, resulting in extension of the suffrage to all white males of voting age. The 1851 Constitution established popular election for the governor, the newly created office of lieutenant governor, and all Virginia judges, rather than the election of the top two state officers by the legislature, or political appointment for judges. Because of these changes, the 1851 Virginia Constitution became known as the "Reform Constitution".[10]

text: When in 1861, the Virginia legislature voted for secession in the events leading up to the American Civil War, all of the western and several of the northern counties dissented  They set up a separate government with Francis H. Pierpont as governor. During the Civil War, this separate or "restored" government approved the creation of West Virginia as a separate state (which was admitted to the Union in 1863) and in 1864 it approved a new Constitution.[11] The constitution was the product of a divided state and government; it was the first since the original 1776 Constitution to be adopted by the legislature without a popular vote.

text: The 1864 Constitution abolished slavery in Virginia, disfranchised men who had served in the Confederate government, recognized the creation of the State of West Virginia, and adjusted the number and terms of office of the members of the Virginia Assembly.[12]

text: The foreword to the current Virginia Constitution does not include the 1864 Constitution in its list of previous constitutions.  It notes that the 1864 Constitution was drafted under wartime conditions and was of uncertain legal status.[13]

text: After the end of the Civil War, Virginia came briefly under military rule during Reconstruction, with the district commanded by John M. Schofield. Pursuant to federal Reconstruction legislation, Schofield called for a new constitutional convention to meet in Richmond from December 1867 to April 1868. In protest of freedmen's suffrage, many of Virginia's conservative whites refused to participate in voting for delegates.[14] As a result, Republicans led by Judge John Curtiss Underwood dominated the convention. Opponents called the result the "Underwood Constitution"[15] or the "Negro Constitution", as it gave freedmen suffrage.[14]

text: Significant provisions included expanding the suffrage to all male citizens over the age of 21, which included freedmen; establishing a state public school system for the first time, with mandatory funding and attendance; and providing for judges to be elected by the General Assembly rather than by popular vote.[16] Controversy over clauses that continued the temporary disfranchisement of former Confederate government members delayed the adoption of the Constitution. An eventual compromise provided for separate voting on the disfranchisement clauses and the rest of the Constitution; the former failed to win approval.[12]  The remainder of the Underwood Constitution was ratified by a popular vote of 210,585 to 9,136, and went into effect in 1870.

text: In the late nineteenth century, white Democrats regained power in state legislatures across the South. They passed Jim Crow laws establishing racial segregation in public facilities and restricting the lives of blacks.  Beginning with Mississippi in 1890, legislatures began to ratify new constitutions, amendments or electoral laws that disfranchised African-American voters, devising means such as poll taxes, literacy tests and residential requirements that passed Supreme Court review but worked against poor blacks and many poor whites. By the turn of the 20th century, six Southern states had essentially eliminated the black vote, and pressure mounted among whites in Virginia to do the same, ostensibly as a way to stop electoral fraud and corruption.[17]

text: The 1901 constitutional convention met in this climate.  Members were focused on restricting black voting rights without violating the Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution or disfranchising poor whites.[18] Led by the future Senator Carter Glass, the convention created requirements that all prospective voters had to pay poll taxes or pass a literacy test administered by white registrars. An exemption was granted, in a kind of grandfather clause, for military veterans and sons of veterans, who were virtually all white. The changes effectively disfranchised black voters, though many illiterate whites were also unable to meet the new requirements. In 1900 blacks made up nearly 36 percent of the population.[2] In succeeding elections, the Virginia electorate was reduced by nearly half as a result of the changes.[19] When adjusted for the Nineteenth Amendment, voter turnout would not return to 1900 levels until 1952 within a statewide population almost twice the size. The small electorate was key to maintaining the dominant Democratic Organization in power for sixty years.[20]

text: Other significant provisions of the 1902 Constitution imposed racial segregation in public schools (which already existed on a de facto basis) and abolished the county court system. The Constitution provided for the creation of the State Corporation Commission to regulate the growing power of the railroads.[21]  Because of concern over African-American opposition, the convention did not honor its pledge to have the proposed constitution put to popular vote.[22]  Like the 1864 Constitution by the Loyalist government during the Civil War, the legislature adopted the 1902 Constitution without ratification by the electorate. It was in effect far longer than any previous Virginia constitution.[23]

text: Current constitution (1971)[edit]

text: As a result of the Civil Rights Movement challenging the restrictions and discrimination practiced against blacks exercise of constitutional rights, a series of US Supreme Court cases, beginning with Brown v. Board of Education in 1954, the 24th Amendment, and federal legislation: the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 had overturned the most controversial aspects of the 1902 Constitution – the provisions restricting voting by African Americans and mandating school segregation. Combined with the election of Governor Mills Godwin in 1965, there was impetus for governmental change. Godwin strongly advocated the loosening of the strict constitutional restrictions on state-issued bonds and borrowing, and used his power and popularity to push for a new constitution. In 1968 a joint resolution of the Virginia General Assembly approved a new commission, chaired by former Governor Albertis Harrison, to revise the constitution.[24]

text: The Commission on Constitutional Revision presented its report and recommendations to Governor Godwin and the General Assembly in January 1969, and continued to work with them to draft a final consensus version.[25] The proposed Constitution was overwhelmingly approved by the voters of Virginia (who by then included African-American men and women, following passage of federal civil rights legislation in the mid-1960s) and took effect on July 1, 1971.

text: Since 1971, additional amendments have been passed by the General Assembly and approved by the voter to conform to provisions in the U.S. Constitution, rulings from the U.S. Supreme Court and Congressional statute. The voting age has been reduced to eighteen, voting residency requirements have been removed, and voter registration conforms to the Motor Voter Act. Additionally, the Virginia Constitution now provides for a General Assembly session following a governor’s veto, and the right of the people to hunt, fish and harvest game is guaranteed.[26] In 2006, Virginians passed an amendment limiting marriage to “unions between one man and one woman”.[27] That has since been overturned by Obergefell v. Hodges (2015).

text: The current Constitution of Virginia consists of twelve Articles:[28]

text: Article I – Bill of Rights[edit]

text: Article I contains the entire original Virginia Declaration of Rights from the 1776 Constitution. Several of the sections have been expanded to incorporate concepts from the United States Bill of Rights, including the right to due process, the prohibition against double jeopardy, and the right to bear arms. Like the Federal Constitution, the Virginia Bill of Rights, in §17, states that the listing of certain rights is not to be construed to exclude other rights held by the people.

text: In 1997, a Victims' Rights Amendment was added to the Virginia Bill of Rights as §8-A. In Nobrega v. Commonwealth, the only case so far to interpret this amendment, the Virginia Supreme Court used the Victims’s Rights Amendment to support its ruling that an alleged rape victim could not be compelled to submit to a psychiatric evaluation.[29]

text: On November 7, 2006, Virginia voters ratified an amendment, previously approved by the General Assembly, prohibiting same-sex marriage, to be added to the Bill of Rights.[30]  This amendment also prohibits the recognition of any "union, partnership, or other legal status" between unmarried people that intends to approximate marriage or which confers the "rights, benefits, obligations, qualities, or effects of marriage." The Virginia Attorney General issued an opinion stating that the amendment does not change the legal status of documents such as contracts, wills, or Advanced Medical Directives between unmarried people.[31]  The amendment was declared to be in violation the United States Constitution by a U.S. District Court Judge on February 13, 2014.[32]  (In 2015, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Obergefell v. Hodges that the failure to provide for same-sex marriage by any U.S. state had the effect of violating the rights of homosexuals to equal protection of law required under the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution.)

text: Article II – Franchise and Officers[edit]

text: The second Article of the Constitution sets out the procedures and mechanisms for voting, elections and holding office. Pursuant to Section 1, any Virginia resident over age 18 may vote in state elections; the voting age was reduced from 21 by a 1972 amendment to the federal constitution.[33]  However, § 1 denies the vote to people who have been determined to be mentally incompetent or anyone convicted of a felony. Disfranchising convicted felons has been found to be consistent with the Equal Protection Clause of the U.S. Constitution.[34] The General Assembly, pursuant to §4, is given wide power to regulate the time place and manner of all elections.[35]

text: Section Five establishes that the only qualifications to hold office in Virginia are that a person must have been a Virginia resident for at least one year and eligible to vote. Any statute or rule requiring other qualifications is constitutionally invalid under this section.[36] But, the General Assembly can impose local residency requirements for election to local governmental bodies or for election to the Assembly in representation of particular districts.

text: Article III – Division of Powers[edit]

text: Article III has one section, confirming the principle of separation of powers between the legislative, executive and judicial branches of government. Unlike the U.S. federal Constitution, the Virginia Constitution explicitly provides that no branch may exercise powers that properly belong to the others.[37] Separation between the branches of government is also listed as a right of the people in §5 of Article I.

text: Article IV – Legislature[edit]

text: Article IV establishes the basic structure and authority of the Virginia legislature. The legislative power of the state is vested in the Virginia General Assembly, which consists of the Virginia Senate and the Virginia House of Delegates. §17 of Article IV gives the legislature the power to impeach members of the executive and judicial branches.

text: The original §14 of Article IV forbade the incorporation of churches, though the Virginia Commission on Constitutional Revision, in its 1969 report, had recognized that the prohibition was probably invalid. The federal district court for the Western District of Virginia ruled in April 2002 that this provision of the Virginia Constitution was in fact unconstitutional, because it violates the federal constitutional right to the free exercise of religion.[38] The court found that it is unconstitutional to deny a church the option to incorporate under state law when other groups can incorporate.[39] An amendment striking the ban on church incorporation was approved by Virginia voters in November 2006.

text: Article V – Executive[edit]

text: The fifth Article similarly defines the structure and powers of the executive branch. The Governor of Virginia is invested as the chief executive, though §1 of Article V, provides that the governor may not run for successive terms. The offices of lieutenant governor and attorney general are established as supporting elected constitutional positions.

text: The constitutional powers of the governor include the ability to sign legislation, veto bills (which veto may then be overridden by a two-thirds majority of both houses of the assembly), and issue pardons.

text: Article VI – Judiciary[edit]

text: Article VI vests judicial power in the Supreme Court of Virginia, along with the subordinate courts created by the General Assembly. Judges are appointed by a majority vote in the General Assembly to terms of 12 years for Supreme Court Justices and 8 years for other judges. The Supreme Court, pursuant to §5, has the authority to make rules governing the practice of law and procedures in the courts of the commonwealth (see rules), and the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court is established as the administrative head of the Virginia judicial system.

text: Article VII – Local Government[edit]

text: Article VII of the Constitution sets up the basic framework for the structure and function of local government in Virginia. Local government may be established at the town (population over 1000), city (population over 5000), county or regional government level. Article VII gives the General Assembly the power to create general laws for the organization and governing of these political subdivisions, except that regional governments cannot be created without the consent of the majority of the voters who vote on the issue in the region.

text: Section 4 establishes the constitutional offices of treasurer, sheriff, Commonwealth's Attorney, clerk of court and Commissioner of the Revenue to be elected within each city and county in Virginia.

text: Article VIII – Education[edit]

text: A compulsory and free primary and secondary public education for every Virginia child is the focus of Article VIII. The General Assembly is empowered to determine the funding for the educational system and apportion the cost between state and local government. A state Board of Education is established to create school divisions and effectuate the overall educational policies. Supervision of the individual schools is delegated to local school boards, provided for in §7.

text: Article IX – Corporations[edit]

text: The primary purpose of Article IX is to create the Virginia State Corporation Commission, which is charged with administering the laws that regulate corporations. The State Corporation Commission also issues charters for Virginia corporations and licenses to do business for “foreign” (non-Virginia) corporations. Section 5 of Article IX prohibits such foreign corporations from doing anything in Virginia that a Virginia corporation could not do.

text: Article X – Taxation and Finance[edit]

text: Article X establishes the basic structure for taxation of personal property in Virginia. Pursuant to this Article, all non-exempt real and personal property is subject to taxation at its fair market value. Section 6 sets out a lengthy list of exempt property, which includes church property, cemeteries, and non-profit school property.

text: Significant additions to Article X include §7, a budget amendment, which became effective in 1986, and §7-A, which establishes the "Lottery Proceeds Fund", requiring that all proceeds from the lottery be set aside for educational purposes.

text: Article XI – Conservation[edit]

text: Article XI states that it is the general policy of the Commonwealth to preserve, protect and conserve the state’s natural and historic resources. The General Assembly is permitted to further these policies by entering into public-private partnerships or partnerships with federal agencies.

text: A 2001 amendment added §4, which establishes hunting and fishing as constitutional rights of Virginians, though the legislature may enact appropriate regulations and restrictions on these rights.

text: Article XII – Future changes[edit]

text: The last Article creates the mechanism for future changes to the Constitution. Any amendment to the Constitution must first be passed by a majority in each of the two legislative houses. The proposed amendment must then be held over for consideration by the succeeding elected legislature, where it must again be passed by a majority in each house. The amendment then goes on the general ballot and becomes enacted into the Constitution if approved by a majority of the voters.

text: Alternatively, a two-thirds majority of both Virginia houses may call for the creation of a constitutional convention. Any revisions or amendments proposed by the constitutional convention are presented to the citizens of Virginia and become law upon approval by a majority of voters.

text: There is a perennial discussion over Virginia’s unique Constitutional status restricting its governor to one consecutive term, and its distinctive method of selecting both trial and appellate judges by state legislature, shared only with South Carolina.[40]