document_title: Gilmore Girls (season 7)

question_text: who does lorelai end up with at the end of the series

text: Gilmore Girls (season 7)

text: Overview[edit]

text: The season picks up with Lorelai having slept with Christopher immediately after ending her engagement to Luke, while Rory is attempting a long-distance relationship with Logan. Lorelai and Christopher attempt a relationship and, after going to Paris together, come back married. The marriage lasts until midway through the season but Christopher struggles to fit into Lorelai's life in Stars Hollow. Luke learns Anna is moving to New Mexico with April and applies for joint custody, winning after Lorelai gives him a glowing character reference. Christopher finds out and he and Lorelai argue, with Christopher feeling like second choice. Richard, who has just started working at Yale as a lecturer, has a heart attack during a class and Christopher stays away from the hospital while everyone worries about him. He and Lorelai eventually admit their marriage isn't right and split. Emily struggles with the finances while Richard is convalescing and Lorelai helps her out.

text: Lane comes back from her honeymoon pregnant with twins. Her mother moves in with her and Zach, sending Brian to live with her relatives, but is eventually convinced to back off, with Lane giving birth to sons Steve and Kwan. Sookie also becomes pregnant for the third time, since Jackson never had the vasectomy she arranged for him. Michel's dog Chin Chin dies and Lorelai organises a memorial at the inn. Luke sells the boat he inherited from his father to Kirk and buys a larger one so he can take a trip with April over the summer, but she has to cancel when she is accepted to science camp.

text: Rory and Logan try to spend time together while he works in London and New York. Rory feels awkward living in his old apartment rent-free so moves back in with Paris and Doyle. She also befriends Lucy and Olivia, two girls she met at an art exhibition. Lucy's boyfriend turns out to be Marty, who pretends not to know Rory. Rory goes along with it, upsetting Lucy when Logan tells her the truth, but Lucy breaks up with Marty and reconciles with Rory. Logan pursues a software deal against Mitchum's wishes, losing his trust fund and costing the company a multimillion-dollar lawsuit for patent infringement. Logan resigns and takes a job in San Francisco. Paris is accepted into every grad school she applies to but Rory is rejected for an internship. In the penultimate episode, Paris and Doyle depart for Harvard Medical. Logan proposes to Rory at a graduation party thrown by Richard and Emily but she turns him down, not willing to put him ahead of her career, and he breaks up with her.

text: In the series finale, Rory gets a job covering Barack Obama's election campaign for an online newspaper but has to leave in three days, throwing off plans for a graduation re-enactment. Luke organises the town in throwing a farewell party for her. Emily tries to find a way to get involved in the running of the inn to stay close to Lorelai but Lorelai assures her she will keep attending Friday night dinners. Lorelai and Luke share a kiss at the party and the show's run ends with Lorelai and Rory sharing a last breakfast at Luke's diner.

text: Cast[edit]

text: Main cast[edit]

text:
Lauren Graham as Lorelai Gilmore
Alexis Bledel as Rory Gilmore
Scott Patterson as Luke Danes
Melissa McCarthy as Sookie St. James
Keiko Agena as Lane Kim
Yanic Truesdale as Michel Gerard
Liza Weil as Paris Geller
Sean Gunn as Kirk Gleason
Matt Czuchry as Logan Huntzberger
Kelly Bishop as Emily Gilmore
Edward Herrmann as Richard Gilmore

text: Recurring cast[edit]

text:
David Sutcliffe as Christopher Hayden
Liz Torres as Miss Patty
Sally Struthers as Babette Dell
Jackson Douglas as Jackson Belleville
Emily Kuroda as Mrs. Kim
Michael Winters as Taylor Doose
Kathleen Wilhoite as Liz Danes
Michael DeLuise as TJ
Ted Rooney as Morey Dell
Todd Lowe as Zach Van Gerbig
John Cabrera as Brian Fuller
Sebastian Bach as Gil
Danny Strong as Doyle McMaster
Gregg Henry as Mitchum Huntzberger
Sherilyn Fenn as Anna Nardini
Vanessa Marano as April Nardini
Krysten Ritter as Lucy
Michelle Ongkingco as Olivia Marquont

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
Prod.
code
U.S. viewers
(millions) [4]

132
1
"The Long Morrow"
Lee Shallat-Chemel
David S. Rosenthal
September 26, 2006 (2006-09-26)
2T7751
4.48

Picking up on the day after last season's finale, Lorelai wakes up in bed with Christopher. Confused and mortified, she makes a hasty exit, ignoring Christopher's pleas that she stay. Once at home, Lorelai tries to get rid of everything that reminds her of Luke and ends up practically emptying her house. Rory receives a toy rocket ship as a parting gift from Logan and is baffled as to its meaning. She decides she should join him in London for the summer, only to learn he has bought her a ticket for a visit at Christmas. Lorelai reveals to Luke that she slept with Christopher after he pleas for her to marry him.[5]

133
2
"That's What You Get, Folks, for Makin' Whoopee"
Bethany Rooney
Rebecca Rand Kirshner
October 3, 2006 (2006-10-03)
2T7752
4.62

Rory is upset over Logan's absence and the fact that they had to cancel their long-planned trip to Asia. Wanting to cheer Rory up and take her mind off her own sad love life, Lorelai turns her house into an Asian-themed wonderland. Meanwhile, Lane returns from her disastrous honeymoon and finds out she's pregnant. While repairing the damage to the diner, Luke tells TJ about his break-up with Lorelai. Finally, Rory is furious when she learns that Lorelai slept with Christopher.

134
3
"Lorelai's First Cotillion"
Lee Shallat-Chemel
Rina Mimoun
October 10, 2006 (2006-10-10)
2T7753
4.71

When Richard and Emily have no real reaction to the news of her break up, Lorelai suddenly realizes that most of her emotional life has been based on doing and feeling the opposite of whatever her parents want. Later, when Michel forces Lorelai to attend Emily's cotillion dance, Lorelai discovers that some things her parents wanted for her weren't really that terrible. Meanwhile, Rory has a tough time making her long-distance relationship work.

135
4
"'S Wonderful, 'S Marvelous"
Victor Nelli, Jr.
Gayle Abrams
October 17, 2006 (2006-10-17)
2T7754
4.77

Lorelai and Christopher have begun to date, and although Lorelai is finding it difficult to fully commit to the relationship, Christopher keeps coming up with romantic dates to win her over. Back at Yale, Rory meets some eccentric new girlfriends at an art exhibit, and Richard becomes a guest lecturer. April comes to stay with Luke for a few weeks while Anna is out of town. Finally, Emily gets arrested and Lorelai has to bail her out of jail. First appearance of Olivia and Lucy.

136
5
"The Great Stink"
Michael Schultz
Gina Fattore
October 24, 2006 (2006-10-24)
2T7755
4.73

Emily and Richard are delighted when Lorelai and Christopher attend Friday night dinner together as a couple. Christopher reveals that Sherry has written him a letter saying she regrets leaving their daughter, Gigi, and asking him to send Gigi to visit her in Paris. Lorelai can't believe that Chris would consider this and they get into an argument over dinner. Logan returns to town on business to acquire an internet company and pays Rory a surprise visit. Rory is thrilled, but during a dinner with Logan's colleagues, she realizes that she has no connection to his new life.

137
6
"Go, Bulldogs!"
Wil Shriner
David S. Rosenthal, Rebecca Rand Kirshner
November 7, 2006 (2006-11-07)
2T7757
4.34

Christopher talks Lorelai into visiting Rory at Yale during Parents' Weekend, and Lorelai is surprised to find that Richard and Emily are also there. Trying to prove how cool he is, Christopher invites all of Rory's co-workers on the "Yale Daily News" to an expensive lunch where they all drink too much. The meal ends abruptly when Rory insists they leave to cover a breaking story. Meanwhile, Luke meets April's swimming coach, who convinces him to take her adult swimming class. When the coach flirts with him, Luke asks her out on a date.

138
7
"French Twist"
Lee Shallat-Chemel
David Babcock
November 14, 2006 (2006-11-14)
2T7756
4.51

Christopher and Lorelai take his daughter Gigi to visit her mother in Paris. Despite severe jet lag, they manage to have a wonderful, romantic time enjoying the city and each other. Rory comes to the end of her tenure as Editor-in-Chief of the "Yale Daily News" and suddenly finds herself unsure of her future. Her new friends Olivia (Michelle Ongkingco) and Lucy (Krysten Ritter)suggest a trip to Stars Hollow for a girls' night. When they return, Rory is surprised to find that Lucy's new boyfriend is her old friend Marty, who pretends not to know Rory. Miss Kim wants Lane and Zack to move in, then wants to move in with them when they aren't interested. Christopher and Lorelai return home with a surprise, that they are now Mr. and Mrs. Hayden.

139
8
"Introducing Lorelai Planetarium"
Lee Shallat-Chemel
Jennie Snyder
November 21, 2006 (2006-11-21)
2T7758
4.20

Rory goes home to Stars Hollow to have dinner with her parents, where it is revealed that they eloped while in Paris. Rory pretends to be happy, but later reveals her anger to Lorelai. Logan comes back to town for a launch party, which Rory attends and about which she later writes a judgmental article. Due to accusations by Logan, Rory plans to find a new apartment. Meanwhile, Luke turns to Lorelai in a time of medical emergency with April.

140
9
"Knit, People, Knit!"
Lee Shallat-Chemel
David Grae
November 28, 2006 (2006-11-28)
2T7759
4.89

Here comes the birth of Liz's baby delivered by a midwife. Luke is informed of the news. A "knitathon festival" takes place in Stars Hollow, where Christopher donates substantially. Chris and Lorelai tell Emily and Richard about their marriage.

141
10
"Merry Fisticuffs"
Jackson Douglas
David S. Rosenthal
December 5, 2006 (2006-12-05)
2T7760
4.81

Emily throws an extravagant party. Meanwhile, Luke talks to a lawyer about partial custody over April. Something big happens between Luke and Christopher. St. Nick might bring more than fruitcake this season.

142
11
"Santa's Secret Stuff"
Lee Shallat-Chemel
Rebecca Rand Kirshner
January 23, 2007 (2007-01-23)
2T7761
3.72

Lorelai and Christopher decide to put their Christmas holidays on hold while Rory is in London over the holidays, Once Rory returns to Stars Hollow, they decorate several Christmas trees, do their shopping and even bake Christmas cookies for the first time as a family. Turning up unexpectedly at the inn, Luke asks Lorelai to write a character recommendation letter for his custody battle over April. Lorelai struggles to write the letter until she and Rory run into Luke and April at the mall and Lorelai suddenly remembers how important Luke has always been in Rory's life. Inspired, Lorelai writes the letter and mails it to Luke's attorney. Rory decides she will write an apology letter to her friend Lucy, explaining why she and Marty kept their past friendship a secret.

143
12
"To Whom It May Concern"
Jamie Babbit
David Babcock
January 30, 2007 (2007-01-30)
2T7762
4.27

Noticing Sookie's recent odd behavior, Lorelai forces Jackson to tell her the reason. Luke and Anna attend a hearing to decide their custody battle over April. With help from Paris, Rory finally makes amends with Lucy, who tells her that she and Marty have broken up. While attending Richard's economics class at Yale, Rory witnesses a frightening scene. Finally, Christopher finds the letter Lorelai wrote for Luke's character reference and confronts Lorelai about whether he was her second choice.

144
13
"I'd Rather Be in Philadelphia"
Lee Shallat-Chemel
Rebecca Rand Kirshner
February 6, 2007 (2007-02-06)
2T7763
4.70

Lorelai and Rory receive unexpected comfort and some grief while at the hospital and at Richard's side: Christopher won't return Lorelai's calls, but Luke is there for her and the family. Emily is so distraught that she tries to distract herself by maintaining her rigorous social calendar with Luke offering to help her out in keeping up her appearances. Rory is met by Logan, who flies to the hospital in a helicopter. When Christopher finally does arrive, he speaks words of sympathy to Lorelai, but his emotions betray him: he's still mad at her from their fight

145
14
"Farewell, My Pet"
Jamie Babbit
Jennie Snyder
February 13, 2007 (2007-02-13)
2T7764
4.37

Rory quickly develops a crush on Richard's replacement teaching assistant and feels compelled to confess the attraction to Logan. But she feels really bad about it and he completely understands and the two of them reassure each other that in the end they are crazy about each other. Meanwhile, Lorelai distracts herself from thinking about Christopher by arranging a memorial service for Michel's dog. Christopher seeks her out, however, and the two are forced to face their problems. Christopher feels like he's been trying to get Lorelai to fall in love with him, and Lorelai realizes she still has feelings for Luke. Lorelai and Christopher end their marriage.

146
15
"I Am Kayak, Hear Me Roar"
Lee Shallat-Chemel
Rebecca Rand Kirshner
February 20, 2007 (2007-02-20)
2T7765
4.04

Lorelai puts off telling her parents about her separation from Christopher by helping Emily to arrange Richard's recovery. Rory celebrates Logan's birthday, but bad news from Logan's business partner spoils their evening.

147
16
"Will You Be My Lorelai Gilmore?"
David Paymer
Gina Fattore, Gayle Abrams
February 27, 2007 (2007-02-27)
2T7766
4.17

Rory goes to meet with an editor from the New York Times just as she starts to put together Lane's baby shower. Lorelai takes over the production and has to arbitrate a disagreement between Lane and Mrs. Kim about how to raise the unborn children. Meanwhile, Luke decides to change his situation in life and buy a new boat. Logan comes home drunk and reveals to Rory his failed business venture, and then runs off to Las Vegas with his buddies.

148
17
"Gilmore Girls Only"
Lee Shallat-Chemel
David Babcock
March 6, 2007 (2007-03-06)
2T7767
4.47

Lorelai, Rory, and Emily take a road trip to North Carolina to attend Mia's wedding. Lane goes into labor. Finally, Lane and Zack ask Luke to be the godfather to their twins Steve and Kwan.

149
18
"Hay Bale Maze"
Stephen Clancy
Rebecca Rand Kirshner
April 17, 2007 (2007-04-17)
2T7768
3.83

During Stars Hollow's annual Spring Fling festival, a huge hay bale maze leads to a chance encounter for Luke and Lorelai, where they apologize to one another and talk about the problems that led to their engagement being called off. As Rory shows Logan around town, Lorelai begins to feel that Logan might be too irresponsible for her daughter. Meanwhile, Rory has a job interview with the Providence Journal Bulletin.

150
19
"It's Just Like Riding a Bike"
Lee Shallat-Chemel
Jennie Snyder
April 24, 2007 (2007-04-24)
2T7769
3.75

Lorelai heads to Luke's for her first breakfast there in a while -- overall, it's an awkward experience for them both. Later on, when Lorelai's Jeep breaks down, Luke helps her shop for a new car. They argue and fight, which Lorelai thinks is ultimately a good sign. Paris considers breaking up with Doyle so she can be free of influences when it comes to picking which law or medical school she will attend. Rory receives a letter that will certainly influence her future plans.

151
20
"Lorelai? Lorelai?"
Bethany Rooney
David S. Rosenthal
May 1, 2007 (2007-05-01)
2T7770
4.08

Rory stresses out as graduation approaches, which leads to a day of eating and shopping with Lorelai. Later, with Luke in tow, the Gilmores hit the bars, where Lorelai takes the stage for a karaoke number obviously intended for Luke. Logan returns from a business trip and looks to discuss his and Rory's future with Lorelai. After getting into a science camp, April tells Luke that she cannot go on the boating trip with him over the summer. Zach is asked to go on tour with another band.

152
21
"Unto the Breach"
Lee Shallat-Chemel
David Babcock, Jennie Snyder
May 8, 2007 (2007-05-08)
2T7771
3.96

Lorelai and Christopher are reunited at a party Emily and Richard throw in honor of Rory's graduation. Logan surprises everyone at the party by proposing to Rory, but she is too shocked to give him an answer. Then, on graduation day, Rory and Paris receive their diplomas, and Rory finally gives Logan her answer and says no. Meanwhile, Lorelai is embarrassed about her recent karaoke serenade to Luke, and Luke is hurt when he overhears her saying it didn't mean anything.

153
22
"Bon Voyage"
Lee Shallat-Chemel
David S. Rosenthal
May 15, 2007 (2007-05-15)
2T7772
4.90

Rory gets a job following the presidential campaign of one of the candidates running for president. While she prepares to leave in a mere three days, Lorelai adjusts to the idea that she may not see her daughter again for weeks, even months. Meanwhile, Luke is still trying to sort out how he really feels about Lorelai after they locked eyes at the karaoke jam. To see Rory off before she leaves for her new job, the entire town puts on a farewell party, despite the presence of rain.

text: DVD release[edit]

text:
The Complete Seventh Season[6]

Set details
Special features

22 episodes
6-disc set
1.33:1 aspect ratio
1.78:1 aspect ratio (international)
Subtitles: English
English (Dolby Digital 5 1 Surround)

Additional scene

"The Great Stink"

Gilmore Fashionistas
A Best Friend's Peek Inside the Gilmore Girls with Keiko Agena
Kirk's Town Tours
Who Wants to Talk Boys – Season Montage

Release dates

North America
United Kingdom
Continental Europe
Norway
Australia

November 13, 2007
August 30, 2010
November 25, 2007
November 14, 2007
April 9, 2008


document_title: Republic

question_text: who is in charge of a republic government

question_tokens: who is in charge of a republic government

root

text: Republic

text: Etymology[edit]

text: The term originates as the Latin translation of Greek word politeia. Cicero, among other Latin writers, translated politeia as res publica and it was in turn translated by Renaissance scholars as "republic" (or similar terms in various western European languages).[citation needed]

tag: p

text: The term politeia can be translated as form of government, polity, or regime and is therefore not always a word for a specific type of regime as the modern word republic is. One of Plato's major works on political science was titled Politeia and in English it is thus known as The Republic. However, apart from the title, in modern translations of The Republic, alternative translations of politeia are also used.[12]

text: However, in Book III of his Politics (1279a) Aristotle was apparently the first classical writer to state that the term politeia can be used to refer more specifically to one type of politeia: "When the citizens at large govern for the public good, it is called by the name common to all governments (to koinon onoma pasōn tōn politeiōn), government (politeia)". Also amongst classical Latin, the term "republic" can be used in a general way to refer to any regime, or in a specific way to refer to governments which work for the public good.[citation needed]

text: In medieval Northern Italy, a number of city states had commune or signoria based governments. In the late Middle Ages, writers such as Giovanni Villani began writing about the nature of these states and the differences from other types of regime. They used terms such as libertas populi, a free people, to describe the states. The terminology changed in the 15th century as the renewed interest in the writings of Ancient Rome caused writers to prefer using classical terminology. To describe non-monarchical states writers, most importantly Leonardo Bruni, adopted the Latin phrase res publica.[13]

text: While Bruni and Machiavelli used the term to describe the states of Northern Italy, which were not monarchies, the term res publica has a set of interrelated meanings in the original Latin. The term can quite literally be translated as "public matter".[14] It was most often used by Roman writers to refer to the state and government, even during the period of the Roman Empire.[15]

text: In subsequent centuries, the English word "commonwealth" came to be used as a translation of res publica, and its use in English was comparable to how the Romans used the term res publica.[16] Notably, during The Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell the word commonwealth was the most common term to call the new monarchless state, but the word republic was also in common use.[17] Likewise, in Polish the term was translated as rzeczpospolita, although the translation is now only used with respect to Poland.

text: Presently, the term "republic" commonly means a system of government which derives its power from the people rather than from another basis, such as heredity or divine right.[18]

text: History[edit]

text: While the philosophical terminology developed in classical Greece and Rome, as already noted by Aristotle there was already a long history of city states with a wide variety of constitutions, not only in Greece but also in the Middle East. After the classical period, during the Middle Ages, many free cities developed again, such as Venice.

text: Classical republics[edit]

text: The modern type of "republic" itself is different from any type of state found in the classical world.[19][20] Nevertheless, there are a number of states of the classical era that are today still called republics. This includes ancient Athens, Sparta and the Roman Republic. While the structure and governance of these states was very different from that of any modern republic, there is debate about the extent to which classical, medieval, and modern republics form a historical continuum. J. G. A. Pocock has argued that a distinct republican tradition stretches from the classical world to the present.[14][21] Other scholars disagree.[14] Paul Rahe, for instance, argues that the classical republics had a form of government with few links to those in any modern country.[22]

text: The political philosophy of the classical republics have in any case had an influence on republican thought throughout the subsequent centuries. Philosophers and politicians advocating for republics, such as Machiavelli, Montesquieu, Adams, and Madison, relied heavily on classical Greek and Roman sources which described various types of regimes.

text: Aristotle's Politics discusses various forms of government. One form Aristotle named politeia, which consisted of a mixture of the other forms. He argued that this was one of the ideal forms of government. Polybius expanded on many of these ideas, again focusing on the idea of mixed government. The most important Roman work in this tradition is Cicero's De re publica.

text: Over time, the classical republics were either conquered by empires or became ones themselves. Most of the Greek republics were annexed to the Macedonian Empire of Alexander. The Roman Republic expanded dramatically conquering the other states of the Mediterranean that could be considered republics, such as Carthage. The Roman Republic itself then became the Roman Empire.

text: Other ancient republics[edit]

text: The term "republic" is not commonly used to refer to pre-classical city states, especially if outside Europe and the area which was under Graeco-Roman influence.[14] However some early states outside Europe had governments that are sometimes today considered similar to republics.

text: In the ancient Near East, a number of cities of the Eastern Mediterranean achieved collective rule. Arwad has been cited as one of the earliest known examples of a republic, in which the people, rather than a monarch, are described as sovereign.[23] The Israelite confederation of the era before the United Monarchy has also been considered a type of republic.[14][24] In Africa the Axum Empire was organized as a confederation ruled similarly to a royal republic.[25] Similarly the Igbo nation of what is now Nigeria.[26]

text: Indian subcontinent[edit]

text: The ancient Indian subcontinent had a number of early republics known as Mahajanapadas.[27] Mahajanapadas consisted of sixteen oligarchic republics that existed during the sixth centuries BCE to fourth centuries BCE.[28][29] Some Indian scholars, such as K.P. Jayaswal, have argued that a number of states in ancient India had republican forms of government.[30][31][32] While there are no surviving constitutions or works of political philosophy from this period in Indian history, but surviving religious texts do refer to a number of states having sabhās or gaṇa sangha, a type of republic or council-based, as opposed to monarchical, government. Ancient Greek writers mention Alexander the Great encountering city states and regions where a council of elders ruled with paramount authority.[33]

text: Icelandic Commonwealth[edit]

text: The Icelandic Commonwealth was established in 930 AD by refugees from Norway who had fled the unification of that country under King Harald Fairhair. The Commonwealth consisted of a number of clans run by chieftains, and the Althing was a combination of parliament and supreme court where disputes appealed from lower courts were settled, laws were decided, and decisions of national importance were taken. One such example was the Christianisation of Iceland in 1000, where the Althing decreed, in order to prevent an invasion, that all Icelanders must be baptized, and forbade celebration of pagan rituals. Contrary to most states, the Icelandic Commonwealth had no official leader.

text: In the early 13th century, the Age of the Sturlungs, the Commonwealth began to suffer from long conflicts between warring clans. This, combined with pressure from the Norwegian king Haakon IV for the Icelanders to re-join the Norwegian "family", led the Icelandic chieftains to accept Haakon IV as king by the signing of the Gamli sáttmáli ("Old Covenant") in 1262. This effectively brought the Commonwealth to an end. The Althing, however, is still Iceland's parliament, almost 800 years later.[34]

text: Mercantile republics[edit]

text: In Europe new republics appeared in the late Middle Ages when a number of small states embraced republican systems of government. These were generally small, but wealthy, trading states, like the Italian city-states and the Hanseatic League, in which the merchant class had risen to prominence. Knud Haakonssen has noted that, by the Renaissance, Europe was divided with those states controlled by a landed elite being monarchies and those controlled by a commercial elite being republics.[16]

text: Across Europe a wealthy merchant class developed in the important trading cities. Despite their wealth they had little power in the feudal system dominated by the rural land owners, and across Europe began to advocate for their own privileges and powers. The more centralized states, such as France and England, granted limited city charters.

text: In the more loosely governed Holy Roman Empire, 51 of the largest towns became free imperial cities. While still under the dominion of the Holy Roman Emperor most power was held locally and many adopted republican forms of government.[35] The same rights to imperial immediacy were secured by the major trading cities of Switzerland. The towns and villages of alpine Switzerland had, courtesy of geography, also been largely excluded from central control. Unlike Italy and Germany, much of the rural area was thus not controlled by feudal barons, but by independent farmers who also used communal forms of government. When the Habsburgs tried to reassert control over the region both rural farmers and town merchants joined the rebellion. The Swiss were victorious, and the Swiss Confederacy was proclaimed, and Switzerland has retained a republican form of government to the present.[24]

text: Italy was the most densely populated area of Europe, and also one with the weakest central government. Many of the towns thus gained considerable independence and adopted commune forms of government. Completely free of feudal control, the Italian city-states expanded, gaining control of the rural hinterland.[35] The two most powerful were the Republic of Venice and its rival the Republic of Genoa. Each were large trading ports, and further expanded by using naval power to control large parts of the Mediterranean. It was in Italy that an ideology advocating for republics first developed. Writers such as Bartholomew of Lucca, Brunetto Latini, Marsilius of Padua, and Leonardo Bruni saw the medieval city-states as heirs to the legacy of Greece and Rome.

text: Two Russian cities with powerful merchant class—Novgorod and Pskov—also adopted republican forms of government in 12th and 13th centuries, respectively, which ended when the republics were conquered by Muscovy/Russia at the end 15th – beginning of 16th century.[36]

text: The dominant form of government for these early republics was control by a limited council of elite patricians. In those areas that held elections, property qualifications or guild membership limited both who could vote and who could run. In many states no direct elections were held and council members were hereditary or appointed by the existing council. This left the great majority of the population without political power, and riots and revolts by the lower classes were common. The late Middle Ages saw more than 200 such risings in the towns of the Holy Roman Empire.[37] Similar revolts occurred in Italy, notably the Ciompi Revolt in Florence.

text: Mercantile republics outside Europe[edit]

text: Following the collapse of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum and establishment of the Turkish Anatolian Beyliks, the Ahiler merchant fraternities established a state centered on Ankara that is sometimes compared to the Italian mercantile republics.

text: Calvinist republics[edit]

text: While the classical writers had been the primary ideological source for the republics of Italy, in Northern Europe, the Protestant Reformation would be used as justification for establishing new republics.[38] Most important was Calvinist theology, which developed in the Swiss Confederacy, one of the largest and most powerful of the medieval republics. John Calvin did not call for the abolition of monarchy, but he advanced the doctrine that the faithful had the duty to overthrow irreligious monarchs.[39] Advocacy for republics appeared in the writings of the Huguenots during the French Wars of Religion.[40]

text: Calvinism played an important role in the republican revolts in England and the Netherlands. Like the city-states of Italy and the Hanseatic League, both were important trading centres, with a large merchant class prospering from the trade with the New World. Large parts of the population of both areas also embraced Calvinism. During the Dutch Revolt (beginning in 1566), the Dutch Republic emerged from rejection of Spanish Habsburg rule. However, the country did not adopt the republican form of government immediately: in the formal declaration of independence (Act of Abjuration, 1581), the throne of king Philip was only declared vacant, and the Dutch magistrates asked the Duke of Anjou, queen Elizabeth of England and prince William of Orange, one after another, to replace Philip. It took until 1588 before the Estates (the Staten, the representative assembly at the time) decided to vest the sovereignty of the country in themselves.

text: In 1641 the English Civil War began. Spearheaded by the Puritans and funded by the merchants of London, the revolt was a success, and King Charles I was executed. In England James Harrington, Algernon Sidney, and John Milton became some of the first writers to argue for rejecting monarchy and embracing a republican form of government. The English Commonwealth was short lived, and the monarchy soon restored. The Dutch Republic continued in name until 1795, but by the mid-18th century the stadtholder had become a de facto monarch. Calvinists were also some of the earliest settlers of the British and Dutch colonies of North America.

text: Liberal republics[edit]

text: Along with these initial republican revolts, early modern Europe also saw a great increase in monarchial power. The era of absolute monarchy replaced the limited and decentralized monarchies that had existed in most of the Middle Ages. It also saw a reaction against the total control of the monarch as a series of writers created the ideology known as liberalism.

text: Most of these Enlightenment thinkers were far more interested in ideas of constitutional monarchy than in republics. The Cromwell regime had discredited republicanism, and most thinkers felt that republics ended in either anarchy or tyranny.[41] Thus philosophers like Voltaire opposed absolutism while at the same time being strongly pro-monarchy.

text: Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Montesquieu praised republics, and looked on the city-states of Greece as a model. However, both also felt that a nation-state like France, with 20 million people, would be impossible to govern as a republic. Rousseau admired the republican experiment in Corsica (1755–1769) and described his ideal political structure of small self-governing communes. Montesquieu felt that a city-state should ideally be a republic, but maintained that a limited monarchy was better suited to a large nation.

text: The American Revolution began as a rejection only of the authority of the British Parliament over the colonies, not of the monarchy. The failure of the British monarch to protect the colonies from what they considered the infringement of their rights to representative government, the monarch's branding of those requesting redress as traitors, and his support for sending combat troops to demonstrate authority resulted in widespread perception of the British monarchy as tyrannical.

text: With the United States Declaration of Independence the leaders of the revolt firmly rejected the monarchy and embraced republicanism. The leaders of the revolution were well versed in the writings of the French liberal thinkers, and also in history of the classical republics. John Adams had notably written a book on republics throughout history. In addition, the widely distributed and popularly read-aloud tract Common Sense, by Thomas Paine, succinctly and eloquently laid out the case for republican ideals and independence to the larger public. The Constitution of the United States, ratified in 1789, created a relatively strong federal republic to replace the relatively weak confederation under the first attempt at a national government with the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union ratified in 1783. The first ten amendments to the Constitution, called the United States Bill of Rights, guaranteed certain natural rights fundamental to republican ideals that justified the Revolution.

text: The French Revolution was also not republican at its outset. Only after the Flight to Varennes removed most of the remaining sympathy for the king was a republic declared and Louis XVI sent to the guillotine. The stunning success of France in the French Revolutionary Wars saw republics spread by force of arms across much of Europe as a series of client republics were set up across the continent. The rise of Napoleon saw the end of the French First Republic and her Sister Republics, each replaced by "popular monarchies". Throughout the Napoleonic period, the victors extinguished many of the oldest republics on the continent, including the Republic of Venice, the Republic of Genoa, and the Dutch Republic. They were eventually transformed into monarchies or absorbed into neighbouring monarchies.

text: Outside Europe another group of republics was created as the Napoleonic Wars allowed the states of Latin America to gain their independence. Liberal ideology had only a limited impact on these new republics. The main impetus was the local European descended Creole population in conflict with the Peninsulares—governors sent from overseas. The majority of the population in most of Latin America was of either African or Amerindian descent, and the Creole elite had little interest in giving these groups power and broad-based popular sovereignty. Simón Bolívar, both the main instigator of the revolts and one of its most important theorists, was sympathetic to liberal ideals but felt that Latin America lacked the social cohesion for such a system to function and advocated autocracy as necessary.

text: In Mexico this autocracy briefly took the form of a monarchy in the First Mexican Empire. Due to the Peninsular War, the Portuguese court was relocated to Brazil in 1808. Brazil gained independence as a monarchy on September 7, 1822, and the Empire of Brazil lasted until 1889. In the other states various forms of autocratic republic existed until most were liberalized at the end of the 20th century.[42]

text:
European states in 1815[43]
  Monarchies (55)
  Republics (9)

European states in 1914[44]
  Monarchies (22)
  Republics (4)

European states in 1930[45]
  Monarchies (20)
  Republics (15)

European states in 1950[46]
  Monarchies (13)
  Republics (21)

European states in 2015[47]
  Monarchies (12)
  Republics (35)

tag: table

text: The French Second Republic was created in 1848, but abolished by Napoleon III who proclaimed himself Emperor in 1852. The French Third Republic was established in 1870, when a civil revolutionary committee refused to accept Napoleon III's surrender during the Franco-Prussian War. Spain briefly became the First Spanish Republic in 1873–74, but the monarchy was soon restored. By the start of the 20th century France, Switzerland and San Marino remained the only republics in Europe. This changed when, after the 1908 Lisbon Regicide, the 5 October 1910 revolution established the Portuguese Republic.

text: In East Asia, China had seen considerable anti-Qing sentiment during the 19th century, and a number of protest movements developed calling for constitutional monarchy. The most important leader of these efforts was Sun Yat-sen, whose Three Principles of the People combined American, European, and Chinese ideas. Under his leadership the Republic of China was proclaimed on January 1, 1912.

text: Republicanism expanded significantly in the aftermath of World War I, when several of the largest European empires collapsed: the Russian Empire (1917), German Empire (1918), Austro-Hungarian Empire (1918), and Ottoman Empire (1922) were all replaced by republics. New states gained independence during this turmoil, and many of these, such as Ireland, Poland, Finland and Czechoslovakia, chose republican forms of government. Following Greece's defeat in the Greco-Turkish War (1919–22), the monarchy was briefly replaced by the Second Hellenic Republic (1924–35). In 1931, the proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic (1931–39) resulted in the Spanish Civil War that would be the prelude of World War II.

text: Republican ideas were spreading, especially in Asia. The United States began to have considerable influence in East Asia in the later part of the 19th century, with Protestant missionaries playing a central role. The liberal and republican writers of the west also exerted influence. These combined with native Confucian inspired political philosophy that had long argued that the populace had the right to reject unjust government that had lost the Mandate of Heaven.

text: Two short-lived republics were proclaimed in East Asia, the Republic of Formosa and the First Philippine Republic.

text: Decolonization[edit]

text: In the years following World War II, most of the remaining European colonies gained their independence, and most became republics. The two largest colonial powers were France and the United Kingdom. Republican France encouraged the establishment of republics in its former colonies. The United Kingdom attempted to follow the model it had for its earlier settler colonies of creating independent Commonwealth realms still linked under the same monarchy. While most of the settler colonies and the smaller states of the Caribbean retained this system, it was rejected by the newly independent countries in Africa and Asia, which revised their constitutions and became republics.

text: Britain followed a different model in the Middle East; it installed local monarchies in several colonies and mandates including Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Bahrain, Oman, Yemen and Libya. In subsequent decades revolutions and coups overthrew a number of monarchs and installed republics. Several monarchies remain, and the Middle East is the only part of the world where several large states are ruled by monarchs with almost complete political control.[48]

text: Socialist republics[edit]

text: In the wake of the First World War, the Russian monarchy fell during the Russian Revolution. The Russian Provisional Government was established in its place on the lines of a liberal republic, but this was overthrown by the Bolsheviks who went on to establish the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. This was the first republic established under Marxist-Leninist ideology. Communism was wholly opposed to monarchy, and became an important element of many republican movements during the 20th century. The Russian Revolution spread into Mongolia, and overthrew its theocratic monarchy in 1924. In the aftermath of the Second World War the communists gradually gained control of Romania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Hungary and Albania, ensuring that the states were reestablished as socialist republics rather than monarchies.

text: Communism also intermingled with other ideologies. It was embraced by many national liberation movements during decolonization. In Vietnam, communist republicans pushed aside the Nguyễn Dynasty, and monarchies in neighbouring Laos and Cambodia were overthrown by communist movements in the 1970s. Arab socialism contributed to a series of revolts and coups that saw the monarchies of Egypt, Iraq, Libya, and Yemen ousted. In Africa Marxist-Leninism and African socialism led to the end of monarchy and the proclamation of republics in states such as Burundi and Ethiopia.

text: Islamic republics[edit]

text: Islamic political philosophy has a long history of opposition to absolute monarchy, notably in the work of Al-Farabi. Sharia law took precedence over the will of the ruler, and electing rulers by means of the Shura was an important doctrine. While the early caliphate maintained the principles of an elected ruler, later states became hereditary or military dictatorships though many maintained some pretense of a consultative shura.

text: None of these states are typically referred to as republics. The current usage of republic in Muslim countries is borrowed from the western meaning, adopted into the language in the late 19th century.[49] The 20th century saw republicanism become an important idea in much of the Middle East, as monarchies were removed in many states of the region. Iraq became a secular state. Some nations, such as Indonesia and Azerbaijan, began as secular. In Iran, the 1979 revolution overthrew the monarchy and created an Islamic republic based on the ideas of Islamic democracy.

text: Head of state[edit]

text: Structure[edit]

text: With no monarch, most modern republics use the title president for the head of state. Originally used to refer to the presiding officer of a committee or governing body in Great Britain the usage was also applied to political leaders, including the leaders of some of the Thirteen Colonies (originally Virginia in 1608); in full, the "President of the Council."[50] The first republic to adopt the title was the United States of America. Keeping its usage as the head of a committee the President of the Continental Congress was the leader of the original congress. When the new constitution was written the title of President of the United States was conferred on the head of the new executive branch.

text: If the head of state of a republic is also the head of government, this is called a presidential system. There are a number of forms of presidential government. A full-presidential system has a president with substantial authority and a central political role.

text: In other states the legislature is dominant and the presidential role is almost purely ceremonial and apolitical, such as in Germany and India. These states are parliamentary republics and operate similarly to constitutional monarchies with parliamentary systems where the power of the monarch is also greatly circumscribed. In parliamentary systems the head of government, most often titled prime minister, exercises the most real political power. Semi-presidential systems have a president as an active head of state, but also have a head of government with important powers.

text: The rules for appointing the president and the leader of the government, in some republics permit the appointment of a president and a prime minister who have opposing political convictions: in France, when the members of the ruling cabinet and the president come from opposing political factions, this situation is called cohabitation.

text: In some countries, like Switzerland, Bosnia and Herzegovina and San Marino, the head of state is not a single person but a committee (council) of several persons holding that office. The Roman Republic had two consuls, elected for a one year-term by the comitia centuriata, consisting of all adult, freeborn males who could prove citizenship.

text: Elections[edit]

text: In liberal democracies presidents are elected, either directly by the people or indirectly by a parliament or council. Typically in presidential and semi-presidential systems the president is directly elected by the people, or is indirectly elected as done in the United States. In that country the president is officially elected by an electoral college, chosen by the States, all of which do so by direct election of the electors. The indirect election of the president through the electoral college conforms to the concept of republic as one with a system of indirect election. In the opinion of some, direct election confers legitimacy upon the president and gives the office much of its political power.[51] However, this concept of legitimacy differs from that expressed in the United States Constitution which established the legitimacy of the United States president as resulting from the signing of the Constitution by nine states.[52] The idea that direct election is required for legitimacy also contradicts the spirit of the Great Compromise, whose actual result was manifest in the clause[53] that provides voters in smaller states with slightly more representation in presidential selection than those in large states.

text: In states with a parliamentary system the president is usually elected by the parliament. This indirect election subordinates the president to the parliament, and also gives the president limited legitimacy and turns most presidential powers into reserve powers that can only be exercised under rare circumstance. There are exceptions where elected presidents have only ceremonial powers, such as in Ireland.

text: Ambiguities[edit]

text: The distinction between a republic and a monarchy is not always clear. The constitutional monarchies of the former British Empire and Western Europe today have almost all real political power vested in the elected representatives, with the monarchs only holding either theoretical powers, no powers or rarely used reserve powers. Real legitimacy for political decisions comes from the elected representatives and is derived from the will of the people. While hereditary monarchies remain in place, political power is derived from the people as in a republic. These states are thus sometimes referred to as crowned republics.[54]

text: Terms such as "liberal republic" are also used to describe all of the modern liberal democracies.[55]

text: There are also self-proclaimed republics that act similarly to monarchies with absolute power vested in the leader and passed down from father to son. North Korea and Syria are two notable examples where a son has inherited political control. Neither of these states are officially monarchies. There is no constitutional requirement that power be passed down within one family, but it has occurred in practice.

text: There are also elective monarchies where ultimate power is vested in a monarch, but the monarch is chosen by some manner of election. A current example of such a state is Malaysia where the Yang di-Pertuan Agong is elected every five years by the Conference of Rulers composed of the nine hereditary rulers of the Malay states and the Vatican City-State, where the pope is selected by cardinal-electors, currently all cardinals under a specific age. While rare today, elective monarchs were common in the past. The Holy Roman Empire is an important example, where each new emperor was chosen by a group of electors. Islamic states also rarely employed primogeniture, instead relying on various forms of election to choose a monarch's successor.

text: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth had an elective monarchy, with a wide suffrage of some 500,000 nobles. The system, known as the Golden Liberty, had developed as a method for powerful landowners to control the crown. The proponents of this system looked to classical examples, and the writings of the Italian Renaissance, and called their elective monarchy a rzeczpospolita, based on res publica.

text: Sub-national republics[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: In general being a republic also implies sovereignty as for the state to be ruled by the people it cannot be controlled by a foreign power. There are important exceptions to this, for example, republics in the Soviet Union were member states which had to meet three criteria to be named republics:

text:
be on the periphery of the Soviet Union so as to be able to take advantage of their theoretical right to secede;
be economically strong enough to be self-sufficient upon secession; and
be named after at least one million people of the ethnic group which should make up the majority population of said republic.

tag: ol

text: It is sometimes argued that the former Soviet Union was also a supra-national republic, based on the claim that the member states were different nations.

text: Socialist Federative Republic of Yugoslavia (and earlier names) was a federal entity composed of six republics (Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Slovenia). Each republic had its parliament, government, institute of citizenship, constitution, etc., but certain functions were delegated to the federation (army, monetary matters). Each republic also had a right of self-determination according to the conclusions of the second session of the AVNOJ and according to the federal constitution.

text: States of the United States are required, like the federal government, to be republican in form, with final authority resting with the people. This was required because the states were intended to create and enforce most domestic laws, with the exception of areas delegated to the federal government and prohibited to the states. The founding fathers of the country intended most domestic laws to be handled by the states. Requiring the states to be a republic in form was seen as protecting the citizens' rights and preventing a state from becoming a dictatorship or monarchy, and reflected unwillingness on the part of the original 13 states (all independent republics) to unite with other states that were not republics. Additionally, this requirement ensured that only other republics could join the union.

text: In the example of the United States, the original 13 British colonies became independent states after the American Revolution, each having a republican form of government. These independent states initially formed a loose confederation called the United States and then later formed the current United States by ratifying the current U.S. Constitution, creating a union of sovereign states with the union or federal government also being a republic. Any state joining the union later was also required to be a republic.

text: Other meanings[edit]

text: Political philosophy[edit]

text: The term republic originated from the writers of the Renaissance as a descriptive term for states that were not monarchies. These writers, such as Machiavelli, also wrote important prescriptive works describing how such governments should function. These ideas of how a government and society should be structured is the basis for an ideology known as classical republicanism or civic humanism. This ideology is based on the Roman Republic and the city states of Ancient Greece and focuses on ideals such as civic virtue, rule of law and mixed government.[56]

text: This understanding of a republic as a distinct form of government from a liberal democracy is one of the main theses of the Cambridge School of historical analysis.[57] This grew out of the work of J. G. A. Pocock who in 1975 argued that a series of scholars had expressed a consistent set of republican ideals. These writers included Machiavelli, Milton, Montesquieu and the founders of the United States of America.

text: Pocock argued that this was an ideology with a history and principles distinct from liberalism.[58] These ideas were embraced by a number of different writers, including Quentin Skinner, Philip Pettit[59] and Cass Sunstein. These subsequent writers have further explored the history of the idea, and also outlined how a modern republic should function.

text: United States[edit]

text: A distinct set of definitions for the word republic evolved in the United States. In common parlance, a republic is a state that does not practice direct democracy but rather has a government indirectly controlled by the people. This understanding of the term was originally developed by James Madison, and notably employed in Federalist Paper No. 10. This meaning was widely adopted early in the history of the United States, including in Noah Webster's dictionary of 1828. It was a novel meaning to the term; representative democracy was not an idea mentioned by Machiavelli and did not exist in the classical republics.[60] There is also evidence that contemporaries of Madison considered the meaning of the word to reflect the definition found elsewhere, as is the case with a quotation of Benjamin Franklin taken from the notes of James McHenry where the question is put forth, "a Republic or a Monarchy?".[61]

text: The term republic does not appear in the Declaration of Independence, but does appear in Article IV of the Constitution which "guarantee[s] to every State in this Union a Republican form of Government." What exactly the writers of the constitution felt this should mean is uncertain. The Supreme Court, in Luther v. Borden (1849), declared that the definition of republic was a "political question" in which it would not intervene. In two later cases, it did establish a basic definition. In United States v. Cruikshank (1875), the court ruled that the "equal rights of citizens" were inherent to the idea of a republic.

text: However, the term republic is not synonymous with the republican form. The republican form is defined as one in which the powers of sovereignty are vested in the people and are exercised by the people, either directly, or through representatives chosen by the people, to whom those powers are specially delegated. In re Duncan, 139 U.S. 449, 11 S.Ct. 573, 35 L.Ed. 219; Minor v. Happersett, 88 U.S. (21 Wall.) 162, 22 L.Ed. 627.[62]

text: Beyond these basic definitions the word republic has a number of other connotations. W. Paul Adams observes that republic is most often used in the United States as a synonym for state or government, but with more positive connotations than either of those terms.[63] Republicanism is often referred to as the founding ideology of the United States. Traditionally scholars believed this American republicanism was a derivation of the classical liberal ideologies of John Locke and others developed in Europe.

text: A political philosophy of republicanism that formed during the Renaissance period and initiated by Machiavelli was thought to have had little impact on the founders of the United States. In the 1960s and 1970s, a revisionist school[citation needed] led by the likes of Bernard Bailyn began to argue that republicanism was just as or even more important than liberalism in the creation of the United States.[64] This issue is still much disputed and scholars like Isaac Kramnick completely reject this view.[65]


document_title: Half dollar (United States coin)

question_text: when was the last silver half dollar made

text: Half dollar (United States coin)

text: Circulation[edit]

text: Half dollar coins saw heavy use, particularly in the first half of the 20th century. For many years, they were commonly (and in many areas still are) used by the gambling community. Rolls of half dollars may still be kept on hand in cardrooms for games requiring 50-cent antes or bring-in bets, for dealers to pay winning naturals in blackjack, or where the house collects a rake in increments. Additionally, some concession vendors at sporting events distribute half dollar coins as change for convenience.

text: By the early 1960s, the rising price of silver was nearing the point where the bullion value of U.S. silver coins would exceed face value. In 1965, the U.S. introduced layered composition coins made of a copper core laminated between two cupronickel outer faces. The silver content of dimes and quarters was eliminated, but the Kennedy half dollar composition still contained silver (reduced from 90 to 40 percent) from 1965 to 1970.

text: Half dollars issued through the end of the 1960s were hoarded as the only precious metal U.S. coins remaining in production, and as the price of silver continued to rise, pre-1964 halves disappeared from circulation as well. By the time that the coin's composition was changed to match that of the clad dimes and quarters in 1971, both businesses and the public had begun to adapt to a country in which the half dollar did not generally circulate. The half saw a moderate increase in usage during the mid 1970s, only to fall again by the end of the decade. The quarter then took over the half's role as the highest-value component of change in general use.

text: Most coins enter circulation through the change drawers of businesses. Few businesses stock their change drawers with half dollars, and some banks do not stock them at all. Most banks do not hand them out as normal business practice, so the coins see little circulation. Most U.S. vending machines do not accept half dollars, nor do payphones, which further curtails their circulation; Many transit systems however, accept halves and the coin is the most common denomination used for U.S. commemorative coins.[3]

text: Since 2002, half dollars have been minted only for collectors, due to large Federal Reserve and government inventories on hand of pre-2001 pieces; this is mostly due to lack of demand and large quantity returns from casino slot machines that now operate "coinless". Eventually, when the reserve supply runs low, the mint will again fill orders for circulation half dollars.[citation needed] It took about 18 years (1981–1999) for the large inventory stockpile of a similar low-demand circulation coin, the $1 coin, to reach reserve levels low enough to again produce circulation pieces.[citation needed] Modern-date half dollars can be purchased in proof sets, mint sets, rolls, and bags from the U.S. Mint, and existing inventory circulation pieces can be ordered through most U.S. banks. All collector issues since 2001 have had much lower mintages than in previous years. Although intended only for collectors, these post-2001 half dollars sometimes find their way into circulation.[4]

text: Aspects of early history[edit]

text: On December 1, 1794, the first half dollars, approximately 5,300 pieces, were delivered. Another 18,000 were produced in January 1795 using dies of 1794, to save the expense of making new ones.[5] Another 30,000 pieces were struck by the end of 1801. The coin had the Heraldic Eagle, based on the Great Seal of the United States on the reverse.[5] 150,000 were minted in 1804 but struck with dies from 1803, so no 1804 specimens exist, though there were some pieces dated 1805 that carried a "5 over 4" overdate.[5]

text: In 1838, half dollar dies were produced in the Philadelphia Mint for the newly established New Orleans Mint, and ten test samples of the 1838 half dollars were made at the main Philadelphia mint. These samples were put into the mint safe along with other rarities like the 1804 silver dollar. The dies were then shipped to New Orleans for the regular production of 1838 half dollars. However, New Orleans production of the half dollars was delayed due to the priority of producing half dimes and dimes. The large press for half dollar production was not used in New Orleans until January 1839 to produce 1838 half dollars, but the reverse die could not be properly secured, and only ten samples were produced before the dies failed. Rufus Tyler, chief coiner of the New Orleans mint, wrote to Mint Director Patterson of the problem on February 25, 1839.[6] The Orleans mint samples all had a double stamped reverse as a result of this production problem and they also showed dramatic signs of die rust, neither of which are present on the Philadelphia produced test samples. While eight Philadelphia minted samples survive to this day, there is only one known New Orleans minted specimen with the tell-tale double stamped reverse and die rust. This is the famous coin that Rufus Tyler presented to Alexander Dallas Bache (great grandson of Benjamin Franklin) in the summer of 1839 and was later purchased in June 1894 by A. G. Heaton, the father of mint mark coin collecting.[7] The 1838 Philadelphia-produced half dollars are extremely rare, with two separate specimens having sold for $632,500 in Heritage auctions in 2005 and 2008[8] respectively. The sole surviving Orleans minted 1838 is one of the rarest of all American coins.[9][10] In 1840 this mint produced nearly 180,000 half dollars.[5]

text: In 1861, the New Orleans mint produced coins for three different governments. A total of 330,000 were struck under the United States government, 1,240,000 for the State of Louisiana after it seceded from the Union, and 962,633 after it joined the Confederacy. Since the same die was used for all strikings, the output looks identical. However the Confederate States of America actually minted four half dollars with a CSA (rather than USA) reverse and the obverse die they used had a small die crack. Thus "regular" 1861 half dollars with this crack probably were used by the Confederates for some of the mass striking.[11]

text: There are two varieties of Kennedy half dollars in the proof set issues of 1964. Initially, the die was used with accented hair, showing deeper lines than the president's widow, Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis, liked. New dies were prepared to smooth out some of the details. It is estimated that about 1 to 3% (40,000 to 100,000) of the proof halves are of the earlier type, making them somewhat more expensive for collectors.[12]

text: List of designs[edit]

text:
Silver half dollars

Flowing Hair 1794–1795[13]
Draped Bust 1796–1807

Draped Bust, Small Eagle 1796–1797[14]
Draped Bust, Heraldic Eagle 1801–1807[15]

Capped Bust 1807–1839

Capped Bust (Large Size), With Motto 1807–1836[16]
Capped Bust (Small Size), No Motto 1836–1839[17]

Seated Liberty 1839–1891

Seated Liberty, No Motto 1839–1866[18]
Seated Liberty, With Motto 1866–1891[19]

Barber 1892–1915[20]
Walking Liberty 1916–1947[21]
Franklin 1948–1963[22]
Kennedy 1964 (General circulation issue)[23] (the last 90% silver half dollar for circulation, contains 0.36169 oz. net silver per coin, or 7.234 oz. silver per roll)
Kennedy 1992–present (silver proof sets available)

40% silver half dollars

Kennedy 1965–1969
Kennedy 1970 (collectors sets only)
Kennedy 1976 (only collectors sets produced with 40% silver)

Copper-nickel clad half dollars

Kennedy 1971–1974, 1977–1986, 1988–2001 (general circulation issues)
Kennedy 1987, 2002–present (collectors only)
Kennedy Bicentennial 1975–1976 (all dated 1776–1976.)

Various half dollar designs

text: List of early commemorative issues[edit]

text:
Columbian half dollar (1892–1893)
Panama–Pacific half dollar (1915)
Illinois Centennial half dollar (1918)
Maine Centennial half dollar (1920)
Pilgrim Tercentenary half dollar (1920–1921)
Missouri Centennial half dollar (1921)
Alabama Centennial half dollar (1921)
Grant Memorial half dollar (1922)
Monroe Doctrine Centennial half dollar (1923)
Huguenot-Walloon half dollar (1924)
Lexington-Concord Sesquicentennial half dollar (1925)
Stone Mountain Memorial half dollar (1925)
California Diamond Jubilee half dollar (1925)
Fort Vancouver Centennial half dollar (1925)
United States Sesquicentennial half dollar (1926)
Oregon Trail Memorial half dollar (1926–1939)
Vermont Sesquicentennial half dollar (1927)
Hawaii Sesquicentennial half dollar (1928)
Maryland Tercentenary half dollar (1934)
Texas Centennial half dollar (1934–1938)
Daniel Boone Bicentennial half dollar (1934–1938)
Connecticut Tercentenary half dollar (1935)
Arkansas Centennial half dollar (1935–1939)
Arkansas-Robinson half dollar (1936)

Hudson Sesquicentennial half dollar (1935)
California Pacific International Exposition half dollar (1935–1936)
Old Spanish Trail half dollar (1935)
Rhode Island Tercentenary half dollar (1936)
Cleveland Centennial half dollar (1936)
Wisconsin Territorial Centennial half dollar (1936)
Cincinnati Musical Center half dollar (1936)
Long Island Tercentenary half dollar (1936)
York County, Maine Tercentenary half dollar (1936)
Bridgeport, Connecticut Centennial half dollar (1936)
Lynchburg Sesquicentennial half dollar (1936)
Elgin, Illinois, Centennial half dollar (1936)
Albany Charter half dollar (1936)
San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge half dollar (1936)
Columbia, South Carolina Sesquicentennial half dollar (1936)
Delaware Tercentenary half dollar (1936)
Battle of Gettysburg half dollar (1936)
Norfolk, Virginia Bicentennial half dollar (1936)
Roanoke Island half dollar (1937)
Battle of Antietam half dollar (1937)
New Rochelle, New York half dollar (1938)
Iowa Centennial half dollar (1946)
Booker T. Washington Memorial half dollar (1946–1954)


document_title: Water conflicts between Malaysia and Singapore

question_text: when does the two water agreements with malaysia end

text: History[edit]

text: 20th century[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The first water agreement was signed between Sultan Ibrahim II the Sultan of Johor and the Municipal Commissioners of the Town of Singapore on 5 December 1927, under the Legislative Council of the Straits Settlements. It is no longer in force.

text: On 1 September 1961, the Federation of Malaya signed an agreement giving Singapore the right to draw up to 86 million imperial gallons (390,000 m3) of water per day collectively from the Tebrau River, the Skudai River, the Pontian Reservoir, and the Gunung Pulai Reservoir, with effect through 2011. On 29 September 1962, a further agreement was signed providing Singapore the right to draw up to 250 million imperial gallons (1,100,000 m3) per day from the Johor River, with effect until 2061. Both agreements stipulated the price of 3 Malaysian cents per 1,000 imperial gallons (4,500 L).

text: 21st century[edit]

text: The Malaysian government has stated[when?] that the agreements were signed in a different time and that the price should increase. It cites the example of water sold by China to Hong Kong in the past, which was approximately US$5.8 per 1,000 imperial gallons (4,500 L).[1] However, this price comparison is not directly applicable because while Hong Kong has borne the cost of constructing the infrastructure and China has borne the cost of maintaining to provide water to Hong Kong, Singapore paid for all the costs of the reservoirs in Johor, the dams, pipelines, plant, equipment, etc., and Singapore paid all costs of operating and maintaining the infrastructure.

text: On 31 August 2011, the 2011 water agreement expired, and the waterworks and facilities were handed over to the Johor state government. The handover included the Skudai and Gunung Pulai water treatment plants, which were built by the Public Utilities Board and managed by them for 50 years, as well as two pump houses in Pontian and Tebrau.[2]

text: Water self-sufficiency[edit]

text: Malaysia is a reliable provider of water to Singapore but has used threats of cutting off the water supply to pressure Singapore politically. Seeking greater independence and freedom from such pressures, Singapore has pursued an expensive strategy of water self-sufficiency.

text: As of 2003, about 40% of Singapore's water came from Malaysia.[citation needed] The proportion has been decreasing as Singapore has pursued its Four Tap Strategy of sourcing water from rainwater, recycling, desalination, and importation.

text: By 2010, Singapore had constructed five Newater plants, a desalination plant and a new water barrage to increase rainwater supply. The Newater/desalination plants have the capability to supply 40% of Singapore's water needs as at 2010. The limit of rainwater catchment had a second and larger desalination plant constructed in 2013.[needs update]

text: Singapore's water needs are anticipated to double in the next 50 years. Planned Newater output will triple to meet 50% of needs by year 2060 whilst desalination investment will raise output to meet 30% of needs. By the expiry of the 1962 water agreement in 2061, the necessity for Malaysia water import should be eliminated.


document_title: List of European countries by population

question_text: which country in the eu has the largest population

text: Table[edit]

text:
Rank[1]
Country
(or dependent territory)
July 1, 2015
projection[2]
% of
pop.
Average
relative
annual
growth
(%)[3]
Average
absolute
annual
growth
[4]
Estimated
doubling
time
(Years)[5]
Official
figure
(where
available)
Date of
last figure
Source
Regional grouping

1
 Russia[6]
144,031,000
17.15
0.20
294,285
368
146,839,993
January 1, 2017
[1]
EAEU

2
 Germany
81,459,000
9.87
1.20
600,000
90
82,800,000
December 30, 2016
Official estimate
EU

4
 France[7][Note 1]
66,991,000
7.97
0.39
261,022
177
66,991,000
March 1, 2017
[2]
EU

5
 United Kingdom
65,110,276
7.75
0.75
484,000
92
64,596,800
December 30, 2016
Official estimate
EU

6
 Italy
60,589,445
7.21
0.49
298,000
141
60,788,845
January 1, 2017
Monthly official estimate
EU

7
 Spain
46,423,064
5.53
-0.06
-28,000
-
46,449,565
January 1, 2015
Official estimate
EU

8
 Ukraine[8]
42,850,000
5.10
-0.32
-136,000
-
42,726,067
March 1, 2015
Monthly official estimate

9
 Poland
38,494,000
4.58
0.05
20,000
1,334
38,484,000
December 31, 2014
Official estimate
EU

10
 Romania
19,822,000
2.36
-0.41
-81,000
-
19,942,642
January 1, 2014
Official estimate
EU

11
 Netherlands
17,003,777
2.02
0.37
62,000
189
17,090,700
November 13, 2017
Official population clock
EU

12
 Belgium
11,455,474
1.34
0.52
58,000
134
11,370,968
August 1, 2017
Monthly official estimate
EU

13
 Greece
11,183,716
1.28
0.16
-12,000
-
10,816,286
May 24, 2011
Final 2011 census result
EU

14
 Czech Republic
10,535,000
1.25
-0.06
-6,000
-
10,588,063
July 30, 2017
Official estimate
EU

15
 Portugal
10,311,000
1.23
-0.56
-58,000
-
10,309,573
December 31, 2016
Official estimate
EU

16
 Sweden
9,858,794
1.17
1.03
100,000
68
10,081,396
August 31, 2017
Official estimate
EU

17
 Hungary
9,835,000
1.17
-0.28
-28,000
-
9,849,000
December 31, 2014
Official estimate
EU

18
 Azerbaijan
9,651,000
1.15
1.23
117,000
57
9,593,000
January 1, 2015
Official estimate

19
 Belarus
9,481,000
1.13
0.00
0
-
9,481,100
April 1, 2015
Official estimate
EAEU

20
 Austria
8,608,000
1.02
0.67
57,000
104
8,794,267
July 1, 2018
Official estimate
EU

21
  Switzerland
8,265,000
0.98
0.87
71,000
80
8,211,700
September 30, 2014
Official estimate
EFTA

22
 Bulgaria
7,185,000
0.86
-0.57
-41,000
-
7,245,677
December 31, 2013
Official estimate
EU

23
 Serbia
7,103,000
0.85
-0.41
-29,000
-
7,146,759
January 1, 2014
Official estimate

24
 Denmark
5,673,000
0.68
0.48
27,000
145
5,659,715
January 1, 2015
Official estimate
EU

25
 Finland
5,475,000
0.65
0.11
6,000
632
5,473,465
March 31, 2015
Monthly official estimate
EU

26
 Slovakia
5,426,000
0.65
0.13
7,000
537
5,415,949
September 30, 2014
Official estimate
EU

27
 Norway
5,194,000
0.62
1.11
57,000
63
5,165,802
January 1, 2015
Official estimate
EFTA

28
 Ireland
4,630,000
0.55
0.35
16,000
200
4,761,865
April 2016
Preliminary 2016 census result
EU

29
 Croatia
4,230,000
0.50
-0.31
-13,000
-
4,267,558
July 1, 2012
Official estimate
EU

30
 Bosnia and Herzegovina
3,750,000
0.45
-0.64
-24,000
-
3,791,622
October 1, 2013
Preliminary 2013 census result

31
 Georgia
3,707,000
0.44
-1.23
-46,000
-
3,729,500
January 1, 2015
Official estimate

32
 Moldova
3,564,000
0.42
0.48
17,000
145
3,555,200
January 1, 2015
Official estimate

33
 Armenia
3,010,000
0.36
-0.03
-1,000
-
3,010,600
December 31, 2014
Monthly official estimate
EAEU

34
 Lithuania
2,906,000
0.35
-0.85
-25,000
-
2,912,566
April 1, 2015
Monthly official estimate
EU

35
 Albania
2,887,000
0.34
-0.41
-12,000
-
2,893,005
January 1, 2015
Official estimate

36
 Macedonia
2,071,000
0.25
0.15
3,000
478
2,069,172
December 31, 2014
Official estimate

37
 Slovenia
2,065,000
0.25
0.15
3,000
477
2,062,731
October 1, 2014
Official estimate
EU

38
 Latvia
1,979,000
0.24
-0.90
-18,000
-
1,983,300
April 1, 2015
Monthly official estimate
EU

 Kosovo
1,867,000
0.22
1.08
20,000
64
1,815,606
December 31, 2012
Official estimate

39
 Estonia
1,315,000
0.16
0.46
6,000
152
1,315,635
January 1, 2017
Official estimate
EU

40
 Cyprus
876,000
0.10
0.46
4,000
151
865,900
December 31, 2012
Official estimate
EU

41
 Montenegro
620,000
0.07
0.00
0
-
620,029
April 1, 2011
2011 census result

42
 Luxembourg
570,000
0.07
2.52
14,000
28
562,958
December 31, 2014
Official estimate
EU

43
 Malta
425,000
0.05
0.47
2,000
147
417,432
November 20, 2011
2011 census result
EU

44
 Iceland
331,000
0.04
1.22
4,000
57
329,100
January 1, 2015
Official estimate
EFTA

 Jersey (UK)
103,000
0.01
0.98
1,000
71
97,857
March 27, 2011
2011 census result

 Isle of Man (UK)
89,000
0.01
1.14
1,000
61
84,497
March 27, 2011
2011 census result

45
 Andorra
78,000
0.01
1.30
1,000
54
76,949
2014
Official estimate

 Guernsey (UK)
66,000
0.01
1.54
1,000
45
65,150
March 31, 2014
Official estimate

 Faroe Islands (Denmark)
49,000
0.01
0.00
0
-
48,693
February 1, 2015
Monthly official estimate

46
 Liechtenstein
37,000
0.00
0.00
0
-
37,370
December 31, 2014
Official estimate
EFTA

47
 Monaco
37,000
0.00
0.00
0
-
36,950
December 31, 2013
Official estimate

 Gibraltar (UK)[9]
34,000
0.00
3.03
1,000
23
30,001
2012
Official estimate
EU

48
 San Marino
33,000
0.00
0.00
0
-
32,798
February 28, 2015
Monthly official estimate

 Åland Islands (Finland)
29,000
0.00
0.00
0
-
28,666
December 31, 2013
Official estimate
EU

 Svalbard (Norway)
3,000
0.00
0.00
0
-
2,575
July 1, 2014
Official estimate
EFTA

49
  Vatican City
451
0.00
0.00
0
-
0
2012
Official estimate

Total
840,023,805
100.00
0.33
2,746,307
210


document_title: List of US Open women's singles champions

question_text: who has won the last year's women's singles title at the us open

question_tokens: who has won the last year 's women 's singles title at the us open

text: History[edit]

text: The format of the women's singles event has undergone several changes since the first edition. From 1888 through 1918, the event started with a knockout phase, the All-Comers singles, whose winner faced the defending champion in a challenge round.[9] The All-Comers winner was awarded the title by default six times (1893, 1899, 1900, 1905, 1906 and 1907) in the absence of the previous year's champion. The challenge round system was abolished with the 1919 edition.[10] Since 1887, all matches have been played as the best-of-three sets, except in the eleven-year period from 1891 until 1901, when the challenge round was scored the best-of-five-sets.[10] From 1894 until 1901 the women were required to play best-of-five sets in both the all-comers final and the challenge round.[11]

text: Format[edit]

text: Since 1887, the winner of the next game at five-games–all took the set in every match except the All-Comers final and the challenge round, which was won by the player who had won at least six games and at least two games more than his opponent. This advantage format was introduced for the final sets of early rounds, for women starting in 1887, and used for all sets in final rounds from 1887 through 1969.[12] The tie-break system was introduced in 1970 for all sets, in its best-of-nine points sudden death version until 1974, and in its best-of-12 points lingering death version since 1975.[12][13][14] The US Open is the only Grand Slam tournament to have a third set tie-break, which has occurred twice in women's singles finals in 1981 and in 1985.[3]

text: Surface[edit]

text: The court surface changed twice, from grass (1887–1974), to Har-Tru clay (1975–1977), to hard courts since 1978.[15] No women's tennis player won the event on all three surfaces, and no women's tennis player won it on both grass and clay. Chris Evert was the only one to win the event on clay and on hard court, thereby making her the only woman to win on two different surfaces at the event.

text: Finals[edit]

text:
Regular competition

All Comers' winner, Challenge round winner ‡

Defending champion, Challenge round winner †

All Comers' winner, no Challenge round ◊

text: U.S. National Championships[edit]

text:
Year[d]
Country
Champion
Country
Runner–up
Score

1887
 USA
Hansell, EllenEllen Hansell
 USA
Knight, LauraLaura Knight
6–1, 6–0

1888
 USA
Townsend, BerthaBertha Townsend ‡
 USA
Hansell, EllenEllen Hansell
6–3, 6–5

1889
 USA
Townsend, BerthaBertha Townsend † (2)
 USA
Voorhees, LidaLida Voorhees
7–5, 6–2

1890
 USA
Roosevelt, EllenEllen Roosevelt ‡
 USA
Townsend, BerthaBertha Townsend
6–2, 6–2

1891
 Ireland[f]
Cahill, MabelMabel Cahill ‡
 USA
Roosevelt, EllenEllen Roosevelt
6–4, 6–1, 4–6, 6–3

1892
 Ireland
Cahill, MabelMabel Cahill † (2)
 USA
Moore, ElisabethElisabeth Moore
5–7, 6–3, 6–4, 4–6, 6–2

1893
 USA
Terry, AlineAline Terry ◊
 USA
Schultz, AugustaAugusta Schultz
6–1, 6–3

1894
 USA
Hellwig, HelenHelen Hellwig ‡
 USA
Terry, AlineAline Terry
7–5, 3–6, 6–0, 3–6, 6–3

1895
 USA
Atkinson, JulietteJuliette Atkinson ‡
 USA
Hellwig, HelenHelen Hellwig
6–4, 6–2, 6–1

1896
 USA
Moore, ElisabethElisabeth Moore ‡
 USA
Atkinson, JulietteJuliette Atkinson
6–4, 4–6, 6–2, 6–2

1897
 USA
Atkinson, JulietteJuliette Atkinson ‡
 USA
Moore, ElisabethElisabeth Moore (2)
6–3, 6–3, 4–6, 3–6, 6–3

1898
 USA
Atkinson, JulietteJuliette Atkinson † (3)
 USA
Jones, MarionMarion Jones
6–3, 5–7, 6–4, 2–6, 7–5

1899
 USA
Jones, MarionMarion Jones ◊
 USA
Banks, MaudMaud Banks
6–1, 6–1, 7–5

1900
 USA
McAteer, MyrtleMyrtle McAteer ◊
 USA
Parker, EdithEdith Parker
6–2, 6–2, 6–0

1901
 USA
Moore, ElisabethElisabeth Moore ‡ (2)
 USA
McAteer, MyrtleMyrtle McAteer
6–4, 3–6, 7–5, 2–6, 6–2

1902
 USA
Jones, MarionMarion Jones ‡ (2)
 USA
Moore, ElisabethElisabeth Moore
6–1, 1–0, retired

1903
 USA
Moore, ElisabethElisabeth Moore ‡ (3)
 USA
Jones, MarionMarion Jones
7–5, 8–6

1904
 USA
Sutton, MayMay Sutton ‡
 USA
Moore, ElisabethElisabeth Moore
6–1, 6–2

1905
 USA
Moore, ElisabethElisabeth Moore ◊ (4)
 USA
Homans, HelenHelen Homans
6–4, 5–7, 6–1

1906
 USA
Homans, HelenHelen Homans ◊
 USA
Barger-Wallach, MaudMaud Barger-Wallach
6–4, 6–3

1907
 USA
Sears, EvelynEvelyn Sears ◊
 USA
Neely, CarrieCarrie Neely
6–3, 6–2

1908
 USA
Barger-Wallach, MaudMaud Barger-Wallach ‡
 USA
Sears, EvelynEvelyn Sears
6–3, 1–6, 6–3

1909
 USA
Hotchkiss Wightman, HazelHazel Hotchkiss Wightman ‡
 USA
Barger-Wallach, MaudMaud Barger-Wallach
6–0, 6–1

1910
 USA
Hotchkiss Wightman, HazelHazel Hotchkiss Wightman † (2)
 USA
Hammond Raymond, LouiseLouise Hammond Raymond
6–4, 6–2

1911
 USA
Hotchkiss Wightman, HazelHazel Hotchkiss Wightman † (3)
 USA
Sutton, FlorenceFlorence Sutton
8–10, 6–1, 9–7

1912
 USA
Browne, MaryMary Browne ‡
 USA
Sears, EleonoraEleonora Sears
6–4, 6–2

1913
 USA
Browne, MaryMary Browne † (2)
 USA
Green, DorothyDorothy Green
6–2, 7–5

1914
 USA
Browne, MaryMary Browne † (3)
 USA
Wagner, MarieMarie Wagner
6–2, 1–6, 6–1

1915
 NOR
Bjurstedt, MollaMolla Bjurstedt ‡
 USA
Hotchkiss Wightman, HazelHazel Hotchkiss Wightman
4–6, 6–2, 6–0

1916
 NOR
Bjurstedt, MollaMolla Bjurstedt † (2)
 USA
Hammond Raymond, LouiseLouise Hammond Raymond
6–0, 6–1

1917[e]
 NOR
Bjurstedt, MollaMolla Bjurstedt † (3)
 USA
Marion Vanderhoef
4–6, 6–0, 6–2

1918
 NOR
Bjurstedt, MollaMolla Bjurstedt † (4)
 USA
Goss, EleanorEleanor Goss
6–4, 6–3

1919
 USA
Hotchkiss Wightman, HazelHazel Hotchkiss Wightman (4)
 USA
Zinderstein, MarionMarion Zinderstein
6–1, 6–2

1920
 USA
Mallory, MollaMolla Mallory (5)
 USA
Zinderstein, MarionMarion Zinderstein
6–3, 6–1

1921
 USA
Mallory, MollaMolla Mallory (6)
 USA
Browne, MaryMary Browne
4–6, 6–4, 6–2

1922
 USA
Mallory, MollaMolla Mallory (7)
 USA
Wills, HelenHelen Wills
6–3, 6–1

1923
 USA
Wills, HelenHelen Wills
 USA
Mallory, MollaMolla Mallory
6–2, 6–1

1924
 USA
Wills, HelenHelen Wills (2)
 USA
Mallory, MollaMolla Mallory
6–1, 6–3

1925
 USA
Wills, HelenHelen Wills (3)
 GBR
McKane Godfree, KittyKitty McKane Godfree
3–6, 6–0, 6–2

1926
 USA
Mallory, MollaMolla Mallory (8)
 USA
Ryan, ElizabethElizabeth Ryan
4–6, 6–4, 9–7

1927
 USA
Wills, HelenHelen Wills (4)
 GBR
Nuthall, BettyBetty Nuthall
6–1, 6–4

1928
 USA
Wills, HelenHelen Wills (5)
 USA
Jacobs, HelenHelen Jacobs
6–2, 6–1

1929
 USA
Wills, HelenHelen Wills (6)
 GBR
Holcroft Watson, PhoebePhoebe Holcroft Watson
6–4, 6–2

1930
 GBR
Nuthall, BettyBetty Nuthall
 USA
McCune Harper, AnnaAnna McCune Harper
6–1, 6–4

1931
 USA
Wills Moody, HelenHelen Wills Moody (7)
 GBR
Bennett Whittingstall, EileenEileen Bennett Whittingstall
6–4, 6–1

1932
 USA
Jacobs, HelenHelen Jacobs
 USA
Babcock Stark, CarolinCarolin Babcock Stark
6–2, 6–2

1933
 USA
Jacobs, HelenHelen Jacobs (2)
 USA
Wills Moody, HelenHelen Wills Moody
8–6, 3–6, 3–0, retired

1934
 USA
Jacobs, HelenHelen Jacobs (3)
 USA
Palfrey Cooke, SarahSarah Palfrey Cooke
6–1, 6–4

1935
 USA
Jacobs, HelenHelen Jacobs (4)
 USA
Palfrey Cooke, SarahSarah Palfrey Cooke
6–2, 6–4

1936
 USA
Marble, AliceAlice Marble
 USA
Jacobs, HelenHelen Jacobs
4–6, 6–3, 6–2

1937
 CHI
Lizana, AnitaAnita Lizana
 POL
Jędrzejowska, JadwigaJadwiga Jędrzejowska
6–4, 6–2

1938
 USA
Marble, AliceAlice Marble (2)
 AUS
Wynne Bolton, NancyeNancye Wynne Bolton
6–0, 6–3

1939
 USA
Marble, AliceAlice Marble (3)
 USA
Jacobs, HelenHelen Jacobs
6–0, 8–10, 6–4

1940
 USA
Marble, AliceAlice Marble (4)
 USA
Jacobs, HelenHelen Jacobs
6–2, 6–3

1941
 USA
Palfrey Cooke, SarahSarah Palfrey Cooke
 USA
Betz, PaulinePauline Betz
7–5, 6–2

1942
 USA
Betz, PaulinePauline Betz
 USA
Brough, LouiseLouise Brough
4–6, 6–1, 6–4

1943
 USA
Betz, PaulinePauline Betz (2)
 USA
Brough, LouiseLouise Brough
6–3, 5–7, 6–3

1944
 USA
Betz, PaulinePauline Betz (3)
 USA
Osborne duPont, MargaretMargaret Osborne duPont
6–3, 8–6

1945
 USA
Palfrey Cooke, SarahSarah Palfrey Cooke (2)
 USA
Betz, PaulinePauline Betz
3–6, 8–6, 6–4

1946
 USA
Betz, PaulinePauline Betz (4)
 USA
Hart, DorisDoris Hart
11–9, 6–3

1947
 USA
Brough, LouiseLouise Brough
 USA
Osborne duPont, MargaretMargaret Osborne duPont
8–6, 4–6, 6–1

1948
 USA
Osborne duPont, MargaretMargaret Osborne duPont
 USA
Brough, LouiseLouise Brough
4–6, 6–4, 15–13

1949
 USA
Osborne duPont, MargaretMargaret Osborne duPont (2)
 USA
Hart, DorisDoris Hart
6–3, 6–1

1950
 USA
Osborne duPont, MargaretMargaret Osborne duPont (3)
 USA
Hart, DorisDoris Hart
6–4, 6–3

1951
 USA
Connolly, MaureenMaureen Connolly
 USA
Fry Irvin, ShirleyShirley Fry Irvin
6–3, 1–6, 6–4

1952
 USA
Connolly, MaureenMaureen Connolly (2)
 USA
Hart, DorisDoris Hart
6–3, 7–5

1953
 USA
Connolly, MaureenMaureen Connolly (3)
 USA
Hart, DorisDoris Hart
6–2, 6–4

1954
 USA
Hart, DorisDoris Hart
 USA
Brough, LouiseLouise Brough
6–8, 6–1, 8–6

1955
 USA
Hart, DorisDoris Hart (2)
 GBR
Ward Hales, PatriciaPatricia Ward Hales
6–4, 6–2

1956
 USA
Fry Irvin, ShirleyShirley Fry Irvin
 USA
Gibson, AltheaAlthea Gibson
6–3, 6–4

1957
 USA
Gibson, AltheaAlthea Gibson
 USA
Brough, LouiseLouise Brough
6–3, 6–2

1958
 USA
Gibson, AltheaAlthea Gibson (2)
 USA
Hard, DarleneDarlene Hard
3–6, 6–1, 6–2

1959
 BRA
Bueno, MariaMaria Bueno
 GBR
Truman Janes, ChristineChristine Truman Janes
6–1, 6–4

1960
 USA
Hard, DarleneDarlene Hard
 BRA
Bueno, MariaMaria Bueno
6–4, 10–12, 6–4

1961
 USA
Hard, DarleneDarlene Hard (2)
 GBR
Haydon Jones, AnnAnn Haydon Jones
6–3, 6–4

1962
 AUS
Court, MargaretMargaret Court
 USA
Hard, DarleneDarlene Hard
9–7, 6–4

1963
 BRA
Bueno, MariaMaria Bueno (2)
 AUS
Court, MargaretMargaret Court
7–5, 6–4

1964
 BRA
Bueno, MariaMaria Bueno (3)
 USA
Caldwell Graebner, CaroleCarole Caldwell Graebner
6–1, 6–0

1965
 AUS
Court, MargaretMargaret Court (2)
 USA
King, Billie JeanBillie Jean King
8–6, 7–5

1966
 BRA
Bueno, MariaMaria Bueno (4)
 USA
Richey, NancyNancy Richey
6–3, 6–1

1967
 USA
King, Billie JeanBillie Jean King
 GBR
Haydon Jones, AnnAnn Haydon Jones
11–9, 6–4

text: US Open[edit]

text:
Year[d]
Country
Champion
Country
Runner-up
Score

1968
 GBR
Wade, VirginiaVirginia Wade
 USA
King, Billie JeanBillie Jean King
6–4, 6–2

1969
 AUS
Court, MargaretMargaret Court (3)
 USA
Richey, NancyNancy Richey
6–2, 6–2

1970
 AUS
Court, MargaretMargaret Court (4)
 USA
Casals, RosemaryRosemary Casals
6–2, 2–6, 6–1

1971
 USA
King, Billie JeanBillie Jean King (2)
 USA
Casals, RosemaryRosemary Casals
6–4, 7–6

1972
 USA
King, Billie JeanBillie Jean King (3)
 AUS
Melville Reid, KerryKerry Melville Reid
6–3, 7–5

1973
 AUS
Court, MargaretMargaret Court (5)
 AUS
Goolagong Cawley, EvonneEvonne Goolagong Cawley
7–6, 5–7, 6–2

1974
 USA
King, Billie JeanBillie Jean King (4)
 AUS
Goolagong Cawley, EvonneEvonne Goolagong Cawley
3–6, 6–3, 7–5

1975
 USA
Evert, ChrisChris Evert
 AUS
Goolagong Cawley, EvonneEvonne Goolagong Cawley
5–7, 6–4, 6–2

1976
 USA
Evert, ChrisChris Evert (2)
 AUS
Goolagong Cawley, EvonneEvonne Goolagong Cawley
6–3, 6–0

1977
 USA
Evert, ChrisChris Evert (3)
 AUS
Turnbull, WendyWendy Turnbull
7–6, 6–2

1978
 USA
Evert, ChrisChris Evert (4)
 USA
Shriver, PamPam Shriver
7–5, 6–4

1979
 USA
Austin, TracyTracy Austin
 USA
Evert, ChrisChris Evert
6–4, 6–3

1980
 USA
Evert, ChrisChris Evert (5)
 TCH[g]
Mandlíková, HanaHana Mandlíková
5–7, 6–1, 6–1

1981
 USA
Austin, TracyTracy Austin (2)
 USA
Navratilova, MartinaMartina Navratilova
1–6, 7–6(7–4), 7–6(7–1)

1982
 USA
Evert, ChrisChris Evert (6)
 TCH
Mandlíková, HanaHana Mandlíková
6–3, 6–1

1983
 USA
Navratilova, MartinaMartina Navratilova
 USA
Evert, ChrisChris Evert
6–1, 6–3

1984
 USA
Navratilova, MartinaMartina Navratilova (2)
 USA
Evert, ChrisChris Evert
4–6, 6–4, 6–4

1985
 TCH[g]
Mandlíková, HanaHana Mandlíková
 USA
Navratilova, MartinaMartina Navratilova
7–6(7–3), 1–6, 7–6(7–2)

1986
 USA
Navratilova, MartinaMartina Navratilova (3)
 TCH
Suková, HelenaHelena Suková
6–3, 6–2

1987
 USA
Navratilova, MartinaMartina Navratilova (4)
 FRG
Graf, SteffiSteffi Graf
7–6(7–4), 6–1

1988
 FRG[h]
Graf, SteffiSteffi Graf
 ARG
Sabatini, GabrielaGabriela Sabatini
6–3, 3–6, 6–1

1989
 FRG[h]
Graf, SteffiSteffi Graf (2)
 USA
Navratilova, MartinaMartina Navratilova
3–6, 7–5, 6–1

1990
 ARG
Sabatini, GabrielaGabriela Sabatini
 FRG
Graf, SteffiSteffi Graf
6–2, 7–6(7–4)

1991
 YUG
Seles, MonicaMonica Seles
 USA
Navratilova, MartinaMartina Navratilova
7–6(7–1), 6–1

1992
 YUG[i]
Seles, MonicaMonica Seles (2)
 ESP
Sánchez Vicario, ArantxaArantxa Sánchez Vicario
6–3, 6–3

1993
 GER
Graf, SteffiSteffi Graf (3)
 CZE
Suková, HelenaHelena Suková
6–3, 6–3

1994
 ESP
Sánchez Vicario, ArantxaArantxa Sánchez Vicario
 GER
Graf, SteffiSteffi Graf
1–6, 7–6(7–3), 6–4

1995
 GER
Graf, SteffiSteffi Graf (4)
 USA
Seles, MonicaMonica Seles
7–6(8-6), 0–6, 6–3

1996
 GER
Graf, SteffiSteffi Graf (5)
 USA
Seles, MonicaMonica Seles
7–5, 6–4

1997
  SUI
Hingis, MartinaMartina Hingis
 USA
Williams, VenusVenus Williams
6–0, 6–4

1998
 USA
Davenport, LindsayLindsay Davenport
  SUI
Hingis, MartinaMartina Hingis
6–3, 7–5

1999
 USA
Williams, SerenaSerena Williams
  SUI
Hingis, MartinaMartina Hingis
6–3, 7–6(7–4)

2000
 USA
Williams, VenusVenus Williams
 USA
Davenport, LindsayLindsay Davenport
6–4, 7–5

2001
 USA
Williams, VenusVenus Williams (2)
 USA
Williams, SerenaSerena Williams
6–2, 6–4

2002
 USA
Williams, SerenaSerena Williams (2)
 USA
Williams, VenusVenus Williams
6–4, 6–3

2003
 BEL
Henin, JustineJustine Henin
 BEL
Clijsters, KimKim Clijsters
7–5, 6–1

2004
 RUS
Kuznetsova, SvetlanaSvetlana Kuznetsova
 RUS
Dementieva, ElenaElena Dementieva
6–3, 7–5

2005
 BEL
Clijsters, KimKim Clijsters
 FRA
Pierce, MaryMary Pierce
6–3, 6–1

2006
 RUS
Sharapova, MariaMaria Sharapova
 BEL
Henin, JustineJustine Henin
6–4, 6–4

2007
 BEL
Henin, JustineJustine Henin (2)
 RUS
Kuznetsova, SvetlanaSvetlana Kuznetsova
6–1, 6–3

2008
 USA
Williams, SerenaSerena Williams (3)
 SRB
Janković, JelenaJelena Janković
6–4, 7–5

2009
 BEL
Clijsters, KimKim Clijsters (2)
 DEN
Wozniacki, CarolineCaroline Wozniacki
7–5, 6–3

2010
 BEL
Clijsters, KimKim Clijsters (3)
 RUS
Zvonareva, VeraVera Zvonareva
6–2, 6–1

2011
 AUS
Stosur, SamanthaSamantha Stosur
 USA
Williams, SerenaSerena Williams
6–2, 6–3

2012
 USA
Williams, SerenaSerena Williams (4)
 BLR
Azarenka, VictoriaVictoria Azarenka
6–2, 2–6, 7–5

2013
 USA
Williams, SerenaSerena Williams (5)
 BLR
Azarenka, VictoriaVictoria Azarenka
7–5, 6–7(6–8), 6–1

2014
 USA
Williams, SerenaSerena Williams (6)
 DEN
Wozniacki, CarolineCaroline Wozniacki
6–3, 6–3

2015
 ITA
Pennetta, FlaviaFlavia Pennetta
 ITA
Vinci, RobertaRoberta Vinci
7–6(7–4), 6–2

2016
 GER
Kerber, AngeliqueAngelique Kerber
 CZE
Plíšková, KarolínaKarolína Plíšková
6–3, 4–6, 6–4

2017
 USA
Stephens, SloaneSloane Stephens
 USA
Keys, MadisonMadison Keys
6–3, 6–0

text: Statistics[edit]

text: In the U.S. National Championships, under the challenge round format, Elisabeth Moore (1896, 1901, 1903, 1905) holds the record for most singles titles with four and Hazel Hotchkiss Wightman (1909–1911) holds the record for most consecutive women's singles titles at three. With four consecutive singles titles each, Molla Bjurstedt Mallory (1915–1918) and Helen Jacobs (1932–1935) hold the record for most consecutive women's singles titles won after the challenge round format was abolished. Bjurstedt Mallory's eight singles titles (1915–1918, 1920–1922, 1926) is the all-time record.[3]

text: During the US Open, since the inclusion of the professional tennis players, Chris Evert (1975–1978) holds the record for most consecutive women's singles titles at four and the record for most overall titles at six (1975–1978, 1980, 1982) with Serena Williams (1999, 2002, 2008, 2012–2014).[3]

text: This event has been won without losing a set during the open era by Margaret Court in 1969, Billie Jean King in 1971 and 1972, Evert in 1976, 1977 and 1978, Martina Navratilova in 1983 and 1987, Monica Seles in 1992, Steffi Graf in 1996, Martina Hingis in 1997, Lindsay Davenport in 1998, Venus Williams in 2001, Serena Williams in 2002, 2008 and 2014, and Justine Henin in 2007.

text: Multiple champions[edit]

text: Title defended in the challenge round

text:
Player
Amateur Era
Open Era
All-time
Years

  Bjurstedt Mallory, MollaMolla Bjurstedt Mallory (USA) (NOR)
8
0
8
1915, 1916, 1917, 1918, 1920, 1921, 1922, 1926

 Wills Moody, HelenHelen Wills Moody (USA)
7
0
7
1923, 1924, 1925, 1927, 1928, 1929, 1931

 Evert, ChrisChris Evert (USA)
0
6
6
1975, 1976, 1977, 1978, 1980, 1982

 Williams, SerenaSerena Williams (USA)
0
6
6
1999, 2002, 2008, 2012, 2013, 2014

 Court, MargaretMargaret Court (AUS)
2
3
5
1962, 1965, 1969, 1970, 1973

 Graf, SteffiSteffi Graf (GER)[h]
0
5
5
1988, 1989, 1993, 1995, 1996

 Moore, ElisabethElisabeth Moore (USA)
4
0
4
1896, 1901, 1903, 1905

 Hotchkiss Wightman, HazelHazel Hotchkiss Wightman (USA)
4
0
4
1909, 1910, 1911, 1919

 Jacobs, HelenHelen Jacobs (USA)
4
0
4
1932, 1933, 1934, 1935

 Marble, AliceAlice Marble (USA)
4
0
4
1936, 1938, 1939, 1940

 Betz Addie, PaulinePauline Betz Addie (USA)
4
0
4
1942, 1943, 1944, 1946

 Bueno, MariaMaria Bueno (BRA)
4
0
4
1959, 1963, 1964, 1966

 King, Billie JeanBillie Jean King (USA)
1
3
4
1967, 1971, 1972, 1974

 Navratilova, MartinaMartina Navratilova (USA)
0
4
4
1983, 1984, 1986, 1987

 Atkinson, JulietteJuliette Atkinson (USA)
3
0
3
1895, 1897, 1898

 Browne, MaryMary Browne (USA)
3
0
3
1912, 1913, 1914

 Osborne duPont, MargaretMargaret Osborne duPont (USA)
3
0
3
1948, 1949, 1950

 Connolly, MaureenMaureen Connolly (USA)
3
0
3
1951, 1952, 1953

 Clijsters, KimKim Clijsters (BEL)
0
3
3
2005, 2009, 2010

 Townsend, BerthaBertha Townsend (USA)
2
0
2
1888, 1889

 Cahill, MabelMabel Cahill (GBR)
2
0
2
1891, 1892

 Jones, MarionMarion Jones (USA)
2
0
2
1899, 1902

 Palfrey Cooke, SarahSarah Palfrey Cooke (USA)
2
0
2
1941, 1945

 Hart, DorisDoris Hart (USA)
2
0
2
1954, 1955

 Gibson, AltheaAlthea Gibson (USA)
2
0
2
1957, 1958

 Hard, DarleneDarlene Hard (USA)
2
0
2
1960, 1961

 Austin, TracyTracy Austin (USA)
0
2
2
1979, 1981

  Seles, MonicaMonica Seles (SCG) (YUG)
0
2
2
1991, 1992

 Williams, VenusVenus Williams (USA)
0
2
2
2000, 2001

 Henin, JustineJustine Henin (BEL)
0
2
2
2003, 2007

text: Champions by country[edit]

text: Former country ¤

text:
Country
Amateur Era
Open Era
All-time
First title
Last title

 United States
67
25
92
1887
2017

 Australia
2
4
6
1962
2011

 Germany[h]
0
6
6
1988
2016

 Belgium
0
5
5
2003
2010

 Brazil
4
0
4
1959
1966

 Great Britain[f]
3
1
4
1891
1968

 Norway
4
0
4
1915
1918

 Russia
0
2
2
2004
2006

 Argentina
0
1
1
1990
1990

 Italy
0
1
1
2015
2015

 Serbia and Montenegro[i] ¤
0
1
1
1992
1992

 Yugoslavia ¤
0
1
1
1991
1991

 Chile
1
0
1
1937
1937

 Czechoslovakia[g] ¤
0
1
1
1985
1985

 Spain
0
1
1
1994
1994

  Switzerland
0
1
1
1997
1997