document_title: Upwelling

question_text: zones of upwelling near the shores of land masses have high primary production because such zones

root

text: Upwelling

text: Mechanisms[edit]

text: The three main drivers that work together to cause upwelling are wind, Coriolis effect, and Ekman transport.  They operate differently for different types of upwelling, but the general effects are the same.[5]  In the overall process of upwelling, winds blow across the sea surface at a particular direction, which causes a wind-water interaction.  As a result of the wind, the water is transported a net of 90 degrees from the direction of the wind due to Coriolis forces and Ekman transport.  Ekman transport causes the surface layer of water to move at about a 45 degree angle from the direction of the wind, and the friction between that layer and the layer beneath it causes the successive layers to move in the same direction.  This results in a spiral of water movement down the water column.  Then, it is the Coriolis forces that dictate which way the water will move; in the Northern hemisphere, the water is transported to the right of the direction of the wind.  In the Southern Hemisphere, the water is transported to the left of the wind.[6]  If this net movement of water is divergent, then upwelling of deep water occurs to replace the water that was lost.[1][5]

tag: p

text: Types[edit]

text: The major upwellings in the ocean are associated with the divergence of currents that bring deeper, colder, nutrient rich waters to the surface.  There are at least five types of upwelling: coastal upwelling, large-scale wind-driven upwelling in the ocean interior, upwelling associated with eddies, topographically-associated upwelling, and broad-diffusive upwelling in the ocean interior.

text: Coastal[edit]

text: Coastal upwelling is the best known type of upwelling, and the most closely related to human activities as it supports some of the most productive fisheries in the world. Wind-driven currents are diverted to the right of the winds in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere due to the Coriolis effect.  The result is a net movement of surface water at right angles to the direction of the wind, known as the Ekman transport (See also Ekman Spiral).   When Ekman transport is occurring away from the coast, surface waters moving away are replaced by deeper, colder, and denser water.[4]  Normally, this upwelling process occurs at a rate of about 5–10 meters per day, but the rate and proximity of upwelling to the coast can be changed due to the strength and distance of the wind.[1][7]

text: Deep waters are rich in nutrients, including nitrate, phosphate and silicic acid, themselves the result of decomposition of sinking organic matter (dead/detrital plankton) from surface waters. When brought to the surface, these nutrients are utilized by phytoplankton, along with dissolved CO2 (carbon dioxide) and light energy from the sun, to produce organic compounds, through the process of photosynthesis.  Upwelling regions therefore result in very high levels of primary production (the amount of carbon fixed by phytoplankton) in comparison to other areas of the ocean. They account for about 50% of global marine productivity.[8]  High primary production propagates up the food chain because phytoplankton are at the base of the oceanic food chain.[9]

text: The food chain follows the course of:

text: Phytoplankton → Zooplankton → Predatory zooplankton → Filter feeders → Predatory fish [4] → Marine birds, marine mammals [10]

tag: ul

text: Worldwide, there are five major coastal currents associated with upwelling areas: the Canary Current (off Northwest Africa), the Benguela Current (off southern Africa), the California Current (off California and Oregon), the Humboldt Current (off Peru and Chile), and the Somali Current (off Somalia and Oman).  All of these currents support major fisheries.  The four major eastern boundary currents in which coastal upwelling primarily occurs are the Canary Current, Benguela Current, California Current, and Humboldt Current.[11]  The Benguela Current is the eastern boundary of the South Atlantic subtropical gyre and can be divided into a northern and southern sub-system with upwelling occurring in both areas.  The subsystems are divided by an area of permanent upwelling off of Luderitz, which is the strongest upwelling zone in the world.  The California Current System (CCS) is an eastern boundary current of the North Pacific that is also characterized by a north and south split.  The split in this system occurs at Point Conception, California due to weak upwelling in the South and strong upwelling in the north.  The Canary Current is an eastern boundary current of the North Atlantic Gyre and is also separated due to the presence of the Canary Islands.  Finally, the Humboldt Current or the Peru Current flows west along the coast of South America from Peru to Chile and extends up to 1,000 kilometers offshore.[8]  These four eastern boundary currents comprise the majority of coastal upwelling zones in the oceans.

text: Equatorial[edit]

text: Upwelling at the equator is associated with the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) which actually moves, and consequently, is often located just north or south of the equator. Easterly (westward) trade winds blow from the Northeast and Southeast and converge along the equator blowing West to form the ITCZ.  Although there are no Coriolis forces present along the equator, upwelling still occurs just north and south of the equator. This results in a divergence, with denser, nutrient-rich water being upwelled from below, and results in the remarkable fact that the equatorial region in the Pacific can be detected from space as a broad line of high phytoplankton concentration.[3]

text: Southern Ocean[edit]

text: Large-scale upwelling is also found in the Southern Ocean. Here, strong westerly (eastward) winds blow around Antarctica, driving a significant flow of water northwards. This is actually a type of coastal upwelling.  Since there are no continents in a band of open latitudes between South America and the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula, some of this water is drawn up from great depths. In many numerical models and observational syntheses, the Southern Ocean upwelling represents the primary means by which deep dense water is brought to the surface. In some regions of Antarctica, wind-driven upwelling near the coast pulls relatively warm Circumpolar deep water onto the continental shelf, where it can enhance ice shelf melt and influence ice sheet stability.[12] Shallower, wind-driven upwelling is also found in off the west coasts of North and South America, northwest and southwest Africa, and southwest and south Australia, all associated with oceanic subtropical high pressure circulations (see coastal upwelling above).

text: Some models of the ocean circulation suggest that broad-scale upwelling occurs in the tropics, as pressure driven flows converge water toward the low latitudes where it is diffusively warmed from above. The required diffusion coefficients, however, appear to be larger than are observed in the real ocean. Nonetheless, some diffusive upwelling does probably occur.

text: Other sources[edit]

text:
Local and intermittent upwellings may occur when offshore islands, ridges, or seamounts cause a deflection of deep currents, providing a nutrient rich area in otherwise low productivity ocean areas.  Examples include upwellings around the Galapagos Islands and the Seychelles Islands, which have major pelagic fisheries.[3]
Upwelling can also occur when a tropical cyclone transits an area, usually when moving at speeds of less than 5 mph (8 km/h). The churning of a cyclone eventually draws up cooler water from lower layers of the ocean. This causes the cyclone to weaken.
Artificial upwelling is produced by devices that use ocean wave energy or ocean thermal energy conversion to pump water to the surface. Ocean wind turbines are also known to produce upwellings.[13]  Ocean wave devices have been shown to produce plankton blooms.[14]

text: Variations[edit]

text: Upwelling intensity depends on wind strength and seasonal variability, as well as the vertical structure of the water, variations in the bottom bathymetry, and instabilities in the currents.

text: In some areas, upwelling is a seasonal event leading to periodic bursts of productivity similar to spring blooms in coastal waters.  Wind-induced upwelling is generated by temperature differences between the warm, light air above the land and the cooler denser air over the sea.  In temperate latitudes, the temperature contrast is greatly seasonably variable, creating periods of strong upwelling in the spring and summer, to weak or no upwelling in the winter.  For example, off the coast of Oregon, there are four or five strong upwelling events separated by periods of little to no upwelling during the six-month season of upwelling.  In contrast, tropical latitudes have a more constant temperature contrast, creating constant upwelling throughout the year.  The Peruvian upwelling, for instance, occurs throughout most of the year, resulting in one of the world's largest marine fisheries for sardines and anchovies.[4]

text: In anomalous years when the trade winds weaken or reverse, the water that is upwelled is much warmer and low in nutrients, resulting in a sharp reduction in the biomass and  phytoplankton productivity.  This event is known as the El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) event.  The Peruvian upwelling system is particularly vulnerable to ENSO events, and can cause extreme interannual variability in productivity.[4]

text: Changes in bathymetry can affect the strength of an upwelling.  For example, a submarine ridge that extends out from the coast will produce more favorable upwelling conditions than neighboring regions.  Upwelling typically begins at such ridges and remains strongest at the ridge even after developing in other locations.[4]

text: High productivity[edit]

text: Since upwelling regions are important sources of marine productivity, and they attract hundreds of species throughout the trophic levels, the diversity of these systems has been a focal point for marine research.  While studying the trophic levels and patterns typical of upwelling regions, researchers have discovered that upwelling systems exhibit a wasp-waist richness pattern.  In this type of pattern, the high and low trophic levels are well-represented by high species diversity.  However, the intermediate trophic level is only represented by one or two species.  This trophic layer, which consists of small, pelagic fish usually makes up about only three to four percent of the species diversity of all fish species present.  The lower trophic layers are very well-represented with about 500 species of copepods, 2500 species of gastropods, and 2500 species of crustaceans on average.  At the apex and near-apex trophic levels, there are usually about 100 species of marine mammals and about 50 species of marine birds.  The vital intermediate trophic species however are small pelagic fish that usually feed on phytoplankton.  In most upwelling systems, these species are either anchovies or sardines, and usually only one is present, although two or three species may be present occasionally.  These fish are an important food source for predators, such as large pelagic fish, marine mammals, and marine birds.  Although they are not at the base of the trophic pyramid, they are the vital species that connect the entire marine ecosystem and keep the productivity of upwelling zones so high[11]

text: Threats to upwelling ecosystems[edit]

text: A major threat to both this crucial intermediate trophic level and the entire upwelling trophic ecosystem is the problem of commercial fishing.  Since upwelling regions are the most productive and species rich areas in the world, they attract a high number of commercial fishers and fisheries.  On one hand, this is another benefit of the upwelling process as it serves as a viable source of food and income for so many people and nations besides marine animals.  However, just as in any ecosystem, the consequences of over-fishing from a population could be detrimental to that population and the ecosystem as a whole.  In upwelling ecosystems, every species present plays a vital role in the functioning of that ecosystem.  If one species is significantly depleted, that will have an effect throughout the rest of the trophic levels.  For example, if a popular prey species is targeted by fisheries, fishermen may collect hundreds of thousands of individuals of this species just by casting their nets into the upwelling waters.  As these fish are depleted, the food source for those who preyed on these fish is depleted.  Therefore, the predators of the targeted fish will begin to die off, and there will not be as many of them to feed the predators above them.  This system continues throughout the entire food chain, resulting in a possible collapse of the ecosystem.  It is possible that the ecosystem may be restored over time, but not all species can recover from events such as these.  Even if the species can adapt, there may be a delay in the reconstruction of this upwelling community.[11]

text: The possibility of such an ecosystem collapse is the very danger of fisheries in upwelling regions.  Fisheries may target a variety of different species, and therefore they are a direct threat to many species in the ecosystem, however they pose the highest threat to the intermediate pelagic fish.  Since these fish form the crux of the entire trophic process of upwelling ecosystems, they are highly represented throughout the ecosystem (even if there is only one species present).  Unfortunately, these fish tend to be the most popular targets of fisheries as about 64 percent of their entire catch consists of pelagic fish.  Among those, the six main species that usually form the intermediate trophic layer represent over half of the catch.[11]

text: Besides directly causing the collapse of the ecosystem due to their absence, this can create problems in the ecosystem through a variety of other methods as well.  The animals higher in the trophic levels may not completely starve to death and die off, but the decreased food supply could still hurt the populations.  If animals do not get enough food, it will decrease their reproductive viability meaning that they will not breed as often or as successfully as usual.  This can lead to a decreasing population, especially in species that do not breed often under normal circumstances or become reproductively mature late in life.  Another problem is that the decrease in the population of a species due to fisheries can lead to a decrease in genetic diversity, resulting in a decrease in bio-diversity of a species.  If the species diversity is decreased significantly, this could cause problems for the species in an environment that is so variable and quick-changing; they may not be able to adapt, which could result in a collapse of the population or ecosystem.[11]

text: Another threat to the productivity and ecosystems of upwelling regions is El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) system, or more specifically El Niño events.  During the normal period and La Niña events, the easterly trade winds are still strong, which continues to drive the process of upwelling.  However, during El Niño events, trade winds are weaker, causing decreased upwelling in the equatorial regions as the divergence of water north and south of the equator is not as strong or as prevalent.  The coastal upwelling zones diminish as well since they are wind driven systems, and the wind is no longer a very strong driving force in these areas.  As a result, global upwelling drastically decreases, causing a decrease in productivity as the waters are no longer receiving nutrient-rich water.  Without these nutrients, the rest of the trophic pyramid cannot be sustained, and the rich upwelling ecosystem will collapse.[15]


document_title: Greek alphabet

question_text: what is the fifth letter of the greek alphabet

question_tokens: what is the fifth letter of the greek alphabet

text: Greek alphabet

text: Letters

text:
Letter
Name
Sound

Ancient[7]
Modern[8]

Α α
alpha, άλφα
[a] [aː]
[a]

Β β
beta, βήτα
[b]
[v]

Γ γ
gamma, γάμμα
[ɡ], [ŋ][ex 1]
[ɣ] ~ [ʝ],
[ŋ][ex 2] ~ [ɲ][ex 3]

Δ δ
delta, δέλτα
[d]
[ð]

Ε ε
epsilon, έψιλον
[e]

Ζ ζ
zeta, ζήτα
[zd]A
[z]

Η η
eta, ήτα
[ɛː]
[i]

Θ θ
theta, θήτα
[tʰ]
[θ]

Ι ι
iota, ιώτα
[i] [iː]
[i], [ç],[ex 4] [ʝ],[ex 5] [ɲ][ex 6]

Κ κ
kappa, κάππα
[k]
[k] ~ [c]

Λ λ
lambda, λάμδα
[l]

Μ μ
mu, μυ
[m]

 A Or [dz].[9]

Letter
Name
Sound

Ancient[7]
Modern[8]

Ν ν
nu, νυ
[n]

Ξ ξ
xi, ξι
[ks]

Ο ο
omicron, όμικρον
[o]

Π π
pi, πι
[p]

Ρ ρ
rho, ρώ
[r]

Σ σ/ς[note 1]
sigma, σίγμα
[s]
[s] ~ [z]

Τ τ
tau, ταυ
[t]

Υ υ
upsilon, ύψιλον
[y] [yː]
[i]

Φ φ
phi, φι
[pʰ]
[f]

Χ χ
chi, χι
[kʰ]
[x] ~ [ç]

Ψ ψ
psi, ψι
[ps]

Ω ω
omega, ωμέγα
[ɔː]
[o]

tag: table

text:
Jump up ^ For example, ἀγκών.
Jump up ^ For example, εγγραφή.
Jump up ^ For example, εγγεγραμμένος.
Jump up ^ For example, ηλίθιος.
Jump up ^ For example, βια.
Jump up ^ For example, μια.

tag: ol

text: Sound values

text: In both Ancient and Modern Greek, the letters of the Greek alphabet have fairly stable and consistent symbol-to-sound mappings, making pronunciation of words largely predictable. Ancient Greek spelling was generally near-phonemic. For a number of letters, sound values differ considerably between Ancient and Modern Greek, because their pronunciation has followed a set of systematic phonological shifts that affected the language in its post-classical stages.[11]

text: Among consonant letters, all letters that denoted voiced plosive consonants (/b, d, g/) and aspirated plosives (/pʰ, tʰ, kʰ/) in Ancient Greek stand for corresponding fricative sounds in Modern Greek. The correspondences are as follows:

text:
Former voiced plosives
Former aspirates

Letter
Ancient
Modern
Letter
Ancient
Modern

Labial
Β β
/b/
/v/
Φ φ
/pʰ/
/f/

Dental
Δ δ
/d/
/ð/
Θ θ
/tʰ/
/θ/

Dorsal
Γ γ
/ɡ/
[ɣ] ~ [ʝ]
Χ χ
/kʰ/
[x] ~ [ç]

text: Among the vowel symbols, Modern Greek sound values reflect the radical simplification of the vowel system of post-classical Greek, merging multiple formerly distinct vowel phonemes into a much smaller number. This leads to several groups of vowel letters denoting identical sounds today. Modern Greek orthography remains true to the historical spellings in most of these cases. As a consequence, the spellings of words in Modern Greek are often not predictable from the pronunciation alone, while the reverse mapping, from spelling to pronunciation, is usually regular and predictable.

text: The following vowel letters and digraphs are involved in the mergers:

text:
Letter
Ancient
Modern
Letter
Ancient
Modern

Η η
ɛː
> i
Ω ω
ɔː
> o

Ι ι
i(ː)
Ο ο
o

ΕΙ ει
eː
Ε ε
e
> e

Υ υ
u(ː) > y
ΑΙ αι
ai

ΟΙ οι
oi > y

ΥΙ υι
yː > y

text: Modern Greek speakers typically use the same, modern symbol–sound mappings in reading Greek of all historical stages. In other countries, students of Ancient Greek may use a variety of conventional approximations of the historical sound system in pronouncing Ancient Greek.

text: Digraphs and letter combinations

text: Several letter combinations have special conventional sound values different from those of their single components. Among them are several digraphs of vowel letters that formerly represented diphthongs but are now monophthongized. In addition to the four mentioned above (⟨ει, αι, οι, υι⟩), there is also ⟨ου⟩, pronounced /u/. The Ancient Greek diphthongs ⟨αυ⟩, ⟨ευ⟩ and ⟨ηυ⟩ are pronounced [av], [ev] and [iv] in Modern Greek. In some environments they are devoiced to [af], [ef] and [if] respectively.[12] The Modern Greek consonant combinations ⟨μπ⟩ and ⟨ντ⟩ stand for [b] and [d] (or [mb] and [nd]) respectively; ⟨τζ⟩ stands for [dz] and ⟨τσ⟩ stands for [t͡s]. In addition, both in Ancient and Modern Greek, the letter ⟨γ⟩, before another velar consonant, stands for the velar nasal [ŋ]; thus ⟨γγ⟩ and ⟨γκ⟩ are pronounced like English ⟨ng⟩. In analogy to ⟨μπ⟩ and ⟨ντ⟩, ⟨γκ⟩ is also used to stand for [g]. There are also the combinations ⟨γχ⟩ and ⟨γξ⟩.

text:
Combination
Pronunciation
Devoiced pronunciation

⟨αυ⟩
[av]
[af]

⟨ευ⟩
[ev]
[ef]

⟨ηυ⟩
[iv]
[if]

⟨μπ⟩
[b]

⟨ντ⟩
[d]

⟨τζ⟩
[dz]

⟨τσ⟩
[t͡s]

text: Diacritics

text: In the polytonic orthography traditionally used for ancient Greek, the stressed vowel of each word carries one of three accent marks: either the acute accent (ά), the grave accent (ὰ), or the circumflex accent (α̃ or α̑). These signs were originally designed to mark different forms of the phonological pitch accent in Ancient Greek. By the time their use became conventional and obligatory in Greek writing, in late antiquity, pitch accent was evolving into a single stress accent, and thus the three signs have not corresponded to a phonological distinction in actual speech ever since. In addition to the accent marks, every word-initial vowel must carry either of two so-called "breathing marks": the rough breathing (ἁ), marking an /h/ sound at the beginning of a word, or the smooth breathing (ἀ), marking its absence. The letter rho (ρ), although not a vowel, also carries a rough breathing in word-initial position. If a rho was geminated within a word, the first ρ always had the smooth breathing and the second the rough breathing (ῤῥ) leading to the transiliteration rrh.

text: The vowel letters ⟨α, η, ω⟩ carry an additional diacritic in certain words, the so-called iota subscript, which has the shape of a small vertical stroke or a miniature ⟨ι⟩ below the letter. This iota represents the former offglide of what were originally long diphthongs, ⟨ᾱι, ηι, ωι⟩ (i.e. /aːi, ɛːi, ɔːi/), which became monophthongized during antiquity.

text: Another diacritic used in Greek is the diaeresis (¨), indicating a hiatus.

text: In 1982, a new, simplified orthography, known as "monotonic", was adopted for official use in Modern Greek by the Greek state. It uses only a single accent mark, the acute (also known in this context as tonos, i.e. simply "accent"), marking the stressed syllable of polysyllabic words, and occasionally the diaeresis to distinguish diphthongal from digraph readings in pairs of vowel letters, making this monotonic system very similar to the accent mark system used in Spanish. The polytonic system is still conventionally used for writing Ancient Greek, while in some book printing and generally in the usage of conservative writers it can still also be found in use for Modern Greek.

text: Although it is not a diacritic, the comma has a similar function as a silent letter in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing ό,τι (ó,ti, "whatever") from ότι (óti, "that").[13]

text: Romanization

text: There are many different methods of rendering Greek text or Greek names in the Latin script. The form in which classical Greek names are conventionally rendered in English goes back to the way Greek loanwords were incorporated into Latin in antiquity. In this system, ⟨κ⟩ is replaced with ⟨c⟩, the diphthongs ⟨αι⟩ and ⟨οι⟩ are rendered as ⟨ae⟩ and ⟨oe⟩ (or ⟨æ,œ⟩) respectively; and ⟨ει⟩ and ⟨ου⟩ are simplified to ⟨i⟩ and ⟨u⟩ respectively. In modern scholarly transliteration of Ancient Greek, ⟨κ⟩ will usually be rendered as ⟨k⟩, and the vowel combinations ⟨αι, οι, ει, ου⟩ as ⟨ai, oi, ei, ou⟩ respectively. The letters ⟨θ⟩ and ⟨φ⟩ are generally rendered as ⟨th⟩ and ⟨ph⟩; ⟨χ⟩ as either ⟨ch⟩ or ⟨kh⟩; and word-initial ⟨ρ⟩ as ⟨rh⟩.

text: For Modern Greek, there are multiple different transcription conventions. They differ widely, depending on their purpose, on how close they stay to the conventional letter correspondences of Ancient Greek-based transcription systems, and to what degree they attempt either an exact letter-by-letter transliteration or rather a phonetically based transcription. Standardized formal transcription systems have been defined by the International Organization for Standardization (as ISO 843),[14] by the United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names,[15] by the Library of Congress,[16] and others.

text: History

text: Origins

text: During the Mycenaean period, from around the 16th century to the 12th century BC, Linear B was used to write the earliest attested form of the Greek language, known as Mycenaean Greek. This writing system, unrelated to the Greek alphabet, last appeared in the 13th century BC. In the late 9th century BC or early 8th century BC, the Greek alphabet emerged.[2] The period between the use of the two writing systems, during which no Greek texts are attested, is known as the Greek Dark Ages. The Greeks adopted the alphabet from the earlier Phoenician alphabet, one of the closely related scripts used for the West Semitic languages. However, the Phoenician alphabet is limited to consonants. When it was adopted for writing Greek, certain consonants were adapted to express vowels. The use of both vowels and consonants makes Greek the first alphabet in the narrow sense,[6] as distinguished from the abjads used in Semitic languages, which have letters only for consonants.[17]

text: Greek initially took over all of the 22 letters of Phoenician. Five were reassigned to denote vowel sounds: the glide consonants /j/ (yodh) and /w/ (waw) were used for [i] (Ι, iota) and [u] (Υ, upsilon) respectively; the glottal stop consonant /ʔ/ (|aleph) was used for [a] (Α, alpha); the pharyngeal /ʕ/ (ʿayin) was turned into [o] (Ο, omicron); and the letter for /h/ (he) was turned into [e] (Ε, epsilon). A doublet of waw was also borrowed as a consonant for [w] (Ϝ, digamma). In addition, the Phoenician letter for the emphatic glottal /ħ/ (heth) was borrowed in two different functions by different dialects of Greek: as a letter for /h/ (Η, heta) by those dialects that had such a sound, and as an additional vowel letter for the long /ɛː/ (Η, eta) by those dialects that lacked the consonant. Eventually, a seventh vowel letter for the long /ɔː/ (Ω, omega) was introduced.

text: Greek also introduced three new consonant letters for its aspirated plosive sounds and consonant clusters: Φ (phi) for /pʰ/, Χ (chi) for /kʰ/ and Ψ (psi) for /ps/. In western Greek variants, Χ was instead used for /ks/ and Ψ for /kʰ/. The origin of these letters is a matter of some debate.

text:
Phoenician
Greek

aleph
/ʔ/

Α
alpha
/a/, /aː/

beth
/b/

Β
beta
/b/

gimel
/ɡ/

Γ
gamma
/ɡ/

daleth
/d/

Δ
delta
/d/

he
/h/

Ε
epsilon
/e/, /eː/[note 2]

waw
/w/

Ϝ
(digamma)
/w/

zayin
/z/

Ζ
zeta
[zd](?)

heth
/ħ/

Η
eta
/h/, /ɛː/

teth
/tˤ/

Θ
theta
/tʰ/

yodh
/j/

Ι
iota
/i/, /iː/

kaph
/k/

Κ
kappa
/k/

lamedh
/l/

Λ
lambda
/l/

mem
/m/

Μ
mu
/m/

nun
/n/

Ν
nu
/n/

text:
Phoenician
Greek

samekh
/s/

Ξ
xi
/ks/

ʿayin
/ʕ/

Ο
omicron
/o/, /oː/[note 2]

pe
/p/

Π
pi
/p/

ṣade
/sˤ/

Ϻ
(san)
/s/

qoph
/q/

Ϙ
(koppa)
/k/

reš
/r/

Ρ
rho
/r/

šin
/ʃ/

Σ
sigma
/s/

taw
/t/

Τ
tau
/t/

(waw)
/w/

Υ
upsilon
/u/, /uː/

–

Φ
phi
/pʰ/

–

Χ
chi
/kʰ/

–

Ψ
psi
/ps/

–

Ω
omega
/ɔː/

text: Three of the original Phoenician letters dropped out of use before the alphabet took its classical shape: the letter Ϻ (san), which had been in competition with Σ (sigma) denoting the same phoneme /s/; the letter Ϙ (qoppa), which was redundant with Κ (kappa) for /k/, and Ϝ (digamma), whose sound value /w/ dropped out of the spoken language before or during the classical period.

text: Greek was originally written predominantly from right to left, just like Phoenician, but scribes could freely alternate between directions. For a time, a writing style with alternating right-to-left and left-to-right lines (called boustrophedon, literally "ox-turning", after the manner of an ox ploughing a field) was common, until in the classical period the left-to-right writing direction became the norm. Individual letter shapes were mirrored depending on the writing direction of the current line.

text: Archaic variants

text: There were initially numerous local variants of the Greek alphabet, which differed in the use and non-use of the additional vowel and consonant symbols and several other features. A form of western Greek native to Euboea, which among other things had Χ for /ks/, was transplanted to Italy by early Greek colonists, and became the ancestor of the Old Italic alphabets and ultimately, through Etruscan, of the Latin alphabet. Athens used a local form of the alphabet until the 5th century BC; it lacked the letters Ξ and Ψ as well as the vowel symbols Η and Ω. The classical 24-letter alphabet that became the norm later was originally the local alphabet of Ionia; this was adopted by Athens in 403 BC under archon Eucleides and in most other parts of the Greek-speaking world during the 4th century BC.

text: Letter names

text: When the Greeks adapted the Phoenician alphabet, they took over not only the letter shapes and sound values, but also the names by which the sequence of the alphabet could be recited and memorized. In Phoenician, each letter name was a word that began with the sound represented by that letter; thus ʾaleph, the word for "ox", was used as the name for the glottal stop /ʔ/, bet, or "house", for the /b/ sound, and so on. When the letters were adopted by the Greeks, most of the Phoenician names were maintained or modified slightly to fit Greek phonology; thus, ʾaleph, bet, gimel became alpha, beta, gamma.

text: The Greek names of the following letters are more or less straightforward continuations of their Phoenician antecedents. Between Ancient and Modern Greek they have remained largely unchanged, except that their pronunciation has followed regular sound changes along with other words (for instance, in the name of beta, ancient /b/ regularly changed to modern /v/, and ancient /ɛː/ to modern /i/, resulting in the modern pronunciation vita). The name of lambda is attested in early sources as λάβδα besides λάμβδα;[18] in Modern Greek the spelling is often λάμδα, reflecting pronunciation. Similarly, iota is sometimes spelled γιώτα in Modern Greek ([ʝ] is conventionally transcribed ⟨γ{ι,η,υ,ει,οι}⟩ word-initially and intervocalically before back vowels and /a/). In the tables below, the Greek names of all letters are given in their traditional polytonic spelling; in modern practice, like with all other words, they are usually spelled in the simplified monotonic system.

text:
Greek alphabet

The names of the letters in spoken Standard Modern Greek

Problems playing this file? See media help.

text:
Letter
Name
Pronunciation

Greek
Phoenician original
English
Greek (Ancient)
Greek (Modern)
English

Α
ἄλφα
aleph
alpha
[alpʰa]
[ˈalfa]
/ˈælfə/ ( listen)

Β
βῆτα
beth
beta
[bɛːta]
[ˈvita]
/ˈbiːtə/, US: /ˈbeɪtə/

Γ
γάμμα
gimel
gamma
[ɡamma]
[ˈɣama]
/ˈɡæmə/

Δ
δέλτα
daleth
delta
[delta]
[ˈðelta]
/ˈdɛltə/

Η
ἦτα
heth
eta
[hɛːta], [ɛːta]
[ˈita]
/ˈiːtə/, US: /ˈeɪtə/

Θ
θῆτα
teth
theta
[tʰɛːta]
[ˈθita]
/ˈθiːtə/, US: /ˈθeɪtə/ ( listen)

Ι
ἰῶτα
yodh
iota
[iɔːta]
[ˈʝota]
/aɪˈoʊtə/ ( listen)

Κ
κάππα
kaph
kappa
[kappa]
[ˈkapa]
/ˈkæpə/ ( listen)

Λ
λάμβδα
lamedh
lambda
[lambda]
[ˈlamða]
/ˈlæmdə/ ( listen)

Μ
μῦ
mem
mu
[myː]
[mi]
/mjuː/ ( listen); occasionally US: /muː/

Ν
νῦ
nun
nu
[nyː]
[ni]
/njuː/

Ρ
ῥῶ
reš
rho
[rɔː]
[ro]
/roʊ/ ( listen)

Τ
ταῦ
taw
tau
[tau]
[taf]
/taʊ, tɔː/

text: In the cases of the three historical sibilant letters below, the correspondence between Phoenician and Ancient Greek is less clear, with apparent mismatches both in letter names and sound values. The early history of these letters (and the fourth sibilant letter, obsolete san) has been a matter of some debate. Here too, the changes in the pronunciation of the letter names between Ancient and Modern Greek are regular.

text:
Letter
Name
Pronunciation

Greek
Phoenician original
English
Greek (Ancient)
Greek (Modern)
English

Ζ
ζῆτα
zayin
zeta
[zdɛːta]
[ˈzita]
/ˈziːtə/, US: /ˈzeɪtə/

Ξ
ξεῖ, ξῖ
samekh
xi
[kseː]
[ksi]
/zaɪ, ksaɪ/

Σ
σίγμα
šin
siɡma
[siɡma]
[ˈsiɣma]
/ˈsɪɡmə/

text: In the following group of consonant letters, the older forms of the names in Ancient Greek were spelled with -εῖ, indicating an original pronunciation with -ē. In Modern Greek these names are spelled with -ι.

text:
Letter
Name
Pronunciation

Greek
English
Greek (Ancient)
Greek (Modern)
English

Ξ
ξεῖ, ξῖ
xi
[kseː]
[ksi]
/zaɪ, ksaɪ/

Π
πεῖ, πῖ
pi
[peː]
[pi]
/paɪ/

Φ
φεῖ, φῖ
phi
[pʰeː]
[fi]
/faɪ/

Χ
χεῖ, χῖ
chi
[kʰeː]
[çi]
/kaɪ/ ( listen)

Ψ
ψεῖ, ψῖ
psi
[pseː]
[psi]
/saɪ/, /psaɪ/ ( listen)

text: The following group of vowel letters were originally called simply by their sound values as long vowels: ē, ō, ū, and ɔ. Their modern names contain adjectival qualifiers that were added during the Byzantine period, to distinguish between letters that had become confusable. Thus, the letters ⟨ο⟩ and ⟨ω⟩, pronounced identically by this time, were called o mikron ("small o") and o mega ("big o") respectively. The letter ⟨ε⟩ was called e psilon ("plain e") to distinguish it from the identically pronounced digraph ⟨αι⟩, while, similarly, ⟨υ⟩, which at this time was pronounced [y], was called y psilon ("plain y") to distinguish it from the identically pronounced digraph ⟨οι⟩.

text:
Letter
Name
Pronunciation

Greek (Ancient)
Greek (Medieval)
Greek (Modern)
English
Greek (Ancient)
Greek (Modern)
English

Ε
εἶ
ἐ ψιλόν
ἔψιλον
epsilon
[eː]
[ˈepsilon]
/ˈɛpsɪlɒn/, some UK: /ɛpˈsaɪlən/

Ο
οὖ
ὀ μικρόν
ὄμικρον
omicron
[oː]
[ˈomikron]
/ˈɒmɪkrɒn/ ( listen), traditional UK: /oʊˈmaɪkrɒn/

Υ
ὖ
ὐ ψιλόν
ὔψιλον
upsilon
[uː], [yː]
[ˈipsilon]
/juːpˈsaɪlən, ˈʊpsɪlɒn/, also UK: /ʌpˈsaɪlən/, US: /ˈʌpsɪlɒn/

Ω
ὦ
ὠ μέγα
ὠμέγα
omega
[ɔː]
[oˈmeɣa]
US: /oʊˈmeɪɡə/, traditional UK: /ˈoʊmɪɡə/

text: Some dialects of the Aegean and Cypriot have retained long consonants and pronounce [ˈɣamːa] and [ˈkapʰa]; also, ήτα has come to be pronounced [ˈitʰa] in Cypriot.[19]

text: Letter shapes

text: Like Latin and other alphabetic scripts, Greek originally had only a single form of each letter, without a distinction between uppercase and lowercase. This distinction is an innovation of the modern era, drawing on different lines of development of the letter shapes in earlier handwriting.

text: The oldest forms of the letters in antiquity are majuscule forms. Besides the upright, straight inscriptional forms (capitals) found in stone carvings or incised pottery, more fluent writing styles adapted for handwriting on soft materials were also developed during antiquity. Such handwriting has been preserved especially from papyrus manuscripts in Egypt since the Hellenistic period. Ancient handwriting developed two distinct styles: uncial writing, with carefully drawn, rounded block letters of about equal size, used as a book hand for carefully produced literary and religious manuscripts, and cursive writing, used for everyday purposes.[20] The cursive forms approached the style of lowercase letter forms, with ascenders and descenders, as well as many connecting lines and ligatures between letters.

text: In the 9th and 10th century, uncial book hands were replaced with a new, more compact writing style, with letter forms partly adapted from the earlier cursive.[20] This minuscule style remained the dominant form of handwritten Greek into the modern era. During the Renaissance, western printers adopted the minuscule letter forms as lowercase printed typefaces, while modelling uppercase letters on the ancient inscriptional forms. The orthographic practice of using the letter case distinction for marking proper names, titles etc. developed in parallel to the practice in Latin and other western languages.

text:
Inscription
Manuscript
Modern print

Archaic
Classical
Uncial
Minuscule
Lowercase
Uppercase

α
Α

β
Β

γ
Γ

δ
Δ

ε
Ε

ζ
Ζ

η
Η

θ
Θ

ι
Ι

κ
Κ

λ
Λ

μ
Μ

ν
Ν

ξ
Ξ

ο
Ο

π
Π

ρ
Ρ

σς
Σ

τ
Τ

υ
Υ

φ
Φ

χ
Χ

ψ
Ψ

ω
Ω

text: Derived alphabets

text: The Greek alphabet was the model for various others:[6]

text:
The Latin alphabet, together with various other ancient scripts in Italy, adopted from an archaic form of the Greek alphabet brought to Italy by Greek colonists in the late 8th century BC, via Etruscan
The Gothic alphabet, devised in the 4th century AD to write the Gothic language, based on a combination of Greek and Latin uncial models[21]
The Glagolitic alphabet, devised in the 9th century AD for writing Old Church Slavonic
The Cyrillic script, which replaced the Glagolitic alphabet shortly afterwards

text: It is also considered a possible ancestor of the Armenian alphabet, which in turn influenced the development of the Georgian alphabet.[22]

text: Other uses

text: Use for other languages

text: Apart from the daughter alphabets listed above, which were adapted from Greek but developed into separate writing systems, the Greek alphabet has also been adopted at various times and in various places to write other languages.[23] For some of them, additional letters were introduced.

text: Antiquity

text:
Most of the alphabets of Asia Minor, in use c. 800–300 BC to write languages like Lydian and Phrygian, were the early Greek alphabet with only slight modifications – as were the original Old Italic alphabets.
Some Paleo-Balkan languages, including Thracian. For other neighboring languages or dialects, such as Ancient Macedonian, isolated words are preserved in Greek texts, but no continuous texts are preserved.
The Greco-Iberian alphabet was used for writing the ancient Iberian language in parts of modern Spain.
Gaulish inscriptions (in modern France) used the Greek alphabet until the Roman conquest
The Hebrew and Aramaic text of the Bible was written in Greek letters in Origen's Hexapla.
The Bactrian language, an Iranian language spoken in what is now Afghanistan, was written in the Greek alphabet during the Kushan Empire (65–250 AD). It adds an extra letter ⟨þ⟩ for the sh sound [ʃ].[24]
The Coptic alphabet adds eight letters derived from Demotic. It is still used today, mostly in Egypt, to write Coptic, the liturgical language of Egyptian Christians. Letters usually retain an uncial form different from the forms used for Greek today.

text: Middle Ages

text:
An 8th-century Arabic fragment preserves a text in the Greek alphabet.
An Old Ossetic inscription of the 10th–12th centuries found in Arxyz, the oldest known attestation of an Ossetic language.
The Old Nubian language of Makuria (modern Sudan) adds three Coptic letters, two letters derived from Meroitic script, and a digraph of two Greek gammas used for the velar nasal sound.
Various South Slavic dialects, similar to the modern Bulgarian and Macedonian languages, have been written in Greek script.[25][26][27][28] The modern South Slavic languages now use modified Cyrillic alphabets.

text: Early modern

text:
Turkish spoken by Orthodox Christians (Karamanlides) was often written in Greek script, and called Karamanlidika.
Tosk Albanian was often written using the Greek alphabet, starting in about 1500.[29] The printing press at Moschopolis published several Albanian texts in Greek script during the 18th century. It was only in 1908 that the Monastir conference standardized a Latin orthography for both Tosk and Gheg. Greek spelling is still occasionally used for the local Albanian dialects (Arvanitika) in Greece.
Aromanian (Vlach) has been written in Greek characters. There is not yet a standardized orthography for Aromanian, but it appears that one based on the Romanian orthography will be adopted.
Gagauz, a Turkic language of the northeast Balkans.
Surguch, a Turkic language spoken by a small group of Orthodox Christians in northern Greece.
Urum or Greek Tatar.
Pomak language in Western Thrace.
Judaeo-Spanish language, a Jewish dialect of Spanish, has occasionally been published in Greek characters in Greece.[30]

text: In mathematics and science

text: Greek symbols are used as symbols in mathematics, physics and other sciences. Many symbols have traditional uses, such as lower case epsilon (ε) for an arbitrarily small positive number, lower case pi (π) for the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter, capital sigma (Σ) for summation, and lower case sigma (σ) for standard deviation.

text: Astronomy

text: Greek letters are used to denote the brighter stars within each of the eighty-eight constellations. In most constellations the brightest star is designated Alpha and the next brightest Beta etc. For example, the brightest star in the constellation of Centaurus is known as Alpha Centauri. For historical reasons, the Greek designations of some constellations begin with a lower ranked letter.

text: International Phonetic Alphabet

text: Several Greek letters are used as phonetic symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).[31] Several of them denote fricative consonants; the rest stand for variants of vowel sounds. The glyph shapes used for these letters in specialized phonetic fonts is sometimes slightly different from the conventional shapes in Greek typography proper, with glyphs typically being more upright and using serifs, to make them conform more with the typographical character of other, Latin-based letters in the phonetic alphabet. Nevertheless, in the Unicode encoding standard, the following three phonetic symbols are considered the same characters as the corresponding Greek letters proper:[32]

text:
β
beta
U+03B2
voiced bilabial fricative

θ
theta
U+03B8
voiceless dental fricative

χ
chi
U+03C7
voiceless uvular fricative

text: On the other hand, the following phonetic letters have Unicode representations separate from their Greek alphabetic use, either because their conventional typographic shape is too different from the original, or because they also have secondary uses as regular alphabetic characters in some Latin-based alphabets, including separate Latin uppercase letters distinct from the Greek ones.

text:
Greek letter
Phonetic letter
Uppercase

φ
phi
ɸ
U+0278
Latin small letter phi
Voiceless bilabial fricative
–

γ
gamma
ɣ
U+0263
Latin small letter gamma
Voiced velar fricative
Ɣ U+0194

ε
epsilon
ɛ
U+025B
Latin small letter open e
(alias: epsilon)
Open-mid front unrounded vowel
Ɛ U+0190

α
alpha
ɑ
U+0251
Latin small letter alpha
Open back unrounded vowel
Ɑ U+2C6D

υ
upsilon
ʊ
U+028A
Latin small letter upsilon
near-close near-back rounded vowel
Ʊ U+01B1

ι
iota
ɩ
U+0269
Latin small letter iota
Obsolete for near-close near-front unrounded vowel now ɪ
Ɩ U+0196

text: The symbol in Americanist phonetic notation for the voiceless alveolar lateral fricative is the Greek letter lambda ⟨λ⟩, but ⟨ɬ⟩ in the IPA. The IPA symbol for the palatal lateral approximant is ⟨ʎ⟩, which looks similar to lambda, but is actually an inverted lowercase y.

text: Use as numerals

text: Greek letters were also used to write numbers. In the classical Ionian system, the first nine letters of the alphabet stood for the numbers from 1 to 9, the next nine letters stood for the multiples of 10, from 10 to 90, and the next nine letters stood for the multiples of 100, from 100 to 900. For this purpose, in addition to the 24 letters which by that time made up the standard alphabet, three otherwise obsolete letters were retained or revived: digamma ⟨Ϝ⟩ for 6, koppa ⟨Ϙ⟩ for 90, and a rare Ionian letter for [ss], today called sampi ⟨Ͳ⟩, for 900. This system has remained in use in Greek up to the present day, although today it is only employed for limited purposes such as enumerating chapters in a book, similar to the way Roman numerals are used in English. The three extra symbols are today written as ⟨ϛ⟩, ⟨ϟ⟩ and ⟨ϡ⟩ respectively. To mark a letter as a numeral sign, a small stroke called keraia is added to the right of it.

text:
Αʹ αʹ
alpha
1

Βʹ βʹ
beta
2

Γʹ γʹ
gamma
3

Δʹ δʹ
delta
4

Εʹ εʹ
epsilon
5

ϛʹ
digamma (stigma)
6

Ζʹ ζʹ
zeta
7

Ηʹ ηʹ
eta
8

Θʹ θʹ
theta
9

text:
Ιʹ ιʹ
iota
10

Κʹ κʹ
kappa
20

Λʹ λʹ
lambda
30

Μʹ μʹ
mu
40

Νʹ νʹ
nu
50

Ξʹ ξʹ
xi
60

Οʹ οʹ
omicron
70

Πʹ πʹ
pi
80

ϟʹ
koppa
90

text:
Ρʹ ρʹ
rho
100

Σʹ σʹ
sigma
200

Τʹ τʹ
tau
300

Υʹ υʹ
upsilon
400

Φʹ φʹ
phi
500

Χʹ χʹ
chi
600

Ψʹ ψʹ
psi
700

Ωʹ ωʹ
omega
800

ϡʹ
sampi
900

text: Use in naming student fraternities and sororities

text: In North America, many college fraternities and sororities are named with combinations of Greek letters, and are hence also known as "Greek letter organizations". This naming tradition was initiated by the foundation of the Phi Beta Kappa Society, in 1776.[33]

text: Glyph variants

text: Some letters can occur in variant shapes, mostly inherited from medieval minuscule handwriting. While their use in normal typography of Greek is purely a matter of font styles, some such variants have been given separate encodings in Unicode.

text:
The symbol ϐ ("curled beta") is a cursive variant form of beta (β). In the French tradition of Ancient Greek typography, β is used word-initially, and ϐ is used word-internally.
The letter delta has a form resembling a cursive capital letter D; while not encoded as its own form, this form is included as part of the symbol for the drachma (a Δρ digraph) in the Currency Symbols block, at U+20AF (₯).
The letter epsilon can occur in two equally frequent stylistic variants, either shaped

ϵ

{\displaystyle \epsilon \,\!}

 ('lunate epsilon', like a semicircle with a stroke) or

ε

{\displaystyle \varepsilon \,\!}

 (similar to a reversed number 3). The symbol ϵ (U+03F5) is designated specifically for the lunate form, used as a technical symbol.
The symbol ϑ ("script theta") is a cursive form of theta (θ), frequent in handwriting, and used with a specialized meaning as a technical symbol.
The symbol ϰ ("kappa symbol") is a cursive form of kappa (κ), used as a technical symbol.
The symbol ϖ ("variant pi") is an archaic script form of pi (π), also used as a technical symbol.
The letter rho (ρ) can occur in different stylistic variants, with the descending tail either going straight down or curled to the right. The symbol ϱ (U+03F1) is designated specifically for the curled form, used as a technical symbol.
The letter sigma, in standard orthography, has two variants: ς, used only at the ends of words, and σ, used elsewhere. The form ϲ ("lunate sigma", resembling a Latin c) is a medieval stylistic variant that can be used in both environments without the final/non-final distinction.
The capital letter upsilon (Υ) can occur in different stylistic variants, with the upper strokes either straight like a Latin Y, or slightly curled. The symbol ϒ (U+03D2) is designated specifically for the curled form, (

Υ

{\displaystyle \,\Upsilon }

) used as a technical symbol, e.g. in physics.
The letter phi can occur in two equally frequent stylistic variants, either shaped as

ϕ

{\displaystyle \textstyle \phi \,\!}

 (a circle with a vertical stroke through it) or as

φ

{\displaystyle \textstyle \varphi \,\!}

 (a curled shape open at the top). The symbol ϕ (U+03D5) is designated specifically for the closed form, used as a technical symbol.
The letter omega (Ω) has at least three stylistic variants of its capital form. The "open omega," resembling an open partial circle with the opening downward and the ends curled outward, is the standard. The two other stylistic variants, seen more often in modern typography, resemble an underscored full circle, where the underscore may or may not be touching the circle on a tangent (in the former case it resembles a superscript omicron similar to that found in the numero sign or masculine ordinal indicator; in the latter, it closely resembles some forms of the Latin letter Q). The open omega is always used in symbolic settings and is encoded in Letterlike Symbols (U+2126) as a separate code point for backward compatibility.

text: Computer encodings

text: For the usage in computers, a variety of encodings have been used for Greek online, many of them documented in RFC 1947.

text: The two principal ones still used today are ISO/IEC 8859-7 and Unicode. ISO 8859-7 supports only the monotonic orthography; Unicode supports both the monotonic and polytonic orthographies.

text: ISO/IEC 8859-7

text: For the range A0–FF (hex) it follows the Unicode range 370–3CF (see below) except that some symbols, like ©, ½, § etc. are used where Unicode has unused locations. Like all ISO-8859 encodings it is equal to ASCII for 00–7F (hex).

text: Greek in Unicode

text: Unicode supports polytonic orthography well enough for ordinary continuous text in modern and ancient Greek, and even many archaic forms for epigraphy. With the use of combining characters, Unicode also supports Greek philology and dialectology and various other specialized requirements. Most current text rendering engines do not render diacritics well, so, though alpha with macron and acute can be represented as U+03B1 U+0304 U+0301, this rarely renders well: ᾱ́.[citation needed]

text: There are two main blocks of Greek characters in Unicode. The first is "Greek and Coptic" (U+0370 to U+03FF). This block is based on ISO 8859-7 and is sufficient to write Modern Greek. There are also some archaic letters and Greek-based technical symbols.

text: This block also supports the Coptic alphabet. Formerly most Coptic letters shared codepoints with similar-looking Greek letters; but in many scholarly works, both scripts occur, with quite different letter shapes, so as of Unicode 4.1, Coptic and Greek were disunified. Those Coptic letters with no Greek equivalents still remain in this block (U+03E2 to U+03EF).

text: To write polytonic Greek, one may use combining diacritical marks or the precomposed characters in the "Greek Extended" block (U+1F00 to U+1FFF).

text:
Greek and Coptic[1][2]
Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF)

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
A
B
C
D
E
F

U+037x
Ͱ
ͱ
Ͳ
ͳ
ʹ
͵
Ͷ
ͷ

ͺ
ͻ
ͼ
ͽ
;
Ϳ

U+038x

΄
΅
Ά
·
Έ
Ή
Ί

Ό

Ύ
Ώ

U+039x
ΐ
Α
Β
Γ
Δ
Ε
Ζ
Η
Θ
Ι
Κ
Λ
Μ
Ν
Ξ
Ο

U+03Ax
Π
Ρ

Σ
Τ
Υ
Φ
Χ
Ψ
Ω
Ϊ
Ϋ
ά
έ
ή
ί

U+03Bx
ΰ
α
β
γ
δ
ε
ζ
η
θ
ι
κ
λ
μ
ν
ξ
ο

U+03Cx
π
ρ
ς
σ
τ
υ
φ
χ
ψ
ω
ϊ
ϋ
ό
ύ
ώ
Ϗ

U+03Dx
ϐ
ϑ
ϒ
ϓ
ϔ
ϕ
ϖ
ϗ
Ϙ
ϙ
Ϛ
ϛ
Ϝ
ϝ
Ϟ
ϟ

U+03Ex
Ϡ
ϡ
Ϣ
ϣ
Ϥ
ϥ
Ϧ
ϧ
Ϩ
ϩ
Ϫ
ϫ
Ϭ
ϭ
Ϯ
ϯ

U+03Fx
ϰ
ϱ
ϲ
ϳ
ϴ
ϵ
϶
Ϸ
ϸ
Ϲ
Ϻ
ϻ
ϼ
Ͻ
Ͼ
Ͽ

Notes

1.^ As of Unicode version 10.0
2.^ Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points

text:
Greek Extended[1][2]
Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF)

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
A
B
C
D
E
F

U+1F0x
ἀ
ἁ
ἂ
ἃ
ἄ
ἅ
ἆ
ἇ
Ἀ
Ἁ
Ἂ
Ἃ
Ἄ
Ἅ
Ἆ
Ἇ

U+1F1x
ἐ
ἑ
ἒ
ἓ
ἔ
ἕ

Ἐ
Ἑ
Ἒ
Ἓ
Ἔ
Ἕ

U+1F2x
ἠ
ἡ
ἢ
ἣ
ἤ
ἥ
ἦ
ἧ
Ἠ
Ἡ
Ἢ
Ἣ
Ἤ
Ἥ
Ἦ
Ἧ

U+1F3x
ἰ
ἱ
ἲ
ἳ
ἴ
ἵ
ἶ
ἷ
Ἰ
Ἱ
Ἲ
Ἳ
Ἴ
Ἵ
Ἶ
Ἷ

U+1F4x
ὀ
ὁ
ὂ
ὃ
ὄ
ὅ

Ὀ
Ὁ
Ὂ
Ὃ
Ὄ
Ὅ

U+1F5x
ὐ
ὑ
ὒ
ὓ
ὔ
ὕ
ὖ
ὗ

Ὑ

Ὓ

Ὕ

Ὗ

U+1F6x
ὠ
ὡ
ὢ
ὣ
ὤ
ὥ
ὦ
ὧ
Ὠ
Ὡ
Ὢ
Ὣ
Ὤ
Ὥ
Ὦ
Ὧ

U+1F7x
ὰ
ά
ὲ
έ
ὴ
ή
ὶ
ί
ὸ
ό
ὺ
ύ
ὼ
ώ

U+1F8x
ᾀ
ᾁ
ᾂ
ᾃ
ᾄ
ᾅ
ᾆ
ᾇ
ᾈ
ᾉ
ᾊ
ᾋ
ᾌ
ᾍ
ᾎ
ᾏ

U+1F9x
ᾐ
ᾑ
ᾒ
ᾓ
ᾔ
ᾕ
ᾖ
ᾗ
ᾘ
ᾙ
ᾚ
ᾛ
ᾜ
ᾝ
ᾞ
ᾟ

U+1FAx
ᾠ
ᾡ
ᾢ
ᾣ
ᾤ
ᾥ
ᾦ
ᾧ
ᾨ
ᾩ
ᾪ
ᾫ
ᾬ
ᾭ
ᾮ
ᾯ

U+1FBx
ᾰ
ᾱ
ᾲ
ᾳ
ᾴ

ᾶ
ᾷ
Ᾰ
Ᾱ
Ὰ
Ά
ᾼ
᾽
ι
᾿

U+1FCx
῀
῁
ῂ
ῃ
ῄ

ῆ
ῇ
Ὲ
Έ
Ὴ
Ή
ῌ
῍
῎
῏

U+1FDx
ῐ
ῑ
ῒ
ΐ

ῖ
ῗ
Ῐ
Ῑ
Ὶ
Ί

῝
῞
῟

U+1FEx
ῠ
ῡ
ῢ
ΰ
ῤ
ῥ
ῦ
ῧ
Ῠ
Ῡ
Ὺ
Ύ
Ῥ
῭
΅
`

U+1FFx

ῲ
ῳ
ῴ

ῶ
ῷ
Ὸ
Ό
Ὼ
Ώ
ῼ
´
῾

Notes

1.^ As of Unicode version 10.0
2.^ Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points

text: Combining and letter-free diacritics

text: Combining and spacing (letter-free) diacritical marks pertaining to Greek language:

text:
Combining
Spacing
Sample
Description

U+0300
U+0060
(  ̀)
"varia / grave accent"

U+0301
U+00B4, U+0384
(  ́)
"oxia / tonos / acute accent"

U+0304
U+00AF
(  ̄)
"macron"

U+0306
U+02D8
(  ̆)
"vrachy / breve"

U+0308
U+00A8
(  ̈)
"dialytika / diaeresis"

U+0313
U+02BC
(  ̓)
"psili / comma above" (spiritus lenis)

U+0314
U+02BD
(  ̔)
"dasia / reversed comma above" (spiritus asper)

U+0342

(  ͂)
"perispomeni" (circumflex)

U+0343

(  ̓)
"koronis" (= U+0313)

U+0344
U+0385
(  ̈́)
"dialytika tonos" (deprecated, = U+0308 U+0301)

U+0345
U+037A
(  ͅ)
"ypogegrammeni / iota subscript".

text: Encodings with a subset of the Greek alphabet

text: IBM code pages 437, 860, 861, 862, 863, and 865 contain the letters ΓΘΣΦΩαδεπστφ (plus β as an alternate interpretation for ß).

text: Chapter letters

text: Not to be confused with the Greek-letter acronyms for the names of entire fraternities (or sororities), different chapters within the same fraternity are almost always (with a handful of exceptions) named using Greek letters as serial numbers. The founding chapter of each respective organization is its A Chapter. As an organization expands, it establishes a B Chapter, a Γ Chapter, and so on and so forth.

text: In an organization that expands to more than 24 chapters, the chapter after Ω Chapter is AA Chapter, followed by AB Chapter, etc. Each of these is still a "Chapter Letter," albeit a double-digit letter just as 10 through 99 are double-digit numbers. The Roman alphabet has a similar extended form with such double-digit letters when necessary, but it is used for columns in a table or chart rather than chapters of an organization.


document_title: I Am Frankie

question_text: who is the second robot in i am frankie

question_tokens: who is the second robot in i am frankie

text: I Am Frankie

text: Plot

text: Sigourney is a scientist working for the company EGG who has developed a teenage android girl named Frankie. When the head of EGG, Mr. Kingston, plans to use Frankie for the military company WARPA for Project Q, Sigourney quits her job, smuggles Frankie out of EGG, and moves her family as far away from EGG as possible so that Frankie can live a normal life. As Frankie adapts to a normal life as a high school student at Sepulveda High, she befriends a girl named Dayton and gains a rival named Tammy. While she and her family work to keep her secret safe so that EGG doesn't find her Mr. Kingston is determined to do whatever it takes to locate Frankie. Unbeknownst to Mr. Kingston, he's not the only one who's after her.

text: Cast and characters

text: Main

text:
Alex Hook as Frankie, an android girl who was created by Sigourney who used to work for EGG and seeks to become a real human.
Uriel Baldesco as Lucia, a follower of Tammy and a member of Sepulveda High School's Brain Squad.
Armani Barrett as Byron, a member of Sepulveda High School's Brain Squad who is into robotics.
Kristi Beckett as Makayla, a follower of Tammy and a member of Sepulveda High School's Brain Squad.
Kyson Facer as Andrew, a student at Sepulveda High School who is one of Frankie and Tammy's love interests. He is later revealed to be an android created by James.
Sophia Forest as Jenny, the daughter of Sigourney who gets Frankie as an older sister.
Mohana Krishnan as Tammy, a girl and leader of Sepulveda High School's Brain Squad who becomes Frankie's rival and seeks to find the truth about her.
Jayce Mroz as Robbie, an intelligent student who follows Frankie and Dayton around.
Nicole Alyse Nelson as Dayton, a girl who becomes Frankie's best friend and one of a few people to know the truth about Frankie.
Carson Rowland as Cole, the brother of Dayton who is one of Frankie's love interests.
J.D. Ballard as Mr. Kingston, the head of EGG who seeks to reclaim Frankie to be used in WARPA's Project Q. In "I Am ... Bound for Glory", he is later revealed to be Dayton and Cole's father Tom operating under an alias.
Todd Allen Durkin as James, a former EGG scientist who used to work with Sigourney and wants to destroy Frankie.
Joy Kigin as Ms. Hough, the principal of Sepulveda High School.
Michael Laurino as Will, the father of Jenny and husband of Sigourney who gains Frankie as a daughter.
Carrie Schroeder as Sigourney, a former EGG scientist who built Frankie.
Mark Jacobson as the Voice of "PEGS1", a small floating egg-shaped robot that works for Mr. Kingston.

text: Recurring

text:
Justin Jarzombeck as John
Rachael Thompson as Engineer

text: Production

text: On January 20, 2016, Nickelodeon announced that it had green-lit I Am Frankie to series with its first season to contain 20 episodes. The series is the first global series to be produced at the new Viacom International Studio in Miami, Florida. The series was originally produced as Yo Soy Franky by Nickelodeon Latin America in Colombia and Catharina Ledeboer, who has previously worked on Every Witch Way and Talia in the Kitchen, adapted the series into English for global audiences. It was stated that production of the series would begin sometime in 2016.[2][3][4] The series officially debuted on September 11, 2017,[5] after a special sneak peek of the premiere aired on September 4, 2017. The premiere episode was made available on Nickelodeon streaming platforms starting on August 21, 2017.[6] Nickelodeon renewed the series for a second season on November 13, 2017.[7]

text: Episodes

text: Pilot (2017)

text:
Title [8][9]
Directed by
Written by
Original air date [8][9]
Prod.
code [8]
U.S. viewers
(millions)

"I Am ... a Gaines"
Steve Wright
Charlotte Owen
September 4, 2017 (2017-09-04)[a]
101
1.27[10]

EGG scientist Sigourney Gaines invents an android called Frankie and sneaks her out of EGG to be a birthday present for her daughter, Jenny, as a way to keep Mr. Gilford Kingston from having WARPA use her for Project Q. In order to keep Frankie from being found by EGG, Sigourney moves her family to the next town over and they settle in with the help of former EGG employee James Peters. Once enrolled in school, Frankie befriends a girl named Dayton and gains a girl named Tammy as a rival.
Guest stars: JC Casely as Casey, Victor Jones as Mr. Manhart, Kevin Harrison as Night Guard 1, Michael Sanchez as Night Guard 2
Absent: Kyson Facer as Andrew, Jayce Mroz as Robbie

text: Season 1 (2017)

text:
No.
Title [8][9]
Directed by
Written by
Original air date [8][9]
Prod.
code [8]
U.S. viewers
(millions)

1
"I Am ... in Danger"
Steve Wright
Charlotte Owen
September 11, 2017 (2017-09-11)[a]
101–102
1.47[11]

EGG scientist Sigourney Gaines invents an android called Frankie and sneaks her out of EGG to be a birthday present for her daughter, Jenny, as a way to keep Mr. Gilford Kingston from having WARPA use her for Project Q. In order to keep Frankie from being found by EGG, Sigourney moves her family to the next town over and they settle in with the help of former EGG employee James. Once enrolled in school, Frankie befriends a girl named Dayton and gains a girl named Tammy as a rival. Later, after Cole saves Frankie from the rain, Sigourney works to dry her out and finds that some of her circuits got fused together. Meanwhile, Mr. Kingston sends PEGS1 to search Sigourney's old house to find the whereabouts of the Gaines family.
Guest stars: JC Casely as Casey, Victor Jones as Mr. Manhart, Kevin Harrison as Night Guard 1, Michael Sanchez as Night Guard 2
Absent: Kyson Facer as Andrew, Jayce Mroz as Robbie

2
"I Am ... a Rom-Com Fan"
Steve Wright
Jeff Sayers
September 12, 2017 (2017-09-12)
103
1.32[12]

Guest stars: Katelyn Adair as Student 1, Brian Dijols as Student 2
Absent: Kyson Facer as Andrew, Jayce Mroz as Robbie, Joy Kigin as Ms. Hough

3
"I Am ... a Radio?"
Siobhan Devine

Charotte Owen
Elle Andrews

September 13, 2017 (2017-09-13)
104
1.46[13]

Guest stars: Victor Jones as Mr. Manhart, Justin Jarzombeck as John, Rachael Thompson as Engineer
Absent: Kyson Facer as Andrew, Jayce Mroz as Robbie, Joy Kigin as Ms. Hough

4
"I Am ... My Enemy's Friend?"
Siobhan Devine
Charlotte Owen
September 14, 2017 (2017-09-14)
105
1.29[14]

Guest stars: Jeanne Bennett as Ms. Kagan, Justin Jarzombeck as John, Victor Jones as Mr. Manhart, Rachael Thompson as Engineer, Zachery Robbins as Football Player
Absent: Kyson Facer as Andrew, Jayce Mroz as Robbie, Todd Allen Durkin as James

5
"I Am ... Battery Operated"
Siobhan Devine
Jeff Sayers
September 15, 2017 (2017-09-15)
106
1.30[15]

Guest stars: Bob Schenkel as Elderly Man, Fern Katz as Elderly Woman
Absent: Kyson Facer as Andrew, Jayce Mroz as Robbie, Joy Kigin as Ms. Hough

6
"I Am ... Heartbroken"
Siobhan Devine

Charotte Owen
Elle Andrews

September 18, 2017 (2017-09-18)
107
1.14[16]

Guest star: Justin Jarzombeck as John

7
"I Am ... Lost"
Siobhan Devine
Jeff Sayers
September 19, 2017 (2017-09-19)
108
1.22[17]

Guest stars: Constance Fields as Judge, Eric Garduno as Competition Student, Justin Jarzombeck as John

8
"I Am ... Disconnected"
Steve Wright
Elle Andrews
September 20, 2017 (2017-09-20)
109
1.19[18]

Guest stars: Victor Jones as Mr. Manhart, Rachael Thompson as Engineer Anderson
Absent: Uriel Baldesco as Lucia, Kristi Beckett as Makayla

9
"I Am ... Crashing"
Siobhan Devine
Jeff Sayers
September 21, 2017 (2017-09-21)
110
1.10[19]

Guest stars: Justin Jarzombeck as John, Victor Jones as Mr. Manhart, Rachael Thompson as Engineer Anderson
Absent: Michael Laurino as Will

10
"I Am ... Speechless"
Siobhan Devine
Jeff Sayers
September 22, 2017 (2017-09-22)
111
1.33[20]

Guest stars: JC Casely as Casey, Justin Jarzombeck as John, Katherine McDonald as Mrs. Mulligan, Rachael Thompson as Engineer Anderson
Absent: Michael Laurino as Will

11
"I Am ... Hungry"
Siobhan Devine
Elle Andrews
September 25, 2017 (2017-09-25)
112
1.17[21]

As Sepulveda High's halls have been vandalized by an unknown person, Frankie discovers that she has two dates to the prom. To help her blend in with her dates, Dayton works with Frankie and Sigourney into making an E-Stomach so that Frankie can eat food easily. Meanwhile at EGG, Mr. Kingston and PEGS1 start to put their plans to reclaim Frankie into motion.
Guest stars: JC Casely as Casey, Anna Hinsley as Figueroa Team Member, Justin Jarzombeck as John, Nicole Kinzel as Smoothie Barista, Rita Manyette as Proctor, Rachael Thompson as Engineer Anderson

12
"I Am ... Remote Controlled"
Steve Wright
Charlotte Owen
September 26, 2017 (2017-09-26)
113
1.07[22]

Guest stars: Rachael Thompson as Engineer Anderson, Welder Santos as Busboy
Absent: Jayce Mroz as Robbie, Todd Allen Durkin as James, Joy Kigin as Ms. Hough

13
"I Am ... Suspended"
Steve Wright
Elle Andrews
September 27, 2017 (2017-09-27)
114
1.11[23]

In light of the recent actions at Sepulvada High, Ms. Hough blames Frankie and has her suspended from school for the recent violent conduct. James orchestrates events that involves him deleting specific files from Frankie which leads to Sigourney having to take an action to keep Frankie from becoming a violent android. Meanwhile, representatives from WARPA confiscate PEGS1 upon Mr. Kingston's failure to reclaim Frankie as he finds a clue on where Sigourney is hiding Frankie. At the same time, Tammy is still wanting to prove that Frankie is a robot and plans to get her unsuspended by pinning the blame of recent happenings at Sepulvada High on someone else.
Guest stars: Justin Jarzombeck as John, Victor Jones as Mr. Manhart, David Kelley as Warpa Agent, Rachael Thompson as Engineer Anderson
Absent: Kyson Facer as Andrew

14
"I Am ... Not Alone"
Steve Wright
Jeff Sayers
September 28, 2017 (2017-09-28)
115
1.09[24]

Now that Tammy's plot to get Frankie unsuspended has succeeded, she still makes plans to expose Frankie as a robot where she, Lucia, and Mikayla work on a pulley-activated device that will enable her to spill water on Frankie at the Emoji-themed dance. Suspicious at the bounty fliers that Mr. Kingston has printed out, Sigourney forbids Frankie to go to the dance just in case someone catches her.
Guest stars: Justin Jarzombeck as John, Elgin Aponte as DJ
Absent: Jayce Mroz as Robbie, Joy Kigin as Ms. Hough

15
"I Am ... Hot on the Trail"
Steve Wright
Charlotte Owen
October 2, 2017 (2017-10-02)
116
1.35[25]

Now that Frankie and Dayton know that Andrew is an android, they plan to find out who created him. Ms. Hough begins an investigation on who attempted the water prank on Frankie. Meanwhile, operatives from WARPA plan to use PEGS1 as leverage on Mr. Kingston in order to reclaim Frankie, but PEGS1 plans his escape from WARPA.
Guest stars: Justin Jarzombeck as John, Elgin Aponte as DJ, Susan Dean as Ms. Fleckenstein, David Kelley as Warpa Agent
Absent: J.D. Ballard as Mr. Kingston

16
"I Am ... Hanging Out with a Boy"
Steve Wright
Elle Andrews
October 3, 2017 (2017-10-03)
117
1.29[26]

Andrew begs Frankie not to tell Sigourney about him. After her Sepulveda High School's Brain Squad rejects her upon learning the truth, Tammy comes clean to Ms. Hough about falsely accusing Robbie of the school vandalism. Ms. Hough announces to the school that Robbie is exonerated, but she threatens to punish the entire school if the person responsible for the vandalism doesn't come forward. Meanwhile, Frankie plays minigolf with Cole. Also, James orders Andrew to lure Frankie into a trap that James and Mr. Kingston have devised.
Guest stars: Justin Jarzombeck as John, Katrina Rose Tandy as Girl with Phone, David Kelley as Warpa Agent 1

17
"I Am ... Bound for Glory"
Siobhan Devine
Jeff Sayers
October 4, 2017 (2017-10-04)
118
1.19[27]

WARPA has started making threats to Mr. Kingston and James to get them Frankie or else. This causes James to have Andrew lure Frankie to a position where he must get Frankie near WARPA's clutches or else be deactivated. After Mr. Kingston visits his children in his true name of Tom Reyes, Dayton enlists Jenny to help warn Frankie as Cole wonders if Tammy is right about Frankie being a robot.
Guest stars: Richard Litz as Large Student, South Miami Senior High School Cobra Band and Color Guard as Marching Band, Rachael Thompson as Engineer Anderson, Dan Johnson as Mechanic, David Kelley as Warpa Agent
Absent: Michael Laurino as Will, Carrie Schroeder as Sigourney, Mark Jacobson as Voice of "PEGS1"

18
"I Am ... Caught"
Steve Wright
Elle Andrews
October 5, 2017 (2017-10-05)
119
1.28[28]

After Cole figures out that Frankie is a robot, Dayton frantically tries to warn Frankie that her father and WARPA are closing in. Upon hearing about what happened when Cole visited Frankie, Sigourney considers moving the family again to keep Frankie safe. In addition, Dayton persuades Tammy to help her get into WARPA's classified website in order to find out more about WARPA.
Guest star: David Kelley as Warpa Agent
Absent: Mark Jacobson as Voice of "PEGS1"

19
"I Am ... a Sitting Duck"
Steve Wright
Charlotte Owen
October 6, 2017 (2017-10-06)
120
1.13[29]

Before the competition starts Tammy returns to the team after being taken by WARPA, who did something to her so that the team question her actions. During the Brain Squad competition, Dayton and Cole work to try to warn Frankie that WARPA is closing in on her as Andrew starts to reveal his true allegiance. Meanwhile, a girl arrives at the Gaines residence who is revealed to be Eliza, an android that Doctor Gaines made before Frankie who has a evil agenda, as Sigourney and Will look for possible places to relocate.
Guest stars: Alex Hook as Eliza, David Kelley as Warpa Agent 1, Eric Gaunaurd as Stage Manager, Jake Little as Morlock Player 1, Natalia Patino as Morlock Player 2, Ame Livinston as Head Judge, Rob Iberg as Brain Squad Security 1
Absent: Sophia Forest as Jenny, Joy Kigin as Ms. Hough, Mark Jacobson as Voice of "PEGS1"

text: Notes

text: ^ Jump up to: a b The first half of "I Am ... in Danger" was aired as the sneak peek on Nickelodeon on September 4, 2017, and is titled "I Am ... a Gaines". The full episode was then shown as part of the official Nickelodeon premiere on September 11, 2017. The second half is also known as "I Am ... in a Math Bee".

text: Special

text:
Title [8][9]
Original air date [8][9]
Prod.
code [8]
U.S. viewers
(millions)

"I Am Frankie ... the Download"
September 29, 2017 (2017-09-29)
998
1.14[30]

A clip show on what has transpired through "I Am ... Not Alone", as well as clips from the remaining episodes of the season.

text: Ratings

text:
Season
Episodes
First aired
Last aired
Avg. viewers
(millions)

Date
Viewers
(millions)
Date
Viewers
(millions)

1
19
September 11, 2017 (2017-09-11)
1.47[11]
October 6, 2017 (2017-10-06)
1.13[29]
1.24


document_title: Chief of Naval Staff (Nigeria)

question_text: the current chief of naval staff in nigeria

text: Chief of Naval Staff (Nigeria)

text:
The Chief of Naval Staff is the highest ranking military officer of the Nigerian Navy.[1]
The position is often occupied by the most senior commissioned officer appointed by the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of Nigeria.The Chief of Naval Staff reports to the Chief of Defence Staff, who also reports to the Defence Minister.[2]
The Statutory duty of the Officer is to formulate and execute policies towards the highest attainment of National Security and operational competence of the Nigerian Navy.[3]
The current Chief of Naval Staff is Ibok Ekwe Ibas who was appointed on July 13, 2015 by President Muhammadu Buhari to succeeded Usman Oyibe Jibrin.[4]

text: Chiefs of Naval Staff[edit]

text: Table below is a chronological list of officers holding the position of Chief of Naval Staff (CNS).[5]

text:
Officer

Title

Period Served

Remarks

Captain F.W. Skutil

CNS

1956–1958

Commodore A.R. Kennedy

CNS

1958 –1964

Vice Commodore J.E.A. Wey OFR FSS

CNS

1964 –1973

Vice Admiral N.B. Soroh MFR FSS IDC

CNS

1973–1975

Vice Admiral M.A Adelanwa GCON FSS rcds

CNS

1975–1980

Vice Admiral A.A. Aduwo CFR FSS FBIM

CNS

1980 - 1983

Rear Admiral A.A. Aikhomu FSS psc mni

CNS

1984 -1986

Vice Admiral Patrick Koshoni FSS psc mni

CNS

1986 -1990

Vice Admiral Murtala Nyako FSS psc mni

CNS

1990 - 1992

Vice Admiral D.P.E Omotsola FSS DSO psc rcds

CNS

1992 - 1993

Rear Admiral Suleiman Saidu FSS LSS MSS DSS rcds

CNS

September 1993 - November 1993

Rear Admiral A.A. Madueke FSS DSS MRNI mni

CNS

1993- 1994

Rear Admiral O.M Akhigbe FSS DSS psc mni

CNS

1994 - 1998

Vice Admiral J. Ayinla DSS psc Usnwc fwc GCON

CNS

1998 - 1999

Vice Admiral  V.K. Ombu CFR mni

CNS

1999 - 2001

Vice Admiral  S.O. Afolayan DSS psc  fwc

CNS

2001 - 2005

Vice Admiral  G.T.A. Adekeye DSS psc mirss mni

CNS

2005 - 2008

Vice Admiral I.I. Ibrahim CFR DSS psc fwc

CNS

2008 - 2010

Vice Admiral O.S. Ibrahim DSS psc rcds fwc LLB (Hons) MA

CNS

2010 - 2012

Vice Admiral D.J. Ezeoba GSS fwc Msc MRIN FCIS

CNS

2012 - 2013

Vice Admiral U.O. Jibrin GSS AM psc+ mni LLB PGCPA

CNS

2013- 2015

Rear Admiral Ibok-Ete Ekwe Ibas

CNS

July 2015 –


document_title: WrestleMania Women's Battle Royal

question_text: who won the womens battle royal wrestlemania 34

text: WrestleMania Women's Battle Royal

text: History[edit]

text: On the March 12, 2018, episode of Raw, WWE established The Fabulous Moolah Memorial Battle Royal in honor of Moolah, and that the first match would take place at WrestleMania 34 on April 8, with the winner receiving The Fabulous Moolah Memorial Trophy (made in the likeness of Moolah).[3][4] After a controversy over their decision to honor Moolah, WWE changed the name to the "WrestleMania Women's Battle Royal".[1] The trophy was subsequently renamed, and redesigned as a simple golden cup with tassels atop the trophy's base.[5] The inaugural match was won by Naomi, after she last eliminated Bayley.

text: Winners[edit]

text:
Winner
Date
Location
WrestleMania
Last eliminated

Naomi
000000002018-04-08-0000April 8, 2018
New Orleans, Louisiana
34
Bayley

text: Name controversy[edit]

text: The decision to hold a battle royal in honor of The Fabulous Moolah drew fan rage.[6][7] Tufayel Ahmed of Newsweek wrote that Moolah "isn't quite the bastion of female empowerment she is proclaimed to be", with "years of allegations" that she had "monopolized women’s wrestling in North America", taken a large percentage of other wrestlers' pay, and "sexually exploited women under her mentorship".[8] Jason Powell, from Pro Wrestling Dot Net, criticized the tribute as it does not "exactly mesh with what WWE wants their women's division push to represent".[9] David Bixenspan of Deadspin pointed out that given Moolah's alleged abuses, fans were particularly turned off by WWE personnel describing Moolah as a "trailblazer for women’s equality". WWE also promoted Moolah as having "challenged the gender norms of a once male-dominated sport", but Bixenspan described that Moolah, by wrestling and teaching her students an "in-ring style low on athleticism and heavy on hair-pulling", relegated women's wrestling to "much more of a sideshow" instead of a "legitimate headline attraction" in the previous era.[10] Mad Maxine, a wrestler trained by Moolah, commented that Moolah was the most "monstrous" person she had ever met, and that wrestling is "about generating heat. And you can't draw more heat than naming a match for The Fabulous Moolah."[11]

text: On March 12, a Change.org petition appeared online demanding WWE change the name of its upcoming Fabulous Moolah Memorial Battle Royal, nearing its 10,000 signature goal.[7][12] Initially, WWE reacted by disabling the comments section of their YouTube video that announced the Moolah battle royal.[13][14] Later, Snickers, the primary sponsor of WrestleMania 34, called the decision to honor Moolah "unacceptable" and said they were "engaging with the WWE to express our disappointment."[15] On March 14, WWE renamed the match "WrestleMania Women's Battle Royal", removing Moolah's name from the event.[7][1]


document_title: Georgia Southern Eagles football

question_text: who is the football coach at georgia southern

text: Georgia Southern Eagles football

text: History[edit]

text: Early years: 1924–1941[edit]

text: As First District A&M, the school began organizing football teams as early as 1909.[2] However, the college first continuously fielded a team in 1924. In 1929, B.L. "Crook" Smith, a sports standout from Mercer University, was hired as football coach and athletics director and would lead the football team for 13 seasons. Football was suspended in 1941 at the outset of World War II and would not return for 41 years.

text: Erk Russell era: 1981–1989[edit]

text: In 1978, President Dale Lick decided that football should be revived at Georgia Southern College. Despite a faculty senate vote against renewing the sport, Lick worked to generate support for the endeavor. In 1982, the school hired Erk Russell, the popular and charismatic defensive coordinator at the University of Georgia, to coach the new football team. On the hire, humorist Lewis Grizzard said, "When they landed Erk Russell, they got themselves a franchise."[3] The Eagles fielded a club team in 1982 and 1983 and began official NCAA Division I-AA play in 1984. The next year, the Eagles would win their first Division I-AA national championship in Tacoma, Washington, defeating Furman University, in only the team's fourth year in existence, second as a varsity team. The Eagles would return to Tacoma the next year and win the championship vs. Arkansas State. In 1989, the Eagles became the first college team to go 15–0 in the 20th century, winning the national championship on their home field vs. Stephen F. Austin. Soon after the game, Russell retired.

text: Tim Stowers era: 1990–1996[edit]

text: Tim Stowers was hired to succeed Russell after Georgia Southern's 1989 (15–0) national title. Stowers was the 1989 offensive coordinator, one of only two coordinators since 1900 to direct an offense of a team with a 15–0 record. However, Stowers was never able to live up to the expectations set by Russell and was fired in 1995 after a 9–4 record, ranked as one of top 8 teams in 1995 (lost at Montana the eventual I-AA/FCS National Champion and beat No. 1-ranked Troy State 11–0 on the road), by new athletics director Sam Baker, who never saw Stowers coach a game. Stowers had an overall record of 51–23 (.689) vs. FCS/I-AA opponents. FBS/D-IA losses-Miami Hurricanes twice, Georgia Bulldogs, Auburn Tigers, and Bobby Bowden and Florida State Seminoles. Stowers had a 6–2 playoff record and a 51–18 (.739) overall record vs. I-AA/FCS opponents and lower. Stowers won the 1990 I-AA national championship (12–3) and was named AFCA Kodak National Coach of the Year. He also won Georgia Southern's first Southern Conference Title in 1993 (first year in the league) and was named 1993 Southern Conference Coach of the Year. He was succeeded by interim coach Frank Ellwood for one year. The 1996 season was the first losing season in the modern era as the Eagles fell to 4–7.

text: Paul Johnson era: 1997–2001[edit]

text: The next coach for the Eagles was Paul Johnson. Johnson found instant success, taking the Eagles to the playoffs in his first season. He, along with Eagle legend Adrian N. Peterson, reached the 1998 national championship. However, the Eagles lost the game to the University of Massachusetts 55–43 in Chattanooga, Tennessee. The Eagles rebounded under Johnson and won back-to-back national championships in 1999 (vs. Youngstown State) and 2000 (vs. Montana). Both games were played in Chattanooga, Tenn. After the 2001 season, Johnson resigned to become the head coach of Navy.

text: Post-Johnson era: 2002–2009[edit]

text: Johnson was succeeded by Mike Sewak. Despite winning the Southern Conference championship twice in his tenure, his lack of postseason success as well as a falling out with former head coach Erk Russell led to his firing after the 2005 season. Brian VanGorder, a former defensive coordinator at the University of Georgia, was hired to succeed Sewak. In the first of many controversial moves, VanGorder scrapped Georgia Southern's famed triple-option offense and did away with certain traditions, such as the team's arrival at home games on yellow school buses. Erk Russell had also died unexpectedly of a stroke on the eve the first game of the 2006 season after addressing the team on the night before. VanGorder led the team to a 3–8 record, the worst record at the time in the modern era of Georgia Southern football. After his unsatisfactory one year as coach, VanGorder left to take a position with the Atlanta Falcons. Chris Hatcher, formerly the head coach at Valdosta State University, which he led to the 2004 NCAA Division II Football Championship, was named the new head coach on January 19, 2007. Hatcher led the Eagles back to a winning record with a 7–4 finish, barely missing the playoffs. However, Hatcher could not replicate the success of his first season, going 11–11 in the following two seasons. He was dismissed after the conclusion of the 2009 season, the team's third modern era season with a losing record at 5–6, and the second within four years.

text: Jeff Monken era and final years in the FCS: 2010–2013[edit]

text: On November 29, 2009, school officials announced that Jeff Monken, a longtime assistant coach under Paul Johnson, would become the next head coach of the Eagles. Monken's hiring signaled the return of the triple-option offense which brought success to the program in years past. In Monken's first year, the Eagles finished the regular season with a 7–4 record and made their first playoff appearance since 2005, advancing to the semifinals, where the Eagles fell to the Delaware Blue Hens.

text: During the 2011 season, Georgia Southern was ranked No. 1 in the FCS for the first time since the 2001 season.[4] Additionally, Georgia Southern clinched the Southern Conference Football Championship for the first time since 2004 and first time outright since 2002.[5] The Eagles finished the 2011 regular season with a 9–2 record; however, they were ousted in the semifinals for a second straight year by the eventual FCS champion North Dakota State Bison. In the 2012 season, the Eagles finished the regular season with an 8–3 record with a share of the Southern Conference Championship; however, the Eagles fell for a third straight time in what was ultimately the team's final FCS playoff game in the FCS semifinals, losing a rematch of the previous year's semifinal game against North Dakota State. In the team's final FCS season, the Eagles compiled a 7–4 record. In the final game of that season, the Eagles earned an upset win over the Florida Gators 26–20, the team's first win over an FBS opponent in 21 tries. On December 24, 2013, Monken resigned to become the next head coach of the Army Black Knights.[6][7]

text: Willie Fritz era and the start of FBS play: 2014–2015[edit]

text: After years of rumors and fan speculation, Georgia Southern announced its intentions to move to the Football Bowl Subdivision level in April 2012. The university plans to raise $36.6 million over eight years to accommodate the move. Paulson Stadium will be expanded to FBS-standards by constructing a 57,000 square feet (5,295 m2) football operations center in the eastern end of the stadium and adding 6,300 seats on the north stands.[8] Additionally, students voted in favor of raising student athletic fees by $100 to accommodate the move. $25 of the fee increase will be used for the stadium expansion project while the remaining $75 is implemented as the "FBS Fee".[9]

text: On July 27, 2012, then-Athletics Director Sam Baker resigned. Baker was an ardent supporter of remaining in the FCS despite university president Brooks Keel's proclamation, mainly due to the financial ramifications of moving to a higher level. On November 12, 2012, President Keel named Tom Kleinlein as athletics director.[10] On March 27, 2013, Georgia Southern announced its move to the Sun Belt Conference on July 1, 2014, becoming bowl-eligible in 2015. In the 2013 season, Georgia Southern's football schedule remained the same, but it was ineligible for the Southern Conference title as well as the FCS playoffs. The university paid the Southern Conference $600,000 in exit fees.[11]

text: On January 10, 2014, Willie Fritz, formerly the head coach of the Sam Houston State Bearkats, was named as the Eagles' ninth modern era head coach and first of the FBS era.[12] In the Eagles' first FBS season, the team finished the season 9–3 overall and was undefeated in Sun Belt Conference play at 8–0, winning the outright conference championship. The Eagles became only the third team ever to win a conference title in its first FBS season, after Nevada in 1992 (Big West Conference) and Marshall in 1997 (Mid-American Conference). They were also the first team ever to go unbeaten in conference play in their first FBS season.[13] Since the Eagles were under transitional status, the university filed for a postseason waiver to allow the Eagles to play in a bowl game; however, the NCAA denied Georgia Southern's waiver request and a subsequent appeal since enough "full member" FBS teams became bowl-eligible during the season. In the 2015 season, Fritz led the Eagles to a 8-4 record, receiving their first bowl bid to the GoDaddy Bowl on December 23, 2015 against Bowling Green.

text: On December 11, 2015, Fritz resigned as the Eagles head coach to accept the head coaching position at Tulane University.[14] Assistant head coach and running backs coach Dell McGee was appointed as interim head coach for the GoDaddy Bowl game, where Georgia Southern defeated Bowling Green 58–27.

text: Post-Fritz era: 2016–present[edit]

text: Tyson Summers was hired on December 21, 2015 to succeed Fritz. In addition to serving as safeties coach for Georgia Southern during the 2006 season under Brian VanGorder, Summers had previously served as defensive coordinator and safeties coach at Colorado State in 2015.[15] During Summers' first season in 2016, Georgia Southern suffered its first losing season in the FBS era, and fourth overall in the modern era.[16] Summers was fired on October 22, 2017 after starting the 2017 season 0–6. Assistant head coach Chad Lunsford was initially appointed as interim head coach for the remainder of the season[17] and was officially named head coach on November 27, 2017.[18] Lunsford finished his first half-season 2–4, giving the Eagles an overall record of 2–10, the worst record since football was started in 1924.

text: Bowl games[edit]

text: The Eagles have participated in one bowl game with a record of 1–0.

text:
Season
Coach
Bowl
Opponent
Result

2015
Dell McGee
GoDaddy Bowl
Bowling Green
W 58–27

text: Division I-AA/FCS Playoffs results[edit]

text: The Eagles have appeared in the I-AA/FCS playoffs 19 times with an overall record of 45–13. They are six time National Champions (1985, 1986, 1989, 1990, 1999, 2000) and two time National runner-up (1988, 1998).

text:
Season
Coach
Playoff
Opponent
Result

1985
Erk Russell
First Round
Quarterfinals
Semifinals
National Championship Game
Jackson State
Middle Tennessee State
Northern Iowa
Furman
W 27–0
W 28–21
W 40–33
W 44–42

1986
Erk Russell
First Round
Quarterfinals
Semifinals
National Championship Game
North Carolina A&T
Nicholls State
Nevada
Arkansas State
W 52–21
W 55–31
W 48–38
W 48–21

1987
Erk Russell
First Round
Quarterfinals
Maine
Appalachian State
W 31–28 OT
L 0–19

1988
Erk Russell
First Round
Quarterfinals
Semifinals
National Championship Game
The Citadel
Stephen F. Austin
Eastern Kentucky
Furman
W 38–20
W 27–6
W 21–17 2OT
L 12–17

1989
Erk Russell
First Round
Quarterfinals
Semifinals
National Championship Game
Villanova
Middle Tennessee State
Montana
Stephen F. Austin
W 52–36
W 45–3
W 45–15
W 37–34

1990
Tim Stowers
First Round
Quarterfinals
Semifinals
National Championship Game
The Citadel
Idaho
Central Florida
Nevada
W 31–0
W 28–27
W 44–7
W 36–13

1993
Tim Stowers
First Round
Quarterfinals
Eastern Kentucky
Youngstown State
W 14–12
L 14–34

1995
Tim Stowers
First Round
Quarterfinals
Troy State
Montana
W 24–21
L 0–45

1997
Paul Johnson
First Round
Quarterfinals
Florida A&M
Delaware
W 52–37
L 7–16

1998
Paul Johnson
First Round
Quarterfinals
Semifinals
National Championship Game
Colgate
Connecticut
Western Illinois
Massachusetts
W 49–28
W 52–30
W 42–14
L 43–55

1999
Paul Johnson
First Round
Quarterfinals
Semifinals
National Championship Game
Northern Arizona
Massachusetts
Illinois State
Youngstown State
W 72–29
W 38–21
W 31–17
W 59–24

2000
Paul Johnson
First Round
Quarterfinals
Semifinals
National Championship Game
McNeese State
Hofstra
Delaware
Montana
W 42–17
W 48–20
W 27–18
W 27–25

2001
Paul Johnson
First Round
Quarterfinals
Semifinals
Florida A&M
Appalachian State
Furman
W 60–35
W 38–24
L 17–34

2002
Mike Sewak
First Round
Quarterfinals
Semifinals
Bethune-Cookman
Maine
WKU
W 34–0
W 31–7
L 28–31

2004
Mike Sewak
First Round
New Hampshire
L 23–27

2005
Mike Sewak
First Round
Texas State
L 35–50

2010
Jeff Monken
First Round
Second Round
Quarterfinals
Semifinals
South Carolina State
William & Mary
Wofford
Delaware
W 41–16
W 31–15
W 23–20
L 10–27

2011
Jeff Monken
Second Round
Quarterfinals
Semifinals
Old Dominion
Maine
North Dakota State
W 55–48
W 35–23
L 7–35

2012
Jeff Monken
Second Round
Quarterfinals
Semifinals
Central Arkansas
Old Dominion
North Dakota State
W 24–16
W 49–35
L 20–23

text: Head coaches[edit]

text:
Coach (Alma Mater)
Seasons
Years
Games
W
L
T
Pct.

E.G. Cromartie (Mercer)
3
1924–1926
13
7
5
1
.583

H.A. Woodle
2
1927–1928
18
11
6
1
.647

B.L. Smith (Mercer)
13
1929–1941
117
44
66
7
.415

Erk Russell (Auburn)
8
1982–1989
106
83
22
1
.790

Tim Stowers (Auburn)
6
1990–1995
74
51
23
0
.689

Frank Ellwood (Ohio State)
1
1996
11
4
7
0
.364

Paul Johnson (Western Carolina)
5
1997–2001
72
62
10
0
.861

Mike Sewak (Virginia)
4
2002–2005
49
35
14
0
.714

Brian VanGorder (Wayne State)
1
2006
11
3
8
0
.273

Chris Hatcher (Valdosta State)
3
2007–2009
33
18
15
0
.545

Jeff Monken (Millikin)
4
2010–2013
54
38
16
0
.704

Willie Fritz (Pittsburg State)
2
2014–2015
24
17
7
0
.708

Tyson Summers (Presbyterian)
2
2016–2017
18
5
13
0
.278

Chad Lunsford (Georgia College & State)
1
2017–present
6
2
4
0
.333

text: Stadium[edit]

text: Georgia Southern home football games are played at Allen E. Paulson Stadium. Paulson Stadium was dedicated on September 29, 1984, and has an official seating capacity of 25,000. The record attendance was on September 17, 2016 in the Georgia Southern-University Louisiana Monroe game.The Eagles beat UL Monroe 23-21 and set a new attendance record of 25,735. Prior to the Eagles' first FBS season, Paulson Stadium underwent a major expansion project that includes the addition of a new football operations center and an addition of more than 6,000 new seats.

text: All-time record vs. Sun Belt teams[edit]

text: Official record (including any NCAA imposed vacates and forfeits) against all current Sun Belt opponents:

text:
Opponent
Won
Lost
Tied
Percentage
Streak
First
Last

Appalachian State
12
18
1
.403
Lost 3
1934
2017

Arkansas State
1
2
0
.333
Lost 1
1986
2017

Coastal Carolina
3
1
0
.750
Lost 1
2006
2017

Georgia State
1
3
0
.250
Lost 3
2014
2017

Louisiana–Lafayette
1
1
0
.500
Won 1
2016
2017

Louisiana–Monroe
5
2
0
.714
Won 3
1987
2016

South Alabama
4
0
0
1.000
Won 4
2014
2017

Texas State
2
1
0
.667
Won 2
2005
2015

Troy
6
11
0
.353
Lost 1
1934
2017

text: Awards[edit]

text: The Eagles have won six NCAA FCS National Championships, the most by any team in the nation.

text: National championships[edit]

text:
1985 – Coach Erk Russell and the Eagles won their first national championship vs. Furman University in the Tacoma Dome in Tacoma, Washington. Quarterback Tracy Ham threw for 419 yards and rushed for another 90 to overcome a 28–6 deficit.
1986 – The Eagles returned to Tacoma to defeat the Arkansas State Indians. Tracy Ham earned 486 rushing and passing yards and three touchdowns.
1989 – In Erk Russell's final game, the Eagles defeated Stephen F. Austin in Statesboro, Georgia, in front of 25,725 fans to complete a perfect 15–0 season. Quarterback Raymond Gross engineered 17 fourth-quarter points, including a game-winning field goal with 1:41 remaining in the game.
1990 – Tim Stowers' Eagles win their fourth national championship vs. Nevada
1999 – Paul Johnson won his first national championship in Chattanooga, Tennessee, vs. Youngstown State in Jim Tressel's last national championship game as a Penguin (Jim Tressel's last game as a Penguin was against the Richmond Spiders in the playoffs in 2000). Adrian Peterson ran for a championship game record 247 yards on 25 carries and scored three touchdowns.
2000 – The Eagles defeated the Montana Grizzlies to win their sixth and final FCS championship.

text: National runners-up[edit]

text:
1988 – The Eagles lost to Furman University in Pocatello, Idaho.
1998 – In Paul Johnson's first national championship game, the Eagles lost to UMass.

text: Conference championships[edit]

text:
Year
Conference
Coach
Overall record
Conference record

1993
Southern Conference
Tim Stowers
10–3
7–1

1997
Southern Conference
Paul Johnson
10–3
7–1

1998
Southern Conference
Paul Johnson
14–1
8–0

1999†
Southern Conference
Paul Johnson
13–2
7–1

2000
Southern Conference
Paul Johnson
13–2
7–1

2001†
Southern Conference
Paul Johnson
12–2
7–1

2002
Southern Conference
Mike Sewak
11–3
7–1

2004†
Southern Conference
Mike Sewak
10–3
6–1

2011
Southern Conference
Jeff Monken
11–3
7–1

2012†
Southern Conference
Jeff Monken
10–4
6–2

2014
Sun Belt Conference
Willie Fritz
9–3
8–0

text: † indicates shared title.

text: Walter Payton Award[edit]

text: Georgia Southern is one of five schools to have multiple Walter Payton Award winners honoring the top offensive player in the Football Championships Subdivision. Running Back Adrian Peterson won the award in 1999 and quarterback Jayson Foster won it in 2007.

text: Eddie Robinson/AFCA Kodak Coach of the Year Award[edit]

text: Two Georgia Southern coaches have won the Eddie Robinson Award winners honoring the top coach in Division I-FCS. Erk Russell won it in 1989 and Paul Johnson in 1998. Tim Stowers also won the 1990 AFCA Kodak Coach of the Year Award voted on by his peers. Same award with a name change, with all three of the aforementioned voted on by the (AFCA) American Football Coaches Association membership.

text: Traditions[edit]

text: Nickname[edit]

text: The athletics teams of Georgia Southern University are referred to as the Eagles. However, the school has gone by a number of different nicknames. From as early as 1907 the teams of the then First District A&M school were referred to as the Culture to reflect the agricultural background of the school.[19] From 1924 to 1941, the nickname was the Blue Tide. After World War II, athletic teams were referred to as the Professors reflecting the school's status as a teacher-training college. However, in 1959 when the school was renamed Georgia Southern College, a student vote was held to determine the new mascot; among the 104 entries, voters chose Eagles over Colonels by a narrow margin. In 1997, a contest was held to select the official name of the mascot, incoming freshman Imen Edmond and Heidi Barber won with the name GUS.[20]

text: Beautiful Eagle Creek[edit]

text: When Georgia Southern resurrected football in 1981, it lacked tradition. A drainage ditch that the team had to cross several times a day during football practice came to be called Beautiful Eagle Creek by Coach Erk Russell. When the Eagles traveled to Northern Iowa during the 1985 playoffs, Russell took along a jug of this Eagle Creek water to sprinkle on the field.

text: The Hugo Bowl[edit]

text: In 1989 ESPN was to broadcast a Thursday Night Football game between Georgia Southern and the Middle Tennessee State Blue Raiders. However, Hurricane Hugo, a category 4 storm, was headed straight toward the coast of Georgia. Hugo ranked as the 11th most intense hurricane at time of landfall to strike the United States this century, with the highest ever recorded storm surge on the East Coast. Nevertheless, the decision was made to continue with the game. For safety purposes, an open line was kept between the press box at Paulson Stadium and the National Hurricane Center in Florida. The Eagles went on to defeat MTSU by a score of 26–0 in a classic that will forever be known in Eagle history as the Hugo Bowl.

text: This was the first night game played at Paulson Stadium. Temporary lighting was used for the game because the stadium was not outfitted with permanent lighting until the 1994 season. Many feared that the booms used to hoist the stadium lights would tip over due to the heavy wind. While it was expected initially to be a sellout crowd, due to the approaching storm the actual attendance was in the neighborhood of only 3,000.

text: Plain uniforms[edit]

text: The uniforms consist of plain white pants, blue helmets with a white stripe down the middle and the player's number on the sides, and blue jerseys. This minimalist look was adopted more or less out of necessity. When the program was revived in 1982, the school did not have a large budget. Indeed, the equipment budget was so limited that only plain white practice pants could be purchased. Hence, the practice pants doubled as game pants. Russell bought solid blue helmets and had the players put a piece of tape down the middle.[21] With the subsequent success of the Eagles, the basic design has remained the same, with the only real changes in recent years being a white stripe down the middle of the helmets and the addition of names to the backs of the jerseys. Sports Illustrated has ranked the uniforms as being the third best in college football.

text: Yellow school buses[edit]

text: When the football program was restarted in 1981, money was tight. In fact, there wasn't enough money to furnish transportation to home games. The Bulloch County school system sold two buses for a dollar each to the team. The buses have been used by the team ever since as transportation to Allen E. Paulson Stadium. This tradition continued even when the Eagles rose to powerhouse status. This briefly ended with the arrival of Brian VanGorder, following his scrapping of the Eagles' triple-option rushing attack. The tradition was revived after VanGorder's departure.

text: Black flag[edit]

text: In 2011, Coach Jeff Monken's team took the field leading with a solid black flag. The flag symbolized their motto "No quarter given, no quarter taken." During the game it was placed behind the bench. The flag was carried by safety Derek Heyden, who suffered a career ending neck injury early in the season.

text: Future non-conference opponents[edit]

text: Announced schedules as of May 11, 2015

text:
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023

at Auburn
vs Presbyterian
at LSU
at Ole Miss
at Houston
at UAB
vs UAB

vs New Hampshire
vs Massachusetts
vs Maine
vs Florida Atlantic
at Arkansas
vs Ball State
at Ball State

at Indiana
at Clemson
at Minnesota
vs Houston
at Florida Atlantic

at Massachusetts
at New Mexico State
vs New Mexico State

text: Notable alumni[edit]

text:
Name
Class year
Notability
Reference(s)

Adrian N. Peterson
2002
Running Back, played for Chicago Bears of the NFL, 2002–2009; 6,559 rushing yards at the collegiate level; 1999 Walter Payton Award Winner

Tracy Ham
1987
member of the College Football Hall of Fame, 1995 CFL Most Outstanding Player

Rob Bironas

NFL kicker and Pro-Bowler, holds record most field goals in a game (8)

Fred Stokes
1987
Former NFL Player, Super Bowl Champion

Kiwaukee Thomas

NFL player

Earthwind Moreland

NFL Player

J.J. Wilcox
2013
Safety for the Pittsburgh Steelers

Jayson Foster
2008
2007 Walter Payton Award Winner

Darius Eubanks
2013
Former NFL Linebacker

Jerick McKinnon
2014
NFL Running Back for the Minnesota Vikings

Edwin Jackson (American football)
2015
NFL Linebacker for the Indianapolis Colts

Antwione Williams
2016
NFL Linebacker for the Minnesota Vikings

Ukeme Eligwe
2017
NFL Linebacker for the Kansas City Chiefs

Matt Breida
2017
NFL Running Back for the San Francisco 49ers