document_title: The Five (talk show)

question_text: who used to be on the five on fox

question_tokens: who used to be on the five on fox

text: The Five (talk show)

text: Format[edit]

text: According to the initial Fox News press release announcing The Five, the show features a "roundtable ensemble of five rotating Fox personalities who [...] discuss, debate and at times debunk the hot news stories, controversies and issues of the day."[7] Former Fox News chairman Roger Ailes said the format for the show was inspired by chat-oriented programs such as The View; it has also been compared to the "Great American Panel" segment on Fox News' Hannity.[8]

text: The show is made up of six blocks. Each of the first five blocks is introduced, closed and loosely moderated by a different co-host. The co-host's block may be on a single topic or multiple topics. The final block is One More Thing: The co-hosts take turns sharing a final thought (on varying topics) before the show ends. The show's co-hosts are:[9]

text:
Jesse Watters – Fox News correspondent and host of Watters' World
Kimberly Guilfoyle – former prosecutor and legal analyst
Greg Gutfeld – writer and host of Fox News' talk show The Greg Gutfeld Show
Dana Perino – former White House Press Secretary during the George W. Bush administration
Juan Williams – political analyst and former NPR contributor

text: Williams used to switch off with Bob Beckel sitting in the panel's "liberal" chair, with Geraldo Rivera frequently filling in for them. Richard Fowler and occasionally Marie Harf have filled in for Williams since the latter permanently took Beckel's seat. Tom Shillue and Brian Kilmeade occasionally fill in for Greg Gutfeld and Jesse Watters, while Kennedy, Gillian Turner, Katie Pavlich and Lisa Boothe fill in for Guilfoyle and Perino. The show also features additional guests, including politicians, Fox News personalities, celebrities, and sports figures.[10]

text: Eric Bolling was replaced by Watters when the former departed to start his own show. Conservative commentator Andrea Tantaros formerly sat in for Perino or Guilfoyle, before being moved to Outnumbered in 2014. Beckel was absent from the show for much of early 2015; it was later announced he had left Fox News. He returned to the panel in January 2017, but was fired again only months later.[11]

text: Monica Crowley and Andrew Napolitano were originally announced as additional co-hosts for the show, though upon its debut, the cast was narrowed down.[7][9]

text: Before temporarily moving to primetime in 2017, The Five occasionally aired special primetime editions during special coverage.

text: Recurring elements[edit]

text:
One More Thing: The hosts take turns sharing a final thought (on varying topics) before the show ends; Gutfeld's chosen topic is typically zany, such as his "Banned Phrases" or "I Hate These People!"[12]
Dana's Dos and Don'ts: Perino offers political or PR advice to someone in the news
Dana's Corny Joke of the Day: Usually as part of "One More Thing," Perino challenges her co-hosts to give the punchline to one or more silly G-rated jokes
Greg's Monologue: Similar to his "Gregalogue" on Red Eye, Gutfeld opens his daily block with a comedic rant skewering newsmakers (frequently Hollywood or academia elites)
Kimberly's Food Court: Guilfoyle samples food from restaurants that have recently made the news
Kimberly's Royal News: Guilfoyle reports on news items featuring the Royal Family, usually the Duke and/or Duchess of Cambridge, or the Queen
Fastest 7: A seven-minute segment where co-hosts offer quick-takes on (usually three) underreported news items from the past week
Political Lightning Round: Each co-host briefly shares a political story that may have been under-reported that day
Facebook Friday: Co-hosts answer questions from fans on Facebook
Music Cues: Formerly a gag by only Gutfeld, co-hosts of the show will frequently misidentify the artist performing the music leading into their segments
"ONE! MORE! THING!": Beckel, who usually hosts the E-block, teases the One More Thing segment with stentorian gusto, frequently catching Guilfoyle off-guard.
Mom Texts: Watters reads critical texts he receives from his (politically liberal) mother while on-air. In one episode his mom was actually visiting him at the studio (and was shown on camera) as Watters read her texts.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Reaction to the show among critics has been mostly positive, though the week it premiered, Alex Pareene, columnist for the left-leaning website Salon.com, slammed it as "boring and lame" and "not even worth getting outraged about."[13] Entertainment Weekly TV critic Ken Tucker dubbed the show his "favorite guilty pleasure" and praised its freewheeling style and zany humor, calling it "a delightfully nutty show with an undercurrent of ragin’ crazy."[14] Mediaite's Frances Martel, examining cable news' shift toward more personality-driven commentary, praised The Five for adding an element of entertainment to the news: "Beyond having opinions, the new generation of cable news talk shows spearheaded by The Five have personalities, characters and character arcs that are worth tuning in for. ... Unlike the previous, host-driven generation of opinion shows, The Five adds a refreshing new element to cable news– a plot."[15] The Daily Show with Jon Stewart would later take that line of thought to strange new places when "correspondent" Samantha Bee debuted her "one-woman show" about the supposed romantic subplot on The Five.[16]

text: Controversies[edit]

text: The show's "anything goes" attitude has led it into some minor controversies, particularly involving co-host Bob Beckel's on-air profanity[17] and insensitive remarks. In August 2011, Beckel was forced to apologize on-air when, while trying to clarify an earlier remark wherein he called Michael Vick a "redneck," said the term was not racial, because "blacks are rednecks, whites are rednecks, I was a redneck, Chinamen are rednecks."[18] Beckel was later compelled to apologize for using the term "Chinamen." Even the music the show's producers use to lead in and out of segments has raised hackles, such as an incident in 2011 that prompted a Twitter war between Adam Levine and various Fox News personalities, over producers' use of a Maroon 5 song.[19]

text: In April 2017, just two days after joining the show, co-host Jesse Watters came under scrutiny for an suggestive joke about the way Ivanka Trump was speaking into a microphone. The day after Watters made the comments, he announced that he would be "taking a vacation" for the remainder of the week amid calls for his firing.[20]

text: Departures[edit]

text: Bob Beckel[edit]

text: After not being seen on air since early 2015, it was reported that Bob Beckel was recovering from back surgery.[21] In April, Fox later released a statement informing viewers that Beckel entered a rehab facility for treatment of an addiction to prescription pain medication.[22] Finally, on June 25, 2015, it was confirmed that Beckel had been fired from the network.[23] While a Fox News spokesman initially stated that it was an amicable split, a Fox executive later stated that Fox "couldn’t hold The Five hostage to one man’s personal issues."[24] On June 26, 2015, co-host Dana Perino briefly informed viewers of Beckel's departure with a terse statement at the end of the show. He was not mentioned on the show otherwise.[25] Beckel returned as co-host of the Five in January 2017,[26] but had been fired again by May, for allegedly making insensitive remarks to an African-American staffer at Fox.[11]

text: Andrea Tantaros[edit]

text: In 2011, Tantaros was named a co-host of the hour-long, unscripted program, before going on to co-host Outnumbered in 2014.

text: On April 25, 2016, she was placed off-air, indefinitely, for what Fox News said were "contract issues."[27]

text: In August 2016, Tantaros claimed that she approached Fox News executives about former Fox News executive Roger Ailes sexually harassing her in 2015. Tantaros said her allegations first resulted in her being demoted from The Five to Outnumbered, and then in her being taken off the air in April 2016 altogether.[28] Additionally, Tantaros filed a sexual harassment lawsuit against Fox News that same month.[29][30]

text: Although Tantaros was still under contract with the cable network until early August 2017, she did not return to the Fox News airwaves.

text: Eric Bolling[edit]

text: Eric Bolling, who had been a show regular since the series' inception, announced on April 19, 2017 that he would be leaving to start work on a new afternoon talk show, The Fox News Specialists, which aired during The Five's former 5 p.m. time slot.[31] Bolling was suspended from Fox News in August 2017 over sexual-harassment allegations, and later fired.[32] The Fox News Specialists was also canceled.[32] FNC then announced that The Five would replace The Specialists at 5:00.[1]

text: Ratings[edit]

text: The Five debuted in July 2011 to lower ratings than the Glenn Beck program had been getting, but it still handily won its time slot.[33] The show gained broader success within months of airing, some afternoons even rivaling Beck's former audience.[8]

text: After only several months airing, The Five consistently beat its competitors on MSNBC and CNN combined, and ranked among the top ten cable-news shows.[34] In addition, the show is paying off more with advertisers, who were reluctant to be associated with the controversial content of Glenn Beck's show.[34]

text: The Five was the sixth-most-watched cable-news program during the latter half of 2011 and the first quarter of 2012;[35][36] it had jumped to fourth place by the third quarter of 2012,[37] pulling in especially high numbers during the 2012 Republican Convention.[38] The Five drew 4.4 million viewers on Election Day 2012.[39]

text: By 2013, The Five was the second-most-watched program in all of cable news, placing behind The O'Reilly Factor,[3] though the show was eclipsed many nights by The Kelly File, which aired from 2013 to 2017.

text: Location[edit]

text: The Five is recorded from a street-side studio at 1211 Avenue of the Americas (also known as the News Corp. Building), New York City. On February 27, 2017, The Five relocated to Studio F from its original filming location in Studio D.[40]


document_title: Planning Commission (India)

question_text: who headed the national planning committee of india in 1938

root

text: Planning Commission (India)

text: History[edit]

text: Rudimentary economic planning, deriving from the sovereign authority of the state, was first initiated in India in 1938 by Congress President and Indian National Army supreme leader Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose, who had been persuaded by Meghnad Saha to set up a National Planning Committee.[2] M. Visvesvaraya had been elected head of the Planning Committee. Meghnad Saha approached the great engineer and requested him to step down. He argued that planning needed a reciprocity between science and politics. M. Visvesvaraya generously agreed and Jawaharlal Nehru was made head of the National Planning Committee.The so-called "British Raj" also formally established Advisory Planning Board under K. C. Neogy that functioned from 1944 to 1946. Industrialists and economists independently formulated at least three development plans in 2012. Some scholars have argued that the introduction of planning as an instrument was intended to transcend the ideological divisions between Mahatma Gandhi and Nehru.[3] Other scholars have argued that the Planning Commission, as a central agency in the context of plural democracy in India, needs to carry out more functions than rudimentary economic planning.[4]

tag: p

text: After India achieved Independence, a formal model of planning was adopted, and accordingly the Planning Commission, reporting directly to the Prime Minister of India, was established on 15 March 1950, with Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru as the Chairman. Authority for creation of the Planning Commission was not derived from the Constitution of India or statute; it is an arm of the Central Government of India.

text: The first Five-Year Plan was launched in 1951, focusing mainly on development of the agricultural sector. Two subsequent Five-Year Plans were formulated before 1965, when there was a break because of the Indo-Pakistan conflict. Two successive years of drought, devaluation of the currency, a general rise in prices and erosion of resources disrupted the planning process and after three Annual Plans between 1966 and 1969, the fourth Five-Year Plan was started in 1969.

text: The Eighth Plan could not take off in 1990 due to the fast changing political situation at the Centre, and the years 1990–91 and 1991–92 were treated as Annual Plans. The Eighth Plan was finally launched in 1992 after the initiation of structural adjustment policies.

text: For the first eight Plans the emphasis was on a growing public sector with massive investments in basic and heavy industries, but since the launch of the Ninth Plan in 1997, the emphasis on the public sector has become less pronounced and the current thinking on planning in the country, in general, is that it should increasingly be of an indicative nature.

text: In 2014, Narendra Modi government decided to wind down the Planning Commission. It was replaced by the newly formed NITI Aayog.

text: Organisation[edit]

text: The composition of the Commission underwent considerable changes since its initiation. With the Prime Minister as the ex officio Chairman, the committee had a nominated Deputy Chairman, with the rank of a full Cabinet Minister. Cabinet Ministers with certain important portfolios[which?] acted as ex officio members of the Commission, while the full-time members were experts in various fields like economics, industry, science and general administration.

text: Ex officio members of the Commission included the Finance Minister, Agriculture Minister, Home Minister, Health Minister, Chemicals and Fertilisers Minister, Information Technology Minister, Law Minister, Human Resource Development Minister and Minister of State for Planning.[5]

text: The Commission worked through its various divisions, of which there were two kinds:

text:
General Planning Divisions
Programme Administration Divisions

tag: ul

text: The majority of the experts in the Commission were economists, making the Commission the biggest employer of the Indian Economic Service.

text: Functions[edit]

text: The Indian Planning Commission's functions as outlined by the Government's 1950 resolution are following:

text:
To make an assessment in the material, capital and human resources of the country called India, including technical personal, and investigate the possibilities of augmenting those are related resources which are found to be deficient in relation to the nation's requirement.
To formulate a plan for the most effective and balanced utilisation of country's resources.
To define the stages, on the basis of priority, in which the plan should be carried out and propose the allocation of resources for the due completion of each stage.
To indicate the factors that tend to retard economic development.
To determine the conditions which need to be established for the successful execution of the plan within the incumbent socio-political situation of the country.
To determine the nature of the machinery required for securing the successful implementation of each stage of the plan in all its aspects.
To appraise from time to time the progress achieved in the execution of each stage of the plan and also recommend the adjustments of policy and measures which are deemed important vis-a-vis a successful implementation of the plan.
To make necessary recommendations from time to time regarding those things which are deemed necessary for facilitating the execution of these functions. Such recommendations can be related to the prevailing economic conditions, current policies, measures or development programmes. They can even be given out in response to some specific problems referred to the commission by the central or the state governments.

tag: ol

text: Social media[edit]

text: In March 2013, Planning Commission launched a massive social media campaign for spreading Awareness about 12th Five Year Plan. It was followed by series of Google+ Hangouts and a Plan Hackathon. By September 2013, it had made a considerable presence on Social Media with over One lakh Twitter followers and a considerable size on Facebook, YouTube and SlideShare.[6]


document_title: List of Vikings episodes

question_text: how many seasons of vikings have been made

text: List of Vikings episodes

text: Series overview[edit]

tag: table

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Season 1 (2013)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal air date11"Rites of Passage"Johan RenckMichael HirstMarch 3, 2013 (2013-03-03)
22"Wrath of the Northmen"Johan RenckMichael HirstMarch 10, 2013 (2013-03-10)
33"Dispossessed"Johan RenckMichael HirstMarch 17, 2013 (2013-03-17)
44"Trial"Ciarán DonnellyMichael HirstMarch 24, 2013 (2013-03-24)
55"Raid"Ciarán DonnellyMichael HirstMarch 31, 2013 (2013-03-31)
66"Burial of the Dead"Ciarán DonnellyMichael HirstApril 7, 2013 (2013-04-07)
77"A King's Ransom"Ken GirottiMichael HirstApril 14, 2013 (2013-04-14)
88"Sacrifice"Ken GirottiMichael HirstApril 21, 2013 (2013-04-21)
99"All Change"Ken GirottiMichael HirstApril 28, 2013 (2013-04-28)

text: Season 2 (2014)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal air date101"Brother's War"Ciarán DonnellyMichael HirstFebruary 27, 2014 (2014-02-27)
112"Invasion"Ciarán DonnellyMichael HirstMarch 6, 2014 (2014-03-06)
123"Treachery"Ken GirottiMichael HirstMarch 13, 2014 (2014-03-13)
134"Eye for an Eye"Ken GirottiMichael HirstMarch 20, 2014 (2014-03-20)
145"Answers in Blood"Jeff WoolnoughMichael HirstMarch 27, 2014 (2014-03-27)
156"Unforgiven"Jeff WoolnoughMichael HirstApril 3, 2014 (2014-04-03)
167"Blood Eagle"Kari SkoglandMichael HirstApril 10, 2014 (2014-04-10)
178"Boneless"Kari SkoglandMichael HirstApril 17, 2014 (2014-04-17)
189"The Choice"Ken GirottiMichael HirstApril 24, 2014 (2014-04-24)
1910"The Lord's Prayer"Ken GirottiMichael HirstMay 1, 2014 (2014-05-01)

text: Season 3 (2015)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal air date201"Mercenary"Ken GirottiMichael HirstFebruary 19, 2015 (2015-02-19)
212"The Wanderer"Ken GirottiMichael HirstFebruary 26, 2015 (2015-02-26)
223"Warrior's Fate"Jeff WoolnoughMichael HirstMarch 5, 2015 (2015-03-05)
234"Scarred"Jeff WoolnoughMichael HirstMarch 12, 2015 (2015-03-12)
245"The Usurper"Helen ShaverMichael HirstMarch 19, 2015 (2015-03-19)
256"Born Again"Helen ShaverMichael HirstMarch 26, 2015 (2015-03-26)
267"Paris"Kelly MakinMichael HirstApril 2, 2015 (2015-04-02)
278"To the Gates!"Kelly MakinMichael HirstApril 9, 2015 (2015-04-09)
289"Breaking Point"Ken GirottiMichael HirstApril 16, 2015 (2015-04-16)
2910"The Dead"Ken GirottiMichael HirstApril 23, 2015 (2015-04-23)

text: Season 4 (2016–17)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal air datePart 1
301"A Good Treason"Ciarán DonnellyMichael HirstFebruary 18, 2016 (2016-02-18)
312"Kill the Queen"Ciarán DonnellyMichael HirstFebruary 25, 2016 (2016-02-25)
323"Mercy"Ciarán DonnellyMichael HirstMarch 3, 2016 (2016-03-03)
334"Yol"Helen ShaverMichael HirstMarch 10, 2016 (2016-03-10)
345"Promised"Helen ShaverMichael HirstMarch 17, 2016 (2016-03-17)
356"What Might Have Been"Ken GirottiMichael HirstMarch 24, 2016 (2016-03-24)
367"The Profit and the Loss"Ken GirottiMichael HirstMarch 31, 2016 (2016-03-31)
378"Portage"Ken GirottiMichael HirstApril 7, 2016 (2016-04-07)
389"Death All 'Round"Jeff WoolnoughMichael HirstApril 14, 2016 (2016-04-14)
3910"The Last Ship"Jeff WoolnoughMichael HirstApril 21, 2016 (2016-04-21)
Part 2
4011"The Outsider"Daniel GrouMichael HirstNovember 30, 2016 (2016-11-30)
4112"The Vision"Daniel GrouMichael HirstDecember 7, 2016 (2016-12-07)
4213"Two Journeys"Sarah HardingMichael HirstDecember 14, 2016 (2016-12-14)
4314"In the Uncertain Hour Before the Morning"Sarah HardingMichael HirstDecember 21, 2016 (2016-12-21)
4415"All His Angels"Ciarán DonnellyMichael HirstDecember 28, 2016 (2016-12-28)
4516"Crossings"Ciarán DonnellyMichael HirstJanuary 4, 2017 (2017-01-04)
4617"The Great Army"Jeff WoolnoughMichael HirstJanuary 11, 2017 (2017-01-11)
4718"Revenge"Jeff WoolnoughMichael HirstJanuary 18, 2017 (2017-01-18)
4819"On the Eve"Ben BoltMichael HirstJanuary 25, 2017 (2017-01-25)
4920"The Reckoning"Ben BoltMichael HirstFebruary 1, 2017 (2017-02-01)

text: Season 5 (2017–18)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal air datePart 1
505112"The Departed"[a]David WellingtonMichael HirstNovember 29, 2017 (2017-11-29)
523"Homeland"Steve Saint LegerMichael HirstDecember 6, 2017 (2017-12-06)
534"The Plan"Steve Saint LegerMichael HirstDecember 13, 2017 (2017-12-13)
545"The Prisoner"Ciarán DonnellyMichael HirstDecember 20, 2017 (2017-12-20)
556"The Message"Ciarán DonnellyMichael HirstDecember 27, 2017 (2017-12-27)
567"Full Moon"Jeff WoolnoughMichael HirstJanuary 3, 2018 (2018-01-03)
578"The Joke"Jeff WoolnoughMichael HirstJanuary 10, 2018 (2018-01-10)
589"A Simple Story"Daniel GrouMichael HirstJanuary 17, 2018 (2018-01-17)
5910"Moments of Vision"Daniel GrouMichael HirstJanuary 24, 2018 (2018-01-24)
Part 2
6011"The Revelation"[9]TBATBANovember 28, 2018 (2018-11-28)

text: Jump up ^ The first two episodes aired together on History as a two-hour premiere, "The Departed", but were released separately on streaming services and in digital stores, with the first part titled "The Fisher King" and the second "The Departed".[7][8]

text: Webisodes[edit]

text: Athelstan's Journal (2015)[edit]

text: A series of thirteen webisodes known as Vikings: Athelstan's Journal was released by the History Channel. Each webisode serves as a journal entry for the Vikings character Athelstan. The webisodes were released prior to and in conjunction with the beginning of the third season of Vikings, and are available on the History Channel's website.[10] The webisodes have a running time of 1:45 to 5:01 minutes.

text:
No.TitleDirected byWritten byOriginal air dateAthelstan's Journal
1"Chapter One: Gods"Lucas TaylorSam MeikleJanuary 30, 2015 (2015-01-30)
2"Chapter Two: Honor"Lucas TaylorSam MeikleFebruary 1, 2015 (2015-02-01)
3"Chapter Three: Loyalty"Lucas TaylorSam MeikleFebruary 6, 2015 (2015-02-06)
4"Chapter Four: Sin"Lucas TaylorSam MeikleFebruary 8, 2015 (2015-02-08)
5"Chapter Five: Blood"Lucas TaylorSam MeikleFebruary 13, 2015 (2015-02-13)
6"Chapter Six: Family"Lucas TaylorSam MeikleFebruary 14, 2015 (2015-02-14)
7"Chapter Seven: Savagery"Lucas TaylorSam MeikleFebruary 18, 2015 (2015-02-18)
8"Chapter Eight: Gods & Men"Lucas TaylorSam MeikleFebruary 19, 2015 (2015-02-19)
Stones and Bones
9"Chapter One: Vows"Lucas TaylorSam MeikleFebruary 20, 2015 (2015-02-20)
10"Chapter Two: Death"Lucas TaylorSam MeikleFebruary 27, 2015 (2015-02-27)
11"Chapter Three: Love"Lucas TaylorSam MeikleMarch 6, 2015 (2015-03-06)
12"Chapter Four: Harvest"Lucas TaylorSam MeikleMarch 13, 2015 (2015-03-13)
13"Chapter Five: The Choice"Lucas TaylorSam MeikleMarch 20, 2015 (2015-03-20)


document_title: Red Queen (Through the Looking-Glass)

question_text: who played the red queen in alice in wonderland

text: Red Queen (Through the Looking-Glass)

text: Overview[edit]

text: With a motif of Through the Looking-Glass being a representation of the game of chess, the Red Queen could be viewed as an antagonist in the story as she is the queen for the side opposing Alice. Despite this, their initial encounter is a cordial one, with the Red Queen explaining the rules of chess concerning promotion — specifically that Alice is able to become a queen by starting out as a pawn and reaching the eighth square at the opposite end of the board. As a queen in the game of chess, the Red Queen is able to move swiftly and effortlessly.

text: Later, in Chapter 9, the Red Queen appears with the White Queen, posing a series of typical Wonderland/Looking-Glass questions ("Divide a loaf by a knife: what's the answer to that?"), and then celebrating Alice's promotion from pawn to queen. When that celebration goes awry, Alice turns against the Red Queen, whom she "considers as the cause of all the mischief", and shakes her until the queen morphs into Alice's pet kitten. In doing this, Alice presents an end game, awakening from the dream world of the looking glass, by both realizing her hallucination and symbolically "taking" the Red Queen in order to checkmate the Red King.

text: Confusion with the Queen of Hearts[edit]

text: The Red Queen is commonly mistaken for the Queen of Hearts in the story's predecessor, Alice's Adventures in Wonderland. The two share the characteristics of being strict queens associated with the color red. However, their personalities are very different. Indeed, Carroll, in his lifetime, made the distinction between the two Queens by saying:

text:
“

I pictured to myself the Queen of Hearts as a sort of embodiment of ungovernable passion - a blind and aimless Fury.
The Red Queen I pictured as a Fury, but of another type; her passion must be cold and calm - she must be formal and strict, yet not unkindly; pedantic to the 10th degree, the concentrated essence of all governesses![1]

”

— Lewis Carroll, in "Alice on the Stage"

text: The 1951 Walt Disney animated film Alice in Wonderland perpetuates the long-standing confusion between the Red Queen and the Queen of Hearts. In the film, the Queen of Hearts delivers several of the Red Queen's statements, the most notable being based on her "all the ways about here belong to me". Both characters say this to suggest importance and possible arrogance, but in the Red Queen's case it has a double meaning since her status as a chess-queen means that she can move in any direction she desires.

text: In both American McGee's Alice and Tim Burton's film adaptation of the books, the characters are also combined, leading to further popular misconception. Also, Jefferson Airplane's song "White Rabbit" contains the lyric "and the Red Queen's off with her head", another instance of the two characters combined or mistaken for one another. However, American McGee's game implies that after Alice was put into the asylum the Queen of Hearts and Red Queen fused together.

text: Popular culture[edit]

text: Tim Burton's Alice in Wonderland (2010)[edit]

text: The 2010 live-action film Alice in Wonderland, fashioned as a sequel to the novel, features Helena Bonham Carter as the Red Queen.[2] Bonham Carter's head was digitally increased three times its original size on screen.[3] Bonham Carter's character is a combination of the Red Queen, the Duchess and the Queen of Hearts.[4] From the original Red Queen, this character gets only a relationship to the White Queen. Here the Red Queen is the older sister of the White Queen, and is jealous of her sister, whom her subjects genuinely love. From the original John Tenniel illustrations of the Duchess, she gets a massive head in proportion to her body and a retinue of frog footmen. The White Queen theorizes that the movie's Red Queen has a tumor pressing against her brain, explaining both her large head and her deranged behaviour. Most of her characteristics are taken from the Queen of Hearts, including:

text:
A quickness to anger, including the famous phrase "Off with his/her/their/your head!" Her first name, Iracebeth, is a play on the word "irascible". In the movie, the queen's moat is full of heads from her many decapitations. Carter has said that she based her performance on her toddler-aged daughter.[5]
The use of animals as inanimate objects. Beside the flamingo mallets & hedgehog croquet balls from the original, this queen also uses them as furniture.[6]
Having tarts stolen, although in this adaptation it was a starving frog footman who stole the tarts rather than the Knave of Hearts. Here, the queen is madly in love with the Knave of Hearts, who leads her army, and has executed her husband the King for fear that he would leave her.
Employment of a fish footman and the White Rabbit.
Heart motifs throughout her palace & a 16th-century-style costume associated with the queen of hearts playing card & the original John Tenniel illustrations for the Queen of Hearts.

text: The irritable, snobbish mother of Alice's potential husband, cast as a corresponding villain in the "real world" also resembles the Queen of Hearts when she fumes about her gardeners planting white instead of red roses.

text: After the Jabberwocky is slain by Alice, the Red Queen's army stops fighting and following her orders. The White Queen banishes the Red Queen to Outland where nobody is to say a word to her or show her any kindness. The Knave of Hearts is also banished and tries to kill the Red Queen only to be thwarted by the Mad Hatter. As the Red Queen and the Knave of Hearts are carried off to their exile, the Red Queen repeatedly shouts "He tried to kill me" while the Knave of Hearts begged for the White Queen to have him killed.

text: In the video game adaptation of the film, she plays a minor role, first appearing as a mere illustration. She is not seen in person until near the end of the game, first playing croquet and beheading the hedgehogs she uses as balls whenever they miss their target at her castle, and then again both before and after the battle with the Jabberwocky. Her clothes and persona is similar to the Tudor sisters Queen Mary I (persona) and Queen Elizabeth I (clothes).[citation needed]

text: Once Upon a Time in Wonderland[edit]

text: The Red Queen appears in Once Upon a Time in Wonderland (a spin-off to Once Upon a Time) portrayed by Emma Rigby. She is a character distinct from the Queen of Hearts (Barbara Hershey), who was her tutor in magic. Like the Queen of Hearts and the Mad Hatter, the Red Queen is an émigré to Wonderland from the Enchanted Forest, having originally been a young woman named Anastasia, with whom Will Scarlet (the Knave of Hearts) was in love. The Red Queen featured as one of the show's main antagonists, alongside Jafar.

text: Pandora Hearts[edit]

text: Two characters from the manga/anime Pandora Hearts are based on the Red Queen, Alice and Lacie, though Lacie has more in common with the Red Queen than Alice, who also has connections with The Queen of Hearts.

text: American McGee's Alice and Alice: Madness Returns[edit]

text: The Red Queen is combined into the Queen of Hearts in the first game, American McGee's Alice. The names are used interchangeably. However, in the second game they are separated once more and the player meets the Queen of Hearts in her original form, the Red Queen is never seen.

text: Adaptive uses outside the arts[edit]

text: In science[edit]

text:
The Red Queen's Hypothesis is an evolutionary hypothesis taken from the Red Queen's race in Through the Looking-Glass.[7]
Science writer Matt Ridley popularized the term "the red queen" in connection with sexual selection. (See Evolution of sex for more details.)

text: In business[edit]

text: “Red Queen marketing” is defined as the business practice of launching new products in order to replace past failed launches while the overall sales of a brand may remain static or growth is less than fully incremental (Donald Kay Riker, 2009).[8]


document_title: The Ellen DeGeneres Show (season 16)

question_text: when does season 16 of ellen start on dstv

text: The Ellen DeGeneres Show (season 16)

text: This is a list of episodes of the sixteenth[1] season of The Ellen DeGeneres Show, which began airing on Tuesday, September 4, 2018.

text: Season 16 (2018-2019)[edit]

text:
#(Season)

#(Series)

Air Date

Guests

16-01

2,444

September 4, 2018

Nicki Minaj

Season 16 Premiere

16-02

2,445

September 5, 2018

Mark Wahlberg, Fleetwood Mac, Congressman Beto O'Rourke

16-03

2,446

September 6, 2018

Anna Kendrick, Spike Lee, Laura Harrier

16-04

2,447

September 7, 2018

Cher

16-05

2,448

September 10, 2018

Michael Strahan & Sara Haines, John David Washington, Dalton Dailey

16-06

2,449

September 11, 2018

Heidi Klum, Olivia Munn

16-07

2,450

September 12, 2018

LeBron James, Channing Tatum

16-08

2,451

September 13, 2018

Kristen Bell, Martha Trujillo, Kimberly Patel

16-09

2,452

September 14, 2018

Colin Jost, Michael Che

16-10

2,453

September 17, 2018

Cate Blanchett, Issa Rae

16-11

2,454

September 18, 2018

Simon Cowell, Olivia Wilde, Jason Mraz

16-12

2,455

September 19, 2018

Penelope Cruz, Carrie Underwood

16-13

2,456

September 20, 2018

Kate Hudson, Goldie Hawn

16-14

2,457

September 21, 2018

Beth Behrs, Bob Moses

16-15

2,458

September 24, 2018

Benedict Cumberbatch, Cher, Yara Shahidi, Justin Willman

16-16

2,459

September 25, 2018

Cast of Modern Family

16-17

2,460

September 26, 2018

Jennifer Hudson, Max Greenfield, LeBron James, Channing Tatum, The Chainsmokers, Kelsea Ballerini, Alaya “Lay Lay” High

16-18

2,461

September 27, 2018

Lady Gaga

16-19

2,462

September 28, 2018

Kobe Bryant, Logic, Ryan Tedder

16-20

2,463

October 1, 2018

The cast of Will & Grace, Jon Dorenbos, Bob Moses

16-21

2,464

October 2, 2018

Lady Gaga, Justin Hartley

16-22

2,465

October 3, 2018

Jamie Dornan, Busy Philipps

16-23

2,466

October 4, 2018

Savannah Guthrie, Channing Tatum and Lebron James, Nacho Figueras, Jungle

16-24

2,467

October 5, 2018

Kristen Bell, Ayesha Curry and Ciara

Momsplaining the TV Show

16-25

2,468

October 8, 2018

Jennifer Garner, Kacey Musgraves, Viral Pizza Delivery Piano Player

16-26

2,469

October 9, 2018

Jenna Fischer, Nicole Maines, Hozier & Mavis Staples

16-27

2,470

October 10, 2018

Melissa McCarthy, Mary Halsey, Billie Eilish

16-28

2,471

October 11, 2018

Dakota Johnson, Ken Jeong, CHVRCHES

16-29

2,472

October 12, 2018

Ryan Gosling, Lenny Kravitz

16-30

2,473

October 15, 2018

Kunal Nayyar, Ellie Kemper, Thailand Cave Rescue - Wild Boars Soccer Team

16-31

2,474

October 16, 2018

Keira Knightley, Kathryn Hahn, Old Dominion

16-32

2,475

October 17, 2018

Ranesa Shipman, Maya Rudolph, Bazzi

16-33

2,476

October 18, 2018

Chelsea Handler Kym Douglas

16-34

2,477

October 19, 2018

Jonah Hill, Whitney Cummings

16-35

2,478

October 22, 2018

Sarah Silverman

16-36

2,479

October 23, 2018

Ellen Pompeo, Demetri Martin

16-37

2,480

October 24, 2018

Jason Sudeikis, Lauren Daigle

16-38

2,481

October 25, 2018

Sean Combs, Chrissy Teigen

16-39

2,482

October 26, 2018

Kris Jenner, Ciara

16-40

2,483

October 29, 2018

David Spade, Marcelito Pomoy

16-41

2,484

October 30, 2018

Nicole Kidman, Lucas Hedges, Troye Sivan, Koeberle Bull

16-42

2,485

October 31, 2018

Rebel Wilson

Ellen's Halloween Spectacular

16-43

2,486

November 1, 2018

Rami Malek,

16-44

2,487

November 2, 2018

Sean Hayes, Fatima Ali


document_title: Geography of Laos

question_text: what natural feature forms most of the border between laos and thailand

text: Geography of Laos

text: Topography[edit]

text: Most of the western border of Laos is demarcated by the Mekong River, which is an important artery for transportation. The Dong Falls at the southern end of the country prevent access to the sea, but cargo boats travel along the entire length of the Mekong in Laos during most of the year. Smaller power boats and pirogues provide an important means of transportation on many of the tributaries of the Mekong.

text: The Mekong has thus not been an obstacle but a facilitator for communication, and the similarities between Laos and northeast Thai society—same people, almost same language—reflect the close contact that has existed across the river for centuries. Also, many Laotians living in the Mekong Valley have relatives and friends in Thailand.

text: Prior to the twentieth century, Laotian kingdoms and principalities encompassed areas on both sides of the Mekong, and Thai control in the late nineteenth century extended to the left bank. Although the Mekong was established as a border by French colonial forces, travel from one side to the other has been significantly limited only since the establishment of the Lao People's Democratic Republic (LPDR, or Laos) in 1975.

text: The eastern border with Vietnam extends for 2,130 kilometres, mostly along the crest of the Annamite Chain, and serves as a physical barrier between the Chinese-influenced culture of Vietnam and the Indianized states of Laos and Thailand. These mountains are sparsely populated by tribal minorities who traditionally have not acknowledged the border with Vietnam any more than lowland Lao have been constrained by the 1,754-kilometre Mekong River border with Thailand. Thus, ethnic minority populations are found on both the Laotian and Vietnamese sides of the frontier. Because of their relative isolation, contact between these groups and lowland Lao has been mostly confined to trading.

text: Laos shares its short—only 541 kilometres—southern border with Cambodia, and ancient Khmer ruins at Wat Pho and other southern locations attest to the long history of contact between the Lao and the Khmer. In the north, the country is bounded by a mountainous 423-kilometre border with China and shares the 235-kilometre-long Mekong River border with Burma.

text: The topography of Laos is largely mountainous, with the Annamite Range in the northeast and east and the Luang Prabang Range in the northwest, among other ranges typically characterized by steep terrain. Elevations are typically above 500 metres with narrow river valleys and low agricultural potential. This mountainous landscape extends across most of the north of the country, except for the plain of Vientiane and the Plain of Jars in the Xiangkhoang Plateau.

text: The southern "panhandle" of the country contains large level areas in Savannakhét and Champasak provinces that are well suited for extensive paddy rice cultivation and livestock raising. Much of Khammouan Province and the eastern part of all the southern provinces are mountainous. Together, the alluvial plains and terraces of the Mekong and its tributaries cover only about 20% of the land area.

text: Only about 4% of the total land area is classified as arable. The forested land area has declined significantly since the 1970s as a result of commercial logging and expanded swidden, or slash-and-burn, farming.

text: List of mountains in Laos[edit]

text:
Phou Bia, 2,819 m
Phu Xai Lai Leng, 2,720 m
Rao Co, 2,286 m
Phu Soi Dao, 2,120 m
Phou Khe, 2,079 m
Shiceng Dashan, 1,830 m
Dong Ap Bia, 937 m

text: Climate[edit]

text: Laos has a tropical monsoon climate, with a pronounced rainy season from May through October, a cool dry season from November through February, and a hot dry season in March and April. Generally, monsoons occur at the same time across the country, although that time may vary significantly from one year to the next.

text: Rainfall varies regionally, with the highest amounts—3,700 millimeters (150 inches) annually—recorded on the Bolovens Plateau in Champasak Province. City rainfall stations have recorded that Savannakhét averages 1,440 millimeters (57 inches) of rain annually; Vientiane receives about 1,700 millimeters (67 inches), and Louangphrabang (Luang Prabang) receives about 1,360 millimeters (54 inches).

text: Rainfall is not always adequate for rice cultivation and the relatively high average precipitation conceals years where rainfall may be only half or less of the norm, causing significant declines in rice yields. Such droughts often are regional, leaving production in other parts of the country unaffected.

text: The average temperatures in January, coldest month, are, Luang Prabang 20.5 °C (minimum 0.8 °C), Vientiane 20.3 °C (minimum 3.9 °C), and Pakse 23.9 °C (minimum 8.2 °C); the average temperatures for April, usually the hottest month, are, Luang Prabang 28.1 °C (maximum 44.8 °C), Vientiane 39.4 °C). Temperature does vary according to the altitude, there is an average drop of 1.7 °C for every 1000 feet (or 300 meters). Temperatures in the upland plateux and in the mountains are considered lower than on the plains around Vientiane.

text: Agriculture[edit]

text: Agriculture in Laos is the most important sector of the economy. Five million out of 23,680,000 hectares of Laos's total land area is suitable for cultivation, and seventeen percent of the land area, between 850,000 and 900,000 hectares, is cultivated. Rice is the main crop grown during the rainy season both upland and wet. There is also a significant amount of fishing.

text: Agricultural cultivation is possible during with varying weather on a small portion of land area apart from the Vientiane plain and the lowlands along the Mekong Valley. These cultivated areas are situated in the valley cuts by the rivers or the plateau regions of Xieng Khouang in the North and in the Bolovens in the south. Typically there are only two ways to cultivate: either the wet-field paddy system practiced among the Lao Loum or lowland in Lao, or the swidden cultivation system practiced in the hills.

text: Population[edit]

text: Laos has a smaller population than most countries in South East Asia. The first comprehensive national population census of Laos was taken in 1985; it recorded a population of about 3.57 million. In 1987, the population was officially stated as 3,830,000 and the capital city, Vientiane, had a population of 120,000. The annual growth was estimated at between 2.6 and 3.0 percent. The national birth rate is estimated at about forty-five per 1,000, while the dead rate estimates at around sixteen per 1,000. The fertility rates are higher between ages twenty and forty which highlights the average woman giving birth to an average of 6.8 children.

text: The overall population density was only eighteen persons per square kilometer, and in many districts the density was fewer than ten persons per square kilometer Population density per cultivated hectare was considerably high ranging from 3.3 to 7.8 persons per hectare. The population is ethically diverse, but a complete classification of all ethnic groups has never been undertaken. Discrepancies in the number of groups resulted from inconsistent definitions of what constitutes an ethnic group as opposed to a subgroup, as well as incomplete knowledge about the groups themselves.

text: Transportation routes[edit]

text: Because of its mountainous topography and lack of development, Laos has few reliable transportation routes. This inaccessibility has historically limited the ability of any government to maintain a presence in areas distant from the national or provincial capitals and has limited interchange and communication among villages and ethnic groups.

text: The Mekong and Nam Ou are the only natural channels suitable for large-draft boat transportation, and from December through May low water limits the size of the draft that may be used over many routes. Laotians in lowland villages located on the banks of smaller rivers have traditionally traveled in pirogues for fishing, trading, and visiting up and down the river for limited distances.

text: Otherwise, travel is by ox-cart over level terrain or by foot. The steep mountains and lack of roads have caused upland ethnic groups to rely entirely on pack baskets and horse packing for transportation.

text: The road system is not extensive. A rudimentary network begun under French colonial rule and continued from the 1950s has provided an important means of increased inter-village communication, movement of market goods, and a focus for new settlements. In mid-1994, travel in most areas was difficult and expensive, and most Laotians traveled only limited distances, if at all. As a result of ongoing improvements in the road system started during the early 1990s, it is expected that in the future villagers will more easily be able to seek medical care, send children to schools at district centers, and work outside the village.

text: In October 2015 the first highway through the country was completed connecting southern China to Thailand.[1]

text: Inland waterways, including the Mekong River, is the second most important source of transport network. About 4,600 kilometers of navigable waterways are located within the Mekong, the Ou, and nine other rivers. The Mekong River is only navigable for about seventy percent of its length due to rapids and low water levels in the dry season.

text: Residents in the lower lands and villages of smaller river banks have traditionally traveled in pirogues for fishing, trading, or visiting up and down the river for limited distances. The public and private trade associations handle river traffic. There are a series of warehouses and ports in Savannakhet, Xeno, and Vientiane. The river transportation has improved since government policy expanded trade with Vietnam and other rural regions.

text: Natural resources[edit]

text: Expanding commercial exploitation of forests, plans for additional hydroelectric facilities, foreign demands for wild animals and nonwood forest products for food and traditional medicines, and a growing population have brought new and increasing attention to the forests. Traditionally, forests have been important sources of wild foods, herbal medicines, and timber for house construction.

text: Soils are found commonly throughout the floodplains. Typically, soils are formed from alluvium deposited by the rivers as either sandy clay in light colors or sand clay with gray or yellow colors. Upland soils derive from granitic, schistose, or sandstone parent rocks more acidic and less fertile. Southern Laos has areas of laterite soils, and basaltic soils in the Bolovens Plateau.

text: Plant Life and Animals

text: The north of Laos has tropical rain forests with broader leaved evergreens and monsoon forests of mixed evergreen and in the south is filled with deciduous trees. In the monsoon forest the ground is covered with tall, coarse grass. The trees mostly only reach their secondary growth. Typically there is an abundance of bamboo, scrub, and wild banana. Laos is also home to hundreds of species of orchids and palms.

text: Forests and fields serve as support for wildlife. Wildlife in Laos includes nearly 200 species of mammals, about the same number for reptiles and amphibians, and about 700 varieties of birds. Common mammals are gaurs (wild oxen), deer, bears, and monkeys. Endangered animals include elephants, rhinoceroses, tigers, several types of wild oxen, monkeys, and gibbons. Snakes, skinks, frogs, and geckoes are abundant. Warblers, babblers, woodpeckers, thrushes, and large raptors inhabit the canopy and floor of the forest. Numerous of birds live in the lowlands. Lastly, several of Laos's birds are threaten including most hornillo, ibises, and storks.

text: Deforestation[edit]

text: Even into the 1990s, the government viewed the forest as a valued reserve of natural products for noncommercial household consumption. Government efforts to preserve valuable hardwoods for commercial extraction have led to measures to prohibit slash-and-burn agriculture throughout the country. Further, government restrictions on clearing forestland for slash-and-burn cropping in the late 1980s, along with attempts to gradually resettle upland slash-and-burn farming villages (ban) to lowland locations suitable for paddy rice cultivation, had significant effects on upland villages.

text: Traditionally, villages rely on forest products as a food reserve during years of poor rice harvest and as a regular source of fruits and vegetables. By the 1990s, however, these gathering systems were breaking down in many areas. At the same time, international concern about environmental degradation and the loss of many wildlife species unique to Laos has also prompted the government to consider the implications of these developments.

text: Despite forestation, some large areas are still covered by forest. The forest contains a rich diversity of species and which varies according to the terrain in the surrounding areas. The timber and other mineral sources from these areas have not yet been fully surfaced and the exploration for gold and petroleum has not been fully developed.

text: Several species, such as the Asian elephant, red panda, giant Mekong catfish, tiger, and clouded leopard are at risk as more land, forests, and mines rich in resources are sold off to neighboring countries.

text: Natural resources: timber, hydropower, gypsum, tin, gold, gemstones

text:
Land use:
arable land: 6.2%
permanent crops: 0.7%
permanent pasture: 3.7%
forest: 67.9%
other: 21.5% (2011)

text: Irrigated land: 3,100 km² (2005)

text: Total renewable water resources: 333.5 km3 (2011)

text: Area and boundaries[edit]

text:
Area:
total: 236,800 km²
land: 230,800 km²
water: 6,000 km²

text: Area - comparative: slightly larger than Minnesota  slightly smaller than half of Yukon  slightly smaller than the United Kingdom

text:
Land boundaries:
total: 5,083 km
border countries: Burma 235 km, Cambodia 541 km, the People's Republic of China 423 km, Thailand 1,754 km, Vietnam 2,130 km

text: Coastline: 0 km (landlocked)

text: Maritime claims: none (landlocked)

text:
Elevation extremes:
lowest point: Mekong River 70 m
highest point: Phou Bia 2,817 m

text: Environmental concerns[edit]

text: Natural hazards: floods, droughts, blight and earthquakes in the northern areas.

text: Air pollution agricultural burning ("slash and burn"), garbage burning

text: Environment - current issues: unexploded ordnance; deforestation; soil erosion; a majority of the population does not have access to potable water

text:
Environment - international agreements:
party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Ptorocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection
signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements


document_title: Hydride

question_text: how do non metals react with hydrogen explain with an example

text: Hydride

text: Bonds[edit]

text: Bonds between hydrogen and other elements range from highly to somewhat covalent. Some hydrides, e.g. boron hydrides, do not conform to classical electron-counting rules, and the bonding is described in terms of multi-centered bonds, whereas the interstitial hydrides often involve metallic bonding. Hydrides can be discrete molecules, oligomers or polymers, ionic solids, chemisorbed monolayers,[citation needed] bulk metals (interstitial), and other materials. While hydrides traditionally react as Lewis bases or reducing agents, some metal hydrides behave as hydrogen-atom donors and act as acids.

text: Applications[edit]

text:
Hydrides such as sodium borohydride, lithium aluminium hydride, diisobutylaluminium hydride (DIBAL) and super hydride, are commonly used as reducing agents in chemical synthesis. The hydride adds to an electrophilic center, typically unsaturated carbon.
Hydrides such as sodium hydride and potassium hydride are used as strong bases in organic synthesis. The hydride reacts with the weak Bronsted acid releasing H2.
Hydrides such as calcium hydride are used as desiccants, i.e. drying agents, to remove trace water from organic solvents. The hydride reacts with water forming hydrogen and hydroxide salt. The dry solvent can then be distilled or vac transferred from the "solvent pot".
Hydrides are important in storage battery technologies such as nickel-metal hydride battery. Various metal hydrides have been examined for use as a means of hydrogen storage for fuel cell-powered electric cars and other purposed aspects of a hydrogen economy.[5]

text: Hydride complexes are catalysts and catalytic intermediates in a variety of homogeneous and heterogeneous catalytic cycles. Important examples include hydrogenation, hydroformylation, hydrosilylation, hydrodesulfurization catalysts. Even certain enzymes, the hydrogenase, operate via hydride intermediates. The energy carrier Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide reacts as a hydride donor or hydride equivalent.

text: Hydride ion[edit]

text: Free hydride anions exist only under extreme conditions and are not invoked for homogeneous solution. Instead, many compounds have hydrogen centres with hydridic character.

text: Aside from electride, the hydride ion is the simplest possible anion, consisting of two electrons and a proton. Hydrogen has a relatively low electron affinity, 72.77 kJ/mol and reacts exothermically with protons as a powerful Lewis base.

text: The low electron affinity of hydrogen and the strength of the H–H bond (∆HBE = 436 kJ/mol) means that the hydride ion would also be a strong reducing agent

text: Types of hydrides[edit]

text: According to the general definition every element of the periodic table (except some noble gases) forms one or more hydrides. These substances have been classified into three main types according to the nature of their bonding:[1]

text:
Ionic hydrides, which have significant ionic bonding character.
Covalent hydrides, which include the hydrocarbons and many other compounds which covalently bond to hydrogen atoms.
Interstitial hydrides, which may be described as having metallic bonding.

text: While these divisions have not been used universally, they are still useful to understand differences in hydrides.

text: Ionic hydrides[edit]

text: Ionic or saline hydrides are composed of hydride bound to an electropositive metal, generally an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal. The divalent lanthanides such as europium and ytterbium form compounds similar to those of heavier alkali metal. In these materials the hydride is viewed as a pseudohalide. Saline hydrides are insoluble in conventional solvents, reflecting their non-molecular structures. Ionic hydrides are used as bases and, occasionally, as reducing reagents in organic synthesis.[6]

text: Typical solvents for such reactions are ethers. Water and other protic solvents cannot serve as a medium for ionic hydrides because the hydride ion is a stronger base than hydroxide and most hydroxyl anions. Hydrogen gas is liberated in a typical acid-base reaction.

text: Often alkali metal hydrides react with metal halides. Lithium aluminium hydride (often abbreviated as LAH) arises from reactions of lithium hydride with aluminium chloride.

text: Covalent hydrides[edit]

text: According to some definitions, covalent hydrides cover all other compounds containing hydrogen. Some definitions limit hydrides to hydrogen centres that formally react as hydrides, i.e. are nucleophilic, and hydrogen atoms bound to metal centers.These hydrides are formed by all the true non-metals (except zero group elements) and the elements like Al, Ga, Sn, Pb, Bi, Po, etc., which are normally metallic in nature, i.e., this class includes the hydrides of p-block elements. In these substances the hydride bond is formally a covalent bond much like the bond made by a proton in a weak acid. This category includes hydrides that exist as discrete molecules, polymers or oligomers, and hydrogen that has been chem-adsorbed to a surface. A particularly important segment of covalent hydrides are complex metal hydrides, powerful soluble hydrides commonly used in synthetic procedures.

text: Molecular hydrides often involve additional ligands such as, diisobutylaluminium hydride (DIBAL) consists of two aluminum centers bridged by hydride ligands. Hydrides that are soluble in common solvents are widely used in organic synthesis. Particularly common are sodium borohydride (NaBH4) and lithium aluminium hydride and hindered reagents such as DIBAL.

text: Interstitial hydrides or metallic hydrides[edit]

text: Interstitial hydrides most commonly exist within metals or alloys. They are traditionally termed 'compounds', even though they do not strictly conform to the definition of a compound; more closely resembling common alloys such as steel. In such hydrides, hydrogen can exist as either atomic, or diatomic entities. Mechanical or thermal processing, such as bending, striking, or annealing may cause the hydrogen to precipitate out of solution, by degassing. Their bonding is generally considered metallic. Such bulk transition metals form interstitial binary hydrides when exposed to hydrogen. These systems are usually non-stoichiometric, with variable amounts of hydrogen atoms in the lattice. In materials engineering, the phenomenon of hydrogen embrittlement results from the formation of interstitial hydrides. Hydrides of this type form according to either one of two main mechanisms. The first mechanism involves the adsorption of dihydrogen, succeeded by the cleaving of the H-H bond, the delocalisation of the hydrogen's electrons, and finally, the diffusion of the protons into the metal lattice. The other main mechanism involves the electrolytic reduction of ionised hydrogen on the surface of the metal lattice, also followed by the diffusion of the protons into the lattice. The second mechanism is responsible for the observed temporary volume expansion of certain electrodes used in electrolytic experiments.

text: Palladium absorbs up to 900 times its own volume of hydrogen at room temperatures, forming palladium hydride. This material has been discussed as a means to carry hydrogen for vehicular fuel cells. Interstitial hydrides show certain promise as a way for safe hydrogen storage. During last 25 years many interstitial hydrides were developed that readily absorb and discharge hydrogen at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. They are usually based on intermetallic compounds and solid-solution alloys. However, their application is still limited, as they are capable of storing only about 2 weight percent of hydrogen, insufficient for automotive applications.[citation needed]

text: Transition metal hydride complexes[edit]

text: Transition metal hydrides include compounds that can be classified as covalent hydrides. Some are even classified as interstitial hydrides[citation needed] and other bridging hydrides. Classical transition metal hydride feature a single bond between the hydrogen centre and the transition metal. Some transition metal hydrides are acidic, e.g., HCo(CO)4 and H2Fe(CO)4. The anions [ReH9]2− and [FeH6]4− are examples from the growing collection of known molecular homoleptic metal hydrides.[7] As pseudohalides, hydride ligands are capable of bonding with positively polarized hydrogen centres. This interaction, called dihydrogen bond is similar to hydrogen bonding which exists between positively polarized protons and electronegative atoms with open lone pairs.

text: Deuterides[edit]

text: Hydrides containing deuterium are known as deuterides. Some deuterides, such as LiD, are important fusion fuels in thermonuclear weapons, and useful moderators in nuclear reactors.

text: Appendix on nomenclature[edit]

text: Protide, deuteride, and tritide are used to describe ions or compounds, which contain enriched hydrogen-1, deuterium or tritium, respectively.

text: In the classic meaning, hydride refers to any compounds hydrogen forms with other elements, ranging over groups 1–16 (the binary compounds of hydrogen). The following is a list of the nomenclature for the hydride derivatives of main group compounds according to this definition:[4]

text:
alkali and alkaline earth metals: metal hydride
boron: borane, BH3
aluminium: alumane, AlH3
gallium: gallane, GaH3
indium: indigane, InH3
thallium: thallane, TlH3
carbon: alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, and all hydrocarbons
silicon: silane
germanium: germane
tin: stannane
lead: plumbane
nitrogen: ammonia ('azane' when substituted), hydrazine
phosphorus: phosphine (note 'phosphane' is the IUPAC recommended name)
arsenic: arsine (note 'arsane' is the IUPAC recommended name)
antimony: stibine (note 'stibane' is the IUPAC recommended name)
bismuth: bismuthine (note 'bismuthane' is the IUPAC recommended name)
helium: helium hydride (only exists as an ion)

text: According to the convention above, the following are "hydrogen compounds" and not "hydrides":[citation needed]

text:
oxygen: water ('oxidane' when substituted; synonym: oxygen hydride), hydrogen peroxide
sulfur: hydrogen sulfide ('sulfane' when substituted) synonym: sulfur hydride
selenium: hydrogen selenide ('selane' when substituted)
tellurium: hydrogen telluride ('tellane' when substituted)
polonium: hydrogen polonide ('polane' when substituted)
halogens: hydrogen halides

text: Examples:

text:
nickel hydride: used in NiMH batteries
palladium hydride: electrodes in cold fusion experiments
lithium aluminium hydride: a powerful reducing agent used in organic chemistry
sodium borohydride: selective specialty reducing agent, hydrogen storage in fuel cells
sodium hydride: a powerful base used in organic chemistry
diborane: reducing agent, rocket fuel, semiconductor dopant, catalyst, used in organic synthesis; also borane, pentaborane and decaborane
arsine: used for doping semiconductors
stibine: used in semiconductor industry
phosphine: used for fumigation
silane: many industrial uses, e.g. manufacture of composite materials and water repellents
ammonia: coolant, fuel, fertilizer, many other industrial uses
hydrogen sulfide: component of natural gas, important source of sulfur
Chemically, even water and hydrocarbons could be considered hydrides.

text: All metalloid hydrides are highly flammable. All solid non-metallic hydrides except ice are highly flammable. But, when hydrogen combines with halogens, it produces acids rather than hydrides, and they are not flammable.

text: Precedence convention[edit]

text: According to IUPAC convention, by precedence (stylized electronegativity), hydrogen falls between group 15 and group 16 elements. Therefore, we have NH3, 'nitrogen hydride' (ammonia), versus H2O, 'hydrogen oxide' (water). This convention is sometimes broken for polonium, which on the grounds of polonium's metallicity is often referred to as 'polonium hydride' instead of the expected 'hydrogen polonide'.


document_title: List of European countries by area

question_text: what is the largest country in europe by square miles

text: List of European countries by area

text: It has been suggested that this article be merged with List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Europe. (Discuss) Proposed since December 2017.

text: This article duplicates the scope of other articles. Please discuss this issue on the talk page and edit it to conform with Wikipedia's Manual of Style. (December 2017)

text: Below is a list of all countries in Europe, in order of geographical area. Europe's total geographical area is 10,288,305 km².[citation needed]

text: * — Note: some countries are transcontinental, meaning, they are only partially located in Europe. Those are ranked according to the size of their parts within Europe only.

text: The list includes only sovereign states. Therefore, for example the United Kingdom is included in place of the four individual home nations.

text:
Rank
Country
Area (km²)
Notes

1
 Russia*
3,972,400
17,098,242 including North Asia

2
 Ukraine
603,628
This includes Crimea

3
 France*
551,394
643,801 when the overseas departments are included

4
 Spain*
498,468
505,992 when the Canary Islands, Ceuta and Melilla are included

5
 Sweden
449,964

6
 Norway
385,178
This includes Svalbard and Jan Mayen[1]

7
 Germany
357,168

8
 Finland
338,145

9
 Poland
312,685

10
 Italy
301,338

11
 United Kingdom
248,532
1,976,102 when the British Overseas Territories are included.

12
 Romania
238,392

13
 Belarus
207,600

14
 Kazakhstan*
180,000 (est.)
2,724,902 including Asian part

15
 Greece
131,940

16
 Bulgaria
110,994

17
 Iceland
102,775

18
 Hungary
93,030

19
 Portugal
91,568

20
 Austria
83,858

21
 Czech Republic
78,866

22
 Serbia
77,453
This excludes Kosovo

23
 Ireland
70,273

24
 Lithuania
65,300

25
 Latvia
64,589

26
 Croatia
56,594

27
 Bosnia and Herzegovina
51,129

28
 Slovakia
49,036

29
 Estonia
45,339

30
 Denmark
44,493
This includes Faroe Islands; 2,210,579 including Greenland

31
 Switzerland
41,290

32
 Netherlands
41,198
Excluding Caribbean Netherlands, Aruba, Curacao and Sint Maarten.

33
 Moldova
33,846

34
 Belgium
30,510

35
 Albania
28,748

36
 Macedonia (Former Yugoslavian Republic)
25,713

37
 Turkey*
23,507
783,562 including Asian part

38
 Slovenia
20,273

39
 Montenegro
13,812

40
 Kosovo
10,908
Partially recognized state

41
 Cyprus
9,251

42
 Azerbaijan*
6,960
86,600 including Asian part

43
 Luxembourg
2,586

44
 Georgia*
2,428
69,700 including Asian part

45
 Andorra
468

46
 Malta
316

47
 Liechtenstein
160

48
 San Marino
61

49
 Monaco
1.95

50
 Vatican City
0.44

Total
10,141,183
±5,000

text:
Purple = Russia,
Green = countries with European area bigger than 10,000 km²,
Red = countries with European area smaller than 10,000 km²

text: Definition[edit]

text: Europe and Asia are contiguous with each other and thus the exact boundary between them is not clearly defined, and often follows historical, political, and cultural definitions rather than geographical.

text:
Clickable map of Europe, showing one of the most commonly used continental boundaries[2]
Key: blue: states which straddle the border between Europe and Asia; green: countries not geographically in Europe, but closely associated with the continent


document_title: Senate of the Roman Empire

question_text: who took power by disobeying the roman senate

text: Senate of the Roman Empire

text: Procedure[edit]

text: The first emperor, Augustus, inherited a Senate whose membership had been increased to 900 senators by his adoptive father, Julius Caesar. Augustus sought to reduce the size of the Senate, and did so through three revisions to the list of senators.[1] By the time that these revisions had been completed, the Senate had been reduced to 600 members, and after this point, the size of the Senate was never again drastically altered. To reduce the size of the senate, Augustus expelled senators who were of low birth,[1] and then he reformed the rules which specified how an individual could become a senator. Under Augustus' reforms, a senator had to be a citizen of free birth, have not been convicted of any crimes under lex Julia de vi privata, and have property worth at least 1,000,000 sesterces.[2]

text: Under the Empire, as was the case during the late Republic, one could become a senator by being elected quaestor. Under the Empire, however, one could only stand for election to the Quaestorship if one was of senatorial rank, and to be of senatorial rank, one had to be the son of a senator.[1] If an individual was not of senatorial rank, there were two ways for that individual to become a senator. Under the first method, the Emperor granted that individual the authority to stand for election to the Quaestorship,[1] while under the second method, the Emperor appointed that individual to the senate by issuing a decree (the adlectio).[3]

text: Beginning in 9 BC, with the passage of Augustus' lex Julia de senatu habendo,[2] an official list of senators (the album senatorium) was maintained and revised each year. Individuals were added to the list if they had recently satisfied the requirements for entry into the Senate, and were removed from the list if they no longer satisfied the requirements necessary to maintain senate membership.[3] The list named each senator by order of rank.[3] The Emperor always outranked all of his fellow senators, and was followed by "Consuls" (the highest ranking magistrate) and former Consuls, then by "Praetors" (the next highest ranking magistrate) and former Praetors, and so on. A senator's tenure in elective office was considered when determining rank, while senators who had been elected to an office did not necessarily outrank senators who had been appointed to that same office by the Emperor[3]

text: Members of the senatorial order were distinguished by a broad reddish-purple stripe edging their togas – the formal dress of all Roman citizens.

text: Under the Empire, the power that the Emperor held over the Senate was absolute, which was due, in part, to the fact that the Emperor held office for life.[4] During senate meetings, the Emperor sat between the two Consuls,[5] and usually acted as the presiding officer. Senators of the early Empire could ask extraneous questions or request that a certain action be taken by the Senate. Higher ranking senators spoke before lower ranking senators, although the Emperor could speak at any time.[5] Besides the Emperor, Consuls and Praetors could also preside over the senate.

text: The Senate ordinarily met in the Curia Julia, usually on either the Kalends (the first day of the month), or the Ides (around the fifteenth day of the month), although scheduled meetings occurred more frequently in September and October. Other meetings were held on an ad hoc basis.[3] Under Augustus, a quorum was set at 400 senators, although eventually excessive absenteeism forced the senate to lower the number of senators necessary for a quorum, and, on some matters, to revoke the quorum rules altogether.[5]

text: Most of the bills that came before the Senate were presented by the Emperor or his supporters in the body. In the early principate, Augustus and Tiberius made conscious efforts to hide their influence on the body, lobbying in private instead of directly proposing legislation.[2] Since no senator could stand for election to a magisterial office without the Emperor's approval, senators usually did not vote against bills that had been presented by the Emperor.[citation needed] If a senator disapproved of a bill, he usually showed his disapproval by not attending the Senate meeting on the day that the bill was to be voted on.[6] Each Emperor selected a quaestor to compile the proceedings of the Senate into a document (the acta senatus), which included proposed bills, official documents, and a summary of speeches that had been presented before the Senate. The document was archived, while parts of it were published (in a document called the acta diurna or "daily doings") and then distributed to the public.[6]

text: Powers[edit]

text: While the Roman assemblies continued to meet after the founding of the Empire, their powers were all transferred to the Senate, and so senatorial decrees (senatus consulta) acquired the full force of law.[4] The legislative powers of the Imperial Senate were principally of a financial and an administrative nature, although the senate did retain a range of powers over the provinces.[4] The Senate could also regulate festivals and religious cults, grant special honors, excuse an individual (usually the Emperor) from legal liability, manage temples and public games, and even enact tax laws (but only with the acquiescence of the Emperor).[4] However, it had no real authority over either the state religion or over public lands.

text: During the early Roman Empire, all judicial powers that had been held by the Roman assemblies were also transferred to the Senate. For example, the senate now held jurisdiction over criminal trials. In these cases, a consul presided, the senators constituted the jury, and the verdict was handed down in the form of a decree (senatus consultum),[4][7] and, while a verdict could not be appealed, the Emperor could pardon a convicted individual through a veto. Each province that was under the jurisdiction of the Senate had its own court, and, upon the recommendation of a consul, decisions of these provincial courts could be appealed to the Senate.[7]

text: In theory, the Senate elected new emperors, while in conjunction with the popular assemblies, it would then confer upon the new emperor his command powers (imperium).[7] After an emperor had died or abdicated his office, the Senate would often deify him, although sometimes it would pass a decree (damnatio memoriae or "damnation from memory") which would attempt to cancel every trace of that emperor from the life of Rome, as if he had never existed.[7] The emperor Tiberius transferred all electoral powers from the assemblies to the Senate,[7] and, while theoretically the Senate elected new magistrates, the approval of the Emperor was always needed before an election could be finalized. Despite this fact, however, elections remained highly contested and vigorously fought.[7]

text: Under Vespasian (69-79 AD) senators were accorded an increased role as senior officials of the Imperial household in Rome or as provincial rulers directly representing the emperor. At the same time, members of the Equestrian order were employed in administrative positions that earlier emperors had reserved for freedmen. In the case of the Senate this expanded responsibility ensured an increased opportunity for providing advice and exercising authority. At the end of the Flavian dynasty the Senate was able to choose Nerva as the new emperor – the first time under the Empire that such an initiative had been possible.[8] However, after the death of Marcus Aurelius, the Senate became increasingly irrelevant, as Emperors become more hostile to its members and less frequently consulted it.[2] By the Severan dynasty, the Senatorial class was also increasingly separated from the actual operations of government, which were increasingly taken over by equestrians and other members of the Imperial bureaucracy.[2]

text: Around 300 AD, the Emperor Diocletian enacted a series of constitutional reforms. In one such reform, Diocletian asserted the right of the Emperor to take power without the theoretical consent of the Senate, thus depriving the Senate of its status as the ultimate depository of supreme power. Diocletian's reforms also ended whatever illusion had remained that the Senate had independent legislative, judicial, or electoral powers. The Senate did, however, retain its legislative powers over public games in Rome, and over the senatorial order. The Senate also retained the power to try treason cases, and to elect some magistrates, but only with the permission of the Emperor. In the final years of the Empire, the Senate would sometimes try to appoint their own emperor, such as in case of Eugenius who was later defeated by forces loyal to Theodosius I. The Senate remained the last stronghold of the traditional Roman religion in the face of the spreading Christianity, and several times attempted to facilitate the return of the Altar of Victory, first removed by Constantius II, to the senatorial curia.

text: Post-Imperial period[edit]

text: After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Senate continued to function under the barbarian chieftain Odoacer, and then under Theoderic the Great who founded the Ostrogothic Kingdom. The authority of the Senate rose considerably under barbarian leaders who sought to protect the institution. This period was characterized by the rise of prominent Roman senatorial families such as the Anicii, while the Senate's leader, the princeps senatus, often served as the right hand of the barbarian leader. It is known that the Senate installed Laurentius as antipope in 498 despite the fact that both King Theodoric and Emperor Anastasius supported Pope Symmachus.

text: The peaceful co-existence of senatorial and barbarian rule continued until the Ostrogothic leader Theodahad began an uprising against Emperor Justinian I and took the senators as hostages. Several senators were executed in 552 as a revenge for the death of the Ostrogothic king Totila. After Rome was recaptured by the Imperial (Byzantine) army, the Senate was restored, but the institution (like classical Rome itself) had been mortally weakened by the long war between the Byzantines and the Ostrogoths. Many senators had been killed and many of those who had fled to the East chose to remain there thanks to favorable legislation passed by emperor Justinian, who however abolished virtually all senatorial offices in Italy. The importance of the Roman Senate thus declined rapidly. In 578 and again in 580, the Senate sent envoys to Constantinople who delivered 3000 pounds of gold as a gift to the new emperor Tiberius II Constantinus along with a plea for help against the Langobards who had invaded Italy ten years earlier. Pope Gregory I, in a sermon from 593 (Senatus deest, or.18), lamented the almost complete disappearance of the senatorial order and the decline of the prestigious institution. It is not clearly known when the Roman Senate disappeared in the West, but it is known from Gregorian register that the Senate acclaimed new statues of Emperor Phocas and Empress Leontia in 603.[9] The institution must have vanished by 630 when the Curia was transformed into a church by Pope Honorius I. The Senate did continue to exist in the Eastern Roman Empire's capital Constantinople, however, having been instituted there during the reign of Constantine I. The Byzantine Senate survived until at least the mid-14th century, before the ancient institution finally vanished from history.


document_title: P.S. I Still Love You

question_text: who does lara jean end up with in ps i still love you

text: P.S. I Still Love You

text:
P.S. I Still Love You
Author
Jenny HanCountry
United StatesLanguage
EnglishGenre
Young adultPublisher
Simon & SchusterPublication date
May 26, 2015Media type
Print (hardback, paperback)Pages
337ISBN
978-1442426740Preceded by
To All the Boys I've Loved BeforeFollowed by
Always and Forever, Lara Jean

text: P.S. I Still Love You is a 2015 young adult romance novel by American author Jenny Han, first published by Simon & Schuster and released on May 26, 2015. It is the sequel to the novel To All the Boys I've Loved Before, released on April 15, 2014,[1] and was followed by a third installment, Always and Forever, Lara Jean, released on May 2, 2017.[2]

text: Plot[edit]

text: After the fight between Lara Jean, Josh and Peter at the Coveys' Christmas party, Lara Jean realizes that she has fallen for Peter. Hoping to reconcile, Lara Jean heads over to Peter's house with a love letter she hopes for him to read. After a brief talk, the two kiss and decide they want to be a real couple. At school, Lara Jean discovers that someone has posted a video of her and Peter making out in the hot tub from the ski trip. A rumor spreads that the two were having sex. After seeing the video during school, Peter is furious and warns the anonymous poster not to mess with Lara Jean.

text: Before Margot leaves to go back to college in Scotland, she tells Lara Jean to get a job. Taking Margot's advice, Lara Jean volunteers to start a scrapbooking class at the Belleview retirement home, and gets closer to Stormy, an elderly woman who has a feisty temper. Stormy gives Lara Jean relationship advice. Meanwhile, Kitty begins an attempt to set up their father with the neighbor across the street, Trina Rothschild.

text: One day, Lara Jean receives a letter in the mail from John Ambrose McClaren, telling her that he received the love letter she wrote him. Lara Jean and John soon become pen pals. When Lara Jean finds out that the neighborhood treehouse she and her friends used to hang out in will soon be cut down, she decides to throw a reunion party there and invites John. She also plans to open a time capsule that they buried at the treehouse when they were in seventh grade.

text: At the treehouse party, Peter brings his ex-girlfriend Genevieve, knowing that Lara Jean did not want her to come. Lara Jean also finds out that the two were hanging out before the party, prompting her to become suspicious, and a little jealous, of Peter and Genevieve's "relationship". During the party, Lara Jean distracts herself from Peter by focusing on John. The group takes it in turn to pull an item from the time capsule, and then decides to play Assassins, which they often played during their childhood. For the prize, they decide the winner will be granted one wish. Lara Jean is determined to win since she has never previously won a game.

text: After the party, Lara Jean and Peter argue about John and Genevieve, and Peter insists there is only friendship between him and his ex. During the Assassins game, Lara Jean discovers that Peter and Geneveive have formed an alliance, causing her to become suspicious again. Lara Jean finds out that Stormy is John's great-grandmother when he comes to visit the retirement home, and also eliminates him from Assassins. Her next target is now Peter, and John decides to help her out.

text: Meanwhile, Lara Jean and Peter break up when she discovers that Peter knew Genevieve was the person who sent out the video from the hot tub. She tells him if she wins Assassins, she would wish that nothing had happened between them. Lara Jean begins spending more time with John as they scheme to take out Genevieve from the game. Lara Jean ends up winning, and discovers the reason Peter and Genevieve have been hanging out: Genevieve confided in Peter about her father's affair with a younger woman.

text: Lara Jean meets with Peter at the treehouse the night before it is to be cut down. She tells him her wish is for things to go back to the way they were between them, and Peter professes his love for her.

text: Reception[edit]

text: The novel spent twelve weeks on The New York Times Best Seller list, peaking at #2 in the Young Adult fiction section.[3]


document_title: Dick Parry

question_text: who played sax on money by pink floyd

question_tokens: who played sax on money by pink floyd

text: Dick Parry

text:
Dick Parry

Born
(1942-12-22) 22 December 1942 (age 74)
Kentford, Suffolk, England

Occupation(s)
Saxophonist

Instruments
Tenor saxophone, baritone saxophone

Years active
1964 – present

Associated acts
Pink Floyd
David Gilmour
Jokers Wild

text: Richard 'Dick' Parry (born 22 December 1942 in Kentford, Suffolk, England) is an English saxophonist. He has appeared as a session musician on various albums by modern bands and artists, and is probably best known for his solo parts on the Pink Floyd songs "Money", "Us and Them", "Shine On You Crazy Diamond" and "Wearing the Inside Out".[1][2] He also played on the Bloodstone album Riddle of the Sphinx.

text: Career[edit]

text: Parry started his career as a friend of Pink Floyd guitarist David Gilmour.[1] He was part of a mid-1960s band also including Gilmour called Joker's Wild. From there, Gilmour persuaded him to play on Pink Floyd studio albums, including The Dark Side of the Moon, Wish You Were Here, and The Division Bell, as well as on every Pink Floyd live performance between 1973 and 1977, and the 1994 world tour.[1] He also toured as part of The Who's brass section on their 1979–1980 tours.

text: He played saxophone on "Celestine" for the 1997 album Big Men Cry by Banco de Gaia.

text: Parry appeared on Gilmour's live dates in 2001 and 2002, one performance of which was released as David Gilmour in Concert. He also played on the 2006 On An Island tour in Europe, the United States, and Canada, performing saxophone on "Shine On You Crazy Diamond", "Wearing the Inside Out", and "Then I Close My Eyes". Shows from the Royal Albert Hall in London, and from the Shipyard in Gdańsk, Poland were released as the DVDs Remember That Night and Live in Gdańsk, respectively.[1]

text: He appeared at the Pink Floyd reunion at Live 8, where he played his saxophone part on "Money". In 2009, he toured Europe and South Africa with the Violent Femmes.[1]

text: Selected discography as saxophonist[edit]

text:
1970: J. J. Jackson's Dilemma - J. J. Jackson
1971: Quiver - Quiver
1971: Bring it back home - Mike Vernon with Rory Gallagher and Pete Wingfield
1972: Let's Make Up and Be Friendly - Bonzo Dog Doo-Dah Band
1972: Transatlantic - Jimmy Dawkins
1972: Mick the Lad - Mick Grabham (Procol Harum)
1972: London Gumbo - Lightnin' Slim
1973: The Dark Side of the Moon - Pink Floyd
1973: I'm the Worst Partner I Know - Kazimierz Lux
1973: Urban Cowboy - Andy Roberts (on the track "Elaine")
1975: Wish You Were Here - Pink Floyd (on "Shine On You Crazy Diamond (Part V)")
1974: First of the Big Bands - Paice Ashton Lord
1974: Riddle of the Sphinx - Bloodstone
1975: Mad Dog - John Entwistle (The Who)
1975: Live 1971-1975 - Les Humphries Singers
1975: Love is a Five Letter Word - Jimmy Witherspoon
1975: Fingertips - Duster Bennett
1982: Jinx - Rory Gallagher
1993: BBC Radio One live in concert - Paice Ashton Lord
1994: The Division Bell - Pink Floyd ("Wearing the Inside Out")
1995: Pulse - Pink Floyd
1998: Big Men Cry - Banco de Gaia (on the track "Celestine")
2002: David Gilmour In Concert - David Gilmour - DVD
2008: Duchess - Deborah Bonham


document_title: Photographic processing

question_text: which chemical makes it possible for a photograph to be exposed to be open to white light

text: Photographic processing

text: Common processes[edit]

text: All photographic processing use a series of chemical baths. Processing, especially the development stages, requires very close control of temperature, agitation and time.

text: Black and white negative processing[edit]

text:
The film may be soaked in water to swell the gelatin layer, facilitating the action of the subsequent chemical treatments.
The developer converts the latent image to macroscopic particles of metallic silver.[3]
A stop bath,† typically a dilute solution of acetic acid or citric acid, halts the action of the developer. A rinse with clean water may be substituted.
The fixer makes the image permanent and light-resistant by dissolving remaining silver halide. A common fixer is hypo, specifically ammonium thiosulfate.[4]
Washing in clean water removes any remaining fixer. Residual fixer can corrode the silver image, leading to discolouration, staining and fading.[citation needed]

text: The washing time can be reduced and the fixer more completely removed if a hypo clearing agent is used after the fixer.

text:
Film may be rinsed in a dilute solution of a non-ionic wetting agent to assist uniform drying, which eliminates drying marks caused by hard water. (In very hard water areas, a pre-rinse in distilled water may be required - otherwise the final rinse wetting agent can cause residual ionic calcium on the film to drop out of solution, causing spotting on the negative.)
Film is then dried in a dust-free environment, cut and placed into protective sleeves.

text: Once the film is processed, it is then referred to as a negative.

text: The negative may now be printed; the negative is placed in an enlarger and projected onto a sheet of photographic paper. Many different techniques can be used during the enlargement process. Two examples of enlargement techniques are dodging and burning.

text: Alternatively (or as well), the negative may be scanned for digital printing or web viewing after adjustment, retouching, and/or manipulation.

text: † In modern automatic processing machines, the stop bath is replaced by mechanical squeegee or pinching rollers. These treatments remove much of the carried-over alkaline developer, and the acid, when used, neutralizes the alkalinity to reduce the contamination of the fixing bath with the developer.

text: Black and white reversal processing[edit]

text: This process has three additional stages:

text:
Following the stop bath, the film is bleached to remove the developed negative image. The film then contains a latent positive image formed from unexposed and undeveloped silver halide salts.
The film is fogged, either chemically or by exposure to light.
The remaining silver halide salts are developed in the second developer, converting them into a positive image.
Finally, the film is fixed, washed, dried and cut.[5]

text: Colour processing[edit]

text: Chromogenic materials use dye couplers to form colour images. Modern colour negative film is developed with the C-41 process and colour negative print materials with the RA-4 process. These processes are very similar, with differences in the first chemical developer.

text: The C-41 and RA-4 processes consist of the following steps:

text:
The colour developer develops the silver negative image, and byproducts activate the dye couplers to form the colour dyes in each emulsion layer.
A rehalogenising bleach converts the developed silver image into silver halides.
A fixer removes the silver salts.
The film is washed, stabilised, dried and cut.[6]

text: In the RA-4 process, the bleach and fix are combined. This is optional, and reduces the number of processing steps.[7]

text: Transparency films, except Kodachrome, are developed using the E-6 process, which has the following stages:

text:
A black and white developer develops the silver in each image layer.
Development is stopped with a rinse or a stop bath.
The film is fogged in the reversal step.
The fogged silver halides are developed and oxidized developing agents couple with the dye couplers in each layer.
The film is bleached, fixed, stabilised and dried as described above.[6]

text: In some old processes, the film emulsion was hardened during the process, typically before the bleach. Such a hardening bath often used aldehydes, such as formaldehyde and glutaraldehyde. In modern processing, these hardening steps are unnecessary because the film emulsion is sufficiently hardened to withstand the processing chemicals.

text: Further processing[edit]

text: Black and white emulsions both negative and positive, may be further processed. The image silver may be reacted with elements such as selenium or sulphur to increase image permanence and for aesthetic reasons. This process is known as toning.

text: In selenium toning, the image silver is changed to silver selenide; in sepia toning, the image is converted to silver sulphide. These chemicals are more resistant to atmospheric oxidising agents than silver.

text: If colour negative film is processed in conventional black and white developer, and fixed and then bleached with a bath containing hydrochloric acid and potassium dichromate solution, the resultant film, once exposed to light, can be redeveloped in colour developer to produce an unusual pastel colour effect.[citation needed]

text: Processing apparatus[edit]

text: Before processing, the film must be removed from the camera and from its cassette, spool or holder in a light-proof room or container.

text: Small scale processing[edit]

text: In amateur processing, the film is removed from the camera and wound onto a reel in complete darkness (usually inside a darkroom with the safelight turned off or a lightproof bag with arm holes). The reel holds the film in a spiral shape, with space between each successive loop so the chemicals may flow freely across the film's surfaces. The reel is placed in a specially designed light-proof tank (called daylight processing tank or a light-trap tank) where it is retained until final washing is complete.

text: Sheet films can be processed in trays, in hangers (which are used in deep tanks), or rotary processing drums. Each sheet can be developed individually for special requirements. Stand development, long development in dilute developer without agitation, is occasionally used.

text: Commercial processing[edit]

text: In commercial processing, the film is removed automatically or by an operator handling the film in a light proof bag from which it is fed into the processing machine. The processing machinery is generally run on a continuous basis with films spliced together in a continuous line. All the processing steps are carried out within a single processing machine with automatically controlled time, temperature and solution replenishment rate. The film or prints emerge washed and dry and ready to be cut by hand. Some modern machines also cut films and prints automatically, sometimes resulting in negatives cut across the middle of the frame where the space between frames is very thin or the frame edge is indistinct, as in an image taken in low light.