document_title: Road surface marking

question_text: broken lines that are wider and closer together

question_tokens: broken lines that are wider and closer together

text: Road surface marking

text: Mechanical markers[edit]

text: Mechanical devices may be raised or recessed into the road surface, and either reflective or non-reflective. Most are permanent; some are movable.

text:
Cat's eye, invented by Percy Shaw in the 1930s, Cat's eyes equip many major routes in the British Isles. They consist of four reflective lenses mounted in a durable white rubber housing, two facing fore and two facing aft. The housing is mounted within a cast iron shoe, which the rubber housing sinks in to when driven over. This provides protection from snow ploughing and allows the lenses to be self-cleaning—they pass a rubber blade when depressed. The lenses are available in a variety of different colours, mainly white, yellow/orange, green, red, and blue.
Botts' dots (low rounded white dots), named for the California Caltrans engineer Elbert Botts, who invented the epoxy that keeps them glued down, are one type of a mechanical non-reflective raised marker. Generally they are used to mark the edges of traffic lanes, frequently in conjunction with raised reflective markers.[citation needed] Botts' dots are also used across a travel lane to draw the drivers attention to the road. They are frequently used in this way to alert drivers to toll booths, school zones or other significant reduction of speed limit. They are normally only used in warm climates since snow plows usually remove them along with the snow.

text: Rumble strips are commonly used for the same purpose. A rumble strip can be a series of simple troughs (typically 1 cm deep and 10 cm wide) that is ground out of the asphalt. Other alternatives, similar to the Botts' dots, use raised strips, painted or glued to the surface. A specific form of raised strips using thermoplastic is called profile thermoplastic markings. The markings are created by fusing thermoplastic to the pavement and create alternating elevation and recession pattern. This can be done as inverted-profile markings or raised-profile markings. Inverted-profile markings are created by pressing a cog rolling over the markings while they are wet to make them corrugated. Raised-profile markings are created by extruding extra thickness of thermoplastic at a specific interval to create bumps.[4] Raised-profile markings are sometime known as convex traffic lines.[5] Uses of rumble strips can be across the travel direction (to warn of hazards ahead) or along the travel direction (to warn of hazards of not staying within a specific lane).[6] Their main way of function is creating a strong vibration when driven over that will alert a driver to various upcoming hazards both by sound and the physical vibration of the vehicle. In some areas in the United States, these rumble strips are located along the side of county, state, and inter state highways. They are oriented so that a driver wandering off the lane of traffic would come in contact with these strips and be forewarned that they are about to leave the roadway. The idea was first started in Atlanta,[citation needed] as a measure to help truck drivers on the bypass[clarification needed] after a number of accidents in the late 1980s involved drivers who became distracted or fell asleep and left the road.

text: Reflective markers are used as travel lane dividers, to mark the central reservation (median) or to mark exit slip-roads. Incorporating a raised retro-reflective element, they are typically more visible at night and in inclement weather than standard road marking lines. The color of markers varies depending on the country of use; freeways in the United States often use reflectors manufactured to appear white to drivers proceeding in the proper direction of travel, and appear red on the reverse to warn drivers that they are proceeding against the proper direction of travel, creating a danger of a head-on collision. Reflective markers are also referred to as raised pavement markers, road studs, and sometimes (generically) in the UK and Ireland as cat's eye, although this name refers to one particular brand of product.[citation needed] These markers can be used for other purposes such as marking the locations of fire hydrants (blue) or at gates of gated communities to indicate that emergency service vehicles have a code or device that allows them to open the gate.[citation needed] In the United Kingdom and elsewhere, raised markers are used to mark crosswalks (crossings) to assist the blind in crossing streets. In colder climates, reflective markers may be installed below ground using an elongated narrow triangle, cut into the road surface that allows the device to be installed below the road surface. Newer technology allows these to be placed above ground with snowplough-able rails that attempt to protect the reflective components from the snowplough blade.

text: Confusion with marks left by roadwork[edit]

text: Sometimes the result of roadwork may leave visible marks on the pavements. An example is the dowel bar retrofit process to reinforce concrete slabs in order to extend the life of older concrete pavements. The completion of the process leaves a symmetrical pattern of dash marks on the roadway, as if there were an associated meaning to the pattern.[8] When there are many of them along the roadway, motorists may interpret the marks as an unknown form of mechanical markers or strange road surface markings.[9] When roads are under construction and the lanes are shifted laterally, those marks may interfere with temporary lane markings. As the marks from the dowel bar retrofit are not intended to be any form of road surface markings, the responsible agencies try to make these marks less visible to the motorists.[10]

text: Non-mechanical markers[edit]

text: Paint[edit]

text: Paint, sometimes with additives such as retroreflective glass beads,[11] is generally used to mark travel lanes. It is also used to mark spaces in parking lots or special purpose spaces for disabled parking, loading zones, or time-restricted parking areas. Colors for these applications vary by locality. Paint is a low-cost marking and has been in widespread use since approximately the early 1950s.

text: Paint consists of three main components: pigments, resins or binders, and water or solvents. Pigments are finely grounded materials that give out colors or block out the surface beneath it. They may contain other materials such as UV stabilizer, and fillers which bring out the color pigments to the required level. Resins or binders are the glue of the paint to bind pigment and glass beads together to the road surface. The resins for the water-based paints are polyvinyl acetate latex, methyl methacrylate or acrylic resin. The resins for solvent-based paints are linseed or soya oils and alkyd resins. The pigments and resins are mixed with water for water-based paints and solvents for solvent-based paints so that they can be applied onto the road surface. Solvents that are use can be naphtha, toluene, methanol, methylene chloride, and acetone. Due to environmental concerns, some jurisdictions has some restriction on the solvent-based paints.[12]

text: Paint is usually applied right after the road has been paved. The road is marked commonly by a truck called a "Striper." These trucks contain hundreds of gallons of paint stored in huge drums which sit on the bed. The markings are controlled manually or automatically by the controller who sits on the bed. Paint is run through a series of hoses under air pressure and applied to the roadway surface along with the application of glass beads for retroreflectivity. After application, the paint dries fairly quickly. Sometimes the glass beads are mixed in with the paint and applied together, which is not a recommended method. The usual method is to use a separate gun to spray the glass beads on to the wet paint during the application.[12]

text: Painted symbols, such as turn-lane arrows or HOV lane markers, are applied manually using stencils. Painted markings usually last 9 to 36 months. There are some water-based paints that can be applied at double the level of thickness of typical latex paints. This technique can extend the life of the markings.[14]

text: Stones[edit]

text: In roads paved with setts (like belgian blocks or sampietrini) or cobblestones, markings can be made with white blocks or stones, like marble or other light-colored rocks. This kind of marking is long lasting, but could be slippery in rain or wet conditions unless surfaced with a matte or rough finish.

text: Thermoplastic[edit]

text: One of the most common types of road marking based on its balance between cost and performance longevity, thermoplastic binder systems are generally based on one of three core chemistries: hydrocarbons, rosin esters or maleic modified rosin esters (MMRE). Thermoplastic coatings are generally homogeneous dry mixes of binder resins, plasticizers, glass beads (or other optics), pigments, and fillers. Their use has increased over paints mainly due to the performance benefits of increased durability, retro-reflectivity, and a lack of VOC solvents.

text: Thermoplastic markings are applied using specially designed vehicles. Usually thermoplastic marking mode should apply with equipment called a road marking machine to coat traffic lines, and the road paint needs preheating by a device commonly called a preheater. The thermoplastic mix is heated in trucks to about 200 °C (400 °F) before being fed to the application apparatus. This is often a screed box or ribbon gun. Immediately after the thermoplastic has been applied, glass beads are laid onto the hot material so that they embed before the plastic hardens. These beads provide initial retroreflection. As the marking wears during use and the initial beads are lost, the beads mixed with the binder are uncovered, providing long term retroreflectivity. These can be made exceptionally thick to produce a rumble strip effect.[15]

text: The Thermoplastic marking coating sets quickly. The melt adhesion of a synthetic resin makes hot-melt paint adhere strongly to the road surface. Additives in the coating paint increases the coating plasticity, improving the anti-settling, anti-pollution, anti-tarnish.[clarification needed] Thermoplastic marking paint is most commonly produced in yellow and white. The white marking paint mainly contains titanium white, zinc oxide, lithopone, while the yellow paint is mainly heat-yellowing lead.[clarification needed]

text: In warm climate areas, the thermoplastic markings can last 3 to 6 years. However, snowplows can damage the thermoplastics which would limit the usage in the cold climate areas.[14] The filling materials of road paint can affect the mechanical strength, abrasion resistance and hue of the coating film. The particle size of the paint powder influences the flow, sedimentation, and the surface processing.

text: Preformed thermoplastic[edit]

text: Preformed thermoplastic pavement markings (sometime called "tape", but not to be confused with preformed polymer tape) are thermoplastic cut into the final shapes by the manufacturers and ready to position onto an asphalt or concrete pavement surface. Preformed thermoplastics are put into place on the road surface and applied using a propane heat torch. Some models require heating the road surface prior to the placement of the preformed thermoplastics. These markings are used primarily because of their durability and cost-effective service life. Since the plastics are melted into the surface, they are not easily damaged by the snowplows. Typically, the preformed thermoplastic markings can last 3 to 6 years. The most common applications of preformed thermoplastic pavement markings are found at intersections as transverse markings such as stop lines, legends, crosswalks, arrows, bike lane symbols, and accessibility symbols.[12][14]

text: Preformed polymer tape[edit]

text: Commonly referred to as tape or cold plastic, this product is heavy-grade material with reflective beads embedded in the plastic. It is commonly used to mark crosswalks, stop bars, and traffic guidance such as turn lanes, HOV lanes, train crossings, pedestrian crossings, taxi lanes, bus lanes, and bike lanes. There are two ways to apply tape:

text:
Overlay—The application being laid over the surface of the pavement. Using industrial-grade rubber cement, once the tape is combined with the pavement, it should last three years. Major obstacles to estimated life are snow-plows, salt, and mis-application.
Inlay—The tape physically becomes part of the asphalt. Using the heat generated in the paving process, road workers lay special tape on the asphalt in the hardening process, and rollers compress the two together.

text: The life of the preformed polymer tapes can vary based on the applications. If applied correctly, they can last between 4 and 8 years.[14] However, there have been cases where tape failures start soon after the installation. Conditions that may contribute to the tapes to peel off are the time of year of the installation that is too close to the winter, surface preparation, and workmanship. A technique that can be used to minimize the tape getting scraped off by snowplows is sandblasting a groove into the surface and fixing the tape onto this groove. This technique diminishes the advantage of low labor cost of the tapes.[16] The preformed polymer tape markings are slippery when wet, especially in large sections such as crosswalks, and caution should be used due to poor wet traction.

text: Epoxy[edit]

text: Epoxy contains two parts which are a pigmented resin base and catalyst. The two parts are mixed in a specialized truck for epoxy marking application. The epoxy is then heated prior to spraying onto road surface. Retroreflective glass beads are applied using a separate bead gun behind the epoxy spray gun. Typically, epoxy markings last about 4 years.[14]

text: Epoxy has been in use since the late 1970s and has gained popularity over the 1990s as the technology has become more affordable and reliable. This material competes directly with plastic with respect to usage and cost.[17]

text: Negative impacts to road surface[edit]

text: Non-mechanical markers are found to contribute to the deterioration of asphalt concrete road surface courses. The paint and tape markers can cause the road surface to crack, and in more severe cases, the markers contribute to road surface raveling[18] (a process in which the aggregate particles are dislodged from the road surface, causing the surface texture to become deeply pitted and very rough[19]) or potholes.

text: This type of surface damage can be found exclusively underneath the pavement markings such as lane markings and turn-lane arrows. There is no definitive explanation of the relationship between pavement markings and surface deterioration, but there are several hypotheses. One is that water vapor may have been trapped underneath the road surface markings, causing the de-bonding of asphalt binder from the aggregate materials. Another hypothesis is that the reflectivity of the markings may create differences in solar heating and thermal expansion strains between the areas with and without markings. Small flaws caused by differential strains may be combined into longitudinal cracks along the markings. There are certain surface treatments that can make the road surface less susceptible to this type of distresses, such as slurry seals and stone mastic asphalt.[18]

text: Road marking technique[edit]

text: Hot melt road marking paint is a solid powder at room temperature. The thermoplastic paint is melted in a specialized machine called a thermoplastic heater-mixer, before being transferred into the paint tank of a marker. Larger marking machines may have internal heater-mixers. The molten coating is introduced into an insulated marking bucket. The market bucket leads to a marking shoe that applies the material. Moving the shoe forward pulls a thin layer of paint onto the road. The thickness of this layer is controlled by the gap between the marking shoe and the road. A specialized attachment can spread an even layer of glass beads onto the paint as it is deposited.

text: Machine marking types[edit]

text: Air spray is a method of marking that uses compressed air to spray the paint onto the road surface. The finely atomized paint produces a thin and smooth layer, but the rebounding air flow causes significant paint scattering. This produces somewhat sloppy markings.

text: High-pressure airless spraying uses a high-pressure airless pump to spray the paint. The atomized paint is not so fine and smooth as air spray, but there is no high speed air flow to scatter any rebounding paint. The marked lines are neat. This method can apply paints of high viscosity, and apply relatively thick layers in a single pass.

text: Auxiliary equipment[edit]

text: Other equipment is often used with road marking machines. The main auxiliary equipment includes thermoplastic paint pre-heaters, hand-push pre-markers and road marking removers. Thermoplastic paint pre-heater is used to melt the solid powder coating into a viscous liquid, providing a steady supply of paint to the marking machine. Pre-markers are used to draw a field sketch in advance to avoid faulty marking. Road marking removers are used to remove old or incorrect markings. Large self-propelled machines usually do not need any support equipment, as equivalent functionality is built in.

text: Temporary markers[edit]

text: Pylons are sometimes used to separate HOV lanes from regular traffic lanes. They are also used in areas where lanes are used at different times for travel in both directions. These pylons have shafts that drop into holes in the road surface. A good example of this type of use was the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco, before they switched to a moveable barrier system.

text: Removable tapes can also be used in road construction sites as temporary markers. The tapes can be placed to shift the lanes and black tapes can be used to temporarily blackout the existing markings. At the end of the constructions or within 6 months, the tapes can be pulled out off the surface without using heat, solvents, or machines.[12]

text: Country specific information[edit]

text: The Americas[edit]

text: Most countries in North and South America have yellow lines separating traffic directions.[citation needed] However, Chile uses white lines.[citation needed]

text: Canada[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2009)

text: Generally speaking, Canadian pavement marking standards are consistent with those used throughout the United States.

text: Yellow lines are used to separate traffic moving in opposite directions, and white lines are used to separate traffic moving in the same direction, and on the shoulders of paved roads. On one-directional roads, a yellow line appears on the left shoulder, and a white line on the right shoulder. Passing rules are denoted by dashed lines as in the United States. Orange painted lines are sometimes used when the direction of the road is altered temporarily for construction projects. However, the colour scheme was reversed before 1971, when white was formerly used to denote the separation of opposing traffic, and yellow lines, when used, to denote the separation of the paved road from the right-hand shoulder.[20] Canada adopted similar road marking standards to conform with those adopted in the USA between 1971 and 1978.

text: Broken lines that are wider and closer together than regular broken lines are called continuity lines. Continuity lines on the left side of a lane denote that the lane is about to end and that motorists must soon merge left. Continuity lines on the right mean that the lane will continue, but traffic may merge into it ahead.[21]

text: In some areas, reflective markers (cat's eyes) recessed into the pavement are used, especially approaching curves in the road.

text: Ontario has several pavement marking test areas located in various parts of the province. Perhaps the most well-known location is the eastbound lanes of Highway 401 near Belleville. Other test sites are located on the westbound lanes on Highway 417, east of Ottawa, Highway 60 West of Renfrew, Highway 28 east of Bancroft, Highway 400 North of Honey Harbour and on Highway 37, South of Tweed. Pavement marking manufacturers from around the world supply a variety of materials for these sites to have their products evaluated and approved for use on provincial highways.[22]

text: United States[edit]

text: In the United States, the first documented use of a painted center line was in 1911 along Trenton's River Road in Wayne County, Michigan.[23] According to the state of Michigan, the idea of using a painted center line was conceived in 1911 by Edward N. Hines, the chairman of the Wayne County, Michigan, Board of Roads,[24] after watching a leaky milk wagon leave a white trail along a road.[23] Hines was the fifth recipient of the George S. Bartlett Award for Highway Progress,[25] and was inducted posthumously in 1972 into the Michigan Transportation Hall of Honor for his innovation, and was honored in 2011 with the first Paul Mijksenaar Design for Function Award.[23]

text: In 1917, the idea of using painted center lines on rural state highways was conceived and/or put into action in at least three states (Michigan, Oregon, and California), apparently completely independent of one another.[26] At some point in 1917, a white highway center line was painted along "Dead Man's Curve" on what is now County Road 492 in Marquette County, Michigan,[23] under the direction of Kenneth Ingalls Sawyer, who served as engineer-superintendent of the Marquette County Road Commission.[27][28][29] Sawyer was inducted posthumously into the Michigan Transportation Hall of Honor in 1973.[30]

text: In Oregon in April 1917, a yellow center line was painted down the center of the Columbia River Highway, between Crown Point and Multnomah Falls, at the direction of Multnomah County Sheriff's Deputy Peter Rexford.[31] Later in 1917, the same line was continued west of Crown Point.[31] Rexford first conceived the idea of a yellow center line in early 1917 while riding on a bus from Salem, Oregon on a dark and rainy night,[32] and advocated it as a safety measure on the Columbia River Highway, which Rexford patrolled as a traffic officer.[33] When Multnomah County declined to fund the project, Rexford's boss, Chief Deputy Martin T. Pratt (later elected Sheriff), paid for the paint out of his own pocket so that the center line could be painted.[33][34][35] Rexford later described the April 1917 line as the "first yellow center line ever painted on pavement" in the United States.[31] An article published in The Oregonian upon Rexford's retirement claimed that a contest with a $10,000 reward was once held to determine the originator of the highway center line, but the contest was scrapped when information from Europe revealed that ancient civilizations had used white bricks to mark the center lines of their streets.[32]

text: In the fall of 1917, Dr. June McCarroll of Indio, California developed the idea of white center lines and began advocating for their use, after she was run off the road by a truck while driving along a highway that would later be incorporated into U.S. Route 99.[36] Dr. McCarroll soon communicated her idea to the local chamber of commerce and the Riverside County Board of Supervisors, with no success. She then took it upon herself to hand-paint a white stripe down the middle of the road, thus establishing the actual width of the lane to prevent similar accidents.[37] In 2002, a portion of Interstate 10 was designated and signed as "The Doctor June McCarroll Memorial Freeway" in her honor.[37]

text: The question of which color to use for highway center lines in the United States enjoyed considerable debate and changing standards over a period of several decades. By November 1954, 47 states had adopted white as their standard color for highway centerlines, with Oregon being the last holdout to use yellow.[26] In 1958, the U.S. Bureau of Public Roads adopted white as the standard color for the new interstate highway system.[38] The 1971 edition of the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices, however, mandated yellow as the standard color of center lines nationwide. The changeover to the 1971 MUTCD standards took place between 1971 and 1975, with most done by the end of 1973, so for two years drivers still had to use the old and new. Yellow was adopted because it was already the standard color of warning signs, and because it was easy to teach drivers to associate yellow lines with dividing opposing traffic and white lines with dividing traffic in the same direction. In turn, this simple mnemonic device greatly reduced head-on collisions and improved road traffic safety.[citation needed]

text: The major downside to the MUTCD white-yellow system is that yellow has slightly less contrast than white, especially at night, so for maximum contrast, bright yellow—and highly toxic—lead chromate was used to paint yellow lines through the end of the 20th century. As a result, U.S. transportation workers must take special precautions when disturbing or removing yellow lane markings.[39]

text: In the U.S., the type, placement, and graphic standards of traffic signs, and road surfaces are legally regulated—the Federal Highway Administration's Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices is the standard, although each state produces its own manual based upon the Federal manual.[40]

text: Generally white lane markings indicate a separation between lanes traveling in the same direction while yellow markings indicate opposing traffic on the other side of the line. In some areas, such as Colorado and Florida, black material is applied on the surface before a shorter white line is painted. This improves the contrast of the marking against "white" pavements, such as concrete or faded asphalt.

text: In California, Botts' dots are commonly used to mark lanes on most freeways. A large number of California cities also use Botts' dots on some (or all) major arterial roads. The notable exception is the city of Los Angeles which only uses paint.[citation needed]

text: In California and Nevada, the reflectors when present are usually the lines, and no paint is used for additional markings. Exceptions include: freeways built from white concrete where painted stripes are added to make the lanes more visible through sun glare, freeways built so wide that the risk of drifting is minimal (e.g., Interstate 5 in the Central Valley), and freeways in areas where it snows in the winter (since the snowplows would scrape off the Botts' dots).

text: In general, single broken lines mean passing or lane changing is allowed, single solid white lines mean lane changing is discouraged but not prohibited, and double solid white lines mean it is prohibited,[41] as it often is in tunnels. On two-lane roads, a single broken center line means that passing is allowed in either direction, a double solid center line means passing is prohibited in both directions, and the combination of a solid line with a broken line means that passing is allowed only from the side with the broken line and prohibited from the side with the solid line.[41] The solid white line on the right side is called the Fog Line used to help cars stay in their lane during foggy conditions and help pedestrians stay off the road [42]

text: Marked crosswalks are indicated at a minimum by a pair of white lines. On major boulevards, crosswalks are further highlighted by zebra stripes, which are large white rectangles in the crosswalk perpendicular to traffic. In order to maximize the longevity of zebra crossing stripes, they are usually applied to correspond with the portions of the lane on which the wheels of a car are not usually traveling, thereby reducing wear on the markings themselves.

text: Pavement markings are used in addition to signs in the United States to designate regular and handicap parking spaces. Regular parking spaces are normally marked with white, although other colors are used. Handicap parking spaces are required to be located within a specified distance of an entrance.[citation needed] Blue markings are used to indicate the parking space is reserved for persons with a disabled parking permit.[43]

text: Asia[edit]

text: Hong Kong[edit]

text: Road markings in Hong Kong is basically identical with the United Kingdom, with longer dashed white lines to indicate lanes of opposing traffic, and shorter dashed white lines for lanes in the same direction. Solid double white lines are used to indicate that drivers are not permitted to change lanes. A solid white line with a broken white line indicates that crossing the line is allowed from the lane closer to the broken line. Double solid white lines are in place in all tunnels and underpasses.

text: As in the UK, solid yellow lines are painted along the kerbside to indicate that no parking is allowed, with double solid yellow lines meaning no parking is allowed at any time. Zig-zag lines are used on both ends of zebra crossings. Road studs are also used as in the UK.[44]

text: Japan[edit]

text: In Japan, white always separates traffic in the same direction or indicates traffic in the same direction can use a buffered area that is striped in crosshatch patterns such as at right turns on two-way roads since Japan is a country that has left-side driving.

text: White is also used on divided expressways with a solid raised center divider. Two-lane expressways where poles are the only physical barrier between opposing directions of travel always have yellow either side of the row of poles, and white is between the yellow striping and the poles.

text: White is also used to denote passing allowed on other two-lane roads. Yellow indicates no passing is allowed. On all roads, yellow stripes are always solid.

text: On expressways where there are many sharp turns and curves, seen especially in the largest cities, a yellow line indicates no passing between lanes, as follows:

text:
Solid yellow beside solid white: no entry permitted from the lane the stripe is next to, but passing is permitted with caution.
Solid yellow beside broken white: passing is permitted from the side with the broken white line, but not from the side with the yellow line.
Solid yellow line alone: passing prohibited from either lane, used on very tight curves and in tunnels.

text: Other markings include in the cities, destination and exit names painted in the lanes, which is done due to the very close proximity of exits, where in many cases it would be impractical to put up many overhead signs, although these are often seen approaching exits, a curved or slanted arrow points to the side of the expressway the exit will be on. A straight arrow following characters indicates the destination of the expressway.

text: Where a solid white line appears between lanes, passing is generally allowed but with caution.

text: Europe[edit]

text: In general European countries follow the Vienna Convention on Road Signs and Signals, which describes what road signs and road markings shall look like. The convention has some flexibility so road markings vary somewhat between the countries.

text: Most European countries reserve white for routine lane markings of any kind. Yellow is used to mark forbidden parking, such as on bus stops. However, for example Norway has yellow markings separating traffic directions. Many countries use yellow, orange, or red to indicate when lanes are being shifted temporarily to make room for construction projects.

text: In the Netherlands, Germany, Sweden, and the UK, so-called "naked roads" have been trialed, whereby all visible road markings, kerbs, traffic lights, and signs are removed, on urban roads. When this was tested in Seend, a village in the UK county of Wiltshire in 2005, the county council reported that accidents fell by a third, with motorists' speed falling by an average of 5%. It has been suggested that naked roads force drivers to make eye contact with other road users, and that it is this nonverbal communication that is responsible for the reduction of accidents.[45] Other have suggested that road markings, especially with middle marker, make the road look like a main road, triggering faster and more relaxed driving, while no marking makes the road look like a lower quality road.

text: It is an experience from the introduction of marking, that at least on narrow roads and in curves, middle lines help make drivers stay on their side when meeting, and therefore reducing meeting accidents[citation needed]. Note that the 2005 experiment was on urban roads. In Sweden, local streets generally have no marking[citation needed].

text: Netherlands[edit]

text: In the Netherlands all general lines are white, while yellow lines are used to mark forbidden stopping (interrupted yellow), forbidden parking (uninterrupted yellow) and for temporarily lining at construction projects.

text: Shoulder lines are generally interrupted outside built-up area to make the driver be aware the presence of crossing bicycles and pedestrians, driveways and stopping cars. Wider roads sometimes have a single, but in most cases have a double centre line. Interrupted center lines mean overtaking is allowed, a solid line means overtaking is not allowed, depending on which side of a double line is solid. Smaller roads and roads where bycicles are allowed generally don't have center lines, and many country roads have no lines at all. Sometimes there is a center line only in sharp curves.

text: Shoulder lines on expressways and motorways are solid to imply the general absence of crossing traffic and residential driveways, as well as the disallowance of leaving the road on places other than specified exits. Expressways always have double centre lines. Exit and acceleration lanes are separated by 'block marking'.

text: Furthermore several traffic signs are painted on the road, such as speed limits and warning sings.

text: Norway[edit]

text: In Norway, yellow lines are used to separate traffic moving in opposite directions and on the left shoulders of paved roads, and white lines are used to separate traffic moving in the same direction, and on the right shoulders of paved roads. On roads narrower than six metres (20 ft), the centerline is removed, and the shoulder lines are broken. Short, broken lines means passing is allowed, long, broken lines means passing is allowed but dangerous, and a double yellow line means passing is forbidden. Roads with speed limits below 60 km/h that indicate that passing is allowed but dangerous, has a very short yellow line instead of a long one. On motorways, the left shoulder is a yellow line, like in the US. Most other European countries use white lines for all these types of lines.

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: In England, the idea of painting a center white line was first experimented with in 1921 in Sutton Coldfield, Birmingham. Following complaints by residents over reckless driving and several collisions, the Sutton Coldfield Corporation decided to paint the line on Maney Corner in the area of Maney.[46]

text: In 1971, a correspondent for the Sutton Coldfield News wrote an article in the newspaper recalling the event.

text: The line was put down as an experiment as there were a lot of accidents there, even in the early days of the motor car. The experiment proved to be so successful that the whole country adopted it as a standard road safety device, and later foreign countries paint lines on their roads, as well.[citation needed]

text: During the World War II the Pedestrians Association lobbied for the government to make it safer for pedestrians to walk during the black out. As a result, white lines were painted on the sides of the road and pedestrians were allowed to use a small torch.[47]

text: In the UK, the first "white line" road markings appeared on a number of dangerous bends on the London-Folkestone road at Ashford, Kent, in 1914, and during the 1920s the rise of painted lines on UK roads grew dramatically.[48] In 1926 official guidelines were issued by the Ministry of Transport that defined where and how white lines on roads should be used. A broken white line in the direction of travel, where the gaps are longer than the painted lines, indicates the centre of the road and that there are no hazards specific to the design and layout of the road, i.e. no turnings, sharp bends ahead etc. A broken white line in which the gaps are shorter than the painted lines indicates an upcoming hazard, the proportion of white to black indicates the degree of hazard i.e. more white means more hazard.[48][not in citation given]

text: A double solid white line indicates that the line may not be crossed, overtaking is permitted if it can be performed safely without crossing the line. Solid lines can be crossed in certain specific conditions (entering premises, overtaking a stationary vehicle, overtaking a vehicle, pedal cycle or horse travelling at less than 10 mph, or when directed to do so by a police officer). A solid white line with a broken white line parallel to it indicates that crossing the line is allowed for traffic in one direction (the side closest to the broken line) and not the other.

text: Solid white lines are also used to mark the outer edges of a road.

text: A double yellow line (commonly known as just a "Double Yellow") next to the kerb means that no parking is allowed at any time, whilst a single yellow line is used in conjunction with signs to denote that parking is restricted at certain times. Double and single red lines mean that stopping is not allowed at any time or between certain times respectively.

text: On many roads in the UK, retro-reflective road studs, including those known as "cat's eyes" when referring to the Halifax type road stud, are placed in the road. These devices reflect the light from a car's headlights back towards the driver in order to highlight features of the road in poor visibility or at night. The colour of road studs differs according to their location. Those defining the division between lanes are white, red road studs are placed along the hard shoulder of motorways, dual carriageways and other roads to mark the left-hand edge of a running lane; and orange road studs are placed along the edge of the central reservation. Green road studs denote slip roads at grade-separated junctions and also road-side lay-bys.

text: Comprehensive information about highway markings in the UK can be found in the Highway Code and on the gov.uk website.

text: Oceania[edit]

text: Australia[edit]

text: In Australia, white lines are generally used both to separate traffic flowing in the same direction and traffic flowing in opposite directions. Double solid white center-lines may not be crossed under any circumstances, unless avoiding an obstruction. Dashed lines may be crossed for overtaking, changing lanes or turning, and also in the case of double-line markings provided the dashed line is on your side of the markings. For this reason dashed lines are usually used to mark multiple lanes traveling in the one direction. Yellow lines along road edges are used nationally to indicate "No Standing" areas not otherwise marked by signs. Solid white lines are also used to indicate kerbside parking, pedestrian and bicycle lanes, and other kerbside features. Yellow line markings are also used in areas that receive regular annual snowfall to provide contrast. Double-line markings are used to separate traffic flowing in opposite directions on busy roads.

text: Solid white lines are used to mark an intersection that a driver must stop at before entering whilst obeying all Right of Way laws. Dashed white lines are used to mark an intersection at which a driver must Give Way. Dashed white lines are also commonly used to indicate turns in intersections and to indicate intersections where a diamond turn is possible (intersections in which two cars traveling in opposite directions turn to the same direction-of-travel as each other without coming into contact).

text: Materials used are waterborne paint, thermoplastics, and cold applied plastic (PMMA), all with glass bead. Bead is generally 1mm for longitudinal marking. Currently moving to performance specified contracts with the primary performance indicator being retro-reflectivity measured with 30 metre geometry instruments. Intervention levels vary generally from 100 - 150 mcd/lux/m2.

text: New Zealand[edit]

text: Although New Zealand follows the convention of a solid yellow line to indicate no passing on roads with two-way traffic, it uses long dashed white lines to indicate when passing against opposing traffic is allowed on two-lane roads and shorter ones to separate lanes going in the same direction. The New Zealand convention followed the USA MUTCD convention common between 1961 and the early seventies.


document_title: List of countries by military expenditures

question_text: how much gdp does the us spend on military

root

text: List[edit]

text:
List by the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute2018 Fact Sheet (for 2017)[1]SIPRI Military Expenditure Database[3]

List by the International Institute for Strategic StudiesTop 15 Defence Budgets 2017[4]

Rank
Country
Spending  ($ Bn.)
% of GDP

% of World share

World total
1,739
2.2

01
 United States
857.4
7.8

35.0

02
 People's Republic of China[a]
228.0
1.9

13.0

03
 Russia
178.5
15.7

8.6

04
 Saudi Arabia[a][b]
69.4
5.3

4.0

05
 India
63.9
2.5

3.7

06
 France
57.8
2.3

3.3

07
 United Kingdom
47.2
1.8

2.7

08
 Japan
45.4
0.9

2.6

09
 Germany
44.3
1.2

2.5

10
 South Korea
39.2
2.6

2.3

11
 Brazil
29.3
1.4

1.7

12
 Italy
29.2
1.7

1.7

13
 Australia
27.5
2.0

1.6

14
 Canada
20.6
1.3

1.2

15
 Turkey
18.2
2.2

1.0

Rank
Country
Spending  ($ Bn.)

01
 United States
773.5

02
 People's Republic of China
175.8

03
 Saudi Arabia
76.7

04
 Russia
61.2

05
 India
52.5

06
 United Kingdom
50.7

07
 France
48.6

08
 Japan
46.0

09
 Germany
41.7

10
 South Korea
35.7

11
 Brazil
29.4

12
 Australia
25.0

13
 Italy
22.9

14
 Israel
21.6

15
 Iraq
19.4

tag: table

text: Notes[edit]

text:
^ Jump up to: a b SIPRI estimate.

Jump up ^ The figures for Saudi Arabia include expenditure for public order and safety and might be slightly overestimated.

tag: ol


document_title: Declarations of war during World War II

question_text: who did russia declare war on in ww2

question_tokens: who did russia declare war on in ww2

text: Declarations of war during World War II

text: This is a timeline of formal declarations of War during World War II.

tag: p

text: A declaration of war is a formal act by which one nation goes to war against another. The declaration is usually an act of delivering a performative speech (not to be confused with a mere speech) or the presentation of a signed document by an authorized party of a national government in order to create a state of war between two or more sovereign states. The official international protocol for declaring war was defined in The Hague Peace Conference of 1907 (or Hague II).[1] For the diplomatic maneuvering behind these events, which led to hostilities between nations during World War II, see the article entitled Diplomatic history of World War II.

text: List of war declarations[edit]

text: Below is a table showing the Outbreaks of Wars between Nations which occurred during World War II. Indicated are the dates (during the immediate build-up to, or during the course of, World War II), from which a de facto state of war existed between nations. The table shows both the "Initiator Nation(s)" and the nation at which the aggression was aimed, or "Targeted Nation(s)". Events listed include those in which there were simple diplomatic breaking of relations that did not involve any physical attack, as well as those involving overt declarations or acts of aggression.[2]

text:
Date
Initiator Nation(s)
Targeted Nation(s)
Declaration of War: Type
Notes/Comments
Document/Event

1939-09-01
 Nazi Germany
 Poland
A[3][4]
German attack began at 4:44 am[3][5]
Invasion

1939-09-01
 Slovak Republic
 Poland
A

Invasion

1939-09-03
 United Kingdom
 France
 Nazi Germany
U[3][4]
At 11 a.m., British PM, Neville Chamberlain publicly delivered his Ultimatum Speech.[4][6][7]
Document
Declaration

1939-09-03
 Australia
 New Zealand
 Nazi Germany
W[3][4]

Australia
New Zealand

1939-09-04
 Nepal
 Nazi Germany
W

Declaration

1939-09-06
 South Africa
 Nazi Germany
W[3][4]

Declaration

1939-09-10
 Bahrain
 Canada
 Oman
 Nazi Germany
W[3][4]

Declaration
Declaration
Declaration

1939-09-17
 Soviet Union
 Poland
A[3][4]

Invasion

1939-11-30
 Soviet Union
 Finland
A[3][4]
First war between these nations.
Invasion

1940-04-09
 Nazi Germany
 Denmark
 Norway
A[3]

Invasion of Denmark
Invasion of Norway

1940-04-12
 United Kingdom
Faroe Islands
A[4]

Invasion

1940-05-10
 Nazi Germany
 Belgium
 Netherlands
A/W[3][4]
Date of the German offensive in the West, W from Belgium and the Netherlands.[8]

Belgium
Netherlands

1940-05-10
 Nazi Germany
 Luxembourg
A[4]

Luxembourg

1940-05-10
 United Kingdom
 Iceland
A

Invasion

1940-06-10
 Italy
 France
 United Kingdom
W[3][4]

France and the UK

1940-06-10
 Canada
 Italy
W[3]

Declaration

1940-06-11
 South Africa
 Australia
 New Zealand
 Italy
W[3]

South Africa
Australia
New Zealand

1940-06-11
 France
 Italy
W[3]

Declaration

1940-06-16
 Soviet Union
 Lithuania
A

Occupation

1940-06-17
 Soviet Union
 Estonia
 Latvia
A

Occupation

1940-06-25
 United Kingdom
 Vichy France
A
Vichy France cuts off diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom on 8 July 1940.
Attack

1940-09-09
 Italy
 Egypt
A
Egypt maintained neutrality until 1945.
Invasion

1940-09-22
 Japan
 Vichy France
A

Invasion

1940-09-23
 Free France
 Australia
 Vichy France
A

Invasion

1940-10-??
 Thailand
 Vichy France
A

Franco-Thai War

1940-10-28
 Italy
 Greece
U[4]
Italy invades Greece
Invasion

1941-02-05
 Free France
 Italy
A

Invasion

1941-04-06
 Nazi Germany
 Greece
W[3][4]

Invasion

1941-04-06
 Nazi Germany
 Bulgaria
 Yugoslavia
A[3][4]

Invasion

1941-04-06
 Italy
 Hungary
 Yugoslavia
A[4]

Invasion

1941-04-14
 Nazi Germany
 Egypt
A
Egypt maintained neutrality until 1945.
Invasion

1941-05-02
 United Kingdom
 Iraq
A

Invasion

1941-06-08
 Free France
 Nazi Germany
A

Invasion

1941-06-22
 Nazi Germany
 Italy
 Romania
 Soviet Union
A[3][4]
A timed-declaration of war was given by Germany at the time of the attack[9]
Invasion

1941-06-22

Tuva
 Nazi Germany
W
Tuva was a client state of the Soviet Union. Part of the USSR from 1944.

1941-06-25
 Finland
 Soviet Union
W
Finland recognized a state of war with the Soviet Union; second war between these nations.
Continuation War

1941-06-27
 Hungary
 Soviet Union
W[4]

Invasion

1941-08-25
 Soviet Union
 United Kingdom
 Australia
 Iran
A

Invasion

1941-12-06
 United Kingdom
 Finland
U[4]

Declaration

1941-12-07
 United Kingdom
 Romania
 Hungary
U[4]

Declaration

1941-12-07
 Japan
 United States
 United Kingdom
A[3]
W (Japanese point of view); A The "Western" (Attack on Pearl Harbor);

Declaration
Attack on Pearl Harbor
Invasion of Malaya
Attack on Singapore
Invasion of Hong Kong

1941-12-07
 Canada
 Australia
 New Zealand
 Japan
 Finland
 Romania
 Hungary
W[4]

Canada
Australia
New Zealand

1941-12-07
 United Kingdom
 Romania
 Finland
 Hungary
W[4]

Declaration

1941-12-07
 Panama
 Japan
W[4]

Declaration

1941-12-08
 United States
 United Kingdom
 Australia
 Philippines
 Costa Rica
 Dominican Republic
 El Salvador
 Guatemala
 Haiti
 Honduras
 Netherlands
 New Zealand
 Nicaragua
 Japan
W[4]

British declaration
Australian declaration Cost Rican declaration Dominican Republic's declaration Salvadorian declaration Haitian declaration Honduran declaration Dutch declaration New Zealand's declaration Nicaraguan declaration Philippine declaration

1941-12-08
 South Africa
 Japan
W[4]

South African declaration

1941-12-08
 China

 Italy
 Japan
W[4]
China and Japan had been at war since 1937
Second Sino-Japanese war
Declaration

1941-12-08
 Mongolia
 Nazi Germany
W[citation needed]

Mongolian declaration

1941-12-09
 Australia
 New Zealand
 Japan
W[4]

Australian declaration
New Zealand's declaration

1941-12-11
 Nazi Germany
 Italy
 United States
W[3][4]

German declaration
Italian declaration

1941-12-11
 United States
 Nazi Germany
 Italy
W[3]

Germany
Italy

1941-12-11
 Poland (in-exile)
 Japan
W[3]
Japan rejected declaration of War. Prime Minister Hideki Tōjō's answer was following: "We don't accept the Polish declaration of war. The Poles, fighting for their freedom, declared war under the British pressure".

1941-12-12
 Romania
 Bulgaria
 United States
 United Kingdom
W[4]

Romanian declaration
Bulgarian declaration

1941-12-12
 Australia
 Netherlands
 Portugal
A
Portugal maintained neutrality throughout World War II.

Invasion

1941-12-13
 United Kingdom
 New Zealand
 South Africa
 Bulgaria
W[4]

British declaration
New Zealand's declaration
South African declaration

1941-12-13
 Hungary
 United States
W[4]

Declaration

1941-12-14
 Independent State of Croatia
 United States
 United Kingdom
W[4]

Declaration

1941-12-16
 Czechoslovakia (In-exile)
 Nazi Germany
 Italy
 Finland
 Romania
 Hungary
 Japan
 Bulgaria
 Independent State of Croatia[10]
W

Declaration

1941-12-17
 Albania
 United States
W

Declaration

1941-12-19
 Nicaragua
 Bulgaria
 Hungary
 Romania
W

Declaration

1941-12-20
 Belgium
 Japan
W

Declaration

1942-01-01
United Nations
Axis Powers
W
Declared during Arcadia Conference
Declaration

1942-01-06
 Australia
 Bulgaria
W

Declaration

1942-01-16
 Iraq
 Nazi Germany
 Italy
 Japan
W

Declaration

1942-01-25
 United Kingdom
 New Zealand
 South Africa
 Thailand
W

British declaration
New Zealand's declaration
South African declaration

1942-01-19
 Japan
 Portugal
A
Portugal maintained neutrality throughout World War II.
Invasion

1942-05-05
 South Africa
 Netherlands (in-exile)
 Poland
 Vichy France
A

Invasion

1942-05-05
 United Kingdom
 Northern Rhodesia
 Southern Rhodesia
 South Africa
 Tanganyika
 Belgian Congo
 Vichy France
 Japan
A

Invasion

1942-05-22
 Mexico
 Nazi Germany
 Italy
 Japan
W[4]

Declaration

1942-08-22
 Brazil
 Nazi Germany
 Italy
W

Declaration

1942-11-08
 United States
 Canada
 Vichy France
A

Invasion

1942-11-10
 Nazi Germany
 Italy
 Vichy France
A

Invasion

1942-12-14
 Ethiopia
 Nazi Germany
 Italy
 Japan
W
On 3 October 1935, Italy invaded Ethiopia without a formal declaration of war. In response to the Italian invasion, Ethiopia declared war on Italy. Most of Ethiopia was occupied by Italy in 1936, however parts of Ethiopia remained under the control of the Ethiopian Patriots Movement, which begun its guerrilla war against the occupying Italian forces the day Addis Ababa fell in May 1936. In May 1941, Addis Ababa was liberated by the Gideon Force, restoring sovereignty to Ethiopia.
Second Italo-Ethiopian War
Declaration

1943-09-01
 China Regime of Wang Jingwei
Allied Powers
W

Declaration

1943-04-02
 Bolivia
Axis Powers
W

Declaration

1943-09-09
 Iran
 Nazi Germany
W

Declaration

1943-10-13
 Italy
 Nazi Germany
W[3]
Italy had changed side after the fall of Mussolini. The Declaration of War was given by Pietro Badoglio to the German ambassador in Madrid.[3]
Declaration

1943-11-26
 Colombia
 Nazi Germany
W

Declaration

1944-01-17
 Free France
 Italian Social Republic
A

Invasion

1944-01-27
 Liberia
 Nazi Germany
 Japan
W

Declaration

1944-06-06

 France
 Nazi Germany
A

Invasion

1944-07-25

 France
 Japan
A

Invasion

1944-08-25
 Romania
 Nazi Germany
 Hungary
W
Romania switched sides
Declaration

1944-09-05
 Soviet Union
 Bulgaria
W

Declaration

1944-09-08
 Bulgaria
 Nazi Germany
W
Bulgaria switched sides
Declaration

1944-09-15
 Nazi Germany
 Finland
A

Lapland War

1944-09-23
 Philippines
 United States
 United Kingdom
W[11]

Lapland War

1944-12-31
 Hungary
 Nazi Germany
W[12]
Hungary switched sides
Declaration

1945-02-02
 Ecuador
 Nazi Germany
 Japan
W

Ecuadorian declaration

1945-02-07
 Argentina
 Paraguay
 Nazi Germany
 Japan
W

Argentinean declaration
Paraguayan declaration

1942-02-12
 Peru
 Nazi Germany
 Japan
W

Declaration

1945-02-15
 Venezuela
 Uruguay
 Nazi Germany
 Japan
W

Venezuelan declaration
Uruguayan declaration

1945-02-21
 San Marino
 Nazi Germany
W

Declaration

1945-02-23
 Turkey
 Nazi Germany
 Japan
W

Declaration

1945-02-24
 Egypt
 Nazi Germany
 Japan
W

Declaration

1945-02-26
 Syria
 Lebanon
 Nazi Germany
 Japan
W

Declaration

1945-04-01
 Saudi Arabia
 Japan
W

Declaration

1945-04-03
 Finland
 Nazi Germany
W
Finland switched sides
Lapland War

1945-04-11
 Chile
 Japan
W

Declaration

1945-07-06
 Brazil
 Japan
W

Declaration

1945-07-14
 Italy
 Japan
W

Declaration

1945-08-08
 Soviet Union
 Japan
W[3]
Last outbreak of war during the entire Second World War.
Declaration

1945-08-10
 Mongolia
 Japan
W[13]
W (de jure) A (de facto 1945-08-09) War declared 24 hours after crossing the border with Soviet troops

Soviet Invasion of Manchuria Mongolia in World War II

text:
German ambassador, Hans-Adolf von Moltke, Polish leader Józef Piłsudski, German propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels and Józef Beck, Polish Foreign minister meeting in Warsaw on June 15, 1934, five months after signing the Polish-German Non-Aggression Pact.]]

British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, landing at Heston aerodrome on 30 September 1938 after his meeting with Hitler at Munich. In his hand he holds the peace agreement between Britain and Germany.

Common parade of German Wehrmacht and Soviet Red Army on September 23, 1939 in Brest, Eastern Poland at the end of the Poland Campaign. In the center is Major General Heinz Guderian; and on the right is Brigadier General Semyon Krivoshein.

Counsellor of state J.K. Paasikivi and his team arriving from Moscow for the first round of negotiations on 16 October 1939. From left, minister Aarno Yrjö-Koskinen, J.K. Paasikivi, chief of staff Johan Nykopp and colonel Aladár Paasonen.

German paratroopers taking the Greek island of Crete, May 1941.

Photograph from a Japanese plane of Battleship Row at the beginning of the surprise Attack on Pearl Harbor. The explosion in the center is a torpedo strike on the USS Oklahoma. Two attacking Japanese planes can be seen: one over the USS Neosho and one over the Naval Yard.

tag: ul

text: Literature about the War[edit]

text:
Harman, Nicholas (1990). Dunkirk: the Necessary Myth. Jove. ISBN 978-0340517857.
German White Book. All World Wars.
Hitler, Adolph (2012). The Great Tragedy: Germany's Declaration of War against the United States of America. ISBN 978-1300127703.
Torrie, Julia S. (2010). "For Their Own Good": Civilian Evacuations in Germany and France, 1939-1945. Berghahn Books. ISBN 978-1845457259.


document_title: List of best Major League Baseball season win-loss records

question_text: who holds the record for most mlb wins in a season

text: Season records[edit]

text: The following teams finished the season with a .700 winning percentage or higher.

text: Since the season was expanded to 162 games in 1961, only two teams have managed a winning percentage of .700 or higher (which requires 114 or more wins): the 1998 New York Yankees and the 2001 Seattle Mariners.

text:
NL = National League
AL = American League
AA = American Association

text:
Season

Franchise

League

Wins

Losses

Pct.

Games Played

Finish

1906
Chicago Cubs
NL
116
36
.763
152
Lost 1906 World Series

1902
Pittsburgh Pirates
NL
103
36
.741
139
National League Champions

1886
Chicago White Stockings
NL
90
34
.726
124
National League Champions

1909
Pittsburgh Pirates
NL
110
42
.724
152
Won 1909 World Series

1954
Cleveland Indians
AL
111
43
.721
154
Lost 1954 World Series

2001
Seattle Mariners
AL
116
46
.716
162
Lost 2001 ALCS

1927
New York Yankees
AL
110
44
.714
154
Won 1927 World Series

1886
Detroit Wolverines
NL
87
36
.707
123
2nd place in National League

1897
Boston Beaneaters
NL
93
39
.705
132
Lost 1897 Temple Cup

1907
Chicago Cubs
NL
107
45
.704
152
Won 1907 World Series

1931
Philadelphia Athletics
AL
107
45
.704
152
Lost 1931 World Series

1998
New York Yankees
AL
114
48
.704
162
Won 1998 World Series

1887
St. Louis Browns
AA
95
40
.704
135
Lost 1887 World Series

1939
New York Yankees
AL
106
45
.702
152
Won 1939 World Series

text: Other teams[edit]

text: Prior to 1886, teams played .700 ball or better over shorter schedules, where there is much less of the "evening out" effect of a lengthier season.

text: For example, the Chicago White Stockings won the National League's first pennant in 1876 with a 52–14 record (.788), and won the 1880 NL pennant with a 67–17 record (.798), which stands as the overall percentage record between the National or the American League. The White Stockings' 1880 record would project to a record of 129–33 under the modern schedule of 162 games, while Pythagorean expectation based on the White Stockings' results (538 runs scored, 317 runs allowed) and a 162-game schedule would translate to a record of 120–42.[citation needed]

text: The all-time best single season record belongs to the Cincinnati Red Stockings, who posted baseball's only perfect record at 67–0 (57–0 against National Association of Base Ball Players clubs) in 1869. Their record would stretch to 81–0 across the 1870 season before losing 8–7 in eleven innings to the Brooklyn Atlantics in Brooklyn on June 14.[1][2]

text: The second-best record belongs to the 1875 Boston Red Stockings of the National Association, who finished with a record of 71–8 (.899), but the status of the National Association as a major league has long been disputed. The Red Stockings record would project to 146–16 under the modern schedule of 162 games, while Pythagorean expectation based on the Red Stockings results (831 runs scored, 343 runs allowed) and the modern 162-game schedule would translate to a record of 138–24.

text: The National Association folded at the end of 1875, and the Red Stockings, who had won the last four pennants, joined the National League for 1876, being renamed the Red Caps. The team went 39–31 for a fourth-place finish in 1876 before winning the 1877 and 1878 pennants with records of 42–18 and 41–19.

text: The third-best record belongs to the St. Louis Maroons of the 1884 Union Association, who finished with a record of 94–19 (.832), but the Union Association was quite lopsided in talent distribution (team owner Henry Lucas was also league president, an obvious conflict-of-interest situation which is now banned, and bought all the best available players for his franchise), generally disorganized (six teams played close to full schedules, another four teams folded and one relocated during the course of the season), and poorly scheduled. The Maroons' record would project to 135–27 under the modern schedule of 162 games, while Pythagorean expectation based on the Maroons' results (887 runs scored, 429 runs allowed) and a 162-game schedule would translate to a record of 131–31, but these results are of questionable merit.

text: The Union Association folded at the end of 1884, and the Maroons joined the National League for 1885. Playing against stiffer competition, they went 36–72 in 1885, and 43–79 in 1886, finishing in last and sixth in both seasons. In 1887, the Maroons relocated to Indianapolis and became the Indianapolis Hoosiers, playing three more seasons below .500 before folding.


document_title: Ras al-Khaimah

question_text: when did ras al khaima join the emirates

text: Ras al-Khaimah

text: History[edit]

text: Ras al-Khaimah has been the site of human habitation for several millennia and there are many historical and archaeological sites throughout the emirate - local sources cite 1,000[4] - dating from different time periods, including remnants of the Umm an-Nar Culture (3rd millennium BC).[5] Ancient graves were found in the Emirate in October 2012.[6]

text: The city was historically known as Julfar.

text: According to Sheikh Sultan bin Muhammad Al-Qasimi, current ruler of Sharjah Emirate, the city of Ras al-Khaimah (which before was the capital of the state that is now Sharjah) was historically known as Julfar and was founded by Armenians who escaped Persia during the Mongol invasion.[citation needed]

text: Further, archaeological evidence has demonstrated that the settlement known as Julfar shifted location over time as harbour channels silted up. Excavations of a sizable tell, which revealed remnants of a Sassanid era fortification, indicate that early Julfar was located in the north of Ras Al-Khaimah, not far from other sites of historical/archaeological interest such as 'Sheba's Palace' and the largest Umm an-Nar tombs found on the Arabian Peninsula. Sources say that Julfar was inhabited by the Azd (a branch of the Kahlan tribe) during the eighth and ninth centuries AD, and that the houses of the Azd were built of wood.

text: There is considerable debate locally regarding the 18th-century charge of maritime piracy, attracting the British label 'The Pirate Coast' to the Eastern Gulf before a series of treaties in 1820, 1853 and, in 1892, the Perpetual Maritime Truce led to it being known as the 'Trucial Coast'.

text: In the early 18th century, the Al Qasimi dynasty established itself in Ras Al Khaimah and Sharjah on the Arabian Peninsula, growing to become a significant maritime force with holdings on both the Persian and Arabian coasts. In 1819, a British naval force was sent from Bombay in order to suppress alleged piracy - actions of the Al Qasimi fleet against British flagged shipping that affected trade routes in the Strait of Hormuz, along the Persian Gulf coast, and the Indian Ocean.[citation needed]

text: In the Battle of Ras Al Khaimah of 1809, the Al Qasimi fleet was largely destroyed. The British operation continued to Linga on the Persian coast which was, like the Greater and Lesser Tunbs islands, administered by the Al Qasimi. The attack on Ras Al Khaimah resulted in the destruction of the tower of the 16th century Dhayah Fort whose remains can be seen at Rams in northern Ras Al Khaimah. In January 1820, the British imposed the General Maritime Treaty of 1820 signed by Sheikh Sultan Bin Saqr Al Qasimi who was reinstated by the British in Ras Al Khaimah after the deposition of Hasan Bin Rahma.[7] The treaty stipulated the end of piracy and slavery, and laid the foundation for the British protectorate over the Trucial States that lasted until 1971. In 1869, Ras Al Khaimah became fully independent from neighbouring Sharjah. However, from September 1900 to 7 July 1921, it was re-incorporated into Sharjah; the last governor became its next independent ruler.

text: On 10 February 1972,[8] Ras al-Khaimah, under the leadership of Sheikh Saqr bin Mohammad al-Qasimi, joined the United Arab Emirates.

text: List of rulers[edit]

text: Its rulers were:

text:
1708–1731: Sheikh Rahma Al Qasimi
1731–1749: Sheikh Matar bin Butti Al Qasimi
1749–1777: Sheikh Rashid bin Matar Al Qasimi
1777–1803: Sheikh Saqr bin Rashid Al Qasimi
1803–1808: Sheikh Sultan Bin Saqr Al Qasimi (died 1866) (1st time)
1808–1814: Sheikh Hasan bin `Ali Al Anezi
1814–1820: Sheikh Hasan bin Rahma. In 1919 shifted capital to Khatt due to British burning. Signed General Maritime Treaty of 1820.
1820–1866: Sheikh Sultan Bin Saqr Al Qasimi (2nd time). In 1820 shifted capital to Sharjah.
1866 – May 1867: Sheikh Ibrahim bin Sultan Al Qasimi. Ruler of RAK.
May 1867 – 14 April 1868: Sheikh Khalid bin Sultan Al Qasimi (died 1868). Ruler of RAK.
14 April 1868 – 1869: Sheikh Salim bin Sultan Al Qasimi (18??–1919). Ruler of Sharjah and RAK.
1869 – August 1900: Sheikh Humayd bin Abdullah Al Qasimi (died 1900). Ruler of RAK.
September 1900 – 1909: Currently Unknown
1909 – August 1919: Sheikh Salim bin Sultan Al Qasimi. Governor of RAK, declared independence (against Sharjah) 1912.
August 1919 – 10 July 1921: Sheikh Sultan bin Salim Al Qasimi (1891–19??), ruler of de facto independent RAK, who stayed on as the ruler of the British-recognised independent RAK:
10 July 1921 – Feb 1948: Sheikh Sultan bin Salim Al Qasimi
17 July 1948 – 27 October 2010: Sheikh Saqr bin Mohammad al-Qassimi (1918–2010)
27 October 2010 – current: Sheikh Saud bin Saqr al Qasimi[9]
The appointed heir presumptive is currently Muhammad bin Saud al Qasimi, son of the current Ruler of the Emirate.

text: Population[edit]

text: In 1975, the total population of Ras Al Khaimah was 43,845 of which 29,613 were nationals and 14,232 were foreigners. This figure increased to 73,918 (39,148 locals; 34,770 foreigners) in 1980, 96,578 in 1985, 143,334 in 1995, and 210,063 in 2005. The current total population is estimated to be between 250,000 and 300,000 people, nationals and foreigners.[10]

text: Towns and settlements[edit]

text: Important towns, settlements and areas include:

text:
Al Jazirah Al Hamra – an old coastal town with numerous real estate projects and industrial zone
Ar-Rams – a coastal town; in the past, a typical fishing and pearl-diving village
Khawr Khuwayr – an industrial zone, with the largest port in Ras al-Khaimah and numerous companies such as a cement factory
Diqdaqah – a village known for agriculture activities
Khatt – a village surrounded by mountains, famous for its thermal springs and palm gardens
Masafi – a town in the south, on the border with Fujairah; well known for drinking water
Huwaylat – a central village in the south

text: Climate[edit]

text: Ras al-Khaimah's desert climate (Köppen climate classification BWh) is hot and arid with very hot summers and mild winters. The average temperature is 18 to 25 °C (64 to 77 °F) in January and 29 to 43 °C (84 to 109 °F) in July. However, temperatures often reach 45 °C in the summer; the highest recorded temperature is 48.8 °C (119.8 °F). The humidity is usually high in the summer months. Rains and thunderstorms occur rarely, and only in winter. Snow has been reported in December 2004, January 2009 and February 2017[11] in the high mountains of Ras al-Khaimah. Temperatures as low as −5 °C (23 °F) have been measured at the peak of Jebel Jais.[12]

text:
[hide]Climate data for Ras al-Khaimah Airport

Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year

Record high °C (°F)
32.0
(89.6)
33.4
(92.1)
42.2
(108)
42.8
(109)
46.6
(115.9)
48.1
(118.6)
47.8
(118)
47.2
(117)
46.1
(115)
41.6
(106.9)
37.9
(100.2)
32.3
(90.1)
48.1
(118.6)

Average high °C (°F)
24.8
(76.6)
25.9
(78.6)
29.5
(85.1)
35.2
(95.4)
39.3
(102.7)
42.1
(107.8)
42.7
(108.9)
41.9
(107.4)
40.1
(104.2)
36.7
(98.1)
31.4
(88.5)
26.8
(80.2)
34.7
(94.46)

Daily mean °C (°F)
18.3
(64.9)
19.4
(66.9)
22.3
(72.1)
26.8
(80.2)
31.2
(88.2)
33.6
(92.5)
35.5
(95.9)
35.0
(95)
32.2
(90)
28.4
(83.1)
23.5
(74.3)
20.3
(68.5)
27.21
(80.97)

Average low °C (°F)
11.8
(53.2)
12.9
(55.2)
15.5
(59.9)
18.9
(66)
22.6
(72.7)
25.6
(78.1)
28.5
(83.3)
28.6
(83.5)
24.7
(76.5)
20.7
(69.3)
16.6
(61.9)
13.5
(56.3)
19.99
(67.99)

Record low °C (°F)
4.4
(39.9)
4.6
(40.3)
7.6
(45.7)
11.0
(51.8)
15.0
(59)
18.7
(65.7)
22.5
(72.5)
22.4
(72.3)
18.3
(64.9)
11.8
(53.2)
7.3
(45.1)
5.2
(41.4)
4.4
(39.9)

Average precipitation mm (inches)
12.8
(0.504)
35.7
(1.406)
35.0
(1.378)
12.5
(0.492)
2.8
(0.11)
0.0
(0)
0.6
(0.024)
0.3
(0.012)
1.3
(0.051)
6.4
(0.252)
8.0
(0.315)
17.4
(0.685)
132.8
(5.229)

Average precipitation days (≥ 0.2 mm)
1.7
3.3
4.7
0.9
0.2
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.7
2.3
14.3

Average relative humidity (%)
69
66
62
53
46
50
50
53
57
59
62
69
58

Mean monthly sunshine hours
238.7
218.4
238.7
285.0
344.1
327.0
303.0
310.0
300.0
303.8
279.0
235.6
3,383.3

Source: NOAA [13]

text: Economy[edit]

text: Industries[edit]

text: Not being a producer of oil, Ras al-Khaimah has focused on developing its industrial sector. As of 1920, Ras al-Khaimah was mining iron ore.[14]

text: Main economic sectors[edit]

text:
Real Estate – numerous residential areas, offices, commercial buildings are constructed in Ras al-Khaimah.
Tourism – Ras al-Khaimah is becoming a new destination on tourist maps. Ras al-Khaimah is home to five star hotels and beach resorts including Hilton Hotels and Resorts, Rotana or Banyan Tree. It has a number of 4 and 3 star accommodations. In September 2010, first water park Ice Land was opened to offer leisure opportunity for both residents and visitors and more new tourism projects are under construction.
Building materials – Ras al-Khaimah opened the UAE's first cement company in the early 1970s and is now the UAE's largest producer of cement. In the 1980s, the emirate formed Ras al-Khaimah Ceramics, which has become one of the world's largest ceramics producers.
Manufacturing and High-Tech Industry – In the 1980s, the emirate formed Gulf Pharmaceutical Industries (Julphar), the Persian Gulf region's first pharmaceuticals company. Falcon Technologies International (FTI) represents high-tech industry and produces optical storage media (CDR,DVDR, BDR). In 2012, Innovative Composite Engineering was established in the Industrial Free-zone to manufacture high end composite products (aerospace, construction parts).[15]
Service sector – recently growing sector with its prominent RAK Bank and RAK Insurance companies.
Agriculture and Fisheries – in the past, these were the main economy sectors of Ras al-Khaimah. Nowadays they are still significant providing foodstuff not only for the Emirate but for the whole country.

text: Taxation and companies law[edit]

text: New legislation and regulations favour international investments. The combination of security and confidentiality is ensured to entrepreneurs. An international company may only have foreign customers and is not liable for paying local taxes. It can open a local bank account, make investments tax-free, and obtain mortgages for investing in UAE assets. Employment visas are available. When approved, this type of company can own property in UAE free-trade zones.

text: No income, sales, or wealth taxes are payable by individuals. No corporate taxes are charged. In addition, there are no exchange controls, no withholding nor import or export taxes.

text: Culture[edit]

text: The UAE culture mainly revolves around the religion of Islam and traditional Arab culture. The influence of Islamic and Arab culture on its architecture, music, attire, cuisine and lifestyle are very prominent as well. Five times every day, Muslims are called to prayer from the minarets of mosques which are scattered around the country. Since 2006, the weekend has been Friday-Saturday, as a compromise between Friday's holiness to Muslims and the Western weekend of Saturday-Sunday.[16] It should be noted however that a great majority of the population are non national citizens, coming from India, Pakistan, and a wide range of nations.

text: Community[edit]

text: The majority of mosques are Hanbali, Muwahhid Muslim or Salafi

text: Events[edit]

text: The annual Ras al-Khaimah Half Marathon, first held in 2007, has called the attention of the world's sporting media to the region. The organisers invest much in the IAAF-labeled race in order to attract the world's top athletes, resulting in a world record from Samuel Wanjiru in 2007 and the second fastest run of all-time from Patrick Makau Musyoki in 2009.[17]

text: UAE Awafi Festival – a yearly festival in the Ras al-Khaimah desert, focusing mainly on the Arabic public[clarification needed]. It is a three-week event, held in December or January, the main attraction being a dramatic sand dune race by the strongest 4-wheel drivers of the UAE. There is a heritage village with traditional food and dance, as well as shops for food and souvenirs. There is also a petting zoo and lots of games for children. The entry is free of charge, and many families bring picnics to enjoy whilst watching the cars battling it out over the sand dunes.

text: Terry Fox Run RAK – a yearly charity run organized in Ras al-Khaimah to support cancer research in the UAE.[18] The first event was organized in 2010 (short movie from 1st RAKTFR event). Participation of this event has grown from hundreds to thousands since its inception.

text: Infrastructure[edit]

text: Transportation[edit]

text: Within Ras al-Khaimah city, the main mode of transport are metered taxis, with public buses operating on long-haul routes and catering mainly to smaller towns (e.g. Sha`am, Ar-Rams, and Al Jazirah Al Hamra). A local bus service operated by RAK Transport Authority provides infrequent connections between Nakheel, Al Hamra and the airport.[19]

text: Ras al-Khaimah is connected to the other emirates by taxis and buses which embark from the Bus Station located at RAK Transport Authority Headquarters near the new Ras al-Khaimah Police Headquarters and opposite the Cove Rotana hotel.

text: Three dual-carriageways link Ras al-Khaimah with the other emirates and beyond. One follows the coast with beaches on one side and stretches of desert on the other; the other, a new route, runs out towards the airport in the direction of Khatt, Masafi, Fujairah, Dhaid, and eventually Oman.

text: The Emirates Road (E311 Highway) traverses the emirates of Umm Al Quwain, Ajman (for 60 km (37 mi) of its length) and Sharjah (for 71 km (44 mi) of its length) to finally end up in Dubai (for 87 km (54 mi) of its length). The highway allows journeys from Ras al-Khaimah to Dubai in under 45 minutes. The highway is being extended further till Saqr Port to allow direct flow of traffic from the southern emirates, the extension was scheduled to be completed by 2014. In spring 2013 work on the 32-kilometre (20 mi) RAK Ring Road which will bypass the city and connect the quarries and factories of the north coast with the 311 motorway was held up by a three-month rescue excavation after the discovery of megalithic tombs dating to the Wadi Suq period, from 2000 to 1600 BC.[20]

text: Saqr Port, located in the industrial area of Khawr Khuwayr, is the emirate's main port, providing bulk and container services. It has eight deep-water berths, each 200 m (660 ft) long, is dredged to 12.2 m (40 ft) and has two "ro-ro" ramps plus specialised berths for handling bulk cement and aggregate. Other services include ship-handling, crew changes, and 40,000 m2 (430,000 sq ft) of covered storage, together with a vast open storage area. It is also the closest port in the UAE to Bandar Abbas, Iran, but there is no shipping from Saqr port to Bandar Abbas[clarification needed].

text: Ras Al Khaimah International Airport offers cargo and passenger services to a variety of destinations covering the Middle East, North & East Africa, Central Asia and the Indian Subcontinent. It serves as a hub for low cost carrier Air Arabia.

text: On 17 February 2006, Space Adventures announced its plans to develop a $265 million commercial spaceport in Ras al-Khaimah for space tourism.[21] This plan has yet to be realized.

text: Landmarks[edit]

text: Notable landmarks in Ras al-Khaimah include:

text:
The National Museum of Ras al-Khaimah: housed in the former palace of the ruling Al Qasimi family, with exhibits on natural history, arts and crafts of previous centuries, and archaeology
Dhayah Fort: the only surviving hilltop fort in the UAE[22]
Sheba's Palace: ruins of a medieval palace
Al Falayah: the former summer residence of the ruling Al Qawasim family
Al Jazirah Al Hamra: an abandoned "ghost town" showing the preserved architecture of an early 20th-century pearling port[23]
The Old City and Souq: both traditional and modern shops as well as artisans' workshops
Bab Al Bahr: Pyramid inspired buildings along Ras Al Khaimah's coastal line
Waldorf Astoria - Ras Al Khaimah: The Middle Eastern venture of the legendary Waldorf Astoria of New York.
Bu Shaqq tower 25°01′N 55°47′E / 25.017°N 55.783°E / 25.017; 55.783 [24]
Al Hayl Fort: One of the robust forts that occupies an important strategic location and oversees a vast area, all leading to the road of Fujairah[25]

text: Dunes and landforms[edit]

text:
Al-Khushaym 25°26′N 55°58′E / 25.433°N 55.967°E / 25.433; 55.967[24]
Bani Fasan 23°53′N 52°09′E / 23.883°N 52.150°E / 23.883; 52.150[24]
Jabal Jais, on the city's outskirts


document_title: History of the Rugby World Cup

question_text: when did australia win the rugby world cup

text: History of the Rugby World Cup

text: International competition prior to the World Cup[edit]

text: Apart from regular test matches and touring sides, tournaments that resembled a world cup format – albeit not of its scale, but in terms of international nations competing, are competitions such as the Summer Olympics and the Home Nations Championship/Five Nations Championship.

text: Rugby union was played at the Summer Olympics on four occasions, 1900, 1908, 1920 and 1924 Although these competitions did not involve full national sides, and usually only had three or four participating nations at any individual event. The International Championship/Five Nations has been played since 1883. It is one of the oldest international rugby tournaments, involving only European nations.

text: Early attempts[edit]

text: There are several stories that depict suggestions of staging a rugby union world cup before the 1980s. One of the earliest known pioneers was Harold Tolhurst, an Australian player who would later become a referee. It has been said that Tolhurst brought up the idea of such a tournament as early as the late 1950s.[2] It has been said that in 1968, the International Rugby Board made it known that it did not want its unions to be a part of such a competition that resembled a world cup.[2]

text: Similar ideas arose during the last years of the pre-WC era. Bill McLaughlin, who was the president of the Australian Rugby Union in 1979, suggested the idea of staging a World Cup in 1988, as the event would coincide with Australia's bicentenary celebrations.[2]

text: Early 1980s[edit]

text: In 1982, Neil Durden-Smith suggested that the world cup should be held in the United Kingdom in the mid-1980s.[2] The IRB discussed the proposal in March 1983, but the concept did not go ahead. Another meeting was held in June 1983, where Australia put forth a proposal that would see them host the first event – if it should happen.[2] New Zealand joined the campaign, putting forth their own proposal in March of the next year.[2] The IRB went on to conduct a feasibility study – Australia and New Zealand joined forces to bid for the hosting of an inaugural World Cup.[2]

text: A subsequent IRFB meeting was held in Paris in March 1985.  It is known that originally, all four home nations were opposed to the idea, and the most vocal supporters were Australia, New Zealand and France.  It is believed that South Africa's decision to vote in favour of the event was the turning point in the voting.  South Africa voted in favour of the tournament going ahead, though they knew they would not be competing due to the sports boycott at the time.[3] South Africa's vote saw England, followed by Wales, change to be in favour as well.

text: The first tournament[edit]

text: The 1987 Rugby World Cup was hosted by both Australia and New Zealand. 32 matches were played from over a period of 22 May to 20 June.  The tournament featured one African nation, three American nations, one Asian nation, seven European nations and four Oceanic nations.  One notable omission was the Springboks who were not competing due to the international sports boycott.

text: Seven places were automatically filled by the IRFB members, with invitations being sent out to fill remaining places. In total there were 16 nations in the competition. France played Australia in one of the semi-finals with New Zealand playing Wales in the other. New Zealand became the first ever Rugby World Cup Champions, defeating France 29 points to 9 at Eden Park in Auckland.

text: The 1991 Rugby World Cup was hosted by Great Britain, Ireland and France, with the tournament final to be played at the home of English rugby, Twickenham. For the first time, a qualifying tournament replaced the previously used invitation format. The qualifying tournament involved 32 teams. England qualified for the final by defeating Scotland at Murrayfield, with Australia joining them by defeating New Zealand the day after. Australia won the final, defeating England 12–6, and became the first nation to win the cup away from home.

text: The 1995 Rugby World Cup was hosted by South Africa, and was the first time that all matches would be played in just a single country. It was the first time that South Africa participated in the tournament following the end of their international sports boycott due to the apartheid regime. South Africa won the tournament, defeating New Zealand 15–12 in the final. Joel Stransky kicked a drop-goal in extra time to grab the victory for South Africa. The All Blacks were mysteriously struck down with food poisoning just days before the final with many All Blacks still affected on the day of the final. Nelson Mandela, wearing a Springbok jersey and matching cap, famously presented the Webb Ellis Cup to South African captain Francois Pienaar. The tournament also saw the emergence of rugby's first global superstar, All Blacks winger Jonah Lomu. He and Marc Ellis finished the tournament as the top try scorers.

text: The 1999 Rugby World Cup was hosted by Wales with matches played in England, France, Scotland and Ireland. There were further changes to the rules of automatic qualification for this tournament, where only the top three places from 1995, along with the host nation, automatically qualified. Sixty-five rugby nations participated in qualifying competitions for the 1999 tournament, and the participating nations increased from 16 to 20. France's shock 43–31 semifinal win over the All Blacks is regarded as one of the biggest upsets and also one of the best games in the history of the World Cup. Australia defeated France in the final 35–12. They therefore became the first nation to win the World Cup twice.

text: 2000 – present[edit]

text: The 2003 World Cup was hosted by Australia. It was originally to be co-hosted with New Zealand, but disagreements over scheduling and signage at venues led to Australia going it alone. England won the tournament, defeating Australia in the final 20 points to 17. With 21 seconds left before sudden death England's Jonny Wilkinson landed a drop goal to win the match. England became the first northern hemisphere nation to win a Rugby World Cup. Upon returning home, the English side was greeted by an estimated 750,000 people at a street parade celebrating their victory.[4]

text: The 2007 World Cup was held in France, with matches also played in Wales and Scotland. The tournament was won by South Africa, who defeated England 15–6 in the final to become World Champions for the second time. Blowouts in scores in pool matches against minnow nations changed into a finals series dominated by defence. This tournament was notable for Argentina becoming the first team from outside the Six Nations and Tri-Nations to reach the semifinals. They ended up coming third in the tournament, which was the first time the top 3 slots weren't dominated by either New Zealand, Australia, England, South Africa, France or Wales. This tournament was the first time that both Australia and New Zealand did not progress past the Quarter Finals.

text: The 2011 tournament was hosted by New Zealand: it saw a repeat of the 1987 World Cup finale standings, as Australia took on Wales in the Bronze final and won 21-18, while New Zealand, by defeating France 8-7 in the final, became the first nation to win on home soil twice. This tournament was notable for the fact that France lost twice in the pool stages, to NZ and Tonga, and yet somehow managed to progress all the way to the Final to face off with NZ one more time. This represented the first time any team had played each other twice in a world cup and was also the first time the winner and runner-up of the same pool progressed through to the Finals.

text: The 2015 tournament was hosted by England.  The tournament was won by New Zealand, who defeated Australia 34-17 to become the first nation to successfully defend their World Champion title and the first nation to win the tournament three times. This was the first time New Zealand had successfully won the cup away from home. This tournament is notable for the Pool of Death that occurred which saw Australia, England and Wales fight to get a place in the Quarter Finals. England became the first Host nation, and top tier rugby nation, to not make it out of the Pools. This also became the first Rugby World Cup to have all Northern Hemisphere competition knocked out in the Quarter Finals, with Argentina, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand progressing through to the Semi-Finals. This world cup will also be remembered for the biggest upset ever when Japan beat South Africa 34 - 23 in the pool stages and came very close to making their first Quarter Finals.

text: The 2019 tournament will be hosted in Japan, with the Yokohoma Stadium holding the final.

text: On November 15, 2017 France was announced as host of the 2023 Rugby World Cup.

text: Overview[edit]

text:
Year
Host
Final venue
Teams
Participantsin Qualifying
Matches played
Winner
Runner-up

1987
Australia & New Zealand
Eden Park

16

Invitation

32

 New Zealand
 France

1991
BritainFranceIreland
Twickenham

16

32

32

 Australia
 England

1995
South Africa
Ellis Park

16

52

32

 South Africa
 New Zealand

1999
Wales
Millennium Stadium

20

65

41

 Australia
 France

2003
Australia
Telstra Stadium

20

80

48

 England
 Australia

2007
France
Stade de France

20

91

48

 South Africa
 England

2011
New Zealand
Eden Park

20

93

48

 New Zealand
 France

2015
England
Twickenham

20

96

48

 New Zealand
 Australia

2019
Japan
Yokohoma Stadium

20

48

[to be determined]
[to be determined]

2023
France
[to be determined]

[to be determined]

[to be determined]

[to be determined]

[to be determined]
[to be determined]

text: Overall team performance records[edit]

text: The following table shows the overall performance records of the teams from the Six Nations and The Rugby Championship, plus the teams that made the knock-out stages (the quarter-finals) in at least one of the World Cups played so far. If they played in the tournament, the entries in the table show the stage at which they were knocked out, or whether they won the tournament. The second part of the table shows the number of times a team has reached that stage of the competition. For a more comprehensive table of the performance records of all the teams over the history of the World Cup, see National team appearances in the Rugby World Cup. Only Romania Japan and Italy have played in all 8 world cups without getting past the group stages. For the all-time table of national teams that have featured in the Rugby World Cup by a number of criteria including matches, wins, losses, draws, total points for, total points against, etc., see Rugby World Cup Overall Record.

text:
Team

1987

1991

1995

1999

2003

2007

2011

2015

Quarter-finals

Semi-finals

Finals

 New Zealand
W
SF
F
SF
SF
QF
W
W
8
7
4

 Australia
SF
W
QF
W
F
QF
SF
F
8
6
4

 South Africa(1)
DNP
DNP
W
SF
QF
W
QF
SF
6
4
2

 England
QF
F
SF
QF
W
F
QF
Group
7
4
3

 France
F
QF
SF
F
SF
SF
F
QF
8
6
3

 Scotland
QF
SF
QF
QF
QF
QF
Group
QF
7
1
0

 Ireland
QF
QF
QF
QF Play-Off
QF
Group
QF
QF
6
0
0

 Wales
SF
Group
Group
QF
QF
Group
SF
QF
5
2
0

 Argentina
Group
Group
Group
QF
Group
SF
QF
SF
4
2
0

 Samoa(2)
DNP
QF
QF
QF Play-Off
Group
Group
Group
Group
2
0
0

 Fiji(3)
QF
Group
DNQ
QF Play-Off
Group
QF
Group
Group
2
0
0

 Canada
Group
QF
Group
Group
Group
Group
Group
Group
1
0
0

 Italy
Group
Group
Group
Group
Group
Group
Group
Group
0
0
0

text: Defending champions[edit]

text: Only New Zealand, in 2015, has successfully defended their title in the World Cup. The stage at which the defending champions were knocked out has been: 1991 – SF – New Zealand knocked out by Australia; 1995 – QF – Australia knocked out by England; 1999 – SF – South Africa knocked out by Australia; 2003 – F – Australia knocked out by England; 2007 – F – England knocked out by South Africa; 2011 - QF - South Africa knocked out by Australia. Australia's loss in the quarter-finals in 1995, and South Africa's loss in the quarter-finals in 2011 are the worst performances by the defending champions.

text: Knockout statistics[edit]

text: For the teams that made the knock-out stages (quarter-finals) of the World Cup, the following table shows which team knocked them out of the competition, unless they won. England have knocked out both Australia and France three times each, while New Zealand have knocked out Scotland three times.

text:
Team

1987 lost to

1991 lost to

1995 lost to

1999 lost to

2003 lost to

2007 lost to

2011 lost to

2015 lost to

 New Zealand
W
 Australia
 South Africa
 France
 Australia
 France
W
W

 Australia
 France
W
 England
W
 England
 England
 New Zealand
 New Zealand

 England
 Wales
 Australia
 New Zealand
 South Africa
W
 South Africa
 France
N/A

 South Africa(1)
DNP
DNP
W
 Australia
 New Zealand
W
 Australia
 New Zealand

 France
 New Zealand
 England
 South Africa
 Australia
 England
 England
 New Zealand
 New Zealand

 Scotland
 New Zealand
 England
 New Zealand
 New Zealand
 Australia
 Argentina
N/A
 Australia

 Ireland
 Australia
 Australia
 France
 Argentina(4)
 France
N/A
 Wales
 Argentina

 Wales
 New Zealand
N/A
N/A
 Australia
 England
N/A
 France
 South Africa

 Samoa(2)
DNP
 Scotland
 South Africa
 Scotland(4)
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A

 Argentina
N/A
N/A
N/A
 France
N/A
 South Africa
 New Zealand
 Australia

 Fiji(3)
 France
N/A
DNQ
 England(4)
N/A
 South Africa
N/A
N/A

 Canada
N/A
 New Zealand
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A


document_title: Plastic shopping bag

question_text: when did grocery stores start using plastic bags

text: Plastic shopping bag

text: History[edit]

text: American and European patent applications relating to the production of plastic shopping bags can be found dating back to the early 1950s, but these refer to composite constructions with handles fixed to the bag in a secondary manufacturing process. The modern lightweight shopping bag is the invention of Swedish engineer Sten Gustaf Thulin.[1] In the early 1960s, Thulin developed a method of forming a simple one-piece bag by folding, welding and die-cutting a flat tube of plastic for the packaging company Celloplast of Norrköping, Sweden. Thulin's design produced a simple, strong bag with a high load-carrying capacity, and was patented worldwide by Celloplast in 1965.

text: Celloplast was a well-established producer of cellulose film and a pioneer in plastics processing. The company's patent position gave it a virtual monopoly on plastic shopping bag production, and the company set up manufacturing plants across Europe and in the US. However, other companies saw the attraction of the bag, too, and the US petrochemicals group Mobil overturned Celloplast's US patent in 1977.

text: The Dixie Bag Company of College Park, Georgia, owned and operated by Jack W. McBride, was one of the first companies to exploit this new opportunity to bring convenient products to all major shopping stores. The Dixie Bag Company, along with similar firms such as Houston Poly Bag and Capitol Poly, was instrumental in the manufacturing, marketing and perfecting of plastic bags in the 1980s. Kroger, a Cincinnati-based grocery chain, began to replace its paper shopping bags with plastic bags in 1982,[7] and was soon followed by its rival, Safeway.[7]

text: Without its plastic bag monopoly, Celloplast's business went into decline, and the company was split up during the 1990s. The Norrköping site remains a plastics production site, however, and is now the headquarters of Miljösäck, a manufacturer of waste sacks manufactured from recycled polyethylene.[8]

text: From the mid-1980s onwards, plastic bags became common for carrying daily groceries from the store to vehicles and homes throughout the developed world. As plastic bags increasingly replaced paper bags, and as other plastic materials and products replaced glass, metal, stone, timber and other materials, a packaging materials war erupted, with plastic shopping bags at the center of highly publicized disputes.

text: In 1992, Sonoco Products Company of Hartsville, SC patented[9] the "self-opening polyethylene bag stack". The main innovation of this redesign is that the removal of a bag from the rack opens the next bag in the stack. This team was headed by Wade D. Fletcher and Harry Wilfong.

text: Production[edit]

text: Although few peer-reviewed studies or government surveys have provided estimates for global plastic bag use, environmental activists estimate that between 500 billion and 1 trillion plastic bags are used each year worldwide.[10] In 2009, the United States International Trade Commission reported that 102 billion plastic bags are used annually in the United States alone.[11]

text: Manufacture and composition[edit]

text: Traditional plastic bags are usually made from polyethylene, which consists of long chains of ethylene monomers. Ethylene is derived from natural gas and petroleum. The polyethylene used in most plastic shopping bags is either low-density (resin identification code 4) or, more often, high-density (resin identification code 2).[12] Color concentrates and other additives are often used to add tint to the plastic. Plastic shopping bags are commonly manufactured by blown film extrusion.[11]

text: Biodegradable materials[edit]

text: Some modern bags are made of vegetable-based bioplastics, which can decay organically and prevent a build-up of toxic plastic bags in landfills and the natural environment. Bags can also be made from degradable polyethylene film or from polylactic acid (PLA), a biodegradable polymer derived from lactic acid.[13] However, most degradable bags do not readily decompose in a sealed landfill,[14] and represent a possible contaminant to plastic recycling operations. In general, biodegradable plastic bags need to be kept separate from conventional plastic recycling systems.

text: Biodegradable plastic carrier bags and manufacture[edit]

text: Biodegradable plastics are plastics that are decomposed by the action of living organisms, usually bacteria. Two basic classes of biodegradable plastics exist: Bioplastics, whose components are derived from renewable raw materials, and plastics made from petrochemicals containing biodegradable additives which enhance biodegradation.

text: Environmental concerns[edit]

text: Because plastic bags are so durable, this makes them a concern for the environment. They will not break down easily and as a result may be harmful to wildlife. Each year millions of discarded plastic shopping bags end up as plastic waste litter in the environment when improperly disposed of.[15] The same properties that have made plastic bags so commercially successful and ubiquitous—namely their low weight and resistance to degradation—have also contributed to their proliferation in the environment. Due to their durability, plastic bags can take centuries to decompose.[15] According to The Outline, it can take between 500 - 1,000 years for a plastic shopping bag to break down. The use lifespan of a bag is approximately 12 minutes of use.[16]

text: On land, plastic bags are one of the most prevalent types of litter in inhabited areas. Large buildups of plastic bags can clog drainage systems and contribute to flooding, as occurred in Bangladesh in 1988 and 1998[17] and almost annually in Manila.[18][19] Littering is often a serious problem in developing countries, where trash collection infrastructure is less developed than in wealthier nations.[20]

text: Plastic bags were found to constitute a significant portion of the floating marine debris in the waters around southern Chile in a study conducted between 2002 and 2005.[21] If washed out to sea, plastic bags can be carried long distances by ocean currents, and can strangle marine animals.

text: Reduction, reuse and recycling[edit]

text: Plastic shopping bags are in most cases not accepted by standard curbside recycling programs; though their composition is often identical to other accepted plastics, they pose problems for the single-stream recycling process, as most of the sorting equipment is designed for rigid plastics such as bottles,[22] so plastic bags often end up clogging wheels or belts, or being confused as paper and contaminating the pulp produced later in the stream.[23]

text: Some large store chains have banned plastic shopping bags such as Whole Foods in the U.S.[24] and IKEA in the U.S. and the U.K.[25]

text: Heavy-duty plastic shopping bags are suitable for reuse as reusable shopping bags. Lighter weight bags are often reused as trash bags or to pick up pet feces. All types of plastic shopping bag can be recycled into new bags where effective collection schemes exist.

text: By the mid-1900s, the expansion of recycling infrastructure in the United States yielded a 7% annual rate of plastic bag recycling. This corresponded to more than 800,000,000 pounds (360,000 tonnes) of bags and plastic film being recycled in 2007 alone.[26] Each ton of recycled plastic bags saves the energy equivalent of 11 barrels of oil, although most bags are produced from natural-gas-derived stock.[27] In light of a 2002 Australian study showing that more than 60% of bags are reused as bin liners and for other purposes,[28] the 7% recycling rate accounts for 17.5% of the plastic bags available for recycling.

text: According to the UK's Environment Agency, 76% of British carrier bags are reused.[29] A survey by the American Plastics Counsel found that 90% of Americans answer yes to the question "Do you or does anyone in your household ever reuse plastic shopping bags?"[30] UK Environment Agency published a review of supermarket carrier bags and compares energy usage of current styles of bag.[31]

text: Bag legislation[edit]

text: Several countries, regions, and cities have enacted legislation to ban or severely reduce the use of disposable plastic shopping bags. Outright bans have been introduced in some countries,[5] notably China, which banned very thin plastic bags nationwide in 2008.[2] Several other countries impose a tax at the point of sale.