document_title: History of construction

question_text: what is one of the greatest structural achievements of the bronze age

question_tokens: what is one of the greatest structural achievements of the bronze age

text: History of construction

text: Chronological development[edit]

text: Neolithic construction[edit]

text: Wikimedia Commons has media related to Neolithic reconstructions.

text: Neolithic, also known as the New Stone Age, was a time period roughly from 9000 BC to 5000 BC named because it was the last period of the age before wood working began. The tools available were made from natural materials including bone, antler, hide, stone, wood, grasses, animal fibers, and the use of water. These tools were used by people to cut such as with the hand axe, chopper, adze, and celt. Also to scrape, chop such as with a flake tool, pound, pierce, roll, pull, leaver, and carry.

text: Building materials included bones such as mammoth ribs, hide, stone, metal, bark, bamboo, clay, lime plaster, and more. For example, the first bridges made by humans were probably just wooden logs placed across a stream and later timber trackways. In addition to living in caves and rock shelters, the first buildings were simple shelters, tents like the Inuit's tupiq, and huts sometimes built as pit-houses meant to suit the basic needs of protection from the elements and sometimes as fortifications for safety such as the crannog. Built self-sufficiently by their inhabitants rather than by specialist builders, using locally available materials and traditional designs and methods which together are called vernacular architecture.

text: The very simplest shelters, tents, leave no traces. Because of this, what little we can say about very early construction is mostly conjecture and based on what we know about the way nomadic hunter-gatherers and herdsmen in remote areas build shelters today. The absence of metal tools placed limitations on the materials that could be worked, but it was still possible to build quite elaborate stone structures with ingenuity using dry stone walling techniques such as at Skara Brae in Scotland, Europe's most complete Neolithic village. The first mud bricks, formed with the hands rather than wooden moulds, belong to the late Neolithic period and were found in Jericho. One of the largest structures of this period was the Neolithic long house. In all cases of timber framed and log structures in these very early cultures, only the very lowest parts of the walls and post holes are unearthed in archaeological excavations, making reconstruction of the upper parts of these buildings largely conjectural.

text: Neolithic architecture ranges from the tent to the megalith (an arrangement of large stones) and rock-cut architecture which are frequently temples, tombs, and dwellings. The most remarkable Neolithic structure in Western Europe is the iconic megalith known as Stonehenge, regarded by some archaeologists as displaying methods of timber construction such as at woodhenge translated into stone,[2] a process known as petrification. The now ruinous remains are of post and lintel construction and include massive sandstone lintels which were located on supporting uprights by means of mortise and tenon joints; the lintels themselves being end-jointed by the use of tongue and groove joints.[3] There is also evidence of prefabrication of the stonework; the symmetrical geometric arrays of stone clearly indicate that the builders of Stonehenge had mastered sophisticated surveying methods.[4] Neolithic villages large enough to have rural and urban features are called proto-cities to distinguish them from cities beginning with Eridu.

text: Gallery of Neolithic tools[edit]

text:
Man using a hand axe

A Neolithic stone axe with a wooden handle.

A sickle for harvesting crops and thatching materials.

Various bone tools from China

Bone hammer from the Linear Pottery Culture

A chisel made of bone, Sechseläutenplatz, Zürich

A sledge for moving heavy materials.

A stone drill

text: Copper Age and Bronze Age construction[edit]

text: The Copper Age is the early part of the Bronze Age. Bronze is made when tin is added to copper and brass is copper with zinc. Copper came into use before 5,000 BC and bronze around 3,100 BC, although the times vary by region. Copper and bronze were used for the same types of tools as stone such as axes and chisels, but the new, less brittle, more durable material cut better. Bronze was cast into desired shapes and if damaged could be recast. A new tool developed in the copper age is the saw. Other uses of copper and bronze were to "harden" the cutting edge of tools such as the Egyptians using copper and bronze points for working soft stone including quarrying blocks and making rock-cut architecture.

text: During the Bronze Age the corbelled arch came into use such as for beehive tombs. The wheel came into use but was not common until much later. Heavy loads were moved on boats, sledges (a primitive sled) or on rollers. The Egyptians began building stone temples with the post and lintel construction method and the Greeks and Romans followed this style.

text: Iron Age construction[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (April 2014)

text: The Iron Age is a cultural period from roughly 1200 BC to 50 BC with the widespread use of iron for tools and weapons. Iron is not much harder than bronze but by adding carbon iron becomes steel which was being produced after about 300 BC. Steel can be hardened and tempered producing a sharp, durable cutting edge. A new woodworking tool allowed by the use of steel is the hand-plane.

text: Ancient Mesopotamia[edit]

text: The earliest large-scale buildings for which evidence survives have been found in ancient Mesopotamia. The smaller dwellings only survive in traces of foundations, but the later civilizations built very sizeable structures in the forms of palaces, temples and ziggurats and took particular care to build them out of materials that last, which has ensured that very considerable parts have remained intact. Major technical achievement is evidenced by the construction of great cities such as Uruk and Ur. The Ziggurat of Ur is an outstanding building of the period, despite major reconstruction work. Another fine example is the ziggurat at Chogha Zanbil in modern Iran. Cities created demands for new technologies such as drains for animal and human sewage and paved streets.

text: Archaeological evidence has shown the existence of pitched-brick vault[5] s such as at Tell al-Rimah in what is now Iraq.

text: Materials[edit]

text: The chief building material was the mud-brick, formed in wooden moulds similar to those used to make adobe bricks. Bricks varied widely in size and format from small bricks that could be lifted in one hand to ones as big as large paving slabs. Rectangular and square bricks were both common. They were laid in virtually every bonding pattern imaginable and used with considerable sophistication. Drawings survive on clay tablets from later periods showing that buildings were set out on brick modules. By 3500 BC, fired bricks came into use and surviving records show a very complex division of labour into separate tasks and trades.[citation needed] Fired bricks and stone were used for pavement.

text: Life in general was governed by complex ritual and this extended to rituals for setting-out buildings and moulding the first bricks. Contrary to popular belief the arch was not invented by the Romans, but was used in these civilizations.[citation needed] The later Mesopotamian civilizations, particularly Babylon and thence Susa, developed glazed brickwork to a very high degree, decorating the interiors and exteriors of their buildings with glazed brick reliefs, examples of which survive in the Tehran archaeological museum, the Louvre Museum in Paris and the Pergamon Museum in Berlin.

text:
Detail of the Ishtar Gate (575 BC) showing the exceptionally fine glazed brickwork of the later period. Glazed bricks have been found from the 13th century B.C.

The pitched-brick vault is a type found in Mesopotamia circa 2000 BC.

Babylon,the archaeological site in 1932, before major reconstruction work undertaken by Sadam Hussein

Dried bricks stacked ready for firing without the use of a kiln.

Egyptian stonework showing tool marks and butterfly interlocks in the Temple of Kom Ombo begun 180-145 BC

text: Ancient Egypt[edit]

text: Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ancient architecture.

text: As opposed to the cultures of ancient Mesopotamia which built in brick, the pharaohs of Egypt built huge structures in stone. The arid climate has preserved much of the ancient buildings.

text: Materials[edit]

text: Adobe (sun-baked mud brick) construction was used for ancillary buildings and normal houses in ancient times and is still commonly used in rural Egypt. The hot, dry climate was ideal for mud-brick, which tends to wash away in the rain. The Ramesseum in Thebes, Egypt (Luxor) provides one of the finest examples of mud brick construction. Extensive storehouses with mud-brick vaults also survive, all constructed with sloping courses to avoid the need for formwork.

text: The grandest buildings were constructed in stone, often from massive masonry blocks. The techniques used to move massive blocks used in pyramids and temples have been subject to extensive debate. Some authors have suggested that the larger may not be cut stone but fabricated with concrete.[citation needed]

text: Technology[edit]

text: Although the Egyptians achieved extraordinary feats of engineering, they appear to have done so with relatively primitive technology. As far as is known they did not use wheels or pulleys. They transported massive stones over great distances using rollers, ropes and sledges hauled by large numbers of workers. The ancient Egyptians are credited with inventing the ramp, lever, lathe, oven, ship, paper, irrigation system, window awning, door, glass, a form of plaster of Paris, the bath, lock, shadoof, weaving, a standardized measurement system, geometry, silo, a method of drilling stone, saw, steam power, proportional scale drawings, enameling, veneer, plywood, rope truss, and more. There are no surviving Egyptian manuals so there has been considerable speculation on how stones were lifted to great heights and obelisks erected. Most theories centre on the use of ramps.

text: Imhotep, who lived circa 2650–2600 BC, is credited with being the first recorded architect and engineer.

text: Achievements[edit]

text: The pyramids are chiefly impressive for their enormous size and the staggering manpower that must have been employed in their construction. The largest is the Great Pyramid of Giza which remained the tallest structure in the world for 3800 years (see List of tallest freestanding structures in the world). The engineering problems involved were chiefly to do with the transport of blocks, sometimes over long distances, their movement into location and exact alignment. It is now generally agreed that the skilled building workers were respected and well treated, but undoubtedly very large numbers of labourers were necessary to provide the brute force.

text: The methods used in the construction of the pyramids have been the subject of considerable research and discussion (see: Egyptian pyramid construction techniques).

text:
Great Pyramid of Giza, the tallest building in the world for over 3800 years

Menkaures Pyramid, Giza

text: Ancient Greece[edit]

text: The ancient Greeks, like the Egyptians and the Mesopotamians, tended to build most of their common buildings out of mud brick, leaving no record behind them. However very many structures do survive, some of which are in a very good state of repair, although some have been partly reconstructed or re-erected in the modern era. The most dramatic are the Greek Temples. The Greeks made many advances in technology including plumbing, the spiral staircase, central heating, urban planning, the water wheel, the crane, and more.

text: The oldest "construction drawing" is in the Temple of Apollo at Didyma. An unfinished stone wall was etched with the profiles of columns and moldings, and the wall was never finished so the drawing was not erased: a rare glimpse into the history of working construction drawings.[6]

text: No timber structures survive (roofs, floors etc.), so our knowledge of how these were put together is limited. The spans are, in the main, limited and suggest very simple beam and post structures spanning stone walls. For the longer spans it is uncertain if the Greeks or Romans invented the truss but the Romans certainly used timber roof trusses. Before 650 B.C.E. the now famous ancient Greek temples were built of wood, but after this date began to be built of stone.[7] The process of a timber structure being repeated in stone is called petrification[8] or "petrified carpentry".

text: Fired clay was mainly restricted to roofing tiles and associated decorations, but these were quite elaborate. The roof tiles allow a low roof pitch characteristic of ancient Greek architecture. Fired bricks began to be employed with lime mortar. Very prominent buildings were roofed in stone tiles, which mimicked the form of their terracotta counterparts. While later cultures tended to construct their stone buildings with thin skins of finished stones over rubble cores, the Greeks tended to build out of large cut blocks, joined with metal cramps. This was a slow, expensive and laborious process which limited the number of buildings that could be constructed. The metal cramps often failed through corrosion.

text: Building structures mostly used a simple beam and column system without vaults or arches, which based strict limits on the spans that could achieved. However, the Greeks did construct some groin vaults, arch bridges and, with the Egyptians, the first "high rise", the Lighthouse of Alexandria, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.

text: Greek mathematics was technically advanced and we know for certain that they employed and understood the principles of pulleys, which would have enabled them to build jibs and cranes to lift heavy stonework to the upper parts of buildings. Their surveying skills were exceptional, enabling them to set out the incredibly exact optical corrections of buildings like the Parthenon, although the methods used remain a mystery. Simpler decoration, such as fluting on columns, was simply left until the drums of the columns were cut in place.

text: The ancient Greeks never developed the strong mortars which became an important feature of Roman construction.

text: Roman Empire[edit]

text: In striking contrast to previous cultures, an enormous amount is known about Roman building construction. A very large amount survives, including complete intact buildings like the Pantheon, Rome and very well preserved ruins at Pompeii and Herculaneum. We also have the first surviving treatise on architecture by Vitruvius which includes extensive passages on construction techniques.

text: Materials[edit]

text: The great Roman development in building materials was the use of hydraulic lime mortar called Roman cement. Previous cultures had used lime mortars but by adding volcanic ash called a pozzolana the mortar would harden under water. This provided them with a strong material for bulk walling. They used brick or stone to build the outer skins of the wall and then filled the cavity with massive amounts of concrete, effectively using the brickwork as permanent shuttering (formwork). Later they used wooden shuttering that was removed for the concrete to cure.

text: An example of a temple made of Roman concrete in the 1st century BC is the Temple of Vesta in Tivoli, Italy. The concrete was made of nothing more than rubble and mortar. It was cheap and very easy to produce and required relatively unskilled labour to use, enabling the Romans to build on an unprecedented scale. They not only used it for walls but also to form arches, barrel vaults and domes, which they built over huge spans. The Romans developed systems of hollow pots for making their domes and sophisticated heating and ventilation systems for their thermal baths.[citation needed].

text: The Romans substituted bronze for wood in the roof truss(s) of the Pantheon's portico which was commissioned between 27 BC and 14 AD. The bronze trusses were unique but in 1625 Pope Urban VIII had the trusses replaced with wood and melted the bronze down for other uses. The Romans also made bronze roof tiles

text: Lead was used for roof covering material and water supply and waste pipes. The Latin name for lead is plumbum thus plumbing. Romans also made use of glass in construction with colored glass in mosaics and clear glass for windows. Glass came to be fairly commonly used in windows of public buildings.[9] Central heating in the form of a hypocaust, a raised floor heated by the exhaust of a wood or coal fire.

text: Organisation of labour[edit]

text: The Romans had trade guilds. Most construction was done by slaves or freed men. The use of slave labour undoubtedly cut costs and was one of the reasons for the scale of some of the structures. The Romans placed a considerable emphasis in building their buildings extremely fast, usually within two years. For very large structures the only way this could be achieved was by the application of vast numbers of workers to the task.

text: Technology[edit]

text: The invention of the waterwheel, sawmill, arch, and were by the Romans. The Romans also began using glass for architectural purposes after about 100 CE and used double glazing as insulated glazing. Roman roads included corduroy roads and paved roads, sometimes supported on raft or pile foundations and bridges. Vitruvius gives details of many Roman machines. The Romans developed sophisticated timber cranes allowing them to lift considerable weights to great heights. The upper limit of lifting appears to have been about 100 tonnes. Trajan's column in Rome contains some of the largest stones ever lifted in a Roman building, and engineers are still uncertain exactly how it was achieved.

text: A list of the longest, highest and deepest Roman structures can be found in the List of ancient architectural records. Roman building ingenuity extended over bridges, aqueducts, and covered amphitheatres. Their sewerage and water-supply works were remarkable and some systems are still in operation today. The only aspect of Roman construction for which very little evidence survives is the form of timber roof structures, none of which seem to have survived intact. Possibly, triangulated roof trusses were built, this being the only conceivable way of constructing the immense spans achieved, the longest exceeding 30 metres (see List of Ancient Greek and Roman roofs).

text: China[edit]

text: China is a cultural hearth area of eastern Asia, many Far East building methods and styles evolved from China. A famous example of Chinese construction is the Great Wall of China built between the 7th and 2nd centuries BC. The Great Wall was built with rammed earth, stones, and wood and later bricks and tiles with lime mortar. Wooden gates blocked passageways. The oldest archaeological examples of mortise and tenon type woodworking joints were found in China dating to about 5000 BC.

text: The Yingzao Fashi is the oldest complete technical manual on Chinese architecture. The Chinese followed the state rules for thousands of years so many of the ancient, surviving buildings were built with the methods and materials still used in the 11th century. Chinese temples are typically wooden timber frames on an earth and stone base. The oldest wooden building is the Nanchan Temple (Wutai) dating from 782 CE. However, Chinese temple builders regularly rebuild the wooden temples so some parts of these ancient buildings are of different ages. Traditional Chinese timber frames do not use trusses but rely only on post and lintel construction. An important architectural element are the dougong bracket sets. The Songyue Pagoda is the oldest brick pagoda dating to 523 AD. It was built with yellow fired bricks laid in clay mortar, with twelve sides and fifteen levels of roofs. The Anji Bridge is the worlds oldest "open-spandrel stone segmental arch bridge" built in 595-605 AD. The bridge is built with sandstone joined with dovetail, iron joints.

text: Most of the (restored) Great Wall sections we see today were built with bricks, and cut stone blocks/slabs. Where bricks and blocks weren't available, tamped earth, uncut stones, wood, and even reeds were used as local materials. Wood was used for forts and as an auxiliary material. Where local timber wasn't enough, they had it delivered in.

text: Stone Great Wall Sections[edit]

text: In mountain areas, workers quarried stone to build the Great Wall. Using the mountains themselves as footings, the outer layer of the Great Wall was built with stone blocks (and bricks), and filled with uncut stone and anything else available (like earth and dead workers).

text: Soil Great Wall Sections[edit]

text: On the plains Great Wall workers made use of local soil (sand, loess, etc.) and rammed it into compact layers. Jiayuguan's Great Wall section in west China was mainly built with dusty loess soil — "the most erodible soil on the planet". It's amazing that sections 2,000 years old still remain mostly intact!

text: Sand (and Reed/Willow) Great Wall Sections[edit]

text: Sand doesn't stick together, so how could a wall be built with sand? Sand was used as a fill material between reed and willow layers.

text: West China around Dunhuang is desert. Innovative builders there made use of reeds and willow brought in from rivers and oases to build a strong wall. Jade Gate Pass (Yumenguan) Great Wall Fort was built with 20-cm layers of sand and reed, an impressive 9 meters high.

text: Brick Great Wall Sections[edit]

text: The Ming Dynasty Great Wall was mostly built with bricks. To build a strong wall with bricks, they used lime mortar. Workers built brick and cement factories with local materials near the wall.

text: Middle ages[edit]

text: The Middle Ages of Europe span from the 5th to 15th centuries AD from the fall of the Western Roman Empire to the Renaissance and is divided into Pre-Romanesque and Romanesque periods.

text: Fortifications, castles and cathedrals were the greatest construction projects. The Middle Ages began with the end of the Roman era and many Roman building techniques were lost. But some Roman techniques, including the use of iron ring-beams, appear to have been used in the Palatine Chapel at Aachen, c. 800 AD, where it is believed builders from the Langobard Kingdom in northern Italy contributed to the work.[10] A revival of stone buildings in the 9th century and the Romanesque style of architecture began in the late 11th century. Also notable are the stave churches in Scandinavia.

text: Materials[edit]

text: Most buildings in Northern Europe were constructed of timber until c. 1000 AD. In Southern Europe adobe remained predominant. Brick continued to be manufactured in Italy throughout the period 600–1000 AD but elsewhere the craft of brick-making had largely disappeared and with it the methods for burning tiles. Roofs were largely thatched. Houses were small and gathered around a large communal hall. Monasticism spread more sophisticated building techniques. The Cistercians may have been responsible for reintroducing brick-making to the area[clarification needed] from the Netherlands, through Denmark and Northern Germany to Poland leading to Backsteingotik. Brick remained the most popular prestige material in these areas throughout the period.[citation needed] Elsewhere buildings were typically in timber or where it could be afforded, stone. Medieval stone walls were constructed using cut blocks on the outside of the walls and rubble infill, with weak lime mortars. The poor hardening properties of these mortars were a continual problem, and the settlement of the rubble filling of Romanesque and Gothic walls and piers is still a major cause for concern.

text: Design[edit]

text: There were no standard textbooks on building in the Middle Ages. Master craftsmen transferred their knowledge through apprenticeships and from father to son. Trade secrets were closely guarded, as they were the source of a craftsman's livelihood. Drawings only survive from the later period. Parchment was too expensive to be commonly used and paper did not appear until the end of the period. Models were used for designing structures and could be built to large scales. Details were mostly designed at full size on tracing floors, some of which survive.

text: Labour[edit]

text: In general, medieval buildings were built by paid workers. Unskilled work was done by labourers paid by the day. Skilled craftsmen served apprenticeships or learned their trade from their parents. It is not clear how many women were members of a guild holding a monopoly on a particular trade in a defined area (usually within the town walls). Towns were in general very small by modern standards and dominated by the dwellings of a small number of rich nobles or merchants, and by cathedrals and churches.

text: Techniques[edit]

text: Romanesque buildings of the period 600–1100 AD[clarification needed] were entirely roofed in timber or had stone barrel vaults covered by timber roofs. The Gothic style of architecture with its vaults, flying buttresses and pointed gothic arches developed in the twelfth century, and in the centuries that followed ever more incredible feats of constructional daring were achieved in stone. Thin stone vaults and towering buildings were constructed using rules derived by trial and error. Failures were frequent, particularly in difficult areas such as crossing towers.

text: The pile driver was invented around 1500.

text: Achievements[edit]

text: The scale of fortifications and castle building in the Middle Ages was remarkable, but the outstanding buildings of the period were the Gothic cathedrals with thin masonry vaults and walls of glass. Outstanding examples are: Beauvais Cathedral, Chartres Cathedral, King's College Chapel and Notre Dame, Paris.

text: Renaissance[edit]

text: The Renaissance in Italy, the invention of moveable type and the Reformation changed the character of building. The rediscovery of Vitruvius had a strong influence. During the Middle Ages buildings were designed by the people that built them. The master mason and master carpenters learnt their trades by word of mouth and relied on experience, models and rules of thumb to determine the sizes of building elements. Vitruvius however describes in detail the education of the perfect architect who, he said, must be skilled in all the arts and sciences. Filippo Brunelleschi was one of the first of the new style of architects. He started life as a goldsmith and educated himself in Roman architecture by studying ruins. He went on to engineer the dome of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence.

text: Materials[edit]

text: The major breakthroughs in this period were to do with the technology of conversion. Water mills in most of western Europe were used to saw timber and convert trees into planks. Bricks were used in ever increasing quantities. In Italy the brickmakers were organised into guilds although the kilns were mostly in rural areas because of the risk of fire and easy availability of firewood and brickearth. Brickmakers were typically paid by the brick, which gave them an incentive to make them too small. As a result, legislation was laid down regulating the minimum sizes and each town kept measures against which bricks had to be compared. An increasing amount of ironwork was used in roof carpentry for straps and tension members. The iron was fixed using forelock bolts. The screw-threaded bolt (and nut) could be made and are found in clockmaking in this period, but they were labour-intensive and thus not used on large structures. Roofing was typically of terracotta roof tiles. In Italy they followed Roman precedents. In northern Europe plain tiles were used. Stone, where available, remained the material of choice for prestige buildings.

text: Design[edit]

text: This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (July 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The rebirth of the idea of an architect in the Renaissance radically changed the nature of building design. The Renaissance reintroduced the classical style of architecture. Leon Battista Alberti's treatise on architecture raised the subject to a new level, defining architecture as something worthy of study by the aristocracy. Previously it was viewed merely as a technical art, suited only to the artisan. The resulting change in status of architecture and more importantly the architect is key to understanding the changes in the process of design. The Renaissance architect was often an artist (a painter or sculptor) who had little knowledge of building technology but a keen grasp of the rules of classical design. The architect thus had to provide detailed drawings for the craftsmen setting out the disposition of the various parts. This was what is called the process of design, from the Italian word for drawing. Occasionally the architect would get involved in particularly difficult technical problems but the technical side of architecture was mainly left up to the craftsmen. This change in the way buildings were designed had a fundamental difference on the way problems were approached. Where the Medieval craftsmen tended to approach a problem with a technical solution in mind, the Renaissance architects started with an idea of what the end product needed to look like and then searched around for a way of making it work. This led to extraordinary leaps forward in engineering.

text: Labour[edit]

text: Labour in the Renaissance was much the same as in the Middle Ages: buildings were built by paid workers. Unskilled work was done by labourers paid by the day. Skilled craftsmen served apprenticeships or learned their trade from their parents. Craftsmen were organized in guilds which provided a limited form of building regulation in return for members of the guild holding a monopoly on a particular trade in a defined area (usually within the town walls). Towns were in general very small by modern standards and dominated by the dwellings of a small number of rich nobles or merchants and cathedrals and churches.

text: Technical advances[edit]

text: The wish to return to classical architecture created problems for the Renaissance buildings. The builders did not use concrete and thus comparable vaults and domes had to be replicated in brick or stone. The greatest technical feats were undoubtedly in these areas. The first major breakthrough was Brunelleschi's project for the dome of Santa Maria del Fiore. Brunelleschi managed to devise a way of building a huge dome without formwork, relying instead on the weight of the bricks and the way they were laid to keep them in position and the shape of the dome to keep it standing. The exact way the dome was built is still subject to debate today as it is not possible to take the dome apart to study its construction without destroying it. The dome is a double skin, linked by ribs, with a series of wooden and stone chains around it at intervals to attempt to deal with hoop stresses.

text: Brunelleschi's dome was completed (up to the base of the lantern) in 1446. Its size was soon surpassed by the dome of St Peter's, built using flying scaffolding supported on the cornices and constructed using two stone shells.

text: The seventeenth century[edit]

text: The seventeenth century saw the birth of modern science which would have profound effects on building construction in the centuries to come. The major breakthroughs were towards the end of the century when architect-engineers began to use experimental science to inform the form of their buildings. However it was not until the eighteenth century that engineering theory developed sufficiently to allow sizes of members to be calculated. Seventeenth-century structures relied strongly on experience, rules of thumb and the use of scale models.

text: Materials and tools[edit]

text: The major breakthrough in this period was in the manufacture of glass, with the first cast plate glass being developed in France. Iron was increasingly employed in structures. Christopher Wren used iron hangers to suspend floor beams at Hampton Court Palace, and iron rods to repair Salisbury Cathedral and strengthen the dome of St Paul's Cathedral. Most buildings had stone ashlar surfaces covering rubble cores, held together with lime mortar. Experiments were made mixing lime with other materials to provide a hydraulic mortar, but there was still no equivalent of the Roman concrete. In England, France and the Dutch Republic, cut and gauged brickwork was used to provide detailed and ornate facades. The triangulated roof truss was introduced to England and used by Inigo Jones and Christopher Wren.

text: Many tools have been made obsolete by modern technology, but the line gauge, plumb-line, the carpenter's square, the spirit level, and the drafting compass are still in regular use.

text: Methods[edit]

text: Despite the birth of experimental science, the methods of construction in this period remained largely medieval. The same types of crane that had been used in previous centuries were being still being employed. Flying scaffolds were employed at St Paul's Cathedral, England and in the dome of St Peters, Rome, but otherwise the same types of timber scaffolding that had been in use centuries before were retained. Cranes and scaffolding depended on timber. Complex systems of pulleys allowed comparatively large loads to be lifted, and long ramps were used to haul loads up to the upper parts of buildings.

text: The eighteenth century[edit]

text: The eighteenth century saw the development of many the ideas that had been born in the late seventeenth century. The architects and engineers became increasingly professionalised. Experimental science and mathematical methods became increasingly sophisticated and employed in buildings. At the same time the birth of the industrial revolution saw an increase in the size of cities and increase in the pace and quantity of construction.

text: Materials[edit]

text: The major breakthroughs in this period were in the use of iron (both cast and wrought). Iron columns had been used in Wren's designs for the House of Commons and were used in several early eighteenth-century churches in London, but these supported only galleries. In the second half of the eighteenth century the decreasing costs of iron production allowed the construction of major pieces of iron engineering. The Iron Bridge at Coalbrookdale (1779) is a particularly notable example. Large-scale mill construction required fire-proof buildings and cast iron became increasingly used for columns and beams to carry brick vaults for floors. The Louvre in Paris boasted an early example of a wrought-iron roof. Steel was used in the manufacture of tools but could not be made in sufficient quantities to be used for building.

text: Brick production increased markedly during this period. Many buildings throughout Europe were built of brick, but they were often coated in lime render, sometimes patterned to look like stone. Brick production itself changed little. Bricks were moulded by hand and fired in kilns no different to those used for centuries before. Terracotta in the form of Coade stone was used as an artificial stone in the UK.

text: The nineteenth century: Industrial Revolution[edit]

text: The industrial revolution was manifested in new kinds of transportation installations, such as railways, canals and macadam roads. These required large amounts of investment. New construction devices included steam engines, machine tools, explosives and optical surveying. The steam engine combined with two other technologies which blossomed in the nineteenth century, the circular saw and machine cut nails, lead to the use of balloon framing and the decline of traditional timber framing.[11]

text: As steel was mass-produced from the mid-19th century, it was used, in form of I-beams and reinforced concrete. Glass panes also went into mass production, and changed from luxury to every man's property.

text: Plumbing appeared, and gave common access to drinking water and sewage collection.

text: Building codes have been applied since the 19th century, with special respect to fire safety.

text: The twentieth century[edit]

text: With the Second Industrial Revolution in the early 20th century, elevators and cranes made high rise buildings and skyscrapers possible, while heavy equipment and power tools decreased the workforce needed. Other new technologies were prefabrication and computer-aided design.

text: Trade unions were formed to protect construction workers' interests. Personal protective equipment such as hard hats and earmuffs also came into use.

text: From the 20th century, governmental construction projects were used as a part of macroeconomic stimulation policies, especially during the Great depression (see New Deal). For economy of scale, whole suburbs, towns and cities, including infrastructure, are often planned and constructed within the same project (called megaproject if the cost exceeds US$1 billion), such as Brasília in Brazil, and the Million Programme in Sweden.

text: In the end of the 20th century, ecology, energy conservation and sustainable development have become more important issues of construction.

text: Academic discipline[edit]

text: There is no established academic discipline of construction history but a growing number of researchers and academics are working in this field, including structural engineers, archaeologists, architects, historians of technology and architectural historians. Although the subject has been studied since the Renaissance and there were a number of important studies in the nineteenth century, it largely went out of fashion in the mid-twentieth century.[12] In the last thirty years there has been an enormous increase in interest in this field, which is vital to the growing practice of building conservation.[13]

text: Early writers[edit]

text: The earliest surviving book detailing historical building techniques is the treatise of the Roman author, Vitruvius, but his approach was neither scholarly nor systematic. Much later, in the Renaissance, Vasari mentions Filippo Brunelleschi's interest in researching Roman building techniques, although if he wrote anything on the subject it does not survive. In the seventeenth century, Rusconi's illustrations for his version of Leon Battista Alberti's treatise explicitly show Roman wall construction but most of the interest in antiquity was in understanding its proportions and detail and the architects of the time were content to build using current techniques. While early archaeological studies and topographic works such as the engravings of Giovanni Battista Piranesi show Roman construction they were not explicitly analytical and much of what they do show is made up.

text: Nineteenth-century studies[edit]

text: In the nineteenth century, lecturers increasingly illustrated their lectures with images of building techniques used in the past and these type of images increasingly appeared in construction text books, such as Rondelet's. The greatest advances however were made by English and French (and later German) architects attempting to understand, record and analyse Gothic buildings. Typical of this type of writing are the works of Robert Willis in England, Viollet-le-Duc in France and Ungewitter in Germany. None of these however were seeking to suggest that the history of construction represented a new approach to the subject of architectural history. August Choisy was perhaps the first author to seriously attempt to undertake such a study.

text: The early twentieth century studies[edit]

text: Santiago Heurta has suggested that it was modernism, with its emphasis on the employment of new materials, that abruptly ended the interest in construction history that appeared to have been growing in the last few decades of the nineteenth century and the early years of the twentieth. With the advent of concrete and steel frame construction, architects, who had been the chief audience for such studies, were no longer as interested as they had been in understanding traditional construction, which suddenly appeared redundant. Very little was thus published between 1920 and 1950. The revival of interest started in archaeology with the studies of Roman construction in the 1950s, but it was not until the 1980s that construction history began to emerge as an independent field.

text: The late twentieth century[edit]

text: By the end of the twentieth century, steel and concrete construction were themselves becoming the subject of historical investigation.The Construction History Society was formed in the UK in 1982.[14] It produces the only academic international journal devoted to the subject annually. The First International Congress on Construction History was held in Madrid in 2003.[15] This was followed by the Second International Congress in 2006 [16] in Queens College, Cambridge, England and the Third International Congress held in Cottbus in 2009,[17] and the Fourth International Congress held in Paris in July 2012 [18]


document_title: List of The Mindy Project episodes

question_text: how many episodes is season 6 of mindy project

root

text: List of The Mindy Project episodes

text: Series overview[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Originally aired

First aired
Last aired
Network

1
24
September 25, 2012 (2012-09-25)
May 14, 2013 (2013-05-14)
Fox

2
22
September 17, 2013 (2013-09-17)
May 6, 2014 (2014-05-06)

3
21
September 16, 2014 (2014-09-16)
March 24, 2015 (2015-03-24)

4
26
September 15, 2015 (2015-09-15)
July 5, 2016 (2016-07-05)
Hulu

5
14
October 4, 2016 (2016-10-04)
March 28, 2017 (2017-03-28)

6
10
September 12, 2017 (2017-09-12)
November 14, 2017 (2017-11-14)

tag: table

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Season 1 (2012–13)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
Prod.
code
U.S. viewers
(millions)

1
1
"Pilot"
Charles McDougall
Mindy Kaling
August 27, 2012 (2012-08-27) (online)
September 25, 2012 (2012-09-25) (Fox)
101
4.67[5]

Mindy Lahiri is introduced as an OB/GYN trying to find love in New York City with the help of her eccentric friends and co-workers.

2
2
"Hiring and Firing"
Michael Spiller
Mindy Kaling
October 2, 2012 (2012-10-02)
102
3.68[6]

When Dr. Schulman realizes Beverly is a terrible nurse, he assigns Mindy and Danny to hire a new nurse, and they cannot agree on whom to hire. Jeremy on the other hand is assigned to fire Beverly and simply cannot bring himself to do it.

3
3
"In the Club"
Michael Spiller
Matt Warburton
October 9, 2012 (2012-10-09)
104
3.55[7]

Mindy and the others go clubbing for a night and learn that cold Dr. Castellano is actually a stellar dancer and ladies' man. Mindy also discovers that Shauna is harboring some hidden feelings for Danny.

4
4
"Halloween"
Jesse Peretz
Chris McKenna
October 30, 2012 (2012-10-30)
105
3.12[8]

Mindy wrestles with whether or not she should take things one step further with her new beau Josh. Danny and Jeremy visit the DMV to take the driver's test, a task Danny has failed countless times in the past.

5
5
"Danny Castellano Is My Gynecologist"
Peter Lauer
Mindy Kaling
November 13, 2012 (2012-11-13)
103
3.17[9]

When Mindy's gynecologist retires, she and Danny bet on who will back out first if Danny were to be her new gynecologist.

6
6
"Thanksgiving"
Michael Spiller
Adam Countee
November 20, 2012 (2012-11-20)
107
2.64[10]

Mindy is shocked to learn that Josh may not want to be exclusive with her. Things go even more awry when Mindy runs into an ex and his "new Indian girlfriend" at Gwen's Thanksgiving party.

7
7
"Teen Patient"
Rob Schrab
Ike Barinholtz & David Stassen
November 27, 2012 (2012-11-27)
109
2.76[11]

When Mindy encourages a teenager in her building to take things slowly in the romance department, she is forced to reflect on her own relationship with Josh. Danny is concerned about an anonymous complaint he receives at the office.

8
8
"Two to One"
Peter Lauer
Mindy Kaling
December 4, 2012 (2012-12-04)
108
2.68[12]

The practice is being threatened by a midwives center in the same building, so Mindy sets out to win her old patients back and gain more respect from Danny and Jeremy.

9
9
"Josh and Mindy's Christmas Party"
Charles McDougall
Jeremy Bronson
December 11, 2012 (2012-12-11)
110
3.07[13]

Mindy comes to a shocking realization about her seemingly perfect relationship with Josh at her annual Christmas party.

10
10
"Mindy's Brother"
Michael Spiller
Chris McKenna
January 8, 2013 (2013-01-08)
112
2.85[14]

Mindy's brother comes to NYC to visit his older sister and all is well until he informs her that he will be dropping out of Stanford to pursue a rap career. Danny and Jeremy are at odds with their landlord's successor, his spoiled son.

11
11
"Bunk Bed"
Don Scardino
Jeremy Bronson
January 15, 2013 (2013-01-15)
106
2.76[15]

When Gwen breaks her arm and has to go to the emergency room, Mindy helps out by watching Gwen's daughter Riley for the day. Meanwhile, Danny has an interesting experience with another patient in the emergency room lobby and Shauna, Morgan, and Betsy discover the reason Danny and his wife divorced.

12
12
"Hooking Up Is Hard"
Paul Lieberstein
Mindy Kaling
January 22, 2013 (2013-01-22)
111
3.05[16]

Mindy starts an interesting, secret relationship with Brendan Deslaurier (Mark Duplass), one of the midwives. Danny and Eye Patch go out on a date.

13
13
"Harry & Sally"
Michael Spiller
Mindy Kaling & B. J. Novak
January 29, 2013 (2013-01-29)
114
3.20[17]

Mindy meets a great guy at a party but has suspicions about his extremely close relationship with his girl best friend. Danny tries to win back Eye Patch after she dumps him for being too self-absorbed.

14
14
"Harry & Mindy"
Michael Weaver
Harper Dill
February 5, 2013 (2013-02-05)
113
3.60[18]

It's Valentine's Day and Mindy and Danny find themselves in a love triangle. Morgan turns to Jeremy for help picking up a girl he likes.

15
15
"Mindy's Minute"
B. J. Novak
Ike Barinholtz & David Stassen
February 19, 2013 (2013-02-19)
116
3.05[19]

Mindy starts doing a new educational segment for taxi cab TV and turns to Danny for on-screen coaching. Beverly returns to the office as a secretary.

16
16
"The One That Got Away"
Michael Spiller
Mindy Kaling & Jeremy Bronson
February 26, 2013 (2013-02-26)
117
3.26[20]

Mindy is thrilled when her fling from a Jewish summer camp she attended as a kid returns to NYC. However, she soon learns that she only has a day to spend with him before he must leave on a U.S. Army deployment to Afghanistan again.

17
17
"Mindy's Birthday"
Claire Scanlon
Adam Countee
March 19, 2013 (2013-03-19)
115
3.07[21]

Mindy did not want a birthday party, and after her friends throw her an annoying dinner party with insulting gifts, she storms out and ends up on an odyssey involving a table of mean girls and the surprising return of ex-nurse Beverly. Danny and Jeremy both like Mindy's friend and Danny decides he is not going to step aside and let his handsome colleague simply win the girl.

18
18
"Danny's Friend"
Beth McCarthy-Miller
Matt Warburton
March 26, 2013 (2013-03-26)
118
2.62[22]

Mindy unknowingly starts seeing Danny's friend from Staten Island and Danny tries everything he can to stop it when he finds out.

19
19
"My Cool Christian Boyfriend"
Michael Spiller
Jack Burditt
April 2, 2013 (2013-04-02)
120
2.47[23]

A young Christian minister takes an interest in Mindy until he realizes they value different things in life.

20
20
"Pretty Man"
Rob Schrab
Tucker Cawley
April 4, 2013 (2013-04-04)
119
3.24[24]

Mindy has an interesting night with a man she meets at a bar, until she realizes he is a male prostitute. Things go awry at Danny's party as a result.

21
21
"Santa Fe"
B. J. Novak
Tracey Wigfield
April 9, 2013 (2013-04-09)
121
2.66[25]

The associates go to Santa Fe for a medical conference and Mindy gets a chance to find closure with Josh. Things do not go as planned for Jeremy and Morgan's presentation.

22
22
"Triathlon"
Wendey Stanzler
Jack Burditt
April 30, 2013 (2013-04-30)
122
2.56[26]

Danny fires Morgan from the practice, and consequently loses a member of the team for the triathlon. Mindy volunteers to replace him, and quickly regrets her actions. Meanwhile, Morgan begins working for the Deslaurier Brothers, which further increases the rivalry between the two practices.

23
23
"Frat Party"
Michael Weaver
Tracey Wigfield
May 7, 2013 (2013-05-07)
123
2.61[27]

Mindy takes on a young medical student to pass on her wisdom to, and soon finds herself at a college frat party, where an encounter with a former flame has disastrous consequences. Meanwhile, Danny and Jeremy go to great lengths to try to get Morgan to return to Shulman & Associates.

24
24
"Take Me with You"
Michael Spiller
Mindy Kaling & Jeremy Bronson
May 14, 2013 (2013-05-14)
124
2.57[28]

Mindy makes the bold decision to move to Haiti with Casey for a year, much to the amusement of her co-workers. In order to prove that she can survive in rough conditions, Mindy invites herself and Casey on a camping trip with Danny and his ex-wife, Christina, with whom he has recently reconciled.

text: Season 2 (2013–14)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
Prod.
code
U.S. viewers
(millions)

25
1
"All My Problems Solved Forever..."
Michael Spiller
Mindy Kaling
September 17, 2013 (2013-09-17)
201
3.83[29]

Mindy returns from Haiti for an emergency surgery. She meets Dr. Paul Leotard (James Franco) and must decide what she wants to do: stay in New York or go back to Haiti.

26
2
"The Other Dr. L"
Michael Spiller
Jack Burditt
September 24, 2013 (2013-09-24)
202
2.94[30]

Mindy challenges Paul for a chance to win back her old office. Danny joins a support group to help him get over his breakup with Christina.

27
3
"Music Festival"
Michael Weaver
Matt Warburton
October 1, 2013 (2013-10-01)
203
2.86[31]

Casey has an identity crisis after returning from Haiti and decides to become a DJ. When Mindy and her colleagues attend a music festival where he is performing, the freewheeling atmosphere leads to one mishap after another. Meanwhile, a new doctor (Adam Pally) wants to join the practice.

28
4
"Magic Morgan"
Neal Brennan
Tracey Wigfield
October 8, 2013 (2013-10-08)
204
2.89[32]

Morgan says that anyone who sleeps with him will find the love of their life immediately afterward. Mindy offers to test Morgan's theory but backs out at the last minute, much to Morgan's embarrassment. This causes him to hire lawyer, Cliff Gilbert (Glenn Howerton), who files a $200,000 lawsuit against Mindy for sexual harassment. Mindy is reluctantly persuaded by co-workers into having one date with Morgan to end the lawsuit.

29
5
"Wiener Night"
Michael Weaver
Jack Burditt
October 15, 2013 (2013-10-15)
206
2.73[33]

Mindy meets and begins dating an Arts and Culture writer named Jason (Ben Feldman). After Jason discerns that Mindy may not be cultured enough for him, she decides to invite him to Christina's art show, which features nude photos of Danny. Danny does not want anyone to see these photos, and asks Cliff to figure out a way to shut down the exhibit.

30
6
"Bro Club for Dudes"
David Rogers
Jeremy Bronson
October 22, 2013 (2013-10-22)
207
2.69[34]

After several failed attempts at bonding with Peter, Mindy joins the other doctors in attending his debut MMA match to show her support. Morgan tries to ask Tamra out on the day of her anniversary with Ray Ron (Josh Peck) but is disappointed.

31
7
"Sk8er Man"
Beth McCarthy-Miller
Charlie Grandy
November 5, 2013 (2013-11-05)
205
2.88[35]

When Danny tells Mindy she is too picky and judgmental of other people, she tries to prove him wrong by going on a date with her complete opposite: wild and crazy skateboarder Graham (Timothy Olyphant). Jeremy is distressed when his dad (Alan Dale) visits the practice and prefers Peter over Jeremy.

32
8
"You've Got Sext"
Alex Hardcastle
Mindy Kaling
November 12, 2013 (2013-11-12)
208
2.66[36]

Mindy loses her purse at the clinic, and decides to spend the night at Danny's apartment. She confesses that she is interested in somebody who works on their floor (Cliff), and Danny suspects that she is talking about him. Meanwhile, Morgan and Peter find Mindy's missing purse and engage in a raunchy text conversation with Cliff using her phone.

33
9
"Mindy Lahiri Is a Racist"
Greg Daniels
Ike Barinholtz & David Stassen
November 19, 2013 (2013-11-19)
209
2.40[37]

Danny learns that one of his patients is a mommy blogger and allows for her to write a review of Shulman & Associates on her website, but the practice is quickly cast in a racist light after they discover that the review had been posted to a white supremacy blog. Jeremy hires a PR specialist (Jenna Elfman) in order to neutralize their image but things get worse. Meanwhile, Morgan seeks Cliff's forgiveness for not deleting the raunchy texts Cliff sent to Mindy.

34
10
"Wedding Crushers"
Charles McDougall
Lang Fisher
November 26, 2013 (2013-11-26)
211
2.66[38]

Mindy's philandering ex-boyfriend Josh invites her to his wedding, and in her haste to find a date settles on Peter, who turns out to be an ideal companion—until he makes one huge blunder which puts Mindy on a tightrope. Meanwhile, Danny's younger brother pays a visit and a has a big announcement to make.

35
11
"Christmas Party Sex Trap"
Michael Spiller
Tracey Wigfield
December 3, 2013 (2013-12-03)
210
2.34[39]

Mindy throws a Christmas bash for all of the building's businesses so she can spend more time with Cliff, but Brendan's date zaps Mindy's holiday spirit with a seductive rendition of "Santa Baby" for the guests.

36
12
"Danny Castellano Is My Personal Trainer"
Rob Schrab
Charlie Grandy
January 7, 2014 (2014-01-07)
212
2.62[40]

With Danny as her fitness coach, Mindy is determined to get in shape for her winter getaway. Jeremy begins using some of his leftover sick days and places Peter in charge as managing partner in his absence.

37
13
"L.A."
Michael Spiller
Mindy Kaling & Tracey Wigfield
January 14, 2014 (2014-01-14)
214
2.47[41]

Jeremy sends the rest of the team to an L.A. seminar to get certified for treating a wider, more vain audience. While Danny is concerned about running into his dad during the trip, Mindy bumps into her ex-fiancé, Casey.

38
14
"The Desert"
Marco Fargnoli
Tracey Wigfield & Mindy Kaling
January 21, 2014 (2014-01-21)
215
3.02[42]

Mindy is determined to fly back to New York immediately to win Cliff back, but is dragged along by a persistent Danny to visit his distant father. Having returned to the office early, Peter and Morgan come across Cliff, who appears to be equally heartbroken.

39
15
"French Me, You Idiot"
Paul Lieberstein
Jack Burditt
April 1, 2014 (2014-04-01)
216
1.88[43]

Now that she has chosen to pursue her feelings with Danny, Mindy must figure out how to gently end her recently rekindled relationship with Cliff. Peter steps up as a representative for Shulman & Associates in an attempt to take in Lincoln Center dancers as new patients.

40
16
"Indian BBW"
Michael Spiller
Jeremy Bronson
April 1, 2014 (2014-04-01)
217
1.87[43]

Just as Mindy begins to settle into her relationship with Danny, an old sex tape between her and Tom surfaces online. Danny becomes ill with meningitis.

41
17
"Be Cool"
Rob Schrab
Ike Barinholtz & David Stassen
April 8, 2014 (2014-04-08)
218
2.26[44]

Danny urges Mindy to keep their romance a secret, which makes her begin to question his intentions. Morgan temporarily moves in with Mindy after learning that her apartment was robbed.

42
18
"Girl Crush"
David Rogers
Chris Schleicher
April 8, 2014 (2014-04-08)
213
2.33[44]

Mindy deals with her break-up with Danny. Feeling undervalued at Shulman & Associates, Mindy meets famous OB/GYN Sheila Hamilton (Anna Gunn) and flirts with the idea of working at her fancy practice, which caters to rich celebrities and upper class women. Jeremy rents out a medical bus to perform free breast exams for women on the streets of East Harlem.

43
19
"Think Like a Peter"
Ken Whittingham
Charlie Grandy
April 15, 2014 (2014-04-15)
219
1.95[45]

Peter convinces Mindy to tag along with him to a bar to help her overcome her recent heartbreak. Feeling shunned by Mindy, Danny seeks someone new to talk to at work and turns to Morgan and Tamra after finding out about their scandalous secret.

44
20
"An Officer and a Gynecologist"
David Rogers
Jack Burditt & Lang Fisher
April 22, 2014 (2014-04-22)
220
2.14[46]

Mindy clashes with a police officer when she gives his daughter birth-control pills. Meanwhile, a rabbi thinks Danny is Jewish when he refers his congregation to the practice.

45
21
"Girl Next Door"
Michael Weaver
Tracey Wigfield & Alina Mankin
April 29, 2014 (2014-04-29)
221
2.20[47]

Mindy is on the hunt to buy her own apartment space so that she can be completely self-reliant. She agrees to try out Danny's second place, which is right next door to him, but their friendship is put to the test when Mindy decides to have Charlie (Tim Daly) visit. Tired of dating mundane and uncultured women, Peter agrees to stop by Jeremy's place to meet and mingle with his friends.

46
22
"Danny and Mindy"
Michael Spiller
Mindy Kaling
May 6, 2014 (2014-05-06)
222
2.48[48]

Mindy thinks she has met the man of her dreams after he writes a description of their encounter in a New York newspaper. After a failed attempt at meeting each other, Mindy once again spots whom she believes to be her mystery man but is left with an even bigger reveal.

text: Season 3 (2014–15)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
Prod.
code
U.S. viewers
(millions)

47
1
"We're a Couple Now, Haters!"
Michael Spiller
Mindy Kaling
September 16, 2014 (2014-09-16)
301
2.68[49]

Mindy finds it difficult to keep the details of her and Danny's relationship private from the office, especially after she discovers a surprising secret from Danny's past. Peter grows suspicious of his girlfriend Lauren's (Tracey Wigfield) behavior when she begins organizing a charity event with Jeremy. Morgan's cousin, Lou Tookers (Rob McElhenney), stops by the practice.

48
2
"Annette Castellano Is My Nemesis"
Marco Fargnoli
Tracey Wigfield
September 23, 2014 (2014-09-23)
303
2.10[50]

Danny's mother, Annette (Rhea Perlman), is in town, and Mindy is determined to win her approval. Meanwhile, Peter convinces Morgan to be more assertive in his relationship with Tamra.

49
3
"Crimes & Misdemeanors & Ex-BFs"
Michael Weaver
Matt Warburton
September 30, 2014 (2014-09-30)
302
2.35[51]

After it is revealed that Mindy has been committing tax fraud for years, she seeks Cliff's help to clear her name and save the practice. Peter faces off against Jeremy to win back Lauren's affection.

50
4
"I Slipped"
Lynn Shelton
Charlie Grandy
October 7, 2014 (2014-10-07)
304
2.19[52]

Danny tries something new in bed that horrifies Mindy, and she begins to worry she is not exciting enough sexually. Morgan is disappointed when none of his coworkers show up to celebrate his graduation from the nurse practitioner's program. Jeremy finds out everyone in the office is "Team Peter" with regards to their falling out over Lauren.

51
5
"The Devil Wears Lands' End"
Michael Spiller
Jeremy Bronson
October 14, 2014 (2014-10-14)
305
2.21[53]

After first getting the practice into big trouble with Dr. Jean Fishman (Niecy Nash), the new head of obstetrics, Mindy makes matters even worse when the two spend time alone together. Despite their ongoing feud, Peter must learn to work with Jeremy when he realizes his beer pong skills will be a necessity for an upcoming Dartmouth Alumni matchup against Shonda Rhimes.

52
6
"Caramel Princess Time"
Beth McCarthy-Miller
Charlie Grandy & Mindy Kaling
November 4, 2014 (2014-11-04)
306
2.84[54]

Danny's plan to teach Mindy the importance of being on time backfires when Dr. Fishman steps in. Tamra and Morgan set Peter up on a blind date with Tamra's "twin," Abby (Allison Tolman).

53
7
"We Need to Talk About Annette"
Michael Weaver
Alina Mankin
November 11, 2014 (2014-11-11)
307
2.47[55]

Mindy catches Danny's mom shoplifting and must figure out how to bring this to his attention. Mindy accidentally accusing Annette about stealing the jacket to gives to Danny. Peter struggles to find balance between his adult life and his new laid back friend, Abby.

54
8
"Diary of a Mad Indian Woman"
Alex Hardcastle
Lang Fisher
November 18, 2014 (2014-11-18)
308
2.37[56]

Mindy's plan to have Danny stay at her place are interrupted when Dr. Fishman asserts that she must begin mentoring the residents at the hospital. Left to his own devices, Danny stumbles upon Mindy's diary and gets himself into a tough situation.

55
9
"How to Lose a Mom in Ten Days"
David Rogers
Tracey Wigfield
November 25, 2014 (2014-11-25)
309
2.33[57]

Mindy is tired of Annette hovering around her relationship with Danny and decides to set her up on a date with Dr. Ledreau, an older practitioner from their building. Jeremy also has his eyes on this soon-to-be-retired doctor, as he is hoping for the practice to receive his patient list. Saddened by his breakup with Tamra, Morgan is convinced by Peter to set up an online dating profile.

56
10
"What About Peter?"
David Stassen
Ike Barinholtz & David Stassen
December 2, 2014 (2014-12-02)
310
2.45[58]

Appalled by Peter's living situation, Mindy convinces him to move next door to Danny's second apartment space. Danny, however, has other plans with the room. Jeremy's parenting skills are put to the test when he and Morgan are responsible for looking after Lauren's baby boy.

57
11
"Christmas"
Paul Lieberstein
Charlie Grandy
December 9, 2014 (2014-12-09)
311
2.55[59]

Mindy questions whether or not Danny will propose to her by Christmas time and is presented with the opportunity to apply to a medical fellowship at Stanford. Meanwhile, Danny's plan to set Peter up on a date with Dr. Jessica Lieberstein (Julia Stiles) go astray when she mistakenly takes Morgan out instead.

58
12
"Stanford"
Michael Spiller
Tracey Wigfield
January 6, 2015 (2015-01-06)
312
2.24[60]

Mindy has to overcome multiple bad impressions and a lack of confidence when she arrives at Stanford to start her fellowship, but things get crazy when Danny offers to help with a hostile doctor who was a friend of his in med school. Back in New York, a basketball game becomes a battleground between exes Tamra and Morgan.

59
13
"San Francisco Bae"
Michael Spiller
Chris Schleicher
January 13, 2015 (2015-01-13)
314
2.42[61]

On a night out in San Francisco, Mindy runs into the man whose virginity she took, Alex (Lee Pace). He is now very successful and she contemplates how things who have been if she were with him and not Danny. Back in New York, Morgan and Danny try to spy on Peter next door as they suspect Lauren cheating on Jeremy with Peter.

60
14
"No More Mr. Noishe Guy"
Michael Weaver
Jeremy Bronson
February 3, 2015 (2015-02-03)
313
2.22[62]

Mindy contemplates starting a fertility clinic in San Francisco with Rob, but talking to Danny becomes a problem especially when he buys a brownstone for the two of them in New York. Meanwhile Lauren's move to Texas encourages Peter to follow her, but it would mean him having to leave the practice.

61
15
"Dinner at the Castellanos"
David Rogers
Charlie Grandy
February 10, 2015 (2015-02-10)
315
2.33[63]

Mindy has big news to tell Danny, however this is delayed due to the arrival of Danny's father and half-sister, leading to an awkward dinner.

62
16
"Lahiri Family Values"
Marco Fargnoli
Tracey Wigfield
February 17, 2015 (2015-02-17)
316
2.47[64]

Danny promises to move to San Francisco with Mindy and tries to tell the practice, but they are confused and concerned about his motives. In California, Mindy reconnects with her little brother when she discovers he has damaged her credit, leaving her unable to get a business loan.

63
17
"Danny Castellano Is My Nutritionist"
Lynn Shelton
Mindy Kaling & Matt Warburton
February 24, 2015 (2015-02-24)
317
2.28[65]

Mindy and Danny pressure each other to be healthier in preparation for parenthood, the goal being for Mindy to eat less junk food and for Danny to quit smoking. The practice is busy and needs to hire an additional doctor, so they focus on impressing Dr. Phillips (Vanessa L. Williams), a glamorous former professor of Mindy's who is bored with retirement.

64
18
"Fertility Bites"
Nisha Ganatra
Jeremy Bronson & Chris Schleicher
March 3, 2015 (2015-03-03)
318
2.13[66]

Mindy's fertility clinic finally opens, but she struggles to attract patients due to her lack of experience in helping women conceive. Morgan, Tamra, and Beverly butt heads with Dr. Bergdahl (Dan Bakkedahl), leaving Jeremy caught in the middle of the feud.

65
19
"Confessions of a Catho-holic"
Ike Barinholtz
Jack Burditt
March 10, 2015 (2015-03-10)
319
1.76[67]

Mindy pretends to be Catholic in order to win the approval of the strict new priest at Danny's church (Stephen Colbert), who is also a reformed bad boy from Danny's old neighborhood. Morgan helps Jeremy prepare for his one-man show about his early life and emigration to America.

66
20
"What to Expect When You're Expanding"
Michael Weaver
Tracey Wigfield & Lang Fisher
March 17, 2015 (2015-03-17)
320
2.00[68]

Tamra's cousin Sheena (Laverne Cox), a stylist, tries to help Mindy regain her lost self-confidence as she gains pregnancy weight. Jeremy gets back into the dating game when he meets Whitney (Cristin Milioti) who shuts down a loud singles party.

67
21
"Best Man"
Michael Spiller
Mindy Kaling
March 24, 2015 (2015-03-24)
321
2.05[69]

Mindy questions Danny's commitment when he fails to meet her parents, who are about to move back to India for a year. Everyone prepares to attend Peter's wedding in Texas. Meanwhile, Morgan believes he has overheard shocking information about the paternity of Mindy's baby.

text: Season 4 (2015–16)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original release date
Prod.
code

68
1
"While I Was Sleeping"
Michael Spiller
Mindy Kaling
September 15, 2015 (2015-09-15)
402

Mindy dreams of how her life would have been different had she not fallen in love with Danny. Meanwhile, Danny meets Mindy's parents in India.

69
2
"C Is for Coward"
Alex Hardcastle
Matt Warburton
September 22, 2015 (2015-09-22)
401

Mindy wants a scheduled C-section, but Danny is in favor of a natural birth. However, when Mindy's water breaks on the way to an expo, Danny races to be there in time for their son's birth.

70
3
"Leo Castellano Is My Son"
Alex Reid
Charlie Grandy
September 29, 2015 (2015-09-29)
403

As Danny heads back to work after the birth of their son, Mindy finds herself a bit stir crazy. Morgan finds romance with Mindy and Danny's neighbour, Chelsea. Tamra convinces Jeremy that his new girlfriend, Whitney, is cheating on him.

71
4
"The Bitch Is Back"
Michael Weaver
Tracey Wigfield
October 6, 2015 (2015-10-06)
404

As Mindy prepares to go back to work after her maternity leave, she visits the office with Leo and meets her new coworkers. Mindy's instant dislike for the new doctor in the office makes her debate returning to work at all.

72
5
"Stay at Home MILF"
Rachel Goldenberg
Chris Schleicher
October 13, 2015 (2015-10-13)
405

Mindy realizes being a stay-at-home mom is harder than she anticipated. After Danny patronizes her efforts, Mindy challenges Danny to be a stay-at-home dad. At the office, Morgan pretends to be Colette's boyfriend so her brother, Jody, does not find out that she is gay.

73
6
"Road Trip"
David Stassen
David Stassen
October 20, 2015 (2015-10-20)
407

After his dad has a heart attack, Danny heads to California with Morgan in tow on a cross-country road trip. They make a pit stop in Oklahoma, where Danny is hiding a dark secret.

74
7
"Mindy and Nanny"
Roger Kumble
Lang Fisher
October 27, 2015 (2015-10-27)
406

Mindy must fire Annette and hire a new nanny while Danny is away. Meanwhile, Jody helps Jeremy see Whitney is not all she seems.

75
8
"Later, Baby"
Ryan Case
Tracey Wigfield
November 3, 2015 (2015-11-03)
411

When Mindy learns her fertility practice is struggling financially, Jody offers to help. Meanwhile, Peter's unexpected visit to NYC forces him to hash out his friendship issues with Jeremy.

76
9
"Jody Kimball-Kinney Is My Husband"
Marco Fargnoli
Chris Schleicher
November 10, 2015 (2015-11-10)
412

While Danny is away, Mindy pretends Jody is her husband in order to get Leo into an elite preschool. In return, Mindy pretends to be Jody's girlfriend for a dinner with Jody's sister-in-law.

77
10
"The Departed"
Claire Scanlon
Lang Fisher
November 17, 2015 (2015-11-17)
413

With Danny still away, Mindy accidentally joins a bereavement group while trying to sell her apartment. Elsewhere, Morgan and Colette attend Tamra's open mic performance against her will.

78
11
"The Lahiris and the Castellanos"
Kate Dennis
Charlie Grandy
November 24, 2015 (2015-11-24)
408

Finally back from California, Danny and Mindy begin to plan their wedding. The Lahiri and Castellano families meet at their engagement party and cause drama. During the party Mindy tells an unhappy Danny about her new business venture.

79
12
"The Parent Trap"
David Rogers
Matt Warburton
December 1, 2015 (2015-12-01)
410

Business is going well at The Lahiri Fertility Clinic with Mindy's first patient about to give birth. However, Mindy's relationship with Danny is strained when she finds out he is trying to intentionally impregnate her without her knowledge.

80
13
"When Mindy Met Danny"
Michael Spiller
Mindy Kaling & Matt Warburton
December 8, 2015 (2015-12-08)
409

Mindy and Danny continue to argue with Christmas approaching, so Mindy reflects on meeting Danny on her first day of work at Shulman & Associates.

81
14
"Will They or Won't They"
Michael Spiller
Mindy Kaling & Matt Warburton
April 12, 2016 (2016-04-12)
414

Mindy deals with the fallout after her breakup with Danny while trying to deal with her spring break Later, Baby clients.

82
15
"So You Think You Can Finance"
Ryan Case
Landon Young
April 19, 2016 (2016-04-19) (AU)
April 26, 2016 (2016-04-26) (US)
415

Mindy realizes she needs help to get her finances in order so she enlists the help of Whitney, Jeremy's ex-girlfriend. Meanwhile, Jeremy begins dating a much older woman.

83
16
"Mindy Lahiri is DTF"
Alex Reid
Charlie Grandy
May 3, 2016 (2016-05-03)
417

In search of a no-strings-attached hookup, Mindy dabbles with online dating. After a few embarrassing encounters, she steps up and asks for what she wants. Jody accidentally invites everyone over for a viewing party of the office's favorite TV show.

84
17
"2 Fast 2 Serious"
Ike Barinholtz
Ike Barinholtz & David Stassen
April 19, 2016 (2016-04-19)
416

After her breakup with Danny, Mindy begins to date again. Meanwhile, Colette finds it difficult to tell Jody that she is moving in with Morgan.

85
18
"Bernardo & Anita"
David Rogers
Mindy Kaling & Matt Warburton
May 10, 2016 (2016-05-10)
418

Mindy tries to get in touch with her heritage when a date implies she is more white than Indian. Morgan and Jody vie for the attention of the same girl, a virgin, but realize they are not capable of being abstinent for her.

86
19
"Baby Got Backslide"
Geeta V. Patel
Chris Schleicher
May 17, 2016 (2016-05-17)
421

Casey returns to New York and Mindy must fight the temptation to reignite a relationship with her former flame.

87
20
"The Greatest Date in the World"
Michael Weaver
Tracey Wigfield
May 24, 2016 (2016-05-24)
420

Mindy starts dating Casey's friend Marcus (Ne-Yo), whose trendy hipsterism clashes with Mindy's love of the familiar.

88
21
"Under the Texan Sun"
David Stassen
Lang Fisher
May 31, 2016 (2016-05-31)
419

Mindy visits Peter and his wife, Lauren, in Texas and ends up in the middle of their problems.

89
22
"Princeton Charming"
David Rogers
Guy Branum
June 7, 2016 (2016-06-07)
422

Mindy, Morgan, and Jody head to Mindy's alma mater, Princeton University, for a presentation, but things get complicated when Jody's new girlfriend decides to come along.

90
23
"There's No Crying in Softball"
Michael Weaver
Jonathan Green & Gabe Miller
June 14, 2016 (2016-06-14)
423

Mindy is roped into playing in a softball tournament with her coworkers while her new boyfriend visits for the weekend.

91
24
"My Kid Stays in the Picture"
Marco Fargnoli
Guy Branum
June 21, 2016 (2016-06-21)
424

Mindy auditions Leo for a role on a soap opera. The nurses try to switch the doctors they work for at the practice. Jody's brother Forbes comes by.

92
25
"Freedom Tower Women's Health"
Linda Mendoza
Jonathan Green & Gabe Miller
June 28, 2016 (2016-06-28)
425

Morgan and Jeremy visit Danny at his new office, and Mindy ends up getting a mysterious new patient. Meanwhile, a dirty secret threatens to derail her budding romance.

93
26
"Homewrecker"
Michael Spiller
Lang Fisher & Chris Schleicher
July 5, 2016 (2016-07-05)
426

Mindy and Danny reconnect while trapped on an elevator at Leo's school. Meanwhile, Jody breaks into Mindy's apartment to apologize through a grand gesture.

text: Season 5 (2016–17)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original release date
Prod.
code

94
1
"Decision 2016"
Michael Spiller
Mindy Kaling
October 4, 2016 (2016-10-04)
501

After Jody tries to win Mindy's heart by buying her an apartment, Mindy is torn between her old love, Danny, and a relationship with Jody. Tamra is suspicious about Mindy's trip to Miami so she and Colette go undercover to figure out what really happened.

95
2
"Nurses' Strike"
David Rogers
Matt Warburton
October 11, 2016 (2016-10-11)
502

While Mindy struggles to take care of a sick Leo, Shulman and Associates is rocked by a nurses' strike led by Ben, a handsome male nurse. Meanwhile, Jody tries to sell the upstairs apartment and Brendan comes to Mindy seeking help.

96
3
"Margaret Thatcher"
Alex Reid
Charlie Grandy
October 18, 2016 (2016-10-18)
503

The nurses' strike continues, while Mindy finds herself having romantic feelings for the enemy - Ben, the leader of the nurses. As the doctors and nurses try to stay strong, Jeremy finds that the stress is taking a serious toll on his health.

97
4
"Mindy Lahiri Is a Misogynist"
Ike Barinholtz
Lang Fisher
October 25, 2016 (2016-10-25)
504

As Jeremy recovers from his heart attack, the practice needs another doctor. Jeremy and Jody want to hire a woman, but Mindy is not sure about sharing the spotlight. Meanwhile, she and Ben are getting serious.

98
5
"Leland Breakfast Is the Miracle Worker"
David Stassen
Chris Schleicher
November 1, 2016 (2016-11-01)
505

When Mindy discovers that her new boyfriend is not being exclusive, she goes on a date with a famous actor aka "the bad boy of London theater." The nurses try to cheer up Jody, who's lost his mojo, and discover he might be planning something drastic.

99
6
"Concord"
Michael Spiller
Guy Branum
November 8, 2016 (2016-11-08)
506

Mindy escapes to her childhood home in Massachusetts and discovers that her mom is using dubious methods to further her acting career in local theater. As Mindy and Rishi try to intervene, she learns that Danny is having doubts about marrying Sarah.

100
7
"Revenge of the Nurse"
Michael Spiller
Josh Bycel & Jonathan Fener
November 15, 2016 (2016-11-15)
507

Mindy is afraid that she and Ben do not have similar desires for their futures; a former fling of Mindy's returns with an interesting new job.

101
8
"Hot Mess Time Machine"
David Rogers
Matt Warburton
February 14, 2017 (2017-02-14)
508

Still reeling from her breakup with Ben, Mindy finds herself living the same day over and over again, and realizes that the only way to break the spell is to make things right with Ben.

102
9
"Bat Mitzvah"
Kate Dennis
Josh Bycel & Jonathan Fener
February 21, 2017 (2017-02-21)
509

Mindy panics when her new boyfriend Ben does not invite her to his daughter's bat-mitzvah. Meanwhile, Jody, claiming he is over his heartache, dates Mindy's doppelgänger.

103
10
"Take My Ex-Wife, Please"
Daniella Eisman
Chris Schleicher
February 28, 2017 (2017-02-28)
510

Mindy acts out after learning that Ben's attractive ex-wife is in town visiting him. Anna, having trouble at home, begrudgingly asks her coworkers for help.

104
11
"Dibs"
Michael Spiller
Lang Fisher
March 7, 2017 (2017-03-07)
511

A heartbroken Anna grieves her breakup at Mindy's place, while Jody and Jeremy compete for her affection. Morgan, trying to jump-start his dating life, blows up at Colette's new girlfriend, Karen, when she accidentally interrupts his make out session.

105
12
"Mindy Lahiri Is a White Man"
Marco Fargnoli
Lang Fisher
March 14, 2017 (2017-03-14)
512

Mindy is unfairly passed over for a promotion and goes to bed wishing things were different. She wakes up in the body of a handsome white man and quickly discovers the perks that supposedly come with white male privilege.

106
13
"Mindy's Best Friend"
Geeta V. Patel
Guy Branum
March 21, 2017 (2017-03-21)
513

Mindy's world is turned upside down when her cool friend from childhood moves to New York and starts dating Morgan. Meanwhile, Ben has to cover his tracks after the nurses spot him in a provocative situation.

107
14
"A Decent Proposal"
Michael Spiller
Charlie Grandy
March 28, 2017 (2017-03-28)
514

Mindy hears that Ben might be planning to propose, just as she decides she never wants to get married. Colette and Karen get engaged, but Colette immediately gets cold feet. Jeremy and Anna's friendship is tested when Anna's ex-husband comes back.

text: Season 6 (2017)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original release date
Prod.
code

108
1
"Is That All There Is?"
David Stassen
Mindy Kaling & Sonia Kharkar
September 12, 2017 (2017-09-12)
601

As Mindy adjusts to married life with Ben, Jeremy tries to take things to the next level with Anna, while Tamra makes a life-changing decision.

109
2
"A Romantical Decouplement"
Lang Fisher
Lang Fisher
September 19, 2017 (2017-09-19)
602

Anna and Jeremy break up, despite still having feelings for one another. Mindy and Ben decide to get divorced.

110
3
"May Divorce Be With You"
Linda Mendoza
Matt Warburton & Jennifer Vierck
September 26, 2017 (2017-09-26)
603

Mindy turns to her ex Cliff (Glenn Howerton) for help navigating her messy divorce. But Peter (Adam Pally) is back in town to help pull Mindy out of her slump with an epic office karaoke party!

111
4
"Leo's Girlfriend"
Ike Barinholtz
Charlie Grandy & Meredith Dawson
October 3, 2017 (2017-10-03)
604

Mindy goes toe to toe with a cliquey mom (Julie Bowen) at Leo's school. Meanwhile, Tamra fends off the advances of an ex she never thought she would backslide with.

112
5
"Jeremy & Anna's Meryl Streep Costume Party"
Geeta V. Patel
Mackenzie Dohr
October 10, 2017 (2017-10-10)
605

Jeremy's hosting a party the office is actually excited for! Adding to the intrigue, Mindy invites a handsome stranger (Yassir Lester) who has an unexpected interest in Shulman and Associates. Jody competes with a beautiful doctor (Ana Ortiz) after she steals one of his patients.

113
6
"The Midwife's Tale"
Daniela Eisman
Chris Schleicher
October 17, 2017 (2017-10-17)
606

Shulman and Associates is turned upside down when Mindy hires Brendan after he considered suicide. Meanwhile, rumors fly about who is the father of Tamra's baby.

114
7
"Girl Gone Wild"
David Rogers
Miranda Berman
October 24, 2017 (2017-10-24)
607

Mindy reluctantly goes on the honeymoon she never went on by herself. During a hike, she gets trapped 127 Hours-style and gets visited by a hallucination of Reese Witherspoon (playing herself).

115
8
"Doctors Without Boundaries"
Marco Fargnoli
Guy Branum
October 31, 2017 (2017-10-31)
608

Annette (Rhea Perlman) is furious when Mindy uncovers a secret about her and decides to get involved. Jody attempts to keep his new girlfriend (Ana Ortiz) from taking a job overseas, while Tamra dives headfirst into Morgan's religion.

116
9
"Danny in Real Life"
Michael Spiller
Matt Warburton & Mindy Kaling
November 7, 2017 (2017-11-07)
609

Mindy and Danny can't agree on the best way to care for an ailing Annette. Meanwhile, Anna throws a disastrous bridal/baby shower for Tamra, where Colette has a heated confrontation with her brother, Jody.

117
10
"It Had to Be You"
Michael Spiller
Matt Warburton & Mindy Kaling
November 14, 2017 (2017-11-14)
610

In the series finale, Mindy's fertility practice is in danger and Annette's upcoming surgery looms. While Mindy and Danny wait, Mindy attends Morgan and Tamra's wedding, where she and the rest of the Shulman gang try to find their own happy endings.


document_title: Ariel Winter

question_text: who did ariel winter play in cloudy with a chance of meatballs

text: Ariel Winter

text: Early life[edit]

text: Winter was born in Los Angeles, California, on January 28, 1998,[1] the daughter of Chrisoula (née Batistas) and Glenn Workman. She is the sister of actors Shanelle Workman and Jimmy Workman.[2][3][4] Her mother's family is Greek, while her father is of English and German descent. She reports that her Greek name is Eleftheria (Ελευθερία). She states that her sister and brother are fluent in the language, but that she is not, although she knows some basic phrases like ti káneis (τι κάνεις, "how are you?") and kalá (καλά, "fine" or "well"). Her favorite Greek musician is Sakis Rouvas, with whom she worked on a movie when she was nine years old.[5]

tag: p

text: Career[edit]

text: Winter obtained her first entertainment industry job in a Cool Whip commercial advertisement in 2002 when she was four years old.[6] She had her first television role in an episode of Listen Up!, and followed it with appearances in a variety of shows such as Freddie, Monk, Bones, and ER. In the animated children's show Phineas and Ferb, she voiced the character of Gretchen before winning the regular role of Alex Dunphy in the series Modern Family, which premiered in 2009. She has continued to work in TV animation, including providing the voice of Marina the Mermaid on Disney Junior's Jake and the Never Land Pirates. In 2012, Winter was cast as Sofia, the lead character in a then-new Disney animated franchise Sofia the First.[7] The series premiered in January 2013 on Disney Junior. In 2014, she voiced Penny Peterson, Sherman's enemy turned friend in the 2014 Dreamworks Animation film Mr. Peabody and Sherman. She also lent her voice to characters in the animated films, Disney's Bambi II and Blue Sky's Ice Age: The Meltdown.

text: Winter has appeared in feature films, most notably in Kiss Kiss Bang Bang, Speed Racer, Duress, Opposite Day, and Fred 2. For her leading role in the film The Chaperone, she was nominated at the Young Artist Awards 2012 as Best Actress in a Motion Picture.[8]

text: Personal life[edit]

text: In October 2012, Winter's sister Shanelle Workman filed to become her guardian, alleging that their mother had been physically and emotionally abusive.[9] On May 5, 2014, the court ordered guardianship to Workman and removed Winter from her mother's guardianship permanently.[10] Their mother later released a statement stating that "the family has moved beyond the conflict".[10] On May 15, 2015, Winter declared on Twitter that she was officially emancipated.[11]

text: In June 2015, Winter underwent breast reduction surgery.[12][13]

text: In April 2016, Winter was accepted to University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) and was slated to begin attendance in the fall semester of 2016.[14] However, on September 12 she confirmed that she will attend UCLA in fall 2017. On her decision to go to college, she explained, "You gotta have something else you can do. I've always been interested in law so I think it'll definitely be something that I'll love to do and also go to school for."[15]

text: Filmography[edit]

text: Film[edit]

text:
Year
Title
Role
Notes

2005
Kiss Kiss Bang Bang
Young Harmony Faith Lane

2006
Bambi II
Thumper's sister
Voice role

2006
Curious George
Kid
Voice role

2006
Ice Age: The Meltdown
Various characters
Voice role

2006
Over the Hedge
Additional voices
Voice role

2006
Grilled
Dolly

2008
One Missed Call
Ellie Layton

2008
Horton Hears a Who!
Various characters
Voice role

2008
Speed Racer
Young Trixie Shimura

2009
Tales from the Catholic Church of Elvis!
Little girl

2009
Final Fantasy VII: Advent Children Complete
Marlene Wallace
Voice role

2009
Life Is Hot in Cracktown
Suzie

2009
Duress
Sarah Barnett

2009
Opposite Day
Carla Benson

2009
Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs
Various characters
Voice role

2009
Afro Samurai: Resurrection
Young Sio
Voice role

2010
Killers
Sadie

2010
Nic & Tristan Go Mega Dega
Lisa

2010
DC Showcase: Green Arrow
Princess Perdita
Voice role

2011
Chaperone, TheThe Chaperone
Sally

2011
Phineas and Ferb: Across the 2nd Dimension
Gretchen / Various characters
Voice role

2011
Fred 2: Night of the Living Fred
Talia Dawg

2012
Excision
Grace

2012
ParaNorman
Blithe Hollow – kid
Voice role

2012/13
Batman: The Dark Knight Returns – Parts 1 & 2
Carrie Kelley/Robin (voice)
Direct-to-video; originally released separately

2012
Sofia the First: Once Upon a Princess
Sofia
Voice role

2013
Dora the Explorer and the Destiny Medallion
Dora
YouTube short film series by CollegeHumor

2013
Scooby-Doo! Stage Fright
Chrissy Damon
Voice role

2013
Sofia the First: The Floating Palace
Sofia
Voice role

2013
Tad, The Lost Explorer
Sara Lavrof
Voice role

2014
Mr. Peabody & Sherman
Penny Peterson
Voice role

2015
Safelight
Kate

2016
Elena and the Secret of Avalor
Sofia
Voice role

2017
Smurfs: The Lost Village
Smurf Lily
Voice role

2017
Dog Years
Lil

text: Television[edit]

text:
Year
Title
Role
Notes

2005
Listen Up!
Little Girl
Episode: "Last Vegas"

2005
Tickle-U
Pipoca

2005
Freddie
Hobo
Episode: "Halloween"

2006
Monk
Donna Cain
Episode: "Mr. Monk and the Astronaut"

2006
So NoTORIous
Little Tori
5 episodes

2006
Jericho
Julie
Episode: "Pilot"

2006
Bones
Liza
Episode: "The Girl with the Curl"

2006
Nip/Tuck
Kid
Episode: "Reefer"

2007
Crossing Jordan
Gwen
Episode: "Faith"

2007
Shorty McShorts' Shorts
Taffy
Episode: "Flip-Flopped"; voice role

2007
Criminal Minds
Katie Jacobs
Episode: "Seven Seconds"

2007–15
Phineas and Ferb
Gretchen / Various characters
Voice role

2008
Ghost Whisperer
Natalie
Episode: "Imaginary Friends and Enemies"

2009
ER
Lucy Moore
5 episodes

2009
Penguins of Madagascar, TheThe Penguins of Madagascar
Little girl
Episode: "What Goes Around / Mask of the Raccoon"; voice role

2009–present
Modern Family
Alex Dunphy
Main role

2011
Jake and the Never Land Pirates
Marina the Mermaid
15 episodes; voice role

2011
Minnie's Bow-Toons
Roxie Squirrel
Episode: "Pom Pom Problem;Pet Adoption"

2011
WWE Raw
Appearing as herself
Appeared February 14, 2011 on the Valentine's Day Edition as a Guest Star

2011
R. L. Stine's The Haunting Hour: The Series
Jenny
Episode: "Fear Never Knocks"

2012
Gracie
Episode: "Headshot"

2013–present
Sofia the First
Sofia
Voice role

2016
Milo Murphy's Law
Jackie
Episode: "The Wilder West"

text: Video games[edit]

text:
Year
Title
Voice role

2010
Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep
Young Kairi

2012
Final Fantasy XIII-2
Mog

2012
Guild Wars 2
Cassie

2014
Kingdom Hearts HD 2.5 Remix
Young Kairi

2015
Final Fantasy Type-0 HD
Moglin

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text: Screen Actors Guild Awards[edit]

text:
Year
Category
Nominated work
Result

2009
Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series
Modern Family
(shared with Ed O'Neill, Sofía Vergara, Julie Bowen, Ty Burrell, Jesse Tyler Ferguson, Eric Stonestreet, Sarah Hyland, Rico Rodriguez, and Nolan Gould)
Nominated

2010
Won

2011
Won

2012
Won

2013
Won

2014
Nominated

2015
Nominated

text: Young Artist Awards[edit]

text:
Year
Category
Nominated work
Result
Ref.

2010
Outstanding Young Ensemble in a TV Series
Modern Family
Won
[16]

2011
Nominated
[17]

2012
Best Leading Young Actress in a Feature Film
The Chaperone
Nominated
[8]