document_title: Rise of the Planet of the Apes

question_text: the virus in rise of the planet of the apes

text: Rise of the Planet of the Apes

text: Plot[edit]

text: Will Rodman, a scientist at the San Francisco biotech company Gen-Sys, is testing the viral-based drug ALZ-112 on chimpanzees to find a cure for Alzheimer's disease. ALZ-112 is given to a chimp named Bright Eyes, greatly increasing her intelligence. But then, during Will's presentation for the drug, Bright Eyes is forced from her cage, goes on a rampage, and is shot to death. Will's boss Steven Jacobs terminates the project and has the chimps slaughtered. However, Will's assistant Robert Franklin discovers that the reason for Bright Eyes' rampage was that she had recently given birth to an infant chimp. Will reluctantly agrees to take in the chimp, who is named Caesar. Will learns that Caesar has inherited his mother's intelligence and decides to raise him. Three years later, Will introduces Caesar to the redwood forest at Muir Woods National Monument. Meanwhile, Will treats his dementia-suffering father Charles with ALZ-112, which seems to restore his cognitive ability.

text: Five years later, when Caesar reaches adolescence and sees a dog on a leash like his own, he questions his identity and learns of his origins from Will. Meanwhile, Charles's condition returns as he becomes resistant to ALZ-112. Caesar injures a neighbor, Douglas Hunsiker, while defending a confused Charles. As a result, he is placed in a primate shelter where he is tormented by a chimp named Rocket and the chief guard, Dodge Landon, but also where he befriends an orangutan named Maurice who came from a circus. Caesar learns how to unlock his cage, gaining free access to the common area. With the assistance of a gorilla named Buck, he confronts the sanctuary's alpha, Rocket and claims that position. Meanwhile, Jacobs clears development of a more powerful, gaseous version of the drug – ALZ-113 – when Will tells him it can also improve intelligence. Will takes the drug home to try to save his father, but Charles declines further treatment and dies overnight.

text: After attempting to test the drug on a scarred bonobo test subject named Koba, Franklin becomes exposed to ALZ-113 and becomes ill. Attempting to warn Will at his home, he sneezes blood onto Hunsiker and is later discovered dead. Will attempts to reclaim Caesar, but the chimp refuses to go home with him so he could look after the other apes. Instead, he escapes from the facility and returns to Will's house, where he takes canisters of the ALZ-113. Upon returning, Caesar releases the gas and allows it to enhance the intelligence of the other apes. When Dodge attempts to get him back into his cage, Caesar speaks for the first time, yelling "No!" and gets in a fight which inadvertently leads to Dodge's death. The apes flee the facility, release the remaining chimps from Gen-Sys, and free more apes from the San Francisco Zoo on the way.

text: A battle ensues as the ape army fights their way past a police blockade on the Golden Gate Bridge to escape into the redwood forest. Buck sacrifices himself to save Caesar by jumping into the helicopter in which Jacobs is riding. The helicopter crashes onto the bridge, trapping Jacobs in the wreckage. Koba seizes his chance for revenge and sends Jacobs falling to his death in the bay below.

text: As the apes find their way into the forest, Will arrives and warns Caesar that the humans will hunt them down, and begs him to return home. In response, Caesar hugs him and says that, "Caesar is home." Will, realizing that this is indeed their last goodbye, respects Caesar's wishes. The apes embrace their new lifestyle in the forest.

text: In a mid-credits scene, an infected Hunsiker leaves his house for work as an airline pilot, arriving at San Francisco International Airport for his flight to Paris. His nose begins to drip blood onto the floor. A graphic traces the spread of the humanity-ravaging virus around the globe via international flight routes.

text: Cast[edit]

text: Humans[edit]

text:
James Franco as Dr. William "Will" Rodman, a biologist who is trying to discover a cure for his father's Alzheimer's disease by testing ALZ-112 on chimps. He is a father figure to Caesar. James Franco was cast after talks with Tobey Maguire broke down.[7][8]
Freida Pinto as Caroline Aranha, a primatologist who starts a relationship with Will and grows attached to Caesar.
John Lithgow as Charles Rodman, Will's Alzheimer's-afflicted father and a former music teacher who improves after Will gives him the ALZ-112 and forms a grandfatherly bond with Caesar.
Brian Cox as John Landon, manager of the San Bruno Primate Shelter where Caesar is confined for a time. His full name is a reference to one of the astronauts in the original Planet of the Apes.
Tom Felton as Dodge Landon, John's son and an animal caretaker at the shelter, who abuses the apes for sport. His first and last name are references to two of the astronauts in the original Planet of the Apes.
David Oyelowo as Steven Jacobs, Will's arrogant boss. His last name is a reference to Arthur P. Jacobs, the producer of the original Planet of the Apes series.
Tyler Labine as Robert Franklin, a chimp handler at Gen-Sys and one of Will's friends. His surname is a reference to Franklin Schaffner, the director of the original film.
Jamie Harris as Rodney, a caretaker and a nightwatchman who is much kinder to the apes at the sanctuary and is regularly mocked by Dodge for this.
David Hewlett as Douglas Hunsiker, Will's hot-headed neighbor.
Chelah Horsdal as Irena, a nurse who is looking after Charles.

text: Apes[edit]

text:
Andy Serkis as Caesar, a common chimpanzee whose intelligence is increased from inheriting ALZ-112 from his mother during her pregnancy, and who is raised by Will for eight years.
Karin Konoval as Maurice, a wise and benevolent Bornean orangutan who was retired from the circus and knows sign language; he becomes Caesar's closest ally. Konoval also cameos as the court clerk whom Will briefly argues with about his appeal. His name is a reference to Maurice Evans who portray Dr. Zaius in the original Planet of the Apes.[citation needed]
Terry Notary as Rocket, the dominant common chimpanzee at the ape sanctuary, until Caesar overthrows him. Notary also plays Bright Eyes, Caesar's mother who was captured in Africa.
Richard Ridings as Buck, a Western lowland gorilla who pledges his allegiance to Caesar after he is freed by him.
Devyn Dalton as Cornelia, a female common chimpanzee in the ape sanctuary.
Jay Caputo as Alpha, the dominant male common chimpanzee of Bright Eyes' troop and Caesar's father.
Christopher Gordon as Koba, a scarred and aggressive bonobo who has spent most of his life in laboratories and holds a grudge against humans.

text: Production[edit]

text: Development and writing[edit]

text: In 2006, screenwriter-producer Rick Jaffa was searching for a script idea. As Jaffa searched a newspaper articles clipping, one about pet chimpanzees that become troublesome to their owners and heartbroken for not adapting well to the human environment intrigued him. As Jaffa eventually realized it fit the Planet of the Apes series, he called his wife and screenwriting partner Amanda Silver to express his ideas of such a chimpanzee eventually starting the ape revolution, and then the couple started developing the character of Caesar. Jaffa indicated that "it's a reinvention" and if he had to pick between calling it a prequel or a reboot he would say it is a reboot: "It's a different story of who Caesar is, and how he came to be. So it's really kind of hard to put a label on it. We are hopefully rebooting it." He went on to say that "we tried really hard to create a story that would stand on its own and yet also pay homage and honor the movies that came before us."[9] Jaffa and Silver then wrote a script and sold it to Fox, producers of the Apes franchise. The script added other elements which the couple had researched, such as genetic engineering.[10] Several tributes to specific scenes, characters, and cast and crew from the previous Apes film series were added in the script. In particular, Caesar's treatment at the primate sanctuary parallels Taylor's treatment as a captive in the original film.[11][12]

text: In a segment of a video blog post, director Rupert Wyatt commented on the originality of the plot: "This is part of the mythology and it should be seen as that. It's not a continuation of the other films; it's an original story. It does satisfy the people who enjoy those films. The point of this film is to achieve that and to bring that fan base into this film exactly like Batman Begins."[6] In a 2009 interview, Wyatt said, "We've incorporated elements from Conquest of the Planet of the Apes, in terms of how the apes begin to revolt, but this is primarily a prequel to the 1968 film...Caesar is a revolutionary figure who will be talked about by his fellow apes for centuries...This is just the first step in the evolution of the apes, and there's a lot more stories to tell after this. I imagine the next film will be about the all-out war between the apes and humans."[13] Mark Bomback did an uncredited rewrite of the script.[14]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Filming began in July 2010 in Vancouver, British Columbia.[15] Filming also happened in San Francisco, California (the primary setting of the film),[15] and around Oahu, Hawaii, which doubled for the African jungle as the schedule and budget did not allow for location shooting in Africa.[16]

text: Visual effects[edit]

text: As the apes in Rise were meant to be actual apes, the producers decided not to use actors in ape suits. After considering real apes, instead Weta Digital created the apes digitally in almost every case through performance capture.[17] Advances in the technology allowed the use of performance capture in an exterior environment, affording the film-makers the freedom to shoot much of the film on location with other actors, as opposed to the confines of a soundstage.[18][19] The main breakthrough was a camera that enabled viewing the motion capture dots in daylight, employed mostly for the Golden Gate Bridge battle. A maximum of six actors could have their movements captured, with larger ape crowds using fully digital animals animated using Weta's move library. The Golden Gate Bridge set used both a physical set which was extended digitally, and a fully computer-generated model of the bridge that also included the ocean and nearby hills.[20]

text: After shooting the actors playing humans interacting with others wearing the motion capture suits, a clean plate was shot with actors for extra reference. Actor-stuntman Terry Notary guided the actors on realistic ape movement, while Weta studied the chimps in the Wellington Zoo for reference. The digital apes also received detailed models with skeletons, muscles and nerve tissue layers for accurate animation. Cast models of apes' heads and limbs helped the texture department replicate skin details such as wrinkles and pores. Given the difference between human and chimpanzee facial muscles, the animators tweaked the performance through a new facial muscle system adding dynamics, ballistics, and secondary motion. As the silent performance required expressive eyes, a new eye model was made to depict both greater accuracy in muscle movement in and around the eyes, and also tears, pupil dilation, and light refraction.[17][21] While Andy Serkis was the primary performer for Caesar, as the effects team considered that at times "Andy overcame the character," other motion capture team actors were also used, especially Devyn Dalton, whose height matched that of a chimpanzee. Along with that, they used Notary to play Caesar in stunt-filled scenes such as the Golden Gate Bridge scene.[22]

text: Music[edit]

text: The score for the film was written by Patrick Doyle and performed by the Hollywood Studio Symphony conducted by James Shearman.[23] The main concern was to have the music help progress the plot in the scenes without dialogue, for instance, conveying the emotions of Caesar's relationships with Will and Charles. To turn the score into a "driving force that keeps audiences paying attention," Doyle employed an African-American chorus and focused on percussion and "low and deep" orchestra sounds. Doyle collaborated closely with the sound department to make the music complement the sound effects, including writing a recurring theme based on their recording of a chimpanzee.[24]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 81% based on 252 reviews, with an average rating of 7.1/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Led by Rupert Wyatt's stylish direction, some impressive special effects, and a mesmerizing performance by Andy Serkis, Rise of the Planet of the Apes breathes unlikely new life into a long-running franchise."[25] Another review aggregator, Metacritic, gave the film a score of 68 out of 100, based on 39 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[26]

text: Roger Ebert gave the film 3 out of 4 stars and praised the role of Caesar and Andy Serkis by stating it was a "wonderfully executed character" and "one never knows exactly where the human ends and the effects begin, but Serkis and/or Caesar gives the best performance in the movie."[27] Giving the film 5 out of 5 stars, Joe Neumaier of Daily News labelled Rise of the Planet of the Apes as the summer's best popcorn flick.[28] Nick Pinkerton of The Village Voice wrote, "Caesar's prison conversion to charismatic pan-ape revolutionist is near-silent filmmaking, with simple and precise images illustrating Caesar's General-like divining of personalities and his organization of a group from chaos to order."[29] Roger Moore of Orlando Sentinel wrote, "Audacious, violent and disquieting, "Rise of the Planet of the Apes" is a summer sequel that's better than it has any right to be." He gave the film 3.5 out of 4 stars.[30] Manohla Dargis of The New York Times praised the film by saying, "Precisely the kind of summer diversion that the studios have such a hard time making now. It's good, canny-dumb fun." She also gave it 3.5 out of 4 stars.[31]

text: Peter Travers of Rolling Stone noted that the film has mixed "twists lifted from 1972's Conquest of the Planet of the Apes and 1999's Deep Blue Sea".[32]

text: Box office[edit]

text: Rise of the Planet of the Apes made its debut in the United States and Canada on roughly 5,400 screens within 3,648 theaters.[33] It grossed $19,534,699 on opening day and $54,806,191 in its entire opening weekend, making it #1 for that weekend as well as the fourth-highest-grossing August opening ever.[34] The film held on to the #1 spot in its second weekend, dropping 49.2%, and grossing $27,832,307.[35] Rise of the Planet of the Apes crossed the $150 million mark in the United States and Canada on its 26th day of release. Entertainment Weekly said that this was quite an accomplishment for the film since the month of August is a difficult time for films to make money.[36]

text: The film ended its run at the box office on December 15, 2011, with a gross of $176,760,185 in the U.S. and Canada as well as $305,040,864 internationally, for a total of $481,801,049 worldwide.[1]

text: Home media[edit]

text: Rise of the Planet of the Apes was released on Blu-ray Disc, DVD, and Digital Copy on December 13, 2011.[37]

text: Awards[edit]

text:
Award
Category
Recipient
Result

84th Academy Awards
Best Visual Effects
Joe Letteri, Dan Lemmon, R. Christopher White and Daniel Barrett
Nominated

Alliance of Women Film Journalists[38]
Best Supporting Actor
Andy Serkis
Nominated

Annie Awards[39]
Character Animation in a Live Action Production
Eric Reynolds
Won

Broadcast Film Critics Association[40]
Best Supporting Actor
Andy Serkis
Nominated

Best Visual Effects
Won

Best Action Film
Nominated

Empire Awards[41]
Best Film
Nominated

Best Sci-Fi/Fantasy
Nominated

Best Director
Rupert Wyatt
Nominated

Best Actor
Andy Serkis
Nominated

Genesis Awards
Best Feature Film
Rick Jaffa and Amanda Silver
Won

Houston Film Critics Society[42]
Best Supporting Actor
Andy Serkis
Nominated

Technical Achievement
Won

IGN Best of 2011[43]
Best Movie
Nominated

Best Sci-Fi Movie
Won

Best Movie Actor
Andy Serkis (also for The Adventures of Tintin)
Nominated

Best Movie Director
Rupert Wyatt
Nominated

IGN Summer Movie Awards[44]

Best Summer Movie
Nominated

Funniest Line
"Why cookie Rocket?"
Nominated

Best All-Out Brawl
Apes vs. Humans on the Golden Gate Bridge
Nominated

Favorite Kill
Helicopter Pushed Over the Golden Gate Bridge
Nominated

Coolest Creature
Caesar
Won

Favorite Hero
Caesar – Andy Serkis
Won

Las Vegas Film Critics Society[45]
Best Visual Effects
Won

London Film Critics Circle
Technical Achievement
Joe Letteri
Nominated

Phoenix Film Critics Society
Best Visual Effects
Nominated

San Diego Film Critics Society[46]
Best Supporting Actor
Andy Serkis
Nominated

Satellite Awards[47]
Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture
Andy Serkis
Nominated

Best Visual Effects
Jeff Capogreco, Joe Letteri, R. Christopher White
Nominated

Saturn Awards[48]
Best Science Fiction Film
Won

Best Supporting Actor
Andy Serkis
Won

Best Director
Rupert Wyatt
Nominated

Best Writing
Rick Jaffa and Amanda Silver
Nominated

Best Special Effects
Dan Lemmon, Joe Letteri, R. Christopher White, and Daniel Barrett
Won

Visual Effects Society[49]
Outstanding Visual Effects in a Visual Effects-Driven Feature Motion Picture
Dan Lemmon, Joe Letteri, Cyndi Ochs, Kurt Williams
Won

Outstanding Animated Character in a Live Action Feature Motion Picture
Caesar – Daniel Barrett, Florian Fernandez, Matthew Muntean, Eric Reynolds
Won

Outstanding Virtual Cinematography in a Live Action Feature Motion Picture
Thelvin Cabezas, Mike Perry, R. Christopher White, Erik Winquist
Nominated

Outstanding Compositing in a Feature Motion Picture
Jean-Luc Azzis, Quentin Hema, Simon Jung, Christoph Salzmann
Nominated

Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association[50]
Best Supporting Actor
Andy Serkis
Nominated

text: Sequels[edit]

text: Regarding the story setting up possible sequels, director Rupert Wyatt commented: "I think we're ending with certain questions, which is quite exciting. To me, I can think of all sorts of sequels to this film, but this is just the beginning."[51] Screenwriter and producer Rick Jaffa also stated that Rise of the Planet of the Apes would feature several clues as to future sequels: "I hope that we're building a platform for future films. We're trying to plant a lot of the seeds for a lot of the things you are talking about in terms of the different apes and so forth."[6]

text: On May 31, 2012, 20th Century Fox announced that the sequel would be named Dawn of the Planet of the Apes.[52] Reports said that Wyatt was leaving the sequel due to his concern that a May 2014 release date would not give him enough time to properly make the film;[53] he was replaced by Cloverfield director Matt Reeves.[54] Jaffa and Silver returned as producers and to pen the screenplay, with rewrites from Scott Z. Burns[55] and Mark Bomback.[14]

text: Taking place ten years after Rise, Dawn follows Caesar's growing nation of evolved apes threatened by human survivors that put both sides in the brink of war.[citation needed] Andy Serkis, Terry Notary and Karin Konoval reprised their roles as Caesar, Rocket and Maurice.[56] James Franco returned as Will Rodman in a "cameo via video".[57] Judy Greer and Toby Kebbell replace Devyn Dalton and Christopher Gordon as Cornelia and Koba, respectively.[citation needed] Filming of Dawn of the Planet of the Apes started on North Vancouver Island in April 2013.[58] The film was released July 11, 2014.

text: On January 6, 2014, 20th Century Fox announced a third installment with Reeves returning to direct and co-write along with Bomback, with a planned July 2016 release.[59][60] In January 2015, Fox delayed the release to July 14, 2017.[61][62] On May 14, 2015, the title was given as War of the Planet of the Apes,[63] later re-titled to War for the Planet of the Apes.


document_title: Classical sculpture

question_text: one major difference in the hellenistic and the classical sculpture is

root

text: Classical sculpture

text: Archaic period[edit]

text: The most important sculptural form of the Archaic period was the kouros (plural: kouroi), the standing male nude (See for example Biton and Kleobis). Reflecting Egyptian influence, the kouros stands upright with his left leg slightly forward and his arms at his sides. Archaic Greek sculptors seem to have been influenced stylistically by the Egyptians, although divergences appeared early on. In particular, the male figures of Archaic Greece tended to be represented in the nude, while this was uncommon during all periods of ancient Egyptian art (except when slaves or enemies were depicted). As in Egyptian art, female subjects were always portrayed clothed; female nudity would not appear until much later on.

tag: p

text: In this period, the later emphasis on naturalistic bone and muscle anatomy had not yet developed, which can be seen in observing details such as the knees and other critical joints. Some details seem to be "incised" rather than fully modeled, a relic of more ancient traditions. Nor did figures stand or move naturally. However, as the Archaic style gradually transformed into what is known as the Classical style, a clear progression displaying more and more technical knowledge and skill can be detected.

text:
Unknown artist: Kouros Anavissos. National Archaeological Museum of Athens, ca. 530 BC

Unknown artist: Treasury of Siphnos frieze (detail), Delphi Archaeological Museum, ca. 525 BC

Attributed by some to Onatas or his school: Fallen Trojan warrior, figure W-VII of the west pediment of the Temple of Aphaia, Glyptothek, Munich, ca. 505–500 BC

Unknown artist: Funerary lion found at the Sacred Gate at the Kerameikon. Kerameikos Archaeological Museum, Athens, ca. 590–580 BC

tag: ul

text: Classical period[edit]

text: The Classical period saw changes in both the style and function of sculpture. Poses became more naturalistic (see the Charioteer of Delphi for an example of the transition to more naturalistic sculpture), and the technical skill of Greek sculptors in depicting the human form in a variety of poses greatly increased. From about 500 BC statues began to depict real people. The statues of Harmodius and Aristogeiton set up in Athens to mark the overthrow of the tyranny were said to be the first public monuments to actual people.

text: As Greek artists began to study human movement and anatomy, they discovered that living humans tend to display a "weight shift" or contraposition when standing.

text: The first Greek statue to exhibit contrapposto is the famed Kritios Boy, dating circa 480 BC. Contrapposto soon became a defining element of Greek sculptural technique, culminating in the Canon of the Doryphoros ("spear-bearer"), which adopted extremely dynamic and sophisticated contrapposto in its cross-balance of rigid and loose limbs.

text: Most of the sculptures made at this time were created to show appreciation to the gods for showing them good fortune, and also to help bring good fortune in the future, and to also gain favor from the gods. Greek temples were specially made to fit the large cult statues. They believed that placing shrines around the areas that were said to be holy would please the gods. Because Greek gods were mostly myths based on real people's lives mixed feelings were created about the sculptures, and therefore more man-like sculptures were created. Most sculptures created can be understood to represent myth, archetype or purpose in life.

text: During the classical period sculptors were not only creating works for temples, but also mortuary statues to show tribute to deceased loved ones. The sculptures would often show the deceased person in a relaxed pose. Successful athletes and rich families would commission statues of themselves for temples to show respect to the gods. In the 5th century BC portraits became popular and busts featuring generals, philosophers and political leaders appeared.

text: The high quality of Greek work attracted Italian interest, and greatly influenced both Etruscan, and later, Roman art. The enthusiasm with which Rome greeted Greek art has proven[according to whom?] important not merely because of the transmission of classical Greek style, but also because most of the extant classical Greek works survive mainly in the form of Roman marble copies of Greek bronze originals. As bronze has always been a valuable metal, most of the originals were likely long ago melted down, and the few genuine survivals have been found mostly in the context of shipwrecks.

text: However, Greeks did carve marble, and a number of classical Greek marbles have survived; the famed Parthenon Marbles (also known as the Elgin Marbles), lasted in situ until the beginning of the 19th Century. In fact, many of the surviving classical Greek marbles are from an architectural context.

text:
Polykleitos: Doryphoros. Cast in Pushkin Museum, Moscow.

Attributed to Euphranor: Paris or Perseus. Atikythera shipwreck, ca. 340–330 BC. National Archaeological Museum, Athens.

Phidias' workshop: Reclining Dionysos, from Parthenon east pediment, ca. 447–433 BC. British Museum

Aphrodite Braschi, free copy (1st century BC) after a votive statue of Praxitele in Cnidus (Aphrodite of Cnidus type, ca. 350–340 BC). Glyptothek, Munich

text: Hellenistic period[edit]

text: The transition from the Classical to the Hellenistic period occurred during the 1st century. Sculpture became more and more naturalistic. Common people, women, children, animals and domestic scenes became acceptable subjects for sculpture, which was commissioned by wealthy families for the adornment of their homes and gardens. Realistic portraits of men and women of all ages were produced, and sculptors no longer felt obliged to depict people as ideals of beauty or physical perfection. Most Greek men were sculpted standing with their hips slightly to the side. When human beings stand this way it uses more muscles.

text:
Attributed by Pliny the Elder to Agesander, Athanodoros and Polydorus: Laocoön and His Sons. Copy after an Hellenistic original from ca. 200 BC. Vatican Museums

Unknown artist: Nike of Samothrace, c. 220-190 BC. Louvre

Unknown artist: Nereus, Doris, a giant, Oceanus, from the Pergamon Altar (detail), 2nd century BC. Pergamonmuseum, Berlin

Unknown artist: Ludovisi Gaul and his wife. Roman copy after an Hellenistic original from a monument built by Attalus I of Pergamon after his victory over Gauls, ca. 220 BC. Palazzo Altemps, Rome

text: Roman period[edit]

text: Roman sculpture began with the copying of Greek sculpture, but then evolved into a form of sculpture which more emphasised the individual. There are many surviving sculptures of Roman emperors.

text: Influence[edit]

text: Greco-Roman sculpture had a profound influence on Western art. With it, the Greco-Roman style established the possibility and potential of realism in art. Because of the relative durability of sculpture, it has managed to survive and continue to influence and inform artists in varying cultures and eras, from Europe to Asia, and today, the whole world.

text: While classical art gradually fell into disfavor in Europe after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, its rediscovery during the early Italian Renaissance proved decisive. One of the most important sculptors in the classical revival was Donatello. Many other sculptors such as Michelangelo also made works which can be considered classical. Modern Classicism contrasted in many ways with the classical sculpture of the 19th Century which was characterized by commitments to naturalism (Antoine-Louis Barye) -- the melodramatic (François Rude) sentimentality (Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux) -- or a kind of stately grandiosity (Lord Leighton) Several different directions in the classical tradition were taken as the century turned, but the study of the live model and the post-Renaissance tradition was still fundamental to them.


document_title: Chemical element

question_text: who used the term element for the first time

question_tokens: who used the term element for the first time

text: Chemical element

text: Description

text: The lightest chemical elements are hydrogen and helium, both created by Big Bang nucleosynthesis during the first 20 minutes of the universe[5] in a ratio of around 3:1 by mass (or 12:1 by number of atoms),[6][7] along with tiny traces of the next two elements, lithium and beryllium. Almost all other elements found in nature were made by various natural methods of nucleosynthesis.[8] On Earth, small amounts of new atoms are naturally produced in nucleogenic reactions, or in cosmogenic processes, such as cosmic ray spallation. New atoms are also naturally produced on Earth as radiogenic daughter isotopes of ongoing radioactive decay processes such as alpha decay, beta decay, spontaneous fission, cluster decay, and other rarer modes of decay.

text: Of the 94 naturally occurring elements, those with atomic numbers 1 through 82 each have at least one stable isotope (except for technetium, element 43 and promethium, element 61, which have no stable isotopes). Isotopes considered stable are those for which no radioactive decay has yet been observed. Elements with atomic numbers 83 through 94 are unstable to the point that radioactive decay of all isotopes can be detected. Some of these elements, notably bismuth (atomic number 83), thorium (atomic number 90), and uranium (atomic number 92), have one or more isotopes with half-lives long enough to survive as remnants of the explosive stellar nucleosynthesis that produced the heavy metals before the formation of our Solar System. At over 1.9×1019 years, over a billion times longer than the current estimated age of the universe, bismuth-209 (atomic number 83) has the longest known alpha decay half-life of any naturally occurring element, and is almost always considered on par with the 80 stable elements.[9][10] The very heaviest elements (those beyond plutonium, element 94) undergo radioactive decay with half-lives so short that they are not found in nature and must be synthesized.

text: As of 2010, there are 118 known elements (in this context, "known" means observed well enough, even from just a few decay products, to have been differentiated from other elements).[11][12] Of these 118 elements, 94 occur naturally on Earth. Six of these occur in extreme trace quantities: technetium, atomic number 43; promethium, number 61; astatine, number 85; francium, number 87; neptunium, number 93; and plutonium, number 94. These 94 elements have been detected in the universe at large, in the spectra of stars and also supernovae, where short-lived radioactive elements are newly being made. The first 94 elements have been detected directly on Earth as primordial nuclides present from the formation of the solar system, or as naturally occurring fission or transmutation products of uranium and thorium.

text: The remaining 24 heavier elements, not found today either on Earth or in astronomical spectra, have been produced artificially: these are all radioactive, with very short half-lives; if any atoms of these elements were present at the formation of Earth, they are extremely likely, to the point of certainty, to have already decayed, and if present in novae, have been in quantities too small to have been noted. Technetium was the first purportedly non-naturally occurring element synthesized, in 1937, although trace amounts of technetium have since been found in nature (and also the element may have been discovered naturally in 1925).[13] This pattern of artificial production and later natural discovery has been repeated with several other radioactive naturally occurring rare elements.[14]

text: List of the elements are available by name, atomic number, density, melting point, boiling point and by symbol, as well as ionization energies of the elements. The nuclides of stable and radioactive elements are also available as a list of nuclides, sorted by length of half-life for those that are unstable. One of the most convenient, and certainly the most traditional presentation of the elements, is in the form of the periodic table, which groups together elements with similar chemical properties (and usually also similar electronic structures).

text: Atomic number

text: The atomic number of an element is equal to the number of protons in each atom, and defines the element.[15] For example, all carbon atoms contain 6 protons in their atomic nucleus; so the atomic number of carbon is 6.[16] Carbon atoms may have different numbers of neutrons; atoms of the same element having different numbers of neutrons are known as isotopes of the element.[17]

text: The number of protons in the atomic nucleus also determines its electric charge, which in turn determines the number of electrons of the atom in its non-ionized state. The electrons are placed into atomic orbitals that determine the atom's various chemical properties. The number of neutrons in a nucleus usually has very little effect on an element's chemical properties (except in the case of hydrogen and deuterium). Thus, all carbon isotopes have nearly identical chemical properties because they all have six protons and six electrons, even though carbon atoms may, for example, have 6 or 8 neutrons. That is why the atomic number, rather than mass number or atomic weight, is considered the identifying characteristic of a chemical element.

text: The symbol for atomic number is Z.

text: Isotopes

text: Isotopes are atoms of the same element (that is, with the same number of protons in their atomic nucleus), but having different numbers of neutrons. Thus, for example, there are three main isotopes of carbon. All carbon atoms have 6 protons in the nucleus, but they can have either 6, 7, or 8 neutrons. Since the mass numbers of these are 12, 13 and 14 respectively, the three isotopes of carbon are known as carbon-12, carbon-13, and carbon-14, often abbreviated to 12C, 13C, and 14C. Carbon in everyday life and in chemistry is a mixture of 12C (about 98.9%), 13C (about 1.1%) and about 1 atom per trillion of 14C.

text: Most (66 of 94) naturally occurring elements have more than one stable isotope. Except for the isotopes of hydrogen (which differ greatly from each other in relative mass—enough to cause chemical effects), the isotopes of a given element are chemically nearly indistinguishable.

text: All of the elements have some isotopes that are radioactive (radioisotopes), although not all of these radioisotopes occur naturally. The radioisotopes typically decay into other elements upon radiating an alpha or beta particle. If an element has isotopes that are not radioactive, these are termed "stable" isotopes. All of the known stable isotopes occur naturally (see primordial isotope). The many radioisotopes that are not found in nature have been characterized after being artificially made. Certain elements have no stable isotopes and are composed only of radioactive isotopes: specifically the elements without any stable isotopes are technetium (atomic number 43), promethium (atomic number 61), and all observed elements with atomic numbers greater than 82.

text: Of the 80 elements with at least one stable isotope, 26 have only one single stable isotope. The mean number of stable isotopes for the 80 stable elements is 3.1 stable isotopes per element. The largest number of stable isotopes that occur for a single element is 10 (for tin, element 50).

text: Isotopic mass and atomic mass

text: The mass number of an element, A, is the number of nucleons (protons and neutrons) in the atomic nucleus. Different isotopes of a given element are distinguished by their mass numbers, which are conventionally written as a superscript on the left hand side of the atomic symbol (e.g. 238U). The mass number is always a whole number and has units of "nucleons". For example, magnesium-24 (24 is the mass number) is an atom with 24 nucleons (12 protons and 12 neutrons).

text: Whereas the mass number simply counts the total number of neutrons and protons and is thus a natural (or whole) number, the atomic mass of a single atom is a real number giving the mass of a particular isotope (or "nuclide") of the element, expressed in atomic mass units (u). In general, the mass number of a given nuclide differs in value slightly from its atomic mass, since the mass of each proton and neutron is not exactly 1 u; since the electrons contribute a lesser share to the atomic mass as neutron number exceeds proton number; and (finally) because of the nuclear binding energy. For example, the atomic mass of chlorine-35 to five significant digits is 34.969 u and that of chlorine-37 is 36.966 u. However, the atomic mass in u of each isotope is quite close to its simple mass number (always within 1%). The only isotope whose atomic mass is exactly a natural number is 12C, which by definition has a mass of exactly 12, because u is defined as 1/12 of the mass of a free neutral carbon-12 atom in the ground state.

text: The standard atomic weight (commonly called "atomic weight") of an element is the average of the atomic masses of all the chemical element's isotopes as found in a particular environment, weighted by isotopic abundance, relative to the atomic mass unit (u). This number may be a fraction that is not close to a whole number. For example, the relative atomic mass of chlorine is 35.453 u, which differs greatly from a whole number as it is an average of about 76% chlorine-35 and 24% chlorine-37. Whenever a relative atomic mass value differs by more than 1% from a whole number, it is due to this averaging effect, as significant amounts of more than one isotope are naturally present in a sample of that element.

text: Chemically pure and isotopically pure

text: Chemists and nuclear scientists have different definitions of a pure element. In chemistry, a pure element means a substance whose atoms all (or in practice almost all) have the same atomic number, or number of protons. Nuclear scientists, however, define a pure element as one that consists of only one stable isotope.[18]

text: For example, a copper wire is 99.99% chemically pure if 99.99% of its atoms are copper, with 29 protons each. However it is not isotopically pure since ordinary copper consists of two stable isotopes, 69% 63Cu and 31% 65Cu, with different numbers of neutrons. However, a pure gold ingot would be both chemically and isotopically pure, since ordinary gold consists only of one isotope, 197Au.

text: Allotropes

text: Atoms of chemically pure elements may bond to each other chemically in more than one way, allowing the pure element to exist in multiple chemical structures (spatial arrangements of atoms), known as allotropes, which differ in their properties. For example, carbon can be found as diamond, which has a tetrahedral structure around each carbon atom; graphite, which has layers of carbon atoms with a hexagonal structure stacked on top of each other; graphene, which is a single layer of graphite that is very strong; fullerenes, which have nearly spherical shapes; and carbon nanotubes, which are tubes with a hexagonal structure (even these may differ from each other in electrical properties). The ability of an element to exist in one of many structural forms is known as 'allotropy'.

text: The standard state, also known as reference state, of an element is defined as its thermodynamically most stable state at a pressure of 1 bar and a given temperature (typically at 298.15 K). In thermochemistry, an element is defined to have an enthalpy of formation of zero in its standard state. For example, the reference state for carbon is graphite, because the structure of graphite is more stable than that of the other allotropes.

text: Properties

text: Several kinds of descriptive categorizations can be applied broadly to the elements, including consideration of their general physical and chemical properties, their states of matter under familiar conditions, their melting and boiling points, their densities, their crystal structures as solids, and their origins.

text: General properties

text: Several terms are commonly used to characterize the general physical and chemical properties of the chemical elements. A first distinction is between metals, which readily conduct electricity, nonmetals, which do not, and a small group, (the metalloids), having intermediate properties and often behaving as semiconductors.

text: A more refined classification is often shown in colored presentations of the periodic table. This system restricts the terms "metal" and "nonmetal" to only certain of the more broadly defined metals and nonmetals, adding additional terms for certain sets of the more broadly viewed metals and nonmetals. The version of this classification used in the periodic tables presented here includes: actinides, alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, halogens, lanthanides, transition metals, post-transition metals, metalloids, polyatomic nonmetals, diatomic nonmetals, and noble gases. In this system, the alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, and transition metals, as well as the lanthanides and the actinides, are special groups of the metals viewed in a broader sense. Similarly, the polyatomic nonmetals, diatomic nonmetals and the noble gases are nonmetals viewed in the broader sense. In some presentations, the halogens are not distinguished, with astatine identified as a metalloid and the others identified as nonmetals.

text: States of matter

text: Another commonly used basic distinction among the elements is their state of matter (phase), whether solid, liquid, or gas, at a selected standard temperature and pressure (STP). Most of the elements are solids at conventional temperatures and atmospheric pressure, while several are gases. Only bromine and mercury are liquids at 0 degrees Celsius (32 degrees Fahrenheit) and normal atmospheric pressure; caesium and gallium are solids at that temperature, but melt at 28.4 °C (83.2 °F) and 29.8 °C (85.6 °F), respectively.

text: Melting and boiling points

text: Melting and boiling points, typically expressed in degrees Celsius at a pressure of one atmosphere, are commonly used in characterizing the various elements. While known for most elements, either or both of these measurements is still undetermined for some of the radioactive elements available in only tiny quantities. Since helium remains a liquid even at absolute zero at atmospheric pressure, it has only a boiling point, and not a melting point, in conventional presentations.

text: Densities

text: The density at a selected standard temperature and pressure (STP) is frequently used in characterizing the elements. Density is often expressed in grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3). Since several elements are gases at commonly encountered temperatures, their densities are usually stated for their gaseous forms; when liquefied or solidified, the gaseous elements have densities similar to those of the other elements.

text: When an element has allotropes with different densities, one representative allotrope is typically selected in summary presentations, while densities for each allotrope can be stated where more detail is provided. For example, the three familiar allotropes of carbon (amorphous carbon, graphite, and diamond) have densities of 1.8–2.1, 2.267, and 3.515 g/cm3, respectively.

text: Crystal structures

text: The elements studied to date as solid samples have eight kinds of crystal structures: cubic, body-centered cubic, face-centered cubic, hexagonal, monoclinic, orthorhombic, rhombohedral, and tetragonal. For some of the synthetically produced transuranic elements, available samples have been too small to determine crystal structures.

text: Occurrence and origin on Earth

text: Chemical elements may also be categorized by their origin on Earth, with the first 94 considered naturally occurring, while those with atomic numbers beyond 94 have only been produced artificially as the synthetic products of man-made nuclear reactions.

text: Of the 94 naturally occurring elements, 84 are considered primordial and either stable or weakly radioactive. The remaining 10 naturally occurring elements possess half lives too short for them to have been present at the beginning of the Solar System, and are therefore considered transient elements. (Plutonium is usually also considered a transient element because primordial plutonium has by now decayed to almost undetectable traces.) Of these 10 transient elements, 5 (polonium, radon, radium, actinium, and protactinium) are relatively common decay products of thorium, uranium, and plutonium. The remaining 6 transient elements (technetium, promethium, astatine, francium, neptunium, and plutonium) occur only rarely, as products of rare decay modes or nuclear reaction processes involving uranium or other heavy elements.

text: Elements with atomic numbers 1 through 40 are all stable, while those with atomic numbers 41 through 82 (except technetium and promethium) are metastable.[citation needed] The half-lives of these metastable "theoretical radionuclides" are so long (at least 100 million times longer than the estimated age of the universe) that their radioactive decay has yet to be detected by experiment. Elements with atomic numbers 83 through 94 are unstable to the point that their radioactive decay can be detected. Three of these elements, bismuth (element 83), thorium (element 90), and uranium (element 92) have one or more isotopes with half-lives long enough to survive as remnants of the explosive stellar nucleosynthesis that produced the heavy elements before the formation of our solar system. For example, at over 1.9×1019 years, over a billion times longer than the current estimated age of the universe, bismuth-209 has the longest known alpha decay half-life of any naturally occurring element.[9][10] The very heaviest 24 elements (those beyond plutonium, element 94) undergo radioactive decay with short half-lives and cannot be produced as daughters of longer-lived elements, and thus they do not occur in nature at all.

text: The periodic table

text:
[hide]

v
t
e

Periodic table

Group
1
2
3

4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

Alkali metals
Alkaline earth metals

Pnictogens
Chalcogens
Halogens
Noble gases

Period
1

Hydrogen1H

Helium2He

2
Lithium3Li
Beryllium4Be

Boron5B
Carbon6C
Nitrogen7N
Oxygen8O
Fluorine9F
Neon10Ne

3
Sodium11Na
Magnesium12Mg

Aluminium13Al
Silicon14Si
Phosphorus15P
Sulfur16S
Chlorine17Cl
Argon18Ar

4
Potassium19K
Calcium20Ca
Scandium21Sc

Titanium22Ti
Vanadium23V
Chromium24Cr
Manganese25Mn
Iron26Fe
Cobalt27Co
Nickel28Ni
Copper29Cu
Zinc30Zn
Gallium31Ga
Germanium32Ge
Arsenic33As
Selenium34Se
Bromine35Br
Krypton36Kr

5
Rubidium37Rb
Strontium38Sr
Yttrium39Y

Zirconium40Zr
Niobium41Nb
Molybdenum42Mo
Technetium43Tc
Ruthenium44Ru
Rhodium45Rh
Palladium46Pd
Silver47Ag
Cadmium48Cd
Indium49In
Tin50Sn
Antimony51Sb
Tellurium52Te
Iodine53I
Xenon54Xe

6
Caesium55Cs
Barium56Ba
Lanthanum57La

Hafnium72Hf
Tantalum73Ta
Tungsten74W
Rhenium75Re
Osmium76Os
Iridium77Ir
Platinum78Pt
Gold79Au
Mercury80Hg
Thallium81Tl
Lead82Pb
Bismuth83Bi
Polonium84Po
Astatine85At
Radon86Rn

7
Francium87Fr
Radium88Ra
Actinium89Ac

Rutherfordium104Rf
Dubnium105Db
Seaborgium106Sg
Bohrium107Bh
Hassium108Hs
Meitnerium109Mt
Darmstadtium110Ds
Roentgenium111Rg
Copernicium112Cn
Nihonium113Nh
Flerovium114Fl
Moscovium115Mc
Livermorium116Lv
Tennessine117Ts
Oganesson118Og

Cerium58Ce
Praseodymium59Pr
Neodymium60Nd
Promethium61Pm
Samarium62Sm
Europium63Eu
Gadolinium64Gd
Terbium65Tb
Dysprosium66Dy
Holmium67Ho
Erbium68Er
Thulium69Tm
Ytterbium70Yb
Lutetium71Lu

Thorium90Th
Protactinium91Pa
Uranium92U
Neptunium93Np
Plutonium94Pu
Americium95Am
Curium96Cm
Berkelium97Bk
Californium98Cf
Einsteinium99Es
Fermium100Fm
Mendelevium101Md
Nobelium102No
Lawrencium103Lr

black=solid
green=liquid
red=gas
gray=unknown
Color of the atomic number shows state of matter (at 0 °C and 1 atm)

Primordial

From decay

Synthetic
Border shows natural occurrence of the element

Background color shows subcategory in the metal–metalloid–nonmetal trend:

Metal
Metalloid
Nonmetal
Unknown
chemical
properties

Alkali metal
Alkaline earth metal
Lanthanide
Actinide
Transition metal
Post-transition metal
Polyatomic nonmetal
Diatomic nonmetal
Noble gas

tag: table

text: The properties of the chemical elements are often summarized using the periodic table, which powerfully and elegantly organizes the elements by increasing atomic number into rows ("periods") in which the columns ("groups") share recurring ("periodic") physical and chemical properties. The current standard table contains 118 confirmed elements as of 10 April 2010.

text: Although earlier precursors to this presentation exist, its invention is generally credited to the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869, who intended the table to illustrate recurring trends in the properties of the elements. The layout of the table has been refined and extended over time as new elements have been discovered and new theoretical models have been developed to explain chemical behavior.

text: Use of the periodic table is now ubiquitous within the academic discipline of chemistry, providing an extremely useful framework to classify, systematize and compare all the many different forms of chemical behavior. The table has also found wide application in physics, geology, biology, materials science, engineering, agriculture, medicine, nutrition, environmental health, and astronomy. Its principles are especially important in chemical engineering.

text: Nomenclature and symbols

text: The various chemical elements are formally identified by their unique atomic numbers, by their accepted names, and by their symbols.

text: Atomic numbers

text: The known elements have atomic numbers from 1 through 118, conventionally presented as Arabic numerals. Since the elements can be uniquely sequenced by atomic number, conventionally from lowest to highest (as in a periodic table), sets of elements are sometimes specified by such notation as "through", "beyond", or "from ... through", as in "through iron", "beyond uranium", or "from lanthanum through lutetium". The terms "light" and "heavy" are sometimes also used informally to indicate relative atomic numbers (not densities), as in "lighter than carbon" or "heavier than lead", although technically the weight or mass of atoms of an element (their atomic weights or atomic masses) do not always increase monotonically with their atomic numbers.

text: Element names

text: The naming of various substances now known as elements precedes the atomic theory of matter, as names were given locally by various cultures to various minerals, metals, compounds, alloys, mixtures, and other materials, although at the time it was not known which chemicals were elements and which compounds. As they were identified as elements, the existing names for anciently-known elements (e.g., gold, mercury, iron) were kept in most countries. National differences emerged over the names of elements either for convenience, linguistic niceties, or nationalism. For a few illustrative examples: German speakers use "Wasserstoff" (water substance) for "hydrogen", "Sauerstoff" (acid substance) for "oxygen" and "Stickstoff" (smothering substance) for "nitrogen", while English and some romance languages use "sodium" for "natrium" and "potassium" for "kalium", and the French, Italians, Greeks, Portuguese and Poles prefer "azote/azot/azoto" (from roots meaning "no life") for "nitrogen".

text: For purposes of international communication and trade, the official names of the chemical elements both ancient and more recently recognized are decided by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), which has decided on a sort of international English language, drawing on traditional English names even when an element's chemical symbol is based on a Latin or other traditional word, for example adopting "gold" rather than "aurum" as the name for the 79th element (Au). IUPAC prefers the British spellings "aluminium" and "caesium" over the U.S. spellings "aluminum" and "cesium", and the U.S. "sulfur" over the British "sulphur". However, elements that are practical to sell in bulk in many countries often still have locally used national names, and countries whose national language does not use the Latin alphabet are likely to use the IUPAC element names.

text: According to IUPAC, chemical elements are not proper nouns in English; consequently, the full name of an element is not routinely capitalized in English, even if derived from a proper noun, as in californium and einsteinium. Isotope names of chemical elements are also uncapitalized if written out, e.g., carbon-12 or uranium-235. Chemical element symbols (such as Cf for californium and Es for einsteinium), are always capitalized (see below).

text: In the second half of the twentieth century, physics laboratories became able to produce nuclei of chemical elements with half-lives too short for an appreciable amount of them to exist at any time. These are also named by IUPAC, which generally adopts the name chosen by the discoverer. This practice can lead to the controversial question of which research group actually discovered an element, a question that delayed the naming of elements with atomic number of 104 and higher for a considerable amount of time. (See element naming controversy).

text: Precursors of such controversies involved the nationalistic namings of elements in the late 19th century. For example, lutetium was named in reference to Paris, France. The Germans were reluctant to relinquish naming rights to the French, often calling it cassiopeium. Similarly, the British discoverer of niobium originally named it columbium, in reference to the New World. It was used extensively as such by American publications prior to the international standardization (in 1950).

text: Chemical symbols

text: Specific chemical elements

text: Before chemistry became a science, alchemists had designed arcane symbols for both metals and common compounds. These were however used as abbreviations in diagrams or procedures; there was no concept of atoms combining to form molecules. With his advances in the atomic theory of matter, John Dalton devised his own simpler symbols, based on circles, to depict molecules.

text: The current system of chemical notation was invented by Berzelius. In this typographical system, chemical symbols are not mere abbreviations—though each consists of letters of the Latin alphabet. They are intended as universal symbols for people of all languages and alphabets.

text: The first of these symbols were intended to be fully universal. Since Latin was the common language of science at that time, they were abbreviations based on the Latin names of metals. Cu comes from Cuprum, Fe comes from Ferrum, Ag from Argentum. The symbols were not followed by a period (full stop) as with abbreviations. Later chemical elements were also assigned unique chemical symbols, based on the name of the element, but not necessarily in English. For example, sodium has the chemical symbol 'Na' after the Latin natrium. The same applies to "W" (wolfram) for tungsten, "Fe" (ferrum) for iron, "Hg" (hydrargyrum) for mercury, "Sn" (stannum) for tin, "K" (kalium) for potassium, "Au" (aurum) for gold, "Ag" (argentum) for silver, "Pb" (plumbum) for lead, "Cu" (cuprum) for copper, and "Sb" (stibium) for antimony.

text: Chemical symbols are understood internationally when element names might require translation. There have sometimes been differences in the past. For example, Germans in the past have used "J" (for the alternate name Jod) for iodine, but now use "I" and "Iod".

text: The first letter of a chemical symbol is always capitalized, as in the preceding examples, and the subsequent letters, if any, are always lower case (small letters). Thus, the symbols for californium and einsteinium are Cf and Es.

text: General chemical symbols

text: There are also symbols in chemical equations for groups of chemical elements, for example in comparative formulas. These are often a single capital letter, and the letters are reserved and not used for names of specific elements. For example, an "X" indicates a variable group (usually a halogen) in a class of compounds, while "R" is a radical, meaning a compound structure such as a hydrocarbon chain. The letter "Q" is reserved for "heat" in a chemical reaction. "Y" is also often used as a general chemical symbol, although it is also the symbol of yttrium. "Z" is also frequently used as a general variable group. "E" is used in organic chemistry to denote an electron-withdrawing group or an electrophile; similarly "Nu" denotes a nucleophile. "L" is used to represent a general ligand in inorganic and organometallic chemistry. "M" is also often used in place of a general metal.

text: At least two additional, two-letter generic chemical symbols are also in informal usage, "Ln" for any lanthanide element and "An" for any actinide element. "Rg" was formerly used for any rare gas element, but the group of rare gases has now been renamed noble gases and the symbol "Rg" has now been assigned to the element roentgenium.

text: Isotope symbols

text: Isotopes are distinguished by the atomic mass number (total protons and neutrons) for a particular isotope of an element, with this number combined with the pertinent element's symbol. IUPAC prefers that isotope symbols be written in superscript notation when practical, for example 12C and 235U. However, other notations, such as carbon-12 and uranium-235, or C-12 and U-235, are also used.

text: As a special case, the three naturally occurring isotopes of the element hydrogen are often specified as H for 1H (protium), D for 2H (deuterium), and T for 3H (tritium). This convention is easier to use in chemical equations, replacing the need to write out the mass number for each atom. For example, the formula for heavy water may be written D2O instead of 2H2O.

text: Origin of the elements

text: Only about 4% of the total mass of the universe is made of atoms or ions, and thus represented by chemical elements. This fraction is about 15% of the total matter, with the remainder of the matter (85%) being dark matter. The nature of dark matter is unknown, but it is not composed of atoms of chemical elements because it contains no protons, neutrons, or electrons. (The remaining non-matter part of the mass of the universe is composed of the even more mysterious dark energy).

text: The universe's 94 naturally occurring chemical elements are thought to have been produced by at least four cosmic processes. Most of the hydrogen and helium in the universe was produced primordially in the first few minutes of the Big Bang. Three recurrently occurring later processes are thought to have produced the remaining elements. Stellar nucleosynthesis, an ongoing process, produces all elements from carbon through iron in atomic number, but little lithium, beryllium, or boron. Elements heavier in atomic number than iron, as heavy as uranium and plutonium, are produced by explosive nucleosynthesis in supernovas and other cataclysmic cosmic events. Cosmic ray spallation (fragmentation) of carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen is important to the production of lithium, beryllium and boron.

text: During the early phases of the Big Bang, nucleosynthesis of hydrogen nuclei resulted in the production of hydrogen-1 (protium, 1H) and helium-4 (4He), as well as a smaller amount of deuterium (2H) and very minuscule amounts (on the order of 10−10) of lithium and beryllium. Even smaller amounts of boron may have been produced in the Big Bang, since it has been observed in some very old stars, while carbon has not.[19] It is generally agreed that no heavier elements than boron were produced in the Big Bang. As a result, the primordial abundance of atoms (or ions) consisted of roughly 75% 1H, 25% 4He, and 0.01% deuterium, with only tiny traces of lithium, beryllium, and perhaps boron.[20] Subsequent enrichment of galactic halos occurred due to stellar nucleosynthesis and supernova nucleosynthesis.[21] However, the element abundance in intergalactic space can still closely resemble primordial conditions, unless it has been enriched by some means.

text: On Earth (and elsewhere), trace amounts of various elements continue to be produced from other elements as products of nuclear transmutation processes. These include some produced by cosmic rays or other nuclear reactions (see cosmogenic and nucleogenic nuclides), and others produced as decay products of long-lived primordial nuclides.[22] For example, trace (but detectable) amounts of carbon-14 (14C) are continually produced in the atmosphere by cosmic rays impacting nitrogen atoms, and argon-40 (40Ar) is continually produced by the decay of primordially occurring but unstable potassium-40 (40K). Also, three primordially occurring but radioactive actinides, thorium, uranium, and plutonium, decay through a series of recurrently produced but unstable radioactive elements such as radium and radon, which are transiently present in any sample of these metals or their ores or compounds. Three other radioactive elements, technetium, promethium, and neptunium, occur only incidentally in natural materials, produced as individual atoms by nuclear fission of the nuclei of various heavy elements or in other rare nuclear processes.

text: Human technology has produced various additional elements beyond these first 94, with those through atomic number 118 now known.

text: Abundance

text: The following graph (note log scale) shows the abundance of elements in our Solar System. The table shows the twelve most common elements in our galaxy (estimated spectroscopically), as measured in parts per million, by mass.[23] Nearby galaxies that have evolved along similar lines have a corresponding enrichment of elements heavier than hydrogen and helium. The more distant galaxies are being viewed as they appeared in the past, so their abundances of elements appear closer to the primordial mixture. As physical laws and processes appear common throughout the visible universe, however, scientist expect that these galaxies evolved elements in similar abundance.

text: The abundance of elements in the Solar System is in keeping with their origin from nucleosynthesis in the Big Bang and a number of progenitor supernova stars. Very abundant hydrogen and helium are products of the Big Bang, but the next three elements are rare since they had little time to form in the Big Bang and are not made in stars (they are, however, produced in small quantities by the breakup of heavier elements in interstellar dust, as a result of impact by cosmic rays). Beginning with carbon, elements are produced in stars by buildup from alpha particles (helium nuclei), resulting in an alternatingly larger abundance of elements with even atomic numbers (these are also more stable). In general, such elements up to iron are made in large stars in the process of becoming supernovas. Iron-56 is particularly common, since it is the most stable element that can easily be made from alpha particles (being a product of decay of radioactive nickel-56, ultimately made from 14 helium nuclei). Elements heavier than iron are made in energy-absorbing processes in large stars, and their abundance in the universe (and on Earth) generally decreases with their atomic number.

text: The abundance of the chemical elements on Earth varies from air to crust to ocean, and in various types of life. The abundance of elements in Earth's crust differs from that in the Solar system (as seen in the Sun and heavy planets like Jupiter) mainly in selective loss of the very lightest elements (hydrogen and helium) and also volatile neon, carbon (as hydrocarbons), nitrogen and sulfur, as a result of solar heating in the early formation of the solar system. Oxygen, the most abundant Earth element by mass, is retained on Earth by combination with silicon. Aluminum at 8% by mass is more common in the Earth's crust than in the universe and solar system, but the composition of the far more bulky mantle, which has magnesium and iron in place of aluminum (which occurs there only at 2% of mass) more closely mirrors the elemental composition of the solar system, save for the noted loss of volatile elements to space, and loss of iron which has migrated to the Earth's core.

text: The composition of the human body, by contrast, more closely follows the composition of seawater—save that the human body has additional stores of carbon and nitrogen necessary to form the proteins and nucleic acids, together with phosphorus in the nucleic acids and energy transfer molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP) that occurs in the cells of all living organisms. Certain kinds of organisms require particular additional elements, for example the magnesium in chlorophyll in green plants, the calcium in mollusc shells, or the iron in the hemoglobin in vertebrate animals' red blood cells.

text:
Elements in our galaxy
Parts per million
by mass

Hydrogen
739,000

Helium
240,000

Oxygen
10,400

Carbon
4,600

Neon
1,340

Iron
1,090

Nitrogen
960

Silicon
650

Magnesium
580

Sulfur
440

Potassium
210

Nickel
100

text:
Nutritional elements in the periodic table

H

He

Li
Be

B
C
N
O
F
Ne

Na
Mg

Al
Si
P
S
Cl
Ar

K
Ca
Sc

Ti
V
Cr
Mn
Fe
Co
Ni
Cu
Zn
Ga
Ge
As
Se
Br
Kr

Rb
Sr
Y

Zr
Nb
Mo
Tc
Ru
Rh
Pd
Ag
Cd
In
Sn
Sb
Te
I
Xe

Cs
Ba
La
*
Hf
Ta
W
Re
Os
Ir
Pt
Au
Hg
Tl
Pb
Bi
Po
At
Rn

Fr
Ra
Ac
**
Rf
Db
Sg
Bh
Hs
Mt
Ds
Rg
Cn
Nh
Fl
Mc
Lv
Ts
Og

*
Ce
Pr
Nd
Pm
Sm
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Ho
Er
Tm
Yb
Lu

**
Th
Pa
U
Np
Pu
Am
Cm
Bk
Cf
Es
Fm
Md
No
Lr

text:
The four basic organic elements

  Quantity elements

  Essential trace elements

  Suggested function from deprivation effects or active metabolic handling, but no clearly-identified biochemical function in humans

  Limited circumstantial evidence for trace benefits or biological action in mammals

  No evidence for biological action in mammals, but essential in some lower organisms.
(In the case of lanthanum, the definition of an essential nutrient as being indispensable and irreplaceable is not completely applicable due to the extreme similarity of the lanthanides. Thus Ce, Pr, and Nd may be substituted for La without ill effects for organisms using La, and the smaller Sm, Eu, and Gd may also be similarly substituted but cause slower growth.)

text: History

text: Evolving definitions

text: The concept of an "element" as an undivisible substance has developed through three major historical phases: Classical definitions (such as those of the ancient Greeks), chemical definitions, and atomic definitions.

text: Classical definitions

text: Ancient philosophy posited a set of classical elements to explain observed patterns in nature. These elements originally referred to earth, water, air and fire rather than the chemical elements of modern science.

text: The term 'elements' (stoicheia) was first used by the Greek philosopher Plato in about 360 BCE in his dialogue Timaeus, which includes a discussion of the composition of inorganic and organic bodies and is a speculative treatise on chemistry. Plato believed the elements introduced a century earlier by Empedocles were composed of small polyhedral forms: tetrahedron (fire), octahedron (air), icosahedron (water), and cube (earth).[24][25]

text: Aristotle, c. 350 BCE, also used the term stoicheia and added a fifth element called aether, which formed the heavens. Aristotle defined an element as:

text: Element – one of those bodies into which other bodies can decompose, and that itself is not capable of being divided into other.[26]

text: Chemical definitions

text: In 1661, Robert Boyle proposed his theory of corpuscularism which favoured the analysis of matter as constituted by irreducible units of matter (atoms) and, choosing to side with neither Aristotle's view of the four elements nor Paracelsus' view of three fundamental elements, left open the question of the number of elements.[27] The first modern list of chemical elements was given in Antoine Lavoisier's 1789 Elements of Chemistry, which contained thirty-three elements, including light and caloric.[28] By 1818, Jöns Jakob Berzelius had determined atomic weights for forty-five of the forty-nine then-accepted elements. Dmitri Mendeleev had sixty-six elements in his periodic table of 1869.

text: From Boyle until the early 20th century, an element was defined as a pure substance that could not be decomposed into any simpler substance.[27] Put another way, a chemical element cannot be transformed into other chemical elements by chemical processes. Elements during this time were generally distinguished by their atomic weights, a property measurable with fair accuracy by available analytical techniques.

text: Atomic definitions

text: The 1913 discovery by English physicist Henry Moseley that the nuclear charge is the physical basis for an atom's atomic number, further refined when the nature of protons and neutrons became appreciated, eventually led to the current definition of an element based on atomic number (number of protons per atomic nucleus). The use of atomic numbers, rather than atomic weights, to distinguish elements has greater predictive value (since these numbers are integers), and also resolves some ambiguities in the chemistry-based view due to varying properties of isotopes and allotropes within the same element. Currently, IUPAC defines an element to exist if it has isotopes with a lifetime longer than the 10−14 seconds it takes the nucleus to form an electronic cloud.[29]

text: By 1914, seventy-two elements were known, all naturally occurring.[30] The remaining naturally occurring elements were discovered or isolated in subsequent decades, and various additional elements have also been produced synthetically, with much of that work pioneered by Glenn T. Seaborg. In 1955, element 101 was discovered and named mendelevium in honor of D.I. Mendeleev, the first to arrange the elements in a periodic manner. Most recently, the synthesis of element 118 was reported in October 2006, and the synthesis of element 117 was reported in April 2010.[31]

text: Discovery and recognition of various elements

text: Ten materials familiar to various prehistoric cultures are now known to be chemical elements: Carbon, copper, gold, iron, lead, mercury, silver, sulfur, tin, and zinc. Three additional materials now accepted as elements, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth, were recognized as distinct substances prior to 1500 AD. Phosphorus, cobalt, and platinum were isolated before 1750.

text: Most of the remaining naturally occurring chemical elements were identified and characterized by 1900, including:

text:
Such now-familiar industrial materials as aluminium, silicon, nickel, chromium, magnesium, and tungsten
Reactive metals such as lithium, sodium, potassium, and calcium
The halogens fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine
Gases such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, helium, argon, and neon
Most of the rare-earth elements, including cerium, lanthanum, gadolinium, and neodymium.
The more common radioactive elements, including uranium, thorium, radium, and radon

text: Elements isolated or produced since 1900 include:

text:
The three remaining undiscovered regularly occurring stable natural elements: hafnium, lutetium, and rhenium
Plutonium, which was first produced synthetically in 1940 by Glenn T. Seaborg, but is now also known from a few long-persisting natural occurrences
The three incidentally occurring natural elements (neptunium, promethium, and technetium), which were all first produced synthetically but later discovered in trace amounts in certain geological samples
Three scarce decay products of uranium or thorium, (astatine, francium, and protactinium), and
Various synthetic transuranic elements, beginning with americium and curium

text: Recently discovered elements

text: The first transuranium element (element with atomic number greater than 92) discovered was neptunium in 1940. Since 1999 claims for the discovery of new elements have been considered by the IUPAC/IUPAP Joint Working Party. As of January 2016, all 118 elements have been confirmed as discovered by IUPAC. The discovery of element 112 was acknowledged in 2009, and the name copernicium and the atomic symbol Cn were suggested for it.[32] The name and symbol were officially endorsed by IUPAC on 19 February 2010.[33] The heaviest element that is believed to have been synthesized to date is element 118, oganesson, on 9 October 2006, by the Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions in Dubna, Russia.[12][34] Tennessine, element 117 was the latest element claimed to be discovered, in 2009.[35] On 28 November 2016, scientists at the IUPAC officially recognized the names for four of the newest chemical elements, with atomic numbers 113, 115, 117, and 118.[36][37]

text: List of the 118 known chemical elements

text: The following sortable table shows the 118 known chemical elements.

text:
Atomic number, name, and symbol all serve independently as unique identifiers.
Names are those accepted by IUPAC; provisional names for recently produced elements not yet formally named are in parentheses.
Group, period, and block refer to an element's position in the periodic table. Group numbers here show the currently accepted numbering; for older alternate numberings, see Group (periodic table).
State of matter (solid, liquid, or gas) applies at standard temperature and pressure conditions (STP).
Occurrence, as indicated by a footnote adjacent to the element's name, distinguishes naturally occurring elements, categorized as either primordial or transient (from decay), and additional synthetic elements that have been produced technologically, but are not known to occur naturally.
Color specifies an element's properties using the broad categories commonly presented in periodic tables: Actinide, alkali metal, alkaline earth metal, lanthanide, post-transition metal, metalloid, noble gas, polyatomic or diatomic nonmetal, and transition metal.

text:
[hide]List of chemical elements

Z[I]
Symbol
Element
Origin of name[38][39]
Group
Period
Atomic weight[40][41] (u (±))
Density (g/cm3)
Melt (K) [42]
Boil (K)
C[I] (J/g · K)
χ[I]
Abundance in Earth's crust[II] (mg/kg)

1
H
Hydrogen
composed of the Greek elements hydro- and -gen meaning 'water-forming'
1
1
001 !1.008[III][IV][V][VI]
0.00008988
0014 !14.01
20.28
14.304
2.20
1400

2
He
Helium
the Greek helios, 'sun'
18
1
004 !4.002602(2)[III][V]
0.0001785
0.1 !—[VII]
4.22
5.193
–
0.008

3
Li
Lithium
the Greek lithos, 'stone'
1
2
007 !6.94[III][IV][V][VIII][VI]
0.534
0454 !453.69
1560
3.582
0.98
20

4
Be
Beryllium
beryl, a mineral
2
2
009 !9.0121831(5)
1.85
1560 !1560
2742
1.825
1.57
2.8

5
B
Boron
borax, a mineral
13
2
011 !10.81[III][IV][V][VI]
2.34
2349 !2349
4200
1.026
2.04
10

6
C
Carbon
the Latin carbo, 'coal'
14
2
012 !12.011[III][V][VI]
2.267
3800 !3800
4300
0.709
2.55
200

7
N
Nitrogen
the Greek nitron and '-gen' meaning 'niter-forming'
15
2
014 !14.007[III][V][VI]
0.0012506
0063 !63.15
77.36
1.04
3.04
19

8
O
Oxygen
from the Greek oxy-, both 'sharp' and 'acid', and -gen, meaning 'acid-forming'
16
2
016 !15.999[III][V][VI]
0.001429
0054 !54.36
90.20
0.918
3.44
461000

9
F
Fluorine
the Latin fluere, 'to flow'
17
2
019 !18.998403163(6)
0.001696
0053.5 !53.53
85.03
0.824
3.98
585

10
Ne
Neon
the Greek neos, meaning 'new'
18
2
020 !20.1797(6)[III][IV]
0.0008999
0024.56 !24.56
27.07
1.03
–
0.005

11
Na
Sodium
the English word soda (natrium in Latin)
1
3
023 !22.98976928(2)
0.971
0371 !370.87
1156
1.228
0.93
23600

12
Mg
Magnesium
Magnesia, a district of Eastern Thessaly in Greece
2
3
024 !24.305[VI]
1.738
0923 !923
1363
1.023
1.31
23300

13
Al
Aluminium
from alumina, a compound (originally aluminum)
13
3
027 !26.9815385(7)
2.698
0933.5 !933.47
2792
0.897
1.61
82300

14
Si
Silicon
from the Latin silex, 'flint' (originally silicium)
14
3
028 !28.085[V][VI]
2.3296
1687 !1687
3538
0.705
1.9
282000

15
P
Phosphorus
the Greek phoosphoros, 'carrying light'
15
3
031 !30.973761998(5)
1.82
0317.3 !317.30
550
0.769
2.19
1050

16
S
Sulfur
the Latin sulphur, 'fire and brimstone'
16
3
032 !32.06[III][V][VI]
2.067
0388.4 !388.36
717.87
0.71
2.58
350

17
Cl
Chlorine
the Greek chloros, 'greenish yellow'
17
3
035 !35.45[III][IV][V][VI]
0.003214
0171.6 !171.6
239.11
0.479
3.16
145

18
Ar
Argon
the Greek argos, 'idle'
18
3
040 !39.948(1)[III][V]
0.0017837
0083.8 !83.80
87.30
0.52
–
3.5

19
K
Potassium
New Latin potassa, 'potash' (kalium in Latin)
1
4
039 !39.0983(1)
0.862
0336.5 !336.53
1032
0.757
0.82
20900

20
Ca
Calcium
the Latin calx, 'lime'
2
4
041 !40.078(4)[III]
1.54
1115 !1115
1757
0.647
1
41500

21
Sc
Scandium
Scandia, the Latin name for Scandinavia
3
4
045 !44.955908(5)
2.989
1814 !1814
3109
0.568
1.36
22

22
Ti
Titanium
Titans, the sons of the Earth goddess of Greek mythology
4
4
048 !47.867(1)
4.54
1941 !1941
3560
0.523
1.54
5650

23
V
Vanadium
Vanadis, an Old Norse name for the Scandinavian goddess Freyja
5
4
051 !50.9415(1)
6.11
2183 !2183
3680
0.489
1.63
120

24
Cr
Chromium
the Greek chroma, 'color'
6
4
052 !51.9961(6)
7.15
2180 !2180
2944
0.449
1.66
102

25
Mn
Manganese
corrupted from magnesia negra, see Magnesium
7
4
055 !54.938044(3)
7.44
1519 !1519
2334
0.479
1.55
950

26
Fe
Iron
English word (ferrum in Latin)
8
4
056 !55.845(2)
7.874
1811 !1811
3134
0.449
1.83
56300

27
Co
Cobalt
the German word Kobold, 'goblin'
9
4
059 !58.933194(4)
8.86
1768 !1768
3200
0.421
1.88
25

28
Ni
Nickel
from a mischievous sprite of German miner mythology , Nickel
10
4
058 !58.6934(4)
8.912
1728 !1728
3186
0.444
1.91
84

29
Cu
Copper
English word (Latin cuprum)
11
4
064 !63.546(3)[V]
8.96
1357.77
2835
0.385
1.9
60

30
Zn
Zinc
German word Zinke (prong, tooth)
12
4
065 !65.38(2)
7.134
0693 !692.88
1180
0.388
1.65
70

31
Ga
Gallium
Gallia, the Latin name for France
13
4
070 !69.723(1)
5.907
0302.9 !302.9146
2673
0.371
1.81
19

32
Ge
Germanium
Germania, the Latin name for Germany
14
4
073 !72.630(8)
5.323
1211.40
3106
0.32
2.01
1.5

33
As
Arsenic
English word (Latin arsenicum)
15
4
075 !74.921595(6)
5.776
1090 !1090 [IX]
887
0.329
2.18
1.8

34
Se
Selenium
the Greek selene, 'moon'
16
4
079 !78.971(8)[V]
4.809
0453 !453
958
0.321
2.55
0.05

35
Br
Bromine
the Greek bromos, 'stench'
17
4
080 !79.904[VI]
3.122
0265.8 !265.8
332.0
0.474
2.96
2.4

36
Kr
Krypton
the Greek kryptos, 'hidden'
18
4
084 !83.798(2)[III][IV]
0.003733
0115.8 !115.79
119.93
0.248
3
.0001 !1×10−4

37
Rb
Rubidium
the Latin rubidus, 'deep red'
1
5
085 !85.4678(3)[III]
1.532
0312.5 !312.46
961
0.363
0.82
90

38
Sr
Strontium
Strontian, a small town in Scotland
2
5
087 !87.62(1)[III][V]
2.64
1050
1655
0.301
0.95
370

39
Y
Yttrium
Ytterby, Sweden
3
5
089 !88.90584(2)
4.469
1799
3609
0.298
1.22
33

40
Zr
Zirconium
Persian Zargun, 'gold-colored'; German Zirkoon, 'jargoon'
4
5
091 !91.224(2)[III]
6.506
2128
4682
0.278
1.33
165

41
Nb
Niobium
Niobe, daughter of king Tantalus from Greek mythology
5
5
093 !92.90637(2)
8.57
2750
5017
0.265
1.6
20

42
Mo
Molybdenum
the Greek molybdos meaning 'lead'
6
5
096 !95.95(1)[III]
10.22
2896
4912
0.251
2.16
1.2

43
Tc
Technetium
the Greek tekhnètos meaning 'artificial'
7
5
098 ![98][X]
11.5
2430
4538
–
1.9
.000000003 !~ 3×10−9[XI]

44
Ru
Ruthenium
Ruthenia, the New Latin name for Russia
8
5
101.07(2)[III]
12.37
2607
4423
0.238
2.2
0.001

45
Rh
Rhodium
the Greek rhodos, meaning 'rose coloured'
9
5
102.90550(2)
12.41
2237
3968
0.243
2.28
0.001

46
Pd
Palladium
the then recently discovered asteroid Pallas, considered a planet at the time
10
5
106.42(1)[III]
12.02
1828.05
3236
0.244
2.2
0.015

47
Ag
Silver
English word (argentum in Latin)
11
5
107.8682(2)[III]
10.501
1234.93
2435
0.235
1.93
0.075

48
Cd
Cadmium
the New Latin cadmia, from King Kadmos
12
5
112.414(4)[III]
8.69
0594.22 !594.22
1040
0.232
1.69
0.159

49
In
Indium
indigo
13
5
114.818(1)
7.31
0429.75 !429.75
2345
0.233
1.78
0.25

50
Sn
Tin
English word (stannum in Latin)
14
5
118.710(7)[III]
7.287
0505.08 !505.08
2875
0.228
1.96
2.3

51
Sb
Antimony
uncertain: perhaps from the Greek anti, 'against', and monos, 'alone', or the Old French antimoine, 'Monk's bane' (stibium in Latin)
15
5
121.760(1)[III]
6.685
0903.78 !903.78
1860
0.207
2.05
0.2

52
Te
Tellurium
Latin tellus, 'earth'
16
5
127.60(3)[III]
6.232
0722.66 !722.66
1261
0.202
2.1
0.001

53
I
Iodine
French iode (after the Greek ioeides, 'violet')
17
5
126.90447(3)
4.93
0386.85 !386.85
457.4
0.214
2.66
0.45

54
Xe
Xenon
the Greek xenos, 'strange'
18
5
131.293(6)[III][IV]
0.005887
0161.4 !161.4
165.03
0.158
2.6
.00003 !3×10−5

55
Cs
Caesium
the Latin caesius, 'sky blue'
1
6
132.90545196(6)
1.873
0301.59 !301.59
944
0.242
0.79
3

56
Ba
Barium
the Greek barys, 'heavy'
2
6
137.327(7)
3.594
1000
2170
0.204
0.89
425

57
La
Lanthanum
the Greek lanthanein, 'to lie hidden'
3
6
138.90547(7)[III]
6.145
1193
3737
0.195
1.1
39

58
Ce
Cerium
the then recently discovered asteroid Ceres, considered a planet at the time

6
140.116(1)[III]
6.77
1068
3716
0.192
1.12
66.5

59
Pr
Praseodymium
the Greek praseios didymos meaning 'green twin'

6
140.90766(2)
6.773
1208
3793
0.193
1.13
9.2

60
Nd
Neodymium
the Greek neos didymos meaning 'new twin'

6
144.242(3)[III]
7.007
1297
3347
0.19
1.14
41.5

61
Pm
Promethium
Prometheus of Greek mythology who stole fire from the Gods and gave it to humans

6
145 ![145][X]
7.26
1315
3273
–
1.13
.0000000000000000002 !2×10−19[XI]

62
Sm
Samarium
Samarskite, the name of the mineral from which it was first isolated

6
150.36(2)[III]
7.52
1345
2067
0.197
1.17
7.05

63
Eu
Europium
Europe

6
151.964(1)[III]
5.243
1099
1802
0.182
1.2
2

64
Gd
Gadolinium
Johan Gadolin, chemist, physicist and mineralogist

6
157.25(3)[III]
7.895
1585
3546
0.236
1.2
6.2

65
Tb
Terbium
Ytterby, Sweden

6
158.92535(2)
8.229
1629
3503
0.182
1.2
1.2

66
Dy
Dysprosium
the Greek dysprositos, 'hard to get'

6
162.500(1)[III]
8.55
1680
2840
0.17
1.22
5.2

67
Ho
Holmium
Holmia, the New Latin name for Stockholm

6
164.93033(2)
8.795
1734
2993
0.165
1.23
1.3

68
Er
Erbium
Ytterby, Sweden

6
167.259(3)[III]
9.066
1802
3141
0.168
1.24
3.5

69
Tm
Thulium
Thule, the ancient name for Scandinavia

6
168.93422(2)
9.321
1818
2223
0.16
1.25
0.52

70
Yb
Ytterbium
Ytterby, Sweden

6
173.045(10)[III]
6.965
1097
1469
0.155
1.1
3.2

71
Lu
Lutetium
Lutetia, the Latin name for Paris

6
174.9668(1)[III]
9.84
1925
3675
0.154
1.27
0.8

72
Hf
Hafnium
Hafnia, the New Latin name for Copenhagen
4
6
178.49(2)
13.31
2506
4876
0.144
1.3
3

73
Ta
Tantalum
King Tantalus, father of Niobe from Greek mythology
5
6
180.94788(2)
16.654
3290
5731
0.14
1.5
2

74
W
Tungsten
the Swedish tung sten, 'heavy stone' (W is wolfram, the old name of the tungsten mineral wolframite)
6
6
183.84(1)
19.25
3695
5828
0.132
2.36
1.3

75
Re
Rhenium
Rhenus, the Latin name for the river Rhine
7
6
186.207(1)
21.02
3459
5869
0.137
1.9
.0007 !7×10−4

76
Os
Osmium
the Greek osmè, meaning 'smell'
8
6
190.23(3)[III]
22.61
3306
5285
0.13
2.2
0.002

77
Ir
Iridium
Iris, the Greek goddess of the rainbow
9
6
192.217(3)
22.56
2719
4701
0.131
2.2
0.001

78
Pt
Platinum
the Spanish platina, meaning 'little silver'
10
6
195.084(9)
21.46
2041.4
4098
0.133
2.28
0.005

79
Au
Gold
English word (aurum in Latin)
11
6
196.966569(5)
19.282
1337.33
3129
0.129
2.54
0.004

80
Hg
Mercury
the New Latin name mercurius, named after the Roman god (Hg from former name hydrargyrum, from Greek hydr-, 'water', and argyros, 'silver')
12
6
200.592(3)
13.5336
0234.43 !234.43
629.88
0.14
2
0.085

81
Tl
Thallium
the Greek thallos, 'green twig'
13
6
204.38[VI]
11.85
0577 !577
1746
0.129
1.62
0.85

82
Pb
Lead
English word (plumbum in Latin)
14
6
207.2(1)[III][V]
11.342
0600.61 !600.61
2022
0.129
1.87
14

83
Bi
Bismuth
Uncertain, possibly Arabic or German
15
6
208.98040(1)[X]
9.807
0544.7 !544.7
1837
0.122
2.02
0.009

84
Po
Polonium
Named after the home country of Marie Curie (Polonia, Latin for Poland), who is also the discoverer of Radium
16
6
209 ![209][X]
9.32
0527 !527
1235
–
2.0
.0000000002 !2×10−10[XI]

85
At
Astatine
the Greek astatos, 'unstable'
17
6
210 ![210][X]
7
0575 !575
610
–
2.2
0.000000000000000000003 !3×10−20[XI]

86
Rn
Radon
From radium, as it was first detected as an emission from radium during radioactive decay
18
6
222 ![222][X]
0.00973
0202 !202
211.3
0.094
2.2
.0000000000004 !4×10−13[XI]

87
Fr
Francium
Francia, the New Latin name for France
1
7
223 ![223][X]
1.87
0300 !300
950
–
0.7
0.000000000000000001 !~ 1×10−18[XI]

88
Ra
Radium
the Latin radius, 'ray'
2
7
223 ![226][X]
5.5
0973 !973
2010
0.094
0.9
.0000009 !9×10−7[XI]

89
Ac
Actinium
the Greek aktis, 'ray'
3
7
227 ![227][X]
10.07
1323
3471
0.12
1.1
.00000000055 !5.5×10−10[XI]

90
Th
Thorium
Thor, the Scandinavian god of thunder

7
232.0377(4)[X][III]
11.72
2115
5061
0.113
1.3
9.6

91
Pa
Protactinium
the Greek protos, 'first', and actinium, which is produced through the radioactive decay of protactinium

7
231.03588(2)[X]
15.37
1841
4300
–
1.5
.0000014 !1.4×10−6[XI]

92
U
Uranium
Uranus, the seventh planet in the Solar System

7
238.02891(3)[X]
18.95
1405.3
4404
0.116
1.38
2.7

93
Np
Neptunium
Neptune, the eighth planet in the Solar System

7
237 ![237][X]
20.45
0917 !917
4273
–
1.36
0.000000000003 !≤ 3×10−12[XI]

94
Pu
Plutonium
Pluto, a dwarf planet in the Solar System (then considered the ninth planet)

7
244 ![244][X]
19.84
0912.5 !912.5
3501
–
1.28
0.00000000003 !≤ 3×10−11[XI]

95
Am
Americium
The Americas, as the element was first synthesized on the continent, by analogy with europium

7
243 ![243][X]
13.69
1449
2880
–
1.13
0 !0[XII]

96
Cm
Curium
Pierre Curie, a physicist, and Marie Curie, a physicist and chemist, named after great scientists by analogy with gadolinium

7
247 ![247][X]
13.51
1613
3383
–
1.28
0 !0[XII]

97
Bk
Berkelium
Berkeley, California, where the element was first synthesized, by analogy with terbium

7
247 ![247][X]
14.79
1259
2900
–
1.3
0 !0[XII]

98
Cf
Californium
California, where the element was first synthesized

7
251 ![251][X]
15.1
1173
1743 !(1743)[XIII]
–
1.3
0 !0[XII]

99
Es
Einsteinium
Albert Einstein, physicist

7
252 ![252][X]
8.84
1133
1269 !(1269)[XIII]
–
1.3
0 !0[XII]

100
Fm
Fermium
Enrico Fermi, physicist

7
257 ![257][X]
9.7 !(9.7)[XIII]
1125 !(1125)[XIII]
–
–
1.3
0 !0[XII]

101
Md
Mendelevium
Dmitri Mendeleev, chemist and inventor

7
258 ![258][X]
10.3 !(10.3)[XIII]
1100 !(1100)[XIII]
–
–
1.3
0 !0[XII]

102
No
Nobelium
Alfred Nobel, chemist, engineer, innovator, and armaments manufacturer

7
259 ![259][X]
9.9 !(9.9)[XIII]
1100 !(1100)[XIII]
–
–
1.3
0 !0[XII]

103
Lr
Lawrencium
Ernest O. Lawrence, physicist

7
266 ![266][X]
15.6 !(15.6)[XIII]
1900 !(1900)[XIII]
–
–
1.3
0 !0[XII]

104
Rf
Rutherfordium
Ernest Rutherford, chemist and physicist
4
7
267 ![267][X]
23.2 !(23.2)[XIII]
2400 !(2400)[XIII]
5800 !(5800)[XIII]
–
–
0 !0[XII]

105
Db
Dubnium
Dubna, Russia
5
7
268 ![268][X]
29.3 !(29.3)[XIII]
–
–
–
–
0 !0[XII]

106
Sg
Seaborgium
Glenn T. Seaborg, scientist
6
7
269 ![269][X]
35.0 !(35.0)[XIII]
–
–
–
–
0 !0[XII]

107
Bh
Bohrium
Niels Bohr, physicist
7
7
270 ![270][X]
37.1 !(37.1)[XIII]
–
–
–
–
0 !0[XII]

108
Hs
Hassium
Hesse, Germany, where the element was first synthesized
8
7
277 ![277][X]
40.7 !(40.7)[XIII]
–
–
–
–
0 !0[XII]

109
Mt
Meitnerium
Lise Meitner, physicist
9
7
278 ![278][X]
37.4 !(37.4)[XIII]
–
–
–
–
0 !0[XII]

110
Ds
Darmstadtium
Darmstadt, Germany, where the element was first synthesized
10
7
281 ![281][X]
34.8 !(34.8)[XIII]
–
–
–
–
0 !0[XII]

111
Rg
Roentgenium
Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, physicist
11
7
282 ![282][X]
28.7 !(28.7)[XIII]
–
–
–
–
0 !0[XII]

112
Cn
Copernicium
Nicolaus Copernicus, astronomer
12
7
285 ![285][X]
23.7 !(23.7)[XIII]
–
357 !~357[XIV]
–
–
0 !0[XII]

113
Nh
Nihonium
the Japanese name for Japan, Nihon, where the element was first synthesized
13
7
286 ![286][X]
16 !(16)[XIII]
0700 !(700)[XIII]
1400 !(1400)[XIII]
–
–
0 !0[XII]

114
Fl
Flerovium
Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions, part of JINR where the element was synthesized; itself named for Georgy Flyorov, physicist
14
7
289 ![289][X]
14 !(14)[XIII]
–
210 !~210
–
–
0 !0[XII]

115
Mc
Moscovium
Moscow Oblast, Russia, where the element was first synthesized
15
7
290 ![290][X]
13.5 !(13.5)[XIII]
0700 !(700)[XIII]
1400 !(1400)[XIII]
–
–
0 !0[XII]

116
Lv
Livermorium
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (in Livermore, California) which collaborated with JINR on its synthesis
16
7
293 ![293][X]
12.9 !(12.9)[XIII]
0709 !(709)[XIII]
1085 !(1085)[XIII]
–
–
0 !0[XII]

117
Ts
Tennessine
Tennessee, United States
17
7
294 ![294][X]
7.2 !(7.2)[XIII]
0723 !(723)[XIII]
0883 !(883)[XIII]
–
–
0 !0[XII]

118
Og
Oganesson
Yuri Oganessian, physicist
18
7
294 ![294][X]
5.0 !(5.0)[XIII][XV]
–
350 !(350)[XIII]
–
–
0 !0[XII]

[show]
Notes

^ Jump up to: a b c Z is the standard symbol for atomic number; C is the standard symbol for heat capacity; and χ is the standard symbol for electronegativity on the Pauling scale.
Jump up ^ Unless otherwise indicated, elements are primordial – they occur naturally, and not through decay.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al The isotopic composition of this element varies in some geological specimens, and the variation may exceed the uncertainty stated in the table.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g The isotopic composition of the element can vary in commercial materials, which can cause the atomic weight to deviate significantly from the given value.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o The isotopic composition varies in terrestrial material such that a more precise atomic weight can not be given.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l The value listed is the conventional atomic-weight value suitable for trade and commerce. The actual value may differ depending on the isotopic composition of the sample. Since 2009, IUPAC provides the standard atomic-weight values for these elements using the interval notation. The corresponding standard atomic weights are:

Hydrogen: [1.00784, 1.00811]
Lithium: [6.938, 6.997]
Boron: [10.806, 10.821]
Carbon: [12.0096, 12.0116]
Nitrogen: [14.00643, 14.00728]
Oxygen: [15.99903, 15.99977]
Magnesium: [24.304, 24.307]
Silicon: [28.084, 28.086]
Sulfur: [32.059, 32.076]
Chlorine: [35.446, 35.457]
Bromine: [79.901, 79.907]
Thallium: [204.382, 204.385]

Jump up ^ This element does not solidify at a pressure of one atmosphere. Helium can only solidify at pressures above 25 atmospheres, which corresponds to a melting point of absolute zero.
Jump up ^ The atomic weight of commercial lithium can vary between 6.939 and 6.996—analysis of the specific material is necessary to find a more accurate value.
Jump up ^ This element sublimes at one atmosphere of pressure.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al The element does not have any stable nuclides, and a value in brackets, e.g. [209], indicates the mass number of the longest-lived isotope of the element. However, four such elements, bismuth, thorium, protactinium, and uranium, have characteristic terrestrial isotopic compositions, and thus their standard atomic weights are given.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k This element is transient – it occurs only through decay.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x This element is synthetic – the transuranic elements 95 and above do not occur naturally, but they can all be produced artificially.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj The value has not been precisely measured, usually because of the element's short half-life; the value given in parentheses is a prediction.
Jump up ^ With error bars: 357+112
−108 K.
Jump up ^ This predicted value is for liquid oganesson, not gaseous oganesson.

text:
Background color shows subcategory in the metal–metalloid–nonmetal trend:

Metal
Metalloid
Nonmetal
Unknown
chemical
properties

Alkali metal
Alkaline earth metal
Lanthanide
Actinide
Transition metal
Post-transition metal
Polyatomic nonmetal
Diatomic nonmetal
Noble gas