document_title: Texas's 34th congressional district

question_text: who represents cameron county in the us house of representatives (texas dist. 34)

question_tokens: who represents cameron county in the us house of representatives ( texas dist. 34 )

text: Texas's 34th congressional district

text:
Texas's 34th congressional district

Texas's 34th congressional district - since January 3, 2013.

Current Representative
Filemon Vela, Jr. (D–Brownsville)

Distribution

83.96[1]% urban
16.04% rural

Population (2016)
723,156[2]

Median income
$37,989

Ethnicity

3.41% White
11.23% Black
1.32% Asian
83.88% Hispanic
0.16% Native American

Cook PVI
D+10[3]

text: Texas's 34th Congressional District is a district that was created as a result of the 2010 Census.[4] The first candidates ran in the 2012 House elections, and were seated for the 113th United States Congress.[5][needs update] Filemon Vela, Jr. won the general election, and was seated in the new district.

text: Texas's 34th Congressional District is composed of the area on the Gulf Coast between Brownsville and Corpus Christi.[6]

text: List of representatives[edit]

text:
Representative
Party
Years
Electoral history
Counties represented

District created
January 3, 2013

 Filemon Vela Jr.
Democratic
January 3, 2013 –
Present
First elected in 2012.
Re-elected in 2014.
Re-elected in 2016
[Data unknown/missing.]


document_title: Tom Allen (American football)

question_text: where did the indiana football coach come from

root

text: Tom Allen (American football)

text: Coaching career[edit]

text: Ole Miss[edit]

text: Allen spent three seasons as the linebackers coach and special teams coordinator at Ole Miss under head coach Hugh Freeze. During his time in Oxford, the Rebels went 24–15 and consistently ranked near the top of the FBS in terms of tackles for loss and sacks. Prior to his arrival, Ole Miss had ranked last in the SEC in total defense.

tag: p

text: South Florida[edit]

text: In December 2014, Allen was named defensive coordinator at South Florida under third-year head coach Willie Taggart. In his lone season in Tampa, Allen's defensive unit ranked first the American Athletic Conference (AAC) in scoring defense at just 19.6 points per conference game.

text: Indiana[edit]

text: Allen was hired on January 15, 2016 to serve as defensive coordinator on head coach Kevin Wilson's staff at Indiana. In replacing previous defensive coordinator Brian Knorr, Allen took over a defense that ranked #120 in the FBS in total defense and #106 in opponent points scored. As of December 1, 2016, the Hoosiers' defense ranks #35 in the FBS in total defense (8th best in the Big Ten) and #53 in opponent points scored.

text: On December 1, 2016, Indiana athletic director Fred Glass named Allen head coach after Wilson's sudden resignation.[1]

text: Head coaching record[edit]

text:
Year
Team
Overall
Conference
Standing
Bowl/playoffs
Coaches#
AP°

Indiana (Big Ten Conference) (2016–present)

2016
Indiana
0–1
0–0
East
L Foster Farms

2017
Indiana
3–2
0–2
East

Indiana:
3–3
0–2

Total:
3–3

      National championship         Conference title         Conference division title

tag: table


document_title: History of Sheffield Wednesday F.C.

question_text: when did sheffield wednesday get promoted to championship

text: History of Sheffield Wednesday F.C.

text: The 19th century[edit]

text: The early years[edit]

text: The club was initially a cricket team named The Wednesday Cricket Club after the day of the week on which they played their matches. The footballing side of the club was established to keep the team together and fit during the winter months. SWFC was born on the evening of Wednesday 4 September 1867 at a meeting at the Adelphi Hotel in Sheffield.  The formation was announced two days later with the following statement in the Sheffield Independent newspaper:

text: Even at this first meeting it became apparent that football would soon come to eclipse the cricketing side of the club. The formation of the football club came within a decade of the first football club in the world, Sheffield F.C., being formed. Hallam F.C. was set up shortly afterwards and by 1867 Association football was becoming very popular. The Wednesday played their first football match in October 1867 against the Mechanics Club at Norfolk Park, a game which they won by three goals and four rouges to nil.[2]

text: By 1 February 1868 Wednesday were playing their first competitive football match as they entered the Cromwell Cup, a four-team competition for newly formed clubs sponsored by Oliver Cromwell, the manager of the local Theatre Royal. They went on to win the cup, beating Cromwell's own team, The Garrick Club 1–0 after extra time in the final at Bramall Lane. The match has its own place in history with Wednesday being the scorers in the first recorded instance of a "golden goal" although the term was not used at the time.[3]

text: Wednesday were joined by the Clegg brothers, Charles and William in 1870. Charles became the club's first international player when he played in the very first international on 30 November 1872.[4] William represented the  Wednesday in the next international on 8 March 1873.[5] Both players would go on to be associated with the club for the rest of their lives. Although it would be Charles who became most heavily involved in football eventually rising to become president and chairman of the Football Association.[4] Both the Cleggs received knighthoods in later life.

text: In 1876 Wednesday were joined by James Lang. The directors of the club had seen him playing for Glasgow against the Sheffield FA representative side. He was subsequently invited to come to Sheffield and play for the club and given a job, working in a silversmiths owned by one of the directors, which involved no formal duties. This is now acknowledged as the first case of professionalism in the game.[6]

text: Sheffield's first annual tournament, the Sheffield FA Challenge Cup, was inaugurated in 1876 and won by Wednesday who beat Heeley, their chief rivals at the time, in the final 4–3 after extra time. They would go on to also win the first Warncliffe Cup in 1879. By this time Wednesday had become the dominant force in local football.[7]

text: Rocky road to professionalism[edit]

text: In 1879 a number of Wednesday players were involved in a team referred to as The Zulus.[8] The team was set up to raise funds for the families of victims of the Zulu War. They toured the north of England and Scotland but after allegations that the players were being paid, a practice that was illegal at the time, the team was forced to disband by the Sheffield FA in 1882.

text: In the summer of 1882, after a season in which The Wednesday reached the semi-finals of the FA Cup, the cricket and football teams split permanently, and by the end of 1925 the cricket team had disbanded. In the 1880s Wednesday became a permanent fixture in the FA Cup as they attempted to move away from local competitions, however in the 1886–87 season Wednesday did not meet the deadline for entry and a revolt by several of their most skilful players followed.

text: Several players, all involved in the earlier Zulus controversy, temporarily left the club to play for a local works team which had managed to submit its entry on time. Later in the season the same players threatened to walk out permanently and set up a professional club called Sheffield Rovers. Wednesday's President at the time, John Holmes, was against the club turning professional, but under the immense pressure of the possibility of losing his star players he entered into talks with the rebels, eventually offering professional terms. At the meeting called to set up Sheffield Rovers, one of the rebel players, Tom Cawley, argued that Wednesday should be given one final chance and the football club duly turned professional on 22 April 1887. The initial wages were five shillings for home fixtures and seven shillings and sixpence for away games.

text: The Olive Grove years[edit]

text: The move to professionalism led to the team building their own stadium rather than playing at venues such as Bramall Lane or Sheaf House whose owners took a share of the "gate". They leased some land by the railway tracks near Queen's Road from the Duke of Norfolk  and in 1887 built the Olive Grove ground. They named it so because an olive farm was bulldozed in order to build it[6]

text: In 1889, when their first application to join the Football League was rejected, the club became founder members of the Football Alliance of which they were the first champions in a season that they also reached the 1890 FA Cup Final, losing 6–1 to Blackburn Rovers at The Oval. They finished the following season bottom of the Alliance but recovered to finish in fourth place in the final Alliance season.[9] The following season they were elected to Division 1 of the Football League when it was increased from 14 to 16 clubs, topping the poll with 10 votes. They won the FA Cup in 1896, beating Wolverhampton Wanderers by a 2–1 scoreline at Crystal Palace.

text: The 20th century[edit]

text: Pre-war success[edit]

text: In a strong decade Wednesday won the league twice in the 1902–03 and 1903–04 seasons and the FA Cup again in 1907, beating Everton, again at Crystal Palace by two goals to one. After this a relatively fallow period was to be suffered for another two decades.

text: In 1929 the club officially changed its name from The Wednesday Football Club to Sheffield Wednesday Football Club under the stewardship of manager Robert Brown.[10] However the name Sheffield Wednesday dates back as far as 1883: the former ground at Olive Grove had the name Sheffield Wednesday painted on the stand roof.

text: The team rose to the top of English football once again in the 1928–29 season. They had almost been relegated in the previous season but with 17 points in the last 10 matches the team pulled off the great escape, rising from bottom to 14th. Consecutive titles in the next two seasons started a run that would see the team finishing lower than third only once until 1935. The period was topped off with the team winning the FA cup for the third time in the club's history in 1935 under manager Billy Walker.

text: Post-war turmoil[edit]

text: The 50s saw Wednesday unable to consistently hold on to a position in the top flight. After being promoted back up in 1950, they were relegated a total of three times. Each time would see them bounce back up by winning the Second Division the following season. The decade ended on a high note with the team finally finishing in the top half of the First Division for the first time since World War 2. In 1958, they were the first team to play Manchester United after the Munich Air Disaster, an FA cup tie, which they lost 0–3.

text: This led to a decade of successfully remaining in the First Division, which included a cup run to the FA cup final in 1966. Off the field the club was embroiled in the British betting scandal of 1964 where three of their players, Peter Swan, David Layne and Tony Kay, were accused of match fixing and betting against their own team. The three were subsequently convicted and, on release from prison, banned from football for life.

text: Wednesday were relegated at the end of the 1969–70 season, starting arguably the darkest period in the club's history. After going into freefall they spent 5 seasons in the Third Division and the club almost suffered relegation to the Fourth Division in 1976, but a revival over the next few seasons under first, Jack Charlton and then, Howard Wilkinson, saw them reach the First Division in 1984.

text: The 1980s: Resurgence[edit]

text: Under the management of Wilkinson, Sheffield Wednesday won promotion to the First Division at the end of the 1983–84 season and would remain at this level for all but one of the next sixteen seasons. They finished fifth in the league at the end of the 1985–86 season and only missed out on a UEFA Cup place because English teams were banned from European competitions due to the Heysel Stadium disaster at this time.

text: Wilkinson left in September 1988 to take charge of Leeds United who were a Second Division club at the time. Within four seasons, he had taken them to the league title.

text: Meanwhile, Sheffield Wednesday replaced Wilkinson with his former assistant Peter Eustace in what proved to be a disastrous appointment. He was at the helm for just four months before being sacked to make way for former West Bromwich Albion manager Ron Atkinson, who had lifted two FA Cups with Manchester United.

text: The 1990s: Life at the top[edit]

text: In Atkinson's first full season as manager, 1989–90, Sheffield Wednesday finished 18th in the First Division and were relegated on goal difference, despite the acquisition of the talented John Sheridan and the fact they had pulled towards mid-table at one stage of the season. They regained promotion at the first attempt but the real highlight of the season was a League Cup final victory over Atkinson's old club Manchester United. Midfielder Sheridan scored the only goal of the game, which delivered the club's first major trophy since their FA Cup success of 1935. Atkinson moved to Aston Villa shortly after promotion was achieved, and handed over the reins to 37-year-old striker Trevor Francis.

text: Wednesday finished third in the First Division at the end of the 1991–92 season, booking their place in the following season's UEFA Cup and becoming a founder member of the new FA Premier League.

text: 1992–93 was one of the most eventful seasons in the history of Sheffield Wednesday football club. They finished seventh in the Premier League and reached the finals of both the FA Cup and the League Cup, but were on the losing side to Arsenal in both games, the FA Cup final going to a replay and only settled in the last minute of extra time. This prevented the Owls from making another appearance in European competition. Still, the 1992–93 season established Sheffield Wednesday as a top club. Midfielder Chris Waddle was voted Football Writers' Association Footballer of the Year, and the strike partnership of David Hirst and Mark Bright was one of the most feared in the country. Francis was unable to achieve any more success at the club, and two seasons later he was sacked. His successor was former Luton, Leicester and Tottenham manager David Pleat.

text: David Pleat's first season as Sheffield Wednesday manager was frustrating, as they finished 15th in the Premiership despite an expensively-assembled line-up which included the likes of Marc Degryse, Dejan Stefanovic and Darko Kovacevic – who all had disappointing and short-lived tenures at the club. An excellent start to the 1996–97 season saw the Owls top the Premiership after winning their first four games, and David Pleat was credited Manager of the Month for August 1996. But the club failed to mount a serious title challenge and they faded away to finish seventh in the final table. Pleat was sacked the following November with the club struggling at the wrong end of the Premiership, and Ron Atkinson briefly returned to steer the Owls clear of relegation.

text: At the end of the 1997–98 season, Ron Atkinson's short-term contract was not renewed and Sheffield Wednesday turned to the Barnsley boss Danny Wilson as their new manager after being given the backword by both Gerard Houllier and Walter Smith who joined Liverpool and Everton respectively. Wilson's first season at the helm brought a slight improvement as they finished 12th in the Premiership. An expensively assembled squad including Paolo Di Canio, Benito Carbone and Wim Jonk failed to live up to the massive wage bill the club was paying and things eventually came to a head when Italian firebrand Di Canio was sent off in a match against Arsenal and proceeded to push the referee on his way off. Danny Wilson was sacked the following March with relegation looking a certainty for the Hillsborough club, following a disastrous season where they had been hammered 8–0 by Newcastle United as early as September. His assistant Peter Shreeves took temporary charge but was unable to stave off relegation.

text: The 21st century[edit]

text: Relegation to League One[edit]

text: Peter Shreeves remained at Sheffield Wednesday for the 2000–01 season as assistant to their new manager Paul Jewell. But Jewell was unable to mount a promotion challenge and he was sacked the following February with the Owls hovering just above the Division One relegation zone. Shreeves was given a permanent contract to take charge of the first team and he guided them to a 17th-place finish. After another bad start in 2001–02, he handed the reins over to assistant Terry Yorath. Wednesday finished just two places above the Division One relegation zone and the only bright spot of the season was a run to the semi finals of the League Cup.

text: Yorath resigned in October 2002 after Wednesday made a terrible start to the 2002–03 season, and in came Hartlepool manager Chris Turner – a former Owls goalkeeper – as his successor. Turner made a big effort to rejuvenate the side and there were some impressive results during the final weeks of the season, but a failure to beat Brighton in the penultimate game of the season condemned them to relegation.

text: Turner was optimistic of an immediate return to Division One, but this was not to be. Wednesday finished 2003–04 in 16th place in Division Two, with the lowest goals tally in the division (48). It was the lowest ebb of the club's history, rivalled only by the 1975–76 season, where Wednesday finished in 20th place in the same division with the same number of points as in the 2003–04 season. Turner was sacked after a poor start to the 2004–05 Coca-Cola League One campaign, and replaced by former Plymouth and Southampton manager Paul Sturrock.

text: Return to the Championship[edit]

text: Sturrock revitalised Sheffield Wednesday's fortunes and they finished fifth in League One at the end of the 2004–05 season, qualifying for the promotion playoffs. They defeated Brentford 3–1 on aggregate in the semi-finals, moving them into the playoff final on 29 May 2005 at the Millennium Stadium. 41,000 Wednesdayites descended on Cardiff for what was the biggest game in twelve years for the club. They weren't to be disappointed as the Owls took a 1–0 lead through Jon-Paul McGovern on the stroke of halftime. However, Hartlepool fought back and took a 2–1 lead with 20 minutes of the game remaining. Sturrock made a brave triple substitution bringing on 18-year-old striker Drew Talbot and the Owls' top scorer of the season, Steve MacLean (who had been out injured for the previous three months and had not kicked a ball). They combined with 10 minutes left as the Owls levelled the game 2–2. Talbot was adjudged to have been pushed down inside the box and Sheffield Wednesday were awarded a controversial penalty, which also resulted in the dismissal of Hartlepool player Westwood. MacLean duly slotted home the resultant penalty. They went on to win 4–2 after extra time, goals from Glenn Whelan and Drew Talbot, achieving promotion to the Championship.

text: On 17 April 2006, Sheffield Wednesday retained their place in the Championship with two matches remaining, with a 2–0 away win at Brighton, condemning Brighton, Millwall and Crewe to the drop in the process.[11] Wednesday went on to finish the season in 19th place, 10 points clear of the relegation zone. They were statistically the best supported team in the Championship; their average home league attendance of 24,853 marginally beat newly relegated Norwich with 24,833.

text: Brian Laws and Alan Irvine[edit]

text: Despite having been awarded a new four-year contract just five weeks earlier, Sturrock was sacked after a slow start to the 2006–07 season. His replacement was the former Scunthorpe United boss Brian Laws. Wednesday finished the season ninth in the Football League Championship, just four points short of the playoffs.

text: On 25 June 2007, the River Don burst its bank during a period of severe weather in the area, and the whole ground was flooded with several feet of water. The changing rooms, restaurants and kitchens and boardroom were all flooded, as well as the shop; many local houses were also affected.  The club and ground remained closed for the rest of June.  On 6 July, the club issued a statement confirming that the pitch would be ready in time for a pre-season friendly match against Birmingham City on 4 August.[12]

text: A disastrous start of six consecutive league defeats meant the club spent the 2007–08 season battling against relegation and went into the final match of the season against Norwich City knowing that defeat could send them down. After conceding first, a 4–1 victory in front of 36,208 spectators brought much needed relief. This was the Football League's highest attendance of the season and provided a fitting stage for Dion Dublin's final game. He received a standing ovation from all parts of the ground when substituted in the 66th minute.

text: Season 2008–09 saw Wednesday's first Sheffield derby win double in 95 years and a mid-table finish brought fresh hope for the coming season. But after a run of poor results, Laws left the club by mutual consent in December 2009. He was replaced in January by the former Preston North End boss Alan Irvine. Irvine won the January Championship Manager of the Month award, but the form was not sustained and the club was relegated after failing to beat Crystal Palace in front of 37,121 on the final day of the season.

text: Change of ownership structure[edit]

text:
The relegation triggered the resignation of chairman Lee Strafford. Stepping into the breach was former Wednesday player and manager Howard Wilkinson, making it clear that this would be an interim measure.
In July and September 2010 winding up petitions instigated by HMRC were successfully fought off but in November 2010 a third winding up order threatened the club's existence. The High Court's patience was clearly wearing thin but CEO Nick Parker succeeded in securing a stay of execution after Deputy Prime Minister and Sheffield Hallam MP Nick Clegg helped persuade the club's main creditor, the Co-operative Bank, to grant more time to find a buyer.
Shortly afterwards, Leicester City chairman Milan Mandarić agreed to purchase the club. The purchase was completed the following month after an Extraordinary General Meeting of Wednesday's shareholders during which 99.7% of shareholders voted to sell the company to Mandarić's UK Football Investments for £1. Mandarić agreed to settle the club's outstanding debts as part of the deal and stepped down as chairman of Leicester City. For the first time in the club's history, the whole of the share base was now controlled by a single entity.

text: Gary Megson, Dave Jones, Stuart Gray and Carlos Carvalhal[edit]

text: On the field, the club was failing to make its mark in League One and Irvine was replaced by Gary Megson, son of former Owls captain Don Megson, and twice previously a player for the club. Megson failed to salvage the season and the club ended in a disappointing 15th place, lower than when he had taken over.

text: Season 2011–12 marked the start of a change in the club's fortunes but, after a late dip in form, Megson was controversially replaced by former Cardiff City manager Dave Jones despite having just led Wednesday to what proved to be a season defining Sheffield derby win and with the club lying in third place. Jones carried on Megson's good work and completed the season unbeaten with ten wins and two draws, picking up two consecutive League One Manager of the Month awards. The final match of the season against Wycombe Wanderers attracted 38,082 spectators to Hillsborough to watch Wednesday achieve the victory needed to finish second in the division, clinching promotion at the expense of local rivals Sheffield United who subsequently lost a play off final penalty shoot-out with Huddersfield Town at Wembley.

text: With one of the lowest playing budgets in the Championship, 2012–13 season was one of survival and, with judicious loan signings, Jones steered the club to an 18th-place finish in one of the toughest Championship seasons in history with fourth bottom club Barnsley needing 55 points to survive.

text: With no appreciable improvement in the budget, 2013–14 season was again proving to be a struggle and, with only one league win and the club second bottom, Jones was sacked at the start of December. Coach Stuart Gray was named caretaker manager and, after a good run of results, was finally given the job permanently. The length of contract remained confidential and, with a departure from club tradition, Gray was given the job title of head coach. For the third consecutive season Wednesday finished in a higher league position than the previous season.

text: Season 2014–15 was preceded by a story in the French newspaper, L'Equipe, of the imminent takeover of Wednesday by Hafiz Mammadov, an Azerbaijani industrialist and effective owner of RC Lens. With the Sheffield public hungry for news, Manderić, perhaps unwisely, confirmed the takeover before its completion and announced a shirt sponsorship deal with the supposed new ownership. Mammadov subsequently failed to fulfil his legal obligations within the terms of the takeover agreement and Manderić called time on the deal, instructing the club's lawyers accordingly. Embarrassingly, shirts had already been sold with the logo 'Azerbaijan Land of Fire' and the club decided to continue with the shirt sponsorship deal for the season, insisting that the deal was independent of the failed takeover.

text: On 29 January 2015 the club announced that an agreement had been reached between Mr Mandaric's UKFI Limited and Thai businessman Mr Dejphon Chansiri to acquire 100% of the club's shareholding. At a press conference on 2 March 2015 Mr Chansiri, whose family has a controlling interest in the Thai Union Frozen Group, announced that he had purchased the club for £37.5m and is aiming for promotion to the Premier League by 2017, the club's 150th anniversary.

text: Season 2014/15 ended with the club improving its league position for the fourth consecutive season despite a very poor home campaign in which only 16 league goals were scored. The final home game of the season saw a wretched defeat at the hands of Yorkshire rivals Leeds United, contrasting sharply with the previous season's 6-0 victory. Many felt that the home form was the catalyst for Stuart Gray's departure from the club in June 2015 and the appointment of Carlos Carvalhal, a widely traveled but largely unknown Portuguese coach. Carvalhal became Wednesday's first ever overseas manager/coach.

text: After a patchy start, season 2015/16 culminated in a creditable 6th-place finish which represented a fifth consecutive improvement in league position. Wednesday somewhat luckily defeated the play off favourites Brighton & Hove Albion in the two legged semi-final but suffered a 1-0 defeat at the hands of Yorkshire rivals Hull City in the final, the club's first visit to the new Wembley.

text: Season 2016/17 ended in disappointment despite Wednesday improving their league position for the sixth consecutive season. Defeat in the play offs at the semi-final stage by eventual winners Huddersfield Town signalled criticism in some quarters of the marked change in playing style from the previous season. After much confusion over Carlos Carvalhal's future due to conflicting press reports it was announced that he would remain in charge for the coming season although the length of his contract was not disclosed.


document_title: Lists of countries by mineral production

question_text: largest producer of mica in the world is

text: Fuels[edit]

text: Fossil fuels[edit]

text:
Fossil fuel

Largest Producer

second largest producer

Complete list

Coal[1]

 China

 India

List of countries by coal production

Natural gas[2]

 United States

 Russia

List of countries by natural gas production

Petroleum[3]

 Russia

 Saudi Arabia

List of countries by oil production

text: Nuclear fuel[edit]

text:
Nuclear fuel

Largest Producer

Second Largest Producer

Complete list

Uranium[4]

 Kazakhstan

 Canada

List of countries by uranium production

Thorium[5]

 India

 Australia

Occurrence of thorium

text: Gemstones[edit]

text:
Gem

Largest Producer

Second Largest Producer

Complete list

Fluorite[6]

 China

 Mexico

List of countries by fluorite production

Diamond[7]

 Russia

 Australia

List of countries by diamond production

text: Metals[edit]

text:
Metal

Leading Producer

Second Leading Producer

Complete list

Aluminium[8]

 China

 Russia

List of countries by aluminium production

Bauxite[9]

 Australia

 China

List of countries by bauxite production

Bismuth[10]

 China

 Mexico

List of countries by bismuth production

Copper[11]

 Chile

 China

List of countries by copper production

Gold[12]

 China

 Australia

List of countries by gold production

Iron ore[13]

 Australia

 Brazil

List of countries by iron ore production

Lithium[14]

 Australia

 Chile

List of countries by lithium production

Manganese[15]

 South Africa

 Australia

List of countries by manganese production

Mercury[16]

 China

 Mexico

List of countries by mercury production

Mica[17]

 China

 Russia

List of countries by mica production

Nickel[18]

 Philippines

 Russia

List of countries by nickel production

Niobium[19]

 Brazil

 Canada

List of countries by niobium production

Palladium[20]

 Russia

 South Africa

List of countries by palladium production

Platinum[21]

 South Africa

 Russia

List of countries by platinum production

Silver[22]

 Mexico

 China

List of countries by silver production

Tin[23]

 China

 Indonesia

List of countries by tin production

Titanium[24]

 Australia

 South Africa (tied)

List of countries by titanium production

Zinc[25]

 China

 Australia

List of countries by zinc production


document_title: Opioid antagonist

question_text: opioid antagonists work by blocking the actions of

text: Opioid antagonist

text: List of opioid antagonists[edit]

text: The following are all μ-opioid receptor (MOR) antagonists or inverse agonists. Many of them also bind to the κ-opioid receptor (KOR) and/or δ-opioid receptor (DOR), where they variously behave as antagonists and/or agonists.

text: Centrally active[edit]

text: These drugs are used mainly as antidotes to reverse opioid overdose and in the treatment of alcohol dependence and opioid dependence (by blocking the effects, namely euphoria, of opioids so as to discourage abuse).

text: Marketed[edit]

text:
Naloxone
Naltrexone
Nalmefene

tag: ul

text: Diprenorphine is used in veterinary medicine only.

text: Discontinued or rarely used[edit]

text:
Nalorphine
Nalorphine dinicotinate
Levallorphan

text: Under development[edit]

text: Samidorphan

text: Never marketed[edit]

text: Nalodeine

text: Peripherally restricted[edit]

text: These drugs are used mainly in the treatment of opioid-induced constipation.

text: Marketed[edit]

text:
Alvimopan
Methylnaltrexone
Naloxegol

text: Under development currently or previously[edit]

text:
6β-Naltrexol
Axelopran
Bevenopran
Methylsamidorphan
Naldemedine

text: Miscellaneous[edit]

text: Buprenorphine and dezocine are partial agonists of the MOR but antagonists of the KOR. Contrarily, eptazocine is an antagonist of the MOR but an agonist of the KOR; the same is also true for nalorphine and levallorphan. A variety of partial agonists or mixed agonists-antagonists of the MOR and KOR are also marketed, and include butorphanol, levorphanol, nalbuphine, pentazocine, and phenazocine. All of the aforementioned drugs may be described as opioid modulators instead of as pure antagonists. With the sole exception of nalorphine, all of the preceding are used as analgesics (by virtue of the fact that both MOR and KOR agonism independently confer pain relief). However, these opioid analgesics have atypical properties in comparison to the prototypical pure MOR full agonist opioid analgesics, such as less or no risk of respiratory depression for MOR partial agonists and antagonists, reduced or no euphoria, abuse potential, and dependence liability with MOR partial agonists/antagonists, and use- and dose-limiting side effects such as dysphoria and hallucinations with KOR agonists. In addition, by virtue of its KOR antagonism, buprenorphine (as buprenorphine/samidorphan (ALKS-5461) or buprenorphine/naltrexone to block its MOR agonism) is under investigation for the treatment of depression and cocaine dependence, as are other KOR antagonists such as CERC-501 (LY-2456302) and, previously, JDTic and PF-4455242 (both discontinued due to toxicity concerns).

text: Selective antagonists[edit]

text: All of the centrally active opioid antagonists used widely in medicine are non-selective, either blocking multiple opioid receptors, or blocking the MOR but activating the KOR. However, for scientific research, selective antagonists are needed which can block one of the opioid receptors but without affecting the others. This has led to the development of antagonists which are highly selective to one of the four receptors:

text:
Cyprodime is a selective MOR antagonist
Naltrindole is a selective DOR antagonist
Norbinaltorphimine is a selective KOR antagonist
J-113,397 is a selective nociceptin receptor (NOP) antagonist[1]

text: Other selective antagonists are also known, but the four listed above were the first selective antagonists discovered for each respective opioid receptor, and are still the most widely used.

text: In addition to selective antagonists, AT-076 is a non-selective, balanced antagonist of all four of the opioid receptors, and was the first such agent to be discovered.[2]

text: Depersonalization disorder[edit]

text: Naloxone and naltrexone have both been studied in the treatment of depersonalization disorder. In a 2001 study with naloxone, three of fourteen patients lost their depersonalization symptoms entirely, and seven showed marked improvement.[3] The findings of a 2005 naltrexone study were slightly less promising, with an average of a 30% reduction of symptoms, as measured by three validated dissociation scales.[4] The more dramatic result of naloxone versus naltrexone is suspected to be due to different opioid receptor affinity/selectivity with naloxone (specifically, more potent KOR blockade), which appears to be better suited to individuals suffering from depersonalization disorder.

text: In popular culture[edit]

text:
In the episode of House, "Skin Deep", opioid antagonist drugs were administered in order to completely remove the patient's heroin induced addiction/withdrawal symptoms (during an induced coma in order to relieve the extreme pain of their use), so that an accurate diagnosis of paraneoplastic syndrome caused by cancer was differentiated.
In an episode of Royal Pains, a character dangerously tries to undergo a procedure (and go under anaesthesia) in his own home.
In an episode of Hannibal, Dr.Lecter administers Naloxone to Jack Crawford's wife after she tries to commit suicide by overdosing on morphine.


document_title: And Then There Were None (miniseries)

question_text: where did they film and then there were none

text: And Then There Were None (miniseries)

text: Synopsis[edit]

text: On a hot day in late August 1939, eight people, all strangers to each other, are invited to a small, isolated island off the coast of Devon, England, by a "Mr and Mrs Owen". The guests settle in at a mansion tended by two newly hired servants, Thomas and Ethel Rogers, but their hosts are absent. When the guests sit down to dinner, they notice the centrepiece, ten figurines of soldiers arranged in a circle. Afterward, Thomas Rogers puts on a gramophone record, from which a voice accuses everyone present of murder.[4] Shortly after this, one of the party dies from poisoning, and then more and more people are murdered, all in methods synonymous with a nursery rhyme the island is named after,[5] and the murderer removes a figurine from the dining table each time someone is killed. The remaining people decide to work together. They must discover who the murderer is before they run out of time and nobody remains.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Douglas Booth as Anthony Marston
Charles Dance as Justice Lawrence Wargrave
Maeve Dermody as Vera Claythorne
Burn Gorman as Detective Sergeant William Blore
Anna Maxwell Martin as Ethel Rogers
Sam Neill as General John Macarthur
Miranda Richardson as Emily Brent
Toby Stephens as Doctor Edward Armstrong
Noah Taylor as Thomas Rogers
Aidan Turner as Philip Lombard
Harley Gallacher as Cyril Ogilvie Hamilton
Paul Chahidi as Isaac Morris
Charlie Russell as Audrey
Richard Hansell as Recording Artist
Christopher Hatherall as Fred Narracott
Ben Deery as Henry Richmond
Margot Edwards as Miss Brady
Rob Heaps as Hugo Hamilton
Celia Henebury as Leslie Macarthur
Tom Clegg as Landor
Daisy Waterstone as Beatrice
Catherine Bailey as Olivia Ogilvie Hamilton
Joseph Prowen as Edward Seton

text: Differences from the original novel[edit]

text:
In the book, the entire group are ferried by Fred Narracott together, except for Dr. Armstrong, who arrives later and is ferried separately. Here, Emily Brent and Anthony Marston are ferried early. Also Marston was not depicted as a cocaine addict in the book, but a dissolute wealthy playboy.
Edward Seton, the man Justice Wargrave is accused of having hanged for crimes he did not commit (but was in fact guilty), was, in the original novel, executed for the murder of his landlady to get her money. Here, he is said by Wargrave to have killed multiple people, believing he was doing the world a favour by getting rid of them.[citation needed]
In the book, Detective Sergeant William Blore is accused of having committed perjury, with the result that an innocent man was wrongly sent to jail for life, where he died. In this series, Blore is accused of beating a homosexual man to death. In the book, he is killed by a clock in the shape of a bear being dropped on his head, whereas in this production he is killed by being stabbed and draped with a bear rug.[6]
In the book, Emily Brent is killed with Dr Armstrong's hypodermic needle, and a bee put into the room to fulfill the rhyme. Here, after being given a sedative in her coffee, she is stabbed in the throat with one of her own knitting needles, embossed with her initials "EB", which, facing downward, sounds phonetically like "bee". Another variation is that in the original version, Brent's maid, Beatrice Taylor, had killed herself by drowning, not by throwing herself in front of a speeding train.
In the book, the Rogers are suspected of having withheld vital medication from their elderly employer, Miss Brady, so as to kill her, whereas in the series they suffocate her with a pillow. Mrs Rogers receives a fatal overdose of chloral hydrate in her brandy in the drawing room in the chaos after the gramophone recording, whereas here it is implied that she was administered the overdose in her bedroom. In the book, Mr Rogers is killed with an axe blow to the head while he is chopping wood, here his midriff is eviscerated by an axe.
In the book, General Macarthur has his wife (Leslie)'s lover, Arthur Richmond, killed by sending him out on a particularly deadly mission, where his death was almost assured. However, in this production General Macarthur kills Henry Richmond (as he is called here) by shooting him in the back. Macarthur himself is killed with a telescope here, whereas in the original novel he was bludgeoned by an unidentified weapon, suspected to be a life preserver.
In the book, Philip Lombard is a soldier of fortune responsible for the deaths of 21 men in East Africa by abandoning them in the desert and taking the food and supplies with him, which he does not deny. In this series, he kills the men to get diamonds.
The bacchanal that takes place in the third episode does not happen in the book.
In the book, there is no explicit romance between Vera and Lombard and they never become physically intimate with one another.
In the book, Vera hangs herself in a post-hypnotic trance after shooting Lombard dead, and never discovers the true identity of "U.N. Owen", and the reader only finds out in the postscript that Owen was Wargrave.[7] In this production, Wargrave walks into the room while Vera is about to hang herself, explains his actions and motivations, and informs her that he intends to shoot himself and create an unsolvable mystery. She tries to bargain with him but he suddenly yanks the chair from under her feet, causing her seemingly self-inflicted death.
Wargrave's death is very different from the novel. In the book, he sets up his death in his bedroom to reflect how he was last found, by shooting himself in the forehead, with a cord tied to the revolver and door knob, allowing the gun to be pulled away after firing. Here, after killing Vera, he goes to the dining room, where he sets up two place settings, presumably for himself and "U.N. Owen". He fires the bullet just under his chin, and the revolver's recoil propels the gun away, landing at the empty place setting.
In the novel, after the deaths and the arrival of help from the mainland, two policemen sit to discuss the case and ultimately are unable to solve the mystery. Later, a note from the murderer in a bottle is caught in a fishing trawler's net and the mystery is solved. Neither occurs in this version.

text: Production[edit]

text: Conception[edit]

text: And Then There Were None was commissioned by Ben Stephenson and Charlotte Moore for the BBC to mark the 125th anniversary of Agatha Christie's birth.[8] The adaptation was produced by Mammoth Screen in partnership with Agatha Christie Productions.[9][10][11]

text: Writer Sarah Phelps told the BBC that she was shocked by the starkness and brutality of the novel. Comparing the novel to Christie's other work, she stated, "Within the Marple and Poirot stories somebody is there to unravel the mystery, and that gives you a sense of safety and security, of predicting what is going to happen next... In this book that doesn't happen – no one is going to come to save you, absolutely nobody is coming to help or rescue or interpret".[12]

text: Casting[edit]

text: Maeve Dermody was cast two days before the read through of the script and was in Burma (Myanmar) at the time.[13] She flew to the UK to begin work with a dialect coach and read the book in the first two weeks of filming.[14]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Filming began in July 2015.[15] Cornwall was used for many of the harbour and beach scenes, including Holywell Bay, Kynance Cove, and Mullion Cove.[16] Harefield House in Hillingdon, outside London, served as the location for the island mansion.[17] Production designer Sophie Beccher decorated the house in the style of 1930s designers like Syrie Maugham and Elsie de Wolfe.[18] The below stairs and kitchen scenes were shot at Wrotham Park in Hertfordshire.[19] Railway scenes were filmed at the South Devon Railway between Totnes and Buckfastleigh.[20]

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
No.
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
UK viewers
(millions)

1
"Episode 1"
Craig Viveiros
Sarah Phelps
26 December 2015 (2015-12-26)
9.56[21][a]

On a hot late August day sometime in the late 1930s, eight strangers arrive at Soldier Island, most having ostensibly been invited by old friends or the current ostensible owners, Mr and Mrs Owen. There is no host to greet them but there are domestic staff, Thomas and Ethel Rogers, a married couple. The "guests" find a copy of a children's rhyme "Ten Little Soldiers" in each of their rooms and ten jade figurines on the dining room table. After dinner, Mr Rogers, who had been instructed to do so, plays a gramophone record, in which all the guests as well as Mr and Mrs Rogers, are named as being responsible for the death(s) of another human being (or other human beings) for which they evaded punishment. One of the guests (Blore) is revealed to be an impostor using another name. Eight guests refute the accusations made against them, but Philip Lombard and Anthony Marston do not. Marston dies shortly thereafter from cyanide-laced gin in a similar manner of the first little soldier. The next day, the cook Mrs Rogers is found dead in her bed from unknown causes (although Dr Armstrong diagnoses an overdose of some barbiturate), matching the second verse from the poem. Vera Claythorne shows Dr Armstrong that two of the soldiers in the dining room have disappeared.

2
"Episode 2"
Craig Viveiros
Sarah Phelps
27 December 2015 (2015-12-27)
8.45[21][a]

The poisoning of both victims casts suspicion on Dr. Armstrong who has his bag searched. As a hunt for the mysterious Mr Owen is conducted on the island, the nature behind the accusations begin to come to light; Philip Lombard confirms that he killed 21 Africans for a diamond reward, Emily Brent recounts the fateful past of her former maid, Beatrice Taylor, and General MacArthur succumbs to insanity, crippled with guilt over killing his subordinate and wife's lover, Arthur Richmond. After the General is found with his head smashed in with a telescope, the remaining seven realise that whoever left the mysterious message intends to make good on their threat, according to the rules of the nursery rhyme. Wargrave proposes a damning theory to the others that the killer is one of them. After the butler, Mr Rogers, is found split open with an axe, and Miss Brent is impaled with one of her knitting needles, the five survivors band together to search all the rooms and belongings to unmask the killer and save themselves.

3
"Episode 3"
Craig Viveiros
Sarah Phelps
28 December 2015 (2015-12-28)
8.33[21][a]

Five of the original ten are left. During a moment of confusion, Judge Wargrave is found with an apparent gunshot wound to the head and declared dead by Dr Armstrong. The judge has been dressed up to match the Chancery verse of the poem. The remaining four engage in a demented bacchanal with alcohol and drugs. Vera and Philip have sex. During the night, the doctor leaves the house, leaving the other three to believe he is the killer. An attempt for rescue is initiated, but Blore is ambushed by the killer wearing a bear skin rug, and is fatally stabbed. Subsequently, Dr Armstrong's corpse is brought in by the tide, leaving only Philip and Vera alive. Vera manages to trick Lombard and lifts his gun. When he charges at her, she shoots him dead. Delirious, she returns to her room where a noose is waiting. In a trance, she begins to hang herself. Then, Judge Wargrave walks in, quite alive, and reveals how he wanted to create an unsolvable mystery and punish the guilty, and how he intends to shoot himself to complete the poem. Vera tries to bargain with Wargrave but he pulls the chair from under her and leaves her to die. He returns to the dining room, where he has set the table for two. He loads the revolver with the final bullet and shoots himself. The revolver recoils to land at the other table setting, thus creating a presumably unsolvable mystery for the police, as Wargrave had always planned to do.

text: Reception[edit]

text: And Then There Were None received critical acclaim and was a ratings success for the BBC, with the first episode netting over 6 million viewers and becoming the second most watched programme on Boxing Day. Each of the two subsequent episodes netted over 5 million viewers.[22]

text: Despite criticism ahead of the programme's launch from the Daily Mail that the production deviated from Agatha Christie's source material,[23] And Then There Were None received critical acclaim. Ben Dowell of the Radio Times gave a positive review.[24] Jasper Reese for The Daily Telegraph gave the first episode 4 out of 5 stars, calling it a "pitch-black psychological thriller as teasing murder mystery" and "spiffingly watchable".[25]

text: Reviewing the first episode, UK daily newspaper The Guardian's Sam Wollaston noted, "[...] it also manages to be loyal, not just in plot but in spirit as well. I think the queen of crime would approve. I certainly do. Mass murder rarely gets as fun as this."[26] Reviewing the final episode for The Daily Telegraph, Tim Martin gave it 4 out of 5 stars, calling it a "class act", and praising the adaptation for highlighting the darkness of Christie's novel, which he claimed no previous adaptation had attempted.[27]


document_title: Colosseum

question_text: what was the colosseum built on top of

question_tokens: what was the colosseum built on top of

text: Colosseum

text: History

text: Construction, inauguration, and Roman renovations

text: The site chosen was a flat area on the floor of a low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine Hills, through which a canalised stream ran. By the 2nd century BC the area was densely inhabited. It was devastated by the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, following which Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. He built the grandiose Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes. The existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended to supply water to the area and the gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero was set up nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.[15]

text: Although the Colossus was preserved, much of the Domus Aurea was torn down. The lake was filled in and the land reused as the location for the new Flavian Amphitheatre. Gladiatorial schools and other support buildings were constructed nearby within the former grounds of the Domus Aurea. Vespasian's decision to build the Colosseum on the site of Nero's lake can be seen as a populist gesture of returning to the people an area of the city which Nero had appropriated for his own use. In contrast to many other amphitheatres, which were located on the outskirts of a city, the Colosseum was constructed in the city centre; in effect, placing it both symbolically and precisely at the heart of Rome.

text: Construction was funded by the opulent spoils taken from the Jewish Temple after the Great Jewish Revolt in 70 AD led to the Siege of Jerusalem. According to a reconstructed inscription found on the site, "the emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheatre to be erected from his general's share of the booty." Along with the spoils, estimated 100,000 Jewish prisoners were brought back to Rome after the war, and many contributed to the massive workforce needed for construction. The slaves undertook manual labor such as working in the quarries at Tivoli where the travertine was quarried, along with lifting and transporting the quarried stones 20 miles from Tivoli to Rome.[16] Along with this free source of unskilled labor, teams of professional Roman builders, engineers, artists, painters and decorators undertook the more specialized tasks necessary for building the Colosseum.

text: Construction of the Colosseum began under the rule of Vespasian[4] in around 70–72 AD (73-75 AD according to some sources)[16] The Colosseum had been completed up to the third story by the time of Vespasian's death in 79. The top level was finished by his son, Titus, in 80,[4] and the inaugural games were held in A.D. 80 or 81.[16] Dio Cassius recounts that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the inaugural games of the amphitheatre. Commemorative coinage was issued celebrating the inauguration.[17] The building was remodelled further under Vespasian's younger son, the newly designated Emperor Domitian, who constructed the hypogeum, a series of underground tunnels used to house animals and slaves. He also added a gallery to the top of the Colosseum to increase its seating capacity.[18]

text: In 217, the Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire (caused by lightning, according to Dio Cassius[19]) which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre's interior. It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. Gladiatorial fights are last mentioned around 435. An inscription records the restoration of various parts of the Colosseum under Theodosius II and Valentinian III (reigned 425–455), possibly to repair damage caused by a major earthquake in 443; more work followed in 484[20] and 508. The arena continued to be used for contests well into the 6th century. Animal hunts continued until at least 523, when Anicius Maximus celebrated his consulship with some venationes, criticised by King Theodoric the Great for their high cost.[15]

text: Medieval

text: The Colosseum underwent several radical changes of use during the medieval period. By the late 6th century a small chapel had been built into the structure of the amphitheater, though this apparently did not confer any particular religious significance on the building as a whole. The arena was converted into a cemetery. The numerous vaulted spaces in the arcades under the seating were converted into housing and workshops, and are recorded as still being rented out as late as the 12th century. Around 1200 the Frangipani family took over the Colosseum and fortified it, apparently using it as a castle.

text: Severe damage was inflicted on the Colosseum by the great earthquake in 1349, causing the outer south side, lying on a less stable alluvial terrain, to collapse. Much of the tumbled stone was reused to build palaces, churches, hospitals and other buildings elsewhere in Rome. A religious order moved into the northern third of the Colosseum in the mid-14th century [21] and continued to inhabit it until as late as the early 19th century. The interior of the amphitheater was extensively stripped of stone, which was reused elsewhere, or (in the case of the marble façade) was burned to make quicklime.[15] The bronze clamps which held the stonework together were pried or hacked out of the walls, leaving numerous pockmarks which still scar the building today.

text: Modern

text: During the 16th and 17th century, Church officials sought a productive role for the Colosseum. Pope Sixtus V (1585–1590) planned to turn the building into a wool factory to provide employment for Rome's prostitutes, though this proposal fell through with his premature death.[22] In 1671 Cardinal Altieri authorized its use for bullfights; a public outcry caused the idea to be hastily abandoned.

text: In 1749, Pope Benedict XIV endorsed the view that the Colosseum was a sacred site where early Christians had been martyred. He forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry and consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who perished there (see Significance in Christianity). However, there is no historical evidence to support Benedict's claim, nor is there even any evidence that anyone before the 16th century suggested this might be the case; the Catholic Encyclopedia concludes that there are no historical grounds for the supposition, other than the reasonably plausible conjecture that some of the many martyrs may well have been.[23]

text: Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects, removing the extensive vegetation which had overgrown the structure and threatened to damage it further. The façade was reinforced with triangular brick wedges in 1807 and 1827, and the interior was repaired in 1831, 1846 and in the 1930s. The arena substructure was partly excavated in 1810–1814 and 1874 and was fully exposed under Benito Mussolini in the 1930s.[15]

text: The Colosseum is today one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions, receiving millions of visitors annually. The effects of pollution and general deterioration over time prompted a major restoration programme carried out between 1993 and 2000, at a cost of 40 billion Italian lire ($19.3m / €20.6m at 2000 prices).

text: In recent years the Colosseum has become a symbol of the international campaign against capital punishment, which was abolished in Italy in 1948. Several anti–death penalty demonstrations took place in front of the Colosseum in 2000. Since that time, as a gesture against the death penalty, the local authorities of Rome change the color of the Colosseum's night time illumination from white to gold whenever a person condemned to the death penalty anywhere in the world gets their sentence commuted or is released,[24] or if a jurisdiction abolishes the death penalty. Most recently, the Colosseum was illuminated in gold in November 2012 following the abolishment of capital punishment in the American state of Connecticut in April 2012.[25]

text: Because of the ruined state of the interior, it is impractical to use the Colosseum to host large events; only a few hundred spectators can be accommodated in temporary seating. However, much larger concerts have been held just outside, using the Colosseum as a backdrop. Performers who have played at the Colosseum in recent years have included Ray Charles (May 2002),[26] Paul McCartney (May 2003),[27] Elton John (September 2005),[28] and Billy Joel (July 2006).

text: Physical description

text: Exterior

text: Unlike earlier Greek theatres that were built into hillsides, the Colosseum is an entirely free-standing structure. It derives its basic exterior and interior architecture from that of two Roman theatres back to back. It is elliptical in plan and is 189 meters (615 ft / 640 Roman feet) long, and 156 meters (510 ft / 528 Roman feet) wide, with a base area of 24,000 square metres (6 acres). The height of the outer wall is 48 meters (157 ft / 165 Roman feet). The perimeter originally measured 545 meters (1,788 ft / 1,835 Roman feet). The central arena is an oval 87 m (287 ft) long and 55 m (180 ft) wide, surrounded by a wall 5 m (15 ft) high, above which rose tiers of seating.

text: The outer wall is estimated to have required over 100,000 cubic metres (3,531,467 cubic feet) of travertine stone which were set without mortar; they were held together by 300 tons of iron clamps.[15] However, it has suffered extensive damage over the centuries, with large segments having collapsed following earthquakes. The north side of the perimeter wall is still standing; the distinctive triangular brick wedges at each end are modern additions, having been constructed in the early 19th century to shore up the wall. The remainder of the present-day exterior of the Colosseum is in fact the original interior wall.

text: The surviving part of the outer wall's monumental façade comprises three stories of superimposed arcades surmounted by a podium on which stands a tall attic, both of which are pierced by windows interspersed at regular intervals. The arcades are framed by half-columns of the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, while the attic is decorated with Corinthian pilasters.[29] Each of the arches in the second- and third-floor arcades framed statues, probably honoring divinities and other figures from Classical mythology.

text: Two hundred and forty mast corbels were positioned around the top of the attic. They originally supported a retractable awning, known as the velarium, that kept the sun and rain off spectators. This consisted of a canvas-covered, net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center.[4] It covered two-thirds of the arena, and sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors, specially enlisted from the Roman naval headquarters at Misenum and housed in the nearby Castra Misenatium, were used to work the velarium.[30]

text: The Colosseum's huge crowd capacity made it essential that the venue could be filled or evacuated quickly. Its architects adopted solutions very similar to those used in modern stadiums to deal with the same problem. The amphitheatre was ringed by eighty entrances at ground level, 76 of which were used by ordinary spectators.[4] Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. The northern main entrance was reserved for the Roman Emperor and his aides, whilst the other three axial entrances were most likely used by the elite. All four axial entrances were richly decorated with painted stucco reliefs, of which fragments survive. Many of the original outer entrances have disappeared with the collapse of the perimeter wall, but entrances XXIII (23) to LIV (54) survive.[15]

text: Spectators were given tickets in the form of numbered pottery shards, which directed them to the appropriate section and row. They accessed their seats via vomitoria (singular vomitorium), passageways that opened into a tier of seats from below or behind. These quickly dispersed people into their seats and, upon conclusion of the event or in an emergency evacuation, could permit their exit within only a few minutes. The name vomitoria derived from the Latin word for a rapid discharge, from which English derives the word vomit.

text: Interior seating

text: According to the Codex-Calendar of 354, the Colosseum could accommodate 87,000 people, although modern estimates put the figure at around 50,000. They were seated in a tiered arrangement that reflected the rigidly stratified nature of Roman society. Special boxes were provided at the north and south ends respectively for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins, providing the best views of the arena. Flanking them at the same level was a broad platform or podium for the senatorial class, who were allowed to bring their own chairs. The names of some 5th century senators can still be seen carved into the stonework, presumably reserving areas for their use.

text: The tier above the senators, known as the maenianum primum, was occupied by the non-senatorial noble class or knights (equites). The next level up, the maenianum secundum, was originally reserved for ordinary Roman citizens (plebeians) and was divided into two sections. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the summum) was for poor citizens. Specific sectors were provided for other social groups: for instance, boys with their tutors, soldiers on leave, foreign dignitaries, scribes, heralds, priests and so on. Stone (and later marble) seating was provided for the citizens and nobles, who presumably would have brought their own cushions with them. Inscriptions identified the areas reserved for specific groups.

text: Another level, the maenianum secundum in legneis, was added at the very top of the building during the reign of Domitian. This comprised a gallery for the common poor, slaves and women. It would have been either standing room only, or would have had very steep wooden benches. Some groups were banned altogether from the Colosseum, notably gravediggers, actors and former gladiators.[15]

text: Each tier was divided into sections (maeniana) by curved passages and low walls (praecinctiones or baltei), and were subdivided into cunei, or wedges, by the steps and aisles from the vomitoria. Each row (gradus) of seats was numbered, permitting each individual seat to be exactly designated by its gradus, cuneus, and number.[31]

text: Arena and hypogeum

text: The arena itself was 83 meters by 48 meters (272 ft by 157 ft / 280 by 163 Roman feet).[15] It comprised a wooden floor covered by sand (the Latin word for sand is harena or arena), covering an elaborate underground structure called the hypogeum (literally meaning "underground"). The hypogeum was not part of the original construction but was ordered to be built by Emperor Domitian. Little now remains of the original arena floor, but the hypogeum is still clearly visible. It consisted of a two-level subterranean network of tunnels and cages beneath the arena where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. Eighty vertical shafts provided instant access to the arena for caged animals and scenery pieces concealed underneath; larger hinged platforms, called hegmata, provided access for elephants and the like. It was restructured on numerous occasions; at least twelve different phases of construction can be seen.[15]

text: The hypogeum was connected by underground tunnels to a number of points outside the Colosseum. Animals and performers were brought through the tunnel from nearby stables, with the gladiators' barracks at the Ludus Magnus to the east also being connected by tunnels. Separate tunnels were provided for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins to permit them to enter and exit the Colosseum without needing to pass through the crowds.[15]

text: Substantial quantities of machinery also existed in the hypogeum. Elevators and pulleys raised and lowered scenery and props, as well as lifting caged animals to the surface for release. There is evidence for the existence of major hydraulic mechanisms[15] and according to ancient accounts, it was possible to flood the arena rapidly, presumably via a connection to a nearby aqueduct. However, the construction of the hypogeum at Domitian's behest put an end to the practise of flooding, and thus also to naval battles, early in the Colosseum's existence.

text: Supporting buildings

text: The Colosseum and its activities supported a substantial industry in the area. In addition to the amphitheatre itself, many other buildings nearby were linked to the games. Immediately to the east is the remains of the Ludus Magnus, a training school for gladiators. This was connected to the Colosseum by an underground passage, to allow easy access for the gladiators. The Ludus Magnus had its own miniature training arena, which was itself a popular attraction for Roman spectators. Other training schools were in the same area, including the Ludus Matutinus (Morning School), where fighters of animals were trained, plus the Dacian and Gallic Schools.

text: Also nearby were the Armamentarium, comprising an armory to store weapons; the Summum Choragium, where machinery was stored; the Sanitarium, which had facilities to treat wounded gladiators; and the Spoliarium, where bodies of dead gladiators were stripped of their armor and disposed of.

text: Around the perimeter of the Colosseum, at a distance of 18 m (59 ft) from the perimeter, was a series of tall stone posts, with five remaining on the eastern side. Various explanations have been advanced for their presence; they may have been a religious boundary, or an outer boundary for ticket checks, or an anchor for the velarium or awning.[15]

text: Right next to the Colosseum is also the Arch of Constantine.

text: Use

text: The Colosseum was used to host gladiatorial shows as well as a variety of other events. The shows, called munera, were always given by private individuals rather than the state. They had a strong religious element but were also demonstrations of power and family prestige, and were immensely popular with the population. Another popular type of show was the animal hunt, or venatio. This utilized a great variety of wild beasts, mainly imported from Africa and the Middle East, and included creatures such as rhinoceros, hippopotamuses, elephants, giraffes, aurochs, wisents, Barbary lions, panthers, leopards, bears, Caspian tigers, crocodiles and ostriches. Battles and hunts were often staged amid elaborate sets with movable trees and buildings. Such events were occasionally on a huge scale; Trajan is said to have celebrated his victories in Dacia in 107 with contests involving 11,000 animals and 10,000 gladiators over the course of 123 days. During lunch intervals, executions ad bestias would be staged. Those condemned to death would be sent into the arena, naked and unarmed, to face the beasts of death which would literally tear them to pieces. Other performances would also take place by acrobats and magicians, typically during the intervals.

text: During the early days of the Colosseum, ancient writers recorded that the building was used for naumachiae (more properly known as navalia proelia) or simulated sea battles. Accounts of the inaugural games held by Titus in AD 80 describe it being filled with water for a display of specially trained swimming horses and bulls. There is also an account of a re-enactment of a famous sea battle between the Corcyrean (Corfiot) Greeks and the Corinthians. This has been the subject of some debate among historians; although providing the water would not have been a problem, it is unclear how the arena could have been waterproofed, nor would there have been enough space in the arena for the warships to move around. It has been suggested that the reports either have the location wrong, or that the Colosseum originally featured a wide floodable channel down its central axis (which would later have been replaced by the hypogeum).[15]

text: Sylvae or recreations of natural scenes were also held in the arena. Painters, technicians and architects would construct a simulation of a forest with real trees and bushes planted in the arena's floor, and animals would then be introduced. Such scenes might be used simply to display a natural environment for the urban population, or could otherwise be used as the backdrop for hunts or dramas depicting episodes from mythology. They were also occasionally used for executions in which the hero of the story – played by a condemned person – was killed in one of various gruesome but mythologically authentic ways, such as being mauled by beasts or burned to death.

text: Today

text: The Colosseum today is now a major tourist attraction in Rome with thousands of tourists each year paying to view the interior arena, though entrance for citizens of the European Union (EU) is partially subsidised, and entrance is free for EU citizens under eighteen or over sixty-five years of age.[32] There is now a museum dedicated to Eros located in the upper floor of the outer wall of the building. Part of the arena floor has been re-floored. Beneath the Colosseum, a network of subterranean passageways once used to transport wild animals and gladiators to the arena opened to the public in summer 2010.[33]

text: The Colosseum is also the site of Roman Catholic ceremonies in the 20th and 21st centuries. For instance, Pope Benedict XVI led the Stations of the Cross called the Scriptural Way of the Cross (which calls for more meditation) at the Colosseum[34][35] on Good Fridays.[9]

text: Restoration

text: In 2011 Diego Della Valle, head of the shoe firm Tod's, entered into an agreement with local officials to sponsor a €25 million restoration of the Colosseum. Work was planned to begin at the end of 2011, taking up to two and a half years.[36] Due to the controversial nature of using a public–private partnership to fund the restoration, work was delayed and began in 2013. The restoration is the first full cleaning and repair in the Colosseum's history.[37] The first stage is to clean and restore the Colosseum's arcaded façade and replace the metal enclosures that block the ground-level arches. Taking three years, the final product of this work was unveiled July 1, 2016, when the Italian minister of culture, Dario Franceschini, also announced that the funds have been committed to replace the floors by the end of 2018. These will provide a stage that Franceschini says will be used for "cultural events of the highest level."[38] The project also plans to create a services center and to restore the galleries and underground spaces inside the Colosseum.[39]. New to tours of the restored marvel beginning November 1, 2017, the top two levels have been opened for guided visits. The fourth level held the marketplace, and the top fifth tier is where the poorest citizens, the plebians, gathered and watched the show, bringing picnics for the day-long event. [40]

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text: Significance in Christianity

text: The Colosseum is generally regarded by Christians as a site of the martyrdom of large numbers of believers during the persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire, as evidenced by Church history and tradition.[41][42][43] On the other hand, other scholars believe that the majority of martyrdoms may have occurred at other venues within the city of Rome, rather than at the Colosseum, citing a lack of still-intact physical evidence or historical records.[44][45] These scholars assert that "some Christians were executed as common criminals in the Colosseum—their crime being refusal to reverence the Roman gods", but most Christian martyrs of the early Church were executed for their faith at the Circus Maximus.[46][47] According to Irenæus (died about 202), Ignatius of Antioch was fed to the lions in Rome around 107 A.D and although Irenaeus says nothing about this happening at the Colosseum, tradition ascribes it to that place.[48][49][50][51]

text: In the Middle Ages, the Colosseum was not regarded as a monument, and was used as what some modern sources label a "quarry,"[52] which is to say that stones from the Colosseum were taken for the building of other sacred sites.[53] This fact is used to support the idea that, at a time when sites associated with martyrs were highly venerated the Colosseum was not being treated as a sacred site.[54] It was not included in the itineraries compiled for the use of pilgrims nor in works such as the 12th century Mirabilia Urbis Romae ("Marvels of the City of Rome"), which claims the Circus Flaminius – but not the Colosseum – as the site of martyrdoms.[55] Part of the structure was inhabited by a Christian religious order, but it is not known whether this was for any particular religious reason.

text: Pope Pius V (1566–1572) is said to have recommended that pilgrims gather sand from the arena of the Colosseum to serve as a relic, on the grounds that it was impregnated with the blood of martyrs, although some of his contemporaries did not share his conviction.[56] A century later Fioravante Martinelli listed the Colosseum at the head of a list of places sacred to the martyrs in his 1653 book Roma ex ethnica sacra. Martinelli's book evidently had an effect on public opinion; in response to Cardinal Altieri's proposal some years later to turn the Colosseum into a bullring, Carlo Tomassi published a pamphlet in protest against what he regarded as an act of desecration. The ensuing controversy persuaded Pope Clement X to close the Colosseum's external arcades and declare it a sanctuary.[57]

text: At the insistence of St. Leonard of Port Maurice, Pope Benedict XIV (1740–1758) forbade the quarrying of the Colosseum and erected Stations of the Cross around the arena, which remained until February 1874.[58] Benedict Joseph Labre spent the later years of his life within the walls of the Colosseum, living on alms, before he died in 1783.[58] Several 19th century popes funded repair and restoration work on the Colosseum, and it still retains its Christian connection today. A Christian cross stands in the Colosseum, with a plaque, stating:

text: The amphitheater, one consecrated to triumphs, entertainments, and the impious worship of pagan gods, is now dedicated to the sufferings of the martyrs purified from impious superstitions.[48]

text: Other Christian crosses stand in several points around the arena and every Good Friday the Pope leads a Via Crucis procession to the amphitheater.

text: Flora

text: The Colosseum has a wide and well-documented history of flora ever since Domenico Panaroli made the first catalogue of its plants in 1643. Since then, 684 species have been identified there. The peak was in 1855 (420 species). Attempts were made in 1871 to eradicate the vegetation, because of concerns over the damage that was being caused to the masonry, but much of it has returned.[15] 242 species have been counted today and of the species first identified by Panaroli, 200 remain.

text: The variation of plants can be explained by the change of climate in Rome through the centuries. Additionally, bird migration, flower blooming, and the growth of Rome that caused the Colosseum to become embedded within the modern city centre rather than on the outskirts of the ancient city, as well as deliberate transport of species, are also contributing causes. Another reason often given is their seeds being unwittingly transported either on the fur or in the feces of animals brought there from all corners of the empire.[59]

text: Works modeled on, or inspired by, the Colosseum

text:
The Kongresshalle, or "Congress Hall", (1935, unfinished) at the Nazi Party Rally grounds, Nuremberg, Germany
The Summer Olympic Games medal from 1928 to 2000, designed by Giuseppe Cassioli, features a depiction of the Colosseum. At the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens the Colosseum was replaced by a depiction of the Panathinaiko Stadium
The exterior of the Vancouver Public Library in British Columbia resembles the current state of the Colosseum. It was designed by Moshe Safdie.
The Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum entrance was inspired by the Colosseum.
The Palazzo della Civilta Italiana was very closely modelled on the Colosseum. It was built for Mussolini for the Universal Exhibition of 1942 but the exhibition never happened due to the outbreak of World War II. The architects were Giovanni Guerrini, Ernesto Bruno La Padula, and Mario Romano.

text: Popular culture references

text: The Colosseum was featured in the 2010 video game Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood. The Colosseum is of great importance to the entire Assassin's Creed series as a whole: first, it was an entrance site to a Lair of Romulus, second, the Lair beneath the Colosseum led directly to the Temple of Juno Moneta which housed the Apple of Eden, third, it was used in a Passion Play depicting Jesus Christ's crucifixion where an assassination attempt was unfoiled by the protagonist Ezio Auditore da Firenze, fourth, in the 21st century, Desmond Miles freeran through the maze in the Colosseum in order to find the Temple of Juno Moneta below the Basilica of Santa Maria in Ara Coeli and the Apple kept in it by Ezio in 1506 and fifth, it has a glyph at the top.[60] In addition, the Colosseum is elliptical (oval-shaped) in reality, but it was made circular for Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood, since devising shadows for different sides of the buildings would have "driven game designers nuts".[61]