document_title: List of memory biases

question_text: memory associated with recall of events from the past is

text: List of memory biases

text: In psychology and cognitive science, a memory bias is a cognitive bias that either enhances or impairs the recall of a memory (either the chances that the memory will be recalled at all, or the amount of time it takes for it to be recalled, or both), or that alters the content of a reported memory. There are many different types of memory biases, including:

text:
Change bias: after an investment of effort in producing change, remembering one's past performance as more difficult than it actually was.[1]
Childhood amnesia: the retention of few memories from before the age of four.
Choice-supportive bias: remembering chosen options as having been better than rejected options (Mather, Shafir & Johnson, 2000)
Confirmation bias: the tendency to search for, interpret, or recall information in a way that confirms one's beliefs or hypotheses.
Conservatism or Regressive bias: tendency to remember high values and high likelihoods/probabilities/frequencies lower than they actually were and low ones higher than they actually were. Based on the evidence, memories are not extreme enough.[2][3]
Consistency bias: incorrectly remembering one's past attitudes and behaviour as resembling present attitudes and behaviour.
Context effect: that cognition and memory are dependent on context, such that out-of-context memories are more difficult to retrieve than in-context memories (e.g., recall time and accuracy for a work-related memory will be lower at home, and vice versa).
Cryptomnesia: a form of misattribution where a memory is mistaken for imagination, because there is no subjective experience of it being a memory.[1]
Egocentric bias: recalling the past in a self-serving manner, e.g., remembering one's exam grades as being better than they were, or remembering a caught fish as bigger than it really was.
Fading affect bias: a bias in which the emotion associated with unpleasant memories fades more quickly than the emotion associated with positive events.[4]
Generation effect (Self-generation effect): that self-generated information is remembered best. For instance, people are better able to recall memories of statements that they have generated than similar statements generated by others.
Gender differences in eyewitness memory: the tendency for a witness to remember more details about someone of the same gender.
Hindsight bias: the inclination to see past events as being predictable; also called the "I-knew-it-all-along" effect.
Humor effect: that humorous items are more easily remembered than non-humorous ones, which might be explained by the distinctiveness of humor, the increased cognitive processing time to understand the humor, or the emotional arousal caused by the humor.
Illusion-of-truth effect: that people are more likely to identify as true statements those they have previously heard (even if they cannot consciously remember having heard them), regardless of the actual validity of the statement. In other words, a person is more likely to believe a familiar statement than an unfamiliar one.
Illusory correlation: inaccurately seeing a relationship between two events related by coincidence.[5]
Lag effect: see spacing effect.
Leveling and sharpening: memory distortions introduced by the loss of details in a recollection over time, often concurrent with sharpening or selective recollection of certain details that take on exaggerated significance in relation to the details or aspects of the experience lost through leveling. Both biases may be reinforced over time, and by repeated recollection or re-telling of a memory.[6]
Levels-of-processing effect: that different methods of encoding information into memory have different levels of effectiveness (Craik & Lockhart, 1972).
List-length effect: a smaller percentage of items are remembered in a longer list, but as the length of the list increases, the absolute number of items remembered increases as well.
Memory inhibition: that being shown some items from a list makes it harder to retrieve the other items (e.g., Slamecka, 1968).
Misattribution of memory: when information is retained in memory but the source of the memory is forgotten. One of Schacter's (1999) seven sins of memory, misattribution was divided into source confusion, cryptomnesia and false recall/false recognition.[1]
Misinformation effect: that misinformation affects people's reports of their own memory.
Modality effect: that memory recall is higher for the last items of a list when the list items were received via speech than when they were received via writing.
Mood congruent memory bias: the improved recall of information congruent with one's current mood.
Next-in-line effect: that a person in a group has diminished recall for the words of others who spoke immediately before or after this person.
Peak-end rule: that people seem to perceive not the sum of an experience but the average of how it was at its peak (e.g. pleasant or unpleasant) and how it ended.
Persistence: the unwanted recurrence of memories of a traumatic event.
Picture superiority effect: that concepts are much more likely to be remembered experientially if they are presented in picture form than if they are presented in word form.[7]
Placement bias: tendency to remember ourselves to be better than others at tasks at which we rate ourselves above average (also Illusory superiority or Better-than-average effect)[8] and tendency to remember ourselves to be worse than others at tasks at which we rate ourselves below average (also Worse-than-average effect).[9]
Positivity effect: that older adults favor positive over negative information in their memories.
Primacy effect, Recency effect & Serial position effect:[10] that items near the end of a list are the easiest to recall, followed by the items at the beginning of a list; items in the middle are the least likely to be remembered.[10]
Processing difficulty effect.
Reminiscence bump: the recalling of more personal events from adolescence and early adulthood than personal events from other lifetime periods (Rubin, Wetzler & Nebes, 1986; Rubin, Rahhal & Poon, 1998).
Rosy retrospection: the remembering of the past as having been better than it really was.
Saying is Believing effect: Communicating a socially tuned message to an audience can lead to a bias of identifying the tuned message as one's own thoughts.
Self-reference effect: the phenomena that memories encoded with relation to the self are better recalled than similar information encoded otherwise.
Self-serving bias: perceiving oneself responsible for desirable outcomes but not responsible for undesirable ones.
Source confusion: misattributing the source of a memory, e.g. misremembering that one saw an event personally when actually it was seen on television.
Spacing effect: that information is better recalled if exposure to it is repeated over a longer span of time.
Stereotypical bias: memory distorted towards stereotypes (e.g. racial or gender), e.g. "black-sounding" names being misremembered as names of criminals.[1]
Subadditivity effect: the tendency to estimate that the likelihood of a remembered event is less than the sum of its (more than two) mutually exclusive components.[11]
Suffix effect: the weakening of the recency effect in the case that an item is appended to the list that the subject is not required to recall (Morton, Crowder & Prussin, 1971).
Suggestibility: a form of misattribution where ideas suggested by a questioner are mistaken for memory.
Telescoping effect: the tendency to displace recent events backward in time and remote events forward in time, so that recent events appear more remote, and remote events, more recent.
Testing effect: that frequent testing of material that has been committed to memory improves memory recall.
Tip of the tongue: when a subject is able to recall parts of an item, or related information, but is frustratingly unable to recall the whole item. This is thought to be an instance of "blocking" where multiple similar memories are being recalled and interfere with each other.[1]
Verbatim effect: that the "gist" of what someone has said is better remembered than the verbatim wording (Poppenk, Walia, Joanisse, Danckert, & Köhler, 2006).
Von Restorff effect: that an item that sticks out is more likely to be remembered than other items (von Restorff, 1933).
Zeigarnik effect: that uncompleted or interrupted tasks are remembered better than completed ones.


document_title: Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama

question_text: who won the golden globe award for best actor - motion picture drama 2017

root

text: Winners and nominees[edit]

text:
Year
Actor
Character
Film

1943
Paul Lukas †
Kurt Muller
Watch on the Rhine

1944
Alexander Knox ‡
Woodrow Wilson
Wilson

1945
Ray Milland †
Don Birnam
The Lost Weekend

1946
Gregory Peck ‡
Penny Baxter
The Yearling

1947
Ronald Colman †
Anthony John
A Double Life

1948
Laurence Olivier †
Hamlet, Prince of Denmark
Hamlet

1949
Broderick Crawford †
Willie Stark
All the King's Men

Richard Todd ‡
Cpl. Lachlan "Lachie" MacLachlan
The Hasty Heart

tag: table

text:
Year
Actor
Character
Film

1950
José Ferrer †
Cyrano de Bergerac
Cyrano de Bergerac

Louis Calhern ‡
Oliver Wendell Holmes
The Magnificent Yankee

James Stewart ‡
Elwood P. Dowd
Harvey

1951
Fredric March ‡
Willy Loman
Death of a Salesman

Kirk Douglas
Det. James McLeod
Detective Story

Arthur Kennedy ‡
Larry Nevins
Bright Victory

1952
Gary Cooper †
Marshal Will Kane
High Noon

Ray Milland
Allan Fields
The Thief

Charles Boyer
Jacques Bonnard
The Happy Time

1953
Spencer Tracy §
Clinton Jones
The Actress

1954
Marlon Brando †
Terry Malloy
On the Waterfront

1955
Ernest Borgnine †
Marty Piletti
Marty

1956
Kirk Douglas ‡
Vincent van Gogh
Lust for Life

Karl Malden
Archie Lee Meighan
Baby Doll

Gary Cooper
Jess Birdwell
Friendly Persuasion

Burt Lancaster
Bill Starbuck
The Rainmaker

Charlton Heston
Moses
The Ten Commandments

1957
Alec Guinness †
Colonel Nicholson
The Bridge on the River Kwai

Marlon Brando ‡
Maj. Lloyd "Ace" Gruver
Sayonara

1958
David Niven †
Major Pollock
Separate Tables

Tony Curtis ‡
John "Joker" Jackson
The Defiant Ones

Robert Donat
The Mandarin of Yang Cheng
The Inn of the Sixth Happiness

Sidney Poitier ‡
Noah Cullen
The Defiant Ones

Spencer Tracy ‡
Santiago (The Old Man)
The Old Man and the Sea

1959
Anthony Franciosa §
Sam Lawson
Career

Richard Burton
Jimmy Porter
Look Back in Anger

Charlton Heston †
Judah Ben-Hur
Ben-Hur

Fredric March
Jerry Kingsley
Middle of the Night

Joseph Schildkraut
Otto Frank
The Diary of Anne Frank

text:
Year
Actor
Character
Film

1960
Burt Lancaster †
Elmer Gantry
Elmer Gantry

Trevor Howard ‡
Walter Morel
Sons and Lovers

Laurence Olivier
Crassus
Spartacus

Dean Stockwell
Paul Morel
Sons and Lovers

Spencer Tracy ‡
Henry Drummond
Inherit the Wind

1961
Maximilian Schell †
Hans Rolfe
Judgment at Nuremberg

Warren Beatty
Bud Stamper
Splendor in the Grass

Maurice Chevalier
Pannisse
Fanny

Paul Newman ‡
Fast Eddie Felson
The Hustler

Sidney Poitier
Walter Lee Younger
A Raisin in the Sun

1962
Gregory Peck †
Atticus Finch
To Kill a Mockingbird

Laurence Harvey
Wilhelm Grimm/The Cobbler
The Wonderful World of the Brothers Grimm

Burt Lancaster ‡
Robert Franklin Stroud
Birdman of Alcatraz

Jack Lemmon ‡
Joe Clay
Days of Wine and Roses

James Mason
Humbert Humbert
Lolita

Paul Newman
Chance Wayne
Sweet Bird of Youth

Peter O'Toole ‡
T. E. Lawrence
Lawrence of Arabia

Anthony Quinn
Auda ibu Tayi
Lawrence of Arabia

1963
Sidney Poitier †
Homer Smith
Lilies of the Field

Marlon Brando
Harrison Carter MacWhite
The Ugly American

Stathis Giallelis
Stavros Topouzoglou
America America

Rex Harrison ‡
Julius Caesar
Cleopatra

Steve McQueen
Rocky Papasano
Love with the Proper Stranger

Paul Newman ‡
Hud Bannon
Hud

Gregory Peck
Captain Josiah Newman
Captain Newman, M.D.

Tom Tryon
Stephen Fermoyle
The Cardinal

1964
Peter O'Toole ‡
King Henry II
Becket

Richard Burton ‡
Thomas Becket
Becket

Anthony Franciosa
Juan Luis Rodriguez
Rio Conchos

Fredric March
President Lyman
Seven Days in May

Anthony Quinn ‡
Alexis Zorba
Zorba the Greek

1965
Omar Sharif §
Yuri Zhivago
Doctor Zhivago

Rex Harrison
Pope Julius II
The Agony and the Ecstasy

Sidney Poitier
Gordon Ralfe
A Patch of Blue

Rod Steiger ‡
Sol Nazerman
The Pawnbroker

Oskar Werner ‡
Willie Schumann
Ship of Fools

1966
Paul Scofield †
Sir Thomas More
A Man for All Seasons

Richard Burton ‡
George
Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?

Michael Caine ‡
Alfie
Alfie

Steve McQueen ‡
Machinist's Mate 1st Class Jake Holman
The Sand Pebbles

Max von Sydow
Reverend Abner Hale
Hawaii

1967
Rod Steiger †
Police Chief Bill Gillespie
In the Heat of the Night

Alan Bates
Gabriel Oak
Far from the Madding Crowd

Warren Beatty ‡
Clyde Barrow
Bonnie and Clyde

Paul Newman ‡
Lucas "Luke" Jackson
Cool Hand Luke

Sidney Poitier
Detective Virgil Tibbs
In the Heat of the Night

Spencer Tracy ‡
Matt Drayton
Guess Who's Coming to Dinner

1968
Peter O'Toole ‡
King Henry II
The Lion in Winter

Alan Arkin ‡
John Singer
The Heart Is a Lonely Hunter

Alan Bates ‡
Yakov Bok
The Fixer

Tony Curtis
Albert DeSalvo
The Boston Strangler

Cliff Robertson †
Charlie Gordon
Charly

1969
John Wayne †
Rooster Cogburn
True Grit

Alan Arkin
Abraham "Popi" Rodriguez
Popi

Richard Burton ‡
King Henry VIII
Anne of the Thousand Days

Dustin Hoffman ‡
Enrico "Ratso" Rizzo
Midnight Cowboy

Jon Voight
Joe Buck

text:
Year
Actor
Character
Film

1970
George C. Scott †
George S. Patton
Patton

Melvyn Douglas ‡
Tom Garrison
I Never Sang for My Father

James Earl Jones ‡
Jack Jefferson
The Great White Hope

Jack Nicholson ‡
Robert Eroica Dupea
Five Easy Pieces

Ryan O'Neal ‡
Oliver Barret IV
Love Story

1971
Gene Hackman †
Detective Jimmy "Popeye" Doyle
The French Connection

Peter Finch ‡
Daniel Hirsh
Sunday Bloody Sunday

Malcolm McDowell
Alex DeLarge
A Clockwork Orange

Jack Nicholson
Jonathan Fuerst
Carnal Knowledge

George C. Scott ‡
Dr. Herbert Bock
The Hospital

1972
Marlon Brando †
Vito Corleone
The Godfather

Michael Caine ‡
Milo Tindle
Sleuth

Laurence Olivier ‡
Andrew Wyke

Al Pacino ‡
(nominated for Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor)
Michael Corleone
The Godfather

Jon Voight
Ed
Deliverance

1973
Al Pacino ‡
Frank Serpico
Serpico

Robert Blake
John Wintergreen
Electra Glide in Blue

Jack Lemmon †
Harry Stoner
Save the Tiger

Steve McQueen
Henri "Papillon" Charrière
Papillon

Jack Nicholson ‡
Signalman 1st Class Billy L. "Badass" Buddusky
The Last Detail

1974
Jack Nicholson ‡
J. J. "Jake" Gittes
Chinatown

James Caan
Axel Freed
The Gambler

Gene Hackman
Harry Caul
The Conversation

Dustin Hoffman ‡
Lenny Bruce
Lenny

Al Pacino ‡
Michael Corleone
The Godfather Part II

1975
Jack Nicholson †
Randle Patrick "Mac" McMurphy
One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest

Gene Hackman
Detective Jimmy "Popeye" Doyle
French Connection II

Al Pacino ‡
Sonny Wortzik
Dog Day Afternoon

Maximilian Schell ‡
Arthur Goldman
The Man in the Glass Booth

James Whitmore ‡
Harry S. Truman
Give 'em Hell, Harry!

1976
Peter Finch †
Howard Beale
Network

David Carradine
Woody Guthrie
Bound for Glory

Robert De Niro ‡
Travis Bickle
Taxi Driver

Dustin Hoffman
"Babe" Levy
Marathon Man

Sylvester Stallone ‡
Rocky Balboa
Rocky

1977
Richard Burton ‡
Dr. Martin Dysart
Equus

Marcello Mastroianni ‡
Gabriele
A Special Day

Al Pacino
Bobby Deerfield
Bobby Deerfield

Gregory Peck
Douglas MacArthur
MacArthur

Henry Winkler
Jack Dunne
Heroes

1978
Jon Voight †
Luke Martin
Coming Home

Brad Davis
Billy Hayes
Midnight Express

Robert De Niro ‡
Michael Vronsky
The Deer Hunter

Anthony Hopkins
Corky Withers / "Fats"
Magic

Gregory Peck
Dr. Josef Mengele
The Boys from Brazil

1979
Dustin Hoffman †
Ted Kramer
Kramer vs. Kramer

Jack Lemmon ‡
Jack Godell
The China Syndrome

Al Pacino ‡
Arthur Kirkland
...And Justice for All

Jon Voight
Billy Flynn
The Champ

James Woods
Gregory Powell
The Onion Field

text:
Year
Actor
Character
Film

1980
Robert De Niro †
Jake LaMotta
Raging Bull

John Hurt ‡
John Merrick
The Elephant Man

Jack Lemmon ‡
Scottie Templeton
Tribute

Peter O'Toole ‡
Eli Cross
The Stunt Man

Donald Sutherland
Calvin Jarrett
Ordinary People

1981
Henry Fonda †
Norman Thayer
On Golden Pond

Warren Beatty ‡
John Reed
Reds

Timothy Hutton
Brian Moreland
Taps

Burt Lancaster ‡
Lou Pascal
Atlantic City

Treat Williams
Daniel Ciello
Prince of the City

1982
Ben Kingsley †
Mahatma Gandhi
Gandhi

Albert Finney
George Dunlap
Shoot the Moon

Richard Gere
Zack Mayo
An Officer and a Gentleman

Jack Lemmon ‡
Ed Horman
Missing

Paul Newman ‡
Frank Galvin
The Verdict

1983
Tom Courtenay ‡
Norman
The Dresser

Robert Duvall †
Mac Sledge
Tender Mercies

Tom Conti ‡
Gowan McGland
Reuben, Reuben

Richard Farnsworth
Bill Miner
The Grey Fox

Albert Finney ‡
Sir
The Dresser

Al Pacino
Tony Montana
Scarface

Eric Roberts
Paul Snider
Star 80

1984
F. Murray Abraham †
Antonio Salieri
Amadeus

Jeff Bridges ‡
Starman ("Scott Hayden")
Starman

Albert Finney ‡
Geoffrey Firmin
Under the Volcano

Tom Hulce ‡
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Amadeus

Sam Waterston
Sydney Schanberg
The Killing Fields

1985
Jon Voight ‡
Oscar Manheim
Runaway Train

Harrison Ford ‡
John Book
Witness

Gene Hackman
Harry MacKenzie
Twice in a Lifetime

William Hurt †
Luis Molina
Kiss of the Spider Woman

Raúl Juliá
Valentin Arregui
Kiss of the Spider Woman

1986
Bob Hoskins ‡
George
Mona Lisa

Harrison Ford
Allie Fox
The Mosquito Coast

Dexter Gordon ‡
Dale Turner
Round Midnight

William Hurt ‡
James Leeds
Children of a Lesser God

Jeremy Irons
Father Gabriel
The Mission

Paul Newman †
Fast Eddie Felson
The Color of Money

1987
Michael Douglas †
Gordon Gekko
Wall Street

John Lone
Puyi
The Last Emperor

Jack Nicholson ‡
Francis Phelan
Ironweed

Nick Nolte
Lee Umstetter
Weeds

Denzel Washington ‡
(nominated for Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor)
Steve Biko
Cry Freedom

1988
Dustin Hoffman †
Raymond Babbitt
Rain Man

Gene Hackman ‡
Rupert Anderson
Mississippi Burning

Tom Hulce
Dominick Luciano
Dominick and Eugene

Edward James Olmos ‡
Jaime Escalante
Stand and Deliver

Forest Whitaker
Charlie Parker
Bird

1989
Tom Cruise ‡
Ron Kovic
Born on the Fourth of July

Daniel Day-Lewis †
Christy Brown
My Left Foot

Jack Lemmon
Jake Tremont
Dad

Al Pacino
Frank Keller
Sea of Love

Robin Williams ‡
John Keating
Dead Poets Society

text:
Year
Actor
Character
Film

1990
Jeremy Irons †
Claus von Bülow
Reversal of Fortune

Kevin Costner ‡
Lt. John J. Dunbar / Dances with Wolves
Dances with Wolves

Richard Harris ‡
Bull McCabe
The Field

Al Pacino
Michael Corleone
The Godfather Part III

Robin Williams
Dr. Malcolm Sayer
Awakenings

1991
Nick Nolte ‡
Tom Wingo
The Prince of Tides

Warren Beatty ‡
Bugsy Siegel
Bugsy

Kevin Costner
Jim Garrison
JFK

Robert De Niro ‡
Max Cady
Cape Fear

Anthony Hopkins †
Dr. Hannibal Lecter
The Silence of the Lambs

1992
Al Pacino †
Lieutenant Colonel Frank Slade
Scent of a Woman

Tom Cruise
Lt. Daniel Kaffee, USN, JAG Corps
A Few Good Men

Robert Downey Jr. ‡
Charlie Chaplin
Chaplin

Jack Nicholson
Jimmy Hoffa
Hoffa

Denzel Washington ‡
Malcolm X
Malcolm X

1993
Tom Hanks †
Andrew Beckett
Philadelphia

Daniel Day-Lewis ‡
Gerry Conlon
In the Name of the Father

Harrison Ford
Dr. Richard Kimble
The Fugitive

Anthony Hopkins ‡
James Stevens
The Remains of the Day

Liam Neeson ‡
Oskar Schindler
Schindler's List

1994
Tom Hanks †
Forrest Gump
Forrest Gump

Morgan Freeman ‡
Ellis Boyd "Red" Redding
The Shawshank Redemption

Paul Newman ‡
Donald "Sully" Sullivan
Nobody's Fool

Brad Pitt
Tristan Ludlow
Legends of the Fall

John Travolta ‡
Vincent Vega
Pulp Fiction

1995
Nicolas Cage †
Ben Sanderson
Leaving Las Vegas

Richard Dreyfuss ‡
Glenn Holland
Mr. Holland's Opus

Anthony Hopkins ‡
Richard Nixon
Nixon

Ian McKellen
King Richard III
Richard III

Sean Penn ‡
Matthew Poncelet
Dead Man Walking

1996
Geoffrey Rush †
David Helfgott
Shine

Ralph Fiennes ‡
László de Almásy
The English Patient

Mel Gibson
Tom Mullen
Ransom

Woody Harrelson ‡
Larry Flynt
The People vs. Larry Flynt

Liam Neeson
Michael Collins
Michael Collins

1997
Peter Fonda ‡
Ulee Jackson
Ulee's Gold

Matt Damon ‡
Will Hunting
Good Will Hunting

Daniel Day-Lewis
Danny Flynn
The Boxer

Leonardo DiCaprio
Jack Dawson
Titanic

Djimon Hounsou
Joseph Cinqué
Amistad

1998
Jim Carrey §
Truman Burbank
The Truman Show

Stephen Fry
Oscar Wilde
Wilde

Tom Hanks ‡
Captain John H. Miller
Saving Private Ryan

Ian McKellen ‡
James Whale
Gods and Monsters

Nick Nolte ‡
Wade Whitehouse
Affliction

1999
Denzel Washington ‡
Rubin "Hurricane" Carter
The Hurricane ‡

Russell Crowe ‡
Jeffrey Wigand
The Insider

Matt Damon
Tom Ripley
The Talented Mr. Ripley

Richard Farnsworth ‡
Alvin Straight
The Straight Story

Kevin Spacey †
Lester Burnham
American Beauty

text:
Year
Actor
Character
Film

2000[1]
Tom Hanks ‡
Chuck Noland
Cast Away

Javier Bardem ‡
Reinaldo Arenas
Before Night Falls

Russell Crowe †
Maximus Decimus Meridius
Gladiator

Michael Douglas
Grady Tripp
Wonder Boys

Geoffrey Rush ‡
Marquis de Sade
Quills

2001
Russell Crowe ‡
John Nash
A Beautiful Mind

Will Smith ‡
Muhammad Ali
Ali

Kevin Spacey
Quoyle
The Shipping News

Billy Bob Thornton
Ed Crane
The Man Who Wasn't There

Denzel Washington †
Detective Alonzo Harris
Training Day

2002
Jack Nicholson ‡
Warren R. Schmidt
About Schmidt

Adrien Brody †
Władysław Szpilman
The Pianist

Michael Caine ‡
Thomas Fowler
The Quiet American

Daniel Day-Lewis ‡
William "Bill the Butcher" Cutting
Gangs of New York

Leonardo DiCaprio
Frank Abagnale, Jr.
Catch Me If You Can

2003
Sean Penn †
Jimmy Markum
Mystic River

Russell Crowe
Captain Jack Aubrey
Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World

Tom Cruise
Captain Nathan Algren
The Last Samurai

Ben Kingsley ‡
Massoud Behrani
House of Sand and Fog

Jude Law ‡
W. P. Inman
Cold Mountain

2004
Leonardo DiCaprio ‡
Howard Hughes
The Aviator

Javier Bardem
Ramón Sampedro
The Sea Inside

Don Cheadle ‡
Paul Rusesabagina
Hotel Rwanda

Johnny Depp‡
J. M. Barrie
Finding Neverland

Liam Neeson
Alfred Kinsey
Kinsey

2005
Philip Seymour Hoffman †
Truman Capote
Capote

Russell Crowe
James J. Braddock
Cinderella Man

Terrence Howard ‡
DJay
Hustle & Flow

Heath Ledger ‡
Ennis Del Mar
Brokeback Mountain

David Strathairn ‡
Edward R. Murrow
Good Night, and Good Luck

2006
Forest Whitaker †
Idi Amin
The Last King of Scotland

Leonardo DiCaprio ‡
Danny Archer
Blood Diamond

Leonardo DiCaprio
William "Billy" Costigan, Jr.
The Departed

Peter O'Toole ‡
Maurice Russell
Venus

Will Smith ‡
Chris Gardner
The Pursuit of Happyness

2007
Daniel Day-Lewis †
Daniel Plainview
There Will Be Blood

George Clooney ‡
Michael Clayton
Michael Clayton

James McAvoy
Robbie Turner
Atonement

Viggo Mortensen ‡
Nikolai Luzhin
Eastern Promises

Denzel Washington
Frank Lucas
American Gangster

2008
Mickey Rourke ‡
Randy "The Ram" Robinson
The Wrestler

Leonardo DiCaprio
Frank Wheeler
Revolutionary Road

Frank Langella ‡
Richard Nixon
Frost/Nixon

Sean Penn †
Harvey Milk
Milk

Brad Pitt ‡
Benjamin Button
The Curious Case of Benjamin Button

2009
Jeff Bridges †
Otis "Bad" Blake
Crazy Heart

George Clooney ‡
Ryan Bingham
Up in the Air

Colin Firth ‡
George Falconer
A Single Man

Morgan Freeman ‡
Nelson Mandela
Invictus

Tobey Maguire
Captain Sam Cahill
Brothers

text:
Year
Actor
Character
Film

2010
Colin Firth †
King George VI
The King's Speech

Jesse Eisenberg ‡
Mark Zuckerberg
The Social Network

James Franco ‡
Aron Ralston
127 Hours

Ryan Gosling
Dean Pereira
Blue Valentine

Mark Wahlberg
Micky Ward
The Fighter

2011
George Clooney ‡
Matt King
The Descendants

Leonardo DiCaprio
J. Edgar Hoover
J. Edgar

Michael Fassbender
Brandon Sullivan
Shame

Ryan Gosling
Stephen Meyers
The Ides of March

Brad Pitt ‡
Billy Beane
Moneyball

2012
Daniel Day-Lewis †
Abraham Lincoln
Lincoln

Richard Gere
Robert Miller
Arbitrage

John Hawkes
Mark O'Brien
The Sessions

Joaquin Phoenix ‡
Freddie Quell
The Master

Denzel Washington ‡
William "Whip" Whitaker, Sr.
Flight

2013
Matthew McConaughey †
Ron Woodroof
Dallas Buyers Club

Chiwetel Ejiofor ‡
Solomon Northup
12 Years a Slave

Idris Elba
Nelson Mandela
Mandela: Long Walk to Freedom

Tom Hanks
Captain Richard Phillips
Captain Phillips

Robert Redford
Our Man
All Is Lost

2014
Eddie Redmayne †
Stephen Hawking
The Theory of Everything

Steve Carell ‡
John Eleuthère du Pont
Foxcatcher

Benedict Cumberbatch ‡
Alan Turing
The Imitation Game

Jake Gyllenhaal
Louis "Lou" Bloom
Nightcrawler

David Oyelowo
Martin Luther King Jr.
Selma

2015
Leonardo DiCaprio †
Hugh Glass
The Revenant

Bryan Cranston ‡
Dalton Trumbo
Trumbo

Michael Fassbender ‡
Steve Jobs
Steve Jobs

Eddie Redmayne ‡
Lili Elbe
The Danish Girl

Will Smith
Dr. Bennet Omalu
Concussion

2016
Casey Affleck †
Lee Chandler
Manchester by the Sea

Joel Edgerton
Richard Loving
Loving

Andrew Garfield ‡
Desmond T. Doss
Hacksaw Ridge

Viggo Mortensen ‡
Ben Cash
Captain Fantastic

Denzel Washington ‡
Troy Maxson
Fences

2017
Gary Oldman †
Winston Churchill
Darkest Hour

Timothée Chalamet ‡
Elio Perlman
Call Me by Your Name

Daniel Day-Lewis ‡
Reynolds Woodcock
Phantom Thread

Tom Hanks
Ben Bradlee
The Post

Denzel Washington ‡
Roman J. Israel
Roman J. Israel, Esq.

text: Multiple nominations[edit]

text:
10 nominations

Al Pacino

8 nominations

Leonardo DiCaprio
Jack Nicholson
Denzel Washington

7 nominations

Daniel Day-Lewis
Paul Newman

6 nominations

Tom Hanks
Jack Lemmon

5 nominations

Richard Burton
Russell Crowe
Gene Hackman
Dustin Hoffman
Peter O'Toole
Gregory Peck
Sidney Poitier
Jon Voight

4 nominations

Warren Beatty
Marlon Brando
Robert De Niro
Anthony Hopkins
Burt Lancaster
Spencer Tracy

3 nominations

Michael Caine
George Clooney
Tom Cruise
Albert Finney
Harrison Ford
Fredric March
Steve McQueen
Liam Neeson
Nick Nolte
Laurence Olivier
Sean Penn
Brad Pitt
George C. Scott
Will Smith

2 nominations

Alan Arkin
Alan Bates
Javier Bardem
Jeff Bridges
Gary Cooper
Kevin Costner
Tony Curtis
Matt Damon
Kirk Douglas
Michael Douglas
Richard Farnsworth
Michael Fassbender
Peter Finch
Colin Firth
Henry Fonda
Morgan Freeman
Richard Gere
Ryan Gosling
Rex Harrison
Charlton Heston
Tom Hulce
William Hurt
Jeremy Irons
Ben Kingsley
Ian McKellen
Ray Milland
Viggo Mortensen
Anthony Quinn
Eddie Redmayne
Geoffrey Rush
Maximilian Schell
Kevin Spacey
Rod Steiger
Forest Whitaker
Robin Williams

text: Multiple winners[edit]

text:
Tom Hanks (2 consecutive)
Jack Nicholson (2 consecutive)

tag: ul

text:
Marlon Brando
Daniel Day-Lewis
Leonardo DiCaprio
Dustin Hoffman
Peter O'Toole
Al Pacino
Gregory Peck
Jon Voight


document_title: Charge of the Light Brigade

question_text: where did charge of the light brigade take place

text: Charge of the Light Brigade

text: Background

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The charge was made by the Light Brigade of the British cavalry, which consisted of the 4th and 13th Light Dragoons, 17th Lancers, and the 8th and 11th Hussars, under the command of Major General James Brudenell, 7th Earl of Cardigan. Also present that day was the Heavy Brigade, commanded by Major General James Yorke Scarlett, who was a past Commanding Officer of the 5th Dragoon Guards. The Heavy Brigade was made up of the 4th Royal Irish Dragoon Guards, the 5th Dragoon Guards, the 6th Inniskilling Dragoons and the Scots Greys. The two brigades were the only British cavalry force at the battle.

tag: p

text: The Light Brigade, as the name suggests, were the British light cavalry force. It mounted light, fast horses which were unarmoured. The men were armed with lances and sabres. Optimized for maximum mobility and speed, they were intended for reconnaissance and skirmishing. They were also ideal for cutting down infantry and artillery units as they attempted to retreat.

text: The Heavy Brigade under James Scarlett was the British heavy cavalry force. It mounted large, heavy chargers. The men were equipped with metal helmets and armed with cavalry swords for close combat. They were intended as the primary British shock force, leading frontal charges in order to break enemy lines.

text: Overall command of the British cavalry resided with Lieutenant General George Bingham, 3rd Earl of Lucan. Cardigan and Lucan were brothers-in-law who disliked each other intensely. Lucan received an order from the army commander Lord Raglan stating: "Lord Raglan wishes the cavalry to advance rapidly to the front, follow the enemy, and try to prevent the enemy carrying away the guns. Troop horse artillery may accompany. French cavalry is on your left. Immediate." Raglan wanted the light cavalry to prevent the Russians from successfully withdrawing the naval guns from the redoubts they had captured on the reverse side of the Causeway Heights, the hill forming the south side of the valley. This was an optimum task for the Light Brigade, as their superior speed would ensure the Russians would be forced to either quickly abandon the cumbersome guns or be cut down en masse while they attempted to flee with them.

text: Raglan could see what was happening from his high vantage point on the west side of the valley. However, the lie of the land around Lucan and the cavalry prevented him from seeing the Russians' efforts to remove the guns from the redoubts and retreat.[1]

text: The order was drafted by Brigadier Richard Airey and carried by Captain Louis Edward Nolan. Nolan carried the further oral instruction that the cavalry was to attack immediately.[2] When Lucan asked what guns were referred to, Nolan is said to have indicated with a wide sweep of his arm—not the causeway redoubts—but the mass of Russian guns in a redoubt at the end of the valley, around a mile away.[3] His reasons for the misdirection are unknown because he was killed in the ensuing battle.

text: In response to the order, Lucan instructed Cardigan to lead his command of about 670 troopers[4] of the Light Brigade straight into the valley between the Fedyukhin Heights and the Causeway Heights. In his poem, "The Charge of the Light Brigade" (1854), Tennyson famously dubbed this hollow "The Valley of Death".

text: The opposing Russian forces were commanded by Pavel Liprandi and included approximately 20 battalions of infantry supported by over 50 artillery pieces. These forces were deployed on both sides and at the opposite end of the valley.

text: Lucan himself was to follow with the Heavy Brigade. Although the Heavy Brigade was better armoured and intended for frontal assaults on infantry positions, neither force was remotely equipped for a frontal assault on a fully dug-in and alerted artillery battery—much less one with an excellent line of sight over a mile in length and supported on two sides by artillery batteries providing enfilading fire from elevated ground. The semi-suicidal nature of this charge was surely evident to the troopers of the Light Brigade, but if there were any objection to the orders, it was not recorded.

text: The Charge

text: The Light Brigade set off down the valley with Cardigan out in front, riding Ronald,[6][7][8] leading the charge. Almost at once Nolan was seen to rush across the front, passing in front of Cardigan. It may be that he then realised the charge was aimed at the wrong target and was attempting to stop or turn the brigade, but he was killed by an artillery shell, and the cavalry continued on its course. Captain Godfrey Morgan (subsequently 1st Viscount Tredegar), who was close by and saw what happened, later recounted:

text: The first shell burst in the air about 100 yards in front of us. The next one dropped in front of Nolan's horse and exploded on touching the ground. He uttered a wild yell as his horse turned round, and, with his arms extended, the reins dropped on the animal's neck, he trotted towards us, but in a few yards dropped dead off his horse. I do not imagine that anybody except those in the front line of the 17th Lancers (13th Light Dragoons) saw what had happened.

text: We went on. When we got about two or three hundred yards the battery of the Russian Horse Artillery opened fire. I do not recollect hearing a word from anybody as we gradually broke from a trot to a canter, though the noise of the striking of men and horses by grape and round shot was deafening, while the dust and gravel struck up by the round shot that fell short was almost blinding, and irritated my horse so that I could scarcely hold him at all. But as we came nearer I could see plainly enough, especially when I was about a hundred yards from the guns. I appeared to be riding straight on to the muzzle of one of the guns, and I distinctly saw the gunner apply his fuse. I shut my eyes then, for I thought that settled the question as far as I was concerned. But the shot just missed me and struck the man on my right full in the chest.

text: In another minute I was on the gun and the leading Russian's grey horse, shot, I suppose, with a pistol by somebody on my right, fell across my horse, dragging it over with him and pinning me in between the gun and himself. A Russian gunner on foot at once covered me with his carbine. He was just within reach of my sword, and I struck him across his neck. The blow did not do much harm, but it disconcerted his aim. At the same time a mounted gunner struck my horse on the forehead with his sabre. Spurring "Sir Briggs," he half jumped, half blundered, over the fallen horses, and then for a short time bolted with me. I only remember finding myself alone among the Russians trying to get out as best I could. This, by some chance, I did, in spite of the attempts of the Russians to cut me down.[9]

text: Despite withering fire from three sides that devastated their force on the ride, the Light Brigade was able to engage the Russian forces at the end of the valley and force them back from the redoubt, but it suffered heavy casualties and was soon forced to retire. The surviving Russian artillerymen returned to their guns and opened fire once again, with grape and canister, indiscriminately at the mêlée of friend and foe before them.[2] Captain Godfrey Morgan continues:

text: When clear again of the guns I saw two or three of my men making their way back, and as the fire from both flanks was still heavy it was a matter of running the gauntlet again. I have not sufficient recollection of minor incidents to describe them, as probably no two men who were in that charge would describe it in the same way. When I was back pretty nearly where we started from I found that I was the senior officer of those not wounded, and, consequently, in command, there being two others, both juniors to me, in the same position — Lieut. Wombwell and Cornet Cleveland (afterwards killed at Inkerman).[9]

text: Lucan failed to provide any support for Cardigan, and it was speculated that he was motivated by an enmity for his brother-in-law that had lasted some 30 years and had been intensified during the campaign up to that point.[citation needed] The troops of the Heavy Brigade entered the mouth of the valley but did not advance further. Lucan's subsequent explanation was that he saw no point in having a second brigade mown down, and he was best positioned where he was to render assistance to Light Brigade survivors returning from the charge. The French light cavalry, the Chasseurs d'Afrique, was more effective in that it cleared the Fedyukhin Heights of the two half batteries of guns, two infantry battalions, and Cossacks to ensure the Light Brigade would not be hit by fire from that flank, and it later provided cover for the remaining elements of the Light Brigade as they withdrew.[2][10]

text: War correspondent William Russell, who witnessed the battle, declared "our Light Brigade was annihilated by their own rashness, and by the brutality of a ferocious enemy."[2]

text: Cardigan survived the battle. Although stories circulated afterwards that he was not actually present,[11] he led the charge from the front and, never looking back, did not see what was happening to the troops behind him. He reached the Russian guns, took part in the fight, and then returned alone up the valley without bothering to rally or even find out what had happened to the survivors. He afterwards said all he could think about was his rage against Captain Nolan, who he thought had tried to take over the leadership of the charge from him. After riding back up the valley, he considered he had done all that he could and then, with considerable sang-froid, left the field and went on board his yacht in Balaclava harbour, where he ate a champagne dinner.[12] He subsequently described the engagement in a speech delivered at the Mansion House in London that was afterwards quoted in length in the House of Commons:[citation needed]

text: We advanced down a gradual descent of more than three-quarters of a mile, with the batteries vomiting forth upon us shells and shot, round and grape, with one battery on our right flank and another on the left, and all the intermediate ground covered with the Russian riflemen; so that when we came to within a distance of fifty yards from the mouths of the artillery which had been hurling destruction upon us, we were, in fact, surrounded and encircled by a blaze of fire, in addition to the fire of the riflemen upon our flanks.

text: As we ascended the hill, the oblique fire of the artillery poured upon our rear, so that we had thus a strong fire upon our front, our flank, and our rear. We entered the battery—we went through the battery—the two leading regiments cutting down a great number of the Russian gunners in their onset. In the two regiments which I had the honour to lead, every officer, with one exception, was either killed or wounded, or had his horse shot under him or injured. Those regiments proceeded, followed by the second line, consisting of two more regiments of cavalry, which continued to perform the duty of cutting down the Russian gunners.

text: Then came the third line, formed of another regiment, which endeavoured to complete the duty assigned to our brigade. I believe that this was achieved with great success, and the result was that this body, composed of only about 670 men, succeeded in passing through the mass of Russian cavalry of—as we have since learned—5,240 strong; and having broken through that mass, they went, according to our technical military expression, "threes about," and retired in the same manner, doing as much execution in their course as they possibly could upon the enemy's cavalry. Upon our returning up the hill which we had descended in the attack, we had to run the same gauntlet and to incur the same risk from the flank fire of the Tirailleur as we had encountered before. Numbers of our men were shot down—men and horses were killed, and many of the soldiers who had lost their horses were also shot down while endeavouring to escape.

text: New information found in 2016

text: A newspaper report on 11 December 2016[13][14] revealed another version of what happened: "More than 160 years on" (i.e. after 2014) a letter was found in the British Library, written by Lieutenant Frederick Maxse, who was on Lord Raglan's staff at Balaklava. It said that Lord Raglan had sent an order for the Light Brigade to "follow the enemy and try to prevent the enemy from carrying away the guns"; those guns were some British artillery guns which were at risk. Raglan sent the order via 36-year-old Captain Louis Nolan (old drawing of him). Nolan, instead of passing on the order verbatim complete as given, passed it on to Lord Lucan orally as "There, my lord, is your enemy! There are your guns!", and added the word "attack" when Raglan had intended merely a show of force. Nolan's version of the order and accompanying gesture were misunderstood, causing the disaster described above. Nolan rode with the charge and died in it. Maxse's letter said that Nolan was annoyed at how little the Light Brigade had done previously and that Nolan was angry against Lord Lucan. Nigel Kingscote (another of Raglan's staff officers) agreed that the fault was Nolan's, and said that Nolan, if he had lived, would have been "broke by court martial".

text: Aftermath

text: The brigade was not completely destroyed, but did suffer terribly, with 118 men killed, 127 wounded, and about 60 taken prisoner. After regrouping, only 195 men were still with horses. The futility of the action and its reckless bravery prompted the French Marshal Pierre Bosquet to state: "C'est magnifique, mais ce n'est pas la guerre." ("It is magnificent, but it is not war.") He continued, in a rarely quoted phrase: "C'est de la folie" — "It is madness."[15] The Russian commanders are said to have initially believed that the British soldiers must have been drunk.[12] Somerset Calthorpe, aide-de-camp to Lord Raglan, wrote a letter to a friend three days after the charge. He detailed casualty numbers but did not distinguish between those killed and those taken prisoner:

text:
"Killed and missing.

Wounded.

9
Officers
12

14
Sergeants
9

4
Trumpeters
3

129
Rank and file
98

156
Total
122

278 casualties;

text: The reputation of the British cavalry was significantly enhanced as a result of the charge, though the same cannot be said for their commanders.

text: Slow communications meant that news of the disaster did not reach the British public until three weeks after the action. The British commanders' dispatches from the front were published in an extraordinary edition of the London Gazette of 12 November 1854. Raglan blamed Lucan for the charge, claiming that "from some misconception of the order to advance, the Lieutenant-General (Lucan) considered that he was bound to attack at all hazards, and he accordingly ordered Major-General the Earl of Cardigan to move forward with the Light Brigade."[17] Lucan was furious at being made a scapegoat: Raglan claimed he should have exercised his discretion, but throughout the campaign up to that date Lucan considered Raglan had allowed him no independence at all and required that his orders be followed to the letter. Cardigan, who had merely obeyed orders, blamed Lucan for giving those orders. He returned home a hero and was promoted to Inspector General of the Cavalry.

text: Lucan attempted to publish a letter refuting point by point Raglan's London Gazette dispatch, but his criticism of his superior was not tolerated, and Lucan was recalled to England in March 1855. The Charge of the Light Brigade became a subject of considerable controversy and public dispute on his return. He strongly rejected Raglan's version of events, calling it "an imputation reflecting seriously on my professional character." In an exchange of public correspondence printed in the pages of The Times, Lucan blamed Raglan and his deceased aide-de-camp Captain Nolan, who had been the actual deliverer of the disputed order. Lucan subsequently defended himself with a speech in the House of Lords on 19 March.

text: Lucan evidently escaped blame for the charge, as he was made a member of the Order of the Bath in July of that same year. Although he never again saw active duty, he reached the rank of general in 1865 and was made a field marshal in the year before his death.

text: The charge continues to be studied by modern military historians and students as an example of what can go wrong when accurate military intelligence is lacking and orders are unclear. Prime Minister Winston Churchill, who was a keen military historian and a former cavalryman, insisted on taking time out during the Yalta Conference in 1945 to see the battlefield for himself.

text: One research project used a mathematical model to examine how the charge might have turned out if conducted differently. The analysis suggested that a charge toward the redoubt on the Causeway Heights, as Raglan had apparently intended, would have led to even higher British casualties. By contrast, the charge might have succeeded if the Heavy Brigade had accompanied the Light Brigade along the valley, as Lucan had initially directed.[18]

text: According to Norman Dixon, 19th-century accounts of the charge tended to focus on the bravery and glory of the cavalrymen, much more than the military blunders involved, with the perverse effect that it "did much to strengthen those very forms of tradition which put such an incapacitating stranglehold on military endeavor for the next eighty or so years," i.e., until after World War I.[19]

text: The fate of the surviving members of the charge was investigated by Edward James Boys, a military historian, who documented their lives from leaving the army to their deaths. His records are described as being the most definitive project of its kind ever undertaken.[20] Edwin Hughes, who died on 14 May 1927, aged 96, was the last survivor.[21]

text: In October 1875, survivors of the charge met at the Alexandra Palace in London to celebrate its 21st anniversary. The celebrations were fully reported in the Illustrated London News of 30 October 1875,[22] which included the recollections of several of the survivors, including those of Edward Richard Woodham, the Chairman of the Committee that organised the celebration. Tennyson was invited, but could not attend. Lucan, the senior commander surviving, was not present, but attended a separate celebration, held later in the day, with other senior officers at the fashionable Willis's Rooms, St James's Square.[23] Reunion dinners were held for a number of years.[24]

text: On 2 August 1890, trumpeter Martin Leonard Landfried, from the 17th Lancers, who may (or may not)[25] have sounded the bugle charge at Balaclava, made a recording on an Edison cylinder that can be heard here, with a bugle which had been used at Waterloo in 1815. (Landfried's name is misspelled as "Landfrey" on the Edison cylinder recording).[26]

text: In 2004, on the 150th anniversary of the charge, a commemoration of the event was held at Balaklava. As part of the anniversary, a monument dedicated to the 25,000 British participants of the conflict was unveiled by Prince Michael of Kent.[27]

text: Survivor postscript

text: A survivor, John Penn, who died in Dunbar in 1886, left a personal account of his military career including the infamous Charge written for a friend. This survives and is held by East Lothian Council Archives.[28]

text: A number of individuals who died during 1916-17 were thought to be the 'last' survivor of the Charge of the Light Brigade. Sergeant James A. Mustard of the 17th Lancers, aged 85, had his funeral with military honours at Twickenham in early February 1916. In the Abergavenny Chronicle news report published on 11 February it was stated:

text: He was one of thirty-eight men of the 145 of the 17th Lancers that came out of the charge led by Cardigan, and was always of the opinion that no one sounded the charge at all. He was in the battles of Alma and Mackenzie's Farm, and the storming and taking of Sebastopol, and before leaving for Varna marched with his regiment from Hampton Court to Portsmouth.[29]

text: In The Cambrian News of 30 June 1916 the passing of another 'last' was noted, Thomas Warr, aged 85, at Dorchester:

text: At the meeting of the Royal Patriotic Fund Corporation in London last week Mr. Hayes Fisher, M.P., who presided, said that the last pensioned survivor of the Charge of the Light Brigade died on the previous day. His name was Thomas Warr.[30]

text: Finally, without any mention of him being the 'last', Sergeant John Smith Parkinson, aged 84, of Kings Norton, Birmingham,"a survivor of the Charge of the Light Brigade at Balaclava", was reported in the Cambria Daily Leader of 13 January 1917 to have died the previous day.[31]

text: Remembrance

text:
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
The Charge of the Light Brigade

text: Alfred, Lord Tennyson, the then Poet Laureate, wrote evocatively about the battle in his poem "The Charge of the Light Brigade". Tennyson's poem, written 2 December 1854 and, published six weeks after the event on 9 December 1854, in The Examiner, praises the Brigade ("When can their glory fade? O the wild charge they made!") while trenchantly mourning the appalling futility of the charge ("Not tho' the soldier knew, someone had blunder'd... Charging an army, while all the world wonder'd"). Tennyson wrote the poem inside only a few minutes after reading an account of the battle in The Times, according to his grandson Sir Charles Tennyson. It immediately became hugely popular, and even reached the troops in the Crimea, where it was distributed in pamphlet form.[citation needed]

text: Nearly 36 years later Kipling wrote "The Last of the Light Brigade" (1890), commemorating a visit by the last 20 survivors to Tennyson (then aged 80) to reproach him gently for not writing a sequel about the way in which England was treating its old soldiers.[32] Some sources treat the poem as an account of a real event,[33] but other commentators class the destitute old soldiers as allegorical, with the visit invented by Kipling to draw attention to the poverty in which the real survivors were living, in the same way that he evoked Tommy Atkins in "The Absent-Minded Beggar" (1899).[34][35]

text: See also Back to the Army Again for a poem by Rudyard Kipling about a discharged soldier who re-joins the army under a false name as the only way to get away from long-term unemployment.


document_title: Train horn

question_text: when are trains required to blow their horns

question_tokens: when are trains required to blow their horns

text: Train horn

text: History and background[edit]

text: Trains move on fixed rails, making them uniquely susceptible to collision. This susceptibility is exacerbated by the enormous weight and inertia of a train, which make it difficult to quickly stop when encountering an obstacle. Also, trains generally do not stop at grade crossings (level crossings), instead relying upon pedestrians and vehicles to clear the tracks when they pass. Therefore, from their beginnings locomotives have been equipped with loud horns or bells to warn vehicles or pedestrians that they are coming. Steam locomotives had steam whistles, operated from steam produced by their boilers.

text: As Diesel locomotives began to replace steam on most railroads during the mid-20th century, it was realized that the new locomotives were unable to utilize the steam whistles then in use. Early internal combustion locomotives were initially fitted with small truck horns or exhaust-powered whistles, but these were found to be unsuitable and hence the air horn design was scaled up and modified for railroad use. Early train horns often were tonally similar to the air horns still heard on road-going trucks today. It was found that this caused some confusion among people who were accustomed to steam locomotives and the sound of their whistles; when approaching a grade crossing, when some people heard an air horn they expected to see a truck, not a locomotive, and accidents happened. So, locomotive air horns were created that had a much higher, more musical note, tonally much more like a steam whistle. This is why most train horns have a unique sound, different from that of road going trucks, although many switch engines, which didn't see road service (service on the main lines), retained the deeper truck-like horns.

text: Strict regulations specific to each country specify how loud horns must be, and how far in advance of grade crossings and other locations locomotive engineers are required to sound their horns to give adequate time to clear the tracks. Standard signals consisting of different sequences of horn blasts must be given in different circumstances.

text: Due to the encroachment of development, some suburban dwellers have opposed railroad use of the air horn as a trackside warning device.[1] Residents in some communities have attempted to establish quiet zones, in which train crews are instructed not to sound their horns, except in case of emergency.[2]

text: Recent years have seen an increase of horn theft from railroad property.[3]

text: Operation[edit]

text: Train horns are operated by compressed air, typically 125-140 psi (8.6-9.6 bar), and fed from a locomotive main air reservoir. When the engineer opens the horn valve, air flows through a supply line into the power chamber at the base of the horn (diagram, right). It passes through a narrow opening between a nozzle and a circular diaphragm in the power chamber, then out through the flaring horn bell. The flow of air past the diaphragm causes it to vibrate or oscillate against the nozzle, producing sound.

text: When vibrated by the diaphragm, the column of air in the bell oscillates with standing waves. The length of the bell determines the wavelength of the sound waves, and thus the fundamental frequency (pitch) of the note produced by the horn (measured in hertz). The longer the horn bell, the lower the note.

text: North American diesel locomotives manufactured prior to the 1990s utilized an air valve actuated by the engineer through the manipulation of a lever or pull cord. Use of this method made possible a practice known as "feathering", meaning that modulation of the horn's volume was possible through finer regulation of the air valve.

text: Many locomotives manufactured during the 1990s made use of pushbutton controls. In addition, several North American locomotives incorporated a sequencer pedal built into the cab floor beneath the operators position; that when depressed, sounded the grade crossing sequence.

text: Locomotives of European origin have featured pushbutton control of air horns since the mid-1960s.

text: Current production locomotives from GE Transportation Systems and Electro-Motive Diesel utilize a lever-actuated solenoid valve.

text: United States[edit]

text: On April 27, 2005, the Federal Railroad Administration (FRA), which enforces rail safety regulations, published the final rule on the use of locomotive horns at highway-rail grade crossings.[4][5] Effective June 24, 2005, the rule requires that locomotive horns be sounded at all public grade crossings at least 15 seconds, but not more than 20 seconds before entering a crossing.[6] This rule applies when the train speed is below 45 mph (70 km/h). At 45 mph or above, trains are still required to sound their horn at the designated location (usually denoted with a whistle post).

text: The pattern for blowing the horn remains two long, one short, and one long. This is to be repeated or prolonged as necessary until the lead locomotive fully occupies the crossing. Locomotive engineers retain the authority to vary this pattern as necessary for crossings in close proximity, and are allowed to sound the horn in emergency situations no matter where the location.

text: A ban on sounding locomotive horns in Florida was ordered removed by the FRA after it was shown that the accident rate doubled during the ban.[7] The new ruling preempts any state or local laws regarding the use of the train horn at public crossings.[8] This also provides public authorities the option to maintain and/or establish quiet zones provided certain supplemental or alternative safety measures are in place, and the crossing accident rate meets government standards.

text: The following are the required horn signals listed in the operating rules of most North American railroads, along with their meanings. Signals are illustrated by an "o" for short sounds, and "–" for longer sounds. (Note that these signals and their indications are updated to reflect modern practice.) Those rules marked with an asterisk (*) must be sounded when and/or where applicable. Those signals without an asterisk convey information to employees; they must be used when voice communication is not available.

text:
Rule

Sequence
Indication[9]

14 (a)

o
Applying air brakes while standing.

14 (b)
*
– –
Proceeding. Releasing air brakes. This signal is often referred to as "whistling off," despite it being given by an air horn.

14 (f)
*
o o –
Acknowledging a flagman's stop signal.

14 (g)
*
o o
Acknowledging any signal not otherwise provided for.

14 (h)
*
o o o
Backing up.

14 (j)

o o o o
Calling for signals.

14 (l)
*
– – o –
1. Trains or engines approaching public highway grade crossings shall sound the horn at least 15 seconds, but no more than 20 seconds before the lead engine enters the crossing. Trains or engines travelling at speeds greater than 45 mph shall begin sounding the horn at or about, but not more than, one-quarter mile (1,320 feet) in advance of the nearest public crossing. Even if the advance warning provided by the horn will be less than 15 seconds in duration. This signal is to be prolonged or repeated until the engine or train occupies the crossing; or, where multiple crossing are involved, until the last crossing is occupied. 2. Approaching tunnels, yards, or other points where railroad workers may be at work. 3. Passing standing trains.

14 (m)
*
o
Approaching passenger station.

14 (o)

o –
Inspect train for a leak in brake pipe system or for brakes sticking.

14 (p)
*
Succession of sounds
Warning to people and/or animals.

14 (q)
*
– o
When running against the current of traffic: 1. Approaching stations, curves, or other points where view may be obscured: and 2. Approaching passenger or freight trains and when passing freight trains.

text: Exception: Engine horn signals required by rules 14 (b) and 14 (h) do not apply after momentary stops in continuous switching movements.

text: Germany[edit]

text: Horn signals are regulated in the Zp category of the Eisenbahn-Bau- und Betriebsordnung. Their most common use today is when approaching a level crossing that lacks barriers, and for warning purposes.

text: Whistle posts are labeled with the letter "P" (for 'Pfeifen'). Common signals are:[10]

text:
Sequence
Meaning

_
Zp 1 - Generic "Attention" signal.

o
Zp 2 - Tighten handbrakes.

o o
Zp 3 - Strongly tighten handbrakes.

_ _
Zp 4 - Loosen handbrakes

ooo ooo ooo
Zp 5 - Emergency. Brake immediately.

_ o _
Zp 11 - Come. Used to call out for train staff.

text: France[edit]

text: Train horns are sounded where a whistle post (marked with the letter "S" for "siffler") is present. If the whistle post is labelled "J" (meaning "jour"), the horn is only to be sounded between 0700 and 2000. Horns must also be sounded when passing an oncoming train, and shortly before reaching the last car of the train.

text: India[edit]

text: The IRFCA FAQ lists the following:[11]

text:
'o' : denotes a short blast on the horn.
'--' : denotes a comparatively long blast on the horn.
'-----' : denotes a longer blast on the horn.
'----------' : denotes a very long blast on the horn.

text: Code [ o ] - Before Starting:

text:
Indication to driver of the assisting engine that driver of leading engine is ready to start.
Acknowledgement by the driver of the assisting engine.
Engine ready to leave yard
Engine ready to go to loco yard
Light loco or shunter about to move

text: Code [ o ] - On the run:

text:
Assistance of other engine not required
Acknowledgement by driver of the assisting engine

text: Code [ -- ]

text:
Normal departure from station on receipt of clear signal. This is usually followed by another long blast about 10–20 seconds after the first one, after the guard's all-right signal is received.
Beginning of shunting operation (if shunted rake has passengers in it)

text: Code [ o o ]

text:
Call for guard's signal
Signals not exchanged by guard
Signals not exchanged by station staff

text: Code [ -- o ]

text:
Guard to release brakes
Before starting engine from a midsection/station
Main Line clear

text: Code [ o o o ]

text:
Guard to apply brakes
Train out of control, guard to assist

text: Code [ o o -- ]

text: Sudden loss of brake pressure or vacuum (perhaps by alarm chain being pulled)

text: Code [ o o o o ]

text:
Train cannot proceed on account of accident, failure or other cause
Protect train in rear

text: Code [ -- -- o o ]

text: Call for guard to come to engine

text: Code [ o -- o ]

text:
Token not received
Token missed
With wrong authority to proceed
Passing stop signal at 'on' on proper authority

text: Code [ ----- ] - Before Starting

text:
Vacuum recreated on ghat section, remove sprags
Passing automatic 'stop' signal at 'On'

text: Code [ ----- ] - On the run

text: Acknowledgement of guards signal

text: Code [ ---------- ]

text:
Approaching level crossing or tunnel area
Recall staff protecting train in rear
Material train ready to leave
Running through a station
Approaching a stop signal at 'on'
Detained at stop signal
Crossing stop signal at 'on' after waiting the stipulated time.

text: Code [ -- o -- o ]

text:
Alarm chain pulled
Insufficient vacuum in engine
Guard applies vacuum brakes.

text: Code [ -- -- ]

text: Raise Pantograph (electric loco only)

text: Code [ -- o -- ]

text: Lower Pantograph (electric loco only)

text: Code [ o o o o o o o o o ] (Frequently)

text:
Apprehension of danger
Danger signal to driver of an approaching train whose path is obstructed
Moving in wrong direction on a double line.
Also used by EMU motormen to warn passengers on a crowded platform of the approach of a fast train which will not stop at that station

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: UK diesel and electric locomotives are usually fitted with two-tone horns, sounded sequentially to distinguish them from the horns used on road vehicles, and, in the past, both tones were routinely used. However, because of noise complaints, new rules were introduced in 2007:[12]

text:
The introduction of a night time quiet period, between 2300 and 0700 when trains will no longer routinely sound their horns at whistle boards (they will always sound their horns when people are seen on the track)
That where the technology is available, drivers should only use the low tone from the two tone horn at whistle boards.
For all new or replacement train horns on trains capable of travelling up to 160 km/h a much lower minimum sound pressure level has been established – and a maximum sound level has been introduced (min 101 dB and max 106 dB)

tag: ol

text: Placement on locomotives[edit]

text: As many individuals do with their personal vehicles, railroads order locomotives with different options in order to suit their operating practices. Air horns are no exception, and railroad mechanical forces mount these on locomotives where they are deemed most effective at projecting sound, and for ease of maintenance.

text:
Horn mounted on MBTA Commuter Rail control car when in Push Pull Mode

Nathan K5LA mounted atop a San Diego Coaster Cab Car

Horn mounted in the middle section of the roof on a GE locomotive

Typical horn mounting location on European locomotives

Low horn mounting location on a European locomotive. The horn is visible above the right side buffer.

text: Audio samples[edit]

text: Wikimedia Commons has media related to Train horns.

text: The following are samples of select air horns as used in North American railroad service:[13]

text:
AirChime K5LA

(329 KB)

Problems playing this file? See media help.

Leslie A200-156

(127 KB)

Problems playing this file? See media help.

text:
Leslie S-3L

(187 KB)

Problems playing this file? See media help.

Leslie S-5T

(275 KB)

Problems playing this file? See media help.

text:
Nathan M5

(277 KB)

Problems playing this file? See media help.

Nathan P5

(358 KB)

Problems playing this file? See media help.

text:
Prime PM-920

(312 KB)

Problems playing this file? See media help.

Prime PM-990

(301 KB)

Problems playing this file? See media help.

text:
WABCO E2

(243 KB)

Problems playing this file? See media help.

WABCO E2-B1

(274 KB)

Problems playing this file? See media help.

text: Manufacturers[edit]

text: North America[edit]

text: AirChime, Ltd.[edit]

text: AirChime, Ltd. traces their beginnings through the work of Robert Swanson in 1949. Prior to the early 1950s, locomotives were equipped with air horns that sounded a singular note.

text: Swanson sought to develop an air horn which would mimic the sound of a classic steam whistle. Using ancient Chinese musical theory, Swanson produced the six-note model 'H6'. This was impractical for railroad use, due to its relatively large size. Railroad equipment operates over routes restricted by loading gauge, a difference of only a few inches may prohibit that equipment from operating on the line in question.

text: Swanson would later refine his 'H6' into the model 'H5'. As the numeric designation indicates, the horn sounds a five-note chord.

text: In 1950, AirChime introduced the 'M' series, a further improvement on the earlier horns through elimination of unnecessary moving parts. Among the earliest customers of the AirChime 'M' was the Southern Railway, which sought replacement horns for their motive power. The company announced this program through the placement of a full-page advertisement in the May 25, 1951 edition of the Washington Times-Herald.

text: Under Swanson's guidance, AirChime would focus on ease of mass production, low maintenance, and reliability in their air horn design, with the development of the 'P' (1953), and 'K' (1954) series

text: AirChime has been sold to their American licensee, Nathan Manufacturing, Inc., a division of Micro Precision Group, Inc, in Windham, Connecticut.[14]

text: Buell Air Horns[edit]

text: Founded in 1912 as The American Strombos Co. of Philadelphia, PA, Buell sold modified marine horns for rail use. They were often installed on small locomotives, electric interurban equipment. and railcars (for example the Doodlebugs).

text: Buell has recently made available a line of air horns specific for railroad equipment.[15]

text: Gustin Bacon Mfg. Co.[edit]

text: The Gustin Bacon Mfg. Co. of Kansas City, MO offered airhorns for use on railroad equipment prior to the Second World War.

text: Leslie Controls, Inc.[edit]

text: Leslie Controls, Inc. (originally the Leslie Company of Lyndhurst, New Jersey, later Parsippany, finally relocating to Tampa, Florida in 1985) began horn production by obtaining the rights to manufacture the Kockums Mekaniska Verkstad product line of "Tyfon" brand airhorns, marketing these for railroad use beginning in the 1930s. Their model A200 series would later grace the rooftops of countless locomotives, such as the legendary Pennsylvania Railroad GG1, as well as thousands of EMD E and F-units. Leslie eventually introduced their own line of multi-note airhorns, known as the "Chime-Tone" series, in direct competition with AirChime.

text: Poor sales of the Chime-Tones (due to the horns requiring an ample volume of air) led the Leslie Company to introduce a new line of air horns utilizing interchangeable components while using less air to produce greater sound volume than the earlier "Tyfon" series. Developed by Kockums, this horn utilized a back-pressure power chamber design in order to enhance diaphragm oscillation. Known as the "SuperTyfon" series, these horns would eventually supplant the "Tyfon" in railroad service.

text: "SuperTyfon" horns were offered in single,[16] dual,[17] triple,[18] quad,[19] and five note[20] configurations.

text: Leslie Controls continues to manufacture "SuperTyfon" air horns for the railroad industry.[21]

text: Prime Manufacturing, Inc.[edit]

text: Prime Manufacturing, Inc. had produced locomotive appliances for many years prior to their entry into the air horn market in 1972. Their line of "Pneumatic Horns" was basically a derivative of the Leslie SuperTyfon design (having taken advantage of a patent expiration at the time), though their horns employed heavier castings than equivalents from Leslie, and sounding a somewhat richer timbre as a result.

text: Sales were brisk (railroads such as Union Pacific and the Burlington Northern were notable customers) but ultimately disappointing. Finding themselves increasingly unable to compete in a niche market dominated by Leslie Controls and AirChime, Prime ceased air horn production c. 1999.

text: Westinghouse Air Brake Co.[edit]

text: Westinghouse Air Brake Company (known throughout the 19th and 20th Century as WABCO) was the first to offer air horns specifically for use with railroad equipment, as early as the 1910s. Their model E2 was recognized by many for the deep, commanding tone it produced.

text: In response to the Leslie multi-note "Chime-Tone" series, Westinghouse offered a bracket to which three of their single-note "honkers" could be bolted onto, achieving the same result as what the Chime-Tones did for Leslie.

text: Overshadowed later on by Leslie and AirChime, WABCO eventually ceased production of most horns for the North American market.

text: At present, the company is known as Wabtec, Inc., and continues to offer their line of 'Pneumatic horns' for the export market.[22]

text: Australia[edit]

text: Railways in Australia often utilize the same type of air horns as their North American counterparts. Examples from both the Leslie Co. and AirChime Ltd. can be found there.