document_title: Age of candidacy

question_text: what age must you be to be a member of the u.s. senate

text: Age of candidacy

text: Controversies[edit]

text: The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (December 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Many youth rights groups view current age of candidacy requirements as unjustified age discrimination.[2] Occasionally people who are younger than the minimum age will run for an office in protest of the requirement or because they don't know that the requirement exists. On extremely rare occasions, young people have been elected to offices they do not qualify for and have been deemed ineligible to assume the office.

text: In 1934, Rush Holt of West Virginia was elected to the Senate of the United States at the age of 29. Since the U.S. Constitution requires senators to be at least 30, Holt was forced to wait until his 30th birthday, six months after the start of the session, before being sworn in.[3]

text: In 1954, Richard Fulton won election to the Tennessee Senate. Shortly after being sworn in, Fulton was ousted from office because he was only 27 years old at the time. The Tennessee State Constitution required that senators be at least 30.[4] Rather than hold a new election, the previous incumbent, Clifford Allen, was allowed to resume his office for another term. Fulton went on to win the next State Senate election in 1956 and was later elected to the US House of Representatives where he served for 10 years.

text: In South Carolina, two Senators aged 24 were elected, but were too young according to the State Constitution: Mike Laughlin in 1969 and Bryan Dorn (later a US Congressman) in 1941. They were seated anyway.[5]

text: On several occasions, the Socialist Workers Party (USA) has nominated candidates too young to qualify for the offices they were running for. In 1972, Linda Jenness ran as the SWP presidential candidate, although she was only 31 at the time. Since the U.S. Constitution requires that the President and Vice President be at least 35 years old, Jenness was not able to receive ballot access in several states in which she otherwise qualified.[6] Despite this handicap, Jenness still received 83,380 votes.[7] In 2004, the SWP nominated Arrin Hawkins as the party's vice-presidential candidate, although she was only 28 at the time. Hawkins was also unable to receive ballot access in several states due to her age.[8]

text: Reform efforts[edit]

text: In the United States, many groups have attempted to lower age of candidacy requirements in various states. In 1994, South Dakota voters rejected a ballot measure that would have lowered the age requirements to serve as a State Senator or State Representative from 30 to 18. In 1998, however, they approved a similar ballot measure that reduced the age requirements for those offices from 25 to 21. In 2002, Oregon voters rejected a ballot measure that would have reduced the age requirement to serve as a State Representative from 21 to 18.

text: During the early 2000s, the British Youth Council and other groups successfully campaigned to lower age of candidacy requirements in the United Kingdom.[9] The age of candidacy was reduced from 21 to 18 in England, Wales and Scotland on 1 January 2007,[10] when section 17 of the Electoral Administration Act 2006 entered into force.[11]

text: In various countries[edit]

text: Australia[edit]

text: In Australia a person must be aged 18 or over to stand for election to public office at federal, state or local government level.

text: The youngest ever member of the House of Representatives was 20-year-old Wyatt Roy elected in the 2010 federal election after the Electoral Act 1918 was amended (in 1973) to reduce the age of candidacy for that office from 21 to 18.[citation needed]

text: Austria[edit]

text: In Austria, a person must be 18 years of age or older to stand in elections to the European Parliament or National Council.[12] The Diets of regional Länder are able to set a minimum age lower than 18 for candidacy in elections to the Diet itself as well as to municipal councils in the Land.[13] In presidential elections the candidacy age is 35.

text: Belgium[edit]

text: Any Belgian who has reached the age of 21 years can stand for election for the Chamber of Representatives, can become a member of the Senate, or can be elected in one of the regional parliaments.[citation needed] This is regulated in the Constitution and in the Special Law on the Reform of the Institutions.

text: Belize[edit]

text: According to the Constitution of Belize, a person must be at least 18 years old to be elected as a member of the House of Representatives and must be at least 30 to be Speaker of the House. A person must be at least 18 years old to be appointed to the Senate and must be at least 30 to be President or Vice-President of the Senate. As only members of the House of Representatives are eligible to be appointed Prime Minister, the Prime Minister must be at least 18 years old. A person must also be at least 18 years old to be elected to a village council.[14]

text: Brazil[edit]

text: The Brazilian Constitution (Article 14, Section 3 (VI)) defines 35 years as the minimum age for someone to be elected President, Vice-President or Senator; 30 years for state Governor or Vice-Governor; 21 for Federal or State Deputy, Mayor or Vice-Mayor; and 18 for city Councilman.[15]

text: Canada[edit]

text: In Canada (other than Alberta, Manitoba, Ontario, the Prince Edward Island, Quebec and Saskatchewan) a person must be aged 19 or over (18 in Alberta, Manitoba, Ontario, the Prince Edward Island, Quebec and Saskatchewan) to stand for election to public office. However, to be appointed to the Senate, one must be at least 30 years of age, must possess land worth at least $4,000 in the province for which he or she is appointed, and must own real and personal property worth at least $4,000, above his or her debts and liabilities.[citation needed]

text: Chile[edit]

text: In Chile the minimum age required to be elected President of the Republic is 35 years on the day of the election. Before the 2005 reforms the requirement was 40 years, and from 1925 to 1981 it was 30 years. For senators it is 35 years (between 1981 and 2005 it was 40 years) and for deputies it is 21 years (between 1925 and 1970 it was 35 years).[16]

text: China[edit]

text: In China the minimum age to be elected as president or vice-president is 45.[17]

text: Cyprus[edit]

text: In Cyprus the minimum age to be elected president is 35 years.

text: Czech Republic[edit]

text: In the Czech Republic, a person must be at least 18 years old to be elected in local elections. A person must be at least 21 years old to be elected to the lower house of the Czech Parliament or to the European Parliament and 40 years old to be a member of the upper house (Senate) of the Parliament[18] or the President of the Czech Republic.

text: Denmark[edit]

text: In Denmark, any adult 18 years of age or older can become a candidate and be elected in any public election.

text: Estonia[edit]

text: In Estonia, any citizen 18 years of age or older can be elected in local elections, and 21 years or older in parliamentary elections. The minimum age for the President of Estonia is 40.[19]

text: France[edit]

text: In France, any citizen 18 years of age or older can be elected to the lower house of Parliament, and 24 years or older for the Senate. The minimum age for the President of France is 18.

text: Germany[edit]

text: In Germany, any citizen 18 years of age or older can be elected in national, regional or local elections. The only exception is the Landtag election in Hesse where a minimum age of 21 is required.[20] The minimum age for the President is 40.

text: Hong Kong[edit]

text: In Hong Kong a person must be at least 21 to be candidate in a district council or Legislative Council election. A person must be at least 40 to be candidate in the Chief Executive election, and also at least 40 to be candidate in the election for the President of the Legislative Council from among the members of the Legislative Council.

text: India[edit]

text: In India a person must be at least:

text:
35 to be the President or Vice President, Governor and Lieutenant-Governor of the States as specified in the Constitution of India
30 to be a member of Rajya Sabha (the upper house of Parliament of India) and a Vidhan Parishad (the upper house of a State Legislature, in those states where the legislature is bicameral.)
25 to be the Prime Minister, Lok Sabha Speaker, Union Minister, Chief Minister, Vidhan Sabha Speaker, Minister in the State Governments. Additionally, to be a member of Lok Sabha (the lower house of Parliament of India) and a Vidhan Sabha (the lower house a State Legislature in the States of India.)
21 to be the Mayor, Chairman, Head and a Member (Members are variously called Corporators/Councillors/Ward Members according to the type of their respective local bodies) of a Nagar Nigam (Municipal Corporation), Nagar Palika (Municipal Council), Nagar Panchayat (Town Committee), Gram Sabha (Village Council) and Gram Panchayat (Village Committee) respectively.

text: Indonesia[edit]

text: In Indonesia a person must be at least:

text:
35 to be President or Vice President as specified in the Constitution of Indonesia
30 to be Governor or Lieutenant Governor, as specified in the 2004 Regional Government Act
25 to be Regent, Vice Regent, Mayor, or Deputy Mayor, as specified in the 2004 Regional Government Act
21 to be Senator or Representative in both national and local parliament, as specified in the 2008 Election Act

text: Israel[edit]

text: In Israel one must be at least 21 to become a member of the Knesset (Basic Law: The Knesset section 6(a)) or a municipality. When the Prime Minister was directly elected, one must have been a member of the Knesset who is at least 30 to be a candidate for Prime Minister. Every Israeli Citizen (including minors) can be appointed as a Government Minister, or elected as President of Israel, but the latter role is mostly ceremonial and elected by the Parliament.

text: Italy[edit]

text: In Italy, a person must be at least 50 to be President of the Republic, 40 to be a Senator, and 25 to be a Deputy, as specified in the 1947 Constitution of Italy. 18 years of age is sufficient, however, to be elected member of the Council of Regions, Provinces, and Municipalities (Communes).

text: Iran[edit]

text: In Iran a person must be at least 21 years old to run for president.[21]

text: Iraq[edit]

text: The Iraqi constitution states that a person must be at least 40 years old to run for president[22] and 35 years old to run for Prime Minister.[23] The Iraqi Election Law No. 45 of 2013 states that a person must be 30 years old to run for the House of Representatives.[24] There are proposals by various MP's to amend the Law and reduce the age from 30 to 25.

text: Ireland[edit]

text: The 1937 Constitution of Ireland requires the President to be at least 35 and members of the Oireachtas (legislature) to be 21.[25][26] Members of the European Parliament for Ireland must also be 21.[26][27] Members of local authorities must be 18, reduced from 21 in 1973.[26][28] The 1922–37 Constitution of the Irish Free State required TDs (members of the Dáil, lower house) to be 21,[29] whereas Senators had to be 35 (reduced to 30 in 1928).[30] The Thirty-fifth Amendment of the Constitution (Age of Eligibility for Election to the Office of President) Bill 2015 proposes to lower the presidential age limit to 21.[31] However, this proposal was rejected by 73% of the voters.

text: Japan[edit]

text: In Japan a person must be at least:[32]

text:
25 to be the Member of parliament of the House of Representatives with Japanese nationality, to be the Member of metropolitan, prefecture, city, town, or village with valid vote rights, or to be the Mayor
30 to be the Governor, or to be the Member of parliament of the House of Councillors with Japanese nationality. See also House of Peers (Japan).

text: South Korea[edit]

text: In South Korea, a person must be at least 40 years old to be President. A person must be at least 25 years old to be the member of the National Assembly or to be the Mayor's Governor.[33]

text: Malaysia[edit]

text: In Malaysia, any citizen 21 years of age or older can become a candidate and be elected to the Dewan Rakyat and Dewan Undangan Negeri. Minimum age for the Senator is 30 by constitution.

text: Mexico[edit]

text: In Mexico, a person must be at least 35 to be President, 25 to be a Senator, or 21 to be a Congressional Deputy, as specified in the 1917 Constitution of Mexico.

text: Netherlands[edit]

text: In the Netherlands, any adult 18 years of age or older can become a candidate and be elected in any public election.

text: New Zealand[edit]

text: In New Zealand the minimum age required to be elected Prime Minister of New Zealand is 18 years old. Citizens and permanent residents who are enrolled as an elector are eligible to be a candidate for election as a Member of Parliament.[citation needed]

text: Nigeria[edit]

text: In Nigeria, a person must be at least 40 years of age to be elected President or Vice President, 35 to be a Senator or State Governor, and 30 to be a Representative in parliament.

text: Norway[edit]

text: In Norway, any adult can become a candidate and be elected in any public election, from the calendar year that he or she turns 18 years.

text: Pakistan[edit]

text: In Pakistan, a person must be at least 40 years old to be President. A person must be at least 25 years old to be a member of the provincial assembly or national assembly.[citation needed]

text: Philippines[edit]

text:
Ages of candidacy in the Philippines

Type of candidate
Minimum age

President and Vice President
40

Senator
35

Regional governor
35

Member of the House of Representatives
25

Provincial-level elected official
23

City-level elected official
21

Municipal-level elected official
21

Member of the regional legislative assembly
21

Barangay-level elected official
18

Member of youth councils
18-24

text: Poland[edit]

text:
Ages of candidacy in Poland

Type of candidate
Minimum age

President
35

Senator
30

Mayor/Wójt
25

Poseł
21

Member of the European Parliament
21

Councillor
18

text: Portugal[edit]

text:
Ages of candidacy in Portugal

Type of candidate
Minimum age
References

President
35
[34]

Parliament
18
[35]

text: Singapore[edit]

text: In Singapore a person must be at least 45 years old to run for president.[36]

text: South Africa[edit]

text: Section 47, Clause 1 of the 1996 Constitution of South Africa states that "Every citizen who is qualified to vote for the National Assembly is eligible to be a member of the Assembly", defaulting to Section 46 which "provides for a minimum voting age of 18 years" in National Assembly elections; Sections 106 and 105 provide the same for provincial legislatures.

text: Switzerland[edit]

text: In Switzerland, any citizen aged 18 or over can become a candidate and be elected in any federal election.

text: Thailand[edit]

text: In Thailand the minimum age to be elected to the National Assembly is 35 years.

text: Turkey[edit]

text: The 1876 constitution set the age for parliamentary eligibility as 30. This remained unchanged until 13 October 2006, when it was lowered to 25 through a constitutional amendment. In 2017, it was further lowered to 18, the same as the voting age.[37]

text: The Prime Minister of Turkey has to be a member of the parliament, hence it has the same requirements as parliamentary eligibility. The age of candidacy for the President is 40.

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: In the United Kingdom, a person must be aged 18 or over in Northern Ireland, England, and Wales, and 16 or over in Scotland to stand in elections to all parliaments, assemblies, and councils at the European, UK, devolved, or local level. This age requirement also applies in elections to any individual elective public office; the main example is that of an elected mayor, whether of London or a local authority. There are no higher age requirements for particular positions in public office. Candidates are required to be aged 18 on both the day of nomination and the day of the poll. This was reduced from 21 by the Electoral Administration Act 2006.

text: United States[edit]

text: In the United States, a person must be aged 35 or over to be President or Vice President, 30 or over to be a Senator, and 25 or over to be a Representative, as specified in the U.S. Constitution. Most states in the U.S. also have age requirements for the offices of Governor, State Senator, and State Representative.[38] Some states have a minimum age requirement to hold any elected office (usually 21 or 18).

text: Venezuela[edit]

text: In Venezuela, a person must be at least 30 to be President or Vice President,[39] 21 to be a deputy for the National Assembly [40] and 25 to be the Governor of a state.[41]

text: Comparison chart[edit]

text:
Country
President
Vice President
Prime Minister
Upper house
Lower house
References

Australia
-
-
18
18
18

Austria
35
-

18
[42]

Belgium
-
-

21
21

Belize
-
-
18
18
18
[43]

Brazil
35
35

35
21
[44]

Canada
-
-

30

Chile
35

35
21
[45]

China
45
45

Cyprus
35

Czech Republic
40

40
21
[46]

Denmark
-
-
18
-
18

Estonia
40

-
21
[47]

France
18

24
18

Germany
40

18
18
[48]

Hong Kong

21

India
35
35
25
30
25

Indonesia
35
35

21
21

Israel

30
-
21

Italy
50

40
25

Iran
21

[49]

Iraq
40

35
-
30
[50][51][52]

Ireland
35

30
21
[53][26][26][54][26][55][56]

Japan

30
25
[57]

South Korea
40

25
[58]

Malaysia

30
21

Mexico
35

25
21

Netherlands
-
-
18
18
18

New Zealand
-
-
18

Nigeria
40
40

35
30

Norway
-
-
18
-
18

Pakistan
40

25
25

Philippines
40
40

35
25

Poland
35
-

30
21

Portugal
35

-
18
[59][60]

Singapore
45

South Africa

18

Switzerland

18

Thailand

35

Turkey
40

30

30
[61]

United Kingdom
-
-

18

United States
35
35
-
30
25
[62]

Venezuela
30
30

-
21


document_title: Starland Vocal Band

question_text: how many grammy nominations did the starland vocal band earn in 1976

root

text: Starland Vocal Band

text: Career[edit]

text: The group began as Fat City, a husband/wife duo of Bill Danoff and Taffy Nivert.

tag: p

text: Danoff and Nivert co-wrote the song "I Guess He'd Rather Be in Colorado" and then, with John Denver, "Take Me Home, Country Roads" which became a hit single in 1971. The duo recorded two albums as Fat City, and two more as Bill & Taffy, all released from 1969-1974. In the mid 70s, Starland Vocal Band was formed and subsequently signed to Denver's label Windsong Records.

text: Starland Vocal Band was also composed of Jon Carroll (keyboards, guitar, vocals) and Margot Chapman (vocals).[1] Carroll and Chapman married after meeting as members of the group, but later divorced. Their son Ben Carroll is also a musician.

text: The group's debut album was the self-titled Starland Vocal Band and included "Afternoon Delight". The song was a US #1 hit and the album also charted. They were nominated for four Grammy Awards and won two: Best Arrangement for Voices and Best New Artist. The song also reached #18 in the UK. The follow-up album, Rear View Mirror, did not fare as well, with 13 weeks on the Billboard 200 and a peak of #104.

text: The band hosted a variety show, The Starland Vocal Band Show, that ran on CBS for six weeks in the summer of 1977. David Letterman was a writer and regular on the show, which also featured Mark Russell, Jeff Altman, and Proctor and Bergman. April Kelly was a writer for the series.

text: The band broke up in 1981, unable to match their previous success. Danoff and Nivert divorced shortly afterward. Each of the band members went on to a solo career.

text: In 1998 the Starland Vocal Band reunited for a few concerts, often featuring the children of the four original members as vocalists. In 2007, they appeared on a 1970s special on the New Jersey Network (NJN), singing "Afternoon Delight".

text: In 2010 Billboard named "Afternoon Delight" the 20th sexiest song of all time.[2]

text: Discography[edit]

text: Studio albums[edit]

text:
Year
Album details
Peak chart
positions

US

1976
Starland Vocal Band

Release date: 1976
Label: Windsong 1351

20

1977
Rear View Mirror

Release date: April 15, 1977
Label: Windsong 2239

104

1978
Late Nite Radio

Release date: March 1978
Label: Windsong 2598

208

1980
4 X 4

Release date: March 11, 1980
Label: Windsong 3536

—

1980
Christmas at Home

Release date: November 25, 1980
Label: Breaker 100

—

tag: table

text: A CD compilation album, Afternoon Delight: The Best of the Starland Vocal Band, was released in 1995 by K-tel. Also in 1995, Collectables released Afternoon Delight: A Golden Classics Edition which included all tracks from the first two albums.

text: Singles[edit]

text:
Year
Single
Catalog #
(Windsong)
Peak chart positions
Album

US
CAN
CAN AC

1976
"Afternoon Delight" / "Starland"
10588
1
1
6
Starland Vocal Band

"California Day" / "War Surplus Baby"
10785
66
—
22

"Hail! Hail! Rock and Roll!" / "Ain't It The Fall"
10855
71
92
—

1977
"Afternoon Delight" / "California Day"
10943
—
—
—

"Liberated Woman" / "Fallin' In A Deep Hole"
10992
—
—
—
Rear View Mirror

"The Light of My Life" / "Prism"
11067
—
—
36

"Mr. Wrong" / Too Long A Journey"
11168
—
—
33

1978
"Late Nite Radio" / "Please Ms. Newslady"
11261
—
—
—
Late Nite Radio

1980
"Loving You with My Eyes" / "Apartment For Rent"
11899
71
—
26
4 X 4

"(Love) Thought I Would Never Find Love" / "Love Stuff"
12011
—
—
—

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text: Grammy Awards[edit]

text: The Grammy Awards are awarded annually by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences. The band won two awards from four nominations.

text:
Year
Nominee/work
Award
Result

1977
Starland Vocal Band
Best New Artist
Won

"Afternoon Delight"
Record of the Year
Nominated

Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals
Nominated

Best Arrangement for Voices (duo, group or chorus)
Won

text: Trivia[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
The March 8, 2011 episode of Glee featured "Afternoon Delight".
In The Simpsons episode "'Round Springfield", Homer Simpson suggests that Lisa get a tattoo of Bleeding Gums Murphy (who died after Lisa performed "Stars and Stripes Forever" at school) just like he did with Starland Vocal Band (to which Homer realizes his mistake and says that the band sucked); another Simpsons episode ("The Fat and the Furriest") had Lenny, Carl, and Bart dance to and sing "Afternoon Delight" as Homer is attacked by a bear.
In the 1997 film Good Will Hunting, the main character Will Hunting is forced to visit a hypnotherapist; he pretends to be under hypnosis by telling a youthly trauma, soon converts his story into the lyrics of "Afternoon Delight", and finishes by singing it, showing he was pretending to be hypnotized; the song is played over the closing credits.
In the movie PCU, Jeremy Piven's character selects the Starland Vocal Band's CD from a group and puts it into the player on repeat and then locks the entertainment center forcing the party goers to hear it over and over again.
An episode of Arrested Development involves two different references to "Afternoon Delight": one involved a mixup between a playful term for sex and marijuana; the other was an awkward rendition of the song between relatives Maeby and Michael Bluth and afterwards a duet by George Michael Bluth and Lindsay Bluth.
A Sports Night episode refers to Starland Vocal Band winning a Best New Artist award for 1978, beating out Elvis Costello; however, the year they won was 1977 and they did not compete against Costello—the other nominees were Boston, The Brothers Johnson, Dr. Buzzard's Original Savannah Band, and Wild Cherry.
In the 2004 film Anchorman: The Legend of Ron Burgundy, a scene in Ron's office with Ron Burgundy (Will Ferrell), Brian Fantana (Paul Rudd), Brick Tamland (Steve Carell) and Champ Kind (David Koechner), where Ron explains the concept of love by breaking out into a rendition of "Afternoon Delight".

tag: ul


document_title: Great Pyramid of Giza

question_text: how many blocks in the great pyramid of giza

text: Great Pyramid of Giza

text: History and description

text: It is believed[by whom?] the pyramid was built as a tomb for Fourth Dynasty Egyptian pharaoh Khufu (often Hellenicised as "Cheops") and was constructed over a 20-year period. Khufu's vizier, Hemiunu (also called Hemon), is believed by some to be the architect of the Great Pyramid.[3] It is thought that, at construction, the Great Pyramid was originally 280 Egyptian cubits tall (146.5 metres (480.6 ft)), but with erosion and absence of its pyramidion, its present height is 138.8 metres (455.4 ft). Each base side was 440 cubits, 230.4 metres (755.9 ft) long. The mass of the pyramid is estimated at 5.9 million tonnes. The volume, including an internal hillock, is roughly 2,500,000 cubic metres (88,000,000 cu ft).[4]

text: Based on these estimates, building the pyramid in 20 years would involve installing approximately 800 tonnes of stone every day. Additionally, since it consists of an estimated 2.3 million blocks, completing the building in 20 years would involve moving an average of more than 12 of the blocks into place each hour, day and night. The first precision measurements of the pyramid were made by Egyptologist Sir Flinders Petrie in 1880–82 and published as The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh.[5] Almost all reports are based on his measurements. Many of the casing stones and inner chamber blocks of the Great Pyramid fit together with extremely high precision. Based on measurements taken on the northeastern casing stones, the mean opening of the joints is only 0.5 millimetre wide (1/50 of an inch).[6]

text: The pyramid remained the tallest man-made structure in the world for over 3,800 years,[7] unsurpassed until the 160-metre-tall (520 ft) spire of Lincoln Cathedral was completed c. 1300. The accuracy of the pyramid's workmanship is such that the four sides of the base have an average error of only 58 millimetres in length.[8] The base is horizontal and flat to within ±15 mm (0.6 in).[9] The sides of the square base are closely aligned to the four cardinal compass points (within four minutes of arc)[10] based on true north, not magnetic north,[11] and the finished base was squared to a mean corner error of only 12 seconds of arc.[12]

text: The completed design dimensions, as suggested by Petrie's survey and subsequent studies, are estimated to have originally been 280 royal cubits high by 440 cubits long at each of the four sides of its base. The ratio of the perimeter to height of 1760/280 royal cubits equates to 2π to an accuracy of better than 0.05% (corresponding to the well-known approximation of π as 22/7). Some Egyptologists consider this to have been the result of deliberate design proportion. Verner wrote, "We can conclude that although the ancient Egyptians could not precisely define the value of π, in practice they used it".[13] Petrie, author of Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh concluded: "but these relations of areas and of circular ratio are so systematic that we should grant that they were in the builder's design".[14] Others have argued that the Ancient Egyptians had no concept of pi and would not have thought to encode it in their monuments. They believe that the observed pyramid slope may be based on a simple seked slope choice alone, with no regard to the overall size and proportions of the finished building.[15] In 2013 rolls of papyrus called The diary of Merer were discovered written by some of those who delivered stone and other construction materials to Khufu's brother at Giza.[16]

text: Materials

text: The Great Pyramid consists of an estimated 2.3 million blocks which most believe to have been transported from nearby quarries. The Tura limestone used for the casing was quarried across the river. The largest granite stones in the pyramid, found in the "King's" chamber, weigh 25 to 80 tonnes and were transported from Aswan, more than 800 km (500 mi) away. Traditionally, ancient Egyptians cut stone blocks by hammering into them some wooden wedges, which were then soaked with water. As the water was absorbed, the wedges expanded, causing the rock to crack. Once they were cut, they were carried by boat either up or down the Nile River to the pyramid.[17] It is estimated that 5.5 million tonnes of limestone, 8,000 tonnes of granite (imported from Aswan), and 500,000 tonnes of mortar were used in the construction of the Great Pyramid.[18]

text: Casing stones

text: At completion, the Great Pyramid was surfaced by white "casing stones" – slant-faced, but flat-topped, blocks of highly polished white limestone. These were carefully cut to what is approximately a face slope with a seked of 5½ palms to give the required dimensions. Visibly, all that remains is the underlying stepped core structure seen today. In AD 1303, a massive earthquake loosened many of the outer casing stones, which were then carted away by Bahri Sultan An-Nasir Nasir-ad-Din al-Hasan in 1356 to build mosques and fortresses in nearby Cairo. Many more casing stones were removed from the great pyramids by Muhammad Ali Pasha in the early 19th century to build the upper portion of his Alabaster Mosque in Cairo not far from Giza. These limestone casings can still be seen as parts of these structures. Later explorers reported massive piles of rubble at the base of the pyramids left over from the continuing collapse of the casing stones, which were subsequently cleared away during continuing excavations of the site.

text: Nevertheless, a few of the casing stones from the lowest course can be seen to this day in situ around the base of the Great Pyramid, and display the same workmanship and precision that has been reported for centuries. Petrie also found a different orientation in the core and in the casing measuring 193 centimetres ± 25 centimetres. He suggested a redetermination of north was made after the construction of the core, but a mistake was made, and the casing was built with a different orientation.[5] Petrie related the precision of the casing stones as to being "equal to opticians' work of the present day, but on a scale of acres" and "to place such stones in exact contact would be careful work; but to do so with cement in the joints seems almost impossible".[20] It has been suggested it was the mortar (Petrie's "cement") that made this seemingly impossible task possible, providing a level bed, which enabled the masons to set the stones exactly.[21][22]

text: Construction theories

text: Many alternative, often contradictory, theories have been proposed regarding the pyramid's construction techniques.[23] Many disagree on whether the blocks were dragged, lifted, or even rolled into place. The Greeks believed that slave labour was used, but modern discoveries made at nearby workers' camps associated with construction at Giza suggest that it was built instead by tens of thousands of skilled workers. Verner posited that the labour was organized into a hierarchy, consisting of two gangs of 100,000 men, divided into five zaa or phyle of 20,000 men each, which may have been further divided according to the skills of the workers.[24]

text: One mystery of the pyramid's construction is its planning. John Romer suggests that they used the same method that had been used for earlier and later constructions, laying out parts of the plan on the ground at a 1-to-1 scale. He writes that "such a working diagram would also serve to generate the architecture of the pyramid with precision unmatched by any other means".[25] He also argues for a 14-year time span for its construction.[26] A modern construction management study, in association with Mark Lehner and other Egyptologists, estimated that the total project required an average workforce of 14,567 people and a peak workforce of roughly 40,000. Without the use of pulleys, wheels, or iron tools, they used critical path analysis methods, which suggest that the Great Pyramid was completed from start to finish in approximately 10 years.[27]

text: Interior

text: The original entrance to the Great Pyramid is on the north, 17 metres (56 ft) vertically above ground level and 7.29 metres (23.9 ft) east of the centre line of the pyramid. From this original entrance, there is a Descending Passage 0.96 metres (3.1 ft) high and 1.04 metres (3.4 ft) wide, which goes down at an angle of 26° 31'23" through the masonry of the pyramid and then into the bedrock beneath it. After 105.23 metres (345.2 ft), the passage becomes level and continues for an additional 8.84 metres (29.0 ft) to the lower Chamber, which appears not to have been finished. There is a continuation of the horizontal passage in the south wall of the lower chamber; there is also a pit dug in the floor of the chamber. Some Egyptologists suggest that this Lower Chamber was intended to be the original burial chamber, but Pharaoh Khufu later changed his mind and wanted it to be higher up in the pyramid.[28]

text: 28.2 metres (93 ft) from the entrance is a square hole in the roof of the Descending Passage. Originally concealed with a slab of stone, this is the beginning of the Ascending Passage. The Ascending Passage is 39.3 metres (129 ft) long, as wide and high as the Descending Passage and slopes up at almost precisely the same angle to reach the Grand Gallery. The lower end of the Ascending Passage is closed by three huge blocks of granite, each about 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) long. One must use the Robbers' Tunnel (see below) to access the Ascending Passage. At the start of the Grand Gallery on the right-hand side there is a hole cut in the wall. This is the start of a vertical shaft which follows an irregular path through the masonry of the pyramid to join the Descending Passage. Also at the start of the Grand Gallery there is the Horizontal Passage leading to the "Queen's Chamber". The passage is 1.1m (3'8") high for most of its length, but near the chamber there is a step in the floor, after which the passage is 1.73 metres (5.7 ft) high.

text: Queen's Chamber

text: The "Queen's Chamber"[2] is exactly halfway between the north and south faces of the pyramid and measures 5.75 metres (18.9 ft) north to south, 5.23 metres (17.2 ft) east to west, and has a pointed roof with an apex 6.23 metres (20.4 ft) above the floor. At the eastern end of the chamber there is a niche 4.67 metres (15.3 ft) high. The original depth of the niche was 1.04 metres (3.4 ft), but has since been deepened by treasure hunters.[citation needed]

text: In the north and south walls of the Queen's Chamber there are shafts, which unlike those in the King's Chamber that immediately slope upwards (see below), are horizontal for around 2 m (6.6 ft) before sloping upwards. The horizontal distance was cut in 1872 by a British engineer, Waynman Dixon, who believed a shaft similar to those in the King's Chamber must also exist. He was proved right, but because the shafts are not connected to the outer faces of the pyramid or the Queen's Chamber, their purpose is unknown. At the end of one of his shafts, Dixon discovered a ball of black diorite (a type of rock) and a bronze implement of unknown purpose. Both objects are currently in the British Museum.[29]

text: The shafts in the Queen's Chamber were explored in 1993 by the German engineer Rudolf Gantenbrink using a crawler robot he designed, Upuaut 2. After a climb of 65 m (213 ft),[30] he discovered that one of the shafts was blocked by limestone "doors" with two eroded copper "handles". Some years later the National Geographic Society created a similar robot which, in September 2002, drilled a small hole in the southern door, only to find another door behind it.[31] The northern passage, which was difficult to navigate because of twists and turns, was also found to be blocked by a door.[32]

text: Research continued in 2011 with the Djedi Project. Realizing the problem was that the National Geographic Society's camera was only able to see straight ahead of it, they instead used a fiber-optic "micro snake camera" that could see around corners. With this they were able to penetrate the first door of the southern shaft through the hole drilled in 2002, and view all the sides of the small chamber behind it. They discovered hieroglyphs written in red paint. They were also able to scrutinize the inside of the two copper "handles" embedded in the door, and they now believe them to be for decorative purposes. They also found the reverse side of the "door" to be finished and polished, which suggests that it was not put there just to block the shaft from debris, but rather for a more specific reason.[33]

text: Grand Gallery

text: The Grand Gallery continues the slope of the Ascending Passage, but is 8.6 metres (28 ft) high and 46.68 metres (153.1 ft) long. At the base it is 2.06 metres (6.8 ft) wide, but after 2.29 metres (7.5 ft) the blocks of stone in the walls are corbelled inwards by 7.6 centimetres (3.0 in) on each side. There are seven of these steps, so, at the top, the Grand Gallery is only 1.04 metres (3.4 ft) wide. It is roofed by slabs of stone laid at a slightly steeper angle than the floor of the gallery, so that each stone fits into a slot cut in the top of the gallery like the teeth of a ratchet. The purpose was to have each block supported by the wall of the Gallery rather than resting on the block beneath it, which would have resulted in an unacceptable cumulative pressure at the lower end of the Gallery.[citation needed]

text: At the upper end of the Gallery on the right-hand side there is a hole near the roof that opens into a short tunnel by which access can be gained to the lowest of the Relieving Chambers. The other Relieving Chambers were discovered in 1837-1838 by Colonel Howard Vyse and J. S. Perring, who dug tunnels upwards using blasting powder.

text: The floor of the Grand Gallery consists of a shelf or step on either side, 51 centimetres (20 in) wide, leaving a lower ramp 1.04 metres (3.4 ft) wide between them. In the shelves there are 54 slots, 27 on each side matched by vertical and horizontal slots in the walls of the Gallery. These form a cross shape that rises out of the slot in the shelf. The purpose of these slots is not known, but the central gutter in the floor of the Gallery, which is the same width as the Ascending Passage, has led to speculation that the blocking stones were stored in the Grand Gallery and the slots held wooden beams to restrain them from sliding down the passage.[34] This, in turn, has led to the proposal that originally many more than 3 blocking stones were intended, to completely fill the Ascending Passage.[citation needed]

text: At the top of the Grand Gallery, there is a step giving onto a horizontal passage some metres long and approximately 1.02 metres (3.3 ft) in height and width, in which can be detected four slots, three of which were probably intended to hold granite portcullises. Fragments of granite found by Petrie in the Descending Passage may have come from these now-vanished doors.

text: King's Chamber

text: The "King's Chamber"[2] is 20 cubits or 10.47 metres (34.4 ft) from east to west and 10 cubits or 5.234 metres (17.17 ft) north to south. It has a flat roof 11 cubits and 5 digits or 5.852 metres (19 feet 2 inch) above the floor. 0.91 m (3.0 ft) above the floor there are two narrow shafts in the north and south walls (one is now filled by an extractor fan in an attempt to circulate air inside the pyramid). The purpose of these shafts is not clear: they appear to be aligned towards stars or areas of the northern and southern skies, yet one of them follows a dog-leg course through the masonry, indicating no intention to directly sight stars through them. They were long believed by Egyptologists to be "air shafts" for ventilation, but this idea has now been widely abandoned in favour of the shafts serving a ritualistic purpose associated with the ascension of the king’s spirit to the heavens.[35]

text: The King's Chamber is entirely faced with granite. Above the roof, which is formed of nine slabs of stone weighing in total about 400 tons, are five compartments known as Relieving Chambers. The first four, like the King's Chamber, have flat roofs formed by the floor of the chamber above, but the final chamber has a pointed roof. Vyse suspected the presence of upper chambers when he found that he could push a long reed through a crack in the ceiling of the first chamber. From lower to upper, the chambers are known as "Davison's Chamber", "Wellington's Chamber", "Nelson's Chamber", "Lady Arbuthnot's Chamber", and "Campbell's Chamber". It is believed that the compartments were intended to safeguard the King's Chamber from the possibility of a roof collapsing under the weight of stone above the Chamber. As the chambers were not intended to be seen, they were not finished in any way and a few of the stones still retain masons' marks painted on them. One of the stones in Campbell's Chamber bears a mark, apparently the name of a work gang.[36][37]

text: The only object in the King's Chamber is a rectangular granite sarcophagus, one corner of which is broken. The sarcophagus is slightly larger than the Ascending Passage, which indicates that it must have been placed in the Chamber before the roof was put in place. Unlike the fine masonry of the walls of the Chamber, the sarcophagus is roughly finished, with saw marks visible in several places. This is in contrast with the finely finished and decorated sarcophagi found in other pyramids of the same period. Petrie suggested that such a sarcophagus was intended but was lost in the river on the way north from Aswan and a hurriedly made replacement was used instead.

text: Modern entrance

text: Today tourists enter the Great Pyramid via the Robbers' Tunnel, a tunnel purportedly created around AD 820 by Caliph al-Ma'mun's workmen using a battering ram.[38] The tunnel is cut straight through the masonry of the pyramid for approximately 27 metres (89 ft), then turns sharply left to encounter the blocking stones in the Ascending Passage. It is believed that their efforts dislodged the stone fitted in the ceiling of the Descending Passage to hide the entrance to the Ascending Passage and it was the noise of that stone falling and then sliding down the Descending Passage, which alerted them to the need to turn left. Unable to remove these stones, however, the workmen tunnelled up beside them through the softer limestone of the Pyramid until they reached the Ascending Passage. It is possible to enter the Descending Passage from this point, but access is usually forbidden.[39]

text: Pyramid complex

text: The Great Pyramid is surrounded by a complex of several buildings including small pyramids. The Pyramid Temple, which stood on the east side of the pyramid and measured 52.2 metres (171 ft) north to south and 40 metres (130 ft) east to west, has almost entirely disappeared apart from the black basalt paving. There are only a few remnants of the causeway which linked the pyramid with the valley and the Valley Temple. The Valley Temple is buried beneath the village of Nazlet el-Samman; basalt paving and limestone walls have been found but the site has not been excavated.[40][41] The basalt blocks show "clear evidence" of having been cut with some kind of saw with an estimated cutting blade of 15 feet (4.6 m) in length, capable of cutting at a rate of 1.5 inches (38 mm) per minute. John Romer suggests that this "super saw" may have had copper teeth and weighed up to 300 pounds (140 kg). He theorizes that such a saw could have been attached to a wooden trestle and possibly used in conjunction with vegetable oil, cutting sand, emery or pounded quartz to cut the blocks, which would have required the labour of at least a dozen men to operate it.[42]

text: On the south side are the subsidiary pyramids, popularly known as Queens' Pyramids. Three remain standing to nearly full height but the fourth was so ruined that its existence was not suspected until the recent discovery of the first course of stones and the remains of the capstone. Hidden beneath the paving around the pyramid was the tomb of Queen Hetepheres I, sister-wife of Sneferu and mother of Khufu. Discovered by accident by the Reisner expedition, the burial was intact, though the carefully sealed coffin proved to be empty.

text: The Giza pyramid complex, which includes among other structures the pyramids of Khufu, Khafre and Menkaure, is surrounded by a cyclopean stone wall, the Wall of the Crow. Mark Lehner has discovered a worker's town outside of the wall, otherwise known as "The Lost City", dated by pottery styles, seal impressions, and stratigraphy to have been constructed and occupied sometime during the reigns of Khafre (2520–2494 BC) and Menkaure (2490–2472 BC).[43][44] Recent discoveries by Mark Lehner and his team at the town and nearby, including what appears to have been a thriving port, suggest the town and associated living quarters consisting of barracks called "galleries" may not have been for the pyramid workers after all, but rather for the soldiers and sailors who utilized the port. In light of this new discovery, as to where then the pyramid workers may have lived Lehner now suggests the alternative possibility they may have camped on the ramps he believes were used to construct the pyramids or possibly at nearby quarries.[45]

text: In the early 1970s, the Australian archaeologist Karl Kromer excavated a mound in the South Field of the plateau. This mound contained artefacts including mudbrick seals of Khufu, which he identified with an artisans' settlement.[46] Mudbrick buildings just south of Khufu's Valley Temple contained mud sealings of Khufu and have been suggested to be a settlement serving the cult of Khufu after his death.[47] A worker's cemetery used at least between Khufu's reign and the end of the Fifth Dynasty was discovered south of the Wall of the Crow by Zahi Hawass in 1990.[48]

text: Boats

text: There are three boat-shaped pits around the pyramid, of a size and shape to have held complete boats, though so shallow that any superstructure, if there ever was one, must have been removed or disassembled. In May 1954, the Egyptian archaeologist Kamal el-Mallakh discovered a fourth pit, a long, narrow rectangle, still covered with slabs of stone weighing up to 15 tons. Inside were 1,224 pieces of wood, the longest 23 metres (75 ft) long, the shortest 10 centimetres (0.33 ft). These were entrusted to a boat builder, Haj Ahmed Yusuf, who worked out how the pieces fit together. The entire process, including conservation and straightening of the warped wood, took fourteen years.

text: The result is a cedar-wood boat 43.6 metres (143 ft) long, its timbers held together by ropes, which is currently housed in a special boat-shaped, air-conditioned museum beside the pyramid. During construction of this museum, which stands above the boat pit, a second sealed boat pit was discovered. It was deliberately left unopened until 2011 when excavation began on the boat.[49]

text: Looting

text: Although succeeding pyramids were smaller, pyramid building continued until the end of the Middle Kingdom. However, as authors Briar and Hobbs claim, "all the pyramids were robbed" by the New Kingdom, when the construction of royal tombs in a desert valley, now known as the Valley of the Kings, began.[50][51] Joyce Tyldesley states that the Great Pyramid itself "is known to have been opened and emptied by the Middle Kingdom", before the Arab caliph Abdullah al-Mamun entered the pyramid around AD 820.[38]

text: I. E. S. Edwards discusses Strabo's mention that the pyramid "a little way up one side has a stone that may be taken out, which being raised up there is a sloping passage to the foundations". Edwards suggested that the pyramid was entered by robbers after the end of the Old Kingdom and sealed and then reopened more than once until Strabo's door was added. He adds: "If this highly speculative surmise be correct, it is also necessary to assume either that the existence of the door was forgotten or that the entrance was again blocked with facing stones", in order to explain why al-Ma'mun could not find the entrance.[52]

text: He also discusses a story told by Herodotus. Herodotus visited Egypt in the 5th century BC and recounts a story that he was told concerning vaults under the pyramid built on an island where the body of Cheops lies. Edwards notes that the pyramid had "almost certainly been opened and its contents plundered long before the time of Herodotus" and that it might have been closed again during the Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt when other monuments were restored. He suggests that the story told to Herodotus could have been the result of almost two centuries of telling and retelling by Pyramid guides.[53]


document_title: The Cask of Amontillado

question_text: who killed fortunato in the cask of amontillado

text: The Cask of Amontillado

text: Plot summary[edit]

text: The story's narrator, Montresor, tells an unspecified person, who knows him very well, of the day he took his revenge on Fortunato (Italian for "the fortunate one"), a fellow nobleman. Angry over numerous injuries and some unspecified insult, Montresor plots to murder his "friend" during Carnival, while the man is drunk, dizzy, and wearing a jester's motley.

text: Montresor lures Fortunato into a private wine-tasting excursion by telling him he has obtained a pipe (about 130 gallons,[1] 492 litres) of what he believes to be a rare vintage of Amontillado. He proposes obtaining confirmation of the pipe's contents by inviting a fellow wine aficionado, Luchesi, for a private tasting.  Montresor knows Fortunato will not be able to resist demonstrating his discerning palate for wine and will insist that he taste the amontillado rather than Luchesi who, as he claims, "cannot tell Amontillado from Sherry". Fortunato goes with Montresor to the wine cellars of the latter's palazzo, where they wander in the catacombs. Montresor offers wine (first Médoc, then De Grave) to Fortunato in order to keep him inebriated. Montresor warns Fortunato, who has a bad cough, of the dampness, and suggests they go back, but Fortunato insists on continuing, claiming that "[he] shall not die of a cough". During their walk, Montresor mentions his family coat of arms: a golden foot in a blue background crushing a snake whose fangs are embedded in the foot's heel, with the motto Nemo me impune lacessit ("No one attacks me with impunity").

text: At one point, Fortunato makes an elaborate, grotesque gesture with an upraised wine bottle. When Montresor appears not to recognize the gesture, Fortunato asks, "You are not of the masons?" Montresor says he is, and when Fortunato, disbelieving, requests a sign, Montresor displays a trowel he had been hiding. When they come to a niche, Montresor tells his victim that the Amontillado is within. Fortunato enters drunk and unsuspecting and therefore, does not resist as Montresor quickly chains him to the wall. Montresor then declares that, since Fortunato won't go back, Montresor must "positively leave" him there.

text: Montresor reveals brick and mortar, previously hidden among the bones nearby, and proceeds to wall up the niche using his trowel, entombing his friend alive. At first, Fortunato, who sobers up faster than Montresor anticipated, shakes the chains, trying to escape. Fortunato then screams for help, but Montresor mocks his cries, knowing nobody can hear them. Fortunato laughs weakly and tries to pretend that he is the subject of a joke and that people will be waiting for him (including the Lady Fortunato). As Montresor finishes the topmost row of stones, Fortunato wails, "For the love of God, Montresor!" to which Montresor replies, "Yes, for the love of God!" He listens for a reply but hears only the jester's bells ringing. Before placing the last stone, he drops a burning torch through the gap. He claims that he feels sick at heart, but dismisses this reaction as an effect of the dampness of the catacombs.

text: In the last few sentences, Montresor reveals that 50 years later, Fortunato's body still hangs from its chains in the niche where he left it. The murderer concludes: In pace requiescat! ("May he rest in peace!").

text: Publication history[edit]

text: "The Cask of Amontillado" was first published in the November 1846 issue of Godey's Lady's Book,[2] which was, at the time, the most popular periodical in America.[3] The story was only published one additional time during Poe's life.[4]

text: Analysis[edit]

text: Although the subject matter of Poe's story is a murder, "The Cask of Amontillado" is not a tale of detection like "The Murders in the Rue Morgue" or "The Purloined Letter"; there is no investigation of Montresor's crime and the criminal himself explains how he committed the murder. The mystery in "The Cask of Amontillado" is in Montresor's motive for murder. Without a detective in the story, it is up to the reader to solve the mystery.[5]

text: Montresor never specifies his motive beyond the vague "thousand injuries" and "when he ventured upon insult" to which he refers. Some context is provided, including Montresor's observation that his family once was great (but no longer so), and Fortunato's belittling remarks about Montresor's exclusion from Freemasonry. Many commentators conclude that, lacking significant reason, Montresor must be insane, though even this is questionable because of the intricate details of the plot.[5]

text: There is also evidence that Montresor is almost as clueless about his motive for revenge as his victim.[6] In his recounting of the murder, Montresor notes, "A wrong is unredressed when retribution overtakes its redresser. It is equally unredressed when the avenger fails to make himself felt as such to him who has done the wrong". After Fortunato is chained to the wall and nearly entombed alive, Montresor merely mocks and mimics him, rather than disclosing to Fortunato the reasons behind his exacting revenge. Montresor may not have been entirely certain of the exact nature of the insults for which he expected Fortunato to atone.[6]

text: Additional scrutiny into the vague injuries and insults may have to do with a simple matter of Montresor's pride and not any specific words from Fortunato.[7] Montresor comes from an established family. His house had once been noble and respected, but has fallen slightly in status. Fortunato, as his name would seem to indicate, has been blessed with good fortune and wealth and is, therefore, viewed as unrefined by Montresor; however, this lack of refinement has not stopped Fortunato from surpassing Montresor in society, which could very well be the "insult" motive for Montresor's revenge.[7]

text: There is indication that Montresor blames his unhappiness and loss of respect and dignity within society on Fortunato.[8] It is easy to ascertain that Fortunato is a Freemason, while Montresor is not, which could be the source of Fortunato's recent ascension into upper class society. Montresor even imparts this blame to Fortunato when he states, "You are rich, respected, admired, beloved; you are happy, as once I was". This interchanging of fortunes is a suggestion that, since the names Montresor and Fortunato mirror one another, there is a psychological reciprocal identification between victim and executioner.[8] This identification reciprocity is further suggested when one takes into consideration that Montresor entombs Fortunato in the Montresor family catacombs rather than dispatching him elsewhere in the city amidst the chaos of the Carnival. It is with this converging of the two characters that one is able to see the larger symbolism of the Montresor crest – the foot steps on the serpent while the serpent forever has his fangs embedded in the heel.[8]

text: Upon further investigation into the true nature of character, double meaning can be derived from the Montresor crest.[6] It is the position of Montresor to view himself as the owner of the righteous foot that is crushing the insolent Fortunato serpent and his "thousand injuries" that progress into insult. A more allegoric meaning of Poe's places the actors in reverse.[6] The blind oaf Fortunato has unintentionally stepped upon the snake in the grass – the sneaky and cunning Montresor – who, as a reward for this accidental bruising, sinks his fangs deep into the heel of his offender, forever linking them in a form of mutual existence.[6]

text: Though Fortunato is presented as a connoisseur of fine wine, L. Moffitt Cecil of Texas Christian University argues that his actions in the story make that assumption questionable. For example, Fortunato comments on another nobleman being unable to distinguish amontillado from sherry when amontillado is in fact a type of sherry, and treats De Grave, an expensive French wine, with very little regard by drinking it in a single gulp. Cecil also states that a true wine connoisseur would never sample wine while intoxicated and describes Fortunato as merely an alcoholic. Cecil also suggests that some people might feel Fortunato deserved to be buried alive for wasting a bottle of fine wine.[1]

text: Immurement,  a form of imprisonment, usually for life, in which a person is placed within an enclosed space with no exit, is featured in other works by Poe, including "The Fall of the House of Usher", "The Premature Burial", "The Black Cat", and "Berenice".

text: Inspiration[edit]

text: An apocryphal legend holds that the inspiration for "The Cask of Amontillado" came from a story Poe had heard at Castle Island (South Boston), Massachusetts, when he was a private stationed at Fort Independence in 1827.[9] According to this legend, while stationed at Castle Island in 1827 he saw a monument to Lieutenant Robert Massie. Massie had been killed in a sword duel on Christmas Day 1817 by Lieutenant Gustavus Drane, following a dispute during a card game.[10] According to the legend, other soldiers then took revenge on Drane by getting him drunk, luring him into the dungeon, chaining him to a wall, and sealing him in a vault.[11] This version of Drane's demise is false; Drane was courtmartialled for the killing and acquitted,[10] and lived until 1846.[12] A report of a skeleton discovered on the island may be a confused remembering of Poe's major source, Joel Headley's "A Man Built in a Wall",[13] which recounts the author's seeing an immured skeleton in the wall of a church in Italy.[14] Headley's story includes details very similar to "The Cask of Amontillado"; in addition to walling an enemy into a hidden niche, the story details the careful placement of the bricks, the motive of revenge, and the victim's agonized moaning. Poe may have also seen similar themes in Honoré de Balzac's La Grande Bretèche (Democratic Review, November 1843) or his friend George Lippard's The Quaker City, or The Monks of Monk Hall (1845).[15] Poe may have borrowed Montresor's family motto Nemo me impune lacessit from James Fenimore Cooper, who used the line in The Last of the Mohicans (1826).[16]

text: Poe wrote his tale, however, as a response to his personal rival Thomas Dunn English. Poe and English had several confrontations, usually revolving around literary caricatures of one another. Poe thought that one of English's writings went a bit too far, and successfully sued the other man's editors at The New York Mirror for libel in 1846.[17] That year English published a revenge-based novel called 1844, or, The Power of the S.F. Its plot was convoluted and difficult to follow, but made references to secret societies and ultimately had a main theme of revenge. It included a character named Marmaduke Hammerhead, the famous author of "The Black Crow", who uses phrases like "Nevermore" and "lost Lenore", referring to Poe's poem "The Raven". This parody of Poe was depicted as a drunkard, liar, and an abusive lover.

text: Poe responded with "The Cask of Amontillado", using very specific references to English's novel. In Poe's story, for example, Fortunato makes reference to the secret society of Masons, similar to the secret society in 1844, and even makes a gesture similar to one portrayed in 1844 (it was a signal of distress). English had also used an image of a token with a hawk grasping a snake in its claws, similar to Montresor's coat of arms bearing a foot stomping on a snake – though in this image, the snake is biting the heel. In fact, much of the scene of "The Cask of Amontillado" comes from a scene in 1844 that takes place in a subterranean vault. In the end, then, it is Poe who "punishes with impunity" by not taking credit for his own literary revenge and by crafting a concise tale (as opposed to a novel) with a singular effect, as he had suggested in his essay "The Philosophy of Composition".[18]

text: Poe may have also been inspired, at least in part, by the Washingtonian movement, a fellowship that promoted temperance. The group was made up of reformed drinkers who tried to scare people into abstaining from alcohol. Poe may have made a promise to join the movement in 1843 after a bout of drinking with the hopes of gaining a political appointment. "The Cask of Amontillado" then may be a "dark temperance tale", meant to shock people into realizing the dangers of drinking.[19]

text: Poe scholar Richard P. Benton has stated his belief that "Poe's protagonist is an Englished version of the French Montrésor" and has argued forcefully that Poe's model for Montresor "was Claude de Bourdeille, comte de Montrésor (Count of Montrésor), the 17th-century political conspirator in the entourage of King Louis XIII's weak-willed brother, Gaston d'Orléans".[20] The "noted intriguer and memoir-writer" was first linked to "The Cask of Amontillado" by Poe scholar Burton R. Pollin.[20][21]

text: Further inspiration for the method of Fortunato's murder comes from the fear of live burial. During the time period of this short story some coffins were given methods of alerting the outside in the event of live entombment. Items such as bells tied to the limbs of a corpse to signal the outside were not uncommon. This theme is evident in Fortunato's costume of a jester with bells upon his hat, and his situation of live entombment within the catacombs.[8]

text: Poe may have known bricklaying through personal experience. Many periods in Poe's life lack significant biographical details, including what he did after leaving the Southern Literary Messenger in 1837.[22] Poe biographer John H. Ingram wrote to Sarah Helen Whitman that someone named "Allen" said that Poe worked "in the brickyard 'late in the fall of 1834'". This source has been identified as Robert T. P. Allen, a fellow West Point student during Poe's time there.[23]

text: Adaptations[edit]

text:
In 1951, EC (Entertaining Comics) published a comic adaptation in Crime Suspenstories #3, under the name "Blood Red Wine". The adaptation was written by Albert B. Feldstein, with art by Graham Ingels, and a cover by Johnny Craig. The ending was changed from Poe's original to show the murderer get his come-comeuppance only moments after the crime. It was reprinted in 1993 by Russ Cochran.
In 1951, Gilberton's Classics Illustrated #84 featured a faithful adaptation, with art by Jim Lavery. It has been reprinted multiple times over the years.
In 1960, Editora Continental (Brazil) published an adaptation in Classicos De Terror #1 by Gedeone Malagola.
Roger Corman's 1962 anthology film Tales of Terror combines the story with another Poe story, The Black Cat[24] This loosely adapted version is decidedly comic in tone, and stars Peter Lorre as Montresor (given the name Montresor Herringbone) and Vincent Price as Fortunato Luchresi. The amalgamation of the two stories provides a motive for the murderer: Fortunato has an affair with Montresor's wife.
In 1963, Dell Comics adapted the version from Roger Corman's Tales Of Terror with art by Fran Matera.
In 1965, Warren Publishing included an adaptation in Creepy #6. It was written by Archie Goodwin, with art by Reed Crandall. The ending borrows from the 1951 EC version, except for the murderer getting what was coming to him 50 years later. This version has been reprinted many times over the years.
In 1967, Editora Taika (Brazil) issued an adaptation in Album Classicos De Terror #4. It was adapted by Francisco De Assis, with art by Osvaldo Talo. This borrows Archie Goodwin's revised ending verbatim.
In 1970, O Livreiro Editora (Brazil) published an adaptation in Terror Ilustrado #1 by Edmundo Rodrigues.
Vincent Price filmed a solo recitation of the story for a segment of the 1970 Anthology film An Evening of Edgar Allan Poe. The production features Montresor recounting the story to an unseen guest in a vast, empty dining room.
"The Merciful", a 1971 episode of Night Gallery, features the story with a twist: an old couple in a basement, with the wife (Imogene Coca) building the wall and quoting from the Poe story, while the husband (King Donovan) sits passively in a rocking chair. Once she has finished, he gets up from the chair and walks up the stairs. The wife has sealed herself in.
In 1974, Skywald did an adaptation in Scream #5. Adaptation by Al Hewetson, art by "Maro Nava" (a possible psudonym for Jerry Grandenetti). In 1989, this was reprinted by Eternity Comics in Murders In The Rue Morgue #1.
In 1975, Warren did an adaptation in Creepy #70. Adaptation by Rich Margopoulos, art by Martin Salvador. This has been reprinted multiple times over the years.
In 1976, The Alan Parsons Project released an album titled Tales of Mystery and Imagination with one of the tracks called "The Cast of Amontillado".
In 1977, Marvel Comics did an adaptation in Marvel Classics Comics #28. Adaptation & layouts by Don McGregor, art by Michael Golden, making his professional comics debut. This has been reprinted twice by Editora Bloch (Brazil).
In 1977, Pendulum Press did an adaptation in The Best Of Poe (part of their Now Age Books / Pendulum Illustrated Classics / Now Age Illustrated series). Adaptation by Naunerle Farr, art by Noly Zamora. This has been reprinted multiple times since, most recently by Saddleback Illustrated Classics in 2006.
In 1979, Moby Books did an illustrated story adaptation in Tales Of Mystery And Terror (part of their Great Illustrated Classics series). Adaptation by Marjorie P. Katz, art by Pablo Marcos.
In 1980, Organizacion Editorial Novaro (Mexico) did an illustrated story adaptation in Cuentos De Edgar Allan Poe (part of their Clasicos Ilustrados series). Adaptation by Hector D. Shelley, art by Guido Del Carpio Rivera.
In 1982, Troll Associates did an illustrated children's book. Adaptation by David E. Cutts, art by Ann Toulmin-Rothe.
In 1989, Globe Communications Corp did an adaptation in Monsters Attack #2. Adaptation by Charles E. Hall, art by Walter James Brogan.
In 1995, Mojo Press did an adaptation in The Tell-Tale Heart: Stories And Poems by Edgar Allan Poe. Art by Bill D. Fountain.
In 1997, Cottage Classics did an illustrated version in Maxon's Poe: Seven Stories And Poems by Edgar Allan Poe. Art by Maxon Poe.
"The Cask of Amontillado" was made into a British film in 1998, directed by Mario Cavalli, screenplay by Richard Deakin and starring Anton Blake as Montresor and Patrick Monckton as Fortunato.[25]
In 1999, Albin Michel – L'Echo des Savanes (France) did a comics version, "El Tonel De Amontillado" in Le Chat Noir. Adaptation & art by Horacio Lalia.
In 2001, Eureka Productions featured an adaptation in Graphic Classics #1. Art by Pedro Lopez.
In 2003, Lou Reed included an adaptation on the extended edition of his Poe-themed album The Raven, titled "The Cask" and performed by Willem Dafoe (as Montresor) and Steve Buscemi (as Fortunato).
In 2009, Edelvives Zaragoza (Spain) did a comics version, "El Barril De Amontillado" in Tres Cuentos De Poe. Adaptation & art by Xavier Besse.
Edgar Allan Poe's The Cask of Amontillado (2011) stars David JM Bielewicz and Frank Tirio, Jr. It was directed by Thad Ciechanowski, produced by Joe Serkoch, by production company DijitMedia, LLC/Orionvega. It was a winner of 2013 regional Emmy Award.[26]
In 2013, Lance Tait's stage adaptation located the action of the story in Nice, France.[27]
In 2014, Dark Horse Comics did an adaptation in The Premature Burial. Adaptation & art by Richard Corben.
In 2014, Ediciones De La Flor (Argentina) did an adaptation in Lo Mejor De Poe ("The Best of Poe"). Adaptation & art by Edu Molina.
in 2014, Keith Carradine starred in Terroir, a feature length film adaptation by John Charles Jopson.
This story is told in Christopher Moore's book The Serpent of Venice (2014) from the perspective of the main character, Pocket, a jester. In this version, Pocket is saved by a mermaid.
The fourth episode in season 9 American Masters titled  Edgar Allan Poe: Terror of the Soul adapts the story.[28]
In spring 2017, Udon Entertainment's Manga Classics line will publish The Stories of Edgar Allan Poe, which will include a manga format adaptation of "The Cask of Amontillado".[29]


document_title: Stepfamily

question_text: where did the word step dad come from

question_tokens: where did the word step dad come from

text: Stepfamily

text: Etymology[edit]

text: The earliest recorded use of the prefix step-, in the form steop-, is from an 8th-century glossary of Latin-Old English words meaning "orphan". Steopsunu is given for the Latin word filiaster and steopmoder for nouerca. Similar words recorded later in Old English include stepbairn, stepchild and stepfather. The words are used to denote a connection resulting from the remarriage of a widowed parent and are related to the word ástíeped meaning bereaved, with stepbairn and stepchild occasionally used simply as synonyms for orphan. Words such as stepbrother, stepniece and stepparent appeared much later and do not have any particular connotation of bereavement. Corresponding words in other Germanic languages include: Old High German stiuf- and Old Norse stjúp-.[6]

text: Challenges[edit]

text: This article contains instructions, advice, or how-to content. The purpose of Wikipedia is to present facts, not to train. Please help improve this article either by rewriting the how-to content or by moving it to Wikiversity, Wikibooks or Wikivoyage. (July 2014)

text: According to James Bray, three of the challenges facing a stepfamily are financial and living arrangements, resolving feelings about the previous marriage and anticipating parenting changes.[7]

text: Additional challenges that a step- or blended family face are those regarding the paternal parents as well as the inherent bond that paternal parents have with their children and vice versa. Stepparents often face significant difficulties when interacting with the paternal parent. Often, paternal parents feel as though the other man or woman is going to ultimately replace them. This is a common feeling for a parent to have when faced with the new circumstance of blended families. .[8]

text: Legal status[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Although historically stepfamilies are built through the institution of marriage and are legally recognized, it is currently unclear if a stepfamily can be both established and recognized by less formal arrangements, such as when a man or woman with children cohabits with another man or woman outside of marriage. This relationship is becoming more common in all Western countries.[9]

text: There appear to be many cultures in which these families are recognized socially as de facto families. However, in modern Western culture it is often unclear as to what, if any, social status and protection they enjoy in law.

text: The stepparent is a "legal stranger" in most of the U.S. and has no legal right to the minor child no matter how involved in the child's life they are. The biological parents (and, where applicable, adoptive parents) hold that privilege and responsibility. If the biological parent does not give up their parental rights and custody of the child, the other parent's subsequent marriage cannot create a parental relationship without the biological parent's written consent before a "child" reaches adulthood. In most cases, the stepparent can not be ordered to pay child support.[10]

text: Stepparents generally do not have the authority to give legal consent to medical treatment for a stepchild, unless the stepparent has legally adopted the child or been designated a legal guardian. A child's parents or legal guardians may sign a statement authorizing a third party to consent to medical care.[11]

text: With regard to unmarried couples, one can easily imagine such social and legal recognition, most notably in the case of common law marriage. Unmarried couples today may also find social recognition locally through community consensus.

text: Still, it is not at all clear what formal parenting roles, rights, responsibilities and social etiquette should exist between "stepparents" and their "stepchildren." This often leaves the parents in unexpected conflicts with each other, their former spouses and the children.

text: For all the confusion which stepparents may feel, it is often even less clear to the stepchildren what the interpersonal relationships are, or should be, between themselves and their stepsiblings; between themselves and their stepparent; and even between themselves and their birth parents. These relationships can be extremely complex, especially in circumstances where each "stepspouse" may bring children of their own to the home or in households where children are expected to actively participate in each of the newly created families of both birth parents.

text: Although most stepfamilies can agree on what they do not want to be for one another, they are often hard pressed to agree upon what they do want to be for one another. This makes it difficult for everyone in the family to learn their roles. It is especially difficult for the children, because the roles and expectations of them change as they move between the homes and families of both of their birth parents.

text: Stepparent adoption in the United States[edit]

text: In the United States, the most common form of adoption is adopting a stepchild. By adopting a stepchild, the stepparent is agreeing to be fully responsible for their spouse's child. The biological parent not living with the child no longer has any rights or responsibilities for the child, including child support.[12]

text: Stepparents can become legal parents to their stepchildren through the process of stepparent adoption. Both biological parents, if living, must consent or agree to the adoption. When a stepparent adopts a stepchild, either the non-custodial parent of the child willingly gives up his or her parental rights to the child, or the court terminates the parental rights of the biological parent if there is evidence of abuse or neglect to the child. If a parent is not involved in the child's life, the court can terminate that biological parent's rights on the grounds of abandonment. Grounds for abandonment in most states is no contact between the parent and child for at least one year.

text: Local laws to complete a stepparent adoption vary. While having the non-custodial parent consent to the adoption is the easiest way to complete a stepparent adoption, it is still possible to have one completed when they either do not consent, or cannot be located.

text: A stepparent adoption can still occur if the other birth parent refuses to give consent or cannot be located. Most states' laws allow parental rights to be terminated when a parent has willfully failed to pay child support or communicate with the child for a period of time, usually a year.[13]

text: Stepparent adoption also can occur if the other biological parent is deceased.

text: Abuse[edit]

text: A common villain of classic fairy tales is the abusive stepmother. She mistreats her non-biological child by locking them away, or trying to kill them in some cases, and treats her own children very well if she has any. In popular culture phrases like "I'll beat you like a red-headed stepchild" are uttered as a common threat that show just how aware people are about the assumed nature of stepfamily abuse. The thought is that because this child is not the biological child they are more likely to be beaten due to a lack of kinship ties. The research on this topic shows that this issue is not so clearly defined however. The image of the wicked step mother is well known but much of the research available shows more of the abuse coming from stepfathers rather than step mothers.

text: Stepfathers have been shown to abuse female stepchildren more than males. They are also shown to be more abusive towards female children than biological families, but less abusive than adoptive fathers.[14] The abuse studied with men in mind tends to focus on physical or sexual abuse of children rather than emotional abuse. Neglect is also discussed as a qualifying method of child abuse by step parents in general. In 2004 a U.S. study by Weekes and Weekes-Shackelford found that while biological fathers fatally abuse children 5 and under at a rate of 5.6 per million per year; step fathers were found to have a rate of 55.9 per million per year.[15] A U.K. study done in 2000 had different results which found that many less children responded as being abused by a step parent.[16] Economic factors could also play a role in the abuse of step children. In places with higher levels of social strain abuse may be more prevalent or more violent.[17] Other studies of census data and child neglect and abuse records have found that step parents may be over represented in abuse figures. They found that when the data is balanced, the biological parents have a much higher rate of abuse than the step parents do.[18]

text: Step mothers are thought to be less violent in their abuse and instead rely mainly on verbal and emotion abuse.

text: There is little research in the field of parental abuse by children in concern with step children abusing step parents. The abuse of step children by their siblings is also a topic with little research.

text: In research[edit]

text: In her book, Becoming a Stepfamily, Patricia Papernow (1993) suggests that each stepfamily goes through seven distinct stages of development, which can be divided into the Early, Middle, and Late stages. The Early stages consist of the Fantasy, Immersion, and Awareness stages. In the Fantasy stage, both children and parents are typically "stuck" in their fantasies or wishes for what their family could be like. The developmental task for this stage is for each member to articulate their wants and needs. In the Immersion stage, the family is typically struggling to live out the fantasy of a "perfect" blended family. In this stage, it is critical for the "insider spouse" (i.e. the biological parent who typically forms the emotional hub of the family) to understand that the feelings of the "outsider spouse" and children are real. The task of this stage is to persist in the struggle to become aware of the various experiences. This stage is followed by the Awareness stage, in which the family gathers information about what the new family looks like (e.g., roles, traditions, "family culture") and how each member feels about it. The tasks of this stage are twofold: individual and joint. The individual task is for each member to begin to put words to the feelings they are experiencing, and to voice their needs to other family members. The joint task is for family members to begin to transcend the "experiential gaps" and to try to form an understanding of other members' roles and experiences.[19]

text: The Middle stages consist of the Mobilization and Action stages. In the Mobilization stage, the stepparent can begin to step forward to address the family's process and structure. The tasks of this stage are to confront differences in each member's perception of the new family, as well as to influence one another before shaming or blaming begins to take action to reorganize the family structure. The goal here is to make joint decisions about new stepfamily rituals, rules, and roles. The focus in this stage is on the stepfamily's unique "middle ground" (i.e. the "areas of shared experience, shared values, and easy cooperative functioning created over time," p. 39), and on balancing this new middle ground with honoring of past and other relationships.[20]

text: The Later stages consist of the Contact and Resolution stages. In the Contact stage, the couple is working well together, the boundaries between households are clear, and stepparents have definite roles with stepchildren as "intimate outsiders." The task for this stage is in solidifying the stepparent's role, and in continuing the process of awareness. Finally, in the Resolution stage, the stepfamily's identity has become secure. The family accepts itself for who it is, there is a strong sense of the stepfamily's middle ground, and children feel secure in both households. The task for this stage is to nourish the depth and maturity gained through this process, and to rework any issues that might arise at family "nodal events" (e.g., weddings, funerals, graduations, etc.).[21]

text: In her book, Stepmonster: A New Look at Why Real Stepmothers Think, Feel, and Act the Way We Do, social researcher Wednesday Martin takes an anthropological approach to examining stepfamily dynamics.[22][23][24] The Daily Mail said that Stepmonster "in the US, has become widely regarded as the 'go to' source for stepmothers, stepchildren, and therapists."[25]

text: Education[edit]

text: The prevalence of stepfamilies has increased over the past century with the increase of divorce and remarriage. According to the Step Family Foundation, "over 50% of US families are remarried or recoupled."[26] These families are unique in their experiences facing many challenges which first-married families do not. For example, role ambiguity, dealing with stepchildren, and ex-spouses are only a few of the issues which are unique to these families. In response to these families' desire for assistance, stepfamily education has become an increasingly common topic among scholars and educators. Although still a relatively new facet within the marriage education realm, stepfamily education provides important information which may not be addressed in traditional marriage or relationship education curriculum. As discussed by Adler-Baeder and Higginbotham (2004)[27] a number of curricula are currently available to stepfamilies and family life educators; however, further research is needed in order to determine best-practices for the field. One way in which this gap is being filled is through the current implementation of Healthy Marriage Demonstration Grants[28] in the U.S. As part of the Deficit Reduction Act of 2005, grants for healthy marriage and responsible fatherhood, which include at-risk and diverse populations such as stepfamilies, are providing important information on the evaluation of stepfamily programs and their effectiveness in servicing stepfamilies.


document_title: Colorado River Compact

question_text: who decides where the water from the colorado river goes

text: Colorado River Compact

text: Law of the River[edit]

text: The Colorado River is managed and operated under numerous compacts, federal laws, court decisions and decrees, contracts, and regulatory guidelines collectively known as "The Law of the River."[1]

text: Provisions[edit]

text: The compact divides the river basin into two areas, the Upper Division (comprising Colorado, New Mexico, Utah and Wyoming) and the Lower Division (Nevada, Arizona and California). The compact requires the Upper Basin states not to deplete the flow of the river below 7,500,000 acre feet (9.3 km3) during any period of ten consecutive years. Based on rainfall patterns observed in the years before the treaty's signing in 1922, the amount specified in the compact was assumed to allow a roughly equal division of water between the two regions. The states within each basin were required to divide their 7,500,000-acre (30,000 km2) foot per year (289 m³/s) share allotment among themselves. The compact enabled the widespread irrigation of the Southwest, as well as the subsequent development of state and federal water works projects under the United States Bureau of Reclamation. Such projects included the Hoover Dam and Lake Powell.

text: The current specific annual allotments in the Lower Basin were established in 1928 as part of the Boulder Canyon Project, while the current specific annual allotments in the Upper Basin were established by the Upper Colorado River Basin Compact of 1948.[2] They are:

text:
Upper Basin, 7.5 million acre·ft/year (293 m³/s) total

Colorado
51.75%*
3.86 million acre·ft/year (150.7 m³/s)

Utah
23.00%*
1.71 million acre·ft/year (67.0 m³/s)

Wyoming
14.00%*
1.04 million acre·ft/year (40.8 m³/s)

New Mexico
11.25%*
0.84 million acre·ft/year (32.8 m³/s)

Arizona
0.70%
0.05 million acre·ft/year (2.0 m³/s)

*Percentages with a star are a percentage of the total after Arizona's
0.05 million are deducted. Arizona's percentage is of the total.

Lower Basin, 7.5 million acre·ft/year (293 m³/s) total

California
58.70%
4.40 million acre·ft/year (172 m³/s)

Arizona
37.30%
2.80 million acre·ft/year (109 m³/s)

Nevada
4.00%
0.30 million acre·ft/year (12 m³/s)

text: In addition to this, 1,500,000-acre-foot (1.9×109 m3)/year of Colorado River water is allocated to Mexico, pursuant to the treaty relating to the use of waters of the Colorado and Tijuana rivers and of the Rio Grande, signed February 3, 1944, and its supplementary protocol signed November 14, 1944. Also, the lower basin can get an additional 1,100,000-acre-foot (1.4×109 m3)/year in surplus conditions.[3]

text: The compact was the fruit of several years of negotiations among the states. The seven states had previously formed the League of the Southwest in 1917 to promote development along the river.[4] In 1921, Congress authorized the states to enter into a compact for allocation of the river resources. The agreement was approved by Congress in 1922, the same year it was signed. Colorado River Compact was signed by the delegates from the seven Colorado River Basin states: Wyoming, Colorado, Utah and New Mexico were designated Upper Basin states and California, Arizona and Nevada as the Lower Basin states. This compact determined that the water would be shared equally among the upper and lower basin states. Prior to the compact, the name of the river was standardized along its length. Previously the portion of the river upstream from its confluence with the Green River had been known locally as the "Grand River". The change was opposed by many local residents in Utah and Colorado, and the new name was enforced locally by acts of the state legislatures in both states in the early 1920s. One of the major concerns both today and back in the 1920s was the expanding population, and this increased the demand for water, particularly in California. In more recent years, mainly because of Las Vegas, Nevada has been looking for more use of the Colorado River.[5]

text: In 1934, Arizona, unhappy with California's decision to dam and divert the river, called out the National Guard and even commissioned a two boat "navy." The matter was eventually settled in court.[6]

text: The agreement was controversial even at the time, however. Arizona, for example, was dissatisfied with the lower basin allotment.[7] Led by Fred Colter, the state refused to sign the agreement, and did not do so until two months after Colter's death in 1944.[8]:17–18 The specific allotments were disputed by Arizona until the United States Supreme Court upheld the amount in the 1963 decision in Arizona v. California. The agreement ended many years of dispute, clearing the way for the Central Arizona Project, authorized by Congress in 1968. Mexico was able to gain some of the river rights, Arizona took steps to protect its water rights and keep from California gaining too large of a share, which ultimately led to the Arizona v. California supreme Court Case.[9] The Arizona v. Colorado court case lasted 11 years and cost over $5 million and 50 lawyers.[10] This case set the precedent of SCOTus using water rights. The case ultimately decided that the Boulder Canyon Provision was correct for the lower states (which are California, Nevada, and Arizona).[11] The Court ultimately ruled in favor of Arizona, however they agreed with the way that California interpreted that it got surplus water was correct and so there was essentially some compromise on both sides.

text: Future developments and issues[edit]

text: Since the development of the Colorado River Compact, California has been using the surplus water that has been left over from other states. With increasing population growth in the Southwest there is concern that this surplus soon will not exist for California’s use. In 2001, Secretary of the Interior Bruce Babbitt signed an interim agreement, determining how water surplus from the Colorado River will be allocated between the states, and creating a fifteen-year period to allow California time to put conservation methods in place to reduce the state’s water usage and dependence on Colorado River water.[12]

text: There is also concern regarding Nevada’s increasing population and the state’s water usage. Nevada, with the smallest water allocation in the lower river basin, may find in the near future that the water supplied by the Colorado River will not meet the state’s growing needs. In 2008 Southern Nevada Water Authority General Manager Pat Mulroy said that she does not support a water reallocation. This is because all of the states in the river basin have experienced growth she says that it is unlikely that Nevada’s allocation would increase, and it could even decrease.[13] Instead Nevada, like California, may have to work on conservation methods as well as finding other water sources to support the state’s growing population.

text: Development was the prime concern of the Colorado River Compact, when signed in 1922. Using and reusing the river water as well as frequent damming results in an unfavorable environment for native fish species. Dams block fish passage, reduce natural silt deposition along flood plains and in deltas, and change water temperatures—all negatively impacting the natural ecosystem.[14] The high water usage has also caused the river delta, located in Mexico, to significantly deteriorate. Once a lush and green area from the high amounts of silt deposit, the plentiful ecosystem has now all but disappeared. The Colorado River had been over allocated since the beginning of its time, as during the signing of the Colorado River Compact, the flows were vastly overestimated and much more generous than they should have been. It was originally estimated to have 17 million acre-feet a year, but even prior to the drought flows have often been less than a third of that.[11]

text: Criticism and renegotiation[edit]

text: In recent years, the compact has become the focus of even sharper criticism, in the wake of a protracted decrease in precipitation in the region. Specifically, the amount of water allocated was based on an expectation that the river's average flow was 16,400,000 acre feet (20.2 km3) per year (641 m³/s). Subsequent tree ring studies, however, have concluded that the long-term average water flow of the Colorado is significantly less. Estimates have included 13,200,000 acre feet (16.3 km3) per year (516 m³/s),[14] 13,500,000 acre feet (16.7 km3) per year (528 m3/s),[15] and 14,300,000 acre feet (17.6 km3) per year (559 m3/s).[16] Many analysts have concluded that when the compact was negotiated, the period used as the basis for "average" flow of the river (1905–1922) included periods of abnormally high precipitation,[17] and that the recent drought in the region is in fact a return to historically typical patterns. The decrease in precipitation has led to widespread dropping of reservoir levels in the region, in particular at Lake Powell, created by the Glen Canyon Dam in 1963, where the exposure of long-inundated canyons has prompted calls for the reservoir to be permanently drained and decommissioned.

text: In December 2007, a set of interim guidelines on how to allocate Colorado River water in the event of shortages was signed by the Secretary of the Interior.[3][18] The guidelines are described as interim because they extend through 2026, and, "acknowledging the potential for impacts due to climate change and increased hydrologic variability," interim guidelines provide "the opportunity to gain valuable operating experience for the management of Lake Powell and Lake Mead, particularly for low reservoir conditions...whether during the interim period or thereafter."[19] The agreement specifies three levels of shortage conditions, depending on the level of Lake Mead:

text:
Light shortage. When the surface elevation at Lake Mead is below 1,075 feet (328 m) relative to mean sea level but above 1,050 feet (320 m), the Lower Basin states will receive 7,167,000 acre feet (8.840 km3) per year: 4,400,000 acre feet (5.4 km3) to California, 2,480,000 acre feet (3.06 km3) to Arizona, and 287,000 acre feet (0.354 km3) to Nevada.
Heavy shortage. When the surface elevation of Lake Mead is below 1,050 feet (320 m) but above 1,025 feet (312 m), 7,083,000 acre feet (8.737 km3) per year will be delivered to the Lower Basin states: 4,400,000 acre feet (5.4 km3) to California, 2,400,000 acre feet (3.0 km3) to Arizona, and 283,000 acre feet (0.349 km3) to Nevada.
Extreme shortage. The most severe shortage considered in the interim guidelines is when the level of Lake Mead drops below 1,025 feet (312 m), in which event 7,000,000 acre feet (8.6 km3) per year will be delivered to the Lower Basin states: 4,000,000 acre feet (4.9 km3) to California, 2,320,000 acre feet (2.86 km3) to Arizona, and 280,000 acre feet (0.35 km3) to Nevada.

text: On August 15, 2008, Arizona Senator John McCain called for the compact to be renegotiated.[20] Due to the Senator's position as the Republican Party nominee in the 2008 U.S. Presidential Election and Colorado's swing state status, criticism of the compact may have gained national significance.[21]

text: Minute 319. On November 20, 2012, the International Boundary and Water Commission of the United States and Mexico signed an agreement termed "Minute 319," which updated the Law of the River to address how the 1,500,000 acre feet (1.9 km3) of Colorado River water that Mexico receives every year would be affected by surplus or drought conditions.[22] Under surplus conditions (when the surface elevation of Lake Mead is above 1,145 feet (349 m) relative to mean sea level) the annual flow to Mexico will increase by 40,000 acre feet (0.049 km3). In cases where the surface elevation of Lake Mead is higher than that, the extra deliveries to Mexico progressively increase, reaching a maximum of an additional 200,000 acre feet (0.25 km3) per year.

text: Minute 319 also specifies that deliveries to Mexico will be reduced under drought conditions. Starting from the base allocation of 1,500,000 acre feet (1.9 km3) per year, annual deliveries will be reduced by 50,000 acre feet (0.062 km3) if the surface elevation of Lake Mead is between 1,075 feet (328 m) and 1,050 feet (320 m) above mean sea level; reduced by 70,000 acre feet (0.086 km3) acre-feet if the elevation is 1,050 feet (320 m) to 1,025 feet (312 m); and reduced by 125,000 acre feet (0.154 km3) if the surface elevation is below 1,025 feet (312 m).


document_title: The Gospel of John (film)

question_text: where was the movie the gospel of john filmed

text: The Gospel of John (film)

text: Production[edit]

text: This film was created by a constituency of artists from Canada and the United Kingdom, along with academic and theological consultants from around the world. The cast was selected primarily from the Stratford Shakespeare Festival and Soulpepper Theatre Company, as well as Britain's Royal Shakespeare Company and Royal National Theatre. The musical score, composed by Jeff Danna and created for the film, is partially based on the music of the Biblical period. The film was produced by Visual Bible International.

text: Cast[edit]

text: The film is narrated by Christopher Plummer and stars Scottish-Peruvian actor Henry Ian Cusick as Jesus. Others cast include British actors Stuart Bunce (John), Richard Lintern (Leading Pharisee), Scott Handy (John the Baptist), Lynsey Baxter (Mary Magdalene), and Canadian actors Diego Matamoros (Nicodemus), Stephen Russell (Pontius Pilate), Daniel Kash (Simon Peter), Cedric Smith (Caiaphas) and Nancy Palk (Samaritan Woman).

text: Directors and Producers[edit]

text: The film was directed by Philip Saville and co-produced by Canadian producer Garth Drabinsky and British producer Chris Chrisafis.

text: Executive producers were Sandy Pearl, Joel B. Michaels, Myron Gottliel and Martin Katz

text: Other Critical Contributions[edit]

text: Also involved were screenwriter John Goldsmith, production designer Don Taylor, sound mixer David Lee, makeup artist Trefor Proud, costume designer Debra Hanson, and director of photography and film editors Miroslaw Baszak and Michel Arcand.

text: The filming production was shot in Toronto, Ontario, and Almeria, Andalucia, Spain.

text: Criticism[edit]

text: While the film is largely a faithful depiction of the Gospel of John, some have commented that the inclusion of Mary Magdalene at the Last Supper has no Biblical citation. However, according to the Gospels, she was one of the women who accompanied Jesus and the disciples to Jerusalem, was present at the Crucifixion and burial of Jesus, was the first to whom Jesus appeared at the Resurrection, and was with the disciples in the upperroom after the Resurrection. Thus, like many modern movies about Jesus, the producers are faithfully attempting to help their audience see what the Gospel writers sometimes have not included. [3]