document_title: Ministries of Nineteen Eighty-Four

question_text: what is the ministry of truth in 1984

question_tokens: what is the ministry of truth in 1984

root

text: Ministries of Nineteen Eighty-Four

text: Ministry of Love[edit]

text: The Ministry of Love (Newspeak: Miniluv) serves as Oceania's interior ministry. It enforces loyalty to Big Brother through fear, buttressed through a massive apparatus of security and repression, as well as systematic brainwashing. The Ministry of Love building has no windows and is surrounded by barbed wire entanglements, steel doors, hidden machine-gun nests, and guards armed with "jointed truncheons". Referred to as "the place where there is no darkness", its interior lights are never turned off. It is arguably the most powerful ministry, controlling the will of the population. The Thought Police are a part of Miniluv.

tag: p

text: The Ministry of Love, like the other ministries, is misnamed, since it is largely responsible for the practice and infliction of misery, fear, suffering and torture. In a sense, however, the name is apt, since its ultimate purpose is to instill love of Big Brother—the only form of love permitted in Oceania—in the minds of thoughtcriminals as part of the process of reverting them to orthodox thought. This is typical of the language of Newspeak, in which words and names frequently contain both an idea and its opposite; the orthodox party member is nonetheless able to resolve these contradictions through the disciplined use of doublethink.

text: Room 101[edit]

text: Room 101, introduced in the climax of the novel, is the basement torture chamber in the Ministry of Love, in which the Party attempts to subject a prisoner to his or her own worst nightmare, fear or phobia, with the object of breaking down their resistance.

text: You asked me once, what was in Room 101. I told you that you knew the answer already. Everyone knows it. The thing that is in Room 101 is the worst thing in the world.

text: Such is the purported omniscience of the state in the society of Nineteen Eighty-Four that even a citizen's nightmares are known to the Party. The nightmare, and therefore the threatened punishment, of the protagonist Winston Smith is to be attacked by rats. This is manifested in Room 101 by confronting Smith with a wire cage that contains two large rats. The front of the cage is shaped so that it can fit over a person's face. A trap-door is then opened, allowing the rats to devour the victim's face. This cage is fitted over Smith's face, but he saves himself by begging the authorities to let his lover, Julia, suffer this torture instead of him. The threatened torture, and what Winston does to escape it, breaks his last promise to himself and to Julia: never to betray her. (Even though he had confessed to their actions, he still loved her until this point.) The book suggests that Julia is likewise subjected to her own worst fear (although it is not revealed what that fear is), and when she and Winston later meet in a park, he notices a scar on her forehead. The intent of threatening Winston with the rats was to force him into betraying the only person he loved and therefore to break his spirit.

text: Orwell named Room 101 after a conference room at Broadcasting House where he used to sit through tedious meetings.[2] When the original room 101 at the BBC was due to be demolished, a plaster cast of it was made by artist Rachel Whiteread and displayed in the cast courts of the Victoria and Albert Museum from November 2003 until June 2004.[3][4]

text: Ministry of Peace[edit]

text: The Ministry of Peace (Newspeak: Minipax) serves as the war ministry of Oceania's government, and is in charge of the armed forces, mostly the navy and army. The Ministry of Peace may be the most vital organ of Oceania, seeing as the nation is supposedly at an ongoing genocidal war with either Eurasia or Eastasia and requires the right amount of force not to win the war, but keep it in a state of equilibrium.

text: As explained in Emmanuel Goldstein's book, The Theory and Practice of Oligarchical Collectivism, the Ministry of Peace revolves around the principle of perpetual war. Perpetual war uses up all surplus resources, keeping most citizens in lives of constant hardship – and thus preventing them from learning enough to comprehend the true nature of their society. Perpetual warfare also "helps preserve the special mental atmosphere that a hierarchical society needs." Since that means the balance of the country rests in the war, the Ministry of Peace is in charge of fighting the war (mostly centered around Africa and India), but making sure to never tip the scales, in case the war should become one-sided. Oceanic telescreens usually broadcast news reports about how Oceania is continually winning every battle it fights, though these reports have little to no credibility.

text: As with all the other Nineteen Eighty-Four ministries, the Ministry of Peace is named the exact opposite of what it does, since the Ministry of Peace is in charge of maintaining a state of war. The meaning of peace has been equated with the meaning of war in the slogan of the party, "War is Peace". Like the names of other ministries, it also has a literal application. Perpetual war is what keeps the "peace" (the status quo) in Oceania and the balance of power in the world.

text: Ministry of Plenty[edit]

text: The Ministry of Plenty (Newspeak: Miniplenty) is in control of Oceania's planned economy. It oversees rationing of food, supplies, and goods. As told in Goldstein's book, the economy of Oceania is very important, and it's necessary to have the public continually create useless and synthetic supplies or weapons for use in the war, while they have no access to the means of production. This is the central theme of Oceania's idea that a poor, ignorant populace is easier to rule over than a wealthy, well-informed one. Telescreens often make reports on how Big Brother has been able to increase economic production, even when production has actually gone down (see § Ministry of Truth).

text: The Ministry hands out statistics which are "nonsense". When Winston is adjusting some Ministry of Plenty's figures, he explains this:

text: But actually, he thought as he readjusted the Ministry of Plenty's figures, it was not even forgery. It was merely the substitution of one piece of nonsense for another. Most of the material that you were dealing with had no connection with anything in the real world, not even the kind of connection that is contained in a direct lie. Statistics were just as much a fantasy in their original version as in their rectified version. A great deal of time you were expected to make them up out of your head.

text: Like the other ministries, the Ministry of Plenty seems to be entirely misnamed, since it is, in fact, responsible for maintaining a state of perpetual poverty, scarcity and financial shortages. However, the name is also apt, because, along with the Ministry of Truth, the Ministry of Plenty's other purpose is to convince the populace that they are living in a state of perpetual prosperity. Orwell made a similar reference to the Ministry of Plenty in his allegorical work Animal Farm when, in the midst of a blight upon the farm, Napoleon the pig orders the silo to be filled with sand, then to place a thin sprinkling of grain on top, which fools human visitors into being dazzled about Napoleon's boasting of the farm's superior economy.

text: A department of the Ministry of Plenty is charged with organizing state lotteries. These are very popular among the proles, who buy tickets and hope to win the big prizes – a completely vain hope as the big prizes are in fact not awarded at all, the Ministry of Truth participating in the scam and publishing every week the names of non-existent big winners.

text: In the Michael Radford film adaptation, the ministry is renamed the Ministry of Production, or MiniProd.

text: Ministry of Truth[edit]

text: The Ministry of Truth (Newspeak: Minitrue) is the ministry of propaganda. As with the other ministries in the novel, the name Ministry of Truth is a misnomer because in reality it serves the opposite: it is responsible for any necessary falsification of historical events.

text: As well as administering truth, the ministry spreads a new language amongst the populace called Newspeak, in which, for example, "truth" is understood to mean statements like 2 + 2 = 5 when the situation warrants. In keeping with the concept of doublethink, the ministry is thus aptly named in that it creates/manufactures "truth" in the Newspeak sense of the word. The book describes the doctoring of historical records to show a government-approved version of events.

text: Description[edit]

text: Winston Smith, the main character of Nineteen Eighty-Four, works at the Ministry of Truth.[5] It is an enormous pyramidal structure of glittering white concrete rising 300 metres (980 ft) into the air, containing over 3000 rooms above ground. On the outside wall are the three slogans of the Party: "WAR IS PEACE," "FREEDOM IS SLAVERY," "IGNORANCE IS STRENGTH." There is also a large part underground, probably containing huge incinerators where documents are destroyed after they are put down memory holes. For his description, Orwell was inspired by the Senate House at the University of London.[6]

text: Role in information[edit]

text: The Ministry of Truth is involved with news media, entertainment, the fine arts and educational books. Its purpose is to rewrite history to change the facts to fit Party doctrine for propaganda effect. For example, if Big Brother makes a prediction that turns out to be wrong, the employees of the Ministry of Truth correct the record to make it accurate. This is the "how" of the Ministry of Truth's existence. Within the novel, Orwell elaborates that the deeper reason for its existence, the "why", is to maintain the illusion that the Party is absolute. It cannot ever seem to change its mind (if, for instance, they perform one of their constant changes regarding enemies during war) or make a mistake (firing an official or making a grossly misjudged supply prediction), for that would imply weakness and to maintain power the Party must seem eternally right and strong.

text: Minitrue plays a role as the news media by changing history, and changing the words in articles about events current and past, so that Big Brother and his government are always seen in a good light and can never do any wrong. The content is more propaganda than actual news.

text: Departments[edit]

text: The following are the sections or departments of the ministry mentioned in the text:

text:
Records Department (Recdep in Newspeak)
Fiction Department (Ficdep)
Tele-programmes Department (Teledep)
Pornography section – for Prole consumption only (Pornosec)

tag: ul

text: Cultural impact[edit]

text: The novel's popularity has resulted in the term "Room 101" being used to represent a place where unpleasant things are done.

text:
According to Anna Funder's book Stasiland, Erich Mielke, the last Minister of State Security (Stasi) of East Germany, had the floors of the Stasi headquarters renumbered so that his second floor office would be number 101.[7]
In the BBC comedy television series Room 101, the concept is radically changed from that of Orwell, and celebrities are invited to discuss their pet hates and persuade the host to consign them to oblivion, as metaphorically represented by the idea of Room 101.[citation needed]
In the 2005 series of Big Brother (UK), a housemate was required to enter a Room 101 to complete tedious and unpleasant tasks, including sorting different colours of maggots.[citation needed]

text: In fiction[edit]

text: In The Ricky Gervais Show, Ricky Gervais and Stephen Merchant play a game called "Room 102", based on the concept of "Room 101", in which Karl Pilkington has to decide what things he dislikes enough to put in Room 102. This would result, according to their game, in these things being erased from existence.[citation needed]

text: The name "Ministry of Peace", and shorthand "Minipax", appear in the US science fiction TV series Babylon 5. The Ministry of Peace first appears in the episode "In the Shadow of Z'ha'dum". It is a sinister organisation, created to instill loyalty to the government of Earth and root out dissent; one of its senior staff is a "Mr Welles". In its role it more closely resembles the novel's § Ministry of Love (which is responsible for the Thought Police and the interrogation of dissidents) than it does the Ministry of Peace depicted in Nineteen Eighty-Four.[citation needed]

text: In The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen: Black Dossier, set in Britain after the fall of the Big Brother government, the Ministry of Love is actually MI5 and its physical location is given as the MI6 headquarters at Vauxhall Cross, noted by a young spy named Jimmy (a thinly veiled James Bond).[citation needed]

text: In the 2011 Doctor Who episode "The God Complex", The Doctor and his companions find themselves in a hotel full of their own personal Room 101s, each with their greatest fear in it.[8]

text: One sketch on That Mitchell and Webb Sound involved the hapless residents of room 102, the telescreen repair centre, who could not ignore the things happening in the next room.[citation needed]

text: In the 2002 game The Elder Scrolls III: Morrowind there is a floating rock known as "The Ministry of Truth".


document_title: Warsaw Pact

question_text: who took the initiative to form the warsaw pact

text: Warsaw Pact

text: Nomenclature[edit]

text: In the Western Bloc, the Warsaw Treaty Organization of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance is often called the Warsaw Pact military alliance—abbreviated WAPA, Warpac and WP. Elsewhere, in the former member states, the Warsaw Treaty is known as:

text:
Albanian: Pakti i miqësisë, bashkëpunimit dhe i ndihmës së përbashkët
Belarusian: Дагавор аб дружбе, супрацоўніцтве і ўзаемнай дапамозе
Romanized Belarusian: Dagavor ab druzhe, supratsoŭnitstve i ŭzaemnaŭ dapamoze
Bulgarian: Договор за дружба, сътрудничество и взаимопомощ
Romanized Bulgarian: Dogovor za druzhba, satrudnichestvo i vzaimopomosht
Czech: Smlouva o přátelství, spolupráci a vzájemné pomoci
Slovak: Zmluva o priateľstve, spolupráci a vzájomnej pomoci
German: Vertrag über Freundschaft, Zusammenarbeit und gegenseitigen Beistand
Hungarian: Barátsági, együttműködési és kölcsönös segítségnyújtási szerződés
Polish: Układ o przyjaźni, współpracy i pomocy wzajemnej
Romanian: Tratatul de prietenie, cooperare și asistență mutuală
Russian: Договор о дружбе, сотрудничестве и взаимной помощи
Romanized Russian: Dogovor o druzhbe, sotrudnichestve i vzaimnoy pomoshchi
Ukrainian: Договір про дружбу, співробітництво і взаємну допомогу
Romanized Ukrainian: Dogovir pro druzhbu, spivrobitnitstvo i vzaêmnu dopomogu

text: Structure[edit]

text: The Warsaw Treaty's organization was two-fold: the Political Consultative Committee handled political matters, and the Combined Command of Pact Armed Forces controlled the assigned multi-national forces, with headquarters in Warsaw, Poland. Furthermore, the Supreme Commander of the Unified Armed Forces of the Warsaw Treaty Organization which commanded and controlled all the military forces of the member countries was also a First Deputy Minister of Defence of the USSR, and the Chief of Combined Staff of the Unified Armed Forces of the Warsaw Treaty Organization was also a First Deputy Chief of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the USSR. Therefore, although ostensibly an international collective security alliance, the USSR dominated the Warsaw Treaty armed forces.[15]

text: Strategy[edit]

text: The strategy behind the formation of the Warsaw Pact was driven by the desire of the Soviet Union to dominate Central and Eastern Europe. The Soviets wanted to keep their part of Europe theirs and not let the Americans take it from them. This policy was driven by ideological and geostrategic reasons. Ideologically, the Soviet Union arrogated the right to define socialism and communism and act as the leader of the global socialist movement. A corollary to this idea was the necessity of intervention if a country appeared to be violating core socialist ideas and Communist Party functions, which was explicitly stated in the Brezhnev Doctrine.[16] Geostrategic principles also drove the Soviet Union with the desire to create a buffer zone to prevent invasion of its territory by Western European powers.

text: History[edit]

text: Beginnings[edit]

text:
Before the creation of the Warsaw Pact, Czechoslovak leadership, fearful of a rearmed Germany, sought to create a security pact with East Germany and Poland.[9] These states protested strongly against the re-militarization of West Germany.[17] The Warsaw Pact was primarily put in place as a consequence of the rearming of West Germany inside NATO. Soviet leaders, like many European countries on both sides of the Iron Curtain, feared Germany being once again a military power and a direct threat. The terrible consequences of German militarism remained a fresh memory among the Soviets and Eastern Europeans.[3][4][18][19][20] As the Soviet Union already had bilateral treaties with all of its eastern satellites, the Pact has been long considered 'superfluous',[21] and because of the rushed way in which it was conceived, NATO officials labeled it as a 'cardboard castle'.[22]
Previously, in March 1954, the USSR, fearing the restoration of German militarism in West Germany, requested admission to NATO.[23][24][25]

text:
The Soviet request to join NATO arose in the aftermath of the Berlin Conference of January–February 1954. Soviet foreign minister Molotov made proposals to have Germany reunified[26] and elections for a pan-German government,[27] under conditions of withdrawal of the four powers' armies and German neutrality,[28] but all were refused by the other foreign ministers, Dulles (USA), Eden (UK) and Bidault (France).[29] Proposals for the reunification of Germany were nothing new: earlier on 20 March 1952, talks about a German reunification, initiated by the so-called 'Stalin Note', ended after the United Kingdom, France and the United States insisted that a unified Germany should not be neutral and should be free to join the European Defence Community and rearm. James Dunn (USA), who met in Paris with Eden, Adenauer and Robert Schuman (France), affirmed that "the object should be to avoid discussion with the Russians and to press on the European Defense Community".[30]
According to John Gaddis "there was little inclination in Western capitals to explore this offer" from USSR.[31]
While historian Rolf Steininger asserts that Adenauer's conviction that "neutralization means sovietization" was the main factor in the rejection of the Soviet proposals,[32]  Adenauer also feared that German unification might have resulted in the end of the CDU's dominance in the West German Bundestag.[33]

text: Consequently, Molotov, fearing that the EDC would be directed in the future against the USSR and "seeking to prevent the formation of groups of European States directed against other European States",[34] made a proposal for a General European Treaty on Collective Security in Europe "open to all European States without regard as to their social systems"[34] which would have included the unified Germany (thus making the EDC – perceived by the USSR as a threat – unusable). But Eden, Dulles and Bidault opposed the proposal.[35]

text: One month later, the proposed European Treaty was rejected not only by supporters of the EDC but also by Western opponents of the European Defence Community (like French Gaullist leader Palewski) who perceived it as "unacceptable in its present form because it excludes the USA from participation in the collective security system in Europe".[36] The Soviets then decided to make a new proposal to the governments of the USA, UK and France to accept the participation of the USA in the proposed General European Agreement.[36] And considering that another argument deployed against the Soviet proposal was that it was perceived by Western powers as "directed against the North Atlantic Pact and its liquidation",[36][37] the Soviets decided to declare their "readiness to examine jointly with other interested parties the question of the participation of the USSR in the North Atlantic bloc", specifying that "the admittance of the USA into the General European Agreement should not be conditional on the three Western powers agreeing to the USSR joining the North Atlantic Pact".[36]

text: Again all proposals, including the request to join NATO, were rejected by the UK, US and French governments shortly after.[25][38] Emblematic was the position of British General Hastings Ismay, a fierce supporter of NATO expansion. He opposed the request to join NATO made by the USSR in 1954[39] saying that "the Soviet request to join NATO is like an unrepentant burglar requesting to join the police force".[40]

text: In April 1954 Adenauer made his first visit to the USA meeting Nixon, Eisenhower and Dulles. Ratification of EDC was delaying but the US representatives made it clear to Adenauer that EDC would have to become a part of NATO.[41]

text: Memories of the Nazi occupation were still strong, and the rearmament of Germany was feared by France too.[4][42] On 30 August 1954 French Parliament rejected the EDC, thus ensuring its failure[43] and blocking a major objective of US policy towards Europe: to associate Germany militarily with the West.[44] The US Department of State started to elaborate alternatives: Germany would be invited to join NATO or, in the case of French obstructionism, strategies to circumvent a French veto would be implemented in order to obtain a German rearmament outside NATO.[45]

text: On 23 October 1954 – only nine years after Allies (UK, USA and USSR) defeated Nazi Germany ending World War II in Europe – the admission of the Federal Republic of Germany to the North Atlantic Pact was finally decided. The incorporation of West Germany into the organization on 9 May 1955 was described as "a decisive turning point in the history of our continent" by Halvard Lange, Foreign Affairs Minister of Norway at the time.[46] In November  1954, the USSR requested a new European Security Treaty,[47] in order to make a final attempt to not have a remilitarized West Germany potentially opposed to the Soviet Union, with no success.

text: On 14 May 1955, the USSR and other seven European countries "reaffirming their desire for the establishment of a system of European collective security based on the participation of all European states irrespective of their social and political systems"[48] established the Warsaw Pact in response to the integration of the Federal Republic of Germany into NATO,[3][5] declaring that: "a remilitarized Western Germany and the integration of the latter in the North-Atlantic bloc [...] increase the danger of another war and constitutes a threat to the national security of the peaceable states; [...] in these circumstances the peaceable European states must take the necessary measures to safeguard their security".[48]

text: One of the founding members, East Germany was allowed to re-arm by the Soviet Union and the National People's Army was established as the armed forces of the country to counter the rearmament of West Germany and vice versa.[49]

text: Members[edit]

text: The eight member countries of the Warsaw Pact pledged the mutual defence of any member who would be attacked. Relations among the treaty signatories were based upon mutual non-intervention in the internal affairs of the member countries, respect for national sovereignty, and political independence. However, almost all governments of those member states were indirectly controlled by the Soviet Union.[50]

text: The founding signatories to the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance consisted of the following communist governments:

text:
Albania (withheld support in 1961 because of the Soviet-Albanian split, formally withdrew in 1968)
 Bulgaria[51]
 Czechoslovakia[51]
 East Germany (withdrew on 2 October 1990 after dissolution of state)[51]
 Hungary[51]
 Poland[51]
 Romania[51]
 Soviet Union[51]

text: Mongolia: In July 1963 the Mongolian People's Republic asked to join the Warsaw Pact under Article 9 of the treaty.[52] Due to the emerging Sino-Soviet split, Mongolia remained on observer status.[52] The Soviet Government agreed to station troops in Mongolia in 1966.[53]

text: During Cold War[edit]

text: For 36 years, NATO and the Warsaw Pact never directly waged war against each other in Europe; the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies implemented strategic policies aimed at the containment of each other in Europe, while working and fighting for influence within the wider Cold War on the international stage. These included the Korean War, Vietnam War, Bay of Pigs invasion, Dirty War, Cambodian–Vietnamese War and the others.[54][55]

text: In 1956, following the declaration of the Imre Nagy government of withdrawal of Hungary from the Warsaw Pact, Soviet troops entered the country and removed the government.[56] Soviet forces crushed the nationwide revolt, leading to the death of an estimated 2,500 Hungarian citizens.[57]

text: The multi-national Communist armed forces' sole joint action was the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968.[58] All member countries, with the exception of the Socialist Republic of Romania and the People's Republic of Albania, participated in the invasion.[59] The German Democratic Republic provided only minimal support, however.[59]

text: End of the Cold War[edit]

text: Beginning at the Cold War's conclusion, in late 1989, popular civil and political public discontent forced the Communist governments of the Warsaw Treaty countries from power, while independent national politics made feasible with the perestroika and glasnost induced institutional collapse of Communist government in the USSR.[60]

text: Between 1989 and 1991, Communist governments were overthrown in Albania, Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Romania, Bulgaria and the Soviet Union.

text: As the last acts of the Cold War were playing out, several Warsaw Pact states (Poland, Czechoslovakia and Hungary) participated in the U.S.-led coalition effort to liberate Kuwait in the Gulf War.

text: On 25 February 1991, the Warsaw Pact was declared disbanded at a meeting of defence and foreign ministers from remaining Pact countries meeting in Hungary.[61] On 1 July 1991, in Prague, the Czechoslovak President Václav Havel[62] formally ended the 1955 Warsaw Treaty Organization of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance and so disestablished the Warsaw Treaty after 36 years of military alliance with the USSR.[62][63] The USSR disestablished itself in December 1991.

text: Central and Eastern Europe after the Warsaw Treaty[edit]

text: On 12 March 1999, the Czech Republic, Hungary and Poland joined NATO; Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania and Slovakia joined in March 2004; Albania joined on 1 April 2009.[64][65]

text: Russia and some other post-USSR states joined the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) in 1992, or the Shanghai Five in 1996, which was renamed the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) after Uzbekistan's addition in 2001.[66]

text: In November 2005, the Polish government[67] opened its Warsaw Treaty archives to the Institute of National Remembrance, which published some 1,300 declassified documents in January 2006. Yet the Polish government reserved publication of 100 documents, pending their military declassification. Eventually, 30 of the reserved 100 documents were published; 70 remained secret and unpublished. Among the documents published is the Warsaw Treaty's nuclear war plan, Seven Days to the River Rhine – a short, swift counter-attack capturing Austria, Denmark, Germany and Netherlands east of River Rhine, using nuclear weapons, in self-defence, after a NATO first strike.[68] The plan originated as a 1979[69] field training exercise war game and metamorphosed into official Warsaw Treaty battle doctrine, until the late 1980s – which is why the Polish People's Republic was a nuclear weapons base,[70] first, to 178, then, to 250 tactical-range rockets, though these numbers may differ. Doctrinally, as a Soviet-style (offensive) battle plan, Seven Days to the River Rhine gave commanders few defensive-war strategies for fighting NATO in Warsaw Treaty territory.[68][71]

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
Badge Warsaw Pact. Union of peace and socialism

Badge Warsaw Pact. Brothers in arms (1970)

Badge A participant in joint exercises of Warsaw Pact "STIT" (1972)

Badge 25 years Warsaw Pact (1980)

Badge Air Forces Warsaw Pact

Badge Warsaw Pact. The participants of the joint exercises in Bulgaria (1982)

Jubilee badge 30 years of the Warsaw Pact (1985)


document_title: Education in the Age of Enlightenment

question_text: who developed a method of printing that greatly stimulated the growth of literacy

text: Education in the Age of Enlightenment

text: History of education[edit]

text: Before the Enlightenment, European educational systems were principally geared for teaching a limited number of professions, e.g., religious orders such as priests, brothers and sisters, health care workers such as physicians, and bureaucrats such as lawyers and scribes, and they were not yet greatly influenced by the scientific revolution. As the scientific revolution and religious upheaval broke traditional views and ways of thinking of that time, religion and superstition were supplemented by reasoning and scientific facts. Philosophers such as John Locke proposed the idea that knowledge is obtained through sensation and reflection.[2] This proposition led to Locke’s theory that everyone has the same capacity of sensation, and, therefore, education should not be restricted to a certain class or gender. Prior to the 17th and 18th century centuries, education and literacy were generally restricted to males who belonged to the nobility and the mercantile and professional classes. In England and France, “idealized notions of domesticity, which emphasized the importance of preparing girls for motherhood and home duties, fuelled the expansion of schooling for girls.”[3]

text: Educational ideas[edit]

text: John Locke in English and Jean Jacques Rousseau in French authored influential works on education. Both emphasised the importance of shaping young minds early. By the late Enlightenment there was a rising demand for a more universal approach to education, particularly after the American and French Revolutions.

text: Enlightenment children were taught to memorise facts through oral and graphic methods that originated during the Renaissance.[4] The predominant educational psychology from the 1750s onward, especially in northern European countries was associationism; the notion that the mind associates or dissociates ideas through repeated routines. It offered a practical theory of the mind that allowed teachers to transform longstanding forms of print and manuscript culture into effective graphic tools of learning for the lower and middle orders of society.[5]

text: Many of the leading universities associated with Enlightenment progressive principles were located in northern Europe, with the most renowned being the universities of Leiden, Göttingen, Halle, Montpellier, Uppsala and Edinburgh. These universities, especially Edinburgh, produced professors whose ideas had a significant impact on Britain's North American colonies and, later, the American Republic. Within the natural sciences Edinburgh's medical also led the way in chemistry, anatomy and pharmacology.[6]

text: However, in general the universities and schools of France and most of Europe were bastions of traditionalism and were not hospitable to the Enlightenment. In France the major exception was the medical university at Montpellier.[7]

text: Growth of the education system[edit]

text: Literacy[edit]

text: Education was once considered a privilege for only the upper class. However, during the 17th and 18th century centuries, “education, literacy and learning” were gradually provided to “rich and poor alike”.[8] The literacy rate in Europe from the 17th century to the 18th century grew significantly. The definition of the term "literacy" in the 17th and 18th centuries is different from our current definition of literacy. Historians measured the literacy rate during the 17th and 18th century centuries by people’s ability to sign their names. However, this method of determining literacy did not reflect people’s ability to read. This affected the women’s apparent literacy rate prior to the Age of Enlightenment mainly because while most women living between the Dark Ages and the Age of Enlightenment could not write or sign their names, many could read, at least to some extent.[9]

text: The rate of literacy increased more rapidly in more populated areas and areas where there was mixture of religious schools. The literacy rate in England in the 1640s was around 30 percent for males, rising to 60 percent in the mid-18th century. In France, the rate of literacy in 1686-90 was around 29 percent for men and 14 percent for women, it increased to 48 percent for men and 27 percent for women.[10]

text: The increase in literacy rate was more likely due, at least in part to religious influence, since most of the schools and colleges were organized by clergy, missionaries, or other religious organizations. The reason which motivated religions to help to increase the literacy rate among the general public was because the bible was being printed in more languages and literacy was thought to be the key to understanding the word of God.[11] “By 1714 the proportion of women able to read had risen, very approximately, to 25%, and it rose again to 40% by 1750. This increase was part of a general trend, fostered by the Reformation emphasis on reading the scripture and by the demand for literacy in an increasingly mercantile society. The group most affected was the growing professional and commercial class, and writing and arithmetic schools emerged to provide the training their sons required”.[12]

text: Prussian system[edit]

text: The Kingdom of Prussia introduced a modern public educational system designed to reach the entire population; it was widely copied across Europe and the United States in the 19th century. The basic foundations of the Prussian primary education system were laid out by Frederick the Great with his "Generallandschulreglement," a decree of 1763, drafted by Johann Julius Hecker. It mandated the schooling of all young Prussians, both girls and boys, to be educated by mainly municipality funded schools from age 5 until age 13 or 14. Prussia was among the first countries in the world to introduce a tax-funded and generally compulsory primary education. In comparison, compulsory schooling in France or Great Britain was not successfully enacted until the 1880s.[13]

text: The Prussian system consisted of an eight-year course of primary education, called Volksschule. It provided not only basic technical skills needed in a modernizing world (as reading and writing), but also music (singing), religious (Christian) education in close corporation with the churches and tried to impose a strict ethos of duty, soberness and discipline. Mathematic and calculus were not compulsory in the start and taking such courses was requiring additional payment by parents. Frederick the Great also formalized further educational stages, such as the Realschule and the highest stage, the gymnasium (state funded secondary school), which was used as university-preparatory school.[14] The final examination, Abitur, was introduced in 1788, implemented in all Prussian secondary schools by 1812, and extended to all of Germany in 1871 and is in place till the present. Passing the Abitur was a pre-requisite to entering the learned professions and higher echelons of civil service. Generations of Prussian and as well German teachers, which in the 18th century often had no formal education and in the very beginning often were former petty officers without pedagogic training, tried to gain more academic recognition, training and better pay and played an important role in various protest and reform movements.

text: The Prussian system, after its modest beginnings, succeeded in reaching compulsory attendance, specific training for teachers, national testing for all students (of all genders), national curriculum set for each grade and mandatory Kindergarten.[15] In 1810, Prussia introduced state certification requirements for teachers, which significantly raised the standard of teaching.<[16]

text: In the 18th century, states were paying more attention to their educational systems because they recognized that their subjects are more useful to the state if they are well educated. The conflicts between the crown and the church helped the expansion of the educational systems. In the eyes of the church and the state, universities and colleges were institutions that existed to maintain the dominance of one over the other. The downside of this conflict was that the freedom of thought on the subjects taught in these institutions was restricted. An educational institution was either a supporter of the monarchy or the religion, never both.[17]

text: Also, changes in educational criteria for higher income professions such as lawyers and physicians became stricter, e.g., requirements to have certain educational experience before being licensed, helped to promote increases in the numbers of students attending universities and colleges.[18]

text: Print culture[edit]

text: The explosion of the print culture, which started in the 15th century with Johannes Gutenberg’s printing press, was both a result of and a cause of the increase in literacy. The number of books published in the period of the Enlightenment increased dramatically due to the increase in demand for books, which resulted from the increased literacy rates and the declining cost and easier availability of books made possible by the printing press. There was a shift in the percentages of books printed in various categories during the 17th century.

text: Religious books had comprised around 50% of all books published in Paris at that time. However, the percentage of religious books dropped to 10% by 1790 and there was an increase in the popularity of books such as almanacs.[19] The scientific literature in French might have increased slightly but mostly it remained fairly constant throughout the 18th century. However, contemporary literature seems to have increased as the century progressed.[20] Also, there was a change in the languages that books were printed in. Before the 18th century, a large percentage of the books were published in Latin. As time progressed, there was a decline in the percentage of books published in Latin. Concurrently, the percentage of books published in French, and other languages, increased throughout Europe.[21]

text: Of course the importance of print culture to education is not simply about counting publication figures. Students had to use the books that were given to them and they had to use pen and paper to organise and make sense of the information that they were learning.[22] In this sense print culture was closely tied to manuscript culture, particularly the skills and routines associated with note-taking. Perhaps one of the most notable accomplishments of Enlightenment educational systems is that they taught students how to efficiently manage information on paper, both in school and then in university.[23]

text: Public libraries[edit]

text: During the Enlightenment period, there were changes in the public cultural institutions, such as libraries and museums. The system of public libraries was a product of the Enlightenment. The public libraries were funded by the state and were accessible to everyone for free.[24]

text: Prior to the Enlightenment, libraries in Europe were restricted mostly to academies and the private collections of aristocrats and other wealthy individuals. With the beginning of state funded institutions, public libraries became places where the general public could study topics of interest and educate themselves. During the 18th century, the prices of books were generally too high for the average person, especially the most popular works such as encyclopedias.[25] Therefore, the public libraries offered commoners a chance of reading literature and other works that previously could only be read by the wealthier classes.

text: Intellectual exchange[edit]

text: During the 18th century, the increase in social gathering places such as coffeehouses, clubs, academies and Masonic Lodges provided alternative places where people could read, learn and exchange ideas. In England, coffeehouses became public spaces where political, philosophical and scientific ideas were being discussed. The first coffeehouse in Britain was established in Oxford in 1650 and the number of coffeehouses expanded around Oxford.[26]

text: The coffeehouse was a place for people to congregate, to read, to learn and to debate with each other. Another name for the coffeehouse is the Penny University, because the coffeehouse had a reputation as a place of informal learning.[27] “The popularization of new ideas encouraged further changes in the habits and beliefs of many ordinary people. Reading clubs and coffeehouses allowed many urban artisans and businessmen to discuss the latest reform ideas.”[28] Even though the coffeehouses were generally accessible to everyone, most of the coffeehouses did not allow women to participate. Clubs, academies, and Lodges, although not entirely open to the public, established venues of intellectual exchange that functioned as de facto institutions of education.

text: Education for girls[edit]

text: During the 17th century, there were a number of schools dedicated to girls, but the cultural norm was for girls to be informally educated at home. During the 18th century, there was an increase in the number of girls being educated in schools. This was especially true for middle-class families whose rising financial status and social aspirations made providing an aristocratic style of education for their daughters both desirable and possible.[29]

text: In France, one of the most famous schools for girls was the Saint-Cyr, which was founded by Madame de Maintenon. Although the school Saint-Cyr was meant to educate women, it did not dare to challenge the traditional views towards women. Therefore, the fact that there were schools for women did not bring about a social change because the schools themselves did not challenge the social status quo. Women were excluded from learning subjects such as science and politics. In October, 1795, France created “a National Institute and Normal Schools that excluded women from the professional study of Philosophy”[30] In d’Épinay’s recollection of her childhood education, she pointed out that girls were not taught much of anything and that a proper education was considered to be inappropriate for the female sex. The main issue about female education relates to the traditional view of women’s weakness being due to nature. However, there were people, such as John Locke and d’Épinay, who argue that women’s weakness was due to faulty education.[31]

text: Catherine the Great of Russia would become a patron of women's education in her country throughout the 18th century. Heeding to the advice of Ivan Betskoy, an educational reformer and adviser on education, the Empress created separate boarding schools for both boys and girls. Her establishment of the Smolny Institute for Noble Girls in 1764 became the first higher learning institute for women in Europe; the following year Catherine would also establish the Novodevichii Institute, an all-female institute for the daughters of Russian commoners.[32][33] Just as Frederick the Great would oversee the establishment of compulsory education in Prussia, Catherine would contribute to the evolution of women's education on the continent and allow for the further modernization of the Russian state during the Enlightenment.

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Culture: Nine European historical sites now on the European Heritage Label list European Commission, February 8, 2016
Jump up ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, "Education," in "Encyclopædia Britannica Online" http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/179408/education (accessed on April 3, 2009).
Jump up ^ de Bellaigue, (2007) p. 11
Jump up ^ Hotson, Howard (2007). Commonplace Learning: Ramism and Its German Ramifications 1543–1630. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Jump up ^ Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2013). "The Shape of Knowledge: Children and the Visual Culture of Literacy and Numeracy". Science in Context. 26: 215–45. doi:10.1017/s0269889713000045.
Jump up ^ Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2008). The Language of Mineralogy: John Walker, Chemistry and the Edinburgh Medical School, 1750–1800. Aldershot: Ashgate.
Jump up ^ Elizabeth Williams, A Cultural History of Medical Vitalism in Enlightenment Montpellier (2003) p. 50
Jump up ^ Kurtz, (1994), pp. 14, 15.
Jump up ^ Melton, (2001), pp. 81–82.
Jump up ^ Melton, (2001), pp. 81–82.
Jump up ^ American Eras. 8 vols. Gale Research 1997–1998, "Education Overview"
Jump up ^ de Bellaigue, (2007) p. 12
Jump up ^ James van Horn Melton, Absolutism and the Eighteenth-Century Origins of Compulsory Schooling in Prussia and Austria (2003)
Jump up ^ Christopher Clark, Iron Kingdom: The Rise and Downfall of Prussia, 1600–1947 (2008) ch 7
Jump up ^ Ellwood Cubberley, The History of Education: Educational Practice and Progress Considered as a Phase of the Development and Spread of Western Civilization (1920) online
Jump up ^ John Franklin Brown (1911). The Training of Teachers for Secondary Schools in Germany and the United States. Macmillan. pp. 21–25.
Jump up ^ Brockliss, (1987), pp. 445–53.
Jump up ^ Brockliss, (1987), p. 5.
Jump up ^ Melton, (2001), p. 88.
Jump up ^ Darnton, (1982), pp. 179–81.
Jump up ^ MDarnton, (1980), p. 28.
Jump up ^ Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2013). "The Shape of Knowledge: Children and the Visual Culture of Literacy and Numeracy". Science in Context. 26: 215–45. doi:10.1017/s0269889713000045.
Jump up ^ Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2010). "Tools for Reordering: Commonplacing and the Space of Words in Linnaeus's Philosophia Botanica". Intellectual History Review. 20: 227–52. doi:10.1080/17496971003783773.
Jump up ^ Greenhalgh, (1995), pp. 19–20.
Jump up ^ Darnton, (1979), p. 12.
Jump up ^ Cowan, (2005), p. 90.
Jump up ^ Cowan, (2005), p. 99.
Jump up ^ http://history-world.org/age_of_enlightenment.htm.
Jump up ^ de Bellaigue, (2007), p. 14.
Jump up ^ Calra Hesse, The Other Enlightenment: how French women became modern (2001), preface timeline.
Jump up ^ Knott, (2005), p. 226.
Jump up ^ J.L. Black, “Educating Women in Eighteenth-Century Russia: Myths and Realities,” Canadian Slavonic Papers, 20 (1978), p. 37.
Jump up ^ Robin Bisha et al. (eds.), Russian Women, 1698-1917: Experience and Expression, An Anthology of Sources (Bloomington, 2002), p. 163.

tag: ol

text: Further reading[edit]

text:
Brockliss, L.W.B. 1987. French Higher Education in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Butts, R. Freeman. A Cultural History of Western Education: Its Social and Intellectual Foundations (2nd ed. 1955) online
Cook, T. G. The History of Education in Europe (1974)
Cremin, Lawrence A. American Education: The Colonial Experience, 1607–1783 (1970)
Cubberley, Ellwood Patterson. The History of Education: Educational Practice and Progress Considered as a Phase of the Development and Spread of Western Civilization (1920) online
Lawson, John, and Harold Silver. A social history of education in England (Routledge, 2013)
Palmer, Joy A. et al. eds. Fifty Major Thinkers on Education: From Confucius to Dewey (2001) online
Ringer, Fritz. Education and Society in Modern Europe (1979); focus on Germany and France with comparisons to US and Britain
Wardle, David. English popular education 1780–1970 (Cambridge UP, 1970)
Whitehead, Barbara J., ed. Women's education in early modern Europe: a history, 1500–1800 (1999) online specialized topics

text: Primary sources[edit]

text: Cubberley, Ellwood Patterson, ed. Readings in the History of Education (1920)

text: Informal education[edit]

text:
Cowan, Brian, 2005. Social life of Coffee: The Emergence of the British Coffeehouse New Haven:Yale University Press.
de Bellaigue, Christina. 2007. Educating Women – Schooling and Identity in England and France, 1800–1867 Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Darnton, Robert, 1982. The Literary Underground of the Old Regime. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
"Education Overview (1754–1783)." American Eras. 8 vols. Gale Research, 1997-1998. Reproduced in History Resource Center. Farmington Hills, MI: Gale.
Education. (2009). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved April 05, 2009, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/179408/education
Graff, Harvey J. (1987) The Legacies of Literacy: Continuities and Contradictions in Western Culture and Society (1987) from Middle Ages to present
Greenhalgh, Liz, Worpole, Ken, & Landry, Charles. 1995. "libraries in a world of cultural change London: UCL Press.
Hesse, Calra, 2001. "The Other Enlightenment: how French women became modern". Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Melton, James Van Horn. 2001. "The Rise of the Public in Enlightenment Europe". Cambridge: Cambridge university Press.

text: Age of EnlightenmentHistory of education by period


document_title: Seat belt laws in the United States

question_text: when did the california seat belt law start

text: Seat belt laws in the United States

text: Primary and secondary enforcement[edit]

text: U.S. seatbelt laws may be subject to primary enforcement or secondary enforcement. Primary enforcement allows a police officer to stop and ticket a driver if he or she observes a violation. Secondary enforcement means that a police officer may only stop or cite a driver for a seatbelt violation if the driver committed another primary violation (such as speeding, running a stop sign, etc.) at the same time. New Hampshire is the only U.S. state that does not by law require adult drivers to wear safety belts while operating a motor vehicle.

text: In 15 of the 50 states, the seat belt law is considered a secondary offense, which means that a police officer cannot stop and ticket a driver for the sole offense of not wearing a seatbelt. (One exception to this is Colorado, where children not properly restrained is a primary offense and brings a much larger fine.) If a driver commits a primary violation (e.g., for speeding) he may additionally be charged for not wearing a seatbelt. In most states the seat belt law was originally a secondary offense; in many it was later changed to a primary offense: California was the first state to do this, in 1993. Of the 30 with primary seat belt laws, all but 8, Connecticut, Hawaii, Iowa, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, Oregon, and Texas, originally had only secondary enforcement laws.

text: Laws by state[edit]

text: This table contains a brief summary of all seatbelt laws in the United States.[3][4] This list includes only seatbelt laws, which often do not themselves apply to children; however, all 50 states and the District of Columbia have separate child restraint laws. Keep in mind these fines are the base fines only. In many cases considerable extra fees such as the head injury fund and court security fees can mark up the fine to almost five times as much in some cases. These are also "first offense" fines; a subsequent offense may be much higher.

text:
State
Type of law
Date of first law
Who is covered
Base fine before fees
Seat Belt Usage[5]

 Alabama
Primary Enforcement
July 18, 1991
Age 15+ in front seats
$25
91.4%

 Alaska
Primary Enforcement
September 12, 1990
Age 16+ in all seats
$15 ($25 actual)
86.8%

 Arizona
Secondary Enforcement
January 1, 1991
Age 8+ in front seats; Age 8–15 in all seats
$10 ($37.20 actual)
81.8%

 Arkansas
Primary Enforcement
July 15, 1991
Age 15+ in front seats
$25
78.3%

 California
Primary Enforcement
January 1, 1986
Age 16+ in all seats
$20 ($162 actual) $50 second offense ($190 actual)5
96.2%

 Colorado
Secondary Enforcement1 exception Mountain View where it is a primary violation[6]
July 1, 1987
Age 16+ in front seats
$71
82.9%

 Connecticut
Primary Enforcement
January 1, 1986
Age 7+ in front seats
$92
88.2%

 Delaware
Primary Enforcement
January 1, 1992
Age 16+ in all seats
$25
90.7%

 District of Columbia
Primary Enforcement
December 12, 1985
Age 16+ in all seats
$504
92.3%

 Florida
Primary Enforcement
July 1, 1986
6+ years in front seat; 6 through 17 years in all seats
$30 ($116 actual)
87.4%

 Georgia
Primary Enforcement
September 1, 1988
Age 8–17 in all seats; Age 18+ in front seats
$15
89.6%

 Hawaii
Primary Enforcement
December 16, 1985
Age 8+ in all seats
$45 ($112 actual)
97.6%

 Idaho
Secondary Enforcement2
July 1, 1986
Age 7+ in all seats
$10 ($51.50 actual)
77.9%

 Illinois
Primary Enforcement
January 1, 1988
Age 16+ in all seats
$25 ($60 actual or $95 if choosing traffic school)
92.6%

 Indiana
Primary Enforcement
July 1, 1987
Age 16+ in all seats
$25
92.4%

 Iowa
Primary Enforcement
July 1, 1986
All ages in front seats; under 18 in rear seats[7]
$25 ($127.50 actual)
93.1%

 Kansas
Primary Enforcement3
July 1, 1986
Age 14+ in all seats
$60 for age 14-17; $10 for 18+
81.8%

 Kentucky
Primary Enforcement
July 15, 1994
Age 7 and younger and more than 57 inches in all seats; 8+ in all seats
$25
80.3%

 Louisiana
Primary Enforcement
July 1, 1986
Age 13+ in front seats
$25
75.9%

 Maine
Primary Enforcement
December 26, 1995
Age 18+ in all seats
$50
82.0%

 Maryland
Primary Enforcement3
July 1, 1986
Age 16+ in all seats
$83
94.7%

 Massachusetts
Secondary Enforcement
February 1, 1994
Age 13+ in all seats[8]
$25
73.7%

 Michigan
Primary Enforcement
July 1, 1985
Age 16+ in front seats
$25 ($65 actual)
95.2%

 Minnesota
Primary Enforcement
August 1, 1986
7 and younger and more than 57 inches in all seats; 8+ in all seats
$25 + $75 fee
92.3%

 Mississippi
Primary Enforcement
July 1, 1994
Age 7+ in all seats
$25
81.0%

 Missouri
Secondary Enforcement1
September 28, 1985
Age 16+ in front seats; age 8-15 in all seats
$10 for age 16+; $50 for age 8-15
76.0%

 Montana
Secondary Enforcement
October 1, 1987
Age 6+ in all seats
$20
78.9%

 Nebraska
Secondary Enforcement
January 1, 1993
Age 18+ in front seats
$25
84.1%

 Nevada
Secondary Enforcement
July 1, 1987
Age 6+ in all seats
$25
93.2%

 New Hampshire
None, Primary for children only
No law
Age 17 and under in all seats
$50
72.2%

 New Jersey
Primary Enforcement3
March 1, 1985
Age 8+ in all seats
$46 per person
93.7%

 New Mexico
Primary Enforcement
January 1, 1986
Age 18+ in all seats
$254
89.8%

 New York
Primary Enforcement
December 1, 1984
Age 16+ in front seats; under 16 in all seats
$50 ($135 Actual after surcharges)[9]
89.8%

 North Carolina
Primary Enforcement, Secondary for Backseat[10]
October 1, 1985
All ages in all seats
$161 for front seat; $10 for rear seat
89.7%

 North Dakota
Secondary Enforcement2
July 14, 1994
Age 18+ in front seats;
under 18 in all seats

$20 for age 18+; $25 + 1 point on license for under 184
74.8%

 Ohio
Secondary Enforcement
May 6, 1986
Age 15+ in front seat; 8–14 in all seats
$30 for driver; $20 for passenger
83.8%

 Oklahoma
Primary Enforcement
February 1, 1987
Age 13+ in front seats
$20
85.9%

 Oregon
Primary Enforcement
December 7, 1990
All ages in all seats
$130
97.0%

 Pennsylvania
Secondary Enforcement2
November 23, 1987
Age 18+ in front seats; age 8-17 in all seats
$10
86.0%

 Rhode Island
Primary Enforcement
June 18, 1991
Age 8+ in all seats
$75
78.0%

 South Carolina
Primary Enforcement
July 1, 1989
Age 6+ in all seats
$25
85.4%

 South Dakota
Secondary Enforcement
January 1, 1995
Age 18+ in front seats
$25
74.5%

 Tennessee
Primary Enforcement
April 21, 1986
Age 16+ in front seats
$25
87.1%

 Texas
Primary Enforcement
September 1, 1985
Age 7 years and younger and 57 inches or taller in all seats; age 8+ years in all seats
$200 if under 17 (driver); $50 if over 15 (driver or passenger)
93.8%

 Utah
Primary Enforcement
April 28, 1986
All ages in all seats
$45
89.0%

 Vermont
Secondary Enforcement2
January 1, 1994
All ages in all seats
$25
85.2%

 Virginia
Secondary Enforcement2
January 1, 1988
All drivers; age 18+ in front seats; under 18 in all seats
$25
80.5%

 Washington
Primary Enforcement
June 11, 1986
Age 8+ in all seats
$124
97.6%

 West Virginia
Primary Enforcement
September 1, 1993
All ages in front seats; 8–17 in rear seats
$25
82.1%

 Wisconsin
Primary Enforcement
December 1, 1987
Age 8+ in all seats
$10
79.2%

 Wyoming
Secondary Enforcement
June 8, 1989
Age 9+ in all seats
$25 for driver; $10 for passenger
78.9%

tag: table

text: 1 Colorado and Missouri's law is Secondary for adults but Primary for under the age of 16.

text: 2 Idaho, North Dakota, Pennsylvania, Vermont and Virginia's law is Secondary for adults but Primary for under 18.

text:
3 Kansas, Maryland, and New Jersey, law is Secondary Enforcement for rear seat occupants (18+ in Kansas).
4 These states assess points on one's driving record for the seat belt violation.
5 In California- An additional penalty of $24 shall be levied upon every $10 or fraction thereof, of every fine, penalty, or forfeiture imposed by and collected by the court for criminal offenses, including all traffic offenses, except parking offenses as defined in subdivision (i) of Penal Code § 1463. The additional penalty is calculated as follows:

text: • State penalty required by PC 1464 $10,

text: • County penalty required by GC 76000(e), $ 7 • Court facilities construction penalty required by GC 70372(a),$ 3 • DNA Identification Fund penalty required by GC 76104.6 and 76104.7,$ 2

text: Penal Code § 1465.8 requires imposition of an additional fee of twenty dollars ($20) for court security on every conviction for a criminal offense, including a traffic offense, except parking offenses as defined in Penal Code § 1463,$20

text: Damages reduction[edit]

text: A person involved in a car accident who was not using a seatbelt may be liable for damages far greater than if they had been using a seatbelt. However, when in court, most states protect motorists from having their damages reduced in a lawsuit due to the nonuse of a seatbelt, even if they were acting in violation of the law by not wearing the seatbelt. Currently, damages may be reduced for the nonuse of a seatbelt in 16 states: Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Florida (See F.S.A. 316.614(10)), Iowa, Michigan, Missouri, Nebraska, New Jersey, New York, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, West Virginia, and Wisconsin.[11]

text: Effectiveness[edit]

text: Seat belt laws are effective in reducing car crash deaths.[12] One study found that mandatory-seatbelt laws reduced traffic fatalities by 8% and serious traffic-related injuries by 9%, respectively.[13] Primary-seatbelt laws seem to be more effective at reducing crash deaths than secondary laws.[14][15]


document_title: List of Alabama Crimson Tide starting quarterbacks

question_text: who was the alabama quarterback before jalen hurts

text: Starting quarterbacks[edit]

text: 1933 to present[edit]

text: The following players were the starting quarterbacks for the Crimson Tide each season since joining the Southeastern Conference in 1933.

text:
Name
Season(s) Started
Notability
References

Hurts, JalenJalen Hurts
2016-present
Hurts led Alabama to the 2016 season's national championship game, where they lost to Clemson, 35-31. An early enrollee who is the first freshman to start at quarterback in head coach Nick Saban’s career ... finished 13-1 as the Tide’s starting quarterback ... selected as a Freshman All-American by USA Today and ESPN ... earned SEC Offensive Player of the Year accolades from the conference coaches and the Associated Press ... garnered first team SEC honors from both the coaches and the AP ... selected as the SEC Freshman of the Year by the coaches and the SEC Newcomer of the Year by the AP ... finalist for the Manning Award and the Earl Campbell Tyler Rose Award ... semifinalist for the Walter Camp Player of the Year ... named a semifinalist for the Davey O’Brien Award, presented annually to the nation’s top quarterback ... added to the Manning Award Watch List on Oct. 12 thanks to his performance through the first half of the season ... threw for 2,780 yards with 23 touchdowns compared to nine interceptions ...was responsible for 36 touchdowns (23 passing, 13 rushing) to break the previous Alabama record of 35 set by Blake Sims in 2014.

Blake Barnett
2016
Barnett started the first game of the 2016 season against USC. He was replaced by Jalen Hurts, who became the starting quarterback. After limited playing time in the next few games, Barnett chose to leave the program and transfer to a junior college, and then to Arizona State where he is now the backup QB behind Manny Wilkins.

Coker, JakeJake Coker
2015
Coker led Alabama to the 2016 national championship, where they defeated Clemson, 45-40.

Sims, BlakeBlake Sims
2014
Sims was named starting quarterback just prior to their season opener against West Virginia after he won a prolonged competition against Jake Coker. Against Florida, Sims set a school record for total offense in a single game with his 484 yards that included 39 total yards rushing. Sims threw for 3,487 yards (a single season record) with 28 touchdowns. He also added 7 rushing touchdowns and 350 yards on the ground. He led the Tide to win the 2014 SEC Championship, in which he was the game's MVP.
[1][2]

McCarron, AJAJ McCarron
2011–2013
McCarron led the Crimson Tide to the 2011 and 2012 national championships and graduated as Alabama's career leader in passing yardage (9,019), completions (686) and touchdowns (77). He also holds the records for passing yards in a single season (3,063) and touchdowns (30). He finished runner-up for the Heisman Trophy in the 2013 season. He was drafted by the Cincinnati Bengals in the 2014 NFL Draft.
[3][4][5]

McElroy, GregGreg McElroy
2009–2010
McElroy led the Crimson Tide to the 2009 national championship and was named ESPN Academic All-American of the Year for the 2010 season. He was drafted by the New York Jets in the 2011 NFL Draft.
[6]

Wilson, John ParkerJohn Parker Wilson
2006–2008
Wilson graduated as the all-time leader in several categories that have since been eclipsed. He still holds the record for completions in a single-season (255). He went undrafted but played in the NFL for the Atlanta Falcons, Jacksonville Jaguars and Pittsburgh Steelers.
[7]

Croyle, BrodieBrodie Croyle
2002–2005
Croyle graduated as the all-time leader in several categories that have since been eclipsed. He was drafted by the Kansas City Chiefs in the 2006 NFL Draft.
[8]

Guillon, MarkMark Guillon
2004
Guillon started a pair of games during the 2004 season after Brodie Croyle had a season-ending injury. He subsequently left the program in October 2006.
[9]

Pennington, SpencerSpencer Pennington
2004
Pennington started the final seven games of the 2004 season after injuries to both Brodie Croyle and Mark Guillon. He left the program in January 2005 to focus only on his baseball career with the Crimson Tide.
[10]

Avalos, BrandonBrandon Avalos
2003
Avalos started against Southern Miss during the 2003 season due to injuries to both Brodie Croyle and Spencer Pennington. He left the program in January 2004.
[11]

Watts, TylerTyler Watts
2000–2002

Zow, AndrewAndrew Zow
1998–2000
Led Alabama to a SEC Championship in 1999 and finished his career as the all time passing yards leader (now 4th).

Phillips, John DavidJohn David Phillips
1998
As a fifth year senior, Phillips started the first four games of the season before being replaced by Andrew Zow for the year.
[12]

Kitchens, FreddieFreddie Kitchens
1995–1997

Burgdorf, BrianBrian Burgdorf
1995

Barker, JayJay Barker
1992–1994
All-SEC. Baker led Alabama the 1992 national championship. He was drafted by the Green Bay Packers in the fifth round of the 1995 NFL draft.

Woodson, DannyDanny Woodson
1991

Hollingsworth, GaryGary Hollingsworth
1989–1990

Smith, DavidDavid Smith
1987–1988

Dunn, JeffJeff Dunn
1987–1989

Sutton, VinceVince Sutton
1987–1988, 1984

Shula, MikeMike Shula
1984–1986

Lewis, WalterWalter Lewis
1981–1983
Lewis was the first black quarterback to start for the Crimson Tide and led Alabama during the final three seasons of the Bryant era.
[13]

Jacobs, DonDon Jacobs
1980

[14]

Shealy, Steadman S.Steadman S. Shealy
1979
All-SEC. Shealy led the Crimson Tide to an undefeated season and the 1979 national championship.
[15]

Rutledge, JeffJeff Rutledge
1976–1978

Todd, RichardRichard Todd
1974–1975
Todd was drafted by the New York Jets in the first round of the 1976 NFL draft.

Rutledge, GaryGary Rutledge
1973
Rutledge was the first of two brothers to lead a national championship team. He led Alabama to the 1973 national championship and his brother Jeff Rutledge led Alabama to the 1978 national championship.
[16][17]

Davis, TerryTerry Davis
1971–1972

Hayden, NebNeb Hayden
1970

Hunter, ScottScott Hunter
1968–1970

Trimble, WayneWayne Trimble
1966

Stabler, KenKen Stabler
1966–1967
All-SEC. Super Bowl XI Champion. Pro Football Hall of Fame.

Sloan, SteveSteve Sloan
1962–1965

Namath, JoeJoe Namath
1962–1964
All-SEC. Pro Football Hall of Fame. Super Bowl III Champion.

Trammell, PatPat Trammell
1959–1961

Jackson, BobbyBobby Jackson
1958

Smith, BobbyBobby Smith
1956–1957

Walls, ClayClay Walls
1956

Starr, BartBart Starr
1953–1955
Pro Football Hall of Fame. NFL 1960s All-Decade Team. Two-time Super Bowl Champion and MVP (Most Valuable Player). At Alabama, he also played punter.
[18]

Hobson, ClellClell Hobson
1951–1952

Salem, EdEd Salem
1949–1950

Avinger, ButchButch Avinger
1949–1950

Brown, JackJack Brown
1948

Morrow, HughHugh Morrow
1947

Self, HalHal Self
1945–1946

Gilmer, HarryHarry Gilmer
1945
All-SEC

McWhorter, JimJim McWhorter
1941–1942
1941 team won Cotton Bowl and national championship. 1942 team won Orange Bowl. Drafted by Detroit Lions after WWII service.

DeShane, ChuckChuck DeShane
1939–1940

Hughes, HalHal Hughes
1937–1938

Bradford, VicVic Bradford
1936–1938

Riley, JoeJoe Riley
1936
All-SEC

Smith, RileyRiley Smith
1934–1935
All-SEC

text: 1922 to 1932[edit]

text: The following players were the predominant quarterbacks for the Crimson Tide each season after the establishment of the Southern Conference until the establishment of the Southeastern Conference.

text:
Name
Years Started
Notability
References

Campbell, TildenTilden Campbell
1932–1934

[19]

Campbell, JohnJohn Campbell
1930–1931
Member of Wallace Wade's last national championship team in 1930

Tucker, JohnJohn Tucker
1930–1931
Member of Wallace Wade's last national championship team in 1930

Vines, MelvinMelvin Vines
1929

McClintock, GrahamGraham McClintock
1927–1928

Brasfield, DavisDavis Brasfield
1927

Barnes, RedRed Barnes
1925–1926
Member of first southern team to win the Rose Bowl. Major League Baseball player for the Washington Senators.
[20]

Hubert, AllisonAllison Hubert
1924–1925
All-Southern, member of first southern team to win the Rose Bowl, inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1964. Coach Wallace Wade called him "undoubtedly one of the greatest football players of all time."
[21]

Gillis, GrantGrant Gillis
1923–1924
All-Southern. Quarterback in the first year under Wallace Wade. Major League Baseball player.
[22]

Rosenfeld, MaxMax Rosenfeld
1921
Major League Baseball player for the Brooklyn Dodgers.

Bartlett, CharlesCharles Bartlett
1920–1922
Led team over Penn in 1922. All-Southern. Camp Honorable Mention
[23]

text: 1895 to 1921[edit]

text: The following players were the predominant quarterbacks for the Crimson Tide each season after the establishment of the Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association until the establishment of the Southern Conference.

text:
Name
Years Started
Notability
References

William C. Baty
1921

Riggs Stephenson
1920
Ended career at quarterback due to injuries.
[24]

Sewell, LukeLuke Sewell
1919

Lenoir, MullieMullie Lenoir
1917

Hagan, DinkDink Hagan
1913; 1917

Creen, CecilCecil Creen
1916
Creen ran in the touchdown to defeat Mississippi College 7 to 6. All-Southern. Camp gave him honorable mention.
[25]

Harsh, GriffinGriffin Harsh
1914–1915

Joplin, CharlieCharlie Joplin
1912;1914
Killed in the First World War.

Moody, FarleyFarley Moody
1909–1912
He made the field goal to beat Tulane 5 to 3 in 1910. Moody scored two touchdowns, including a 40-yard punt return, and added four extra points in the 24 to 0 win over Howard in 1911. He coached the 1915 team with athletic director B. L. Noojin after coach Kelley was hospitalized with typhoid fever. Moody was killed in the First World War.
[25][26]

Peebles, EmoryEmory Peebles
1908–1910

Hannon, EmileEmile Hannon
1906–1907
Nicknamed "Chick." Weighed just 120 pounds. Assistant coach for Bama c. 1913.
[27]

Smith, TrumanTruman Smith
1905

Ward, W. L.W. L. Ward
1904

Wyatt, W. S.W. S. Wyatt
1902–1903

Drennen, EarlEarl Drennen
1900–1901

Johnston, ForneyForney Johnston
1899

Tutwiler, EdEd Tutwiler
1897
Transferred to the University of Virginia.
[28]

Burr, BordenBorden Burr
1895–1896
Later a corporate lawyer.
[29]

text: 1892 to 1894[edit]

text: The following players were the predominant quarterbacks for the Crimson Tide each season the team was a non-conference independent, following the birth of Alabama football.

text:
Name
Years Started
Notability
References

Walker, WilliamWilliam Walker
1892–1894
Later a distinguished judge in Birmingham
[29]