document_title: Mania (Fall Out Boy album)

question_text: who wrote heaven's gate fall out boy

question_tokens: who wrote heaven 's gate fall out boy

text: Mania (Fall Out Boy album)

text: Background[edit]

text: Fall Out Boy enjoyed commercial success and worldwide acclaim after releasing their sixth studio album, American Beauty/American Psycho (2015). During the extensive touring in support of the album, the group began writing and recording material for a seventh album. The beginning of the production process for Mania began after the band's frontman Patrick Stump introduced the song "Young and Menace" to bass guitarist Pete Wentz at Reading and Leeds Festival in 2016, which inspired the musicians to record a full-length.[7] In an interview with Rolling Stone, Wentz described the vision behind Mania. "It feels like every once in awhile, you've gotta do a hard restart that clears the cache and erases the hard drive. I think that's what [Mania] was – a big palette cleanse," said Wentz.[8]

text: After the release of the album's first two singles, "Young and Menace" and "Champion", Patrick Stump issued a statement on Twitter confirming that the band was postponing the release date for Mania until January 19, 2018 due to the album "feeling rushed."[9]

text: Album delay[edit]

text: Mania was originally scheduled for a release on September 15, 2017, worldwide. However, on August 3, 2017, Patrick Stump announced that the record would be pushed back until January 19, 2018. "The album just really isn't ready, and it felt very rushed," Stump said on Twitter. "I'm never going to put a record out I genuinely don't believe is at least as strong or valid as the one that came before it and in order to do that we need a little bit more time to properly and carefully record solid performances."[10]

text: On November 6, 2017, the band announced on social media that the album had been completed and revealed the tracklist.[11] In the lead up to the album's release, it became evident that several streaming platforms had published the tracks of the album out of order.[12] The physical copies retain the order originally released by the band.

text: Promotion[edit]

text: In support of the album, the band has performed the singles on television and has embarked on the Mania Tour in October 2017. The tour, which takes place in both North America, Australia and New Zealand features support from blackbear,[13] Jaden Smith,[14] and WAAX.[15] The song "Wilson (Expensive Mistakes)", was debuted live on October 20, 2017, as part of the Mania Tour's setlist.[16]

text: Llamania[edit]

text: During recording sessions for Mania, the band scrapped three unfinished tracks; "Past Life", "Wrong Side of Paradise", and "Footprints in the Snow". The tracks were released by Fall Out Boy, under the alias Frosty & The Nightmare Making Machines, in the form of an extended play (EP), entitled Llamania, on February 23, 2018, through physical CD and vinyl.[17][18]

text: Singles[edit]

text: The lead single, "Young and Menace", was released on April 27, 2017 alongside its music video. The song has a notable influence from the EDM genre, hinting at another progression of the band's sound with the album.[19] The second single, "Champion",[20] was released on June 22 in the U.S. and on June 23 worldwide with the “visualizer” music video. On July 27, the official music video was released for the song.[21] The third single, "The Last of the Real Ones", was released on September 14, 2017.[22][23][24] The fourth single, "Hold Me Tight or Don't", was released on November 15 with its music video, which takes a notable influence from the Mexican holiday Day Of The Dead.[25] "Wilson (Expensive Mistakes)" was released as the fifth single, accompanied with its music video premiere on January 11, 2018.[26]. A music video for "Church" was released along with the album on January 19, 2018.

text: Critical reception[edit]

text:
Professional ratings

Aggregate scores

Source
Rating

Metacritic
58/100[27]

Review scores

Source
Rating

AllMusic
[28]

The A.V. Club
C[29]

The Guardian
[30]

The New Zealand Herald
[31]

NME
[32]

The Philadelphia Inquirer
[33]

Rock Sound
8/10[34]

Rolling Stone
[35]

text: Mania received a largely mixed reaction from music critics, while some remained positive about the band's ambition and evolution. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album has an average score of 58 based on 11 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[27]

text: Commercial performance[edit]

text: Mania debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 on February 3, 2018 with 130,000 album-equivalent units, of which 117,000 were pure album sales.[36] It is Fall Out Boy's fourth US number-one album.[36]

text: Track listing[edit]

text: Upon its initial upload to several digital music retailers, the order of the track listing was incorrect. The band later confirmed that the track listing on the physical releases was correct across all versions of the release and that these would soon be corrected.[37]

text:
Digital/Physical edition[38][39]

No.
Title
Writer(s)
Producer(s)
Length

1.
"Stay Frosty Royal Milk Tea"

Patrick Stump
Pete Wentz
Joe Trohman
Andrew Hurley

Jesse Shatkin
D. Sardy

2:50

2.
"The Last of the Real Ones"

Stump
Wentz
Trohman
Hurley
Carlo Montagnese

Butch Walker
Illangelo[a]

3:50

3.
"Hold Me Tight or Don't"

Stump
Wentz
Trohman
Hurley
Jonny Coffer

Coffer
Walker

3:30

4.
"Wilson (Expensive Mistakes)"

Stump
Wentz
Trohman
Hurley

D. Sardy

3:36

5.
"Church"

Stump
Wentz
Trohman
Hurley
Audra Mae
Kate York
Andrew Wells

Walker
Wells[a]

3:31

6.
"Heaven's Gate"

Stump
Wentz
Trohman
Hurley

D. Sardy

3:45

7.
"Champion"

Stump
Wentz
Trohman
Hurley
Sia Furler
Shatkin

Fall Out Boy
Shatkin[a]

3:13

8.
"Sunshine Riptide" (featuring Burna Boy)

Stump
Wentz
Trohman
Hurley

Walker
3:24

9.
"Young and Menace"

Stump
Wentz
Trohman
Hurley

Fall Out Boy
Shatkin

3:44

10.
"Bishops Knife Trick"

Stump
Wentz
Trohman
Hurley

Walker

4:23

Total length:
35:46

text:
[show]Japanese bonus track[40]

No.
Title
Length

11.
"Champion" (remix) (featuring RM of BTS)
3:35

Total length:
39:21

text:
[show]Japanese bonus DVD[40]

No.
Title
Length

1.
"Young and Menace" (music video)
3:59

2.
"Young and Menace" (making of video)
1:58

3.
"Champion" (music video)
3:41

4.
"Champion" (making of video)
2:00

5.
"The Last of the Real Ones" (music video)
3:50

6.
"Hold Me Tight or Don't" (music video)
3:37

7.
"Hold Me Tight or Don't" (making of video)
2:08

Total length:
19:53

text: Notes

text:
^[a] – additional production
Additional production and engineering on all songs by Fall Out Boy

text: Personnel[edit]

text: Personnel adapted from Tidal.[41]

text: Fall Out Boy

text:
Patrick Stump – lead vocals, rhythm guitar, keyboards, programming
Pete Wentz – bass guitar, backing vocals
Joe Trohman – lead guitar, backing vocals, keyboards, programming
Andy Hurley – drums, percussion

text: Additional personnel

text:
Jesse Shatkin – production, mixing
Butch Walker – production
Andrew Wells – production
Fall Out Boy – primary production
Suzy Shinn – engineering
Rouble Kapoor – assistant engineering

text: Charts[edit]

text:
Chart (2018)
Peak
position

Australian Albums (ARIA)[42]
3

Austrian Albums (Ö3 Austria)[43]
6

Belgian Albums (Ultratop Flanders)[44]
11

Belgian Albums (Ultratop Wallonia)[45]
36

Canadian Albums (Billboard)[46]
2

Czech Albums (ČNS IFPI)[47]
24

Dutch Albums (MegaCharts)[48]
15

Finnish Albums (Suomen virallinen lista)[49]
8

French Albums (SNEP)[50]
50

German Albums (Offizielle Top 100)[51]
5

Irish Albums (IRMA)[52]
12

Italian Albums (FIMI)[53]
37

Japanese Albums (Oricon)[54]
15

Japanese International Albums (Oricon)[55]
1

New Zealand Albums (RMNZ)[56]
6

Norwegian Albums (VG-lista)[57]
20

Polish Albums (ZPAV)[58]
15

Scottish Albums (OCC)[59]
3

Spanish Albums (PROMUSICAE)[60]
30

Swedish Albums (Sverigetopplistan)[61]
11

Swiss Albums (Schweizer Hitparade)[62]
10

UK Albums (OCC)[63]
2

UK Rock & Metal Albums (OCC)[64]
1

US Billboard 200[36]
1


document_title: Zecharia Sitchin

question_text: when was the lost book of enki written

question_tokens: when was the lost book of enki written

root

text: Zecharia Sitchin

text: Early life[edit]

text: Sitchin was born in the Azerbaijan SSR, but was raised in Mandatory Palestine. He received a degree in economics from the University of London, and was an editor and journalist in Mandatory Palestine, before moving to New York in 1952. While working as an executive for a shipping company, he taught himself Sumerian cuneiform and visited several archaeological sites.[3][4]

tag: p

text: Ideas and works[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: Similar to earlier authors such as Immanuel Velikovsky and Erich von Däniken, Sitchin advocated hypotheses in which extraterrestrial events supposedly played a significant role in ancient human history.

text: According to Sitchin's interpretation of Mesopotamian iconography and symbolism, outlined in his 1976 book The 12th Planet and its sequels, there is an undiscovered planet beyond Neptune that follows a long, elliptical orbit, reaching the inner solar system roughly every 3,600 years. This planet is called Nibiru (although Jupiter was the planet associated with the god Marduk in Babylonian cosmology).[5] According to Sitchin, Nibiru (whose name was replaced with MARDUK in original legends by the Babylonian ruler of the same name in an attempt to co-opt the creation for himself, leading to some confusion among readers) collided catastrophically with Tiamat (a goddess in the Babylonian creation myth the Enûma Eliš), which he considers to be another planet once located between Mars and Jupiter. This collision supposedly formed the planet Earth, the asteroid belt, and the comets. Sitchin states that when struck by one of planet Nibiru's moons, Tiamat split in two, and then on a second pass Nibiru itself struck the broken fragments and one half of Tiamat became the asteroid belt. The second half, struck again by one of Nibiru's moons, was pushed into a new orbit and became today's planet Earth.

text: According to Sitchin, Nibiru (called "the twelfth planet" because, Sitchin claimed, the Sumerians' gods-given conception of the Solar System counted all eight planets, plus Pluto, the Sun and the Moon) was the home of a technologically advanced human-like extraterrestrial race called the Anunnaki in Sumerian myth, who Sitchin states are called the Nephilim in Genesis. He wrote that they evolved after Nibiru entered the solar system, and they first arrived on Earth probably 450,000 years ago, looking for minerals, especially gold, which they found and mined in Africa. Sitchin states that these "gods" were the rank-and-file workers of the colonial expedition to Earth from planet Nibiru.

text: According to Sitchin, Enki (the Sumerian god of water and human culture) suggested that to relieve the Anunnaki, who had mutinied over their dissatisfaction with their working conditions, that primitive workers (Homo sapiens) be created by genetic engineering as slaves to replace them in the gold mines by crossing extraterrestrial genes with those of Homo erectus.[6][7] According to Sitchin, ancient inscriptions report that the human civilization in Sumer, Mesopotamia, was set up under the guidance of these "gods", and human kingship was inaugurated to provide intermediaries between mankind and the Anunnaki (creating the "divine right of kings" doctrine). Sitchin believes that fallout from nuclear weapons, used during a war between factions of the extraterrestrials, is the "evil wind" described in the Lament for Ur that destroyed Ur around 2000 BC. Sitchin states the exact year is 2024 BC.[8] Sitchin says that his research coincides with many biblical texts, and that biblical texts come originally from Sumerian writings.

text: Influence[edit]

text: Since the release of his first book The 12th Planet in 1976, now in its 45th printing, Sitchin has written seven other books as part of his Earth Chronicles series, as well as six other companion books, all of which are still in print as of 2012[update]. Sitchin's books have sold millions of copies worldwide and have been published in more than 25 languages.[9] New York Times reporter Corey Kilgannon has noted that despite academic dismissal of his work, Sitchin has "a devoted following of readers".[3]

text: Critic Michael S. Heiser has called Sitchin "arguably the most important proponent of the ancient astronaut hypothesis over the last several decades".[10] According to critic and author Jason Colavito, "Zecharia Sitchin is one of the most famous proponents of the ancient astronaut theory today, second only to the father of the theory, Erich von Däniken, in importance to true believers".[11] Sitchin was a frequent guest on the Coast to Coast AM radio show, which in 2010 presented Sitchin with a lifetime achievement award.[12] Gods of the New Millennium author Alan F. Alford admits he initially became "infatuated" with Sitchin's hypotheses but later became a critic of Sitchin's interpretations of myth.[13]

text: According to some writers, Sitchin's ideas, along with those of Erich von Däniken may have influenced the beliefs of the religious sect of Raëlism,[14][15] and writer Mark Pilkington sees the mythology of Japan's Pana Wave religious group as rooted in Sitchin's The 12th Planet and its sequels.[16]

text: The 1994 movie Stargate, directed by Roland Emmerich, and the 2009 video game The Conduit drew some conceptual inspiration from Sitchin's ideas,[17][18] while screenwriter Roberto Orci says the villains of the film Cowboys & Aliens were inspired by Sitchin's conceptualization of the Anunnaki as gold-mining aliens.[19]

text: In 2000, Lorin Morgan-Richards' theatrical performance of ENKI, based on the writings of Zecharia Sitchin, premiered in Cleveland, Ohio under the choreography of Michael Medcalf.[20]

text: In 2016, Kazem Finjan, the Iraqi Minister of Transport, claimed at a press conference that Sumerians had built and used an airport in the Dhi Qar Governorate to launch spaceships from 5000 years ago. He cited the work of Sitchin and others to support his assertion.[21]

text: Criticisms[edit]

text: Criticism of Sitchin's work falls primarily into three categories: translations and interpretations of ancient texts, astronomical and scientific observations, and literalism of myth.

text: Translations and interpretations[edit]

text: When Sitchin wrote his books, only specialists could read the Sumerian language. However, sources such as the 2006 book Sumerian Lexicon[22] have made the language more accessible to non-experts.

text: American biblical scholar Michael S. Heiser states he has found many inaccuracies in Sitchin's translations and challenges interested parties to use this book to check their validity.[16][23] Prof. Ronald H. Fritze,[24] author of the book Invented Knowledge: False History, Fake Science and Pseudo-religions,[24] mentions the example of Sitchin's claim that the Sumerian sign DIĜIR means "pure ones of the blazing rockets", adding that "Sitchin's assignment of meanings to ancient words is tendentious and frequently strained."[25] Fritze also commented on Sitchin's methodology, writing that "When critics have checked Sitchin's references, they have found that he frequently quotes out of context or truncates his quotes in a way that distorts evidence in order to prove his contentions. Evidence is presented selectively and contradictory evidence is ignored."[25]

text: Sitchin bases his arguments on his personal interpretations of pre-Nubian and Sumerian texts, and the seal VA 243. Sitchin wrote that these ancient civilizations knew of a twelfth planet, when in fact they only knew five.[26] Hundreds of Sumerian astronomical seals and calendars have been decoded and recorded, and the total count of planets on each seal has been five. Seal VA 243 has 12 dots that Sitchin identifies as planets. When translated, seal VA 243 reads "You're his Servant" which is now thought to be a message from a nobleman to a servant. According to Heiser, the so-called sun on Seal VA 243 is not the Sumerian symbol for the sun but is a star, and the dots are also stars.[26][27] The symbol on seal VA 243 has no resemblance to the hundreds of documented Sumerian sun symbols.

text: In a 1979 review of The Twelfth Planet, Roger W. Wescott,[28] Professor of Anthropology and Linguistics at Drew University, Madison, New Jersey, noted Sitchin's amateurishness with respect to the primacy of the Sumerian language:

text: Sitchin's linguistics seems at least as amateurish as his anthropology, biology, and astronomy. On p. 370, for example, he maintains that "all the ancient languages ... including early Chinese ... stemmed from one primeval source -- Sumerian". Sumerian, of course, is the virtual archetype of what linguistic taxonomists call a language-isolate, meaning a language that does not fall into any of the well-known language-families or exhibit clear cognation with any known language. Even if Sitchin is referring to written rather than to spoken language, it is unlikely that his contention can be persuasively defended, since Sumerian ideograms were preceded by the Azilian and Tartarian signaries of Europe as well as by a variety of script-like notational systems between the Nile and Indus rivers.

text: Astronomical and scientific observations[edit]

text: Sitchin's "planetary collision" hypothesis does superficially resemble one suggested by modern astronomers—the giant impact hypothesis of the Moon's formation about 4.5 billion years ago by a body impacting with the newly formed Earth. However, Sitchin's proposed series of rogue planetary collisions differ in both details and timing. As with Immanuel Velikovsky's earlier Worlds in Collision thesis, Sitchin states that he has found evidence of ancient human knowledge of rogue celestial motions in a variety of mythological accounts. In Velikovsky's case, these interplanetary collisions were supposed to have taken place within the span of human existence, whereas for Sitchin these occurred during the early stages of planetary formation, but entered the mythological account passed down via the alien race which purportedly evolved on Nibiru after these encounters.

text: According to former Immanuel Velikovsky assistant turned prolific critic,[30] C. Leroy Ellenberger,[30] "[Sitchin states that] from an equal start, the Nephilim evolved on Nibiru 45 million years ahead of comparable development on Earth with its decidedly more favorable environment. Such an outcome is unlikely, to say the least, since Nibiru would spend over 99% of its time beyond Pluto. Sitchin's explanation that heat from radioactive decay and a thick atmosphere keep Nibiru warm is absurd and does not address the problem of darkness in deep space. Also unexplained is how the Nephilim, who evolved long after Nibiru arrived, knew what happened when Nibiru first entered the solar system."[31]

text: The scenario outlined by Sitchin, with Nibiru returning to the inner solar system regularly every 3,600 years,

text: ... implies an orbit with a semi-major axis of 235 astronomical units, extending from the asteroid belt to twelve times farther beyond the sun than Pluto. Elementary perturbation theory indicates that, under the most favorable circumstances of avoiding close encounters with other planets, no body with such an eccentric orbit would keep the same period for two consecutive passages. Within twelve orbits the object would be either ejected or converted to a short period object. Thus, the failed search for a trans-Plutonian planet by T.C. Van Flandern, of the U.S. Naval Observatory, which Sitchin uses to bolster his thesis, is no support at all.[31]

text: Sitchin in "the case of Adam’s alien genes"[32] states that 223 genes found by the Human Genome Sequencing Consortium are without the required predecessors on the genomic evolutionary tree. Later researchers have argued that the conclusion from the Human Genome Sequencing Consortium cannot be drawn due to a lack of a comprehensive gene database for comparison. An analysis by Salzberg identified 40 potential genes laterally transferred into the genome from prokaryotic organisms. Salzberg also argues that gene loss combined with sample size effects and evolutionary rate variation provide an alternative, more biologically plausible explanation.[33]

text: Literalism of myth[edit]

text: Peter James, co-author of the controversial book Centuries of Darkness,[34] has criticized Sitchin both for ignoring the world outside Mesopotamia and more specifically for misunderstanding Babylonian literature:

text: He uses the Epic of Creation Enuma Elish as the foundation for his cosmogony, identifying the young god Marduk, who overthrows the older regime of gods and creates the Earth, as the unknown "Twelfth Planet". In order to do this he interprets the Babylonian theogony as a factual account of the birth of the other "eleven" planets. The Babylonian names for the planets are established beyond a shadow of a doubt—Ishtar was the deity of Venus, Nergal of Mars, and Marduk of Jupiter—and confirmed by hundreds of astronomical/astrological tables and treatises on clay tablets and papyri from the Hellenistic period. Sitchin merrily ignores all this and assigns unwarranted planetary identities to the gods mentioned in the theogony. For example, Apsu, attested as god of the primeval waters, becomes, of all things, the Sun! Ea, as it suits Sitchin, is sometimes planet Neptune and sometimes a spaceman. And the identity of Ishtar as the planet Venus, a central feature of Mesopotamian religion, is nowhere mentioned in the book—instead Sitchin arbitrarily assigns to Venus another deity from Enuma Elish, and reserves Ishtar for a role as a female astronaut.[35]

text: William Irwin Thompson comments on what he calls Sitchin's 'literalism':

text: What Sitchin sees is what he needs for his hypothesis. So figure 15 on page 40 is radiation therapy, and figure 71 on page 136 is a god inside a rocket-shaped chamber. If these are gods, why are they stuck with our cheap B movie technology of rockets, microphones, space-suits, and radiation therapy? If they are gods, then why can't they have some really divine technology such as intradimensional worm-hole travel, antigravity, starlight propulsion, or black hole bounce rematerializations? Sitchin has constructed what appears to be a convincing argument, but when he gets close to single images on ancient tablets, he falls back into the literalism of "Here is an image of the gods in rockets." Suddenly, ancient Sumer is made to look like the movie set for Destination Moon. Erich Von Däniken's potboiler Chariots of the Gods? has the same problem. Nazca plains in Peru is turned into a World War II landing strip. The gods can cross galactic distances, but by the time they get to Peru, their spaceships are imagined as World War II prop jobs that need an enormous landing strip. This literalization of the imagination doesn't make any sense, but every time it doesn't, you hear Sitchin say "There can be no doubt, but..."[36]

text: Bibliography[edit]

text: Earth Chronicles volumes[edit]

text:
The 12th Planet, 1976, Stein and Day, ISBN 0-8128-1939-X
The Stairway to Heaven, 1980, St. Martin's Press, ISBN 0-312-75505-8
The Wars of Gods and Men, 1985, Avon Books, ISBN 0-380-89585-4
The Lost Realms, 1990, Avon Books, ISBN 0-380-75890-3
When Time Began, 1993, Avon Books, ISBN 0-380-77071-7
The Cosmic Code, 1998, Avon Books, ISBN 0-380-80157-4
The End of Days: Armageddon and Prophecies of the Return, 2007, William Morrow, ISBN 978-0-06-123823-9

tag: ol

text: Companion volumes[edit]

text:
Genesis Revisited: Is Modern Science Catching Up With Ancient Knowledge?, 1990, Avon Books, ISBN 0-380-76159-9
Divine Encounters: A Guide to Visions, Angels and Other Emissaries, 1995, Avon Books, ISBN 0-380-78076-3
The Earth Chronicles Handbook, 2009, Bear & Company, ISBN 978-1-59143-101-5
There Were Giants Upon the Earth: Gods, Demigods, and Human Ancestry: The Evidence of Alien DNA, 2010, Bear & Company, ISBN 978-1-59143-121-3

text: Earth Chronicles expeditions[edit]

text:
The Earth Chronicles Expeditions, 2004, Bear & Company, ISBN 978-1-59143-076-6
Journeys to the Mythical Past, 2007, Bear and Company, ISBN 978-1-59143-080-3

text: Novels[edit]

text:
The Lost Book of Enki: Memoirs and Prophecies of an Extraterrestrial god, 2001, Bear & Company, ISBN 1-879181-83-5
The King Who Refused to Die: The Anunnaki and The Search for Immortality, 2013, Bear & Company, ISBN 978-1-59143-177-0

tag: ul

text: Associated[edit]

text:
The Complete Earth Chronicles, 2014, Bear & Company, ISBN 978-1591432012 (Box set of first seven books)
The Anunnaki Chronicles: A Zecharia Sitchin Reader, 2015, Bear & Company, ISBN 978-1-59143-229-6 (edited, Janet Sitchin)

text: DVDs[edit]

text:
Are We Alone in the Universe? (based on Genesis Revisited), documentary, 1978 (2003 DVD release)[37]
An Evening with Zecharia Sitchin, lecture and slide presentation, 1997
A Talk From The Heart! lecture and slide presentation, 2006
Signs of the Return, lecture and slide presentation, 2009
2012—the End of Days? lecture and slide presentation, 2010
Zecharia at 90—Farewell Address, lecture, 2010


document_title: MAPP gas

question_text: how hot does a mapp gas torch burn

question_tokens: how hot does a mapp gas torch burn

text: MAPP gas

text: MAPP gas use[edit]

text: Genuine MAPP gas can be used in combination with oxygen for heating, soldering, brazing and even welding due to its high flame temperature of 2925 °C (5300 °F) in oxygen. Although acetylene has a higher flame temperature (3160 °C, 5720 °F), MAPP has the advantage that it requires neither dilution nor special container fillers during transport, allowing a greater volume of fuel gas to be transported at the same given weight, and it is much safer in use.

text: The MAPP/oxygen flame is not entirely appropriate for welding steel, due to the high concentration of hydrogen in the flame - higher than acetylene, but lower than any of the other petroleum fuel gases. The hydrogen infuses into the molten steel and renders the welds brittle. For small-scale welding with MAPP this is not a serious problem, as the hydrogen escapes readily, and MAPP/oxygen can in practice be used for welding small steel parts.

text: MAPP/oxygen was advantageously used in underwater cutting, which requires high gas pressures (under such pressures acetylene polymerizes explosively, making it dangerous to use). However, underwater oxy/fuel gas cutting of any kind has been replaced by exothermic cutting[2] due to the much faster cut rate and greater safety.

text: MAPP gas is also used in combustion with air for brazing and soldering, where it has a slight advantage over competing propane fuel due to its higher combustion temperature of 2,020 °C (3,670 °F) in air.

text: The biggest disadvantage of MAPP gas is cost; it is typically one-and-a-half times as expensive as propane at the refinery, and up to four times as expensive to the consumer. It is no longer used much in any large-scale industry - for larger scale users acetylene/oxygen is more economic than MAPP/oxygen when high flame temperatures are needed, and propane/air is more economic when big overall heats are needed.

text: However, for the small-scale user the MAPP/oxygen flame is still highly desirable, having higher flame temperatures and energy densities than any flame other than acetylene/oxygen, but without the dangers and inconveniences of acetylene/oxygen. Jewellers, glassbead makers, and many others find it very useful. Plumbers, refrigeration and HVAC engineers and other tradesmen also value the high heat capacity of the MAPP/air flame; MAPP was until recently widely used, supplied in small to medium size containers.

text: MAPP gas physical properties[edit]

text: MAPP is colorless in both liquid and gas form. The gas has a pronounced acetylene-like or fishy odor at concentrations above 100 ppm, due to the addition of substituted amines as a polymerization inhibitor. Low molecular weight alkynes have strong odors. MAPP gas is toxic if inhaled at high concentrations.

text: The composition of the supplied gas has varied widely, with the gases as supplied by different repackagers/resellers at any one time varying, as well as the general composition varying over time, but a typical composition for an early Dow gas might be: methylacetylene (propyne) 48%, propadiene 23%, propane 27%. For a later Dow/Petromont gas propyne 30%, propadiene 14%, propylene 43%, propane 7%, C4H10 (isobutane, butane) 6% might be more typical.

text: Thermal properties[edit]

text: MAPP has an energy content of 2100 BTU/lb (1.357 kWh/kg) while acetylene's energy content is 2500 BTU/lb (1.615 kWh/kg).[3][dubious – discuss]

text: Safety[edit]

text: People can be exposed to MAPP gas or its substitutes in the workplace by inhaling the gas or skin/eye contact with the liquid. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit for MAPP gas exposure in the workplace as 1000 ppm (1800 mg/m3) over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 1000 ppm (1800 mg/m3) over an 8-hour workday and 1250 ppm (2250 mg/m3) for short-term exposure. At levels of 3400 ppm, 10% of the lower explosive limit, MAPP gas is immediately dangerous to life and health.[4]


document_title: Lies of the Heart

question_text: diya in lies of the heart real name

question_tokens: diya in lies of the heart real name

text: Lies of the Heart

text: Plot[edit]

text: It is the story of Urmi, a young girl who gets married to Samrat, an arrogant, male chauvinist and abusive husband. As the story progresses Urmi and Samrat have a child, Shaurya. Moving further Urmi walks out of her marriage with Samrat due to his infidelity and ends up as a successful independent woman. Later, Ishaan, who has been Urmi's friend, confidant and lawyer, falls in love with her and they get married.

text: Samrat, the abusive husband, comes back to take revenge on Urmi. In the process, Ishaan is killed while saving Samrat and later Samrat ends his life due to guilt.

text: Moving 15 years forward, Shaurya is an upright honest reporter who runs a news agency. Diya works with Shaurya in the same agency. On a work assignment Diya is raped. Hereon begins the journey of Urmi, Shaurya and Diya.

text: Over the years Urmi, with her courage, integrity and determination to fight for the right has become one of the most iconic characters on Zee TV. With this leap Urmi passes the baton she has been carrying to Shaurya. The story henceforth focuses on Shaurya and Diya and how Shaurya helps Diya, stand up for her, fights for her, supports her and eventually falls in love with her. Diya on her part fights for her rights, lives her life with her head held high and also eventually falls in love with Shaurya.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Neha Marda as Urmi Ishaan Sinha / Urmi Samrat Singh Rathore
Siddharth Arora/Vibhav Roy as Ishaan Anirudh Sinha
Mohit Malik as Samrat Singh Rathore
Parvati Sehgal as Tani Samrat Singh Rathore
Avinash Wadhawan as Anirudh Sinha
Kamya Punjabi as Damini Anirudh Sinha
Ayesha Singh as Ratti Sinha
Shashwita Sharma as Sandhiya Sinha
Geeta Tyagi as Shashikala Rudra Singh Rathore
Hemant Thatte as Gaurav Devi Singh
Anjali Mukhi as Saroj Devi Singh
Sameeksha Sud as Asha Gaurav Singh
Jayant Rawal as Devi Singh
Mitansh Gera as Shaurya Samrat Singh Rathore / Shaurya Ishaan Sinha
Shruti Kanwar as Radha
Vikram Chatterjee as Yash Singhania
Gaurav Rana as Diwakar Rudra Singh Rathore
Vibhuti Thakur as Kanchan Diwakar Singh Rathore
Jetendra as Rudra Singh Rathore
Anupam Shyam as Garjan Singh Rathore
Amita Udgata as Gayatri Singh
Guddi Maruti as Bua
Snigdha Srivastava as Trisha(Urmi's cousin sister)
Manisha Thakkar as Rashmi Singh Rathore / Rashmi Gaurav Singh
Mehendi Jain as Anushka Devi Singh
Aadesh Chaudhary / Harsh Vashisht as Amrit Singh Chauhan
Ragini Gakhar as Aditi Amrit Singh Chauhan
Krishnam Sharma as Rahul
Karan Mishra as Deepak
Ayush Mehra as Ravi Darshan Tiwari
Swati Nanda as Sanaya
Mohit Shrivastava as Prathanesh Sharma
Himani Shivpuri as Sushma Darshan Tiwari
Raju Kher as Darshan Tiwari
Keith Sequeira as James (Blackmailer)
Neetha Shetty as Kiran(Samrat's love interest)

text:
Manasi Salvi as Urmi Ishaan Sinha / Urmi Samrat Singh Rathode
Kunal Karan Kapoor as Shaurya Ishaan Sinha / Shaurya Samrat Singh Rathode
Neha Sargam as Diya Shaurya Sinha / Diya Shaurya Singh Rathode
Kapil Arya as Karan
Shashank Sethi as Cheeku
Gaurav Chopra as Akash Kumar
Avinash Wadhawan as Anirudh Sinha
Kamya Punjabi as Damini Anirudh Sinha
Nalini Negi as Ishaani Ishaan Sinha
Mohit Shrivastava as Prathanesh Sharma
Shahab Khan as Diya's Father

text: International broadcast[edit]

text: In Pakistan, it airs on Urdu One


document_title: So You Think You Can Dance (Indian TV series)

question_text: so you think you can dance india winner 2016

text: Contestants[edit]

text: Team Street[edit]

text:
Name
Age
Current Residence

Alisha Behura
17
Bhillai

Kanchi Shah
24
Mumbai

Jueili Vaidya
23
Mumbai

Purvi Purohit
20
Gandhinagar, Gujarat.

Aryan Patra
16
Ranchi

Sahil Khan
23
Indore

Roza Rana
21
Rourkela

Prakash B.K
26
Mumbai

Tushar Shetty
20
Nolasopara

Vinay Khandelwal
26
New Delhi

text: Team Stage[edit]

text:
Name
Age
Current Residence

Ryan Martyr
22
New Delhi

Sanjana Bamrara
16
Chandigarh

Sneha Singh
24
Mumbai

Rishi Sharma
24
Haryana

Tarun Nihalani
20
Nashik

Deepak
28
Haryana

Kalpita Kachroo
21
New Delhi

Rohit Behal
24
Mumbai

Krishna Mehta
19
Mumbai

Aishwarya Radhakrishnan
23
Mumbai

text: Elimination Table[edit]

text: This section may be confusing or unclear to readers. In particular, there seem to be four contestants who placed in the bottom 3. (June 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Color Keys

text:
Contestant
Finals

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Alisha Behura
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
WINNER

Aryan Patra
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Runner-up

Kalpita Kachroo
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
FINALIST

Tarun Nihalani
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
FINALIST

Roza Rana
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Elim

Ryan Martyr
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Elim

Aishwarya Radhakrishnan
Safe
Btm 3
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Elim

Tushar Shetty
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Elim

Sneha Signh
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Elim

Kanchi Shah
Safe
Btm 3
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Elim

Prakash B.K
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Elim

Rishi Sharma
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Elim

Vinaya Khandelwal
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Elim

Rohit Behal
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Elim

Sahil Khan
Safe
Btm 3
Safe
Elim

Deepak
Safe
Safe
Safe
Elim

Krishna Mehta
Safe
Btm 3
Elim

Juelli Vaidya
Safe
Safe
Elim

Sanjana Bamrara
Safe
Elim

Purvi Purohit
Safe
Elim


document_title: Van Mahotsav

question_text: when do we celebrate van mahotsav in india

text: Van Mahotsav

text: This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Van Mahotsav is an annual tree-planting movement in India, which began in 1950. The name Van Mahotsava means FESTIVAL OF FORESTS . It has gained significant national importance and, every year, millions of saplings are planted across India in observation of Van Mahotsav week.

text: Beginnings[edit]

text: Van Mahotsav festival was started in 1950 by Kulapati Dr. K M Munshi, then the Union Minister for Agriculture and Food to create enthusiasm among masses for forest conservation and planting trees. It is now a week-long festival, celebrated on different days in different parts of India, but usually between 1 July to 7 July.[1] It began after a flourishing tree planting drive which was undertaken in Delhi, in which national leaders participated.[citation needed] The festival was simultaneously celebrated in a number of states in India. Since then, millions of saplings of diverse species have been planted with energetic participation of local people and various agencies like the forest department.[2] Awareness spread as the chipko movement rose in popularity as a crusade to save mother earth.[citation needed].

text: Aims[edit]

text: The constant felling of trees in India has been a problem for a long time, and Van Mahotsav is important in creating awareness of the issues.[citation needed]. According to the forest department, for every tree felled ten trees should be planted to make up for its loss.[citation needed]

text: As at 2016, tree cover of India (including forests and non-forest areas) was 23.81%. The Government of India has set a target of 33% cover by 2020.[3] In 2015 the State Government of Assam announced that it intended to plant 25 lakh(2.5 million) trees. It said this would not only benefit the environment, but also have a direct influence on the socio-economic development of Assam, which has 70% or its people working in the agricultural sector.[4]

text: The festival raises the awareness of trees among people, and highlights the need for planting and tending of trees as one of the best ways to prevent global warming and reduce pollution. Tree planting during the festival serves various purposes, such as providing alternative fuel, increasing production of food resources, creating shelter-belts around fields to increase productivity, providing food for cattle, offering shade and decorative landscapes, reducing drought and helping to prevent soil erosion, etc.[2] It helps spread awareness about the harm caused by the cutting down of trees, and it is expected that every citizen of India will plant a sapling in the Van Mahotsav week.[citation needed]

text: Planting of trees also serves other purposes like providing alternative fuel options, food for cattle, helps in soil conservation and more than anything offers a natural aesthetic beauty. Planting of trees also helps to avoid soil erosion which may cause floods. Also, planting trees can be extremely effective in slowing down global warming and trees also help in reducing pollution as they make the air cleaner.

text: People celebrate Van Mahotsava by planting trees or saplings in homes, offices, schools and colleges. Novel promotions like free circulation of trees are also taken up by various organizations and volunteers.[citation needed] In general, native trees are planted as they most readily adapt to local conditions, integrate into eco-systems, and have a high survival rate and help support local biodiversity. State Governments and civic bodies supply saplings to schools, colleges and academic institutions, NGOs and welfare organizations for planting trees. July is the onset of the monsoon season in India – a time when tree planting is most likely to be effective.[citation needed]


document_title: Hawaiian Islands

question_text: what are the names of the main hawaiian islands

text: Hawaiian Islands

text: Islands and reefs[edit]

text: Captain James Cook visited the islands on January 18, 1778 and named them the "Sandwich Islands" in honor of John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich, who was one of his sponsors as the First Lord of the Admiralty.[3] This name was in use until the 1840s, when the local name "Hawaii" gradually began to take precedence.[4]

text: The Hawaiian Islands have a total land area of 6,423.4 square miles (16,636.5 km2). Except for Midway, which is an unincorporated territory of the United States, these islands and islets are administered as Hawaii—the 50th state of the United States.[5]

text: Main islands[edit]

text: The eight main islands of Hawaii (also called the Hawaiian Windward Islands) are listed here. All except Kahoolawe are inhabited.[6]

text:
Island
Nickname
Area
Population
(as of 2010)
Density
Highest point
Elevation
Age (Ma)[7]
Location

Hawaiʻi[8]
The Big Island
1 4,028.0 sq mi (10,432.5 km2)
185,079
4 45.948/sq mi (17.7407/km2)
Mauna Kea
1 13,796 ft (4,205 m)
0.4
19°34′N 155°30′W / 19.567°N 155.500°W / 19.567; -155.500 (Hawaii)

Maui[9]
The Valley Isle
2 727.2 sq mi (1,883.4 km2)
144,444
2 198.630/sq mi (76.692/km2)
Haleakalā
2 10,023 ft (3,055 m)
1.3–0.8
20°48′N 156°20′W / 20.800°N 156.333°W / 20.800; -156.333 (Maui)

Oʻahu[10]
The Gathering Place
3 596.7 sq mi (1,545.4 km2)
953,207
1 1,597.46/sq mi (616.78/km2)
Mount Kaʻala
5 4,003 ft (1,220 m)
3.7–2.6
21°28′N 157°59′W / 21.467°N 157.983°W / 21.467; -157.983 (Oahu)

Kauaʻi[11]
The Garden Isle
4 552.3 sq mi (1,430.5 km2)
66,921
3 121.168/sq mi (46.783/km2)
Kawaikini
3 5,243 ft (1,598 m)
5.1
22°05′N 159°30′W / 22.083°N 159.500°W / 22.083; -159.500 (Kauai)

Molokaʻi[12]
The Friendly Isle
5 260.0 sq mi (673.4 km2)
7,345
5 28.250/sq mi (10.9074/km2)
Kamakou
4 4,961 ft (1,512 m)
1.9–1.8
21°08′N 157°02′W / 21.133°N 157.033°W / 21.133; -157.033 (Molokai)

Lānaʻi[13]
The Pineapple Isle
6 140.5 sq mi (363.9 km2)
3,135
6 22.313/sq mi (8.615/km2)
Lānaʻihale
6 3,366 ft (1,026 m)
1.3
20°50′N 156°56′W / 20.833°N 156.933°W / 20.833; -156.933 (Lanai)

Niʻihau[14]
The Forbidden Isle
7 69.5 sq mi (180.0 km2)
170
7 2.45/sq mi (0.944/km2)
Mount Pānīʻau
8 1,250 ft (381 m)
4.9
21°54′N 160°10′W / 21.900°N 160.167°W / 21.900; -160.167 (Niihau)

Kahoʻolawe[15]
The Target Isle
8 44.6 sq mi (115.5 km2)
0
8 0
Puʻu Moaulanui
7 1,483 ft (452 m)
1.0
20°33′N 156°36′W / 20.550°N 156.600°W / 20.550; -156.600 (Kahoolawe)

text: Smaller islands, atolls, reefs[edit]

text: Smaller islands, atolls, and reefs (all west of Niʻihau are uninhabited) form the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, or Hawaiian Leeward Islands:

text:
Nihoa (Mokumana)
Necker (Mokumanamana)
French Frigate Shoals (Kānemilohaʻi)
Gardner Pinnacles (Pūhāhonu)
Maro Reef (Nalukākala)
Laysan (Kauō)
Lisianski Island (Papaʻāpoho)
Pearl and Hermes Atoll (Holoikauaua)
Midway Atoll (Pihemanu)
Kure Atoll (Mokupāpapa)

text: Islets[edit]

text: The state of Hawaii counts 137 "islands" in the Hawaiian chain.[17] This number includes all minor islands and islets, or very small island, offshore of the main islands (listed above) and individual islets in each atoll. These are just a few:

text:
Ford Island (Mokuʻumeʻume)
Lehua
Kaula
Kaohikaipu
Mānana
Mōkōlea Rock
Nā Mokulua
Molokini
Mokoliʻi
Moku Manu
Moku Ola (Coconut Island, Hawaii)
Moku o Loʻe (Coconut Island, Oahu)
Sand Island
Grass Island

text: Geology[edit]

text: This chain of islands, or archipelago, developed as the Pacific Plate moved slowly northwestward over a hotspot in the Earth's mantle at a rate of approximately 32 miles (51 km) per million years. Thus, the southeast island is volcanically active, whereas the islands on the northwest end of the archipelago are older and typically smaller, due to longer exposure to erosion. The age of the archipelago has been estimated using potassium-argon dating methods.[18] From this study and others,[19][20] it is estimated that the northwestern most island, Kure Atoll, is the oldest at approximately 28 million years (Ma); while the southeastern most island, Hawaiʻi, is approximately 0.4 Ma (400,000 years). The only active volcanism in the last 200 years has been on the southeastern island, Hawaiʻi, and on the submerged but growing volcano to the extreme southeast, Loʻihi. The Hawaiian Volcano Observatory of the USGS documents recent volcanic activity and provides images and interpretations of the volcanism.

text: Almost all of the magma of the hotspot has the composition of basalt, and so the Hawaiian volcanoes are composed almost entirely of this igneous rock. There is very little coarser-grained gabbro and diabase. Nephelinite is exposed on the islands but is extremely rare. The majority of eruptions in Hawaiʻi are Hawaiian-type eruptions because basaltic magma is relatively fluid compared with magmas typically involved in more explosive eruptions, such as the andesitic magmas that produce some of the spectacular and dangerous eruptions around the margins of the Pacific basin.

text: Hawaiʻi island (the Big Island) is the biggest and youngest island in the chain, built from five volcanoes. Mauna Loa, taking up over half of the Big Island, is the largest shield volcano on the Earth. The measurement from sea level to summit is more than 2.5 miles (4 km), from sea level to sea floor about 3.1 miles (5 km).[21]

text: Earthquakes[edit]

text: The Hawaiian Islands have many earthquakes, generally caused by volcanic activity. Most of the early earthquake monitoring took place in Hilo, by missionaries Titus Coan, Sarah J. Lyman and her family. From 1833 to 1896, approximately 4 or 5 earthquakes were reported per year.[22]

text: Hawaii accounted for 7.3% of the United States' reported earthquakes with a magnitude 3.5 or greater from 1974 to 2003, with a total 1533 earthquakes. Hawaii ranked as the state with the third most earthquakes over this time period, after Alaska and California.[23]

text: On October 15, 2006, there was an earthquake with a magnitude of 6.7 off the northwest coast of the island of Hawaii, near the Kona area of the big island. The initial earthquake was followed approximately five minutes later by a magnitude 5.7 aftershock. Minor-to-moderate damage was reported on most of the Big Island. Several major roadways became impassable from rock slides, and effects were felt as far away as Honolulu, Oahu, nearly 150 miles (240 km) from the epicenter. Power outages lasted for several hours to days. Several water mains ruptured. No deaths or life-threatening injuries were reported.

text: Earthquakes are monitored by the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory run by the USGS.

text: Tsunamis[edit]

text: The Hawaiian Islands are subject to tsunamis, great waves that strike the shore. Tsunamis are most often caused by earthquakes somewhere in the Pacific. The waves produced by the earthquakes travel at speeds of 400–500 miles per hour (600–800 km/h) and can affect coastal regions thousands of miles (kilometers) away.

text: Tsunamis may also originate from the Hawaiian Islands. Explosive volcanic activity can cause tsunamis. The island of Molokaʻi had a catastrophic collapse or debris avalanche over a million years ago; this underwater landslide likely caused tsunamis. The Hilina Slump on the island of Hawaiʻi is another potential place for a large landslide and resulting tsunami.

text: The city of Hilo on the Big Island has been most affected by tsunamis, where the in-rushing water is accentuated by the shape of Hilo Bay. Coastal cities have tsunami warning sirens.

text: A tsunami resulting from an earthquake in Chile hit the islands on February 27, 2010. It was relatively minor, but local emergency management officials utilized the latest technology and ordered evacuations in preparation for a possible major event. The Governor declared it a "good drill" for the next major event.

text: A tsunami resulting from an earthquake in Japan hit the islands on March 11, 2011. It was relatively minor, but local officials ordered evacuations in preparation for a possible major event. The tsunami caused about $30.1 million in damages.[24]

text: Ecology[edit]

text: The endemic plant and animal species of the Hawaiian Islands developed in nearly complete isolation over about 70 million years.[clarification needed] Prior to human arrival, the only native mammals were the Hawaiian hoary bat and the Hawaiian monk seal.[25][not in citation given]

text: Human contact, first by Polynesians, introduced new trees, other plants and animals. These included voracious species such as rats and pigs, who took a heavy toll on native birds and invertebrates that evolved in the absence of such predators. The growing population also brought deforestation, forest degradation, treeless grasslands, and environmental degradation. As a result, many species which depended on forest habitats and food became extinct. As humans cleared land for farming, monocultural crop production replaced multi-species systems.[citation needed]

text: The arrival of the Europeans had a more significant impact, with the promotion of large-scale single-species export agriculture and livestock grazing. This led to increased clearing of forests, and the development of towns, adding many more species to the list of extinct animals of the Hawaiian Islands. As of 2009[update], many of the remaining endemic species are considered endangered.[26]

text: National Monument[edit]

text: Wikinews has related news: Bush proclaims Northwestern Hawaiian Islands a National Monument

text: On June 15, 2006, President George W. Bush issued a public proclamation creating Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument under the Antiquities Act of 1906. The Monument encompasses the northwestern Hawaiian Islands and surrounding waters, forming the largest[27] marine wildlife reserve in the world. In August 2010, UNESCO's World Heritage Committee added Papahānaumokuākea to its list of World Heritage Sites.[28][29][30] On August 26, 2016, President Barack Obama greatly expanded Papahānaumokuākea, quadrupling it from its original size.[31][32][33]

text: Climate[edit]

text: The climate of the Hawaiian Islands is tropical but it experiences many different climates, depending on altitude and weather.[34] The islands receive most rainfall from the trade winds on their north and east flanks (the windward side) as a result of orographic precipitation.[34] Coastal areas in general and especially the south and west flanks or leeward sides, tend to be drier.[34]

text: In general, the lowlands of Hawaiian Islands receive most of their precipitation during the winter months (October to April).[34] Drier conditions generally prevail from May to September.[34] The tropical storms, and occasional hurricanes, tend to occur from July through November.[34]


document_title: Ancient Olympic Games

question_text: what was the first olympic sport in ancient greece

text: Ancient Olympic Games

text: Origins[edit]

text: To the Greeks, it was important to root the Olympic Games in mythology.[13] During the time of the ancient games their origins were attributed to the gods, and competing legends persisted as to who actually was responsible for the genesis of the games.[14] These origin traditions have become nearly impossible to untangle, yet a chronology and patterns have arisen that help people understand the story behind the games.[15]

text: The earliest myths regarding the origin of the games are recounted by the Greek historian, Pausanias. According to the story, the dactyl Heracles (not to be confused with the son of Zeus and the Roman god Hercules) and four of his brothers, Paeonaeus, Epimedes, Iasius and Idas, raced at Olympia to entertain the newborn Zeus. He crowned the victor with an olive tree wreath (which thus became a peace symbol), which also explains the four year interval, bringing the games around every fifth year (counting inclusively).[16][17] The other Olympian gods (so named because they lived permanently on Mount Olympus) would also engage in wrestling, jumping and running contests.[18]

text: Another myth of the origin of the games is the story of Pelops, a local Olympian hero. The story of Pelops begins with Oenomaus, the king of Pisa, Greece, who had a beautiful daughter named Hippodamia. According to an oracle, the king would be killed by her husband. Therefore, he decreed that any young man who wanted to marry his daughter was required to drive away with her in his chariot, and Oenomaus would follow in another chariot, and spear the suitor if he caught up with them. Now, the king's chariot horses were a present from the god Poseidon and were therefore supernaturally fast. Pelops was a very handsome young man and the king's daughter fell in love with him. Before the race, she persuaded her father's charioteer Myrtilus to replace the bronze axle pins of the king's chariot with wax ones. Naturally, during the race, the wax melted and the king fell from his chariot and was killed. At the same time, the king's palace was struck by lightning and reduced to ashes, save for one wooden pillar that was revered in the Altis for centuries, and stood near what was to be the site of the temple of Zeus. Pelops was proclaimed the winner and married Hippodamia. After his victory, Pelops organized chariot races as thanksgiving to the gods and as funeral games in honor of King Oenomaus, in order to be purified of his death. It was from this funeral race held at Olympia that the beginnings of the Olympic Games were inspired. Pelops became a great king, a local hero, and he gave his name to the Peloponnese.

text: One other myth, this one occurring after the aforementioned myth, is attributed to Pindar. He claims the festival at Olympia involved Heracles, the son of Zeus. The story goes that after completing his labors, Heracles established an athletic festival to honor his father.

text: The games of previous millennia were discontinued and then revived by Lycurgus of Sparta, Iphitos of Elis, and Cleisthenes of Pisa at the behest of the Oracle of Delphi who claimed that the people had strayed from the gods, which had caused a plague and constant war. Restoration of the games would end the plague, usher in a time of peace, and signal a return to a more traditional lifestyle.[19] The patterns that emerge from these myths are that the Greeks believed the games had their roots in religion, that athletic competition was tied to worship of the gods, and the revival of the ancient games was intended to bring peace, harmony and a return to the origins of Greek life.[20]

text: Since these myths were documented by historians like Pausanias, who lived during the reign of Marcus Aurelius in the AD 160, it is likely that these stories are more fable than fact. It was often supposed that the origins of many aspects of the Olympics date to funeral games of the Mycenean period and later.[21] Alternatively, the games were thought to derive from some kind of vegetation magic or from initiation ceremonies. The most recent theory traces the origins of the games to large game hunting and related animal ceremonialism.[22]

text: History[edit]

text: The Olympic games were held to be one of the two central rituals in ancient Greece, the other being the much older religious festival, the Eleusinian Mysteries.[23]

text: The games started in Olympia, Greece, in a sanctuary site for the Greek deities near the towns of Elis and Pisa (both in Elis on the peninsula of Peloponnesos). The first games began as an annual foot race of young women in competition for the position of the priestess for the goddess, Hera,[24] and a second race was instituted for a consort for the priestess who would participate in the religious traditions at the temple.[25]

text: The Heraean Games, the first recorded competition for women in the Olympic Stadium, were held as early as the sixth century BC. It originally consisted of foot races only, as did the competition for males. Some texts, including Pausanias's Description of Greece, c. AD 175, state that Hippodameia gathered a group known as the "Sixteen Women" and made them administrators of the Heraea Games, out of gratitude for her marriage to Pelops. Other texts related to the Elis and Pisa conflict indicate that the "Sixteen Women" were peacemakers from Pisa and Elis and, because of their political competence, became administrators of the Heraea. Being the consort of Hera in Classical Greek mythology, Zeus was the father of the deities in the pantheon of that era. The Sanctuary of Zeus in Olympia housed a 13-metre-high (43 ft) statue in ivory and gold of Zeus that had been sculpted by Phidias circa 445 BC. This statue was one of the ancient Seven Wonders of the World. By the time of the Classical Greek culture, in the fifth and fourth centuries BC, the games were restricted to male participants.

text: The historian Ephorus, who lived in the fourth century BC, is one potential candidate for establishing the use of Olympiads to count years, although credit for codifying this particular epoch usually falls to Hippias of Elis, to Eratosthenes, or even to Timaeus, whom Eratosthenes may have imitated.[26][27][28] The Olympic Games were held at four-year intervals, and later, the ancient historians' method of counting the years even referred to these games, using the term Olympiad for the period between two games. Previously, the local dating systems of the Greek states were used (they continued to be used by everyone except the historians), which led to confusion when trying to determine dates. For example, Diodorus states that there was a solar eclipse in the third year of the 113th Olympiad, which must be the eclipse of 316 BC. This gives a date of (mid-summer) 765 BC for the first year of the first Olympiad.[29] Nevertheless, there is disagreement among scholars as to when the games began.[30]

text: The only competition held then was, according to the later Greek traveller Pausanias who wrote in AD 175, the stadion race, a race over about 190 metres (620 feet), measured after the feet of Hercules. The word stadium is derived from this foot race.

text: The Greek tradition of athletic nudity (gymnos)[31] was introduced in 720 BC, either by the Spartans or by the Megarian Orsippus, and this was adopted early in the Olympics as well.

text: Several groups fought over control of the sanctuary at Olympia, and hence the games, for prestige and political advantage. Pausanias later writes that in 668 BC, Pheidon of Argos was commissioned by the town of Pisa to capture the sanctuary from the town of Elis, which he did and then personally controlled the games for that year. The next year, Elis regained control.

text: The Olympic Games were part of the Panhellenic Games, four separate games held at two- or four-year intervals, but arranged so that there was at least one set of games every year. The Olympic Games were more important and more prestigious than the Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian Games.

text: The games were in decline for many years but continued past AD 385, by which time flooding and earthquakes had damaged the buildings and invasions by barbarians had reached Olympia.[32] In 394 Theodosius I banned all pagan festivals, but archeological evidence indicates that some games were still held.[33]

text: Culture[edit]

text: The ancient Olympics were as much a religious festival as an athletic event. The games were held in honor of the Greek god Zeus, and on the middle day of the games, 100 oxen would be sacrificed to him.[12] Over time Olympia, the site of the games, became a central spot for the worship of the head of the Greek pantheon and a temple, built by the Greek architect Libon, was erected on the mountaintop. The temple was one of the largest Doric temples in Greece.[12] The sculptor Pheidias created a statue of the god made of gold and ivory. It stood 42 feet (13 m) tall. It was placed on a throne in the temple. The statue became one of the seven wonders of the ancient world.[12] As the historian Strabo put it,

text: ... the glory of the temple persisted ... on account both of the festal assembly and of the Olympian Games, in which the prize was a crown and which were regarded as sacred, the greatest games in the world. The temple was adorned by its numerous offerings, which were dedicated there from all parts of Greece.[12]

text: Artistic expression was a major part of the games. Sculptors, poets, painters and other artisans would come to the games to display their works in what became an artistic competition. Sculptors created works like Myron's Diskobolos or Discus Thrower. Their aim was to highlight natural human movement and the shape of muscles and the body. Poets would be commissioned to write poems in praise of the Olympic victors. Such victory songs or epinicians, were passed on from generation to generation and many of them have lasted far longer than any other honor made for the same purpose.[34] Pierre de Coubertin, one of the founders of the modern Olympic Games, wanted to fully imitate the ancient Olympics in every way. Included in his vision was an artistic competition modeled on the ancient Olympics and held every four years, during the celebration of the Olympic Games.[35] His desire came to fruition at the Olympics held in Athens in 1896.[36]

text: Politics[edit]

text: Power in ancient Greece became centered around the city-state in the 8th century BC.[37] The city-state was a population center organized into a self-contained political entity.[38] These city-states often lived in close proximity to each other, which created competition for limited resources. Though conflict between the city-states was ubiquitous, it was also in their self-interest to engage in trade, military alliances and cultural interaction.[39] The city-states had a dichotomous relationship with each other: on one hand, they relied on their neighbors for political and military alliances, while on the other they competed fiercely with those same neighbors for vital resources.[40] The Olympic Games were established in this political context and served as a venue for representatives of the city-states to peacefully compete against each other.[41]

text: In the first 200 years of the games' existence, they only had regional religious importance. Only Greeks in proximity to the mountain competed in these early games. This is evidenced by the dominance of Peloponnesian athletes in the victors' rolls.[42] The spread of Greek colonies in the 5th and 6th centuries BC is repeatedly linked to successful Olympic athletes. For example, Pausanias recounts that Cyrene was founded c. 630 BC by settlers from Thera with Spartan support. The support Sparta gave was primarily the loan of three-time Olympic champion Chionis. The appeal of settling with an Olympic champion helped to populate the colonies and maintain cultural and political ties with the city-states near Olympia. Thus, Hellenic culture and the games spread while the primacy of Olympia persisted.[43]

text: The games faced a serious challenge during the Peloponnesian War, which primarily pitted Athens against Sparta, but, in reality, touched nearly every Hellenic city-state.[44] The Olympics were used during this time to announce alliances and offer sacrifices to the gods for victory.[12][45]

text: During the Olympic Games, a truce, or ekecheiria was observed. Three runners, known as spondophoroi, were sent from Elis to the participant cities at each set of games to announce the beginning of the truce.[46] During this period, armies were forbidden from entering Olympia and legal disputes and the use of the death penalty were forbidden. The truce was primarily designed to allow athletes and visitors to travel safely to the games and was, for the most part, observed.[46] Thucydides wrote of a situation when the Spartans were forbidden from attending the games, and the violators of the truce were fined 2,000 minae for assaulting the city of Lepreum during the period of the ekecheiria. The Spartans disputed the fine and claimed that the truce had not yet taken hold.[45][47]

text: While a martial truce was observed by all participating city-states, no such reprieve from conflict existed in the political arena. The Olympic Games evolved the most influential athletic and cultural stage in ancient Greece, and arguably in the ancient world.[48] As such the games became a vehicle for city-states to promote themselves. The result was political intrigue and controversy. For example, Pausanias, a Greek historian, explains the situation of the athlete Sotades,

text: Sotades at the ninety-ninth Festival was victorious in the long race and proclaimed a Cretan, as in fact he was. But at the next Festival he made himself an Ephesian, being bribed to do so by the Ephesian people. For this act he was banished by the Cretans.[12]

text: Events[edit]

text:
Events at the Olympics

Olympiad
Year
Event first introduced

1st
776 BC
Stade

14th
724 BC
Diaulos

15th
720 BC
Long distance race (Dolichos)

18th
708 BC
Pentathlon, Wrestling

23rd
688 BC
Boxing (pygmachia)

25th
680 BC
Four horse chariot race (tethrippon)

33rd
648 BC
Horse race (keles), Pankration

37th
632 BC
Boys stade and wrestling

38th
628 BC
Boys pentathlon

41st
616 BC
Boys boxing

65th
520 BC
Hoplite race (hoplitodromos)

70th
500 BC
Mule-cart race (apene)

93rd
408 BC
Two horse chariot race (synoris)

96th
396 BC
Competition for heralds and trumpeters

99th
384 BC
Tethrippon for horse over one year

128th
266 BC
Chariot for horse over one year

131st
256 BC
Race for horses older than one year

145th
200 BC
Pankration for boys

text: Apparently starting with just a single foot race, the program gradually increased to twenty-three contests, although no more than twenty featured at any one Olympiad.[49] Participation in most events was limited to male athletes except for women who were allowed to take part by entering horses in the equestrian events. Youth events are recorded as starting in 632 BC. Our knowledge of how the events were performed primarily derives from the paintings of athletes found on many vases, particularly those of the Archaic and Classical periods.[50]

text: Running[edit]

text: The only event recorded at the first thirteen games was the stade, a straight-line sprint of just over 192 metres.[51] The diaulos (lit. "double pipe"), or two-stade race, is recorded as being introduced at the 14th Olympiad in 724 BC. It is thought that competitors ran in lanes marked out with lime or gypsum for the length of a stade then turned around separate posts (kampteres), before returning to the start line.[52] Xenophanes wrote that "Victory by speed of foot is honored above all."

text: A third foot race, the dolichos ("long race"), was introduced in the next Olympiad. Accounts of the race's distance differ, it seems to have been from twenty to twenty-four laps of the track, around 7.5 km to 9 km, although it may have been lengths rather than laps and thus half as far.[53][54]

text: The last running event added to the Olympic program was the hoplitodromos, or "Hoplite race", introduced in 520 BC and traditionally run as the last race of the games. Competitors ran either a single or double diaulos (approximately 400 or 800 metres) in full military armour.[55] The hoplitodromos was based on a war tactic of soldiers running in full armor to surprise the enemy.

text: Combat[edit]

text: Wrestling (pale) is recorded as being introduced at the 18th Olympiad. Three throws were necessary for a win. A throw was counted if the body, hip, back or shoulder (and possibly knee) touched the ground. If both competitors fell nothing was counted. Unlike its modern counterpart Greco-Roman wrestling, it is likely that tripping was allowed.[56]

text: Boxing (pygmachia) was first listed in 688 BC,[57] the boys event sixty years later. The laws of boxing were ascribed to the first Olympic champion Onomastus of Smyrna.[58] It appears body-blows were either not permitted or not practised.[59][60] The Spartans, who claimed to have invented boxing, quickly abandoned it and did not take part in boxing competitions.[58] At first the boxers wore himantes (sing. himas), long leather strips which were wrapped around their hands.[57]

text: The pankration was introduced in the 33rd Olympiad (648 BC).[61] Boys' pankration became an Olympic event in 200 BC, in the 145th Olympiad.[62] As well as techniques from boxing and wrestling, athletes used kicks,[63] locks, and chokes on the ground. Although the only prohibitions were against biting and gouging, the pankration was regarded as less dangerous than boxing.[64]

text: It was one of the most popular events: Pindar wrote eight odes praising victors of the pankration.[65] A famous event in the sport was the posthumous victory of Arrhichion of Phigaleia who "expired at the very moment when his opponent acknowledged himself beaten."[66][67]

text: Pentathlon[edit]

text: The pentathlon was a competition made up of five events: running, long jump, discus throw, javelin throw and wrestling.[68] The pentathlon is said to have first appeared at the 18th Olympiad in 708 BC.[69] The competition was held on a single day,[70] but it is not known how the victor was decided,[71][72] or in what order the events occurred,[73] except that it finished with the wrestling.[74]

text: Equestrian[edit]

text: Horse racing and chariot racing were the most prestigious competitions in the games, due to only the wealthy being able to afford the maintenance and transportation of horses. These races consisted of different events: the four-horse chariot race, the two-horse chariot race, and the horse with rider race, the rider being hand picked by the owner. The four-horse chariot race was the first equestrian event to feature in the Olympics, being introduced in 680 BC. It consisted of two horses that were harnessed under a Yoke in the middle, and two outer horses that were attached with a rope.[75] The two-horse chariot was introduced in 408 BC.[76] The horse with rider competition on the other hand, was introduced in 648 BC. In this race, Greeks didn't use saddles or stirrups, so they required good grip and balance.[77]

text: In AD 67, the Roman Emperor Nero competed in the chariot race at Olympia. He was thrown from his chariot and was thus unable to finish the race. Nevertheless, he was declared the winner on the basis that he would have won if he had finished the race.[78]

text: Famous athletes[edit]

text:
From Sparta

Cynisca of Sparta (owner of a four-horse chariot) (first woman to be listed as an Olympic victor)

From Rhodes:

Diagoras of Rhodes (boxing 79th Olympiad, 464 BC) and his sons Akusilaos and Damagetos (boxing and pankration)
Leonidas of Rhodes (running: stadion, diaulos and hoplitodromos) (His record of 12 individual olympic titles was broken in 2016 by Michael Phelps who received his 13th original title.[79][80][81])

From Croton:

Astylos of Croton (running: stadion, diaulos and hoplitodromos)
Milo of Croton (wrestling)
Timasitheos of Croton (wrestling)[82]

From other cities/kingdoms:

Koroibos of Elis (stadion, the very first Olympic champion)
Orsippus of Megara (running: diaulos)
Theagenes of Thasos (boxer, pankratiast and runner)
Alexander I of Macedon (running: stadion) [83]
Dionysodorus, Theban[84]

Non-Greek:

Tiberius (steerer of a four-horse chariot)[85]
Nero (steerer of a ten-horse chariot)
Varastades, Prince and future King of Armenia, last known Ancient Olympic victor (boxing) during the 291st Olympic Games in the 4th century[86]

text: Olympic festivals in other places[edit]

text: Athletic festivals under the name of "Olympic games", named in imitation of the original festival at Olympia, were established over time in various places all over the Greek world. Some of these are only known to us by inscriptions and coins; but others, as the Olympic festival at Antioch, obtained great celebrity. After these Olympic festivals had been established in several places, the great Olympic festival itself was sometimes designated in inscriptions by the addition of Pisa.[87]


document_title: Renaming of cities in India

question_text: when was the name of bombay changed to mumbai

text: Renaming of cities in India

text: Renaming in local languages[edit]

text: In the post-colonial era, several Indian states' names were changed. Some of these changes coincided with the States Reorganisation Act of 1956, a major reform of the boundaries of India's states and territories that organised them along linguistic lines. At this time, for example, Travancore-Cochin was renamed Kerala. Later state name changes include the reorganisation of Madhya Bharat into Madhya Pradesh in 1959;[2] and the renamings of the Madras State to Tamil Nadu in 1969, of the Mysore State to Karnataka in 1973, and of Uttaranchal to Uttarakhand in 2007.

text: Name changes have varied with respect to the levels of language at which they have been applied, and also accepted. Some of these local name changes were changes made in all languages: the immediate local name, and also all India's other languages. An example of this is the renaming of predominantly Hindi-speaking Uttaranchal (Hindi: उत्तराञ्चल) to a new local Hindi name (Hindi: उत्तराखण्ड Uttarakhand). Other changes were only changes in some of the indigenous languages. For example, the renaming of the Madras Presidency to Madras State in 1947 and then Tamil Nadu in 1969 required non-Tamil speakers to change from an approximation of the British name (Tamil: மதராஸ் மாகாணம் Madras Presidency, then Madras State Tamil: மதராஸ் மாநிலம்) to a native Tamil name (Tamil: தமிழ்நாடு Tamil Nadu, "Tamil land").

text: In general, changes to the local names of cities in the indigenous languages are less common. However, a change in English may sometimes also be a reflection of changes in other Indian languages other than the specific local one. For example, the change of Madras (Tamil: மதராஸ் Madras) to Chennai (Tamil: சென்னை Chennai) was reflected in many of India's languages, and incidentally in English, while the Tamil endonym had always been Chennai and remained unaffected by the change.

text: Renaming in English[edit]

text: Change in official English spelling[edit]

text: The renaming of cities is often specifically from English to Indian English in connection with that dialect's internal reforms. In other words, the city itself is not actually renamed in the local language, and the local name (or endonym) in the indigenous languages of India does not change, but the official spelling in Indian English is amended. An example is the change from English "Calcutta" to English "Kolkata" – the local Bengali name (কলকাতা Kôlkata) did not change. Such changes in English spelling may be in order to better reflect a more accurate phonetic transliteration of the local name, or may be for other reasons. In the early years after Indian independence, many name changes were effected in northern India for English spellings of Hindi place names that had simply been romanised inconsistently by the British administration – such as the British spelling "Jubbulpore," renamed "Jabalpur" (जबलपुर) among the first changes in 1947. These changes did not generate significant controversy. More recent and high-profile changes – including renaming such major cities as Calcutta to Kolkata – have generated greater controversy.[3] Since independence, such changes have typically been enacted officially by legislation at local or national Indian government level, and may or may not then be adopted by the Indian media, particularly the influential Indian press. In the case of smaller towns and districts which were less notable outside and inside India, and where a well known English name (or exonym) could not be said to exist, older spellings used under British India may not have had any specific legislation other than changes in practice on the romanisation of indigenous Indian language names.

text: Realignment of the official Indian English name to an alternative local name[edit]

text: Aside from changes to the official English spellings of local names there have also been renaming proposals to realign the official name, hence the English name with an alternative local name. Ethnically sensitive examples include the proposals by the Bharatiya Janata Party (1990, 2001) to rename Ahmedabad to Karnavati[4] and Allahabad to Prayag. These two proposals are changes from the Muslim (or Mughal) name to a Hindu native name. These can be represented as a change from Urdu language to Hindi language, but since the two languages are variants of Hindustani the proposal is effectively a cultural and ethno-religious proposal rather than a linguistic one.[5]

text: Adoption of name changes in India and overseas[edit]

text: Official name changes take place quickly if not immediately in official government sources.[6] Adoption may be slower among the media in India and abroad, and among Indian authors.[7][8][9]

text: Important examples[edit]

text: States[edit]

text:
Travancore-Cochin → Kerala (1 November 1956).
Madhya Bharat → Madhya Pradesh (1 November 1959)
Madras State → Tamil Nadu (14 January 1969)
Mysore State → Karnataka (1 November 1973)
Uttaranchal → Uttarakhand (1 January 2007)
Orissa → Odisha (4 November 2011)

text: Cities[edit]

text: Notable city names that were officially changed by legislation after independence include:

text:
Jabalpur (Hindi: जबलपुर), from Jubbulpore, respelled in 1947
Jajmau (Hindi: जाजमऊ), from Jajesmow, respelled in 1948 [10]
Kanpur (Hindi: कानपुर), from Cawnpore, respelled in 1948
Vadodara (Gujarati: વડોદરા), from Baroda, respelled in 1974
Thiruvananthapuram (Malayalam: തിരുവനന്തപുരം), from Trivandrum, respelled in 1991
Mumbai (Marathi: मुंबई), from Bombay, renamed in 1995 [11]
Kochi (Malayalam: കൊച്ചി), from Cochin, respelled in 1996
Chennai (Tamil: சென்னை), from Madras, renamed in 1996
Kolkata (Bengali: কলকাতা), from Calcutta, respelled in 2001
Kadapa (Telugu: కడప), from Cuddapah, respelled in 2005
Puducherry (Tamil: புதுச்சேரி), from Pondicherry, renamed in 2006
Bengaluru (Kannada: ಬೆಂಗಳೂರು), from Bangalore, respelled in 2007 [12]
Belagavi from Belgaum in 2014 [13][14]
Tumakuru from Tumkur in 2014
Hubballi from Hubli in 2014
Shivamogga from Shimoga in 2014
Hosapete from Hospet in 2014
Mysuru from Mysore in 2014
Kalaburagi from Gulbarga in 2014
Chikkamagaluru from Chikmagalur
Vijapura from Bijapur in 2014
Ballari from Bellary in 2014
Mangaluru from Mangalore in 2014
Rajahmahendravaram from Rajahmundry in 2015
Gurugram from Gurgaon in 2016

text: For others, by state order, see list of renamed Indian cities and states.

text:
Alappuzha, from Alleppey
Guwahati (Assamese: গুৱাহাটী), from Gauhati
Indore, from Indhur
Kanchipuram from Kāñci-pura And Conjevaram
Kannur, from Cannanore
Kollam, from Quilon
Koyilandy, from Quilandi
Kozhikode, from Calicut
Kumbakonam from ancient name Kudanthai
Mayiladuthurai from Mayavaram ancient name Mayuram
Narmada, from Nerbudda
Nagaon (Assamese: নগাওঁ), from Nowgong
Palakkad, from Palghat
Panaji, from Panjim
Pune, from Poona
Ramanathapuram, from Ramnad
Sagar, from Saugor
Shimla, from Simla
Thalassery, from Tellicherry
Thanjavur, from ancient name Tanjore
Thoothukudi, from Tuticorin
Thrissur, from Trichur
Tindivanam, from Tinthirivanam
Tiruchirapalli, from Trichinopoly and its short form Trichy
Tirunelveli, from Tinnevelly
Tiruvallikeni, from Triplicane
Udhagamandalam, from Ootacamund and its short form Ooty
Viluppuram, from Vizhupparaiyar And Vizhimaa Nagaram
Varanasi, from Benares
Vatakara, from Badagara
Virudhachalam, from Vriddhachalam ancient name Thirumudhukundram
Vijayawada, from Bejawada
Visakhapatnam, from Waltair, and before that Vizagapatnam and its short form Vizag

text: Town names that derive from ancient names:

text:
Mandi, derived from Mandav Nagar [15]
Nellore, in ancient times Simhapuri [16]

text: Proposed changes[edit]

text: Several other changes have been proposed for states and towns.

text: States and Union territories[edit]

text:
Goa to Govapuri [17]
Kerala to Keralam
Nagaland to Naganchi [18]
West Bengal to Bengal

text: Towns[edit]

text:
Ahmedabad to Karnavati
Allahabad to Prayagraj[19]
Aurangabad to Sambhajinagar
Bhopal to Bhojpal [20]
Hyderabad to Bhagyanagar
Mahabubabad to Manukota
Mahbubnagar to Palamuru

text: Need for unification of spelling[edit]

text: India has various local languages. Even (Romanised) English spellings in long and wide use often vary depending upon which government department or agency uses them. To the point, a few examples are Quilandy vs. Koyilandy, Canannore vs. Kannur, and Rangiya vs. Rangia. Different departments of the government may have used official spellings in use at the time, while locations associated with Indian railways mostly maintained British-era spellings. The confusion inherent in such variations has often resulted in serious consequences like people having two "different" addresses (theoretically designating the same place) in their official records leading to legal disputes, or one house having residents of different house addresses due to differing place names. Many people argue that such confusion can lead to indeterminate and/or unintended consequences [21]