document_title: Top Gear (series 3)

question_text: episode of top gear with the toyota hilux

text: Top Gear (series 3)

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
Total
No.
Title
Reviews
Features/challenges
Guest(s)
Original air date
UK viewers
(million)[1]

21
1
Series 3, Episode 1
Ford GT • BMW 5 Series • Porsche 911 GT3
Can the diesel Volkswagen Lupo get better mpg than the petrol version?
Martin Kemp
26 October 2003 (2003-10-26)
3.32

Clarkson heads to Detroit to find out how good the heavily-anticipated Ford GT handles against all its competitors, before finding out how well a diesel Volkswagen Lupo fares against its petrol version by doing a lap of the M25. Elsewhere, Hammond tests out the Porsche 911 GT3, May defends the BMW 5 Series, and the Stig drives fast with the trio's Jaguar XJS onboard the HMS Invincible with disastrous results. Meanwhile, singer and Spandau Ballet bassist Martin Kemp, tries to see is he is better than Ross Kemp when he takes the Liana for a lap of the track.
Note: This was the final appearance of the original Stig, Perry McCarthy; the segment involving him with the XJS and HMS Invincible was his scripted departure from the show.

22
2
Series 3, Episode 2
BMW M3 CSL • BMW M1 • BMW M3 • BMW M5 •
Volvo 240 attempts to jump four caravans • Best 2 seater sportscar: (Porsche Boxster • BMW Z4 • Honda S2000)
Stephen Fry
2 November 2003 (2003-11-02)
3.41

Black Stig is gone, and in his place is brand new, White Stig, who is quick to get to work by seeing how fast the BMW M3 CSL is on the track after Clarkson tests it out. Meanwhile, the trio head to the Isle of Man to find out which old BMW sports car is the best - the 1970s M1, the original M3, and the second-gen M5 - before testing out three two seater convertibles on the Isle - the BMW Z4, the Porsche Boxster and the Honda S2000. Finally, a Volvo 240 tries to jump five caravans side-by-side, and Stephen Fry discusses the advantages of driving his London Taxi before seeing how he fared in the Liana.
Note: This was the first appearance by Ben Collins as the new Stig; his identity would remain a secret until August 2010.

23
3
Series 3, Episode 3
Bentley Continental GT • Subaru Legacy Outback
Saab 9-5 Aero versus a BAe Sea Harrier • How to Escape from a Sinking Car • Top Gear Survey
Rob Brydon
9 November 2003 (2003-11-09)
4.02

Clarkson is unimpressed when he manages to secure the rights to test out the Bentley Continental GT, while he compares the hot Saab 9-5 Aero to an aeroplane. Meanwhile, May finds out whether the aristocracy will go for the Subaru Legacy Outback, Hammond investigate the dangers of being in a car that is sinking in water and how to quickly escape such a scenario, the Stig races a Saab around the track against a Harrier Jump Jet, and the results of the Top Gear Survey are in. Finally, Rob Brydon becomes the first Welshman to do a lap in the reasonably priced car.

24
4
Series 3, Episode 4
Lamborghini Miura • Lamborghini Countach • Mini Cooper S Works • Lamborghini Gallardo
Lamborghini Tribute
Rich Hall • Jay Kay
16 November 2003 (2003-11-16)
4.59

Top Gear celebrates the 40th anniversary of the Lamborghini by looking back at some of the classics by the company, including the 1967 Lamborghini Miura, an improved 1971 SV, the Lamborghini Countach, while there is a look at the Lamborghini LM002, Clarkson tests out the Lamborghini Gallardo, and the Murciélago is back to set a time on a dry track. Meanwhile, Hammond tests out several versions of the Mini Cooper S - the BMW-official Works Cooper S, the third-party tuned Hartge Cooper S, the Digi-tec Cooper S and the wild 275 bhp (205 kW) BBR Cooper S - while American comedian Rich Hall improvises a country song about a Rover 25 before seeing how he fared in the reasonably priced car.

25
5
Series 3, Episode 5
Mazda RX-8 • Fiat Panda
Is the Toyota Hilux really indestructible? • Hammond searches for future classic cars
Simon Cowell
23 November 2003 (2003-11-23)
4.80

Clarkson sees how tough a Toyota Hilux pick-up truck truly is by putting it through a series of tests, including driving it through Bristol and nearly losing it to the sea, before returning to the test track to see what else it can withstand. Elsewhere, he tests the Mazda RX-8 on the track, while May drives the Fiat Panda up in Hertfordshire, and Hammond looks at several cars deemed to be good investments as future 'classic' cars. There's also the task of finding which is the best wig for a fast drive in an open top convertible, while Simon Cowell stops judging future singers to see if he can be judged the best at driving fast in the Liana.

26
6
Series 3, Episode 6
Citroën C2 • Renault Mégane CC • Peugeot 307 CC • Aston Martin V8 Vantage (1977) • Holden Monaro
Is a Toyota Hilux really indestructible? – Part 2
Sanjeev Bhaskar
7 December 2003 (2003-12-07)
5.40

May sees what else can be done to prove that a Toyota Hilux is tough by placing the same Hilux from the last episode on top of a tower block due for demolition. He also reviews the Aston Martin V8 Vantage and discusses how British supercars differentiate from those elsewhere in the world, while Hammond sees whether the Renault Mégane CC and the Peugeot 307 CC are good hard-top convertibles, and Clarkson reviews the successor to the old Citroën Saxo, the Citroën C2, and takes a drive in Australia's first contribution to the motoring world - the Holden Monaro. Meanwhile, Sanjeev Bhaskar is the latest star to drive in the reasonably priced car.

27
7
Series 3, Episode 7
MG XPower SV • Porsche Cayenne Turbo • Mercedes-Benz SLR McLaren
Which professor can do the best burn-out • What is the best British car: (Rover 75 • Morgan Plus 8 • Noble M12)
Rory Bremner
14 December 2003 (2003-12-14)
3.35

The beautiful and powerful MG XPower SV hits the track, but Clarkson is less impressed with it, while he also sees how good the off-road abilities of the Porsche Cayenne Turbo are by taking it to Bovington, Dorset. Meanwhile, Hammond travels to South Africa to review the Mercedes-Benz SLR McLaren, there's a burn-out contest between Heinz Wolff, Brian Sewell and Colin Pillinger, and the presenters see which car is the best British car - the Noble M12, the Morgan Plus 8 and the Rover 75. Elsewhere, Rory Bremner impersonates voices for car adverts before seeing how he fared on the track in the Liana.

28
8
Series 3, Episode 8
Mercedes-Benz 280SL • Nissan Micra • Aston Martin Lagonda • Audi TT
Top Gear Generation Game
Johnny Vegas
21 December 2003 (2003-12-21)
3.15

Hammond sees how good a Nissan Micra is in comparison to a Boeing 737 (BBJ-2), while Clarkson tests out the Audi TT V6 after dressing for it, before seeing if car designs peaked in the '60s by testing out a '60s Mercedes-Benz 280SL (W113). Elsewhere, May drives the crazy and bold 1970s Aston Martin Lagonda, there's a duel-out between 5 of Hammond's modern cars versus 5 of Clarkson's older cars in a 1/5 mile drag race, and comedian Johnny Vegas proves he can drive fast in the Liana, even when he has no driving licence.

29
9
Series 3, Episode 9
Chrysler Crossfire • Smart Roadster (Brabus V6 Bi-Turbo) • Jaguar XJ6 • Honda Civic Type R • Honda NSX Type R
Top Gear Awards 2003
Carol Vorderman
28 December 2003 (2003-12-28)
4.24

It's a Cut-Price version of Top Gear this episode, after the budget for the series has been exhausted. The trio shoulder on regardless, with Clarkson driving the Chrysler Crossfire, Hammond handling a Smart Roadster Brabus V6 Biturbo and the Honda Civic Type-R hot hatch as well as the Honda NSX Type R Supercar, and May reviewing the Jaguar XJ6. The trio also host the Top Gear Awards for 2003, while Carol Vorderman sees if she can do better than (the late) Richard Whitely, when she takes the Liana around the test track.

text: Best-of Episodes[edit]

text:
Total
No.
Title
Feature
Original air date

S2
CE
The Best Of Top Gear: 2003
Best moments from Series 3
4 January 2004 (2004-01-04)

A look back at some of the best moments from Series 3, including how much was done to the Indestructible Toyota Hilux, and the demise of the Original Stig.

text: Criticism and Controversy[edit]

text: Hilux Toughness Challenge[edit]

text: Following the broadcast of the fifth episode of the 3rd series, the BBC was contacted by the Churchill Parish in Somerset in regards to the tree that featured in the segment where Clarkson was proving the sturdiness and reliability of the Toyota Hilux. Up until the episode had been broadcast, villagers had presumed that the damage had been done accidentally or by vandals, until they watched what had happened on the show. After the BBC was contacted, the director of Top Gear admitted guilt and the broadcaster paid compensation.[2]


document_title: Selective Service Act of 1917

question_text: whom did the selective service act of 1917 authorize the armed forces to conscript

root

text: Selective Service Act of 1917

text: History[edit]

text: Origins[edit]

text: At the time of World War I, the U.S. Army was small compared with the mobilized armies of the European powers. As late as 1914, the federal army was under 100,000, while the National Guard (the organized militias of the states) numbered around 115,000. The National Defense Act of 1916 authorized the growth of the army to 165,000 and the National Guard to 450,000 by 1921, but by 1917 the federal army had only expanded to around 121,000, with the National Guard numbering 181,000.[2]

tag: p

text: By 1916, it had become clear that any participation by the United States in the conflict in Europe would require a far larger army. While President Wilson at first wished to use only volunteers to supply the troops needed to fight, it soon became clear that this would be impossible. When war was declared, Wilson asked for the army to increase to a force of one million. Indeed, six weeks after war was declared, only 73,000 had volunteered for service.[3] Wilson accepted the recommendation by Secretary of War Newton D. Baker for a draft.

text: General Enoch H. Crowder, the Judge Advocate General of the United States Army, when asked for his thoughts on the proposal, at first indicated his displeasure. Later, with the assistance of Captain Hugh Johnson and others, Crowder guided the bill through Congress and administered the draft as the Provost Marshal General.

text: A problem that came up in the writing of the bill and its negotiation through Congress was the desire of former President Theodore Roosevelt to assemble a volunteer force to go to Europe. President Wilson and others, including army officers, were reluctant to permit this for a variety of reasons. The final bill contained a compromise provision permitting the president to raise four volunteer divisions, a power Wilson did not exercise.[4]

text: To sell the idea that the war and draft were right to an uninterested populace, George Creel, a veteran of the newspaper industry, became the United States' official war propagandist. He set up the Committee on Public Information, which organized 75,000 speakers and conducted 750,000 four-minute speeches in 5,000 cities and towns across America. Creel later helped form the American Alliance for Labor and Democracy, putting Samuel Gompers in charge as president in order to "unify sentiment in the nation" in favor of the war. With branches in 164 cities, many labor leaders went along although "rank-and-file working class support for the war remained lukewarm..." and was ultimately unsuccessful.[5] Many prominent Socialist leaders became pro-war, though the majority did not.[6]

text: Effects[edit]

text: By the guidelines set down by the Selective Service Act, all males aged 21 to 30 were required to register for military service. At the request of the War Department, Congress amended the law in August 1918 to expand the age range to include all men 18 to 45, and to bar further volunteering.[7] By the end of World War I, some 2 million men volunteered for various branches of the armed services, and some 2.8 million had been drafted.[8] This meant that more than half of the almost 4.8 million Americans who served in the armed forces were drafted. Due to the effort to incite a patriotic attitude, the World War I draft had a high success rate, with fewer than 350,000 men ”dodging” the draft.

text: Differences from previous drafts[edit]

text: The biggest difference between the draft established by the Selective Service Act of 1917 and the Civil War draft was that a substitute could no longer be hired to fight in a man’s place. In the Civil War, men who did not desire to fight could hire a substitute. However, because it was expensive to hire someone, only very affluent people could afford to do so. This resulted in a disproportionately low number of wealthy men fighting in the war. There was not a specific draft order for the draftee to be put into the service.

text: However, Section Three of the Selective Service Act of 1917 stated:

text: No person liable to military service shall hereafter be permitted or allowed to furnish a substitute for such service; nor shall any substitute be received, enlisted, or enrolled in the military service of the United States; and no such person shall be permitted to escape such service or to be discharged therefrom prior to the expiration of his term of service by the payment of money or any other valuable thing whatsoever as consideration his release from military service or liability there to.

text: National registration days and termination[edit]

text: During World War I there were three registrations.[9]

text:
The first, on June 5, 1917, was for all men between the ages of 21 and 31.
The second, on June 5, 1918, registered those who attained age 21 after June 5, 1917. A supplemental registration, included in the second registration, was held on August 24, 1918, for those becoming 21 years old after June 5, 1918.
The third registration was held on September 12, 1918, for men age 18 through 45.

tag: ul

text: The act was upheld by the United States Supreme Court in the Selective Draft Law Cases, 245 U.S. 366 (1918). The Solicitor General's argument, and the court's opinion, were based primarily on Kneedler v. Lane, 45 Pa. 238, 252 (1863), and Vattel's The Law of Nations (1758).[1]

text: After the signing of the armistice of November 11, 1918, the activities of the Selective Service System were rapidly curtailed. On March 31, 1919, all local, district, and medical advisory boards were closed, and on May 21, 1919, the last state headquarters closed operations. The Provost Marshal General was relieved from duty on July 15, 1919, thereby finally terminating the activities of the Selective Service System of World War I.

text: Draft categories[edit]

text: Conscription was by class. The first candidates were to be drawn from Class I. Members of each class below Class I were available only if the pool of all available and potential candidates in the class above it were exhausted.

text:
Class
Categories (May 1917 – July 1919)

I.
Eligible and liable for military service.
Unmarried registrants with no dependents,
Married registrants with independent spouse and / or one or more dependent children over 16 with sufficient family income if drafted.

II.
Temporarily deferred, but available for military service.
Married registrants with dependent spouse and / or dependent children under 16 with sufficient family income if drafted.

III.
Temporarily exempted, but available for military service.
Local officials,
Registrants who provide sole family income for dependent parents and / or dependent siblings under 16,
Registrants employed in agricultural labor or industrial enterprises essential to the war effort.

IV.
Exempted due to extreme hardship.
Married registrants with dependent spouse and / or dependent children with insufficient family income if drafted,
Registrants with deceased spouse who provide sole family income for dependent children under 16,
Registrants with deceased parents who provide sole family income for dependent siblings under 16.

V.
Exempted or ineligible for induction into military service.
State or Federal officials,
Officers and enlisted men in the military or naval service of the United States,[10]
Licensed pilots employed in the pursuit of their vocation[10]
Members of the clergy,
Students who on or before May 18, 1917 had been preparing for the ministry in a recognized theological or divinity school,[10]
Registrants who were deemed either medically disabled (permanently physically and / or mentally unfit) or "morally unfit" for military service,
Registrants shown to have been convicted of any crime designated as treason or felony, or an “infamous” crime,[10]
Enemy aliens and resident aliens.[10]

tag: table

text: African-Americans[edit]

text: The American military was entirely segregated during World War I. Although the military training of black Americans was staunchly opposed by white supremacist politicians such as Sen. James K. Vardaman (D-Mississippi) and Sen. Benjamin Tillman (D-South Carolina), the decision was nevertheless made to include African-Americans in the 1917 draft.[11] A total of 290,527 black Americans were ultimately registered for the draft during the two calls of June 2 and September 12, 1917—9.6 percent of the total American pool for potential conscription.[11]

text: Draft board officials were given the instruction to tear off the lower left-hand corner of the Selective Service forms filled out by black registrants to tag these for segregated units.[11] The August 1917 Houston Riot of armed African-American soldiers spurred by racist behavior by some Houston police officials additionally shaped the War Department's decision-making, and the great majority of black soldiers were delegated to the building of roads, unloading of shipping, and other forms of common labor.[12] Only two combat units of African-Americans were ultimately established — the 92nd and 93rd Infantry Divisions.[13] Black Americans were entirely excluded from the United States Marine Corps and were consigned to menial labor in the United States Navy for the duration of the world war.[14]


document_title: Blood sugar level

question_text: what is the normal percentage of sugar level in the body

text: Blood sugar level

text: Units[edit]

text: The international standard way of measuring blood glucose levels is in terms of a molar concentration, measured in mmol/L (millimoles per litre; or millimolar, abbreviated mM). In the United States, West-Germany and other countries mass concentration is measured in mg/dL (milligrams per decilitre).[5]

text: Since the molecular weight of glucose C6H12O6 is 180, the difference between the two units is a factor of 18, so that 1 mmol/L of glucose is equivalent to 18 mg/dL.[6]

text: Normal values in humans[edit]

text: Normal value ranges may vary slightly among different laboratories. Many factors affect a person's blood sugar level. The body's homeostatic mechanism of blood sugar regulation (known as glucose homeostasis), when operating normally, restores the blood sugar level to a narrow range of about 4.4 to 6.1 mmol/L (79.2 to 110 mg/dL) (as measured by a fasting blood glucose test).[7]

text: The normal blood glucose level (tested while fasting) for non-diabetics, should be between 3.9 and 5.5 mmol/L (70 to 100 mg/dL). The mean normal blood glucose level in humans is about 5.5 mmol/L (100 mg/dL);[6] however, this level fluctuates throughout the day. Blood sugar levels for those without diabetes and who are not fasting should be below 6.9 mmol/L (125 mg/dL).[8] The blood glucose target range for diabetics, according to the American Diabetes Association, should be 5.0–7.2 mmol/l (90–130 mg/dL) before meals, and less than 10 mmol/L (180 mg/dL) after meals (as measured by a blood glucose monitor).[9]

text: Despite widely variable intervals between meals or the occasional consumption of meals with a substantial carbohydrate load, human blood glucose levels tend to remain within the normal range. However, shortly after eating, the blood glucose level may rise, in non-diabetics, temporarily up to 7.8 mmol/L (140 mg/dL) or slightly more. For people with diabetes maintaining 'tight diabetes control', the American Diabetes Association recommends a post-meal glucose level of less than 10 mmol/L (180 mg/dL) and a fasting plasma glucose of 3.9 to 7.2 mmol/L (70–130 mg/dL).[10]

text: The actual amount of glucose in the blood and body fluids is very small. In a healthy adult male of 75 kg with a blood volume of 5 liters, a blood glucose level of 5.5 mmol/L (100 mg/dL) amounts to 5g, equivalent to about a teaspoonful of sugar.[11] Part of the reason why this amount is so small is that, to maintain an influx of glucose into cells, enzymes modify glucose by adding phosphate or other groups to it.

text: Animals[edit]

text: In general, ranges of blood sugar in common domestic ruminants are lower than in many monogastric mammals.[12] However this generalization does not extend to wild ruminants or camelids. For serum glucose in mg/dL, reference ranges of 42 to 75 for cows, 44 to 81 for sheep, and 48 to 76 for goats, but 61 to 124 for cats; 62 to 108 for dogs, 62 to 114 for horses, 66 to 116 for pigs, 75 to 155 for rabbits, and 90 to 140 for llamas have been reported.[13] A 90 percent reference interval for serum glucose of 26 to 181 mg/dL has been reported for captured mountain goats (Oreamnos americanus), where no effects of the pursuit and capture on measured levels were evident.[14] For beluga whales, the 25–75 percent range for serum glucose has been estimated to be 94 to 115 mg/dL.[15] For the white rhinoceros, one study has indicated that the 95 percent range is 28 to 140 mg/dL.[16] For harp seals, a serum glucose range of 4.9 to 12.1 mmol/L [i.e. 88 to 218 mg/dL] has been reported; for hooded seals, a range of 7.5 to 15.7 mmol/L [i.e. about 135 to 283 mg/dL] has been reported.[17]

text: Regulation[edit]

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text: The body's homeostatic mechanism keeps blood glucose levels within a narrow range. It is composed of several interacting systems, of which hormone regulation is the most important.

text: There are two types of mutually antagonistic metabolic hormones affecting blood glucose levels:

text:
catabolic hormones (such as glucagon, cortisol and catecholamines) which increase blood glucose;
and one anabolic hormone (insulin), which decreases blood glucose.

text: Abnormality in blood sugar levels[edit]

text: High blood sugar[edit]

text: If blood sugar levels remain too high the body suppresses appetite over the short term. Long-term hyperglycemia causes many of the long-term health problems including heart disease, eye, kidney, and nerve damage.

text: The most common cause of hyperglycemia is diabetes. When diabetes is the cause, physicians typically recommend an anti-diabetic medication as treatment. From the perspective the majority of patients, treatment with an old, well-understood diabetes drug such as metformin will be the safest, most effective, least expensive, most comfortable route to managing the condition.[18] Diet changes and exercise implementation may also be part of a treatment plan for diabetes.

text: Fasting blood glucose levels may be higher than the post meal blood glucose in many of the healthy subjects. Such individuals may be said to have physiological insulin resistance and may develop diabetes mellitus as long term complication. In clinical and laboratory practices, many of the time a healthy normal subject will present a fasting blood glucose value higher than the post meal blood glucose value. This creates confusion since there is a common perception that in blood, postprandial (PP) glucose level should be higher than fasting (F) glucose level. The repeated investigation subsequently yields somewhat similar type of result.[19]

text: Low blood sugar[edit]

text: If blood sugar levels drop too low, a potentially fatal condition called hypoglycemia develops. Symptoms may include lethargy, impaired mental functioning; irritability; shaking, twitching, weakness in arm and leg muscles; pale complexion; sweating; loss of consciousness.

text: Mechanisms that restore satisfactory blood glucose levels after extreme hypoglycemia (below 40 mg/dl) must be quick and effective to prevent extremely serious consequences of insufficient glucose: confusion or unsteadiness and, in the extreme (below 15 mg/dl) loss of consciousness and seizures. Without discounting the potentially quite serious conditions and risks due to or oftentimes accompanying hyperglycemia, especially in the long-term (diabetes or pre-diabetes, obesity or overweight, hyperlipidemia, hypertension, etc.), it is still generally more dangerous to have too little glucose- especially if levels are very low- in the blood than too much, at least temporarily, because glucose is so important for metabolism and nutrition and the proper functioning of the body's organs. This is especially the case for those organs that are metabolically active or that require a constant, regulated supply of blood sugar (the liver and brain are examples). In healthy individuals, blood glucose-regulating mechanisms are generally quite effective, and symptomatic hypoglycemia is generally found only in diabetics using insulin or other pharmacological treatment, and in starvation or severe malnutrition or malabsorption (of various causes), and conditions such as anorexia[dubious – discuss]. Hypoglycemic episodes can vary greatly between persons and from time to time, both in severity and swiftness of onset. For severe cases, prompt medical assistance is essential, as damage to brain and other tissues and even death will result from sufficiently low blood-glucose levels.

text: Glucose measurement[edit]

text: Sample source[edit]

text: Glucose testing in a fasting individual, show comparable levels of glucose in arterial, venous, and capillary blood. But following meals, capillary and arterial blood glucose levels can be significantly higher than venous levels. This is because tissue cells consume some of the glucose in the blood as it passes from arteries through the capillary bed and into the veins.[20] Although these differences vary widely, one study found that following the consumption of 50 grams of glucose, "the mean capillary blood glucose concentration is higher than the mean venous blood glucose concentration by 35%."[20][21][22]

text: Sample type[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Glucose is measured in whole blood, plasma or serum. Historically, blood glucose values were given in terms of whole blood, but most laboratories now measure and report plasma or serum glucose levels. Because red blood cells (erythrocytes) have a higher concentration of protein (e.g., hemoglobin) than serum, serum has a higher water content and consequently more dissolved glucose than does whole blood. To convert from whole-blood glucose, multiplication by 1.15 has been shown to generally give the serum/plasma level.

text: Collection of blood in clot tubes for serum chemistry analysis permits the metabolism of glucose in the sample by blood cells until separated by centrifugation. Red blood cells, for instance, do not require insulin to intake glucose from the blood. Higher than normal amounts of white or red blood cell counts can lead to excessive glycolysis in the sample, with substantial reduction of glucose level if the sample is not processed quickly. Ambient temperature at which the blood sample is kept prior to centrifuging and separation of plasma/serum also affects glucose levels. At refrigerator temperatures, glucose remains relatively stable for several hours in a blood sample. Loss of glucose can be prevented by using Fluoride tubes (i.e., gray-top) since fluoride inhibits glycolysis. However, these should only be used when blood will be transported from one hospital laboratory to another for glucose measurement. Red-top serum separator tubes also preserve glucose in samples after being centrifuged isolating the serum from cells.

text: To prevent contamination of the sample with intravenous fluids, particular care should be given to drawing blood samples from the arm opposite the one in which an intravenous line is inserted. Alternatively, blood can be drawn from the same arm with an IV line after the IV has been turned off for at least 5 minutes, and the arm has been elevated to drain infused fluids away from the vein. Inattention can lead to large errors, since as little as 10% contamination with a 5% glucose solution (D5W) will elevate glucose in a sample by 500 mg/dL or more. Remember that the actual concentration of glucose in blood is very low, even in the hyperglycemic.

text: Measurement techniques[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Two major methods have been used to measure glucose. The first, still in use in some places, is a chemical method exploiting the nonspecific reducing property of glucose in a reaction with an indicator substance that changes color when reduced. Since other blood compounds also have reducing properties (e.g., urea, which can be abnormally high in uremic patients), this technique can produce erroneous readings in some situations (5 to 15 mg/dL has been reported). The more recent technique, using enzymes specific to glucose, is less susceptible to this kind of error. The two most common employed enzymes are glucose oxidase and hexokinase.

text: In either case, the chemical system is commonly contained on a test strip which is inserted into a meter, and then has a blood sample applied. Test-strip shapes and their exact chemical composition vary between meter systems and cannot be interchanged. Formerly, some test strips were read (after timing and wiping away the blood sample) by visual comparison against a color chart printed on the vial label. Strips of this type are still used for urine glucose readings, but for blood glucose levels they are obsolete. Their error rates were, in any case, much higher. More precise blood glucose measurements are performed in a medical laboratory, using hexokinase, glucose oxidase, or glucose dehydrogenase enzymes.

text: Urine glucose readings, however taken, are much less useful. In properly functioning kidneys, glucose does not appear in urine until the renal threshold for glucose has been exceeded. This is substantially above any normal glucose level, and is evidence of an existing severe hyperglycemic condition. However, as urine is stored in the bladder, any glucose in it might have been produced at any time since the last time the bladder was emptied. Since metabolic conditions change rapidly, as a result of any of several factors, this is delayed news and gives no warning of a developing condition. Blood glucose monitoring is far preferable, both clinically and for home monitoring by patients. Healthy urine glucose levels were first standardized and published in 1965[23] by Hans Renschler.

text:
I. CHEMICAL METHODS

A. Oxidation-reduction reaction

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{\displaystyle \mathrm {Glucose} +\mathrm {Alkaline\ copper\ tartarate} {\xrightarrow {\mathrm {Reduction} }}\mathrm {Cuprous\ oxide} }

1. Alkaline copper reduction

Folin-Wu method

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{\displaystyle \mathrm {Cu} ^{++}+\mathrm {Phosphomolybdic\ acid} {\xrightarrow {\mathrm {Oxidation} }}\mathrm {Phosphomolybdenum\ oxide} }

Blue end-product

Benedict's method

Modification of Folin–Wu method for qualitative urine glucose

Nelson–Somogyi method

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{\displaystyle \mathrm {Cu} ^{++}+\mathrm {Arsenomolybdic\ acid} {\xrightarrow {\mathrm {Oxidation} }}\mathrm {Arsenomolybdenum\ oxide} }

Blue end-product

Neocuproine method

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{\displaystyle \mathrm {Cu} ^{++}+\mathrm {Neocuproine} {\xrightarrow {\mathrm {Oxidation} }}\mathrm {Cu} ^{++}\mathrm {neocuproine\ complex} }

*
Yellow-orange color neocuproine[24]

Shaeffer–Hartmann–Somogyi

Uses the principle of iodine reaction with cuprous byproduct.
Excess I2 is then titrated with thiosulfate.

2. Alkaline Ferricyanide Reduction

Hagedorn–Jensen

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⟶

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{\displaystyle \mathrm {Glucose} +\mathrm {Alkaline\ ferricyanide} \longrightarrow \mathrm {Ferrocyanide} }

Colorless end product; other reducing substances interfere with reaction

B. Condensation

Ortho-toluidine method

Uses aromatic amines and hot acetic acid
Forms Glycosylamine and Schiff's base which is emerald green in color
This is the most specific method, but the reagent used is toxic

Anthrone (phenols) method

Forms hydroxymethyl furfural in hot acetic acid

II. ENZYMATIC METHODS

A. Glucose oxidase

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D-glucono-1,5-lactone

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{\displaystyle \mathrm {Glucose} +\mathrm {O} _{2}{\xrightarrow[{\mathrm {Oxidation} }]{\mathrm {glucose\ oxidase} }}{\textrm {D-glucono-1,5-lactone}}+\mathrm {H_{2}O_{2}} }

Saifer–Gerstenfeld method

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-dianisidine

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{\displaystyle \mathrm {H_{2}O_{2}} +{\textit {O}}{\text{-dianisidine}}{\xrightarrow[{\mathrm {Oxidation} }]{\mathrm {peroxidase} }}\mathrm {H_{2}O} +\mathrm {oxidized\ chromogen} }

Inhibited by reducing substances like BUA, bilirubin, glutathione, ascorbic acid

Trinder method

uses 4-aminophenazone oxidatively coupled with phenol
Subject to less interference by increases serum levels of creatinine, uric acid or hemoglobin
Inhibited by catalase

Kodak Ektachem

A dry chemistry method
Uses spectrophotometry to measure the intensity of color through a lower transparent film

Glucometer

Home monitoring blood glucose assay method
Uses a strip impregnated with a glucose oxidase reagent

B. Hexokinase

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G-6PD

6-Phosphogluconate

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{\displaystyle {\begin{alignedat}{2}&\mathrm {Glucose} +\mathrm {ATP} {\xrightarrow[{\mathrm {Phosphorylation} }]{\mathrm {Hexokinase} +\mathrm {Mg} ^{++}}}{\textrm {G-6PO}}_{4}+\mathrm {ADP} \\&{\textrm {G-6PO}}_{4}+\mathrm {NADP} {\xrightarrow[{\mathrm {Oxidation} }]{\textrm {G-6PD}}}{\textrm {6-Phosphogluconate}}+\mathrm {NADPH} +\mathrm {H} ^{+}\\\end{alignedat}}}

NADP as cofactor
NADPH (reduced product) is measured in 340 nm
More specific than glucose oxidase method due to G-6PO4, which inhibits interfering substances except when sample is hemolyzed

text: Clinical correlation[edit]

text: The fasting blood glucose level, which is measured after a fast of 8 hours, is the most commonly used indication of overall glucose homeostasis, largely because disturbing events such as food intake are avoided. Conditions affecting glucose levels are shown in the table below. Abnormalities in these test results are due to problems in the multiple control mechanism of glucose regulation.

text: The metabolic response to a carbohydrate challenge is conveniently assessed by a postprandial glucose level drawn 2 hours after a meal or a glucose load. In addition, the glucose tolerance test, consisting of several timed measurements after a standardized amount of oral glucose intake, is used to aid in the diagnosis of diabetes.

text: Error rates for blood glucose measurements systems vary, depending on laboratories, and on the methods used. Colorimetry techniques can be biased by color changes in test strips (from airborne or finger borne contamination, perhaps) or interference (e.g., tinting contaminants) with light source or the light sensor. Electrical techniques are less susceptible to these errors, though not to others. In home use, the most important issue is not accuracy, but trend. Thus if a meter / test strip system is consistently wrong by 10%, there will be little consequence, as long as changes (e.g., due to exercise or medication adjustments) are properly tracked. In the US, home use blood test meters must be approved by the federal Food and Drug Administration before they can be sold.

text: Finally, there are several influences on blood glucose level aside from food intake. Infection, for instance, tends to change blood glucose levels, as does stress either physical or psychological. Exercise, especially if prolonged or long after the most recent meal, will have an effect as well. In the typical person, maintenance of blood glucose at near constant levels will nevertheless be quite effective. [clarification needed]

text:
Causes of abnormal glucose levels

Persistent hyperglycemia
Transient hyperglycemia
Persistent hypoglycemia
Transient hypoglycemia

Reference range, FBG: 70–110 mg/dL

Diabetes mellitus
Pheochromocytoma
Insulinoma
Acute alcohol ingestion

Adrenal cortical hyperactivity Cushing's syndrome
Severe liver disease
Adrenal cortical insufficiency Addison's disease
Drugs: salicylates, antituberculosis agents

Hyperthyroidism
Acute stress reaction
Hypopituitarism
Severe liver disease

Acromegaly
Shock
Galactosemia
Several glycogen storage diseases

Obesity
Convulsions
Ectopic insulin production from tumors
Hereditary fructose intolerance

text: Etymology and use of term[edit]

text: This section has no medical references for verification or relies exclusively on non-medical sources. Please review the contents of the section and add the appropriate references if you can. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be removed. (June 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: In a physiological context, the term is a misnomer because it refers to glucose, yet other sugars besides glucose are always present. Food contains several different types (e.g., fructose (largely from fruits/table sugar/industrial sweeteners), galactose (milk and dairy products), as well as several food additives such as sorbitol, xylose, maltose, etc.). But because these other sugars are largely inert with regard to the metabolic control system (i.e., that controlled by insulin secretion), since glucose is the dominant controlling signal for metabolic regulation, the term has gained currency, and is used by medical staff and lay folk alike. The table above reflects some of the more technical and closely defined terms used in the medical field.


document_title: History of Australia (1788–1850)

question_text: where did the free settlers settle in australia

text: History of Australia (1788–1850)

text: Colonisation[edit]

text: It is commonly reported that the colonisation of Australia was driven by the need to address overcrowding in the British prison system, and the fact of the British losing the Thirteen Colonies of America in the American Revolution; however, it was simply not economically viable to transport convicts halfway around the world for this reason alone.[1] Many convicts were either skilled tradesmen or farmers who had been convicted for trivial crimes and were sentenced to seven years transportation, the time required to set up the infrastructure for the new colony. Convicts were often given pardons prior to or on completion of their sentences and were allocated parcels of land to farm.

text: Sir Joseph Banks, the eminent scientist who had accompanied Lieutenant James Cook on his 1770 voyage, recommended Botany Bay as a suitable site.[2] Banks accepted an offer of assistance which by the American Loyalist James Matra in July 1783. Matra had visited Botany Bay with Banks in 1770 as a junior officer on the Endeavour commanded by James Cook. Under Banks's guidance, he rapidly produced "A Proposal for Establishing a Settlement in New South Wales" (24 August 1783), with a fully developed set of reasons for a colony composed of American Loyalists, Chinese and South Sea Islanders (but not convicts).[3]

text: Following an interview with Secretary of State Lord Sydney in March 1784, Matra amended his proposal to include convicts as settlers.[4] Matra’s plan can be seen to have “provided the original blueprint for settlement in New South Wales”.[5] A cabinet memorandum December 1784 shows the Government had Matra’s plan in mind when considering the creation of a settlement in New South Wales.[5][6] The London Chronicle of 12 October 1786 said: “Mr. Matra, an Officer of the Treasury, who, sailing with Capt. Cook, had an opportunity of visiting Botany Bay, is the Gentleman who suggested the plan to Government of transporting convicts to that island”. The Government also incorporated into the colonisation plan the project for settling Norfolk Island, with its attractions of timber and flax, proposed by Banks’s Royal Society colleagues, Sir John Call and Sir George Young.[7]

text: On 13 May 1787, the First Fleet of 11 ships and about 1,530 people (736 convicts, 17 convicts' children, 211 marines, 27 marines' wives, 14 marines' children and about 300 officers and others) under the command of Captain Arthur Phillip set sail for Botany Bay.[8][9][10] A few days after arrival at Botany Bay the fleet moved to the more suitable Port Jackson where a settlement was established at Sydney Cove on 26 January 1788.[11] This date later became Australia's national day, Australia Day. The colony was formally proclaimed by Governor Phillip on 7 February 1788 at Sydney. Sydney Cove offered a fresh water supply and a safe harbour, which Philip famously described as:[12]

text:
“
being with out exception the finest Harbour in the World [...] Here a Thousand Sail of the Line may ride in the most perfect Security.
”

text: Phillip named the settlement after the Home Secretary, Thomas Townshend, 1st Baron Sydney (Viscount Sydney from 1789). The only people at the flag raising ceremony and the formal taking of possession of the land in the name of King George III were Phillip and a few dozen marines and officers from the Supply, the rest of the ship's company and the convicts witnessing it from on board ship. The remaining ships of the Fleet were unable to leave Botany Bay until later on 26 January because of a tremendous gale.[13] The new colony was formally proclaimed as the Colony of New South Wales on 7 February.[14]

text: On 24 January 1788 a French expedition of two ships led by Admiral Jean-François de La Pérouse had arrived off Botany Bay, on the latest leg of a three-year voyage that had taken them from Brest, around Cape Horn, up the coast from Chile to California, north-west to Kamchatka, south-east to Easter Island, north-west to Macao, and on to the Philippines, the Friendly Isles, Hawaii and Norfolk Island.[15] Though amicably received, the French expedition was a troublesome matter for the British, as it showed the interest of France in the new land.

text: Nevertheless, on 2 February Lieutenant King, at Phillip's request, paid a courtesy call on the French and offered them any assistance they may need.[13] The French made the same offer to the British, as they were much better provisioned than the British and had enough supplies to last three years.[13] Neither of these offers was accepted. On 10 March[13] the French expedition, having taken on water and wood, left Botany Bay, never to be seen again. Phillip and La Pérouse never met. La Pérouse is remembered in a Sydney suburb of that name. Various other French geographical names along the Australian coast also date from this expedition.

text: Governor Phillip was vested with complete authority over the inhabitants of the colony. Phillip's personal intent was to establish harmonious relations with local Aboriginal people and try to reform as well as discipline the convicts of the colony. Phillip and several of his officers – most notably Watkin Tench – left behind journals and accounts of which tell of immense hardships during the first years of settlement. Often Phillip's officers despaired for the future of New South Wales. Early efforts at agriculture were fraught and supplies from overseas were few and far between. Between 1788 and 1792 about 3546 male and 766 female convicts were landed at Sydney – many "professional criminals" with few of the skills required for the establishment of a colony. Many new arrivals were also sick or unfit for work and the conditions of healthy convicts only deteriorated with hard labour and poor sustenance in the settlement. The food situation reached crisis point in 1790 and the Second Fleet which finally arrived in June 1790 had lost a quarter of its "passengers" through sickness, while the condition of the convicts of the Third Fleet appalled Phillip. From 1791 however, the more regular arrival of ships and the beginnings of trade lessened the feeling of isolation and improved supplies.[16]

text: In 1792, two French ships, La Recherche and L'Espérance anchored in a harbour near Tasmania's southernmost point they called Recherche Bay. This was at a time when Britain and France were trying to be the first to discover and colonise Australia. The expedition carried scientists and cartographers, gardeners, artists and hydrographers who, variously, planted, identified, mapped, marked, recorded and documented the environment and the people of the new lands that they encountered at the behest of the fledgling Société D'Histoire Naturelle.

text: White settlement began with a consignment of English convicts, guarded by a detachment of the Royal Marines, a number of whom subsequently stayed in the colony as settlers. Their view of the colony and their place in it was eloquently stated by Captain David Collins: "From the disposition to crimes and the incorrigible character of the major part of the colonists, an odium was, from the first, illiberally thrown upon the settlement; and the word "Botany Bay" became a term of reproach that was indiscriminately cast upon every one who resided in New South Wales. But let the reproach light upon those who have used it as such... if the honour of having deserved well of one's country be attainable by sacrificing good name, domestic comforts, and dearest connections in her service, the officers of this settlement have justly merited that distinction".[17]

text: Convicts and free settlers[edit]

text: When the Bellona transport came to anchor in Sydney Cove on 16 January 1793, she brought with her the first immigrant free settlers. They were: Thomas Rose, a farmer from Dorset, his wife and four children; he was allowed a grant of 120 acres; Frederic Meredith, who had formerly been at Sydney with HMS Sirius; Thomas Webb (who had also been formerly at Sydney with the Sirius), his wife, and his nephew, Joseph Webb; Edward Powell, who had formerly been at Sydney with the Juliana transport, and who married a free woman after his arrival. Thomas Webb and Edward Powell each received a grant of 80 acres; and Joseph Webb and Frederic Meredith received 60 acres each.

text: The conditions they had come out under were that they should be provided with a free passage, be furnished with agricultural tools and implements by the Government, have two years' provisions, and have grants of land free of expense. They were likewise to have the labour of a certain number of convicts, who were also to be provided with two years' rations and one year's clothing from the public stores. The land assigned to them was some miles to the westward of Sydney, at a place named by the settlers, "Liberty Plains". It is now the area covered mainly by the suburbs of Strathfield and Homebush.

text: One in three convicts transported after 1798 was Irish, about a fifth of whom were transported in connection with the political and agrarian disturbances common in Ireland at the time. While the settlers were reasonably well-equipped, little consideration had been given to the skills required to make the colony self-supporting – few of the first wave convicts had farming or trade experience (nor the soldiers), and the lack of understanding of Australia's seasonal patterns saw initial attempts at farming fail, leaving only what animals and birds the soldiers were able to shoot. The colony nearly starved, and Phillip was forced to send a ship to Batavia (Jakarta) for supplies. Some relief arrived with the Second Fleet in 1790, but life was extremely hard for the first few years of the colony.

text: Convicts were usually sentenced to seven or fourteen years' penal servitude, or "for the term of their natural lives". Often these sentences had been commuted from the death sentence, which was technically the punishment for a wide variety of crimes. Upon arrival in a penal colony, convicts would be assigned to various kinds of work. Those with trades were given tasks to fit their skills (stonemasons, for example, were in very high demand) while the unskilled were assigned to work gangs to build roads and do other such tasks. Female convicts were usually assigned as domestic servants to the free settlers, many being forced into prostitution.[18]

text: Where possible, convicts were assigned to free settlers who would be responsible for feeding and disciplining them; in return for this, the settlers were granted land. This system reduced the workload on the central administration. Those convicts who weren't assigned to settlers were housed at barracks such as the Hyde Park Barracks or the Parramatta female factory.

text: Convict discipline was harsh; convicts who would not work or who disobeyed orders were punished by flogging, being put in stricter confinement (e.g. leg-irons), or being transported to a stricter penal colony. The penal colonies at Port Arthur and Moreton Bay, for instance, were stricter than the one at Sydney, and the one at Norfolk Island was strictest of all. Convicts were assigned to work gangs to build roads, buildings, and the like. Female convicts, who made up 20% of the convict population, were usually assigned as domestic help to soldiers. Those convicts who behaved were eventually issued with ticket of leave, which allowed them a certain degree of freedom. Those who saw out their full sentences or were granted a pardon usually remained in Australia as free settlers, and were able to take on convict servants themselves.

text: In 1789 former convict James Ruse produced the first successful wheat harvest in NSW. He repeated this success in 1790 and, because of the pressing need for food production in the colony, was rewarded by Governor Phillip with the first land grant made in New South Wales. Ruse's 30 acre grant at Rose Hill, near Parramatta, was aptly named 'Experiment Farm'.[19] This was the colony's first successful farming enterprise, and Ruse was soon joined by others. The colony began to grow enough food to support itself, and the standard of living for the residents gradually improved.

text: In 1804 the Castle Hill convict rebellion was led by around 200 escaped, mostly Irish convicts, although it was broken up quickly by the New South Wales Corps. On 26 January 1808, there was a military rebellion against Governor Bligh led by John Macarthur. Following this, Governor Lachlan Macquarie was given a mandate to restore government and discipline in the colony. When he arrived in 1810, he forcibly deported the NSW Corps and brought the 73rd regiment to replace them.

text:
13 May 1787 – The 11 ships of the First Fleet leave Portsmouth under the command of Captain Arthur Phillip. Different accounts give varying numbers of passengers but the fleet consisted of at least 1,350 persons of whom 780 were convicts and 570 were free men, women and children and the number included four companies of marines. About 20% of the convicts were women and the oldest convict was 82. About 50% of the convicts had been tried in Middlesex and most of the rest were tried in the county assizes of Devon, Kent and Sussex
18 January 1788 – The First Fleet arrived in Botany Bay but the landing party was not impressed with the site, and moved the fleet to Port Jackson, landing in Sydney Cove on 26 January 1788 (now celebrated as Australia Day)
April 1789 – A suspicious outbreak of smallpox decimates local tribes. Research by Michael J Bennett[20] published in 2009, corroborated independently by Christopher Warren[21] in 2013, demonstrates this outbreak was most likely deliberate.
1790 – the Second Fleet of convicts arrives in Sydney Cove.
1791 – Third Fleet of convicts arrives
1793 – January: the first free settlers arrive in NSW.
1793 – March–April: visit of the expedition led by Alessandro Malaspina.
1825 - May: Founding of Brisbane
14 June 1825 – the colony of Van Diemen's Land is established in its own right; its name is officially changed to Tasmania on 1 January 1856. The first settlement was made at Risdon, Tasmania on 11 September 1803 when Lieut John Bowen landed with about 50 settlers, crew, soldiers and convicts. The site proved unsuitable and was abandoned in August 1804. Lieut-Col David Collins finally established a successful settlement at Hobart in February 1804 with a party of about 260 people, including 178 convicts. (Collins had previously attempted a settlement in Victoria.) Convict ships were sent from England directly to the colony from 1812 to 1853 and over the 50 years from 1803–1853 around 67,000 convicts were transported to Tasmania. About 14,492 were Irish but many of them had been sentenced in English and Scottish courts. Some were also tried locally in other Australian colonies. The Indefatigable brought the first convicts direct from England on 19 October 1812 and by 1820 there were about 2,500 convicts in the colony. By the end of 1833 the number had increased to 14,900 convicts of whom 1864 were females. About 1,448 held ticket of leave, 6,573 were assigned to settlers and 275 were recorded as "absconded or missing". In 1835 there were over 800 convicts working in chain-gangs at the penal station at Port Arthur which operated from 1830 to 1877. Convicts were transferred to Van Diemen's Land from Sydney and, in later years, from 1841 to 1847, from Melbourne. Between 1826 and 1840, there were at least 19 ship loads of convicts sent from Van Diemen's Land to Norfolk Island and at other times they were sent from Norfolk Island to Van Diemen's Land.
21 January 1827 – Western Australia was established when a small British settlement was established at King George's Sound (Albany) by Major Edmund Lockyer who was to provide a deterrent to the French presence in the area. On 18 June 1829 the new Swan River Colony was officially proclaimed with Captain James Stirling as the first Governor. Except for the settlement at King George's Sound, the colony was never really a part of NSW. King George's Sound was handed over in 1831. In 1849 the colony was proclaimed a British penal settlement and the first convicts arrived in 1850. Rottnest Island, off the coast of Perth, became the colony's convict settlement in 1838 and was used for local colonial offenders. Around 9,720 British convicts were sent directly to the colony in 43 ships between 1850 and 1868. The convicts were sought by local settlers because of the shortage of labour needed to develop the region. On 9 January 1868, Australia's last convict ship, the Hougoumont brought its final cargo of 269 convicts. Convicts sent to Western Australia were sentenced to terms of 6, 7, 10, 14 and 15 years and some reports suggest that their literacy rate was around 75% as opposed to 50% for those sent to NSW and Tasmania. About a third of the convicts left the Swan River Colony after serving their time.
1835 – the Proclamation of Governor Bourke, issued by the Colonial Office and sent to the Governor with Despatch 99 of 10 October 1835, implements the doctrine of terra nullius upon which British settlement was based. Reinforcing the British assertion that the land belonged to no one prior to the British Crown taking possession of it, it effectively quashes pre-existing treaties with Aboriginal peoples (e.g. that signed by John Batman). Its publication in the Colony means that from then on, all people found occupying land without the authority of the government would be considered illegal trespassers. Aboriginal people therefore could not sell or assign the land, nor could an individual person acquire it, other than through distribution by the Crown.[22]
28 December 1836 – the British province of South Australia was established. In 1842 it became a crown colony and on 22 July 1861 its area was extended westwards to its present boundary and more area was taken from New South Wales. South Australia was never a British convict colony and between 1836–1840 about 13,400 immigrants arrived in the area. 24,900 more arrived between 1841–1850. Some escaped convicts did settle in the area and no doubt a number of ex-convicts moved there from other colonies. On 4 January 1837 Governor Hindmarsh proclaimed that any offenders convicted in South Australia, and being under sentence of transportation, were to be transported to either New South Wales or Van Diemens Land, by the first opportunity.[23]
1841 – New Zealand is separated from New South Wales
1851 – Victoria is separated from New South Wales (formerly known as the Port Phillip District of NSW). Apart from castaways and runaway convicts in the 1790s, the first attempt at settlement was made on 13 October 1803 by Lieut. David Collins and his party of soldiers and convicts. Harsh conditions convinced him to abandon the settlement in January 1804. He moved on to Tasmania and it was not until the Henty brothers landed in Portland Bay on 19 November 1834 and John Batman settled on the site of Melbourne that the Port Phillip District was officially sanctioned on 10 April 1837. The first immigrant ships arrived at Port Phillip in 1839. Apart from those involved in early attempts at settlement in 1803 and 1826, the only convicts sent directly to Victoria from Britain were about 1,750 convicts known as the "Exiles" and they arrived between 1844–1849. They were sometimes called the "Pentonvillians" because most of them came from Pentonville Probationary Prison in England. Many ex-convicts and convicts on Tickets of Leave and Conditional Pardons also moved to Port Phillip from Van Diemen's Land.
10 December 1859 – Queensland is separated from New South Wales. In 1824 the explorer Lieut. John Oxley took a party of 30 convicts and established a penal colony at Redcliffe. Known as the Moreton Bay Settlement, this later moved to the site now called Brisbane. The name Brisbane Town was in use by 1825 and the main inhabitants in the area were the convicts of the Moreton Bay Penal Station until it was closed in 1839. Around 2,280 convicts were sent to the settlement between 1824–1839 and at the end of 1836 the convict population numbered 337. The first free settlers moved to the district in 1838 and others followed in 1840.
23 December 1862 – the area of Queensland is increased.
1863 – control of the Northern Territory is granted to the Province (later State) of South Australia. In 1825 the area occupied today by Northern Territory was incorporated into the colony of New South Wales. It was first settled by Europeans in 1824 at Fort Dundas, Port Essington. Its capital city, Darwin was established in 1869 and was originally known as Palmerston. On 1 January 1911, the Northern Territory as we know it today was separated from South Australia and became part of the Commonwealth of Australia.
1 January 1901 – the Federation of Australian States to form the Commonwealth of Australia.
1911 – The Federal Capital Territory is established.

text: Exploration[edit]

text: In October 1795 George Bass and Matthew Flinders, accompanied by William Martin sailed the boat Tom Thumb out of Port Jackson to Botany Bay and explored the Georges River further upstream than had been done previously by the colonists. Their reports on their return led to the settlement of Banks' Town.[25] In March 1796 the same party embarked on a second voyage in a similar small boat, which they also called the Tom Thumb.[26] During this trip they travelled as far down the coast as Lake Illawarra, which they called Tom Thumb Lagoon. They discovered and explored Port Hacking. In 1798–99, Bass and Flinders set out in a sloop and circumnavigated Van Diemen's Land, thus proving it to be an island.[27]

text: Aboriginal guides and assistance in the European exploration of the colony were common and often vital to the success of missions. In 1801–02 Matthew Flinders in The Investigator lead the first circumnavigation of Australia. Aboard ship was the Aboriginal explorer Bungaree, of the Sydney district, who became the first person born on the Australian continent to circumnavigate the Australian continent.[27] Previously, the famous Bennelong and a companion had become the first people born in the area of New South Wales to sail for Europe, when, in 1792 they accompanied Governor Phillip to England and were presented to King George III.[27]

text: In 1813, Gregory Blaxland, William Lawson and William Wentworth succeeded in crossing the formidable barrier of forested gulleys and sheer cliffs presented by the Blue Mountains, west of Sydney, by following the ridges instead of looking for a route through the valleys. At Mount Blaxland they looked out over "enough grass to support the stock of the colony for thirty years", and expansion of the British settlement into the interior could begin.[28]

text: In 1824 the Governor Sir Thomas Brisbane, commissioned Hamilton Hume and former Royal Navy Captain William Hovell to lead an expedition to find new grazing land in the south of the colony, and also to find an answer to the mystery of where New South Wales's western rivers flowed. Over 16 weeks in 1824–25, Hume and Hovell journeyed to Port Phillip and back. They made many important discoveries including the Murray River (which they named the Hume), many of its tributaries, and good agricultural and grazing lands between Gunning, New South Wales and Corio Bay, Victoria.[29]

text: Charles Sturt led an expedition along the Macquarie River in 1828 and discovered the Darling River. A theory had developed that the inland rivers of New South Wales were draining into an inland sea. Leading a second expedition in 1829, Sturt followed the Murrumbidgee River into a 'broad and noble river', the Murray River, which he named after Sir George Murray, secretary of state for the colonies. His party then followed this river to its junction with the Darling River, facing two threatening encounters with local Aboriginal people along the way. Sturt continued down river on to Lake Alexandrina, where the Murray meets the sea in South Australia. Suffering greatly, the party had to then row back upstream hundreds of kilometres for the return journey.[30]

text: Surveyor General Sir Thomas Mitchell conducted a series of expeditions from the 1830s to 'fill in the gaps' left by these previous expeditions. He was meticulous in seeking to record the original Aboriginal place names around the colony, for which reason the majority of place names to this day retain their Aboriginal titles.[31]

text: The Polish scientist/explorer Count Paul Edmund Strzelecki conducted surveying work in the Australian Alps in 1839 and became the first European to ascend Australia's highest peak, which he named Mount Kosciuszko in honour of the Polish patriot Tadeusz Kosciuszko.[32]

text: Growth of free settlement[edit]

text: Traditional Aboriginal society had been governed by councils of elders and a corporate decision-making process, but the first European-style governments established after 1788 were autocratic and run by appointed governors – although English law was transplanted into the Australian colonies by virtue of the doctrine of reception, thus notions of the rights and processes established by the Magna Carta and the Bill of Rights 1689 were brought from Britain by the colonists. Agitation for representative government began soon after the settlement of the colonies.[33]

text: The Second Fleet in 1790 brought to Sydney two men who were to play important roles in the colony's future. One was D'Arcy Wentworth, whose son, William Charles, went on to be an explorer, to found Australia's first newspaper and to become a leader of the movement to abolish convict transportation and establish representative government. The other was John Macarthur, a Scottish army officer and founder of the Australian wool industry, which laid the foundations of Australia's future prosperity. Macarthur was a turbulent element: in 1808 he was one of the leaders of the Rum Rebellion against the governor, William Bligh.

text: From about 1815 the colony, under the governorship of Lachlan Macquarie, began to grow rapidly as free settlers arrived and new lands were opened up for farming. Despite the long and arduous sea voyage, settlers were attracted by the prospect of making a new life on virtually free Crown land. From the late 1820s settlement was only authorised in the limits of location, known as the Nineteen Counties.

text: Many settlers occupied land without authority and beyond these authorised settlement limits: they were known as squatters and became the basis of a powerful landowning class. As a result of opposition from the labouring and artisan classes, transportation of convicts to Sydney ended in 1840, although it continued in the smaller colonies of Van Diemen's Land (first settled in 1803, later renamed Tasmania) and Moreton Bay (founded 1824, and later renamed Queensland) for a few years more.

text: The Swan River Settlement (as Western Australia was originally known), centred on Perth, was founded in 1829. The colony suffered from a long-term shortage of labour, and by 1850 local capitalists had succeeded in persuading London to send convicts. (Transportation did not end until 1868.) New Zealand was part of New South Wales until 1840 when it became a separate colony.

text: The first governments established after 1788 were autocratic and each colony was governed by a British Governor, appointed by the British monarch. There was considerable unhappiness with the way some of the colonies were run. In most cases the administration of the early colonies was carried out by the British military. The New South Wales Corps, which was in charge of New South Wales, became known as the "Rum Corps", due to its stranglehold on the distribution of rum, which was used as a makeshift currency at the time. In New South Wales this led to the "Rum Rebellion". Although English law was transplanted into the Australian colonies by virtue of the doctrine of reception, thus notions of the rights and processes established by the Magna Carta and the Bill of Rights 1689 were brought from Britain by the colonists. Agitation for representative government began soon after the settlement of the colonies.[33]

text: The oldest legislative body in Australia, the New South Wales Legislative Council, was created in 1825 as an appointed body to advise the Governor of New South Wales. William Wentworth established the Australian Patriotic Association (Australia's first political party) in 1835 to demand democratic government for New South Wales. The reformist attorney general, John Plunkett, sought to apply Enlightenment principles to governance in the colony, pursuing the establishment of equality before the law, first by extending jury rights to emancipists, then by extending legal protections to convicts, assigned servants and Aborigines. Plunkett twice charged the colonist perpetrators of the Myall Creek massacre of Aborigines with murder, resulting in a conviction and his landmark Church Act of 1836 disestablished the Church of England and established legal equality between Anglicans, Catholics, Presbyterians and later Methodists.[34]

text: In 1840, the Adelaide City Council and the Sydney City Council were established. Men who possessed 1000 pounds worth of property were able to stand for election and wealthy landowners were permitted up to four votes each in elections. Australia's first parliamentary elections were conducted for the New South Wales Legislative Council in 1843, again with voting rights (for males only) tied to property ownership or financial capacity. Voter rights were extended further in New South Wales in 1850 and elections for legislative councils were held in the colonies of Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania.[35]

text: By the mid-19th century, there was a strong desire for representative and responsible government in the colonies of Australia, later fed by the democratic spirit of the goldfields and the ideas of the great reform movements sweeping Europe, the United States and the British Empire. The end of convict transportation accelerated reform in the 1840s and 1850s. The Australian Colonies Government Act [1850] was a landmark development which granted representative constitutions to New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania and the colonies enthusiastically set about writing constitutions which produced democratically progressive parliaments – though the constitutions generally maintained the role of the colonial upper houses as representative of social and economic "interests" and all established constitutional monarchies with the British monarch as the symbolic head of state.[36]

text: Timeline[edit]

text:
1788 – New South Wales, according to Arthur Phillip's amended Commission dated 25 April 1787, includes "all the islands adjacent in the Pacific Ocean" and running westward to the 135th meridian east. These islands included the current islands of New Zealand, which was administered as part of New South Wales.[a]
1824 — Brisbane is founded
1825 – New South Wales's western border is extended to 129° E. In the same year, Van Diemen's Land is proclaimed.
1829 – Swan River Colony is declared by Charles Fremantle for Britain.
1832 – Swan River Colony has its name changed to Western Australia.
1836 – South Australia is proclaimed with its western border at 132° E.
1840 – New Zealand is proclaimed.
1846 – The colony of North Australia was proclaimed by Letters Patent on 17 February. This was all of New South Wales north of 26° S. Although revoked in December 1846, the colony did formally exist.

text: Economy and trade[edit]

text: The colonies relied heavily on imports from England for survival. The official currency of the colonies was the British pound, but the unofficial currency and most readily accepted trade good was rum. During this period Australian businessmen began to prosper. For example, the partnership of Berry and Wollstonecraft made enormous profits by means of land grants, convict labour, and exporting native cedar back to England.

text: Religion, education, and culture[edit]

text: Since time immemorial in Australia, indigenous people had performed the rites and rituals of the animist religion of the Dreamtime. The permanent presence of Christianity in Australia however, came with the arrival of the First Fleet of British convict ships at Sydney in 1788. As a British colony, the predominant Christian denomination was the Church of England, but one-tenth of all the convicts who came to Australia on the First Fleet were Catholic, and at least half of them were born in Ireland.[37]

text: A small proportion of British marines were also Catholic. Some of the Irish convicts had been Transported to Australia for political crimes or social rebellion in Ireland, so the authorities were suspicious of the minority religion for the first three decades of settlement.[38] It was therefore the crew of the French explorer La Pérouse who conducted the first Catholic ceremony on Australian soil in 1788 – the burial of Father Louis Receveur, a Franciscan monk, who died while the ships were at anchor at Botany Bay, while on a mission to explore the Pacific.[39]

text: In early colonial times, Church of England clergy worked closely with the governors. Richard Johnson, Anglican chaplain to the First Fleet, was charged by the governor, Arthur Phillip, with improving "public morality" in the colony, but he was also heavily involved in health and education.[40] The Reverend Samuel Marsden (1765–1838) had magisterial duties, and so was equated with the authorities by the convicts. He became known as the 'floging parson' for the severity of his punishments[41]

text: Catholic convicts were compelled to attend Church of England services and their children and orphans were raised by the authorities as Protestant.[42] The first Catholic priest colonists arrived in Australia as convicts in 1800 – James Harold, James Dixon, and Peter O'Neill, who had been convicted for 'complicity' in the Irish 1798 Rebellion. Fr Dixon was conditionally emancipated and permitted to celebrate Mass. On 15 May 1803, in vestments made from curtains and with a chalice made of tin he conducted the first Catholic Mass in New South Wales.[42]

text: The Irish led Castle Hill Rebellion of 1804 alarmed the British authorities and Dixon's permission to celebrate Mass was revoked. Fr Jeremiah Flynn, an Irish Cistercian, was appointed as Prefect Apostolic of New Holland, and set out from Britain for the colony, uninvited. Watched by authorities, Flynn secretly performed priestly duties before being arrested and deported to London. Reaction to the affair in Britain led to two further priests being allowed to travel to the Colony in 1820 – John Joseph Therry and Philip Connolly.[38] The foundation stone for the first St Mary's Cathedral, Sydney was laid on 29 October 1821 by Governor Lachlan Macquarie.

text: The absence of a Catholic mission in Australia before 1818 reflected the legal disabilities of Catholics in Britain and the difficult position of Ireland within the British Empire. The government therefore endorsed the English Benedictines to lead the early Church in the Colony.[43] The Church of England lost its legal privileges in the Colony of New South Wales by the Church Act of 1836. Drafted by the reformist attorney-general John Plunkett, the Act established legal equality for Anglicans, Catholics and Presbyterians and was later extended to Methodists.[44] Catholic missionary William Ullathorne criticised the convict system, publishing a pamphlet, The Horrors of Transportation Briefly Unfolded to the People, in Britain in 1837.[45] Laywoman Caroline Chisolm did ecumenical work to alleviate the suffering of female migrants.

text: Initially, education was informal, primarily occurring in the home.[citation needed] At the instigation of the then British Prime Minister, the Duke of Wellington, and with the patronage of King William IV, Australia's oldest surviving independent school, The King's School, Parramatta, was founded in 1831 as part of an effort to establish grammar schools in the colony.[46] By 1833, there were around ten Catholic schools in the Australian colonies.[38] Today one in five Australian students attend Catholic schools.[47]

text: Sydney's first Catholic Bishop, John Bede Polding requested a community of nuns be sent to the colony and five Irish Sisters of Charity arrived in 1838 to set about pastoral care of convict women and work in schools and hospitals before going on to found their own schools and hospitals.[48] At Polding's request, the Christian Brothers arrived in Sydney in 1843 to assist in schools. Establishing themselves first at Sevenhill, in South Australia in 1848, the Jesuits were the first religious order of priests to enter and establish houses in South Australia, Victoria, Queensland and the Northern Territory – where they established schools and missions.

text: Some Australian folksongs date to this period.

text: Among the first true works of Australian literature produced over this period was the accounts of the settlement of Sydney by Watkin Tench, a captain of the marines on the First Fleet to arrive in 1788. In 1819, poet, explorer, journalist and politician William Wentworth published the first book written by an Australian: A Statistical, Historical, and Political Description of the Colony of New South Wales and Its Dependent Settlements in Van Diemen's Land, With a Particular Enumeration of the Advantages Which These Colonies Offer for Emigration and Their Superiority in Many Respects Over Those Possessed by the United States of America,[49] in which he advocated an elected assembly for New South Wales, trial by jury and settlement of Australia by free emigrants rather than convicts. In 1838 The Guardian: a tale by Anna Maria Bunn was published in Sydney. It was the first Australian novel printed and published in mainland Australia and the first Australian novel written by a woman. It is a Gothic romance.[50]

text: European traditions of Australian theatre also came with the First Fleet, with the first production being performed in 1789 by convicts : The Recruiting Officer by George Farquhar.[51] Two centuries later, the extraordinary circumstances of the foundations of Australian theatre were recounted in Our Country's Good by Timberlake Wertenbaker: the participants were prisoners watched by sadistic guards and the leading lady was under threat of the death penalty. The play is based on Thomas Keneally's novel The Playmaker.[51] The Theatre Royal, Hobart, opened in 1837 and it remains the oldest theatre in Australia.[52] The Melbourne Athenaeum is one of the oldest public institutions in Australia, founded in 1839 and it served as library, school of arts and dance hall (and later became Australia's first cinema, screening The Story of the Kelly Gang, the world's first feature film in 1906).[53] The Queen's Theatre, Adelaide opened with Shakespeare in 1841 and is today the oldest theatre on the mainland.[54]

text: Aboriginal resistance[edit]

text: Aboriginal reactions to the sudden arrival of British settlers were varied, but often hostile when the presence of the colonisers led to competition over resources, and to the occupation by the British of Aboriginal lands. European diseases decimated Aboriginal populations, and the occupation or destruction of lands and food resources led to starvation. By contrast with New Zealand, where the Treaty of Waitangi was seen to legitimise British settlement, no treaty was signed with Aborigines, who never authorised British colonisation.

text: According to the historian Geoffrey Blainey, in Australia during the colonial period:

text: "In a thousand isolated places there were occasional shootings and spearings. Even worse, smallpox, measles, influenza and other new diseases swept from one Aboriginal camp to another... The main conqueror of Aborigines was to be disease and its ally, demoralisation".[55]

text: Since the 1980s, the use of the word "invasion" to describe the British colonisation of Australia has been highly controversial. According to Australian Henry Reynolds however, government officials and ordinary settlers in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries frequently used words such as "invasion" and "warfare" to describe their presence and relations with Indigenous Australians. In his book The Other Side of the Frontier,[56] Reynolds described in detail armed resistance by Aboriginal people to white encroachments by means of guerilla warfare, beginning in the eighteenth century and continuing into the early twentieth.

text: In the early years of colonisation, David Collins, the senior legal officer in the Sydney settlement, wrote of local Aborigines:

text: While they entertain the idea of our having dispossessed them of their residences, they must always consider us as enemies; and upon this principle they [have] made a point of attacking the white people whenever opportunity and safety concurred.[57]

text: In 1847, Western Australian barrister E.W. Landor stated: "We have seized upon the country, and shot down the inhabitants, until the survivors have found it expedient to submit to our rule. We have acted as Julius Caesar did when he took possession of Britain."[58] In most cases, Reynolds says, Aborigines initially resisted British presence. In a letter to the Launceston Advertiser in 1831, a settler wrote:

text: We are at war with them: they look upon us as enemies – as invaders – as oppressors and persecutors – they resist our invasion. They have never been subdued, therefore they are not rebellious subjects, but an injured nation, defending in their own way, their rightful possessions which have been torn from them by force.[59]

text: Reynolds quotes numerous writings by settlers who, in the first half of the nineteenth century, described themselves as living in fear and even in terror due to attacks by Aborigines determined to kill them or drive them off their lands. He argues that Aboriginal resistance was, in some cases at least, temporarily effective; the Aboriginal killings of men, sheep and cattle, and burning of white homes and crops, drove some settlers to ruin. Aboriginal resistance continued well beyond the middle of the nineteenth century, and in 1881 the editor of The Queenslander wrote:

text: During the last four or five years the human life and property destroyed by the aborigines in the North total up to a serious amount. [...] [S]ettlement on the land, and the development of the mineral and other resources on the country, have been in a great degree prohibited by the hostility of the blacks, which still continues with undiminished spirit.[60]

text: Reynolds argues that continuous Aboriginal resistance for well over a century belies the "myth" of peaceful settlement in Australia. Settlers in turn often reacted to Aboriginal resistance with great violence, resulting in numerous indiscriminate massacres by whites of Aboriginal men, women and children.[61] Among the most famous massacres of the early nineteenth century were the Pinjarra massacre and the Myall Creek massacre.

text: Famous Aborigines who resisted British colonisation in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries include Pemulwuy and Yagan. In Tasmania, the "Black War" was fought in the first half of the nineteenth century.

text: Representations in literature and film[edit]

text:
Marcus Clarke's 1874 novel, For the Term of his Natural Life, and the 1983 television adaptation of the novel.
Eleanor Dark's 1947 Timeless Land trilogy, which spans the colonisation from 1788–1811. The 1980s television drama, The Timeless Land, was based on this trilogy.
D. Manning Richards. Destiny in Sydney: An epic novel of convicts, Aborigines, and Chinese embroiled in the birth of Sydney, Australia. First book in Sydney series. Washington DC: Aries Books, 2012. ISBN 978-0-9845410-0-3


document_title: The Great Gilly Hopkins (film)

question_text: who plays mr randolph in the great gilly hopkins

text: The Great Gilly Hopkins (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: Gilly Hopkins is the meanest girl in town: she has a birth mother she has never seen and has moved from one foster home to another. Learning that she will be sent to a new home, she wastes no time stirring up trouble. Then she meets a woman named Trotter, who wants to be the mother Gilly needs. With Gilly posing a challenge, Trotter must prove a good relationship will benefit both of them.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Sophie Nélisse as Gilly Hopkins[2]
Kathy Bates as Maime Trotter[2]
Glenn Close as Nonnie Hopkins[2]
Julia Stiles as Courtney Rutherford Hopkins[3]
Zachary Hernandez as W.E. (William Ernest)
Bill Cobbs as Mr. Randolph[3]
Octavia Spencer as Miss Harris[2]
Billy Magnussen as	Ellis[4]
Clare Foley as Agnes
Sammy Pignalosa as Rajeem
Toby Turner as Ticket Agent

text: Production[edit]

text: On February 8, 2013, it was announced that Stephen Herek would direct an adaption of The Great Gilly Hopkins, with Kathy Bates and Danny Glover set to star in the film.[5] On February 6, 2014, Sophie Nélisse, Glenn Close and Octavia Spencer joined the cast of the film.[2] On May 9, 2014, Julia Stiles and Bill Cobbs joined the cast of the film. Cobbs replaced Glover, who dropped out due to scheduling conflicts.[3] Principal photography began on April 9, 2014, and ended on June 15, 2014.[6][7]

text: Release[edit]

text: The film premiered on October 6, 2015, at the SCHLINGEL International Film Festival.[8] Lionsgate Premiere acquired distribution rights, and set the film for an October 7, 2016, release.[9]