document_title: Arlington National Cemetery

question_text: who was the first person buried in arlington cemetery

question_tokens: who was the first person buried in arlington cemetery

text: Arlington National Cemetery

text: History[edit]

text: George Washington Parke Custis, grandson of Martha Washington, acquired the land that now is Arlington National Cemetery in 1802, and began construction of Arlington House (the name is ultimately derived from the village of Arlington, Gloucestershire, England, where Custis' family was originally from). The estate passed to Custis' daughter, Mary Anna, who had married United States Army officer Robert E. Lee. Custis' will gave a "life inheritance" to Mary Lee, allowing her to live at and run Arlington Estate for the rest of her life but not enabling her to sell any portion of it.[4] Upon her death, the Arlington estate passed to her eldest son, George Washington Custis Lee.[4]

text: When Virginia seceded from the Union at the start of the American Civil War, Robert E. Lee resigned his commission on April 20, 1861, and took command of the armed forces of the Commonwealth of Virginia, later becoming commander of the Army of Northern Virginia.[5] On May 7, troops of the Virginia militia occupied Arlington and Arlington House.[6] With Confederate forces occupying Arlington's high ground, the capital of the Union was left in an untenable military position.[7] Although unwilling to leave Arlington House, Mary Lee believed her estate would soon be recaptured by federal soldiers. So she buried many of her family treasures on the grounds and left for her sister's estate at Ravensworth in Fairfax County, Virginia, on May 14.[8][9] On May 3, General Winfield Scott ordered Brigadier General Irvin McDowell to clear Arlington and the city of Alexandria, Virginia, of all troops not loyal to the United States.[10] McDowell occupied Arlington without opposition on May 24.[11]

text: At the outbreak of the Civil War, most military personnel who died in battle near Washington, D.C., were buried at the United States Soldiers' Cemetery in Washington, D.C., or Alexandria Cemetery in Alexandria, Virginia, but by late 1863 both were nearly full.[12] On July 16, 1862, Congress passed legislation authorizing the U.S. federal government to purchase land for national cemeteries for military dead, and put the U.S. Army Quartermaster General in charge of this program.[12] In May 1864, Union forces suffered large numbers of dead in the Battle of the Wilderness. Quartermaster General Montgomery C. Meigs ordered that an examination of eligible sites be made for the establishment for a large new national military cemetery. Within weeks, his staff reported that Arlington Estate was the most suitable property in the area.[12] The property was high and free from floods (which might unearth graves), it had a view of the District of Columbia, and it was aesthetically pleasing. It was also the home of the leader of the armed forces of the Confederate States of America, and denying Robert E. Lee use of his home after the war was a valuable political consideration.[13] The first military burial at Arlington, for William Henry Christman, was made on May 13, 1864,[14] close to what is now the northeast gate in Section 27.[15] However, Meigs did not formally authorize establishment of burials until June 15, 1864.[16] Arlington did not desegregate its burial practices until President Harry S. Truman issued Executive Order 9981 on July 26, 1948.[17]

text: The government acquired Arlington at a tax sale in 1864 for $26,800, equal to $410,000 today.[18] Mrs. Lee had not appeared in person but rather had sent an agent, attempting to pay the $92.07 in property taxes (equal to $1,400 today) assessed on the estate in a timely manner.[19] The government turned away her agent, refusing to accept the tendered payment. In 1874, Custis Lee, heir under his grandfather's will passing the estate in trust to his mother, sued the United States claiming ownership of Arlington. On December 9, 1882, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled 5–4 in Lee's favor in United States v. Lee, deciding that Arlington had been confiscated without due process.[19][20] After that decision, Congress returned the estate to him, and on March 3, 1883, Custis Lee sold it back to the government for $150,000 (equal to $3,271,364 in 2017) at a signing ceremony with Secretary of War Robert Todd Lincoln.[18][21] The land then became a military reservation.[22]

text: President Herbert Hoover conducted the first national Memorial Day ceremony in Arlington National Cemetery, on May 30, 1929.[23]

text: Freedmen's Village[edit]

text: Beginning in 1863, the federal government used the southern portion of the land now occupied by the cemetery as a settlement for freed slaves, giving the name of "Freedmen's Village" to the land. The government constructed rental houses that 1,100 to 3,000 freed slaves eventually occupied while farming 1,100 acres (450 ha) of the estate and receiving schooling and occupational training during the Civil War and after War ended.[21][24] However, after the land became part of a military reservation, the government asked the Villagers to leave. When some remained, John A. Commerford, the Superintendent of Arlington National Cemetery, asked the Army's Quartermaster General in 1887 to close the Village on the grounds that people living in the Village had been taking trees at night from the cemetery for use as firewood.[22][25] The Quartermaster General and the Secretary of War then approved Commerford's request.[22] The last of the Village's residents departed after the 56th United States Congress appropriated $75,000 in 1900 to settle the government's debts to them.[22]

text: Recent expansion[edit]

text: With limited space but large numbers of World War II, Korean War, Vietnam War, and other veterans dying and wanting to be buried at Arlington, the need for additional burial space at the cemetery became a pressing issue. In 1991, Cemetery superintendent John C. Metzler, Jr., implemented a $1.4 million plan to clear a former 13 acres (5.3 ha) parking lot to create space for about 9,000 new grave sites.[26]

text: The Cemetery received the authority to transfer 12 acres (4.9 ha) of woodland from the NPS-controlled Arlington House in 1996[27][28] and 2001,[29][30] 37 acres (15 ha) of land in 1999 from the DOD that was the site of the Navy Annex building,[31][32] 8 acres (3.2 ha) of land in 1999 from the Department of the Army that was part of Fort Myer,[31][33] 4 acres (1.6 ha) of land from Arlington County's Southgate Road right-of-way in 2004,[34] and just under 10 acres (4.0 ha) of land from Fort Myer in 2005.[29][35][36]

text: In 2007, Metzler implemented the Millennium Project, a $35 million expansion plan to begin utilizing the Arlington woodland, Fort Myer, and Navy Annex land. The project also included converting 40 acres (16 ha) of unused space and 4 acres (16,000 m2) of maintenance property on the cemetery grounds into burial space in 2006 and 2007 to allow an additional 26,000 graves and 5,000 inurnments. The Millennium Project expanded the cemetery's physical boundaries for the first time since the 1960s, and was the largest expansion of burial space at the site since the American Civil War.[35] Several environmental and historical preservation groups criticized Metzler's plans, as did the NPS and the manager of Arlington House.[35][36][37]

text: On March 26, 2013, the Consolidated and Further Continuing Appropriations Act, 2013 (Public Law 113-6) appropriated to the DOD $84 million to plan, design and construct the Millennium Project.[38] The legislation additionally appropriated to the DOD $19 million to study, plan and design a future expansion of the cemetery's burial space.[38]

text: Navy Annex property expansion controversy[edit]

text: In 1998, a Congressional proposal to expand the cemetery onto land that the Navy Annex and Fort Myer then occupied led to concerns that Arlington County officials had not been properly consulted, leading to the withdrawal of the proposal.[39] However, the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2000 (Public Law 106-65), which was enacted into law during October 1999, subsequently required the Secretary of Defense to transfer to the Secretary of the Army administrative jurisdiction of the 36 acres (15 ha) Navy Annex property. The Act required the Secretary of Defense to demolish the Annex's buildings and prepare the property for use as part of the cemetery, while requiring the Secretary of the Army to incorporate the Annex property into the cemetery.[32]

text: In January 2013, the County Manager of Arlington County, Virginia, and the Executive Director of the Army National Military Cemeteries (consisting of Arlington National Cemetery and the United States Soldiers' and Airmen's Home National Cemetery)[40] signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) between the Arlington County Board and the Department of the Army to expand the cemetery even further. Under the tentative plan, Arlington County would give up the easement for Southgate Road (which lies between the Navy Annex property and the cemetery's 2012 boundary), and obtain a narrow easement along the southwest border of the Navy Annex site for a new Southgate Road. In exchange, the Department of Defense would give the Navy Annex parking lot to the county.

text: The Army would also transfer land west of South Joyce Street to Columbia Pike to Arlington County. Additionally, the Commonwealth of Virginia would convey to the cemetery roughly the northern half of the Virginia Department of Transportation land bounded by South Joyce Street, Columbia Pike, and South Washington Boulevard. The cloverleaf interchange between Columbia Pike and S. Washington Blvd. would be eliminated, and the hairpin turn in Columbia Pike straightened, to provide a safer, more natural exit from S. Washington Blvd. onto Columbia Pike. Although exact acreages were not specified and the plan depended upon the Commonwealth of Virginia's cooperation, the MOU if implemented would have created a more contiguous plot of land for the cemetery.[41]

text: However, in December 2016, the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2017 (Public Law 114-328) authorized the Secretary of the Army to expand the cemetery by acquiring from Arlington County and the Commonwealth of Virginia by condemnation and other means properties near the cemetery that contain the Southgate Road, South Joyce Street and Washington Boulevard right-of-ways, including the Washington Boulvard-Columbia Pike interchange.[42] The Army then informed the Arlington County government in June 2017 that the Army would no longer pursue a land exchange with the County. The Army told the County that the Army would use the entire Navy Annex site to expand the cemetery and would acquire for the cemetery about 5 acres (2.0 ha) of public land that Arlington County then owned. The Army would also acquire for the cemetery expansion about 7 acres (2.8 ha) of land located between Columbia Pike and Interstate 395 that the Commonwealth of Virginia then owned.[43]

text: Arlington Woods expansion controversy[edit]

text: On February 22, 1995, officials of the United States Department of the Interior and the United States Department of the Army signed an agreement to transfer from Arlington House, The Robert E. Lee Memorial, to the Army a part of Arlington Woods, which was located in Section 29 of the NPS at Arlington National Cemetery between Arlington House and Fort Myer.[44] The property transfer, which involved 12 acres (4.9 ha) of NPS land, was intended to permit Metzler to start expanding the cemetery beyond its existing boundaries.[28][45]

text: Environmentalists expressed concerns that the agreement would result in the partial destruction of the 24 acres (9.7 ha) remnant of an historically important stand of native trees.[37][46] A historical marker near the woodland notes that, while visiting Arlington House in 1825, Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette had warned Mary Lee Fitzhugh Custis, the wife of George Washington Parke Custis: "Cherish these forest trees around your mansion. Recollect how much easier it is to cut a tree than to make one grow." The marker further notes that the Virginia Native Plant Society had recognized the woodland as being one of the best examples of old growth terraced gravel forest remaining in Virginia.[47]

text: On September 23, 1996, the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1997 (Public Law 104-201) authorized the Secretary of the Interior to transfer to the Secretary of the Army all of the land in Section 29 that was within an "Arlington National Cemetery Interment Zone" and some of the land in the Section that was within a "Robert E. Lee Memorial Preservation Zone".[27][28]

text: On March 5, 1998, the NPS, which is a component of the Department of the Interior, informed the National Capital Planning Commission that it wanted to transfer only 4 acres (1.6 ha) to the cemetery, rather than the 12 acres (4.9 ha) that the 1995 agreement had described. In response, Metzler stated: "I was surprised. But we will continue to work with the Department of Interior and see what happens."[28]

text: On July 12, 1999, the NPS issued a Federal Register notice that announced the availability of an environmental assessment (EA) for the transfer.[45][48] The EA stated that the Interment Zone contained the oldest and largest tract of climax eastern hardwood forest in Arlington County. This forest was the same type that once covered the Arlington estate, and had regenerated from trees that were present historically. A forestry study determined that a representative tree was 258 years old. The Interment Zone was also determined to contain significant archeological and cultural landscape resources, in addition to those in the Preservation Zone.[48] The EA described four alternative courses of action.[48]

text: In contrast to the NPS's March 1998 statement to the National Capital Planning Commission, the 1999 EA stated that the preferred alternative (Alternative 1) would transfer to the cemetery approximately 9.6 acres (3.9 ha), comprising most of the Interment Zone and the northern tip of the Preservation Zone.[48] Another alternative (Alternative 3) would transfer to the cemetery the 12 acres (4.9 ha) Interment Zone, while keeping the 12.5 acres (5.1 ha) Preservation Zone under NPS jurisdiction.[48] The EA concluded: "Public Law 104-201 directed the Secretary of the Interior to transfer to the Secretary of the Army jurisdiction over the Interment Zone, which is the plan in Alternative 3. Adoption of any of the other alternatives would require legislative action to amend the existing law."[48]

text: On December 28, 2001, the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2002 (Public Law 107-107) repealed the "obsolete" part of Public Law 104-201 that had authorized the transfer of portions of Section 29 to the Secretary of the Army.[30] The new legislation required the Secretary of the Interior to transfer to the Secretary of the Army within 30 days the approximately 12 acres (4.9 ha) Interment Zone.[30] The transfer therefore involved the entire 12 acres (4.9 ha) of NPS land that the 1995 agreement and Alternative 3 in the 1999 EA had described.

text: The 2001 legislation required the Secretary of the Army to use the Interment Zone for in-ground burial sites and columbarium.[30] In addition, the legislation required the Secretary of the Interior to manage the remainder of Section 29 "in perpetuity to provide a natural setting and visual buffer for Arlington House, the Robert E. Lee Memorial."[30]

text: On December 12, 2012, the United States Army Corps of Engineers asked for comments on a draft EA that described a further expansion of Arlington National Cemetery as part of the Millennium Project.[49][50][51] The 2012 draft EA was intended to implement conversion into burial space of the 17 acres (6.9 ha) of Ft. Myer grounds as well as 10 acres (4.0 ha) of Section 29 woodland. The draft EA described seven alternatives. The preferred alternative (Alternative E) called for the removal of about one-half of the 1,700 trees with a diameter of 6 inches (15 cm) or greater on the site. About 640 of the trees were within a 135-year-old portion of Arlington Woods.[52] The draft EA concluded: "Based on the evaluation of environmental impacts....., no significant impacts would be expected from the Proposed Action; therefore, an Environmental Impact Statement will not be prepared and a Finding of No Significant Impact will be prepared and signed."[52]

text: On March 12, 2013, the Corps of Engineers released a revised EA for the Millennium Project.[53][54] The revised EA contained copies of a number of public comments on the draft EA that had criticized the project and parts of the EA while proposing alternative locations for new military burials near the cemetery and elsewhere.[55] However, the Department of Forestry of the Commonwealth of Virginia found that, based on information in the draft EA, the project would not have a significant adverse impact on the Commonwealth's forest resources.[56] The revised EA did not change the preferred alternative (Alternative E) or the Army's plans to prepare and sign the Finding of No Significant Impact (FONSI) that the draft EA had described.[57]

text: On June 5, 2013, after reviewing 100 public comments that it had received on the revised EA, the Corps of Engineers released a final EA and a signed FONSI for the Millennium Project.[58][59] The Final EA and the FONSI retained Alternative E as the preferred alternative.[58] The final EA stated that, of the 905 trees to be removed, 771 trees were healthy native trees that had diameters between 6 and 41 inches.[60][61] The project would remove approximately 211 trees from a less than 2.63 acres (1.06 ha) area containing a portion of a 145-year-old forest that stood within the property boundaries of a historic district that a National Register of Historic Places nomination form for Arlington House had described in 1966.[60][62] About 491 trees would be removed from an area of trees that was approximately 105 years old.[60] Approximately 203 trees with ages of 50 to 145 years would be removed from a former picnic area.[60] At a public hearing on July 11, 2013, the National Capital Planning Commission approved the site and building plans for the Millennium Project.[63]

text: 2010 mismanagement controversy[edit]

text: On June 9, 2010, United States Secretary of the Army John M. McHugh reprimanded the cemetery's superintendent, John C. Metzler, Jr., and his deputy, Thurman Higgenbotham, after a DOD inspector general's report revealed that cemetery officials had placed the wrong headstones on tombs, buried coffins in shallow graves, and buried bodies on top of one another.[64] Metzler, who had already announced his intention to retire on July 2, 2010, admitted some mistakes had been made but denied allegations of widespread or serious mismanagement.[64] The investigation also found that cemetery employees were burdened in their day-to-day work by "dysfunctional management, lack of established policy and procedures, and an overall unhealthy organizational climate."[65][66] Both Metzler and Higgenbotham retired soon after the investigation commenced.[67]

text: In March 2011, as a result of the problems discovered, Kathryn Condon, the recently appointed Executive Director of the Army National Military Cemeteries, announced that the cemetery's staff had been increased from 102 to 159. She added that the cemetery was also acquiring additional equipment because, "They didn't have the proper equipment to do the job really to the standard they needed to do."[68]

text: The mismanagement controversy included a limitation on mass media access to funerals, which also proved controversial. Until 2005, the cemetery's administration gave free access, with the family's permission, to the press to cover funerals at the cemetery. According to the Washington Post in 2008, the cemetery gradually imposed increasing restrictions on media coverage of funerals beginning about 2005.[69]

text: Management turnover[edit]

text: After the cemetery's management controversy began to end, the Army appointed Patrick K. Hallinan the acting superintendent of the cemetery in June 2010. He was promoted permanently to the position in October 2010. Hallinan had previously worked for the Office of Field Programs in the National Cemetery Administration, an agency of the United States Department of Veterans' Affairs. In that capacity, Hallinan had oversight of 131 national cemeteries, national cemetery policy, procedures, and operations.[70] Hallinan was promoted to Executive Director of the Army National Military Cemeteries upon the retirement of Kathryn Condon in spring 2014.[71]

text: In May 2014, Hallinan stepped down and was replaced by Jack E. Lechner, Jr. as superintendent of the cemetery. Lechner had been a funeral director for 10 years in the private sector before joining the U.S. Army. He rose to the rank of colonel (retiring in November 2011), having spent 2008 to 2010 as chief of the Supply Division of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, overseeing the equipping of Iraqi and Afghanistan national security forces. Since June 2010, he had served as executive officer and deputy superintendent of the cemetery under Hallinan.[71]

text: The Army removed Lechner as superintendent of the cemetery in early August 2015 after a performance review "called into question his ability to serve successfully as a senior leader". The Army declined to elaborate further and appointed Hallinan to be the temporary Cemetery superintendent until the Army could find a successor.[72]

text: Wreaths Across America[edit]

text: Beginning in 1992, the Morrill Worcester wreath company in Harrington, Maine, had a surplus at the end of the holiday season. Recalling a boyhood trip to the cemetery, Worcester donated to the cemetery 5,000 wreaths to honor the cemetery's dead, with the help of volunteers and a local trucking company. After thirteen years of similar donations, in 2005 a photo of snowy gravestones covered with wreaths at the cemetery received widespread circulation on the Internet. Thousands of people called Worcester, wanting to replicate the wreath-laying service at their own veteran cemeteries.[73]

text: In 2006, over 150 different locations simultaneously held ceremonies with Arlington's. Additionally, the project had its first “Veterans Honor Parade” with "Patriot Guard Riders" who escorted the wreaths from Maine to the cemetery. The parade, which is held each year, now visits schools, monuments, veterans’ homes and communities along its route.[73]

text: At the end of 2006, Worcester's company supplied wreaths to over 230 state and national cemeteries and veterans monuments across the country.[74] Assisted by veterans and truckers, Worcester established in 2007 a nonprofit organization named "Wreaths Across America".[73] In December 2008, the United States Senate agreed to a resolution that designated December 13, 2008, as “Wreaths Across America Day”.[75]

text: In 2014, volunteers placed over 700,000 memorial wreaths at 1,000 locations in the United States and overseas, including the USS Arizona Memorial at Pearl Harbor, Bunker Hill, Valley Forge, and the National September 11 Memorial at the World Trade Center site in New York City. During that year, volunteers were able to place wreaths in all sections of the cemetery for the first time.[73] In 2016, this number increased to 1.2 million wreaths being placed at more than 1,230 cemeteries across the nation.[76]

text: Conflict of interest charges have been made against Wreaths Across America because this charity has an exclusive for-profit supplier, Worcestor Wreath Company, also run by the Morrill family in the same town. The charity's purchases of wreaths from this company account for most of the company's revenue and profits. In late 2015, the Wall Street Journal reported serious conflicts of interest with potential malfeasance in governance and contracting.[77] In 2015 alone the WSJ reported profits of over $1 million on sales of over 850,000 wreaths to the charity raising concerns about competitive bidding, reporting that several competitors had asked to bid significantly below the price offered by Worcestor Wreath Company but were denied access.

text: 150th anniversary[edit]

text: During May and June 2014, the cemetery celebrated the 150th anniversary of its founding with a month-long series of events, tours, and lectures.[78] During these celebrations, cemetery officials formally re-designated the Old Amphitheater as the James Tanner Amphitheater. James R. Tanner was a Union Army officer who lost both legs during the war. He later became a War Department stenographer, and recorded much of the early evidence in the investigation into the assassination of Abraham Lincoln. He later was active in the Grand Army of the Republic, a Union Army veterans group. Tanner is buried a few yards from the amphitheater.[79]

text: Sections[edit]

text: The Cemetery is divided into 70 sections, with some sections in the southeast and western part of the cemetery reserved for future expansion.[80] Section 60, in the southeast part of the cemetery, is the burial ground for military personnel killed in the Global War on Terror since 2001.[81] Section 21, also known as the Nurses Section, is the area of Arlington National Cemetery where many nurses are buried and is the site of the Spanish-American War Nurses Memorial and the Nurses Memorial.[82] Another section—Chaplains Hill—includes monuments to Jewish, Protestant, and Roman Catholic military chaplains. In 1901, Confederate soldiers buried at the Soldiers' Home and various locations within Arlington were reinterred in a Confederate section that was authorized by Congress in 1900. On June 4, 1914, the United Daughters of the Confederacy dedicated the Confederate Memorial designed by Moses Ezekiel. Upon his death in 1917, Ezekiel was buried at the base of the monument as he was a veteran of the Confederate army.[83] All Confederate headstones in this section are peaked rather than rounded.[84] More than 3,800 former slaves, called "Contrabands" during the Civil War, are buried in Section 27. Their headstones are designated with the word "Civilian" or "Citizen".[85]

text: Grave markers, niches, and headstones[edit]

text: The United States Department of Veterans Affairs oversees the National Cemetery Administration's orders[86] for placement of inscriptions and faith emblems at no charge to the estate of the deceased, submitted with information provided by the next of kin[87] that is placed on upright marble headstones or columbarium niche covers. The Department of Veterans Affairs currently offers 63 authorized faith emblems for placement on markers to represent the deceased's faith.[88] This number has grown in recent years due to legal challenges to policy.[89]

text: Prior to 2007, the United States Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) did not allow the use of the pentacle as an "emblem of belief" on tombstones in military cemeteries. This policy was changed following an out-of-court settlement on April 23 following a series of lawsuits by the family of Patrick Stewart against the VA.[90][91][92]

text: Between 1947 and 2001, privately purchased markers were permitted in the cemetery. The sections in which the cemetery permitted such markers are nearly filled and the cemetery generally does not allow new burials in these sections.[93] Nevertheless, the older sections of the cemetery have a wide variety of private markers placed prior to 2001, including an artillery piece.[94]

text: There are 32 Commonwealth war dead burials and some headstones are Commonwealth War Graves Commission style.

text: Arlington Memorial Amphitheater[edit]

text: The Tomb of the Unknowns is part of the Arlington Memorial Amphitheater. The Memorial Amphitheater has hosted state funerals and Memorial Day and Veterans Day ceremonies. Ceremonies are also held for Easter. About 5,000 people attend these holiday ceremonies each year. The structure is mostly built of Imperial Danby marble from Vermont. The Memorial Display room, between the amphitheater and the Tomb of the Unknowns, uses Botticino stone, imported from Italy. The amphitheater was the result of a campaign by Ivory Kimball to construct a place to honor America's servicemen/women. Congress authorized the structure on March 4, 1913. Woodrow Wilson laid the cornerstone for the building on October 15, 1915. The cornerstone contained 15 items including a Bible and a copy of the Constitution.[95]

text: Before the Arlington Memorial Amphitheater was completed in 1921, important ceremonies were held at what is now known as the "Old Amphitheater." This structure sits where Robert E. Lee once had his gardens. The amphitheater was built in 1868 under the direction of Civil War General John A. Logan. Gen. James A. Garfield was the featured speaker at the Decoration Day dedication ceremony, May 30, 1868, later being elected as President of the United States 1881. The amphitheater has an encircling colonnade with a latticed roof that once supported a web of vines. The amphitheater has a marble dais, known as "the rostrum", which is inscribed with the U.S. national motto found on the Great Seal of the United States, E pluribus unum ("Out of many, one"). The rostrum was designed by General Montgomery C. Meigs, then Quartermaster General of the U.S. Army.[96] The amphitheater seats 1,500 people and has hosted speakers such as William Jennings Bryan.[97]

text: Memorials[edit]

text: Tomb of the Unknowns[edit]

text: The Tomb of the Unknown Soldier stands on top of a hill overlooking Washington, D.C. One of the more well-attended sites at the cemetery, the tomb is made from Yule marble quarried in Colorado. It consists of seven pieces, with a total weight of 79 short tons (72 metric tons). The tomb was completed and opened to the public April 9, 1932, at a cost of $48,000.

text: It was initially named the "Tomb of the Unknown Soldier." Other unknown servicemen were later entombed there, and it became known as the "Tomb of the Unknowns", though it has never been officially named. The soldiers entombed there are:

text:
Unknown Soldier of World War I, interred November 11, 1921. President Warren G. Harding presided.
Unknown Soldier of World War II, interred May 30, 1958. President Dwight D. Eisenhower presided.
Unknown Soldier of the Korean War, also interred May 30, 1958. President Dwight Eisenhower presided again, Vice President Richard Nixon acted as next of kin.
Unknown Soldier of the Vietnam War, interred May 28, 1984. President Ronald Reagan presided. The remains of the Vietnam Unknown were disinterred, under the authority of President Bill Clinton, on May 14, 1998, and were identified as those of Air Force 1st Lt. Michael J. Blassie, whose family had them reinterred near their home in St. Louis, Missouri. It has been determined that the crypt at the Tomb of the Unknowns that contained the remains of the Vietnam Unknown will remain empty.

tag: ul

text: The Tomb of the Unknowns has been perpetually guarded since July 2, 1937, by the U.S. Army. The 3rd U.S. Infantry Regiment ("The Old Guard") began guarding the Tomb on April 6, 1948. There is a meticulous routine which the guard follows when watching over the graves.[98] The Tomb Guard:

text:
Marches 21 steps down the black mat behind the Tomb.
Turns, faces east for 21 seconds.
Turns and faces north for 21 seconds.
Takes 21 steps down the mat.
Repeats the routine until the soldier is relieved of duty at the Changing of the Guard.

tag: ol

text: After each turn, the Guard executes a sharp "shoulder-arms" movement to place the weapon on the shoulder closest to the visitors to signify that the Guard stands between the Tomb and any possible threat.

text: Twenty-one was chosen because it symbolizes the highest military honor that can be bestowed—the 21-gun salute.

text: Each turn the guard makes precise movements and followed by a loud click of the heels as he snaps them together. The guard is changed every half-hour during daylight in the summer, and every hour during daylight in the winter and every two hours at night (when the cemetery is closed to the public), regardless of weather conditions.

text: A commemorative stamp was issued on November 11, 1922, the first anniversary of the first entombment picturing the Amphitheater. It encompasses the original Tomb of the Unknown Soldier. The remains of an unidentified WW I American soldier was entombed on Armistice Day, November 11, 1921, later covered in 1931 by a more elaborate marble sarcophagus.[99]

text: Other memorials[edit]

text: There are several memorials on the grounds of the cemetery. However, due to the lack of space for burials and the large amount of space that memorials take up, the U.S. Army now requires a joint or concurrent resolution from Congress before it will place new memorials at Arlington.

text: Near the Tomb of the Unknowns stands the USS Maine Mast Memorial, which commemorates the 266 men who lost their lives aboard the USS Maine. The memorial is built around a mast salvaged from the Maine’s wreckage. The USS Maine Memorial served as the temporary resting place for foreign heads of state or government, Manuel L. Quezon of the Philippines and Ignacy Jan Paderewski of Poland, who died in exile in the United States during World War II.

text: The Space Shuttle Challenger Memorial was dedicated on May 20, 1986, in memory of the crew of flight STS-51-L, who died during launch on January 28, 1986. Transcribed on the back of the stone is the text of the John Gillespie Magee, Jr. poem High Flight, which was quoted by then President Ronald Reagan when he addressed the disaster. Although many remains were identified and returned to the families for private burial, some were not, and were laid to rest under the marker. Two crew members, Scobee and Smith, are buried in Arlington. On February 1, 2004, NASA Administrator Sean O'Keefe dedicated a similar memorial to those who died when the Shuttle Columbia broke apart during reentry on February 1, 2003.[100] Astronauts Laurel Clark, David Brown and Michael Anderson, who were killed in the Columbia disaster, are also buried in Arlington.

text: The Lockerbie Cairn is a memorial to the 270 killed in the bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland. The memorial is constructed of 270 stones, one for each person killed in the disaster. In section 64, a memorial to the 184 victims of the September 11 attacks on the Pentagon was dedicated September 11, 2002. The memorial takes the shape of a pentagon, and lists the names of all the victims that were killed. Unidentified remains from the victims are buried beneath it.[101]

text: On June 25, 1925, President Calvin Coolidge approved a request to erect a Commonwealth Cross of Sacrifice with the names of all the citizens of the USA who lost their lives fighting in the Canadian forces during World War I. The monument was dedicated November 11, 1927 and after the Korean War and World War II the names of US citizens who died in those conflicts were added.

text: The Women in Military Service for America Memorial is adjacent to the Ceremonial Entrance to the cemetery.

text: The Laos Memorial, or Lao Veterans of America memorial, dedicated to Lao and Hmong veterans who served with US Special Forces and CIA advisors during the Vietnam War, to defend the Royal Kingdom of Laos from the North Vietnamese invasion of Laos by selling opium to the CIA in exchange for weapons and promises for their own country, is located on Grant Avenue near the eternal flame memorial to U.S. President John F. Kennedy.[102]

text: In 2012, legislation began moving through Congress to approve a "Place of Remembrance" at the cemetery. The memorial will be an ossuary designed to contain fragments of remains which are unidentifiable through DNA analysis. The remains will be cremated before placement in the memorial.[103]

text: Burial procedures[edit]

text: The flags in the cemetery are flown at half-staff from a half-hour before the first funeral until a half hour after the last funeral each day. Funerals are normally conducted five days a week, excluding weekends.[104][105]

text: Funerals, including interments and inurnments, average between 27–30 per day. The Cemetery conducts approximately 6,900 burials each year.[85]

text: With more than 400,000 interments,[1] the cemetery has the second-largest number of burials of any national cemetery in the United States. The largest of the 130 national cemeteries is the Calverton National Cemetery, on Long Island, near Riverhead, New York, which conducts more than 7,000 burials each year.

text: In addition to in-ground burial, the cemetery also has one of the larger columbaria for cremated remains in the country. Four courts are currently in use, each with 5,000 niches. When construction is complete, there will be nine courts with a total of 50,000 niches; capacity for 100,000 remains. Any honorably discharged veteran is eligible for inurnment in the columbarium, if s/he served on active duty at some point in her/his career (other than for training).[106]

text: Burial criteria[edit]

text: Part 553 (Army National Military Cemeteries) of Title 32 of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) establishes regulations for the cemetery, including eligibility for interment (ground burial) and inurnment.[107] Due to limited space, the criteria for ground burial eligibility are more restrictive than at other national cemeteries, as well as more restrictive than for inurnment in the columbarium.

text: The persons specified below are eligible for ground burial in the cemetery, unless otherwise prohibited.[108] The last period of active duty of former members of the armed forces must have ended honorably. Interment may be of casketed or cremated remains.

text:
Any active-duty member of the armed forces (except those members serving on active duty for training only).
Any veteran who is retired and eligible for retirement pay from service in the armed forces (including service members retired from a reserve component who served a period of active duty (other than for training)).
Any former member of the armed forces separated honorably prior to October 1, 1949, for medical reasons and who was rated at 30% or greater disabled effective on the day of discharge.
Any former member of the armed forces who has been awarded one of the following decorations:

Medal of Honor
Distinguished Service Cross, Navy Cross, or Air Force Cross
Silver Star
Purple Heart

Any former member of the armed forces who served on active duty (other than for training) and who held any of the following positions:

An elective office of the U.S. Government (such as a term in Congress).
Office of the Chief Justice of the United States or of an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States.
An office listed, at the time the person held the position, in 5 USC 5312 or 5313 (Levels I and II of the Executive Schedule).
The chief of a mission who was at any time during his/her tenure classified in Class I under the provisions of Section 411, Act of August 13, 1946, 60 Stat. 1002, as amended (22 USC 866) or as listed in State Department memorandum dated March 21, 1988.

Any former prisoner of war who, while a prisoner of war, served honorably in the active military, naval, or air service, whose last period of military, naval or air service terminated honorably and who died on or after November 30, 1993.
The spouse, widow or widower, minor child, or permanently dependent child, and certain unmarried adult children of any of the above eligible veterans.

text:
The widow or widower of:

a member of the armed forces who was lost or buried at sea or fell out of a plane or officially determined to be permanently absent with a status of either missing or missing in action.
a member of the armed forces who is interred in a US military cemetery overseas that is maintained by the American Battle Monuments Commission.

The spouse, minor child, or permanently dependent child of any person already buried in Arlington National Cemetery.
The parents of a minor child, or permanently dependent child whose remains, based on the eligibility of a parent, are already buried at Arlington. A spouse divorced from the primary eligible, or widowed and remarried, is not eligible for interment.
Provided certain conditions are met, a former member of the armed forces may be buried in the same grave with a close relative who is already buried and is the primary eligible.

text: Inurnment criteria for columbarium[edit]

text: Due at least partly to the lack of space at the cemetery for ground burial, standards for inurnment (burial of cremated remains) in the columbarium are currently much less restrictive than for ground burial at the cemetery. In general, any former member of the armed forces who served on active duty (other than for training) and whose last service terminated honorably is eligible for inurnment. Eligibility for inurnment is described fully in 32 C.F.R. § 553.15a.

text: Prohibitions against interment or memorialization[edit]

text: Congress has from time to time created prohibited categories of persons that, even if otherwise eligible for burial, lose that eligibility. One such prohibition is against certain persons who are convicted of committing certain state or federal capital crimes, as defined in 38 U.S. Code § 2411. Capital crime is a specifically defined term in the statute, and for state offenses can include offenses that are eligible for a life sentence (with or without parole). The reasoning for this provision originally was to prevent Timothy McVeigh from being eligible at Arlington National Cemetery, but it has since been amended to prevent others.[109]

text: Also prohibited under the same statute are those determined, with clear and convincing evidence, to have avoided such conviction by death or flight.

text: Notable burials[edit]

text: The first soldier to be buried in Arlington was Private William Henry Christman of Pennsylvania on May 13, 1864.[110] There are 396 Medal of Honor recipients buried in Arlington National Cemetery,[111] nine of whom are Canadian.

text: Five state funerals have been held at Arlington: those of Presidents William Howard Taft and John F. Kennedy, his two brothers, Senator Robert F. Kennedy and Senator Edward "Ted" Kennedy, and General of the Armies John J. Pershing. Whether or not they were wartime service members, U.S. presidents are eligible to be buried at Arlington, since they oversaw the armed forces as commanders-in-chief.

text: Among the most frequently visited sites in the cemetery is the grave of President John F. Kennedy, Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis who is buried nearby along with their son Patrick and their stillborn daughter Arabella. His remains were interred there on March 14, 1967, a reinterment from his original Arlington burial site, some 20 feet (6.1 m) away, where he was buried in November 1963. The grave is marked with an "eternal flame". The remains of his brothers, Senator Robert F. Kennedy and Senator Edward M. "Ted" Kennedy, are buried nearby. The latter two graves are marked with simple crosses and footstones. On December 1, 1971, Robert Kennedy's body was re-interred 100 feet (30 m) from its original June 1968 burial site.

text: Two of the astronauts who were killed in January 27, 1967 flash fire inside the Apollo 1 Command Module, Gus Grissom and Roger Chaffee, are buried at the cemetery. John Glenn, the first American to orbit Earth and a longtime U.S. Senator from Ohio, was buried at the cemetery in April 2017.[112]

text: British Diplomat and Field Marshal Sir John Dill was buried at the cemetery when he died in Washington D.C. during World War II.[113] The equestrian statue on Dill's grave is one of only two such statues at the cemetery; the other is Major General Philip Kearny's.[114]

text: Visitor requirements[edit]

text: The cemetery has within recent years announced policies and procedures that limit visitor access to the cemetery's grounds. The Cemetery's executive director has stated that some of these may create delays for visitors. Some have become controversial.

text: Bicycle use policy[edit]

text: On August 6, 2013, Patrick Hallinan, Executive Director, Army National Military Cemeteries, issued an official memorandum that contained the cemetery's then-current bicycle use policy.[115][116] The memorandum permitted cyclists to travel in only one direction on only one route unless otherwise authorized by the executive director.[116] This "White Line" route traveled from the Old Post Chapel gate at Joint Base Myer-Henderson Hall towards the main entrance of the cemetery at Memorial Avenue, using Meigs Drive, Sherman Drive and Schley Drive.[116] The memorandum stated without explanation: ″Bicycle traffic will not be permitted to travel in the reverse direction, ....″.[116]

text: Cyclists could only use this route between 8:00 a.m. and 6:45 p.m. from April 1 to September 30 and between 8:00 a.m. and 4:45 p.m. from October 1 to March 31.[116] Cyclists had to wear bicycle helmets that certain designated organizations had approved.[116] Bicycles had to be equipped with headlights, tail lights or red reflectors in lieu of tail lights, regardless of the time of travel.[116]

text: On May 11, 2016, the Department of the Army published in the Federal Register a proposed rule that would, among other things, prohibit a visitor to an Army National Military Cemetery (Arlington National Cemetery and the United States Soldiers' and Airmen's Home National Cemetery) from riding a bicycle without first acquiring a pass to visit a relative's gravesite or columbarium niche.[117] After receiving 13 comments from 13 individuals concerning the use of bicycles in the cemetery (including comments from representatives of the Arlington County Board and local bicycle advocacy groups that opposed the new restrictions), the Department of the Army published a final rule in the Federal Register on September 26, 2016, that implemented the proposed rule, effective October 26, 2016.[118]

text: In accordance with the final rule, the cemetery issued a new bicycle use policy, effective October 26, 2016. The policy stated that bicycling would no longer be allowed on Cemetery grounds without a family pass. The policy further stated that "bicyclists traversing the cemetery grounds do impact funeral services and the experience that families expect and deserve as they visit their loved one’s grave. .... As there are no bike paths on the cemetery grounds, mixing cyclists with pedestrians and vehicles creates a safety hazard."[119]

text: Security procedures[edit]

text: In September 2016, Hallinan announced that the cemetery was increasing security measures for its visitors. In addition to random identification checks and other security measures already in place, the cemetery will require pedestrians to enter at set access points: the main entrance on Memorial Avenue, the Ord and Weitzel gate, and the Old Post Chapel gate at Joint Base Myer-Henderson Hall. Before entering the cemetery through its main entrance, all pedestrians will be screened through the cemetery's Welcome Center. All vehicle access will require presenting valid, government-issued photo identification, such as a driver’s license or passport, when entering the cemetery. Vehicles will also be subject to random inspections. Hallinan stated that these processes may result in delays when entering the cemetery.[120]

text: In popular culture[edit]

text: In Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, the cemetery appeared as the backdrop for a state funeral held for Superman by the United States Army.[121] However, the physical filming took place in Michigan, using green screen.[122]


document_title: Berets of the United States Army

question_text: which u.s. president authorized the wearing of green berets by u.s. army special forces soldiers

root

text: Berets of the United States Army

text: History[edit]

text: In the United States military, the beret was unofficially worn by a variety of special operations units during and following World War II. In the spring of 1951, the 10th and 11th Ranger Companies wore black berets during their training at Camp Carson, Colorado, before their deployment to Japan.

tag: p

text: In the post-Vietnam era, morale in the U.S. Army waned. In response, from 1973 through 1979 Headquarters, Department of the Army (HQDA), permitted local commanders to encourage morale-enhancing uniform distinctions. Consequently, many units embraced various color berets, for example armor and armored cavalry units often adopted the black beret. Similarly, many other units embraced various colored berets in an attempt to improve dwindling morale. In particular, the First Cavalry Division assigned various colored berets to its three-pronged TRICAP approach. In this implementation, armored cavalry, airmobile infantry units, air cavalry units, division artillery units, and division support units all wore different colored berets, including black, light blue, kelly green, and red.

text: Black[edit]

text: A black beret was authorized for wear by female soldiers in 1975, and is used also for mechanized units, troops, and guards. The black beret is worn by soldiers in the United Army.[4]

text: On January 30, 1975, it was officially allowed to be worn by the newly created battalions of United States Army Rangers who had worn it unofficially during the Vietnam War. In 1978, Army Chief of Staff Bernard Rogers required all units to adhere to the uniform regulation AR 670-1, which had not been updated to authorize the black beret for Rangers. In 1979 the new Army chief of staff, GEN Edward C. Meyers, directed that the black beret be authorized wear by Ranger units only. AR 670-1 was updated in 1980 to include this provision.

text: In 2001, the black beret became the primary headgear for both the service uniform (in garrison setting) and dress uniform for all United States Army troops unless the soldier is approved to wear a different distinctive beret. In 2011, the Army changed back to the patrol cap for wear with the utility uniform, with the beret remaining the headgear for the dress uniform.[5]

text: Brown[edit]

text: Soldiers of the U.S. Army's new Security Force Assistance Brigades (SFAB) are authorized to wear the brown beret—with a brigade specific beret flash and distinctive unit insignia (DUI)—to recognize these new specialized units whose core mission is to conduct training, advising, assisting, enabling and accompanying operations with allied and partner nations. According to an official U.S. Army article, "SFAB soldiers will be on the ground with their partners - fighting side-by-side with them in all conditions, so the brown beret symbolizes dirt or mud akin to the 'muddy boots' moniker given to leaders who are always out with the troops."[6]

text: Maroon[edit]

text: In 1943 General Frederick Browning, commander of the British First Airborne Corps, granted a battalion of the U.S. Army's 509th Parachute Infantry Regiment honorary membership in the British Parachute Regiment and authorized them to wear British-style maroon berets. During the Vietnam War, U.S. military advisers to Vietnamese airborne units often wore the Vietnamese French-style red beret.

text: HQDA policy from 1973 through 1979 permitted local commanders to encourage morale-enhancing distinctions. Airborne forces chose to wear the maroon beret as a mark of distinction. This permission was rescinded in 1979 when the army Chief of Staff, GEN Bernard Rogers, required all units to adhere to the uniform regulation (AR 670-1). On 28 November 1980, the updated regulation authorized airborne (parachute) organizations to resume wearing the maroon beret. In the interim, airborne units wore baseball caps with silver wings and the oval flash above the rank badge with the fatigue uniform, and the overseas cap with glider and parachute patch with the dress green uniform.

text: Tan[edit]

text: On 14 June 2001, U.S. Army Rangers assigned to the 75th Ranger Regiment were authorized to wear a distinctive tan beret to replace the black berets that had recently become the army-wide standard. The color was chosen by the members of the 75th Ranger Regiment as being similar to other elite units with similar missions worldwide, notably the British, Australian and New Zealand Special Air Service regiments.

text: The change in color also required modification of the associated flashes worn by the Ranger units, changing the borders from white to black in order to provide better contrast to the lighter beret.

text: Green[edit]

text: In the U.S. armed forces, the green beret may be worn only by soldiers awarded the Special Forces Tab, signifying they have qualified as Special Forces soldiers.

text: U.S. Army Special Forces wear the green beret because of their link to the British Commandos of World War II. The first Ranger unit, commonly known as Darby's Rangers, was formed in Northern Ireland during the summer of 1942. On completion of training at the Commando Training Depot at Achnacarry Castle in Scotland, those Rangers had the right to wear the British Commando green beret, but it was not part of the regulation uniform at the time and was disallowed by the U.S. Army. [7]

text: The 10th Special Forces Group (Airborne) had many veterans of World War II and Korea in its ranks when it was formed in 1952. Members of the 10th SFG began to unofficially wear a variety of berets while training, some favoring the red or maroon airborne beret, the black beret, or the green commando beret. In 1953, a beret whose design was based on that of the Canadian Army pattern, and which was rifle-green in color, was chosen for wear by Special Forces units.

text: Their new headgear was first worn at a retirement parade at Fort Bragg on 12 June 1955 for Lt. Gen. Joseph P. Cleland, the now-former commander of the XVIII Airborne Corps. Onlookers thought that the commandos were a foreign delegation from NATO.[8]

text: In 1956 Gen. Paul D. Adams, the post commander at Fort Bragg, North Carolina, banned its wear, even though it was worn on the sly when units were in the field or deployed overseas. This was reversed on 25 September 1961 by Department of the Army Message 578636, which designated the green beret as the exclusive headgear of the Army Special Forces.[7]

text: When visiting the Special Forces at Fort Bragg on 12 October 1961, President John F. Kennedy asked Brig. Gen. William P. Yarborough to make sure that the men under his command wore green berets for the visit. Later that day, Kennedy sent a memorandum that included the line: '"I am sure that the green beret will be a mark of distinction in the trying times ahead".[9] By America's entry into the Vietnam War, the green beret had become a symbol of excellence throughout the U.S. Army. On 11 April 1962 in a White House memorandum to the United States Army, President Kennedy reiterated his view: "The green beret is a symbol of excellence, a badge of courage, a mark of distinction in the fight for freedom".[9] Previously, both Yarborough and Edson Raff had petitioned the Pentagon to allow wearing of the green beret, to no avail.[9]


document_title: List of Governors of California

question_text: is the governor of california democrat or republican

text: List of Governors of California

text: Governors[edit]

text: California was obtained by the United States in the Mexican Cession following the Mexican–American War. Unlike most other states, it was never organized as a territory, and was admitted as the 31st state on September 9, 1850.

text: The original California Constitution of 1849 called for elections every two years, with no set start date for the term. An amendment ratified in 1862 increased the term to four years,[1] and the 1879 constitution set the term to begin on the first Monday in January following an election. In 1990, Proposition 140 led to a constitutional amendment[2] implementing a term limit of two terms;[3] prior to this limit, only one governor, Earl Warren, served more than two terms. Jerry Brown was able to be elected to a third term in 2010 because his previous terms were before the term limit was enacted. The 1849 constitution also created the office of lieutenant governor, who, in cases of vacancy in the office of governor, becomes governor.[4] The governor and lieutenant governor are not elected on the same ticket.

text:
Governors of the State of California

No.

Portrait

Governor

Term in office

Party

Election

Previous office

Lt. Governor[a]

1

Peter Hardeman Burnett(1807-11-15)November 15, 1807 – (1895-05-17)May 17, 1895(Aged 87)

December 20, 1849–January 9, 1851

Democratic

1849[b][c]

5thSupreme Judge of the Provisional Oregon Supreme Court(1845–1846)

John McDougal

2

John McDougalca. 1818 – March 30, 1866(Aged 48)

January 9, 1851–January 8, 1852

Democratic

1stLieutenant Governor of California(1849–1851)

David C. Broderick(acting)

3

John BiglerJanuary 8, 1805 – November 29, 1871(Aged 66)

January 8, 1852–January 9, 1856

Democratic

1851

2ndSpeaker of the California Assembly(1850–1851)

Samuel Purdy

1853

4

J. Neely JohnsonAugust 2, 1825 – August 31, 1872(Aged 47)

January 9, 1856–January 8, 1858

American

1855

California State Assemblyman(1852–1856)

Robert M. Anderson

5

John B. WellerFebruary 22, 1812 – August 17, 1875(Aged 63)

January 8, 1858–January 9, 1860

Democratic

1857

U.S. Senator from California(1852–1857)

Joseph Walkup

6

Milton LathamMay 23, 1827 – March 4, 1882(Aged 54)

January 9, 1860–January 14, 1860

Democratic

1859[d]

U.S. Representative for California's At-large(1853–1855)

John G. Downey

7

John G. DowneyJune 24, 1827 – March 1, 1894(Aged 66)

January 14, 1860–January 10, 1862

Democratic

6thLieutenant Governor of California(1860)

Isaac N. Quinn (acting)(resigned January 7, 1861)

Pablo de la Guerra (acting)

8

Leland StanfordMarch 9, 1824 – June 21, 1893(Aged 69)

January 10, 1862– December 10, 1863

Republican

1861

1stPresident of Central Pacific Railroad(1861–1893)

John F. Chellis

9

Frederick LowJune 30, 1828 – July 21, 1894(Aged 66)

December 10, 1863–December 5, 1867

Republican

1863[e]

U.S. Representative for California's At-large(1862–1863)

Tim N. Machin

10

Henry Huntly HaightMay 20, 1825 – September 2, 1878(Aged 53)

December 5, 1867–December 8, 1871

Democratic

1867

None

William Holden

11

Newton BoothDecember 30, 1825 – July 14, 1892(Aged 66)

December 8, 1871–February 27, 1875

Republican

1871[f]

California State Senator(1863)

Romualdo Pacheco

12

Romualdo PachecoOctober 31, 1831 – January 23, 1899(Aged 67)

February 27, 1875–December 9, 1875

Republican

9thLieutenant Governor of California(1871–1875)

William Irwin(acting)

13

William Irwinca. 1827 – March 15, 1886(Aged 58–59)

December 9, 1875–January 8, 1880

Democratic

1875

ActingLieutenant Governor of California(1875)

James A. Johnson

14

George Clement PerkinsAugust 23, 1839 – February 26, 1923(Aged 83)

January 8, 1880–January 10, 1883

Republican

1879

California State Senator(1869–1876)

John Mansfield

15

George StonemanAugust 8, 1822 – September 5, 1894(Aged 72)

January 10, 1883–January 8, 1887

Democratic

1882

Major General of the Union Army(since 1861)

John Daggett

16

Washington BartlettFebruary 29, 1824 – September 12, 1887(Aged 63)

January 8, 1887–September 12, 1887

Democratic

1886[g]

20thMayor of San Francisco(1883–1887)

Robert Waterman

17

Robert WatermanDecember 15, 1826 – April 12, 1891(Aged 64)

September 12, 1887–January 8, 1891

Republican

17thLieutenant Governor of California(1887)

Stephen M. White[h](acting)

18

Henry MarkhamNovember 16, 1840 – October 9, 1923(Aged 82)

January 8, 1891–January 11, 1895

Republican

1890

U.S. Representative for California's 1st(1885–1887)

John B. Reddick

19

James BuddMay 18, 1851 – July 30, 1908(Aged 57)

January 11, 1895–January 4, 1899

Democratic

1894

U.S. Representative for California's 2nd(1883–1885)

Spencer G. Millard[i](died October 24, 1895)

William T. Jeter

20

Henry GageDecember 25, 1852 – August 28, 1924(Aged 71)

January 4, 1899–January 7, 1903

Republican

1898

Federal prosecutor(since 1891)

Jacob H. Neff

21

George PardeeJuly 25, 1857 – September 1, 1941(Aged 84)

January 7, 1903–January 9, 1907

Republican

1902

29thMayor of Oakland(1893–1895)

Alden Anderson

22

James GillettSeptember 20, 1860 – April 20, 1937(Aged 76)

January 9, 1907–January 3, 1911

Republican

1906

U.S. Representative for California's 1st(1903–1906)

Warren R. Porter

23

Hiram JohnsonSeptember 2, 1866 – August 6, 1945(Aged 78)

January 3, 1911–March 15, 1917

Republican

1910

Assistant District attorney of California(1902–1910)

Albert Joseph Wallace

Progressive

1914[j]

John M. Eshleman(died February 28, 1916)

Vacant

William Stephens[i](took office July 22, 1916)

24

William StephensDecember 26, 1859 – April 25, 1944(Aged 84)

March 15, 1917–January 8, 1923

Republican

27thLieutenant Governor of California(1916–1917)

Vacant

1918

C. C. Young

25

Friend RichardsonDecember 1, 1865 – September 6, 1943(Aged 77)

January 9, 1923–January 4, 1927

Republican

1922

21stCalifornia State Treasurer(1915–1923)

26

C. C. YoungApril 28, 1869 – December 24, 1947(Aged 78)

January 4, 1927–January 6, 1931

Republican

1926

29thLieutenant Governor of California(1919–1927)

Buron Fitts(resigned November 30, 1928)

Vacant

H. L. Carnahan(appointed December 4, 1928)

27

James RolphAugust 23, 1869 – June 2, 1934(Aged 64)

January 6, 1931–June 2, 1934

Republican

1930[k]

30thMayor of San Francisco(1912–1931)

Frank Merriam

28

Frank MerriamDecember 22, 1865 – April 25, 1955(Aged 89)

June 2, 1934–January 2, 1939

Republican

31stLieutenant Governor of California(1931–1934)

Vacant

1934

George J. Hatfield

29

Culbert OlsonNovember 7, 1876 – April 13, 1962(Aged 85)

January 2, 1939–January 4, 1943

Democratic

1938

California State Senator(1934–1938)

Ellis E. Patterson

30

Earl WarrenMarch 19, 1891 – July 9, 1974(Aged 83)

January 4, 1943–October 5, 1953

Republican[l]

1942

20thAttorney General of California(1939–1943)

Frederick F. Houser

1946

Goodwin Knight

1950[m]

31

Goodwin KnightDecember 9, 1896 – May 22, 1970(Aged 73)

October 5, 1953–January 5, 1959

Republican

35thLieutenant Governor of California(1947–1953)

Harold J. Powers

1954

32

Pat BrownApril 21, 1905 – February 16, 1996(Aged 90)

January 5, 1959–January 2, 1967

Democratic

1958

23rdAttorney General of California(1951–1959)

Glenn M. Anderson

1962

33

Ronald ReaganFebruary 6, 1911 – June 5, 2004(Aged 93)

January 2, 1967–January 6, 1975

Republican

1966

9th and 13thPresident of the Screen Actors Guild(1947–1952; 1959–1960)

Robert Finch(resigned January 8, 1969)

Edwin Reinecke(resigned October 2, 1974)

1970

John L. Harmer

34

Jerry Brownborn (1938-04-07) April 7, 1938 (age 80)

January 6, 1975–January 3, 1983

Democratic

1974

24thSecretary of State of California(1971–1975)

Mervyn M. Dymally

1978

Michael Curb[i]

35

George DeukmejianJune 6, 1928 – May 8, 2018(Aged 89)

January 3, 1983–January 7, 1991

Republican

1982

27thAttorney General of California(1979–1983)

Leo T. McCarthy[h]

1986

36

Pete Wilsonborn (1933-08-23) August 23, 1933 (age 85)

January 7, 1991–January 4, 1999

Republican

1990

U.S. Senator from California(1983–1991)

1994

Gray Davis[h]

37

Gray Davisborn (1942-12-26) December 26, 1942 (age 75)

January 4, 1999–November 17, 2003

Democratic

1998

44thLieutenant Governor of California(1995–1999)

Cruz Bustamante[h]

2002[n]

38

Arnold Schwarzeneggerborn (1947-07-30) July 30, 1947 (age 71)

November 17, 2003–January 3, 2011

Republican

Chair of the President's Council on Fitness and Sports(1990–1993)

2006

John Garamendi[h](resigned November 3, 2009)

Mona Pasquil[h](Acting)

Abel Maldonado[i][o](appointed April 27, 2010)

39

Jerry Brownborn (1938-04-07) April 7, 1938 (age 80)

January 3, 2011–Present

Democratic

2010

31stAttorney General of California(2007–2011)34th Governor of California(1975–1983)

Gavin Newsom[o](took office January 10, 2011)

2014[p]

tag: table

text: Living former governors of California[edit]

text: There are three living former governors, the oldest being Pete Wilson, born 1933. The most recent death of a former governor was that of George Deukmejian (served 1983–1991, born June 6, 1928) on May 8, 2018. Jerry Brown, who served as governor from 1975 to 1983, is currently serving and thus is not included on this list.

text:
Governor

Years in office

Date of birth (and age)

Pete Wilson

1991–1999

 (1933-08-23) August 23, 1933 (age 85)

Gray Davis

1999–2003

 (1942-12-26) December 26, 1942 (age 75)

Arnold Schwarzenegger

2003–2011

 (1947-07-30) July 30, 1947 (age 71)


document_title: Thylakoid

question_text: what are the proteins called that transport electrons in the thylakoid membrane

text: Thylakoid

text: Etymology[edit]

text: The word thylakoid comes from the Greek word thylakos meaning "sac" or "pouch".[1] Thus, thylakoid means "sac-like" or "pouch-like".

text: Structure[edit]

text: Thylakoids are membrane-bound structures embedded in the chloroplast stroma. A stack of thylakoids is called a granum and resembles a stack of coins.

text: Membrane[edit]

text: The thylakoid membrane is the site of the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis with the photosynthetic pigments embedded directly in the membrane. It is an alternating pattern of dark and light bands measuring each 1 nanometre.[2] The thylakoid lipid bilayer shares characteristic features with prokaryotic membranes and the inner chloroplast membrane. For example, acidic lipids can be found in thylakoid membranes, cyanobacteria and other photosynthetic bacteria and are involved in the functional integrity of the photosystems.[3] The thylakoid membranes of higher plants are composed primarily of phospholipids[4] and galactolipids that are asymmetrically arranged along and across the membranes.[5] Thylakoid membranes are richer in galactolipids rather than phospholipids; also they predominantly consist of hexagonal phase II forming monogalacotosyl diglyceride lipid. Despite this unique composition, plant thylakoid membranes have been shown to assume largely lipid-bilayer dynamic organization.[6] Lipids forming the thylakoid membranes, richest in high-fluidity linolenic acid[7] are synthesized in a complex pathway involving exchange of lipid precursors between the endoplasmic reticulum and inner membrane of the plastid envelope and transported from the inner membrane to the thylakoids via vesicles.[8]

text: Lumen[edit]

text: The thylakoid lumen is a continuous aqueous phase enclosed by the thylakoid membrane. It plays an important role for photophosphorylation during photosynthesis. During the light-dependent reaction, protons are pumped across the thylakoid membrane into the lumen making it acidic down to pH 4.

text: Granum and stroma lamellae[edit]

text: In higher plants thylakoids are organized into a granum-stroma membrane assembly. A granum (plural grana) is a stack of thylakoid discs. Chloroplasts can have from 10 to 100 grana. Grana are connected by stroma thylakoids, also called intergranal thylakoids or lamellae. Grana thylakoids and stroma thylakoids can be distinguished by their different protein composition. Grana contribute to chloroplasts' large surface area to volume ratio. Different interpretations of electron tomography imaging of thylakoid membranes has resulted in two models for grana structure. Both posit that lamellae intersect grana stacks in parallel sheets, though whether these sheets intersect in planes perpendicular to the grana stack axis, or are arranged in a right-handed helix is debated.[9]

text: Formation[edit]

text: Chloroplasts develop from proplastids when seedlings emerge from the ground. Thylakoid formation requires light. In the plant embryo and in the absence of light, proplastids develop into etioplasts that contain semicrystalline membrane structures called prolamellar bodies. When exposed to light, these prolamellar bodies develop into thylakoids. This does not happen in seedlings grown in the dark, which undergo etiolation. An underexposure to light can cause the thylakoids to fail. This causes the chloroplasts to fail resulting in the death of the plant.

text: Thylakoid formation requires the action of vesicle-inducing protein in plastids 1 (VIPP1). Plants cannot survive without this protein, and reduced VIPP1 levels lead to slower growth and paler plants with reduced ability to photosynthesize. VIPP1 appears to be required for basic thylakoid membrane formation, but not for the assembly of protein complexes of the thylakoid membrane.[10] It is conserved in all organisms containing thylakoids, including cyanobacteria,[11] green algae, such as Chlamydomonas,[12] and higher plants, such as Arabidopsis thaliana.[13]

text: Isolation and fractionation[edit]

text: Thylakoids can be purified from plant cells using a combination of differential and gradient centrifugation.[14] Disruption of isolated thylakoids, for example by mechanical shearing, releases the lumenal fraction. Peripheral and integral membrane fractions can be extracted from the remaining membrane fraction. Treatment with sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) detaches peripheral membrane proteins, whereas treatment with detergents and organic solvents solubilizes integral membrane proteins.

text: Proteins[edit]

text: Thylakoids contain many integral and peripheral membrane proteins, as well as lumenal proteins. Recent proteomics studies of thylakoid fractions have provided further details on the protein composition of the thylakoids.[15] These data have been summarized in several plastid protein databases that are available online.[16][17]

text: According to these studies, the thylakoid proteome consists of at least 335 different proteins. Out of these, 89 are in the lumen, 116 are integral membrane proteins, 62 are peripheral proteins on the stroma side, and 68 peripheral proteins on the lumenal side. Additional low-abundance lumenal proteins can be predicted through computational methods.[14][18] Of the thylakoid proteins with known functions, 42% are involved in photosynthesis. The next largest functional groups include proteins involved in protein targeting, processing and folding with 11%, oxidative stress response (9%) and translation (8%).[16]

text: Integral membrane proteins[edit]

text: Thylakoid membranes contain integral membrane proteins which play an important role in light harvesting and the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis. There are four major protein complexes in the thylakoid membrane:

text:
Photosystems I and II
Cytochrome b6f complex
ATP synthase

text: Photosystem II is located mostly in the grana thylakoids, whereas photosystem I and ATP synthase are mostly located in the stroma thylakoids and the outer layers of grana. The cytochrome b6f complex is distributed evenly throughout thylakoid membranes. Due to the separate location of the two photosystems in the thylakoid membrane system, mobile electron carriers are required to shuttle electrons between them. These carriers are plastoquinone and plastocyanin. Plastoquinone shuttles electrons from photosystem II to the cytochrome b6f complex, whereas plastocyanin carries electrons from the cytochrome b6f complex to photosystem I.

text: Together, these proteins make use of light energy to drive electron transport chains that generate a chemiosmotic potential across the thylakoid membrane and NADPH, a product of the terminal redox reaction. The ATP synthase uses the chemiosmotic potential to make ATP during photophosphorylation.

text: Photosystems[edit]

text: These photosystems are light-driven redox centers, each consisting of an antenna complex that uses chlorophylls and accessory photosynthetic pigments such as carotenoids and phycobiliproteins to harvest light at a variety of wavelengths. Each antenna complex has between 250 and 400 pigment molecules and the energy they absorb is shuttled by resonance energy transfer to a specialized chlorophyll a at the reaction center of each photosystem. When either of the two chlorophyll a molecules at the reaction center absorbs energy, an electron is excited and transferred to an electron-acceptor molecule. Photosystem I contains a pair of chlorophyll a molecules, designated P700, at its reaction center that maximally absorbs 700 nm light. Photosystem II contains P680 chlorophyll that absorbs 680 nm light best (note that these wavelengths correspond to deep red – see the visible spectrum). The P is short for pigment and the number is the specific absorption peak in nanometers for the chlorophyll molecules in each reaction center.

text: Cytochrome b6f complex[edit]

text: The cytochrome b6f complex is part of the thylakoid electron transport chain and couples electron transfer to the pumping of protons into the thylakoid lumen. Energetically, it is situated between the two photosystems and transfers electrons from photosystem II-plastoquinone to plastocyanin-photosystem I.

text: ATP synthase[edit]

text: The thylakoid ATP synthase is a CF1FO-ATP synthase similar to the mitochondrial ATPase. It is integrated into the thylakoid membrane with the CF1-part sticking into stroma. Thus, ATP synthesis occurs on the stromal side of the thylakoids where the ATP is needed for the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis.

text: Lumen proteins[edit]

text: The electron transport protein plastocyanin is present in the lumen and shuttles electrons from the cytochrome b6f protein complex to photosystem I. While plastoquinones are lipid-soluble and therefore move within the thylakoid membrane, plastocyanin moves through the thylakoid lumen.

text: The lumen of the thylakoids is also the site of water oxidation by the oxygen evolving complex associated with the lumenal side of photosystem II.

text: Lumenal proteins can be predicted computationally based on their targeting signals. In Arabidopsis, out of the predicted lumenal proteins possessing the Tat signal, the largest groups with known functions are 19% involved in protein processing (proteolysis and folding), 18% in photosynthesis, 11% in metabolism, and 7% redox carriers and defense.[14]

text: Protein expression[edit]

text: Chloroplasts have their own genome, which encodes a number of thylakoid proteins. However, during the course of plastid evolution from their cyanobacterial endosymbiotic ancestors, extensive gene transfer from the chloroplast genome to the cell nucleus took place. This results in the four major thylakoid protein complexes being encoded in part by the chloroplast genome and in part by the nuclear genome. Plants have developed several mechanisms to co-regulate the expression of the different subunits encoded in the two different organelles to assure the proper stoichiometry and assembly of these protein complexes. For example, transcription of nuclear genes encoding parts of the photosynthetic apparatus is regulated by light. Biogenesis, stability and turnover of thylakoid protein complexes are regulated by phosphorylation via redox-sensitive kinases in the thylakoid membranes.[19] The translation rate of chloroplast-encoded proteins is controlled by the presence or absence of assembly partners (control by epistasy of synthesis).[20] This mechanism involves negative feedback through binding of excess protein to the 5' untranslated region of the chloroplast mRNA.[21] Chloroplasts also need to balance the ratios of photosystem I and II for the electron transfer chain. The redox state of the electron carrier plastoquinone in the thylakoid membrane directly affects the transcription of chloroplast genes encoding proteins of the reaction centers of the photosystems, thus counteracting imbalances in the electron transfer chain.[22]

text: Protein targeting to the thylakoids[edit]

text: Thylakoid proteins are targeted to their destination via signal peptides and prokaryotic-type secretory pathways inside the chloroplast. Most thylakoid proteins encoded by a plant's nuclear genome need two targeting signals for proper localization: An N-terminal chloroplast targeting peptide (shown in yellow in the figure), followed by a thylakoid targeting peptide (shown in blue). Proteins are imported through the translocon of outer and inner membrane (Toc and Tic) complexes. After entering the chloroplast, the first targeting peptide is cleaved off by a protease processing imported proteins. This unmasks the second targeting signal and the protein is exported from the stroma into the thylakoid in a second targeting step. This second step requires the action of protein translocation components of the thylakoids and is energy-dependent. Proteins are inserted into the membrane via the SRP-dependent pathway (1), the Tat-dependent pathway (2), or spontaneously via their transmembrane domains (not shown in figure). Lumenal proteins are exported across the thylakoid membrane into the lumen by either the Tat-dependent pathway (2) or the Sec-dependent pathway (3) and released by cleavage from the thylakoid targeting signal. The different pathways utilize different signals and energy sources. The Sec (secretory) pathway requires ATP as energy source and consists of SecA, which binds to the imported protein and a Sec membrane complex to shuttle the protein across. Proteins with a twin arginine motif in their thylakoid signal peptide are shuttled through the Tat (twin arginine translocation) pathway, which requires a membrane-bound Tat complex and the pH gradient as an energy source. Some other proteins are inserted into the membrane via the SRP (signal recognition particle) pathway. The chloroplast SRP can interact with its target proteins either post-translationally or co-translationally, thus transporting imported proteins as well as those that are translated inside the chloroplast. The SRP pathway requires GTP and the pH gradient as energy sources. Some transmembrane proteins may also spontaneously insert into the membrane from the stromal side without energy requirement.[23]

text: Function[edit]

text: The thylakoids are the site of the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis. These include light-driven water oxidation and oxygen evolution, the pumping of protons across the thylakoid membranes coupled with the electron transport chain of the photosystems and cytochrome complex, and ATP synthesis by the ATP synthase utilizing the generated proton gradient.

text: Water photolysis[edit]

text: The first step in photosynthesis is the light-driven reduction (splitting) of water to provide the electrons for the photosynthetic electron transport chains as well as protons for the establishment of a proton gradient. The water-splitting reaction occurs on the lumenal side of the thylakoid membrane and is driven by the light energy captured by the photosystems. It is interesting to note that this oxidation of water conveniently produces the waste product O2 that is vital for cellular respiration. The molecular oxygen formed by the reaction is released into the atmosphere.

text: Electron transport chains[edit]

text: Two different variations of electron transport are used during photosynthesis:

text:
Noncyclic electron transport or Non-cyclic photophosphorylation produces NADPH + H+ and ATP.
Cyclic electron transport or Cyclic photophosphorylation produces only ATP.

text: The noncyclic variety involves the participation of both photosystems, while the cyclic electron flow is dependent on only photosystem I.

text:
Photosystem I uses light energy to reduce NADP+ to NADPH + H+, and is active in both noncyclic and cyclic electron transport. In cyclic mode, the energized electron is passed down a chain that ultimately returns it (in its base state) to the chlorophyll that energized it.
Photosystem II uses light energy to oxidize water molecules, producing electrons (e−), protons (H+), and molecular oxygen (O2), and is only active in noncyclic transport. Electrons in this system are not conserved, but are rather continually entering from oxidized 2H2O (O2 + 4 H+ + 4 e−) and exiting with NADP+ when it is finally reduced to NADPH.

text: Chemiosmosis[edit]

text: A major function of the thylakoid membrane and its integral photosystems is the establishment of chemiosmotic potential. The carriers in the electron transport chain use some of the electron's energy to actively transport protons from the stroma to the lumen. During photosynthesis, the lumen becomes acidic, as low as pH 4, compared to pH 8 in the stroma.[24] This represents a 10,000 fold concentration gradient for protons across the thylakoid membrane.

text: Source of proton gradient[edit]

text: The protons in the lumen come from three primary sources.

text:
Photolysis by photosystem II oxidises water to oxygen, protons and electrons in the lumen.
The transfer of electrons from photosystem II to plastoquinone during non-cyclic electron transport consumes two protons from the stroma. These are released in the lumen when the reduced plastoquinol is oxidized by the cytochrome b6f protein complex on the lumen side of the thylakoid membrane. From the plastoquinone pool, electrons pass through the cytochrome b6f complex. This integral membrane assembly resembles cytochrome bc1.
The reduction of plastoquinone by ferredoxin during cyclic electron transport also transfers two protons from the stroma to the lumen.

text: The proton gradient is also caused by the consumptions of protons in the stroma to make NADPH from NADP+ at the NADP reductase.

text: ATP generation[edit]

text: The molecular mechanism of ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) generation in chloroplasts is similar to that in mitochondria and takes the required energy from the proton motive force (PMF).[citation needed] However, chloroplasts rely more on the chemical potential of the PMF to generate the potential energy required for ATP synthesis. The PMF is the sum of a proton chemical potential (given by the proton concentration gradient) and a transmembrane electrical potential (given by charge separation across the membrane). Compared to the inner membranes of mitochondria, which have a significantly higher membrane potential due to charge separation, thylakoid membranes lack a charge gradient.[citation needed] To compensate for this, the 10,000 fold proton concentration gradient across the thylakoid membrane is much higher compared to a 10 fold gradient across the inner membrane of mitochondria. The resulting chemiosmotic potential between the lumen and stroma is high enough to drive ATP synthesis using the ATP synthase. As the protons travel back down the gradient through channels in ATP synthase, ADP + Pi are combined into ATP. In this manner, the light-dependent reactions are coupled to the synthesis of ATP via the proton gradient.[citation needed]

text: Thylakoid membranes in cyanobacteria[edit]

text: Cyanobacteria are photosynthetic prokaryotes with highly differentiated membrane systems. Cyanobacteria have an internal system of thylakoid membranes where the fully functional electron transfer chains of photosynthesis and respiration reside. The presence of different membrane systems lends these cells a unique complexity among bacteria. Cyanobacteria must be able to reorganize the membranes, synthesize new membrane lipids, and properly target proteins to the correct membrane system. The outer membrane, plasma membrane, and thylakoid membranes each have specialized roles in the cyanobacterial cell. Understanding the organization, functionality, protein composition and dynamics of the membrane systems remains a great challenge in cyanobacterial cell biology.[25]

text: The thylakoid membranes of the cyanobacteria are not differentiated into granum and stroma regions as observed in plants. They form stacks of parallel sheets close to the cytoplasmic membrane with a low packing density.[26] The relatively large distance between the thylakoids provides space for the external light harvesting antennae, the phycobilisomes.[27] This macrostructure, as in the case of higher plants, shows some flexibility during changes in the physicochemical environment.[28]