document_title: U.S. history of alcohol minimum purchase age by state

question_text: when did the national drinking age become 21

text: The alcohol laws of the United States regarding minimum age for purchase have changed over time.  This history is given in the table below.  Unless otherwise noted, if different alcohol categories have different minimum purchase ages, the age listed below is set at the lowest age given (e.g. if the purchase age is 18 for beer and 21 for wine or spirits, as was the case in several states, the age in the table will read as "18", not "21").  In addition, the purchase age is not necessarily the same as the minimum age for consumption of alcoholic beverages, although they have often been the same.

tag: p

text:
As one can see in the table below, there has been much volatility in the states' drinking ages since the
repeal of Prohibition in 1933.  Shortly after the ratification of the 21st amendment in December, most states set their purchase ages at 21 since that was the Voting age at the time. Most of these limits remained constant until the early 1970s.  From 1969 to 1976, some 30 states lowered their purchase ages, generally to 18. This was primarily because the voting age was lowered from 21 to 18 in 1971 with the 26th amendment. Many states started to lower their minimum drinking age in response, most of this occurring in 1972 or 1973.[1][2][3] Twelve states kept their purchase ages at 21 since repeal of Prohibition and never changed them.

text: From 1976 to 1983, several states voluntarily raised their purchase ages to 19 (or, less commonly, 20 or 21), in part to combat drunk driving fatalities.[citation needed] In 1984, Congress passed the National Minimum Drinking Age Act, which required states to raise their ages for purchase and public possession to 21 by October 1986 or lose 10% of their federal highway funds. By mid-1988, all 50 states and the District of Columbia had raised their purchase ages to 21 (but not Puerto Rico, Guam, or the Virgin Islands, see Additional Notes below). South Dakota and Wyoming were the final two states to comply with the age 21 mandate. The current drinking age of 21 remains a point of contention among many Americans, because of it being higher than the age of majority (18 in most states) and higher than the drinking ages of most other countries. The National Minimum Drinking Age Act is also seen as a congressional sidestep of the tenth amendment. Although debates have not been highly publicized, a few states have proposed legislation to lower their drinking age,[4] while Guam has raised its drinking age to 21 in July 2010.[5]

text:
State
Pre-Prohibition(prior to 1919)
Post-Prohibition(after 1933)
1970s / 26th Amendment(adopted in 1971)
1980s / Drinking Age Act of 1984
21st century

Alabama

Pre 1881:None1881:21 (none with consent of parent)[6]
21
1975:Lowered to 19[7]
1986:Raised to 21[8]
21  (no one underage is allowed consumption Section 28-1)

Alaska

?
21[7]
1970:Lowered to 19[9]
1984:Raised to 21 with grandfather clause (if born before January 1, 1965)[10][11]
21

Arizona

?
21[11]
1972:Lowered to 19[12][13]
1985:Raised to 21[8]
21

Arkansas

Pre 1925:None[7]1925:21[7]
21
21[14]
21[8]
21

California

Pre 1891:Regulated by municipality/county (common age was 16)[15][16][17]1891:18 (statewide)[18]
1933:21[7]
21
21[8]
21 (except small amounts for religious ceremonies)

Colorado

None[11]
1945:18: for beer21: for wine and liquor[7]
18[19]
Raised to 21 in 1987[8]
21

Connecticut

?
21[11]
1972:Lowered to 18[20]
1982:Raised to 191983:Raised to 201985:Raised to 21[21]
21 (exemptions: (1) a person over age eighteen who is an employee or permit holder under section 30-90a and who possesses alcoholic liquor in the course of such person's employment or business, (2) a minor who possesses alcoholic liquor on the order of a practicing physician, or (3) a minor who possesses alcoholic liquor while accompanied by a parent, guardian or spouse of the minor, who has attained the age of twenty-one. Nothing in this subsection shall be construed to burden a person's exercise of religion under section 3 of article first of the Constitution of the state in violation of subsection (a) of section 52-571b.[22]

Delaware

?
21[11]
1972:Lowered to 20[13]
1984:Raised to 21[8]
21

District of Columbia

?
18: for beer and wine[11]21: for liquor[23][24]
18: for beer and wine[13][24]21: for liquor
1986:Raised to 21 with grandfather clause.[25][26]
21

Florida

?
18[7]
1980:19[27]
1985:Raised to 21 with grandfather clause[27]
21[28]

Georgia

?
21[11]
1972: Lowered to 18[12]
1984:Raised to 19[14]1985:Raised to 20[14]1986:Raised to 21[14]
21

Hawaii

?
21[7]
1972:Lowered to 18[13]
1986:Raised to 21[8]
21

Idaho

?
20: for beer[29][30]21: for wine and liquor[11][31]
1972:Lowered to 19 (all)[13][32]
1987:Raised to 21 in 1987 (Apr 11) with grandfather clause[8][33]
21

Illinois

1872:Age of majority (none with written consent of parent)[34]
pre 1961: Age of majority      1961:  Raised to 21[35]
1973:Lowered to 19: for beer and wine21: for liquor[36]
1980:Raised to 21[37]
21

Indiana

?
Post-1934:21[7]
21[14]
21[8]
21

Iowa

?
21[7]
1972:Lowered to 19 in 1972 (Jul 1)1973:Lowered to 18 in 1973 (Jul 1)1978:Raised to 19 in 1978 (Jul 1)[38]
1986:Raised to 21 in 1986 (Jul 1) with grandfather clause.[14][38]
21

Kansas

?
1949:18: for beer and wine with less than 4% ABV21: for liquor[7]
18: for beer and wine with less than 4% ABV[14]21: for beer and wine with 4% ABV or more[14]21: for liquor[14][19]
1985:Raised to 21[8]
21 (However, anyone under 21 may consume cereal malt beverages with parental supervision on their own property)

Kentucky

?
1938:21[7]
21[14]
21[8]
21

Louisiana

?
As of 1948:18[13]
18[19]
1987:Raised to 21 de jure in 1987,[8]but de facto age was still 18 until 1995 due to a sale loophole.1995:De facto age raised to 21 in 1995 when loophole was closed.[39]1996:In 1996, briefly lowered by Louisiana Supreme Court to 18 until it reversed its decision, raising to 21 three months later.[40]Other exceptions still remain.[41]
21 (Exceptions to state law include:[42]
For an established religious purpose;When a person under twenty-one years of age is accompanied by a parent, spouse, or legal guardian twenty-one years of age or older;For medical purposes when purchased as an over the counter medication, or when prescribed or administered by a licensed physician, pharmacist, dentist, nurse, hospital, or medical institution;In a private residence, which shall include a residential dwelling and up to twenty contiguous acres, on which the dwelling is located, owned by the same person who owns the dwelling;The sale, handling, transport, or service in dispensing of any alcoholic beverage pursuant to lawful ownership of an establishment or to lawful employment of a person under twenty-one years of age by a duly licensed manufacturer, wholesaler, or retailer of beverage alcohol.)

Maine

?
21[7]1969:Lowered to 20
1972:Lowered to 18[12]1977:Raised to 20[8][43]
1985:Raised to 21[8]
21

Maryland

?
21[7]
1974:Lowered to 18: for beer and wine21: for liquor[44][45]
1982:Raised to 21 with grandfather clause[8][46]
21 (however anyone can drink when parents, spouses, teachers are present)

Massachusetts

?
21[11]
1973:Lowered to 181979:Raised to 20 in 1979 (Apr 16)[47][48][49]
Raised to 21 in 1985[8]
21

Michigan

?
21[7]
1972:Lowered to 18 in 1972 (Jan 1)[50]
1978:Raised to 19 in 1978 (Dec 3)[51][52]1978:Raised to 21 in 1978 (Dec 21), 18 days later.[8]First state to raise age to 21 since it was lowered
21

Minnesota

?
21[11]
1973:Lowered to 18 (June 1)1976:Raised to 19 (Sept 1)[53]First state to raise age after lowering.

1986:Raised to 21[54]
21

Mississippi

?
1966:18: for beer and wine21: for liquor[7](alcohol not legalized until 1966)
18[19]
Raised to 21 in 1986[8]
21

Missouri

?
1945:21[7]
21
21[8]
21

Montana

?
21[11]
1971:Lowered to 19[55]1973:Lowered to 18[56][57]1979:Raised to 19
1987:Raised to 21[8][58]
21

Nebraska

?
21[59]1969:Lowered to 20
1972:Lowered to 19[59]
1980:Raised to 20[14]1985:Raised to 21[14]
21

Nevada

?
1933:21[7]
21
21[8]
21

New Hampshire

?
21[11]
1973:Lowered to 18[60]1979:Raised to 20
1985:Raised to 21[8][21]
21

New Jersey

Before 1880:NonePost-1880:18 (penalties only against businesses)[61][62][63]
21[citation needed]
1973:Lowered to 18[12]
1980:Raised to 191983:Raised to 21[8][64]
21

New Mexico

?
1934:21[7]
21[14]
21[8]
21

New York

21
18[65]
18
1982:Raised to 19 in 1982 (Dec)1985:Raised to 21 in 1985 (Dec)[21][66][67]
21

North Carolina

?
18[11]
18: for beer and wine[19] 21: for liquor
1983:19: for beer and wine 21: for liquor1986:Raised to 21 in 1986 (Sep 1)[8][26]
21

North Dakota

?
1936:21[7]
21[14]
21[68]
21

Ohio

?
1935:18: for 3.2% ABW beer21: for beer stronger than 3.2% ABW, wine and liquor[69]
18: for 3.2% ABW beer21: for beer stronger than 3.2% ABW, wine and liquor
1982 (Aug. 19 to Oct. 1):19: for 3.2% ABW beer[14]21: for beer stronger than 3.2% ABW, wine and liquor[14]1982 (From Oct. 1):19: beer21: wine and liquor[70]1988:21[14]
21 (However, anyone can drink with parents or legal-age spouse)

Oklahoma

?
Men:21Women:18: 3.2% ABW beer21: for beer stronger than 3.2% ABW, wine and liquor[71]
1976:Lowered to 18 (for 3.2% ABW beer) for both sexes in 1976 (Dec)[72]Last state to lower the drinking age.
1983:Raised to 21[11][73]
21

Oregon

?
1933:21[7]
21
21[8]
21

Pennsylvania

?
1935:21[7]
21
21[8][52]
21

Rhode Island

?
21[11]
1970:Lowered to 18[12][74]
1980:Raised to 191981:Raised to 201984:Raised to 21[21]
21

South Carolina

21[75]
1935:18: for beer and wine21: for liquor[7]
18: for beer and wine[19]21: for liquor
1984:19: for beer and wine[7]21: for liquor1986:Raised to 21[8]
21

South Dakota

?
1934:21 (all)1939:Lowered to 18: for 3.2% beerRaised to 19: for 3.2% beer[76]
1972:18: for beer and wine21: for liquor[13]
1984:19: for beer and wine21: for liquor[8]1988:Raised to 21[58]
21

Tennessee

Pre 1881:None1881:21[77]
21[7]1964:Lowered to 18[7]
1979:Raised to 19
1984:Raised to 21[8]
21

Texas

Pre 1909:21None (with written permission of parent or guardian)Post 1909:21[78][79]
21[7]
1973:Lowered to 18[80]
1981:Raised to 19[81]1986:Raised to 21 in 1986 (Sep 1)[8][26]
21

Utah

?
1935:21[7]
21[14]
21[8]
21

Vermont

?
21[7]
1971:Lowered to 18[82][83]
1986:Raised to 21[21][83]
21

Virginia

?
21[84]
1974:Lowered to 18: for beer and wine(21: for liquor remained)[84]
1981:Raised to 19 for off-premises consumption1983:Raised to 19 (all beer)1985:Raised to 21[84]
21

Washington

"Age of majority"since 1877[85]
21[citation needed]
21
21[8]
21

West Virginia

?
18: for beer and wine 21: for liquor[11]
1972:Lowered to 18 (all)[86]
1983:Raised to 19(& 21 for non-residents)[8][43]1986:Raised to 21[8]
21

Wisconsin

1839–1866:18: for wine and liquorNone: for beerPost-1866:21 (all)[87]
18: for beer21: for wine and spirits1957:21: for residents of bordering states with age limit 21.[88]1963:Raised to 21 (off-premises beer sales, remained 18 for on-premises).[88]
1972:Lowered to 18 (all) in 1972 (Mar)[88]1977:Border state restriction lifted.[88]
1984:Raised to 191986:Raised to 21 (September 1, 1986)[88]
21 (however anyone can drink when parents, spouses, teachers are present)[citation needed]

Wyoming

?
21[7]
1973:Lowered to 19[13]
1988:Raised to 21 in 1988 (Jul 1)[89][90]Last state to raise de jure drinking age to 21
21

American Samoa

?
?
?
21?
21[91]

Northern Mariana Islands

–
–
?
21?
21[92]

Puerto Rico

?
18
18
Kept at 18despite 10% highway fundingpenalty under Drinking Age Act.
18[93]

Virgin Islands

?
?
?
18
18[94]

Guam

?
21?
18
18
Raised to 21 in 2010[5]

tag: table

text: Additional notes[edit]

text:
Contrary to popular belief, since the National Minimum Drinking Age Act of 1984, not all states specifically prohibit minors' and young adults' consumption of alcohol in private settings.  That is because the federal law is concerned only with purchase and public possession, not private consumption, and contains several exceptions. As of January 1, 2007, 14 states and the District of Columbia ban underage consumption outright, 19 states do not specifically ban underage consumption outright, and 17 states have family member or location exceptions to their underage consumption laws. Federal law explicitly provides for religious, medical, employment and private club possession exceptions; as of 2005, 31 states have family member or location exceptions to their underage possession laws.[41]
In the 1960s the age for buying or drinking beer and wine in the District of Columbia (Washington, D.C.) was 18; the age for hard liquor was 21.[23][24] Residents from Virginia and Maryland would often drive to D.C. to obtain alcohol. In Louisiana, the 1987 law raising the age from 18 to 21 was deliberately written solely to comply with the National Minimum Drinking Age Act of 1984 to avoid losing highway funding, while still allowing 18- to 20-year-olds to drink as before.  Not only did it still allow 18- to 20-year-olds to consume in private, it contained a major loophole allowing bars and stores to sell alcohol to 18- to 20-year-olds without penalty (despite purchase being technically illegal) which meant that the de facto age was still 18.[39] In other words, the drinking age was 21 only on paper. This loophole was closed in 1995, but in 1996 the Louisiana Supreme Court declared a drinking age of 21 unconstitutional.[39]  That briefly lowered the de jure purchase age to 18, causing an uproar which prompted the Louisiana Supreme Court to reverse its decision, raising the age to 21 three months later.[40] Other exceptions still remain to this day, including drinking in a private residence,[41] and Louisiana still has some of the most liberal general alcohol laws of any state.
Some states were "dry" well before national Prohibition was enacted in 1919, in some cases since achieving statehood.  Also, some states did not become fully "wet" until several years after the repeal of Prohibition in 1933 (e.g. Mississippi in 1966).  Since 1966, all states and territories of the USA have been "wet", but dry counties and towns still exist in some states.


document_title: Trial by Jury

question_text: who created the part of the learned judge on the original production of trial by jury

root

text: Trial by Jury

text: Background[edit]

text: Before Trial by Jury, W. S. Gilbert and Arthur Sullivan had collaborated on one previous opera, Thespis; or, The Gods Grown Old, in 1871.  Although reasonably successful, it was a Christmas entertainment, and such works were not expected to endure.[3]  Between Thespis and Trial by Jury, Gilbert and Sullivan did not collaborate on any further operas, and each man separately produced works that further built his reputation in his own field.  Gilbert wrote several short stories, edited the second volume of his comic Bab Ballads, and created a dozen theatrical works, including Happy Arcadia in 1872; The Wicked World, The Happy Land and The Realm of Joy in 1873; Charity, Topsyturveydom and Sweethearts in 1874.[4]  At the same time, Sullivan wrote various pieces of religious music, including the Festival Te Deum (1872) and an oratorio, The Light of the World (1873), and edited Church Hymns, with Tunes (1874), which included 45 of his own hymns and arrangements.[5]  Two of his most famous hymn tunes from this period are settings of  "Onward, Christian Soldiers" and "Nearer, my God, to Thee" (both in 1872).  He also wrote a suite of incidental music to The Merry Wives of Windsor (1874) and many parlour ballads and other songs, including three in 1874–75 with words by Gilbert: "The Distant Shore", "Sweethearts" (inspired by Gilbert's play) and "The Love that Loves Me Not".[5]

text: Genesis of the opera[edit]

text: The genesis of Trial by Jury began in 1868, when Gilbert wrote a single-page illustrated comic piece for the magazine Fun entitled Trial by Jury: An Operetta.  Drawing on Gilbert's training and brief practice as a barrister, it detailed a "breach of promise" trial going awry, in the process spoofing the law, lawyers and the legal system.  (In the Victorian era, a man could be required to pay compensation should he fail to marry a woman to whom he was engaged.[6]) The outline of this story was followed in the later opera, and two of its numbers appeared in nearly their final form in Fun.  The skit, however, ended abruptly: the moment the attractive plaintiff stepped into the witness box, the judge leapt into her arms and vowed to marry her, whereas in the opera, the case is allowed to proceed further before this conclusion is reached.[7][8]

text: In 1873, the opera manager and composer Carl Rosa asked Gilbert for a piece to use as part of a season of English opera that Rosa planned to present at the Drury Lane Theatre; Rosa was to write or commission the music. Gilbert expanded Trial into a one-act libretto. Rosa's wife, Euphrosyne Parepa-Rosa, a childhood friend of Gilbert's, died after an illness in 1874, and Rosa dropped the project.[9][10] Later in the same year, Gilbert offered the libretto to the impresario Richard D'Oyly Carte, but Carte knew of no composer available to set it to music.[11]

text: Meanwhile, Sullivan may have been considering a return to light opera: Cox and Box, his first comic opera, had received a London revival (co-starring his brother, Fred Sullivan) in September 1874.  In November, Sullivan travelled to Paris and contacted Albert Millaud, one of the librettists for Jacques Offenbach's operettas.  However, he returned to London empty-handed and worked on incidental music for the Gaiety Theatre's production of The Merry Wives of Windsor.[12]  By early 1875, Carte was managing Selina Dolaro's Royalty Theatre, and he needed a short opera to be played as an afterpiece to Offenbach's La Périchole, which was to open on 30 January (with Fred Sullivan in the cast), in which Dolaro starred.  Carte had asked Sullivan to compose something for the theatre and advertised in The Times in late January: "In Preparation, a New Comic Opera composed expressly for this theatre by Mr. Arthur Sullivan in which Madame Dolaro and Nellie Bromley will appear."[13][a]  But around the same time, Carte also remembered Gilbert's Trial by Jury and knew that Gilbert had worked with Sullivan to create Thespis.  He suggested to Gilbert that Sullivan was the man to write the music for Trial.[13]

text: Gilbert finally called on Sullivan and read the libretto to him on 20 February 1875.  Sullivan was enthusiastic, later recalling, "[Gilbert] read it through ... in the manner of a man considerably disappointed with what he had written.  As soon as he had come to the last word, he closed up the manuscript violently, apparently unconscious of the fact that he had achieved his purpose so far as I was concerned, inasmuch as I was screaming with laughter the whole time."[16] Trial by Jury, described as "A Novel and Original Dramatic Cantata" in the original promotional material,[b] was composed and rehearsed in a matter of weeks.[16][19]

text: Production and aftermath[edit]

text: The result of Gilbert and Sullivan's collaboration was a witty, tuneful and very "English" piece, in contrast to the bawdy burlesques and adaptations of French operettas that dominated the London musical stage at that time.[1]

text: Initially, Trial by Jury, which runs only 30 minutes or so, was played last on a triple bill, on which the main attraction, La Périchole (starring Dolaro as the title character, Fred Sullivan as Don Andres and Walter H. Fisher as Piquillo), was preceded by the one-act farce Cryptoconchoidsyphonostomata.[16]  The latter was immediately replaced by a series of other curtain raisers.[20][c]  The composer  conducted the first night's performance, and the theatre's music director, B. Simmons, conducted thereafter.[22]  The composer's brother, Fred Sullivan, starred as the Learned Judge, with Nellie Bromley as the Plaintiff.  One of the choristers in Trial by Jury, W. S. Penley, was promoted in November 1875[23] to the small part of the Foreman of the Jury and made a strong impact on audiences with his amusing facial expressions and gestures.[24]  In March 1876, he temporarily replaced Fred Sullivan as the Judge, when Fred's health declined from tuberculosis.[25]  With this start, Penley went on to a successful career as comic actor, culminating with the lead role in the record-breaking original production of Charley's Aunt.[24] Fred Sullivan died in January 1877.[26]

text: Jacques Offenbach's works were then at the height of their popularity in Britain, but Trial by Jury proved even more popular than La Périchole,[27] becoming an unexpected hit.[1] Trial by Jury drew crowds and continued to run after La Périchole closed.[28]  While the Royalty Theatre closed for the summer in 1875, Dolaro immediately took Trial on tour in England and Ireland.[29] The piece resumed at the Royalty later in 1875 and was revived for additional London seasons in 1876 at the Opera Comique and in 1877 at the Strand Theatre.[30]

text: Trial by Jury soon became the most desirable supporting piece for any London production, and, outside London, the major British theatrical touring companies had added it to their repertoire by about 1877.[31]  The original production was given a world tour by the Opera Comique's assistant manager Emily Soldene, which travelled as far as Australia.[31]  Unauthorised "pirate" productions quickly sprang up in America, taking advantage of the fact that American courts did not enforce foreign copyrights.[22][23]  It also became popular as part of the Victorian tradition of "benefit concerts", where the theatrical community came together to raise money for actors and actresses down on their luck or retiring. The D'Oyly Carte Opera Company continued to play the work for a century, licensing the piece to amateur and foreign professional companies, such as the J. C. Williamson Gilbert and Sullivan Opera Company.[32]  Since the copyrights to Gilbert and Sullivan works ran out in 1961,[33] the piece has been available to theatre companies around the world free of royalties.  The work's enduring popularity since 1875 makes it, according to theatrical scholar Kurt Gänzl, "probably the most successful British one-act operetta of all time".[2]

text: The success of Trial by Jury spurred several attempts to reunite Gilbert and Sullivan, but difficulties arose.  Plans for a collaboration for Carl Rosa in 1875 fell through because Gilbert was too busy with other projects,[34][35] and an attempted Christmas 1875 revival of Thespis by Richard D'Oyly Carte failed when the financiers backed out.[34][36]  Gilbert and Sullivan continued their separate careers, though both continued writing light opera, among other projects: Sullivan's next light opera, The Zoo, opened while Trial by Jury was still playing, in June 1875; and Gilbert's Eyes and No Eyes premiered a month later,[37] followed by Princess Toto in 1876.[38]  Gilbert and Sullivan were not reunited until The Sorcerer in 1877.[20]

text: Roles[edit]

text:
The Learned Judge (comic baritone)
The Plaintiff (soprano)
The Defendant (tenor)
Counsel for the Plaintiff (lyric baritone)
Usher (bass-baritone)
Foreman of the Jury (bass)
Associate (silent)
First Bridesmaid
Chorus of Bridesmaids, Gentlemen of the Jury, Barristers, Attorneys and Public.

tag: ul

text: Synopsis[edit]

text:
Excerpt from "The Judge's Song"[39]

JUDGE.
When I, good friends, was called to the bar,
    I'd an appetite fresh and hearty.
But I was, as many young barristers are,
    An impecunious party.
I'd a swallow-tail coat of a beautiful blue –
    A brief which I bought of a booby –
A couple of shirts, and a collar or two,
    And a ring that looked like a ruby!

CHORUS.
He'd a couple of shirts, and a collar or two,
And a ring that looked like a ruby.

JUDGE.
In Westminster Hall I danced a dance,
    Like a semi-despondent fury;
For I thought I never should hit on a chance
    Of addressing a British Jury –
But I soon got tired of third-class journeys,
    And dinners of bread and water;
So I fell in love with a rich attorney's
    Elderly, ugly daughter.

CHORUS.
So he fell in love, etc.

Drawing by W. S. Gilbert

text: The curtain rises on the Court of the Exchequer,[40] where a jury and the public assemble to hear a case of breach of promise of marriage.

text: The Usher introduces the proceedings by exhorting the jury to listen to the broken-hearted Plaintiff's case but telling them that they "needn't mind" what the "ruffianly defendant" has to say.  He adds, however, that "From bias free of every kind, this trial must be tried!"  The Defendant (Edwin)[d] arrives, and the jurymen greet him with hostility, even though, as he points out, they have as yet no idea of the merits of his case.  He tells them, with surprising candour, that he jilted the Plaintiff because she became a "bore intense" to him, and he then quickly took up with another woman.  The jurymen recall their own wayward youth, but they are now respectable gentlemen and no longer have any sympathy for the Defendant.

text: The Judge enters with great pomp and describes how he rose to his position – by courting a rich attorney's "elderly, ugly daughter".  The rich attorney then aided his prospective son-in-law's legal career until "at length I became as rich as the Gurneys" and "threw over" the daughter.  The jury and public are delighted with the judge, and ignore that he has just admitted to the same wrong of which the Defendant is accused.[e]

text: The jury is then sworn in, and the Plaintiff (Angelina)[d] is summoned.  She is preceded into the courtroom by her bridesmaids, one of whom catches the eye of the judge.  However, when Angelina herself arrives in full wedding dress, she instantly captures the heart of both Judge and jury.  The Counsel for the Plaintiff makes a moving speech detailing Edwin's betrayal.  Angelina feigns distress and staggers, first into the arms of the Foreman of the Jury, and then of the Judge.  Edwin counters, explaining that his change of heart is only natural:

text:
Oh, gentlemen, listen, I pray,
    Though I own that my heart has been ranging,
Of nature the laws I obey,
    For nature is constantly changing.
The moon in her phases is found,
    The time and the wind and the weather,
The months in succession come round,
    And you don't find two Mondays together.

text: He offers to marry both the Plaintiff and his new love, if that would satisfy everyone.  The Judge at first finds this "a reasonable proposition", but the Counsel argues that from the days of James II, it has been "a rather serious crime / To marry two wives at a time" (humorously, he labels the crime in question "burglary" rather than "bigamy").  Perplexed, everyone in court ponders the "nice dilemma" in a parody of Italian opera ensembles.[43]

text: Angelina desperately embraces Edwin, demonstrating the depth of her love, and bemoans her loss – all in evidence of the large amount of damages that the jury should force Edwin to pay.  Edwin, in turn, says he is a smoker, a drunkard, and a bully (when tipsy), and that the Plaintiff could not have endured him even for a day; thus the damages should be small.  The Judge suggests making Edwin tipsy to see if he would really "thrash and kick" Angelina, but everyone else (except Edwin) objects to this experiment.  Impatient at the lack of progress, the Judge resolves the case by offering to marry Angelina himself.  This is found quite satisfactory, and the opera is concluded with "joy unbounded".[f]

text: Musical numbers[edit]

text:
1.  "Hark, the hour of ten is sounding" (Chorus) and "Now, Jurymen, hear my advice" (Usher)
1a. "Is this the Court of the Exchequer?" (Defendant)
2.  "When first my old, old love I knew" (Defendant and Chorus) and "Silence in Court!" (Usher)
3.  "All hail great Judge!" (Chorus and Judge)
4.  "When I, good friends, was call'd to the Bar" (Judge and Chorus)
5.  "Swear thou the Jury" (Counsel, Usher) and "Oh will you swear by yonder skies" (Usher and Chorus)
6.  "Where is the Plaintiff?" (Counsel, Usher) and "Comes the broken flower" (Chorus of Bridesmaids and Plaintiff)[g]
7.  "Oh, never, never, never, since I joined the human race" (Judge, Foreman, Chorus)
8.  "May it please you, my lud!" (Counsel for Plaintiff and Chorus)
9.  "That she is reeling is plain to see!" (Judge, Foreman, Plaintiff, Counsel, and Chorus)
10. "Oh, gentlemen, listen, I pray" (Defendant and Chorus of Bridesmaids)
11. "That seems a reasonable proposition" (Judge, Counsel, and Chorus)
12. "A nice dilemma we have here" (Ensemble)
13. "I love him, I love him, with fervour unceasing" (Plaintiff, Defendant and Chorus) and "The question, gentlemen, is one of liquor" (Judge and Ensemble)
14. "Oh, joy unbounded, with wealth surrounded" (Ensemble)

text: For clarity, only characters with a major role in each particular song have been listed.[44]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Reviews of the first performance of Trial by Jury were uniformly glowing.  Fun magazine declared the opera "extremely funny and admirably composed",[45] while the rival Punch magazine wrote that it "is the funniest bit of nonsense your representative has seen for a considerable time", only regretting that it was too short.[46]  The Daily News praised the author: "In whimsical invention and eccentric humour Mr. W. S. Gilbert has no living rival among our dramatic writers, and never has his peculiar vein of drollery and satire been more conspicuous than in a little piece entitled Trial by Jury".[46] The Daily Telegraph concluded that the piece illustrated the composer's "great capacity for dramatic writing of the lighter class".[46]  Many critics emphasised the happy combination of Gilbert's words and Sullivan's music.  One noted that "so completely is each imbued with the same spirit, that it would be as difficult to conceive the existence of Mr. Gilbert's verses without Mr. Sullivan's music, as of Mr. Sullivan's music without Mr. Gilbert's verses.  Each gives each a double charm."[47]  Another agreed that "it seems, as in the great Wagnerian operas, as though poem and music had proceeded simultaneously from one and the same brain."[48]

text:
In 1880, Punch magazine prematurely anticipated Sullivan's knighthood, publishing a cartoon accompanied by a parody version of "When I, good friends", from Trial by Jury, that summarised Sullivan's career to that date:

Excerpt from A Humorous Knight

["It is reported that after the Leeds Festival Dr. Sullivan will be knighted."  Having read this in a column of gossip, a be-nighted Contributor, who has "the Judge's Song" on the brain, suggests the following verse....]

As a boy I had such a musical bump,
    And its size so struck Mr. HELMORE,
That he said, "Though you sing those songs like a trump,
    You shall write some yourself that will sell more."
So I packed off to Leipsic, without looking back,
    And returned in such classical fury,
That I sat down with HANDEL and HAYDN and BACH,—
    And turned out "Trial by Jury."

But W.S.G. he jumped for joy
    As he said, "Though the job dismay you,
Send Exeter Hall to the deuce, my boy;
    It's the haul with me that'll pay you."
And we hauled so well, mid jeers and taunts,
    That we've settled, spite all temptations,
To stick to our Sisters and our Cousins and our Aunts,—
    And continue our pleasant relations.

text: The opening night audience was also delighted by the piece, preferring it even to the Offenbach work: "To judge by the unceasing and almost boisterous hilarity which formed a sort of running commentary on the part of the audience, Trial by Jury suffered nothing whatever from so dangerous a juxtaposition [with a piece by the popular Offenbach].  On the contrary, it may fairly be said to have borne away the palm."[48]  A reviewer noted that "Laughter more frequent or more hearty was never heard in any theatre than that which more than once brought the action ... to a temporary standstill."[49]  Another paper summed up its popular appeal: "Trial by Jury is but a trifle – it pretends to be nothing more – but it is one of those merry bits of extravagance which a great many will go to see and hear, which they will laugh at, and which they will advise their friends to go and see, and therefore its success cannot be doubtful."[50]

text: Among the actors, special critical praise was reserved for the composer's brother, Fred Sullivan, in the role of the Learned Judge: "The greatest 'hit' was made by Mr. F. Sullivan, whose blending of official dignity, condescension, and, at the right moment, extravagant humour, made the character of the Judge stand out with all requisite prominence, and added much to the interest of the piece."[51] The Times concurred that his portrayal deserved "a special word of praise for its quiet and natural humour."[52]  Nelly Bromley (the Plaintiff), Walter H. Fisher (the Defendant), John Hollingsworth (the Counsel) and others were also praised for their acting.[53]

text: Later assessments of the work have been no less positive.  In 1907, Gilbert's first biographer, Edith A. Browne, concluded:[54] "In Trial by Jury we find author and composer looking at the humorous side of life from exactly the same point of view, and we at once realise how Gilbert and Sullivan have been able to do for Comic Opera what Wagner has done for Grand Opera by combining words and music so as to make them one."  H. M. Walbrook similarly wrote in 1922:

text: Trial by Jury ... satirizes the procedure in an average breach of promise, and also the insincerity which may sometimes underlie the pose of "respectability."  Everything done or sung is ludicrous, and yet beneath it all lies a recognisable substratum of truth.  The piece is a riot of laughter.  The Judge's ditty, "When first, my friends, I was called to the Bar," [sic] is the best-known comic song in the English language.  In none of the operas is the genius of Gilbert as an inventor of "comic business" more daringly and irresistibly exhibited.  One can see the piece again and again and discover fresh strokes of comicality.  Its place in the Gilbert and Sullivan repertory is as secure as ever; and whatever reforms may be hereafter effected in this particular department of the King's Bench Division, Trial by Jury will probably long continue to be one of the English-speaking world's refreshments.[55]

text: The Gilbert and Sullivan biographer Michael Ainger, writing in 2002, 127 years after the premiere of the opera, explained its enduring appeal: "Nothing could be more serious than a court of law ... and now the world had been turned upside down.  The court of law had become the scene of humor and frivolity; the learned judge had shown himself to be as fickle as the defendant, and the justice system turned out to be flawed by human frailty.  And Sullivan had grasped the joke....  From the first chords ... Sullivan's music sets the scene of mock-seriousness and proceeds to dance its way through the whole piece."[56]

text: Impact and analysis[edit]

text: Impact[edit]

text: As the first Savoy opera, Trial by Jury marked an important moment in the history of the Gilbert and Sullivan collaboration, as well as in the careers of each of the two men and in Victorian drama in general.  The historian Reginald Allen sums up the historical import of the opera:

text: Most scholars of the Victorian theatre date the birth of Gilbert & Sullivan opera with the first performance of Trial by Jury....  Some will maintain that there is no single date of comparable importance in the history of the modern lyric theatre than this occasion which first brought together the triumvirate of W. S. Gilbert, Arthur Sullivan, and their catalyst business genius, Richard D'Oyly Carte.  The next twenty-five years witnessed the spectacular, worldwide success of this collaboration: the Gilbert & Sullivan operas, initiated by Trial by Jury.  Without this spark, who can say that any of the instantaneous hits of G[ilbert] & S[ullivan] that followed would ever have been written?[57]

text: Sidney Dark and Rowland Grey also give a high value to the importance of Trial by Jury and the operas that followed: "There is not a little historical interest in the genesis of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas, the one English contribution of any value to dramatic literature for many generations."[58]  In addition, references to the opera continue today in the popular media[59] and even in law cases.[60]

text: Pattern for later Savoy operas[edit]

text: Trial by Jury is the only Gilbert and Sullivan opera played in one act and the only theatrical work by W. S. Gilbert without spoken dialogue.[61] However, later Gilbert and Sullivan operas retained a number of patterns seen in Trial.  For example, all except The Yeomen of the Guard begin with a chorus number.[62]   Also, like Trial by Jury, the later operas generally end with a relatively short finale consisting of a chorus number interspersed with short solos by the principal characters.  "Comes the broken flower" (part of No. 3) was the first in a string of meditative "Horatian" lyrics, "mingling happiness and sadness, an acceptance and a smiling resignation".[63]  These would, from this point forward, allow the characters, in each of the Savoy operas, an introspective scene where they stop and consider life, in contrast to the foolishness of the surrounding scenes.[64]  Like both of the tenor's arias in Trial by Jury, tenor arias in later Savoy operas were set in 6/8 time so frequently that Anna Russell, in her 1953 parody, "How to Write Your Own Gilbert and Sullivan Opera",[65] exclaimed, "the tenor ... according to tradition, must sing an aria in 6/8 time, usually accompanying himself on a stringed instrument".[66]  In Trial by Jury hypocrisy is revealed as the characters' motivations are held up to satire, and Gilbert mocks the underlying absurdity of the judicial procedures.  As Gilbert scholar Andrew Crowther explains, Gilbert combines his criticisms with comic entertainment, which renders them more palatable, while at the same time underlining their truth: "By laughing at a joke you show that you accept its premise."[67] This too would become characteristic of Gilbert's work.[68]

text: The judge's song, "When I, good friends, was called to the Bar" was followed by a string of similar patter songs that would come to epitomise Gilbert and Sullivan's collaboration.[69]  In these, often, a "dignified personage [would, just like the Judge,] supply a humorous biography of himself."[70]   Just as in Gilbert's earlier play, The Palace of Truth, in these songs, the characters "naïvely reveal their innermost thoughts, unconscious of their egotism, vanity, baseness, or cruelty".[71]  Crowther points out that such revelations work particularly well in Trial by Jury, because people commonly expect "characters singing in opera/operetta will communicate at a deeper level of truth than they would in mere speech."[61]  In "When I, good friends", the judge outlines the path of corruption that led to his becoming a judge, and this, too, would set the pattern for many of the patter songs in Gilbert and Sullivan operas to follow.[61]

text: One of Gilbert's most notable innovations, first found in Thespis and repeated in Trial by Jury and all of the later Savoy operas, is the use of the chorus as an essential part of the action.  In most earlier operas, burlesques, and comedies, the chorus had very little impact on the plot and served mainly as "noise or ornament".[72]  In the Gilbert and Sullivan operas, however, the chorus is essential, taking part in the action and often acting as an important character in its own right.[72]  Sullivan recalled, "Until Gilbert took the matter in hand choruses were dummy concerns, and were practically nothing more than a part of the stage setting.  It was in 'Thespis' that Gilbert began to carry out his expressed determination to get the chorus to play its proper part in the performance.  At this moment it seems difficult to realise that the idea of the chorus being anything more than a sort of stage audience was, at that time, a tremendous novelty."[73]  Another Gilbert innovation, following the example of his mentor, T. W. Robertson, was that the costumes and sets were made as realistic as possible:[74]  Gilbert based the scenery for the production on the Clerkenwell Sessions House, where he had practised law in the 1860s.[75]  The costumes were contemporary, and Angelina and her bridesmaids were dressed in real wedding attire.[74]  This attention to detail and careful creation of realistic sets and scenes were typical of Gilbert's stage management and would be repeated in all of Gilbert's work.[76]  For instance, when preparing the sets for H.M.S. Pinafore (1878), Gilbert and Sullivan visited Portsmouth to inspect ships.  Gilbert made sketches of H.M.S. Victory and H.M.S. St Vincent and created a model set for the carpenters to work from.[77] This was far from standard procedure in Victorian drama, where naturalism was still a relatively new concept, and where most authors had very little influence on how their plays and libretti were staged.[78]

text: Analysis[edit]

text: Andrew Crowther places Trial by Jury at the centre of Gilbert's development as a librettist.  He notes that in some of Gilbert's early libretti, such as Topsyturveydom (1874), the songs simply emphasise the dialogue.  In others, such as Thespis (1871), some songs are relatively disconnected from both the story and characterisation, such as "I once knew a chap" or "Little maid of Arcadee", which simply convey a moral lesson.[79]  In Trial by Jury, however, each song carries the plot forward and adds depth to the characters.  In addition, unlike some of Gilbert's more fantastical early plots, "Aside from the ending, nothing essentially improbable happens."[61]  Gänzl agrees, writing that "Gilbert's libretto was superior to any of his previous efforts.  It was concise, modern and satirical without being impossibly whimsical.  Having no spoken dialogue it was perforce tightly constructed and allowed of no interpolation or alteration."[80]  Sullivan's development as a comic opera writer, too, would mature with Trial by Jury.  Except for incidental music for productions of Shakespeare, he had not written any music for the stage since Thespis.  Gänzl wrote that Trial by Jury "brought Sullivan firmly and finally into the world of the musical" stage[81] and confirmed, after his previous success with Cox and Box and Thespis, that "Sullivan was a composer of light lyric and comic music who could rival Offenbach, Lecocq and any English musician alive."[81]

text: Sullivan used the opportunities suggested by Gilbert's satire of the pomp and ceremony of the law to provide a variety of musical jokes.[43]  "From the first chords ... Sullivan's music sets the scene of mock-seriousness....  His ... humorous use of the orchestra runs throughout".[82]  For example, counterpointing the plaintiff's calculated swooning in "That she is reeling is plain to see!" (No. 9) with a reeling, minor-key theme in the string accompaniment, heading up and down the octaves.[20]  The instruments are also used to comically set the scene; for instance, he underlines the Counsel's misstatement in the line "To marry two at once is burglaree" with a comic bassoon "sting" in octaves[20] and has the Defendant tune his guitar on stage (simulated by a violin in the orchestra) in the opening to his song.[83]

text: The score also contains two parodies or pastiches of other composers: No. 3, "All hail great Judge" is an elaborate parody of Handel's fugues,[84] and No. 12, "A nice dilemma", parodies "dilemma" ensembles of Italian opera in the Bel canto era; in particular "D'un pensiero" from Act I of Bellini's La sonnambula.[85]  "A nice dilemma" uses the dominant rhythm and key of "D'un pensiero" and divides up some of the choral lines between the basses and higher voices to create an oom-pa-pa effect common in Italian opera choruses.[86]

text: Productions[edit]

text: After the premiere of Trial by Jury in 1875, operetta companies in London, the British provinces and elsewhere picked it up rapidly, usually playing it as a forepiece or an afterpiece to a French operetta.[2] The first American productions were an unauthorized production at the Arch Street Theatre in Philadelphia on 22 October 1875 and a D'Oyly Carte production at the Eagle Theatre in New York City on 15 November 1875.[22][87] The world tour of the original British production took it to America, Australia, and elsewhere.[88] It was even translated into German, and premièred as Im Schwurgericht, at the Carltheater on 14 September 1886, and as Das Brautpaar vor Gericht at Danzer's Orpheum on 5 October 1901.[89]

text: Richard D'Oyly Carte's opera companies (of which there were often several playing simultaneously) usually programmed Trial by Jury as a companion piece to The Sorcerer or H.M.S. Pinafore.[h] In the 1884–85 London production, a transformation scene was added at the end, in which the Judge and Plaintiff became the Harlequinade characters Harlequin and Columbine and the set was consumed by red fire and flames.[91] From 1894, the year when the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company established a year-round touring company that had most of the Gilbert and Sullivan works in its repertory, Trial by Jury was always included, except for 1901–03, and then again from 1943–46, when the company played a reduced repertory during World War II. From 1919, costumes were by Percy Anderson, and a new touring set was designed by Peter Goffin in 1957.[92]

text: During the company's 1975 centennial performances of all thirteen Gilbert and Sullivan Operas at the Savoy Theatre, Trial was given four times, as a curtain raiser to The Sorcerer, Pinafore and Pirates and as an afterpiece following The Grand Duke. Before the first of the four performances of Trial, a specially written curtain raiser by William Douglas-Home, called Dramatic Licence, was played by Peter Pratt as Carte, Kenneth Sandford as Gilbert and John Ayldon as Sullivan, in which Gilbert, Sullivan and Carte plan the birth of Trial in 1875.[93] Trial by Jury was eliminated from the D'Oyly Carte repertory in 1976 as a cost-saving measure.[94]

text: Production history[edit]

text: The following table summarises the main London productions of Trial by Jury up to the time of Sullivan's death in 1900:

text:
Theatre
Opening Date
Closing Date
Perfs.
Details

Royalty Theatre[95]
25 March 1875
11 June 1875
131
This company also played matinées at the Gaiety Theatre on 10 April, 17 April, and 24 April 1875.[22] The theatre closed from 13 June through 10 October[96] while the company took Trial by Jury and other operas on a provincial tour.[81] Trial then continued as an afterpiece to French operettas at the Royalty, with Charles Morton as manager and Hamilton Clarke as musical director.[95][96]

11 October 1875
18 December 1875

Opera Comique[95]
14 January 1876
5 May 1876
96
Emily Soldene and Kate Santley brought Morton's production to the Opera Comique. Trial was not performed from 13–18 March while Fred Sullivan was ill, and the theatre was closed for Easter from 9–14 April. Soldene then toured with Trial and other operettas until 28 October.[2][96] Dolaro and Carte (as manager and musical director), also produced Trial in Dublin and Manchester from 24 July to 5 August 1876.[97]

Strand Theatre
3 March 1877
26 May 1877
73
Produced "under the immediate direction of the authors".  Originally performed as an afterpiece to Tom Taylor's comedy Eloped; or, Babes and Beetles.[96] A tour of this production followed from 27 May to 28 July, produced by Santley. At the same time, from May to September 1877, Santley toured Trial as an afterpiece to an Offenbach operetta.[98]

Opera Comique
23 March 1878
24 May 1878
56
Played as an afterpiece to The Sorcerer[99]

Savoy Theatre
11 October 1884
12 March 1885
150
Played as a forepiece to The Sorcerer[100]

Savoy Theatre
22 September 1898
31 December 1898
102
Played as a forepiece to The Sorcerer[101]

Savoy Theatre
6 June 1899
25 November 1899
174
Played as a forepiece to H.M.S. Pinafore[102][103]

text: The exclusive performing rights to Trial by Jury and the other Gilbert and Sullivan operas were held by the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company until their expiration in 1961, 50 years after Gilbert's death, and no other professional company was authorised to present the Savoy operas in Britain from 1877 until that date.[33] The following tables show the casts of the principal original D'Oyly Carte productions and touring companies at approximately 10-year intervals through to the 1975 centenary season.[104][i]

text:
Role
Royalty Theatre1875[96]
Strand Theatre1877[96]
Opera Comique1878[99]
Savoy Theatre1884[100]
Savoy Theatre1898[101][103]

Judge
Frederic Sullivan
J.G. Taylor
George Grossmith
Rutland Barrington
Henry Lytton

Counsel
John Hollingsworth[105]
Charles Parry
Rutland Barrington
Eric Lewis
Jones Hewson

Defendant
Walter H. Fisher
Claude Marius
George Power
Durward Lely
Cory James

Foreman
Charles Kelleher[106][107]
W. S. Penley
F. Talbot
Arthur Kennett
Leonard Russell

Usher
Belville R. Pepper[106][108]
Harry Cox
Fred Clifton
William Lugg
Walter Passmore

Associate
[106]

J. Wilbraham
Charles Childerstone

Plaintiff
Nelly Bromley
Lottie Venne
Lisa Walton
Florence Dysart
Isabel Jay

1st Bridesmaid
Linda Verner[109]
Gwynne Williams

Sybil Grey
Mildred Baker

text:
Role
D'Oyly Carte1905 Tour[110]
D'Oyly Carte1915 Tour[111]
D'Oyly Carte1925 Tour[112]
D'Oyly Carte1935 Tour[113]

Judge
Charles H. Workman
Leo Sheffield
Leo Sheffield
Sydney Granville

Counsel
Albert Kavanagh
Frederick Hobbs
Henry Millidge
Leslie Rands

Defendant
Strafford Moss
Dewey Gibson
Sidney Pointer
Robert Wilson

Foreman
J. Lewis Campion
Frank Steward
T. Penry Hughes
T. Penry Hughes

Usher
Reginald White
George Sinclair
Joseph Griffin
Richard Walker

Associate

Allen Morris
Martyn Green
C. William Morgan

Plaintiff
Bessie Mackenzie
Marjorie Gordon
Eleanor Evans
Ann Drummond-Grant

1st Bridesmaid
Mabel Burnege
Ethel Armit
Beatrice Elburn
Nancy Ray

text:
Role
D'Oyly Carte1949 Tour[114]
D'Oyly Carte1955 Tour[115]
D'Oyly Carte1965 Tour[116]
D'Oyly Carte1975 Tour[117]

Judge
Richard Watson
John Reed
Jeffrey Skitch
Jon Ellison[118]

Counsel
Alan Styler
Alan Styler
Alan Styler
Michael Rayner

Defendant
Leonard Osborn
John Fryatt
Philip Potter
Jeffrey Cresswell[119]

Foreman
Donald Harris
John Banks
Anthony Raffell
James Conroy-Ward

Usher
L. Radley Flynn
George Cook
George Cook
John Broad

Associate
C. William Morgan
Keith Bonnington
Keith Bonnington
William Palmerley

Plaintiff
Enid Walsh
Kathleen West
Jennifer Toye
Marjorie Williams[120]

1st Bridesmaid
Joyce Wright
Margaret Dobson
Pauline Wales
Rosalind Griffiths

text: Benefit performances[edit]

text: Starting in 1877, Trial by Jury was often given at benefit performances, usually for an actor or actress who had fallen on hard times, but occasionally for other causes. These were glittering affairs, with various celebrities appearing in principal roles or as part of the chorus.[121] Gilbert himself played the silent role of the Associate on at least four occasions.[122]

text: Arthur Sullivan conducted the 1877 benefit for the actor Henry Compton.[123]  At the Compton benefit, Penley and George Grossmith were members of the Jury, and a number of other famous actors and actresses were in the chorus.[124]  Sullivan also conducted the 1889 benefit for Barrington.[125]

text: At the Nellie Farren benefit, many of the performers listed below sat in the jury or the gallery, and Trial by Jury was followed by a six-hour-long concert.  Performances were given by Henry Irving, Ellaline Terriss, Marie Tempest, Hayden Coffin, Arthur Roberts, Letty Lind, Edmund Payne and many others.[126]

text: The Ellen Terry benefit in 1906 was also a particularly well-attended affair, with Sir Arthur Conan Doyle numbered among the jury and Enrico Caruso singing, among many star performances.[127]

text:
Role
Henry ComptonDrury Lane1 March 1877[123][j]
Amy RoselleLyceum16 June 1887[123]
Rutland BarringtonSavoy28 May 1889[123]
Nellie FarrenDrury Lane17 March 1898[123]

Judge
George Honey
Rutland Barrington
Rutland Barrington
Rutland Barrington

Counsel
George Fox
Richard Temple
Alec Marsh
Eric Lewis

Defendant
W. H. Cummings
Henry Bracy
Courtice Pounds
Courtice Pounds

Foreman

Mr. Burbank
Henry Lytton

Usher
Arthur Cecil
R. Lewis
W. H. Denny[129]
Walter Passmore

Associate
W. S. Gilbert
Arthur Roberts[130]

W. S. Gilbert

Plaintiff
Pauline Rita
Geraldine Ulmar
Lottie Venne
Florence Perry

text:
Role
Princess Christian's Homes ofRest for Disabled SoldiersDrury Lane, 15 May 1900[131]
William RignoldLyric Theatre5 December 1902[132]
Ellen TerryDrury Lane12 June 1906[133]

Judge
Rutland Barrington
Rutland Barrington
Rutland Barrington

Counsel
Eric Lewis
C. Hayden Coffin
Henry Lytton

Defendant
Courtice Pounds
Courtice Pounds
Courtice Pounds

Foreman
W. H. Denny
Fred Kaye
Robert Marshall

Usher
Walter Passmore
George Grossmith, Jr.
Walter Passmore

Associate
W. S. Gilbert
Lionel Monckton
W. S. Gilbert

Associate's Wife1
Effie Bancroft
—
Fanny Brough

Plaintiff
Florence St. John
Evie Greene
Ruth Vincent

text: 1The role of the Associate's Wife was especially created for the disabled soldiers' benefit performance and does not appear in any standard performances.[134]

text: Recordings[edit]

text: Trial by Jury has been recorded many times.  Of the recordings by the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company, those recorded in 1927 and 1964 are ranked the best, according to the "Gilbert and Sullivan Discography", edited by Marc Shepherd.  The 1961 Sargent and especially the 1995 Mackerras recordings are also rated highly by the Discography.[135]  The reviewer Michael Walters gives his highest praise to the 1924 recording, but he also likes the 1961 recording.[136]

text: The Discography recommends the 1982 Brent Walker video, which is paired with Cox and Box.[137]  More recent professional productions have been recorded on video by the International Gilbert and Sullivan Festival.[138]

text:
1927 D'Oyly Carte – Conductor: Harry Norris[139]
1961 Sargent/Glyndebourne – Pro Arte Orchestra, Glyndebourne Festival Chorus, Conductor: Sir Malcolm Sargent[140]
1964 D'Oyly Carte – Conductor: Isidore Godfrey[141]
1975 D'Oyly Carte – Conductor: Royston Nash[142]
1982 Brent Walker Productions video – Ambrosian Opera Chorus, London Symphony Orchestra, Conductor: Alexander Faris[137]
1995 Mackerras/Telarc – Orchestra and Chorus of the Welsh National Opera, Conductor:  Sir Charles Mackerras[143]
2005 Opera Australia video (modern dress)  – Stage Director: Stuart Maunder; conductor: Andrew Greene[144]

text: Textual changes[edit]

text: Before the first performance of Trial by Jury, some material was cut, including two songs and a recitative: a song for the foreman of the jury, "Oh, do not blush to shed a tear", which was to be sung just after "Oh, will you swear by yonder skies"; and a recitative for the Judge and song for the Usher, "We do not deal with artificial crime" and "His lordship's always quits", which came just before "A nice dilemma".[145] The melody for "His Lordship's always quits" is known, and it was reused in "I loved her fondly" in The Zoo and later modified into the main tune from "A wand'ring minstrel, I" in The Mikado.[146]  A few changes were made to the end of "I love him, I love him!" after the first night.[147]  A third verse for "Oh, gentlemen, listen I pray" was sung, at least on the first night, and part was quoted in a review in the Pictorial World.[148]

text: Trial by Jury underwent relatively minor textual changes after its first run, mainly consisting of insignificant amendments to wording.[149]  The most significant changes involve the ending.  The original stage directions set up a simple pantomime-style tableau:

text: Judge and Plaintiff dance back, hornpipe step, and get onto the Bench – the Bridesmaids take the eight garlands of roses from behind the Judge's desk and draw them across floor of court, so that they radiate from the desk.  Two plaster Cupids in bar wigs descend from flies.  Red fire.[150]

text: This became much more elaborate in the 1884 revival, with the entire set being transformed, and the plaintiff climbing onto the Judge's back "à la fairy". In the 1920s, the plaster cupids were evidently damaged on a tour, and the transformation scene was abandoned completely.[150]

text: Notes, references and sources[edit]

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Apparently, this refers to another opera that Sullivan was working on for the Royalty: an advertisement in The Era on 14 March 1875 stated that "In consequence of the continued success of La Périchole, the production of Mr. Sullivan's two-act opera is postponed".[14]  A gossip column in the Athenæum, dated 13 March 1875, stated that Sullivan was working on new music for a piece at the St. James's Theatre.  From this, McElroy speculates that Sullivan had already begun writing musical numbers for The Zoo before he shifted his energies to Trial by Jury and decided "to salvage them by telling [his librettist] to boil the libretto down to one act and [transfer] the project to another theatre."[15]

Jump up ^ See First edition libretto cover on exhibition at the University of Rochester Libraries.[17] In 1871 Sullivan had composed his only other "dramatic cantata", On Shore and Sea.[18]

Jump up ^ The fashion in the late Victorian era was to present long evenings in the theatre, and so Carte preceded his Savoy operas with curtain raisers.[21]

^ Jump up to: a b Edwin and Angelina were "a traditional pairing of names of faithful lovers" as far back in English literature as Oliver Goldsmith's The Hermit and The Vicar of Wakefield.[41]

Jump up ^ Burgess comments, "The irony of the situation will not go unperceived by the reader."[42]

Jump up ^ This synopsis is based on the libretto as printed in Bradley, pp. 7–39

Jump up ^ "Where is the Plaintiff?" has a joke involving echoes of the Usher's "Oh, Angelina", echoing in the courtroom.  In D'Oyly Carte productions, the echoes were performed by the defendant with his back to the audience.

Jump up ^ In addition to the London productions mentioned below and early tours mentioned above, Carte toured Trial with The Sorcerer in 1878.[90]

Jump up ^ An examination of Rollins and Witts and Gänzl shows that a ten-year interval is sufficient to indicate the bulk of the notable performers who portrayed these roles in authorized productions during that period. Biographies of the persons named below can be found at Stone, David. Who Was Who in the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company, The Gilbert and Sullivan Archive, accessed 8 June 2014.

Jump up ^ The chorus included leading stars such as W. S. Penley, George Grossmith, Kate Bishop and Marion Terry.[128]

tag: ol


document_title: List of United States presidential election results by state

question_text: when was the last time ca voted republican

text: Chronological table[edit]

text: The following is a table of United States presidential election results by state. They are indirect elections in which voters in each state cast ballots for a slate of electors of the U.S. Electoral College who pledge to vote for a specific political party's nominee for President. Bolded indicates that the party won the national election that year

text:
State
1789
1792
1796
1800

1804
1808
1812
1816
1820
1824
1828
1832
1836
1840

1844
1848
1852
1856
1860
1864
1868
1872
1876
1880

1884
1888
1892
1896
1900
1904
1908
1912
1916
1920

1924
1928
1932
1936
1940
1944
1948
1952
1956
1960

1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
1992
1996
2000

2004
2008
2012
2016
State

Alabama

DR
Jackson
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
SD

R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
SR
D
D
I
R
AI
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
Alabama

Alaska

R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
Alaska

Arizona

D
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
Arizona

Arkansas

D
D
D
D
D
D
SD

R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
AI
R
D
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
Arkansas

California

D
D
R
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
PR
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
California

Colorado

R
R
R
R
PO
D
D
R
D
D
D
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
D
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
Colorado

Connecticut
GW
GW
F
F
F
F
F
F
DR
Adams
NR
NR
D
W
W
W
D
R
R
R
R
R
D
R
D
D
D
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
Connecticut

Delaware
GW
GW
F
F
F
F
F
F
DR
Crawford
NR
NR
W
W
W
W
D
D
SD
D
D
R
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
Delaware

D.C.

D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D.C.

Florida

W
D
D
SD

R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
R
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
R
D
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
D
D
R
Florida

Georgia
GW
GW
DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
Crawford
D
D
W
W
D
W
D
D
SD

D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
R
AI
R
D
D
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
Georgia

Hawaii

D
D
D
R
D
D
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
Hawaii

Idaho

PO
D
D
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
Idaho

Illinois

DR
Jackson
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
Illinois

Indiana

DR
DR
Jackson
D
D
W
W
D
D
D
D
R
R
R
R
D
R
D
R
D
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
Indiana

Iowa

D
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
D
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
R
D
D
R
Iowa

Kansas

R
R
R
R
R
R
R
PO
D
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
Kansas

Kentucky

GW
DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
Clay
D
NR
W
W
W
W
W
D
CU
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
D
R
R
D
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
Kentucky

Louisiana

DR
DR
DR
Jackson
D
D
D
W
D
W
D
D
SD
R
D
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
SR
D
R
D
R
AI
R
D
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
Louisiana

Maine

DR
Adams
NR
D
D
W
D
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
Maine

Maryland
GW
GW
F
SP
DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
Jackson
NR
NR
W
W
W
W
D
KN
SD
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
D
D
D
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
R
D
D
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
Maryland

Massachusetts
GW
GW
F
F
DR
F
F
F
DR
Adams
NR
NR
W
W
W
W
W
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
Massachusetts

Michigan

D
W
D
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
PR
R
R
R
R
D
D
R
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
R
Michigan

Minnesota

R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
PR
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
D
D
D
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
Minnesota

Mississippi

DR
Jackson
D
D
D
W
D
D
D
D
SD

R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
SR
D
D
I
R
AI
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
Mississippi

State
1789
1792
1796
1800
1804
1808
1812
1816
1820
1824
1828
1832
1836
1840
1844
1848
1852
1856
1860
1864
1868
1872
1876
1880
1884
1888
1892
1896
1900
1904
1908
1912
1916
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1940
1944
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
1992
1996
2000
2004
2008
2012
2016
State

Missouri

DR
Jackson
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
ND
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
R
D
D
D
R
R
D
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
Missouri

Montana

R
D
D
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
Montana

Nebraska

R
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
D
D
D
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
Nebraska

Nevada

R
R
R
R
D
R
R
PO
D
D
R
D
D
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
D
D
D
Nevada

New Hampshire
GW
GW
F
F
DR
F
F
DR
DR
Adams
NR
D
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
D
R
D
D
D
D
New Hampshire

New Jersey
GW
GW
F
F
DR
DR
F
DR
DR
Jackson
NR
D
W
W
W
W
D
D
R
D
D
R
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
New Jersey

New Mexico

D
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
R
D
D
D
New Mexico

New York

GW
F
DR
DR
DR
F
DR
DR
Adams
D
D
D
W
D
W
D
R
R
R
D
R
D
R
D
R
D
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
R
D
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
New York

North Carolina

GW
DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
Jackson
D
D
D
W
W
W
D
D
SD

R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
North Carolina

North Dakota

SP
R
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
North Dakota

Ohio

DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
Clay
D
D
W
W
W
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
R
D
R
R
R
D
R
R
D
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
D
D
R
Ohio

Oklahoma

D
D
D
R
D
R
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
Oklahoma

Oregon

R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
Oregon

Pennsylvania
GW
GW
DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
Jackson
D
D
D
W
D
W
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
PR
R
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
R
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
R
Pennsylvania

Rhode Island

GW
F
F
DR
F
F
DR
DR
Adams
NR
NR
D
W
W
W
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
D
D
D
R
D
D
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
Rhode Island

South Carolina
GW
GW
DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
Jackson
D
N
W
D
D
D
D
D
SD

R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
SR
D
D
D
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
South Carolina

South Dakota

R
D
R
R
R
PR
R
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
South Dakota

Tennessee

DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
Jackson
D
D
W
W
W
W
W
D
CU
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
R
D
R
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
R
D
R
R
D
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
Tennessee

Texas

D
D
D
SD

D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
R
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
D
D
D
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
Texas

Utah

D
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
Utah

Vermont

GW
F
F
DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
Adams
NR
AM
W
W
W
W
W
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
Vermont

Virginia
GW
GW
DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
Crawford
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
CU

R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
R
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
Virginia

Washington

R
D
R
R
R
PR
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
Washington

West Virginia

R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
R
D
D
D
R
D
D
R
D
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
West Virginia

Wisconsin

D
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
PR
R
D
D
D
R
D
R
R
R
D
R
R
D
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
R
Wisconsin

Wyoming

R
D
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
R
D
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
Wyoming

State
1789
1792
1796
1800
1804
1808
1812
1816
1820
1824
1828
1832
1836
1840
1844
1848
1852
1856
1860
1864
1868
1872
1876
1880
1884
1888
1892
1896
1900
1904
1908
1912
1916
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1940
1944
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
1992
1996
2000
2004
2008
2012
2016
State

text: Chronological table with states listed by Census region[edit]

text: Bolded means the party won the national election that year

text: Northeast[edit]

text:
State
1789
1792
1796
1800

1804
1808
1812
1816
1820
1824
1828
1832
1836
1840

1844
1848
1852
1856
1860
1864
1868
1872
1876
1880

State
1884
1888
1892
1896
1900
1904
1908
1912
1916
1920

1924
1928
1932
1936
1940
1944
1948
1952
1956
1960

1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
1992
1996
2000

2004
2008
2012
2016
2020
State

Connecticut
GW
GW
F
F
F
F
F
F
DR
Adams
NR
NR
D
W
W
W
D
R
R
R
R
R
D
R
Connecticut
D
D
D
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D

Connecticut

Maine

DR
Adams
NR
D
D
W
D
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
Maine
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D

Maine

Massachusetts
GW
GW
F
F
DR
F
F
F
DR
Adams
NR
NR
W
W
W
W
W
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
Massachusetts
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D

Massachusetts

New Hampshire
GW
GW
F
F
DR
F
F
DR
DR
Adams
NR
D
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
New Hampshire
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
D
R
D
D
D
D

New Hampshire

New Jersey
GW
GW
F
F
DR
DR
F
DR
DR
Jackson
NR
D
W
W
W
W
D
D
R
D
D
R
D
D
New Jersey
D
D
D
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D

New Jersey

New York
GW
GW
F
DR
DR
DR
F
DR
DR
Adams
D
D
D
W
D
W
D
R
R
R
D
R
D
R
New York
D
R
D
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
R
D
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D

New York

Pennsylvania
GW
GW
DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
Jackson
D
D
D
W
D
W
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
Pennsylvania
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
PR
R
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
R
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
R

Pennsylvania

Rhode Island

GW
F
F
DR
F
F
DR
DR
Adams
NR
NR
D
W
W
W
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
Rhode Island
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
D
D
D
R
D
D
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D

Rhode Island

Vermont

GW
F
F
DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
Adams
NR
AM
W
W
W
W
W
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
Vermont
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D

Vermont

State
1789
1792
1796
1800
1804
1808
1812
1816
1820
1824
1828
1832
1836
1840
1844
1848
1852
1856
1860
1864
1868
1872
1876
1880
State
1884
1888
1892
1896
1900
1904
1908
1912
1916
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1940
1944
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
1992
1996
2000
2004
2008
2012
2016
2020
State

text: South[edit]

text:
State
1789
1792
1796
1800

1804
1808
1812
1816
1820
1824
1828
1832
1836
1840

1844
1848
1852
1856
1860
1864
1868
1872
1876
1880

State
1884
1888
1892
1896
1900
1904
1908
1912
1916
1920

1924
1928
1932
1936
1940
1944
1948
1952
1956
1960

1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
1992
1996
2000

2004
2008
2012
2016
2020
State

Alabama

DR
Jackson
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
SD

R
R
D
D
Alabama
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
SR
D
D
I
R
AI
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R

Alabama

Arkansas

D
D
D
D
D
D
SD

R
R
D
D
Arkansas
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
AI
R
D
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
R
R

Arkansas

Delaware
GW
GW
F
F
F
F
F
F
DR
Crawford
NR
NR
W
W
W
W
D
D
SD
D
D
R
D
D
Delaware
D
D
D
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D

Delaware

D.C.

D.C.

D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D

D.C.

Florida

W
D
D
SD

R
R
R
D
Florida
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
R
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
R
D
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
D
D
R

Florida

Georgia
GW
GW
DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
Crawford
D
D
W
W
D
W
D
D
SD

D
D
D
D
Georgia
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
R
AI
R
D
D
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R

Georgia

Kentucky

GW
DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
Clay
D
NR
W
W
W
W
W
D
CU
D
D
D
D
D
Kentucky
D
D
D
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
D
R
R
D
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
R
R

Kentucky

Louisiana

DR
DR
DR
Jackson
D
D
D
W
D
W
D
D
SD
R
D
R
R
D
Louisiana
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
SR
D
R
D
R
AI
R
D
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
R
R

Louisiana

Maryland
GW
GW
F
SP
DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
Jackson
NR
NR
W
W
W
W
D
KN
SD
R
D
D
D
D
Maryland
D
D
D
R
R
D
D
D
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
R
D
D
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D

Maryland

Mississippi

DR
Jackson
D
D
D
W
D
D
D
D
SD

R
D
D
Mississippi
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
SR
D
D
I
R
AI
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R

Mississippi

North Carolina

GW
DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
Jackson
D
D
D
W
W
W
D
D
SD

R
R
D
D
North Carolina
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
R
R

North Carolina

Oklahoma

Oklahoma

D
D
D
R
D
R
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R

Oklahoma

South Carolina
GW
GW
DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
Jackson
D
N
W
D
D
D
D
D
SD

R
R
R
D
South Carolina
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
SR
D
D
D
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R

South Carolina

Tennessee

DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
Jackson
D
D
W
W
W
W
W
D
CU
R
R
D
D
D
Tennessee
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
R
D
R
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
R
D
R
R
D
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
R
R

Tennessee

Texas

D
D
D
SD

D
D
D
Texas
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
R
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
D
D
D
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R

Texas

Virginia
GW
GW
DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
Crawford
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
CU

R
D
D
Virginia
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
R
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
D
D

Virginia

West Virginia

R
R
R
D
D
West Virginia
D
D
D
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
R
D
D
D
R
D
D
R
D
D
D
R
R
R
R
R

West Virginia

State
1789
1792
1796
1800
1804
1808
1812
1816
1820
1824
1828
1832
1836
1840
1844
1848
1852
1856
1860
1864
1868
1872
1876
1880
State
1884
1888
1892
1896
1900
1904
1908
1912
1916
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1940
1944
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
1992
1996
2000
2004
2008
2012
2016
2020
State

text: Midwest[edit]

text:
State
1804
1808
1812
1816
1820
1824
1828
1832
1836
1840

1844
1848
1852
1856
1860
1864
1868
1872
1876
1880

State
1884
1888
1892
1896
1900
1904
1908
1912
1916
1920

1924
1928
1932
1936
1940
1944
1948
1952
1956
1960

1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
1992
1996
2000

2004
2008
2012
2016
2020
State

Illinois

DR
Jackson
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
Illinois
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D

Illinois

Indiana

DR
DR
Jackson
D
D
W
W
D
D
D
D
R
R
R
R
D
R
Indiana
D
R
D
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
R
R

Indiana

Iowa

D
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
Iowa
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
D
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
R
D
D
R

Iowa

Kansas

R
R
R
R
R
Kansas
R
R
PO
D
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R

Kansas

Michigan

D
W
D
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
Michigan
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
PR
R
R
R
R
D
D
R
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
R

Michigan

Minnesota

R
R
R
R
R
R
Minnesota
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
PR
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
D
D
D
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D

Minnesota

Missouri

DR
Jackson
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
ND
R
R
D
D
D
Missouri
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
R
D
D
D
R
R
D
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
R
R

Missouri

Nebraska

R
R
R
R
Nebraska
R
R
R
D
R
R
D
D
D
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R

Nebraska

Ohio
DR
DR
DR
DR
DR
Clay
D
D
W
W
W
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
Ohio
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
R
D
R
R
R
D
R
R
D
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
D
D
R

Ohio

Wisconsin

D
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
Wisconsin
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
PR
R
D
D
D
R
D
R
R
R
D
R
R
D
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
R

Wisconsin

State
1804
1808
1812
1816
1820
1824
1828
1832
1836
1840
1844
1848
1852
1856
1860
1864
1868
1872
1876
1880
State
1884
1888
1892
1896
1900
1904
1908
1912
1916
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1940
1944
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
1992
1996
2000
2004
2008
2012
2016
2020
State

text: West[edit]

text:
State
1852
1856
1860
1864
1868
1872
1876
1880

1884
1888
1892
1896
1900
1904
1908
1912
1916
1920

1924
1928
1932
1936
1940
1944
1948
1952
1956
1960

1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
1992
1996
2000

2004
2008
2012
2016
2020
State

Alaska

R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R

Alaska

Arizona

D
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R

Arizona

California
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
PR
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D

California

Colorado

R
R
R
R
PO
D
D
R
D
D
D
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
D
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
D
D
D

Colorado

Hawaii

D
D
D
R
D
D
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D

Hawaii

Idaho

PO
D
D
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R

Idaho

Montana

R
D
D
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R

Montana

Nevada

R
R
R
R
D
R
R
PO
D
D
R
D
D
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
D
D
D

Nevada

New Mexico

D
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
R
D
D
D

New Mexico

North Dakota

SP
R
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R

North Dakota

Oregon

R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D

Oregon

South Dakota

R
D
R
R
R
PR
R
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R

South Dakota

Utah

D
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R

Utah

Washington

R
D
R
R
R
PR
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D

Washington

Wyoming

R
D
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
R
D
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R

Wyoming

State
1852
1856
1860
1864
1868
1872
1876
1880
1884
1888
1892
1896
1900
1904
1908
1912
1916
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1940
1944
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
1992
1996
2000
2004
2008
2012
2016
2020
State

text: Analytical table[edit]

text: Note that there are separate columns for votes since 1856. That was the first election to feature both Democratic and Republican parties. Data shown through 2008.

text:
State
Votes
Votes since 1856
Democratic votes
D votes since 1856
% of D votes
D % since 1856
Republican votes
% of R votes
R % since 1856
Other votes
O votes since 1856
% of O votes
O % since 1856

Alabama
47
38
29
22
61.7%
57.89%
12
25.53%
31.58%
6
4
12.77%
10.53%

Alaska
13
13
1
1
7.69%
7.69%
12
92.31%
92.31%
0
0
0%
0%

Arizona
25
25
8
8
32%
32%
17
68%
68%
0
0
0%
0%

Arkansas
43
38
32
27
74.42%
71.05%
9
20.93%
23.68%
2
2
4.65%
5.26%

California
40
39
16
15
40%
38.46%
23
57.5%
58.97%
1
1
2.5%
2.56%

Colorado
34
34
11
11
32.35%
32.35%
22
64.71%
64.71%
1
1
2.94%
2.94%

Connecticut
56
39
18
16
32.14%
41.03%
23
41.07%
58.97%
15
0
26.79%
0%

Delaware
56
39
21
20
37.5%
51.28%
18
32.14%
46.15%
17
1
30.36%
2.56%

D.C.
12
12
13
13
100%
100%
0
0%
0%
0
0
0%
0%

Florida
40
38
23
22
57.5%
57.89%
15
37.5%
39.47%
2
1
5%
2.63%

Georgia
55
38
32
28
58.18%
73.68%
8
14.55%
21.05%
15
2
27.27%
5.26%

Hawaii
13
13
11
11
84.62%
84.62%
2
15.38%
15.38%
0
0
0%
0%

Idaho
30
30
10
10
33.33%
33.33%
19
63.33%
63.33%
1
1
3.33%
3.33%

Illinois
48
39
22
15
45.83%
38.46%
24
50%
61.54%
2
0
4.17%
0%

Indiana
49
39
15
9
30.61%
23.08%
30
61.22%
76.92%
4
0
8.16%
0%

Iowa
41
39
12
10
29.27%
25.64%
29
70.73%
74.36%
0
0
0%
0%

Kansas
37
37
6
6
16.22%
16.22%
30
81.08%
81.08%
1
1
2.7%
2.7%

Kentucky
55
39
26
25
47.27%
64.1%
13
23.64%
33.33%
16
1
29.09%
2.56%

Louisiana
49
38
29
24
59.18%
63.16%
11
22.45%
28.95%
9
3
18.37%
7.89%

Maine
48
39
14
9
29.17%
23.08%
30
62.5%
76.92%
4
0
8.33%
0%

Maryland
56
39
26
25
46.43%
64.1%
12
21.43%
30.77%
18
2
32.14%
5.13%

Massachusetts
56
39
18
18
32.14%
46.15%
21
37.5%
53.85%
17
0
30.36%
0%

Michigan
44
39
15
11
34.09%
28.21%
27
61.36%
69.23%
2
1
4.55%
2.56%

Minnesota
38
38
17
17
44.74%
44.74%
20
52.63%
52.63%
1
1
2.63%
2.63%

Mississippi
46
37
28
22
60.87%
59.46%
11
23.91%
29.73%
7
4
15.22%
10.81%

Missouri
48
39
29
22
60.42%
56.41%
16
33.33%
41.03%
3
1
6.25%
2.56%

Montana
30
30
11
11
36.67%
36.67%
19
63.33%
63.33%
0
0
0%
0%

Nebraska
36
36
7
7
19.44%
19.44%
29
80.56%
80.56%
0
0
0%
0%

Nevada
37
37
16
16
43.24%
43.24%
20
54.05%
54.05%
1
1
2.7%
2.7%

New Hampshire
56
39
16
10
28.57%
25.64%
29
51.79%
74.36%
11
0
19.64%
0%

New Jersey
56
39
22
20
39.29%
51.28%
19
33.93%
48.72%
15
0
26.79%
0%

New Mexico
25
25
13
13
52%
52%
12
48%
48%
0
0
0%
0%

New York
55
39
24
19
43.64%
48.72%
20
36.36%
51.28%
11
0
20%
0%

North Carolina
54
38
29
25
53.7%
65.79%
12
22.22%
31.58%
13
1
24.07%
2.63%

North Dakota
30
30
5
5
16.67%
16.67%
24
80%
80%
1
1
3.33%
3.33%

Ohio
52
39
15
11
28.85%
28.21%
28
53.85%
71.79%
9
0
17.31%
0%

Oklahoma
26
26
10
10
38.46%
38.46%
16
61.54%
61.54%
0
0
0%
0%

Oregon
38
38
13
13
34.21%
34.21%
25
65.79%
65.79%
0
0
0%
0%

Pennsylvania
56
39
18
13
32.14%
33.33%
25
44.64%
64.1%
13
1
23.21%
2.56%

Rhode Island
55
39
20
18
36.36%
46.15%
21
38.18%
53.85%
14
0
25.45%
0%

South Carolina
55
38
27
22
49.09%
57.89%
14
25.45%
36.84%
14
2
25.45%
5.26%

South Dakota
30
30
4
4
13.33%
13.33%
25
83.33%
83.33%
1
1
3.33%
3.33%

Tennessee
53
38
25
23
47.17%
60.53%
14
26.42%
36.84%
14
1
26.42%
2.63%

Texas
39
37
26
24
66.67%
64.86%
12
30.77%
32.43%
1
1
2.56%
2.7%

Utah
29
29
8
8
27.59%
27.59%
21
72.41%
72.41%
0
0
0%
0%

Vermont
55
39
6
6
10.91%
15.38%
33
60%
84.62%
16
0
29.09%
0%

Virginia
54
37
27
20
50%
54.05%
16
29.63%
43.24%
11
1
20.37%
2.7%

Washington
30
30
15
15
50%
50%
14
46.67%
46.67%
1
1
3.33%
3.33%

West Virginia
37
37
20
20
54.05%
54.05%
17
45.95%
45.95%
0
0
0%
0%

Wisconsin
41
39
16
14
39.02%
35.9%
24
58.54%
61.54%
1
1
2.44%
2.56%

Wyoming
30
30
8
8
26.67%
26.67%
22
73.33%
73.33%
0
0
0%
0%

text: Legend[edit]

text:
R = Republican
D = Democratic
DR = Democratic-Republican
W = Whig
F = Federalist
GW = George Washington
NR = National Republican
SD = Southern Democrat
PR = Progressive
AI = American Independent
SR = States' Rights
PO = Populist
CU = Constitutional Union
I = Independent
ND = Northern Democrat
KN = Know Nothing
AM = Anti-Masonic
N = Nullifier
SP = Split evenly


document_title: Loudness

question_text: what term describes the human perception of frequency

text: Loudness

text: Explanation[edit]

text: The perception of loudness is related to sound pressure level (SPL), frequency content and duration of a sound. The human auditory system averages the effects of SPL over a 600–1000 ms interval. A sound of constant SPL will be perceived to increase in loudness as samples of duration 20, 50, 100, 200 ms are heard, up to a duration of about 1 second at which point the perception of loudness will stabilize. For sounds of duration greater than 1 second, the moment-by-moment perception of loudness will be related to the average loudness during the preceding 600–1000 ms.[citation needed]

text: For sounds having a duration longer than 1 second, the relationship between SPL and loudness of a single tone can be approximated by Stevens' power law in which SPL has an exponent of 0.6.[a] More precise measurements indicate that loudness increases with a higher exponent at low and high levels and with a lower exponent at moderate levels.[citation needed]

text: The sensitivity of the human ear changes as a function of frequency, as shown in the equal-loudness graph. Each line on this graph shows the SPL required for frequencies to be perceived as equally loud, and different curves pertain to different sound pressure levels. It also shows that humans with normal hearing are most sensitive to sounds around 2–4 kHz, with sensitivity declining to either side of this region. A complete model of the perception of loudness will include the integration of SPL by frequency.[2]

text: Historically, loudness was measured using an "ear-balance" audiometer in which the amplitude of a sine wave was adjusted by the user to equal the perceived loudness of the sound being evaluated. Contemporary standards for measurement of loudness are based on summation of energy in critical bands as described in IEC 532, DIN 45631 and ASA/ANSI S3.4. A distinction is made between stationary loudness (sounds that remain sensibly constant) and non-stationary (sound sources that move in space or change amplitude over time.)

text: Hearing loss[edit]

text: When sensorineural hearing loss (damage to the cochlea or in the brain) is present, the perception of loudness is altered. Sounds at low levels (often perceived by those without hearing loss as relatively quiet) are no longer audible to the hearing impaired, but sounds at high levels often are perceived as having the same loudness as they would for an unimpaired listener. This phenomenon can be explained by two theories: loudness grows more rapidly for these listeners than normal listeners with changes in level. This theory is called "loudness recruitment" and has been accepted as the classical explanation. More recently, it has been proposed that some listeners with sensorineural hearing loss may in fact exhibit a normal rate of loudness growth, but instead have an elevated loudness at their threshold. That is, the softest sound that is audible to these listeners is louder than the softest sound audible to normal listeners. This theory is called "softness imperception", a term coined by Mary Florentine.[3]

text: Compensation[edit]

text: The "loudness" control on some consumer stereos alters the frequency response curve to correspond roughly with the equal loudness characteristic of the ear.[4] Loudness compensation is intended to make the recorded music sound more natural when played at a lower levels by boosting low frequencies, to which the ear is less sensitive at lower sound pressure levels.

text: Normalization[edit]

text: Loudness normalization is a specific type of audio normalization that equalizes perceived level such that, for instance, commercials do not sound louder than television programs. Loudness normalization schemes exist for a number of audio applications.

text: Broadcast[edit]

text:
Commercial Advertisement Loudness Mitigation Act
European Broadcasting Union R128[5]

text: Movie and home theaters[edit]

text: Dialnorm

text: Music playback[edit]

text:
Sound Check in iTunes
ReplayGain

text: Measurement[edit]

text: Historically Sone (loudness N) and Phon (loudness level L) units have been used to measure loudness.

text: Relative loudness monitoring in production is measured in accordance with ITU-R BS.1770 in units of LKFS.[6]

text: Work began on ITU-R BS.1770 in 2001 after 0 dBFS+ level distortion in converters and lossy codecs had become evident; and the original Leq(RLB) loudness metric was proposed by Gilbert Soloudre in 2003.[7]

text: Based on data from subjective listening tests, Leq(RLB) was compared against numerous other algorithms where it did remarkably well.[why?] After modification of the frequency weighting, the measurement was made multi-channel (monaural to 5.1 surround sound). CBC, Dolby and TC Electronics and numerous broadcasters contributed to the listening tests.

text: To make the loudness metric cross-genre friendly, a relative measurement gate was added. This work was carried out in 2008 by the EBU. The improvements were brought back into BS.1770-2. ITU subsequently updated the true-peak metric (BS.1770-3) and added provision for more audio channels, for instance 22.2 surround sound (BS.1770-4).


document_title: Currency symbol

question_text: what does a c with 2 lines through it mean

text: Currency symbol

text: Usage[edit]

text: When writing currency amounts, the location of the symbol varies by currency. Many currencies in the English-speaking world and Latin America place it before the amount (e.g., R$50,00). The Cape Verdean escudo places its symbol in the decimal separator position (i.e., 20$00).[2] In many European countries such as France, Germany, Greece, Scandinavian countries, the symbol is usually placed after the amount (e.g., 20,50 €).

text: The decimal separator also follows local countries' standards. For instance, the United Kingdom often uses an interpunct as the decimal point on price stickers (e.g., £5·52), although no longer generally does so in print. Commas (e.g. €5,00) or decimal points (e.g. $50.00) are common separators used in other countries. See decimal separator for information on international standards.

text: Design[edit]

text:
Official dimensions of the euro sign

Dimensions of the symbol in a selection of type faces

text: Older currency symbols have evolved slowly, often from previous currencies. The dollar and peso symbols originated from the mark employed to denote the Spanish real de a ocho, whereas the pound and lira symbols evolved from an L standing for libra, a Roman pound of silver. Newly invented currencies and currencies adopting new symbols have symbolism closer to their adopter. The added center bar in the real sign is meant to symbolize stability.[3] The new Indian rupee symbol, ₹, is a stylised combination of Latin and Devanagari letters.

text: There are also other considerations, such as the perception of the business community[citation needed] and how the symbol is rendered on computers. For a new symbol to be used, software to render it needs to be promulgated and keyboards need to be altered or shortcuts added to type the icon. The EU was criticized for not considering how the euro symbol would need to be customized to work in different fonts.[1] The original design was also exceptionally wide. These two factors have led to most typefaces employing customized, font-specific versions, usually with reduced width.

text: List of presently-circulating currency symbols[edit]

text:
Symbol
Uses
Notes

¤¤
ZzzGeneric currency sign
Used when the correct symbol is not available

Afg؋
AfghaniAfghan afghani

ArAr
AriaryMalagasy ariary[4]

₿₿
BitcoinBitcoin
Unicode: U+20BF ₿ BITCOIN SIGN (May display incorrectly). Before its introduction, the capital letter B with stroke and the baht symbol, among other conventions, were used.

B฿
BahtThai baht

BZB/.
BalboaPanamanian balboa

BrBr
BirrEthiopian birr

Belarusian ruble

BsBs.
BolivianoVenezuelan bolívar

Bolivian boliviano
Bolívar sometimes Bs.F.

BsFBs.F.
BolivarVenezuelan bolívar variant
Usually Bs.

C1GH₵
CediGhana cedi

c1¢
cent1cent, centavo, &c.
A centesimal subdivision of currencies such as the US dollar, the Canadian dollar, and the Mexican peso. (See article.)

See also c

c2c
cent2cent &c. variant
Preferred by currencies such as the Australian, New Zealand, South African cents; the West African CFA centime; and the divisions of the euro.

See also ¢

chCh.
chhertumBhutanese chhertum
A centesimal division of the ngultrum.

C2₡
ColonCosta Rican colón, symbol was also used for the Salvadoran colón.
The Salvadoran colón was discontinued in 2001 and it was replaced by the US dollar.

C3C$
CórdobaNicaraguan córdoba

D1D
DalasiGambian dalasi

DOGEÐ
DogecoinDogecoin
Uses Unicode character U+00D0 Ð LATIN CAPITAL LETTER ETH, initially intended for usage in certain languages.

Denден
DenarMacedonian denar
Latin form: DEN

DAدج
DinarAAlgerian dinar
Latin form: DA

DB.د.ب
DinarBBahraini dinar
Latin form: BD

IDد.ع
DinarIIraqi dinar

JDJD
DinarJJordanian dinar

DKد.ك
DinarKKuwaiti dinar
Latin form: K.D.

LDل.د
DinarLLibyan dinar
Latin form: LD

Dinдин
DinarSSerbian dinar
Latin form: din.

DTد.ت
DinarTTunisian dinar
Latin form: DT

DMد.م.
DirhamMMoroccan dirham
Latin forms: DH or Dhs

DHد.إ
DirhamUUnited Arab Emirates dirham
Latin forms: DH or Dhs

DbDb
DobraSão Tomé and Príncipe dobra

 S1$
DollarAustralian (A$), Bahamian (B$), Barbadian (Bds$), Belizean (BZ$), Bermudian (BD$), Brunei (B$), Canadian (Can$), Cayman Islands (CI$), East Caribbean (EC$), Fiji (FJ$), Guyanese (G$),[5] Hong Kong (HK$/元/圓), Jamaican (J$), Kiribati, Liberian (L$), Linden Dollar (Second Life virtual world) (L$ or LD$), Namibian (N$), New Zealand (NZ$), Singaporean (S$), Solomon Islands (SI$), Surinamese (SRD), New Taiwan (NT$/元/圓), Trinidad and Tobago (TT$), Tuvaluan, United States (US$), and Zimbabwean (Z$) dollars

Argentine, Chilean (CLP$), Colombian (COL$), Cuban ($MN), Cuban convertible (CUC$), Dominican (RD$), Mexican (Mex$), and Uruguayan ($U) pesos
May appear with either one or two bars (), which share the same Unicode space.

Kiribati and Tuvalu's dollars are pegged 1:1 with the Australian dollar.

Brunei's dollar is pegged 1:1 with the Singaporean dollar.

See also C$ and MOP$ and R$ and T$ and WS$

Unicode: See $ for variants.

D2₫
DongVietnamese đồng
U+20AB ₫ Dong sign

D3
DramArmenian dram
U+058F ֏ Armenian Dram sign

EscEsc
EscudoCape Verdean escudo
Also the double-barred dollar sign (cifrão):

E€
EuroEuro
In addition to the members of the eurozone, the Vatican, San Marino, Monaco and Andorra have been granted issuing rights for coinage but not banknotes.

Fƒ
FlorinAruban florin (Afl.)[6]

Netherlands Antillean guilder (NAƒ)

FtFt
ForintHungarian forint

FBuFBu
Franc BBurundian franc

FCFAFCFA
Franc CaCentral African CFA franc
Pegged 1:1 with West African CFA franc

CFACFA
Franc WaWest African CFA franc
Pegged 1:1 with Central African CFA franc

FrFr
Franc CoComorian (CF), Congolese (CF, FC), Djiboutian (Fdj/DF), Guinean (FG/GFr) and Swiss (SFr) francs
Also F. The character ₣, representing an F with a double bar, proposed as a symbol for the French Franc by Édouard Balladur in 1988 was never adopted, it is represented by a ligature Fr in some fonts.

FRwFRw
Franc RRwandan franc[7]
Possibly also RF[8] and RFr[9]

GG
GourdeHaitian gourde

grgr
groszPolish grosz
A centesimal division of the złoty

G/₲
GuaraniParaguayan guaraní
Or

hh
halerCzech haléř
A centesimal division of the koruna

He₴
HryvniaUkrainian hryvnia

K-₭
KipLao kip
Or ₭N

KcKč
KorunaCzech koruna

Krkr
KroneDanish krone (DKK)

Norwegian krone (NOK)

Swedish krona (SEK)

Icelandic króna (ISK)

Faroese króna
Faroese króna pegged 1:1 with Danish krone, which is in turn pegged to the Euro through the ERMII.

Knkn
KunaCroatian kuna

MKMK
Kwacha MMalawian kwacha

ZKZK
Kwacha ZZambian kwacha

KzKz
KwanzaAngolan kwanza

KK
KyatMyanma kyat

Papua New Guinean kina

Las
LariGeorgian lari
Unicode: U+20BE ₾ Lari sign (may display incorrectly)

LL
LekAlbanian lek

Honduran lempira
Also used as the currency symbol for the Lesotho one-loti and the Swazi one-lilangeni note

Also uncommonly used for the pound sign £

LeLe
LeoneSierra Leonean leone

Lvлв.№
LevBulgarian lev

EE
LilangeniSwazi lilangeni
Symbol based on the plural form "emalangeni".

The one-lilageni note employs the currency symbol L

lplp
LipaCroatian lipa
A centesimal division of the kuna.

TL
LiraTurkish lira
Unicode: U+20BA ₺ Turkish lira sign

M1M
LotiLesotho loti
Symbol based on plural form "maloti".

The one-loti note employs the currency symbol L

M2
ManatAzerbaijani manat
Also m. and man. Unicode: U+20BC ₼ MANAT SIGN (may display incorrectly)

KMKM
MarkBosnia and Herzegovina convertible mark
Cyrillic form: КМ

MTMT
MeticalMozambican metical[10]
Also MTn

m/₥
millMill, mil, &.c
An uncommon millesimal subdivision of US dollars and other currencies. (See article.)

NfkNfk
NakfaEritrean nakfa
Also Nfa[11]

N₦
NairaNigerian naira

NuNu.
NgultrumBhutanese ngultrum

UMUM
OuguiyaMauritanian ouguiya[12]

PaT$
PaangaTongan paʻanga

MOPSMOP$
PatacaMacanese pataca
Also 圓 and 元

P2₱
PesoPhilippine peso
Also ₱, PHP, and P

ptPt.
piastreEgyptian piastre
A centesimal division of the Egyptian pound.

L-£
Pound BBritish, Falkland Islands (FK£), Gibraltar, Manx (M£), St. Helena
Also ₤ and L, all pegged 1:1 to GBP

GME£
Pound EEgyptian pound
Also L.E. (short for French livre égyptienne), and ج.م. in Arabic.

LLLL
Pound LLebanese pound

LSLS
Pound SSyrian pound

P1P
PulaBotswana pula

QQ
QuetzalGuatemalan quetzal

qq
qindarkeAlbanian qindarkë
A centesimal division of the lek.

R1R
RandSouth African rand
Also sometimes Russian &c. rubles

RSR$
RealBrazilian real
The $ is sometimes written with a double bar like a double-barred dollar sign:

Rial
Rial IIranian rial
Unicode: U+FDFC ﷼ RIAL SIGN

ROر.ع.
Rial OOmani rial

RKر.ق
Rial QQatari riyal
Latin: QR

RSر.س
Riyal SSaudi riyal
Latin: SR. Also: ریال

ر.ي
Yemeni rial

Riel៛
RielCambodian riel

RMRM
RinggitMalaysian ringgit

R2p
British &c. pennies
The penny is now a centesimal division of the pound.

Ruble TPridnestrovie ruble

R3₽
Ruble RRussian ruble
Unicode: U+20BD ₽ ruble sign

RfRf.
RufiyaaMaldivian rufiyaa
Also MRf., MVR and .ރ

₹
Rupee IIndian rupee
Previously ₨ or Re (before 15 July 2010). Unicode: U+20B9 ₹ INDIAN RUPEE SIGN

Rs₨
Rupee PMauritian,[13] Nepalese[14] (N₨/रू.), Pakistani and Sri Lankan (SLRs/රු) rupees

SReSRe
Rupee SSeychellois rupee[15]
Also SR

RpRp
RupiahIndonesian rupiah

Sh₪
ShekelIsraeli new shekel

TshTsh
Shilling TTanzanian shilling
Also TSh

KshKsh
Shilling KKenyan shilling
Also KSh

ShsoSh.So.
Shilling SSomali shilling[16]

UshUSh
Shilling UUgandan shilling

SS/
SolPeruvian sol

SDRSDR
SpecialSpecial drawing rights

som, сом
somKyrgyzstani som
: Early 2017 the National Bank of the Kyrgyz Republic approved an underlined C as new currency symbol[17].

Tk৳
TakaBangladeshi Taka
Also Tk

WSSWS$
TalaSamoan tālā
Symbol based on previous name "West Samoan tala".

Also T and ST.

See also $

T
TengeKazakhstani tenge
U+20B8 ₸ Tenge sign (may display incorrectly)

T//₮
TogrogMongolian tögrög

VtVT
VatuVanuatu vatu[18]

W₩
WonNorth Korean won

South Korean won

Y¥
YuanJapanese yen (円/圓)

Chinese Renminbi yuan (元/圆)
Used with one and two crossbars.
円 (en, lit. "circle") is frequently used in Japan colloquially.
元 is also used in reference to the Macanese pataca and Hong Kong and Taiwanese dollars.
Unicode: U+00A5 ¥ YEN SIGN, U+FFE5 ￥ FULLWIDTH YEN SIGN

Zlzł
ZlotyPolish złoty

text: Rupee symbols[edit]

text:
Rupee sign in other languages

Language
Sign in Unicode

Tamil
U+0BF9 ௹ TAMIL RUPEE SIGN (HTML ௹)

Gujarati
U+0AF1 ૱ GUJARATI RUPEE SIGN (HTML ૱)

Kannada
U+0CB0 ರ KANNADA LETTER RA (HTML ರ)

Sinhalese
U+0DD4 රු SINHALA VOWEL SIGN KETTI PAA-PILLA (HTML ු)

North Indic
U+A838 ꠸ NORTH INDIC RUPEE MARK (HTML ꠸)

text: List of historic currency symbols[edit]

text:
Symbol
Uses

₳
Argentine austral symbol

₢ Cr$
Brazilian cruzeiro symbol

₰
pfennig symbol of the German Mark (1875–1923) and the German Reichsmark (1923–1948)

DM
East German Deutsche Mark (east) symbol (1948–1964)

DM
West German and united German Deutsche Mark (west) symbol (1948–2001)

₻
Nordic mark symbol used by Ludvig Holberg in Denmark and Norway in the 17th and 18th centuries[19]

₯
Greek drachma symbol

₠
ECU symbol (not widely used, and now historical; replaced by the euro)

ƒ
Dutch gulden symbol, currently used in the Netherlands Antilles and Aruba

Fr
franc symbol, used in France and other countries; in France an F with double bar (₣) was proposed in 1988 but never adopted

Kčs
Czechoslovak koruna symbol (1919–1993)

₤
lira symbol, formerly used in Italy, San Marino and Vatican City (although not as an official symbol), and sometimes in Malta

Lm
Maltese lira symbol

Ls
Latvian lats symbol (1922–2013)

Lt
Lithuanian litas symbol (1922–2014)

M
East German Mark der DDR symbol (1968–1990)

ℳ
German Mark symbol (1875–1923)

MDN
East German Mark der Deutschen Notenbank symbol (1964–1968)

mk
Finnish markka symbol (1860–2002)

PF
Philippine peso fuerte symbol (1852–1901)

₧
Spanish peseta symbol (1869–2002)

R or RD
Swedish riksdaler (1777–1873)

ℛℳ
German reichsmark symbol (1923–1948)

Portuguese escudo symbol (cifrão)

Sk
Slovak koruna (1993–2008)

₷
Spesmilo (1907 –  First World War) in the Esperanto movement

₶
Livre tournois symbol, used in medieval France

𐆚
As coin used during the Roman Empire and Roman Republic

𐆖
Denarius coin used in Ancient Rome from 211 BC to the 3rd century AD

𐆙
Dupondius coin used during the Roman Empire and Roman Republic

𐆗
Quinarius coin used in Ancient Rome from 211 BC to the 3rd century AD

𐆘
Sestertius coin used in Ancient Rome from 211 BC to the 3rd century AD

£2 10s 3d, £2 10/3, £2 10'3
The United Kingdom and British Commonwealth countries, before decimalisation, used several recognised formats for amounts in pounds, shillings and Pence, all for the same amount. A hyphen or ASCII hyphen-minus was often used to indicate the absence of an amount e.g. 3/- or -/6

I/.
Peruvian inti (1985-1991)

৲
Bengali rupee mark[20][21]

৹
Bengali ānā, historically used to represent 1/16th of a taka/rupee[21]

৻
Bengali gaṇḍā, historically used to represent 1/20th of an ānā (1/320th of a taka/rupee)[21]