document_title: Shooting ranges in the United States

question_text: how old do you have to be to go to a gun range in massachusetts

text: Shooting ranges in the United States

text: Specialized classes and licenses[edit]

text: Typically, no license or advanced training beyond just firearm familiarization (for rentals) and range rules familiarization is usually required for using a shooting range in the United States; the only common requirement is that the shooter must be at least 18 or 21 years old (or have a legal guardian present), and must sign a waiver prior to shooting.

text: Self-defense classes may be available for a fee at shooting ranges, covering firearm use in much more detail.

text: Some ranges offer a class for concealed carry licenses, which are available in almost every state. Some states issue the license only after a short course, and in some courses are optional.

text: Locations[edit]

text: In most[quantify] states in the United States, there are numerous public-access shooting ranges, ranging for example from 144 in Florida with a population in excess of 18.2 million to 9 in Hawaii with a population of 1.3 million (numbers taken as of October 2008). Exceptions include cities in the states of Hawaii, California, Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, Illinois, and Washington, DC, all known for gun control policies in general, where the numbers of ranges may be only one for every few hundred thousand people, or none at all, such as in the Washington, DC case.[1]

text: Throughout much of the rest of the United States, though, especially in areas where the dominant side of the gun politics debate leans towards gun rights, and where no license is usually required to own a handgun or rifle or shotgun, the typical number of ranges often surpasses one for every 100,000 residents.[1]

text: Of particular interest to international tourists interested in public access shooting ranges in the United States while on vacation, especially gun-friendly states include Kentucky, Tennessee, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, New Hampshire, Arizona, Nevada, Colorado, and Utah, among others.  All of these states have publicly accessible shooting ranges with rental guns available at a modest fee. Ammunition costs for rental guns varies, of course, but 9×19mm Luger (usually the cheapest service caliber round) is often available for around $15 per 50 at sporting goods stores or slightly higher ($18–25) at most public access shooting ranges.

text: Private or restricted-access shooting ranges are owned and used by police departments, private companies, private membership shooting clubs, and the military for qualification and/or continued firearms practice and training. These private ranges have more-specialized features not seen in public ranges, e.g., large caliber rifle and automatic weapons ranges.

text: There are several types of shooting ranges, each catering to different classes of firearms, and meeting different needs. Some are inside buildings; others are outdoors and cover many acres.

text: Outdoor ranges[edit]

text:
On a shotgun or trap range, the shooter aims to hit sporting clays or skeet that are mechanically-fired (or in some cases, thrown by hand) across an open field.  These involve shooting clay disks also known as clay pigeons thrown in various ways. Both skeet and trap are Olympic sports (or, more precisely, are disciplines of an Olympic sport that are contested in the Summer Olympics), and are practiced by many bird hunters to sharpen their marksmanship.
On a rifle range, shooters typically fire at targets 100-300 yards (91–275 meters) or greater distance.  Many rifle ranges feature mechanized steel targets that automatically reset upon being hit.  Hunters in particular often use rifle ranges to calibrate or sight-in their rifles prior to hunting.
On a handgun range, shooters fire semi-automatic pistols, revolvers, and sometimes pistol-caliber carbines or submachine guns at stationary targets along, or at the end of, a 15-100 yard (13-91 meter) long lane.

text: Most outdoor ranges have established strictly-followed procedures for ensuring that a range is either active ("hot") or inactive ("cold"). When everyone on the firing line agrees for the line to go hot, actions may be closed, magazines may be loaded, rounds may be chambered and firearms may be fired. When everyone on the firing line agrees for the line to go cold, magazines must be removed, firearms must be unloaded, actions opened, and all the firearms must be placed on tables. Only upon confirmation does the line actually go cold. Firearms may not be loaded or even touched when the line is cold.

text: Outdoor shooting ranges are usually backed by a sandbagged barrier or specially-designed funnel-shaped traps to prevent bullets from ricocheting back at the shooters. Many older outdoor ranges only use an earthen berm, which is often composed of sand, and called the impact berm. Most outdoor ranges restrict the maximum caliber size, or have separate ranges devoted to use with rifles firing heavy caliber cartridges.  Many outdoor ranges do permit the use of automatic weapons on specially adapted Class III weapons ranges.

text: The largest problem currently with outdoor ranges is the lack of sufficient area behind and beside the impact berms. This area, usually called the Surface Danger Zone (SDZ), is a fan-shaped area that extends lengthwise to the ultimate ballistic distance of the round fired. Outdoor ranges often use baffles to contain fired rounds within the range, and, with proper design can reduce the surface danger zone area. Guidelines for surface danger zones vary widely. The National Rifle Association maintains guidelines for range design, but often the U.S. military range design guidelines are more prescriptive, specific and easier to use.

text: Targets using Tannerite are sometimes used for indicating long-range markmanship accuracy at high power rifle and full-auto outdoor ranges. Tannerite is a binary explosive that is not exploded unless hit with high-velocity rounds. Most pistol rounds will not set it off.

text: Indoor ranges[edit]

text: An estimated 16,000 to 18,000 indoor firing ranges are in operation in the United States.[2] Indoor ranges differ in construction, depending on the type of weapons to be fired:

text:
On a rifle range, shooters typically fire pistol caliber carbines at targets 100 yards (91 meters) distant. The common practice is to follow rules much like those required on outdoor ranges.
On a handgun range, shooters fire semi-automatic pistols, revolvers, and (sometimes) submachine guns at stationary targets along, or at the end of, a 15-100 yard (14-91 meter) long lane. Paper or cardboard targets are hung from a dummy or target holder positioned on a slide; this arrangement allows the shooter to control the shooting distance and retrieve targets for inspection. The target is typically hung from a replaceable hanger attached to a mechanized or motorized assembly that can be placed at varying distances from the shooter, by means of an electrical switch or manual pulley system. Common range shooting distances are 5 yards (4.5 meters) to 33 yards (23–30 meters). Most  ranges have minimum shooter-to-target distances, set by the range master, determined by safety considerations.

text: Fees for using indoor public shooting ranges vary widely with local costs, but a typical rate starts at $10 per hour of use, with targets available at a modest charge. Additional fees usually will pertain to damaging target hangers, lights or baffles, up to damaging motors, which may cost as much as $200, per incident. Unlike for outdoor ranges, or for indoor rifle ranges, indoor public handgun shooting ranges are usually run continuously "hot". The only exception is if a target falls from a holder and needs to be retrieved. In this rather rare scenario, some ranges will go "cold", after all firearms are placed on the firing line table with their actions open. Other ranges have a policy that no shooters may go forward of the firing line at any time, so the dropped target is considered lost and must be replaced.

text: Indoor ranges usually have a projectile trap consisting of curved or angled steel plates, shredded rubber, or specially packed and groomed sand, with reinforced baffles attached to the ceiling and walls. The most modern ranges additionally include anechoic chamber technology (foam wedges), or place other sound absorbing materials on walls, floors and ceilings for additional noise reduction. Such ranges also usually have an air-locked corridor for soundproofing, with doors at opposite ends of the corridor. Noise from the range is effectively contained as long as only one door is opened at a time; it is considered a breach of etiquette to open both doors simultaneously. Ventilation is designed to be sufficient in quantity and directional control to reduce concentrations of lead in the air to safe levels in the shooting area. A small group of high volume indoor ranges are now using lead-free and frangible ammunition to create a safer and healthier shooting experience for consumers.

text: The maximum caliber size is sometimes posted on the door of the airlock on each particular range, or in the lobby or ready area if the facility only contains one range. Most indoor ranges restrict the use of certain magnum calibers, or the use of automatic weapons, primarily to prevent damage to the facilities. Other ranges do not have a caliber restriction, but instead limit projectiles to a certain muzzle velocity, often 2000 feet per second, or bullet construction.

text: Common safety practices[edit]

text: Nearly all public ranges require that all firearms be unloaded prior to entering, or leaving, the range facility, irrespective of whether one holds a concealed carry license.  The same is true for rental firearms leaving or returning to the rental counter, going to and from the shooting range.

text: Whether indoors or outdoors, all shooters are required to wear safety glasses or goggles, although some ranges will allow impact-resistant corrective glasses as the only eye protection.  Ear protection is mandatory either ear muffs or ear plugs, as long as one is within the defined boundaries of the range and the range is hot. For indoor ranges, these must be donned before going through the air lock door, and kept on as long as individuals are within the high noise area. Indoor ranges can introduce the risk of lead poisoning if they are not ventilated or cleaned properly. Lead dust in these facilities can be inhaled or can contaminate skin and clothing.[2]

text: The instructions of the appointed range master are to be followed at all times.

text: Holster drawing, cowboy action shooting and combat-style shooting are not generally allowed, except on specially designated action shooting ranges, which often have additional safety requirements and equipment.  Regular public ranges that do allow such shooting usually restrict the practice to designated persons, such as Law Enforcement, professional shooters, or others designated by range personnel.

text: Cost of shooting[edit]

text: If one brings one's own firearms, ear and eye protection, it is often possible to buy a 50-round box of 9 mm ammunition and target, rent an indoor lane for an hour, and enjoy shooting for under $50 in the United States. Fees for outdoor ranges are often even less, often running $6.50 for 3 hours of range time. Along with a 500-round brick of .22 LR ammunition that often costs less than $60.00, it is possible on an outdoor range to enjoy an afternoon of shooting for under $70. Firearm rental fees vary, depending on the model and caliber, but for a typical, non-exotic handgun, costs are only modestly higher.  Hearing and eye protection rental fees are modest, often available for under $3 each.

text: Shooting ranges that cater to foreign tourists interested in shooting handguns may have special package deals for under $20 for instruction, assistance, and shooting.  Larger caliber firearms and automatic weapons are available for tourists at some ranges as well. Fees for renting larger caliber firearms are only modestly more, but rental fees for automatic weapons can rise quickly, to hundreds of dollars, depending on the number of rounds fired.

text: For those interested in more heavy use of the local shooting range, annual memberships are available at many indoor U.S. shooting ranges. Both individual and family memberships are often available.  Typical costs vary but annual membership is usually available for around $200 per person, or slightly more for an entire family.  Such plans typically have unlimited usage of the range, unlike the typical 1/2 hour or 1-, 2-, or 3-hour rental time slots when renting a shooting lane as an occasional shooter.  For anyone shooting more than 8-10 times a year, annual membership is often cheaper than paying an hourly rate.  For the more exotic outdoor sporting club private ranges, annual membership in the NRA is usually mandatory.

text: It is worth noting that there are many unsupervised outdoor ranges on public land in the U.S. where shooting is free and unfettered.


document_title: Two-front war

question_text: during world war ii the united states was forced to fight a two-front war in

root

text: Two-front war

text: Ancient times[edit]

text: One of the earliest examples of a two-front war occurred in the third century BC, when the Roman Republic fought the First Macedonian War contemporaneously with the Second Punic War against Carthage. Also, after the consolidation of the Roman Empire's frontier in the reign of Augustus, the Roman forces had to contend with multiple enemies in its frontiers: in the Rhine, Danube and Mesopotamia, with various examples of emperors (such as Septimius Severus and Aurelian) who marched their armies from one side of the empire to another to face them. In the later period, after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, the surviving part, the Byzantine Empire had to face invaders coming from both west and east and simultaneously trying to preserve its territories in Italy.

tag: p

text: Seven Years' War[edit]

text: During the Seven Years' War, the Kingdom of Great Britain invaded New France, creating a two-front war with France.

text: Napoleonic Wars[edit]

text: During the Napoleonic Wars, France repeatedly fought on multiple fronts.  For example, France fought the Spanish and Anglo-Portuguese army in the Peninsular War while fighting the Russian Empire at the same time during its invasion of Russia. Their main adversaries the British were also engaged on multiple fronts at various times, having also to contend with the United States starting with the War of 1812 in Canada, the Chesapeake Bay, and Louisiana.

text: World War I[edit]

text: During World War I, Germany under Kaiser Wilhelm II fought a two-front war against French, British, Belgian, and (later) American forces on the Western Front while simultaneously fighting the Russians on the Eastern Front. Russia’s participation ended in the First World War, when the Bolshevik leaders signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany in March 1918. Germany had foreseen such a scenario, and developed the Schlieffen Plan in order to counteract being surrounded by its enemies.[citation needed] Under the Schlieffen Plan, German forces would invade France via Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands (the idea to go through the Netherlands was abandoned because of the country's neutrality), quickly capturing Paris and forcing France to sue for peace. The Germans would then turn their attention to Russia in the east before the Tsar could mobilize his massive forces. Due to several factors however, the Germans failed to achieve the plan's aims.

text: World War II[edit]

text: The most famous example of a two-front war was the European theatre during World War II, when Hitler's Nazi Germany had to confront the Western Allies on the west and the Soviet Union to the east. The Germans were unable to repel either of the advances on the two fronts and eventually lost the war. While there were other contributing factors, such as the insufficiency of the Wehrmacht for a long war and the abandonment of blitzkrieg tactics because of fuel shortages and a rising need to defend territory, the two-front war was an important factor in deciding when the German military would be forced to surrender.

text: The Allies, especially the United States, also fought a two-front war, splitting their forces between the European theatre against Nazi Germany and the Pacific War against the Japanese Empire, which was fighting in both Asia and the Pacific.

text: The Axis Powers had the opportunity to force the Soviet Union into a two-front war by means of a Japanese attack on the Soviet Far East, but the Japanese decided against doing so because of their defeats in the Soviet–Japanese border conflicts. While Germany and the United States remained respective threats, the Soviets and Japanese did not fight each another until the August 9 Soviet–Japanese War, three months after the surrender of Germany. Japan thus fought a two-front war as well and split its forces between China in the Second Sino-Japanese War and the United States in the Pacific Theatre. The Soviet Union later invaded Manchuria, worsening the situation for Japan.

text: In the case of the United States, the Pacific Theatre was primarily a naval and air effort despite losing ships during the 1941 Pearl Harbor Attack while ground forces were used in Europe. Like in Japan, most ground troops were fighting China, and the Pacific Theatre was also primarily a naval and aerial battle. It was also the first time the United States ever fought a two-front war.

text: Israeli-Arab Wars[edit]

text: In the 1948 Israeli-Arab War, the Israelis fought the Egyptians to the south and the Jordanians and Syria in the east and the north. Israel again fought two-front wars in the Six-Day War of 1967 and the Yom Kippur War of 1973.

text: Cold War[edit]

text: A major rationale for the American 600-ship Navy plan in the 1980s was to threaten the Soviet Union with a two-front war, in Europe and the Pacific Ocean, in the event of hostilities.[citation needed]

text: Metaphorical usage[edit]

text: The term is often used metaphorically.  An example is when a moderate politician faces political "attacks" from those to his left and those to his right.

text: Military strategy

tag: ul

text: Articles needing additional references from November 2007All articles needing additional referencesArticles that may contain original research from November 2014All articles that may contain original researchAll articles with unsourced statementsArticles with unsourced statements from November 2007


document_title: Pattern (casting)

question_text: shake allowance is a positive or negative allowance

text: Pattern (casting)

text: Patternmaking[edit]

text: The making of patterns, called patternmaking (sometimes styled pattern-making or pattern making), is a skilled trade that is related to the trades of tool and die making and moldmaking, but also often incorporates elements of fine woodworking. Patternmakers (sometimes styled pattern-makers or pattern makers) learn their skills through apprenticeships and trade schools over many years of experience. Although an engineer may help to design the pattern, it is usually a patternmaker who executes the design[4]

text: Materials used[edit]

text: Typically, materials used for pattern making are wood, metal or plastics. Wax and Plaster of Paris are also used, but only for specialized applications. Sugar pine is the most commonly used material for patterns, primarily because it is soft, light, and easy to work. Honduras Mahogany was used for more production parts because it is harder and would last longer than pine. Once properly cured it is about as stable as any wood available, not subject to warping or curling. Once the pattern is built the foundry does not want it changing shape. True Honduras Mahogany is harder to find now because of the decimation of the rain forests, so now there are a variety of woods marketed as Mahogany. Fiberglass and plastic patterns have gained popularity in recent years because they are water proof and very durable. Metal patterns are long lasting and do not succumb to moisture, but they are heavier, more expensive and difficult to repair once damaged.[5]

text: Wax patterns are used in a casting process called investment casting. A combination of paraffin wax, bees wax and carnauba wax is used for this purpose.[5]

text: Plaster of paris is usually used in making master dies and molds, as it gains hardness quickly, with a lot of flexibility when in the setting stage.[5]

text: Design[edit]

text: Sprues, gates, risers, cores, and chills[edit]

text: The patternmaker or foundry engineer decides where the sprues, gating systems, and risers are placed with respect to the pattern. Where a hole is desired in a casting, a core may be used which defines a volume or location in a casting where metal will not flow into. Sometimes chills may be placed on a pattern surface prior to molding, which are then formed into the sand mould. Chills are heat sinks which enable localized rapid cooling. The rapid cooling may be desired to refine the grain structure or determine the freezing sequence of the molten metal which is poured into the mould. Because they are at a much cooler temperature, and often a different metal than what is being poured, they do not attach to the casting when the casting cools.  The chills can then be reclaimed and reused.

text: The design of the feeding and gating system is usually referred to as methoding or methods design. It  can be carried out manually, or interactively using general-purpose CAD software, or semi-automatically using special-purpose software (such as AutoCAST)

text: Types of Patterns[edit]

text: Patterns are made of wood, metal, ceramic, or hard plastics and vary in complexity.

text: A single piece pattern, or loose pattern, is the simplest. It is a replica of dinasour the desired casting—usually in a slightly  extra larger size to offset the shrinkage of the intended metal. Gated patterns connect a number of loose patterns together with a series of runners that will be detached after shake-out. Segmented or multi-piece patterns create a casting in several pieces to be joined in post-processing.

text: Match plate patterns are patterns with the top and bottom parts of the pattern, also known as the cope and drag portions, mounted on opposite sides of a board. This adaptation allows patterns to be quickly pressed into the molding material. A similar technique called a cope and drag pattern is often used for large castings or large production runs: in this variation, the two sides of the pattern are mounted on separate pattern plates that can be hooked up to horizontal or vertical machines and pressed into the molding material. When the parting lines between the cope and drag are irregular, a follow board can be used to support irregularly shaped, loose patterns.

text: Sweep patterns are used for symmetric molds and casting, which are counter strikes shapes rotated around a center axis or pole snooker through the molding material. A sweep pattern is a form of skeleton pattern: any geometrical pattern that creates a mold by being moved through the molding material.[6]

text: Allowances[edit]

text: To compensate for any dimensional and structural changes which will happen during the casting or patterning process, allowances are usually made in the pattern.[7]

text: Contraction allowance / Shrinkage allowance[edit]

text: shrinkage allowance : almost all metals shrink or contract volumaterically after solidification to obtain a particular size of casting an amount is equal to the shrinkage or contraction......

text: The metal which undergo shrinkage during solidification  and contract  further  on cooling to room temperature. To compensate this, the pattern is made larger than the required casting. This extra size is given on the pattern for metal shrinkage is called shrinkage allowance.

text: The pattern needs to incorporate suitable allowances for shrinkage; these are called contraction allowances, and their exact values depend on the alloy being cast and the exact sand casting method being used. Some alloys will have overall linear shrinkage of up to 2.5%, whereas other alloys may actually experience no shrinkage or a slight "positive" shrinkage or increase in size in the casting process (notably type metal and certain cast irons). The shrinkage amount is also dependent on the sand casting process employed, for example clay-bonded sand, chemical bonded sands, or other bonding materials used within the sand. This was traditionally accounted for using a shrink rule, which is an oversized rule.

text: Shrinkage can again be classified into liquid shrinkage and solid shrinkage. Liquid shrinkage is the reduction in volume during the process of solidification, and Solid shrinkage is the reduction in volume during the cooling of the cast metal. Shrinkage allowance takes into account only the solid shrinkage. The liquid shrinkage is accounted for by risers.

text: Draft allowance[edit]

text: When the pattern is to be removed from the sand mold, there is a possibility that any leading edges may break off, or get damaged in the process. To avoid this, a taper is provided on the pattern, so as to facilitate easy removal of the pattern from the mold, and hence reduce damage to edges. The taper angle provided is called the Draft angle. The value of the draft angle depends upon the complexity of the pattern, the type of molding (hand molding or machine molding), height of the surface, etc. Draft provided on the casting is usually 1 to 3 degrees on external surfaces (5 to 8 internal surfaces).[8]

text: Finishing or Machining allowance[edit]

text: The surface finish obtained in sand castings is generally poor (dimensionally inaccurate), and hence in many cases, the cast product is subjected to machining processes like turning or grinding in order to improve the surface finish. During machining processes, some metal is removed from the piece. To compensate for this, a machining allowance (additional material) should be given in the casting.[8] the amount of finish allowance depends on the material of the casting,size of casting,volume of production, method of molding, and etc..

text: Shake allowance[edit]

text: Usually during removal of the pattern from the mold cavity, the pattern is rapped all around the faces, in order to facilitate easy removal. In this process, the final cavity is enlarged. To compensate for this, the pattern dimensions need to be reduced. There are no standard values for this allowance, as it is heavily dependent on the personnel. This allowance is a negative allowance, and a common way of going around this allowance is to increase the draft allowance. Shaking of the pattern causes an enlargement of the mould cavity and results in a bigger casting.[8]

text: Distortion allowance[edit]

text: During cooling of the mould, stresses developed in the solid metal may induce distortions in the cast. This is more evident when the mould is thinner in width as compared to its length. This can be eliminated by initially distorting the pattern in the opposite direction.[7]

text: Demand[edit]

text: Patterns continue to be needed for sand casting of metals.  For the production of gray iron, ductile iron and steel castings, sand casting remains the most widely used process.  For aluminum castings, sand casting represents about 12% of the total tonnage by weight (surpassed only by die casting at 57%, and semi-permanent and permanent mold at 19%; based on 2006 shipments).  The exact process and pattern equipment is always determined by the order quantities and the casting design.  Sand casting can produce as little as one part, or as many as a million copies.

text: Although additive manufacturing modalities such as SLS or SLM have potential to replace casting for some production situations, casting is still far from being completely displaced. Wherever it provides suitable material properties at competitive unit cost, it will remain in demand.


document_title: Stations of the Cross

question_text: what is the 9th station of the cross

question_tokens: what is the 9th station of the cross

text: Stations of the Cross

text: History[edit]

text: The Stations of the Cross originated in pilgrimages to Jerusalem and a desire to reproduce Via Dolorosa. Imitating holy places was not a new concept. For example, the religious complex of Santo Stefano in Bologna, Italy, replicated the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and other religious sites, including Mount of Olives and Valley of Josaphat.[8]

text: After the siege of 1187, Jerusalem fell to Muslims. Forty years later Franciscans were allowed back into the Holy Land. Their founder, Saint Francis of Assisi, held the Passion of Christ in special veneration and was the first person to receive stigmata.[9] In 1217, St. Francis also founded the Custody of the Holy Land to guard and promote the devotion to holy places. Their efforts were recognized when Franciscans were officially proclaimed custodians of holy places by Pope Clement VI in 1342.[9] Although several travelers who visited the Holy Land during the 12–14th centuries (e.g. Riccoldo da Monte di Croce, Burchard of Mount Sion, James of Verona), mention a "Via Sacra", i.e. a settled route that pilgrims followed, there is nothing in their accounts to identify this with the Way of the Cross, as we understand it.[10] The earliest use of the word "stations", as applied to the accustomed halting-places in the Via Sacra at Jerusalem, occurs in the narrative of an English pilgrim, William Wey, who visited the Holy Land in the mid-15th century, and described pilgrims following the footsteps of Christ to the cross. In 1521, a book called Geystlich Strass (German: "spiritual road") was printed with illustrations of the stations in the Holy Land.[10]

text: During the 15th and 16th centuries the Franciscans began to build a series of outdoor shrines in Europe to duplicate their counterparts in the Holy Land.  The number of stations varied between seven and thirty; seven was common. These were usually placed, often in small buildings, along the approach to a church, as in a set of 1490 by Adam Kraft, leading to the Johanniskirche in Nuremberg.[11]  A number of rural examples were established as attractions in their own right, usually on attractive wooded hills.  These include the Sacro Monte di Domodossola (1657) and Sacro Monte di Belmonte (1712), and form part of the Sacri Monti of Piedmont and Lombardy World Heritage Site, together with other examples on different devotional themes.  In these the sculptures are often approaching life-size and very elaborate. Remnants of these are often referred to as calvary hills.

text: In 1686, in answer to their petition, Pope Innocent XI granted to the Franciscans the right to erect stations within their churches.  In 1731, Pope Clement XII extended to all churches the right to have the stations, provided that a Franciscan father erected them, with the consent of the local bishop.  At the same time the number was  fixed at fourteen.  In 1857, the bishops of England were allowed to erect the stations by themselves, without the intervention of a Franciscan priest, and in 1862 this right was extended to bishops throughout the church.[12]

text: Stations[edit]

text: The early set of seven scenes was usually numbers 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 11  and 14 from the list below.[11]  The standard set from the 17th to 20th centuries has consisted of 14 pictures or sculptures depicting the following scenes:

text:
Pilate condemns Jesus to die
Jesus accepts his cross
Jesus falls for the first time
Jesus meets his mother, Mary
Simon of Cyrene helps carry the cross
Veronica wipes the face of Jesus
Jesus falls for the second time
Jesus meets the women of Jerusalem
Jesus falls for the third time
Jesus is stripped of his clothes
Jesus is nailed to the cross
Jesus dies on the cross
Jesus is taken down from the cross
Jesus is placed in the tomb

tag: ol

text: Although not traditionally part of the Stations, the Resurrection of Jesus is, in very rare instances, included as a fifteenth station.[13][14]

text: Scriptural form[edit]

text: Out of the fourteen traditional Stations of the Cross, only eight have clear scriptural foundation. Stations 3, 4, 6, 7, and 9 are not specifically attested to in the gospels (in particular, no evidence exists of station 6 ever being known before medieval times) and Station 13 (representing Jesus's body being taken down off the cross and laid in the arms of his mother Mary) seems to embellish the gospels' record, which states that Joseph of Arimathea took Jesus down from the cross and buried him. To provide a version of this devotion more closely aligned with the biblical accounts, Pope John Paul II introduced a new form of devotion, called the Scriptural Way of the Cross on Good Friday 1991. He celebrated that form many times but not exclusively at the Colosseum in Rome.[15][16]

text: In 2007, Pope Benedict XVI approved an overlapping but distinct set of stations for meditation and public celebration; they follow this sequence:[17][better source needed]

text:
Jesus in the Garden of Gethsemane;
Jesus is betrayed by Judas and arrested;
Jesus is condemned by the Sanhedrin;
Jesus is denied by Peter;
Jesus is judged by Pilate;
Jesus is scourged and crowned with thorns;
Jesus takes up his cross;
Jesus is helped by Simon of Cyrene to carry his cross;
Jesus meets the women of Jerusalem;
Jesus is crucified;
Jesus promises his kingdom to the repentant thief;
Jesus entrusts Mary and John to each other;
Jesus dies on the cross; and
Jesus is laid in the tomb.

text: Modern usage[edit]

text: In the Roman Catholic Church, the devotion may be conducted personally by the faithful, making their way from one station to another and saying the prayers, or by having an officiating celebrant move from cross to cross while the faithful make the responses. The stations themselves must consist of, at the very least, fourteen wooden crosses, pictures alone do not suffice, and they must be blessed by someone with the authority to erect stations.[18]

text: Pope John Paul II led an annual public prayer of the Stations of the Cross at the Roman Colosseum on Good Friday. Originally, the pope himself carried the cross from station to station, but in his last years when age and infirmity limited his strength, John Paul presided over the celebration from a stage on the Palatine Hill, while others carried the cross. Just days prior to his death in 2005, Pope John Paul II observed the Stations of the Cross from his private chapel. Each year a different person is invited to write the meditation texts for the Stations. Past composers of the Papal Stations include several non-Catholics. The pope himself wrote the texts for the Great Jubilee in 2000 and used the traditional Stations.

text: The celebration of the Stations of the Cross is especially common on the Fridays of Lent, especially Good Friday. Community celebrations are usually accompanied by various songs and prayers. Particularly common as musical accompaniment is the  Stabat Mater.  At the end of each station the Adoramus Te is sometimes sung. The Alleluia is also sung, except during Lent.

text: Structurally, Mel Gibson's 2004 film, The Passion of the Christ, follows the Stations of the Cross.[19] The fourteenth and last station, the Burial, is not prominently depicted (compared to the other thirteen) but it is implied since the last shot before credit titles is Jesus resurrected and about to leave the tomb.

text: Debates[edit]

text: Place of Christ's resurrection[edit]

text: Some modern liturgists[20] say the traditional Stations of the Cross are incomplete without a final scene depicting the empty tomb and the resurrection of Jesus because Jesus' rising from the dead was an integral part of his salvific work on Earth. Advocates of the traditional form of the Stations ending with the body of Jesus being placed in the tomb say the Stations are intended as a meditation on the atoning death of Jesus, and not as a complete picture of his life, death, and resurrection. Another point of contention, at least between some ranking liturgists and traditionalists, is (the use of) the "New Way of the Cross" being recited exclusively in the Philippines and by Filipinos abroad.

text: The Stations of the Resurrection (also known by the Latin name of Via Lucis, Way of Light) are used in some churches at Eastertide to meditate on the Resurrection and Ascension of Jesus Christ.

text: Music[edit]

text:
Franz Liszt wrote a Via crucis for choir, soloists and piano or organ or harmonium in 1879.  In 1931, French organist Marcel Dupré improvised and transcribed musical meditations based on fourteen poems by Paul Claudel, one for each station.
Peter Maxwell Davies's Vesalii Icones (1969), for male dancer, solo cello and instrumental ensemble, brings together the Stations of the Cross and a series of drawings from the anatomical treatise De humani corporis fabrica (1543) by the Belgian physician Andreas van Wesel (Vesalius). In Davies's sequence, the final "station" represents the Resurrection, but of Antichrist, the composer's moral point being the need to distinguish what is false from what is real.[21]
David Bowie regarded his 1976 song "Station to Station" as "very much concerned with the stations of the cross".[22]  Michael Valenti (known primarily as a Broadway composer) wrote, with librettist Diane Seymour, an oratorio depicting the fourteen Stations of the Cross entitled "The Way". It was premiered in 1991. Paweł_Łukaszewski wrote Via Crucis in 2000 and it was premiered by the Wrocław_Opera on Good Friday March 30, 2018 and transmitted on TVP_Kultura. Stefano Vagnini's 2002 modular oratorio, Via Crucis,[23] a composition for organ, computer, choir, string orchestra and brass quartet, depicts the fourteen Stations of the Cross.

text: In 2009, U2 released Moment of Surrender, mentioning the Stations of the Cross.

text: As the Stations of the Cross are prayed during the season of Lent in Catholic churches, each station is traditionally followed by a verse of the Stabat Mater, composed in the 13th century by Franciscan Jacopone da Todi.  James Matthew Wilson's poetic sequence, The Stations of the Cross, is written in the same meter as da Todi's poem.[24]

text: Literature[edit]

text: Dimitris Lyacos' third part of the Poena Damni trilogy, The First Death, is divided in fourteen sections in order to emphasise the "Via Dolorosa" of its marooned protagonist during his ascent on the mount of the island which constitutes the setting of the work.

text: Via Dolorosa sites[edit]

text: These fourteen sites along the Via Dolorosa are where the events of the Stations of the Cross happened, according to tradition. These 14 stops form a route ending at the Church of the Holy Sepulcher that pilgrims have walked for centuries and are the inspiration for the Stations of the Cross in many churches today.

text:
1st Station, Jesus is condemned to death

2nd Station, Jesus carries his cross

3rd Station, Jesus falls for the first time

4th Station, Jesus meets his mother

5th Station, Simon of Cyrene helps Jesus carry the cross

6th Station, Veronica wipes the face of Jesus

7th Station, Jesus falls for the second time

8th Station, Jesus meets the women of Jerusalem

9th Station, Jesus falls for the third time

10th Station, Jesus is stripped of his garments

11th Station, Crucifixion: Jesus is nailed to the cross

12th Station, Jesus dies on the cross

13th Station, Jesus is taken down from the cross

14th Station, Jesus is laid in the tomb


document_title: The Killing (season 4)

question_text: who killed the family in season 4 of the killing

text: The Killing (season 4)

text: Plot[edit]

text: The season features detectives Sarah Linden and Stephen Holder handling the fallout of their actions from the previous season while investigating the murder of a family whose only survivor is a member of an all-boys military academy.[2][3]

text: Cast[edit]

text: Main cast[edit]

text:
Mireille Enos as Sarah Linden
Joel Kinnaman as Stephen Holder
Gregg Henry as Carl Reddick
Tyler Ross as Kyle Stansbury, a member of the all-boys military academy and survivor of a family massacre
Sterling Beaumon as Lincoln Knopf
Levi Meaden as AJ Fielding
Liam James as Jack Linden, Sarah's son
Amy Seimetz as Danette Leeds
Billy Campbell as Darren Richmond

text: Special guest star[edit]

text: Joan Allen as Colonel Margaret Rayne, headmaster of the all-boys military academy

text: Guest stars[edit]

text:
Jewel Staite as Caroline Swift, Holder's girlfriend and a District Attorney
Frances Fisher as Gena Geddes, Sarah's mother
Annie Corley as Regi Darnell, Sarah's social worker and mother figure
Marin Ireland as Liz Holder, Stephen's sister
Patti Smith as Female Doctor

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original release date
Prod.
code

39
1
"Blood in the Water"
Nicole Kassell
Veena Sud
August 1, 2014 (2014-08-01)
BDH401

Sarah Linden and Stephen Holder deal with the aftermath of her killing James Skinner, the serial killer who was also their boss and her lover. Holder plans a cover-up – he lies to Carl Reddick about their whereabouts at the time; she tells Adrian Seward that Joe Mills killed his mother. While Reddick must officially close the serial killer case, Holder and Linden investigate the murders of the Stansbury family and a survivor, Kyle, the son suspected of the murders whose apparent attempt to also kill himself failed. Holder and Linden question Colonel Margaret Rayne, the superintendent of Kyle's military academy, who believes Kyle is incapable of violence. Holder's girlfriend, District Attorney Caroline Swift, discloses that she is pregnant.

40
2
"Unraveling"
Lodge Kerrigan
Dan Nowak
August 1, 2014 (2014-08-01)
BDH402

Linden becomes further unnerved when she learns that Kyle was shot in the same position as was Skinner when she shot Skinner. At the academy, Kyle is bullied by Lincoln Knopf and others. When the detectives question Kyle about his sister, Phoebe, he says she was an exhibitionist, and he had told his parents. Phoebe had punished Kyle for this by cutting his piano wires. Linden, knowing about family dysfunction, believes Kyle; Holder holds him accountable for the murders. Holder and Linden learn about fingerprints in the Stansbury house belonging to Katrina Nelson, who had assaulted the father. They seek to question Kyle about her but are stopped by Col. Rayne, who threatens Linden with a formal complaint. Later, Katrina tells Kyle that his family "got what they deserved". When Reddick questions Linden about Skinner, she admits they had an affair but suggests he ask Skinner about anything more. She then stakes out the Skinner house, watching his daughter, Bethany, who still unknowingly has a ring from one of the victims.

41
3
"The Good Soldier"
Ed Bianchi
Nicole Yorkin & Dawn Prestwich
August 1, 2014 (2014-08-01)
BDH403

Linden's slipping sanity forces her to suggest to Holder that they turn themselves in. He mentions Caroline's pregnancy as something he will never lose and suggests Linden move on. When Knopf tells Rayne about Katrina's visit to Kyle, Rayne tries to get Linden involved. Linden then questions Katrina, who gives more insight on the Stansburys and admits to staying in the family beach house the night of the murders. Linden then takes Kyle back to the family home to jog his memory of what happened. He admits to hating his father enough to kill him but doesn't confess to anything. The detectives discover that Kyle's mother, Linda, had been fired from her teaching job for having an affair with Knopf. Holder becomes unnerved when Reddick learns he asked Skinner's wife about the lake house. Reddick even calls him and Linden in when Bethany receives a text from her father. Holder knows Linden still has Skinner's phone. He nearly confesses to the group at his Narcotics Anonymous meeting, where Reddick has an informant. Linden goes to the lake and dumps the phone, as Skinner's wife watches nearby.

42
4
"Dream Baby Dream"
Gregory Middleton
Sean Whitesell
August 1, 2014 (2014-08-01)
BDH404

The detectives question Knopf, who admits to having a gun at his parents' house. ?However, Holder gets so rude with the mother that she threatens to file a report. Linden asks Holder if he is abusing drugs. At the academy, Kyle must bear a form of initiation from Knopf and his superior, AJ Fielding. At home, Linden finds that her social worker and mother figure, Regi Darnell, has already cooked dinner, although Linden had made previous plans with her son, Jack. Feeling out of control, Linden argues with Regi. Holder later apologizes to Linden. They question Kyle about an injury his mother once received. He replies he broke her wrist when she wanted to become sexual with him. Rayne breaks up the questioning, and the detectives spot a car matching one that had frequented the Stansbury home and was up the road from it on the night of the murders; the car belongs to Rayne. Kyle keeps finding a map of his home with Xs drawn on it and gun. A note is attached, telling him to "Finish what [he] started." Reddick gathers all the clues that lead him to the lake. Holder calls Linden to also get her there. Red bags containing bodies, and Skinner's car, are being pulled from the lake.

43
5
"Truth Asunder"
Coky Giedroyc
Dan Nowak
August 1, 2014 (2014-08-01)
BDH405

As Skinner's body is being looked over, Linden, believing Reddick only has circumstantial evidence, coaches Holder to stay strong and on the same page as her. Holder then sees Kallie Leeds' body in the morgue. Reddick offers his theory to Linden, to which she says he hasn't arrested her yet. He mentions that he dredged the lake because Holder confessed at the NA meeting. At the academy, Knopf tells Kyle to search Fielding's room. There, he finds a map similar to those being left for him. Rayne gives her alibi for the night of the murders, and Linden talks with her about the deaths of a man and his son that led to Rayne's military discharge. Linden visits her mother to ask if she will take care of Jack should something happen to her. They reminisce about Linden's childhood before she was placed in foster care and achieve a form of reconciliation. Linden then sends Jack on an airplane to live with his father. Reddick offers Holder a deal, by saying Linden was spotted at the lake, which led to the dredging. At the academy, Kyle notices similarities for Family Day preparations with the night of the murders. He mentions this to Knopf, who, in turn, tells Fielding at Rayne's house. The three plot to learn all that Kyle remembers. The cadets try to bully Kyle, but he flees to get help from Rayne. Seeing that she could be a part of it, he flees again, while being shot at by the cadets.

44
6
"Eden"
Jonathan Demme
Veena Sud
August 1, 2014 (2014-08-01)
BDH406

Holder tells Caroline that he must make a choice – "between me or her." She knows he means Linden and says only their unborn daughter matters now. Linden gets called and finds Kyle, who's been shot by the cadet search party. He identifies Fielding, Knopf, and Rayne as the murderers. Meanwhile, Knopf suggests killing Rayne, but she mentions cleaning up after them when they stole her car the night of the murders. As the detectives arrive, Knopf and Fielding are shot. Rayne confesses to murdering the Stansbury family, insisting that Kyle be left alone leading Linden to infer that Kyle is in fact Rayne's son who she gave away 17 years previously. Linden wants to use Rayne's confession and arrest her for all the murders, but Holder wants Kyle for the Stansburys'. Frantic, Linden points her gun at Holder, thinking he has worked against her, even with Reddick's investigation. She takes Kyle to his family home, where he becomes aware of committing the murders. Fielding and Knopf were there that night, but left, and Kyle killed his family. At the station, Linden confesses to Reddick having killed Skinner and absolves Holder. Mayor Darren Richmond arrives to squelch the confession. Skinner's death was ruled a suicide, and no killer cop shall tarnish another cop's or Richmond's image.

Five years later: Holder and Caroline are divorced, with joint custody of their daughter, Kalia. Linden has been traveling, now that Jack is in college. She apologizes to Holder for not believing in him, as he was her one true friend. She calls Seattle a "city of the dead", intent on leaving it. He hugs her to try to get her to stay with him, but she drives away. However, she later returns to him.

tag: table

text: Development and production[edit]

text: AMC, the network which broadcast the first three seasons, canceled the series after its second season, and revived it for a third,[4][5] ultimately cancelling it again after the third season in September 2013.[6] However, in November 2013, Netflix, partnering with Fox Television Studios (the production company for The Killing), announced it had picked up the series for a fourth and final season consisting of six episodes.[7] Series developer and executive producer Veena Sud returned as showrunner, with Dawn Prestwich and Nicole Yorkin returning as writers and executive producers.[8] Because they are airing on Netflix, episodes in the fourth season have a longer running time of approximately 55–59 minutes compared to 43 minutes when the series aired on AMC with commercials, and characters are able to use stronger profanity.[9]

text: Casting[edit]

text: Cast members Mireille Enos and Joel Kinnaman return as detectives Sarah Linden and Stephen Holder, respectively.[8] New series regulars for the fourth season include Joan Allen as Margaret Rayne, the head of an all-boys military academy.[10] In February 2014, Sterling Beaumon, Levi Meaden, and Tyler Ross were cast as Lincoln Knopf, AJ Fielding, and Cameron Stanton (later changed to Kyle Stansbury), respectively; playing teens connected to the military academy.[11] Gregg Henry, who had a recurring role in the third season as Detective Carl Reddick, was promoted to series regular for the fourth season.[12] The season also introduces Sarah Linden's mother, played by Frances Fisher, who abandoned her daughter when Sarah was young.[2][13]

text: Promotional video[edit]

text: In July 2014, an official 90-second trailer was released showing detectives Linden and Holder attempting to cover up Linden's killing Skinner at the end of the previous season as well as glimpses of a new case at the military academy.[14]

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: The fourth season scored 53 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 14 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[15] The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 44% critics rating with an average rating of 6.5/10 based on 18 reviews. The website consensus reads: "While its characters still intrigue and its atmosphere remains absorbingly dark, The Killing succumbs to silliness in its fourth season, straying into distractingly overwrought territory".[16]

text: Home media releases[edit]

text: The fourth season of The Killing was released on DVD on August 4, 2015, exclusively through Amazon's CreateSpace manufacture-on-demand program.[17]


document_title: Doctor of Physical Therapy

question_text: what year did physical therapy become a doctorate degree

text: Doctor of Physical Therapy

text: History of the DPT degree[edit]

text: In 1992, the University of Southern California initiated the first post-professional "transitional" (DPT) program in the United States.[8] This "transitional" DPT takes into account a physiotherapist's current level of knowledge and skill and purports to offer programs that upgrade clinical skills to meet the needs of the current health care environment.[9][10] Creighton University followed by initiating the first entry-level DPT program in 1993.[11][12]

text: The Doctor of Physiotherapy has since been adopted in other countries such as the United Kingdom, Australia and Taiwan. In the United Kingdom and Australia the PhD or Professional Doctorate in Physiotherapy is offered by a number of Universities. These programmes are usually professional entry masters level programmes with the opportunity to undertake research to lead to a doctorate degree. Alternatively, these programmes are masters pre-qualifying Physiotherapy courses with an enhanced research element in the final phase of the course that leads to undertaking a doctorate. The first full pre-qualifying doctor in Physiotherapy programme is offered in the United Kingdom at Glasgow Caledonian University in Glasgow.

text: Time frame[edit]

text:
Undergraduate
Doctor of Physical Therapy
Residency (optional)
Fellowship (optional)

4 years
3–4 years[13][14][15][16]
9 to 36 months[17]
6 to 36 months[18]

text: The typical time frame for completion of a Doctor of Physical Therapy is 3 to 4 years after earning a bachelor's degree. Depending on residency and fellowship training, if undertaken, the doctor may have completed several years of additional training.

text: Admission[edit]

text: Admission to a Doctor of Physical Therapy program in the USA is highly competitive. As of 2011 the average GPA for enrolling students was 3.5[19] with a range of 3.1 to 3.9 for all programs.[19] On average there were 354.7 applicants per program with an average of 43.3 students enrolled per class[19] for an average matriculation rate of 12.2%. The range for applicants to all programs as of 2011 was 34-1358, and the range of enrolled students was 6-354.[19] A bachelor's degree generally is required before beginning a Doctor of Physical Therapy program, but there is no requirement on the degree earned, as long as all prerequisite course requirements are met.[20]

text: Transition Doctor of Physical Therapy degree[edit]

text: The t-DPT degree is conferred upon completion of a structured postprofessional educational experience that results in the augmentation of knowledge, skills, and behaviors to a level consistent with the current professional (entry-level) DPT standards. The t-DPT degree enables the US-licensed physical therapist to attain degree parity with therapists who hold the professional DPT by filling in any gaps between their professional baccalaureate or master's degree PT education and the current professional DPT degree education.[21]

text: The post-professional DPT (Transitional) degree is designed to provide the doctoral credential to those who currently holding a master's or bachelor's degree in the field. Post-professional DPT (Transitional) degree programs are typically offered on a primarily online learning model and are often one year in length.[22]

text: Controversies[edit]

text: The use of the title doctor by physical therapists and other non-physician health care professionals is controversial.[23] In a letter to The New York Times, the president of the American Physical Therapy Association responded:

text: The DPT degree has been described as an example of "credential creep" or degree inflation in The Chronicle of Higher Education. Citing concerns that the DPT, and similar professional doctorates in areas such as occupational therapy, do not meet the standards of traditional doctorate degrees, the journal states: "The six-and-a-half-year doctor of physical therapy, or DPT, is rapidly replacing a six-year master's degree ... The American Physical Therapy Association ... has not set separate requirements for doctoral programs. To be accredited they need only to meet the same requirements as master's programs."[25]

text: Critics question whether the rigor of the physical therapy curriculum and the current scope of practice warrant the conferral of a professional degree similar to that characteristic of medicine, dentistry, or nursing.[26] Proponents counter that the existing curricula are "victims of 'curricular inflation'."[27] As Rothstein[28] and Moffat[29] noted, the previous master's and even baccalaureate curricula rival that of most other doctoral programs, and these curricula often require more than the typical 72 credits mandated for a doctoral degree.[30] The 2000 Fact Sheet from APTA reported that the mean number of credits required for the professional phase of the typical baccalaureate program was 83.0 credits and that the typical master's degree program required 95.5 credits.[31] As of 2009 the typical number of prerequisite credits was 114.2 and the total number of professional credits was 116.5 for a total of 230.7 credit hours.[32] This is well in excess of the typical 72 professional credits mandated for a doctoral degree. Additional credit hours may be earned in residency and fellowship as well. Threlkeld et al.[33] suggest that the scope of existing physical therapy curricula already matches that of a professional doctorate, further submitting that students of a well-defined DPT program will have earned the right to be recognized with the doctoral title.[34]

text: Professional degree (entry-level)[edit]

text: The professional (entry-level) DPT degree is currently the degree conferred by all physical therapist professional programs upon successful completion of a three- to four-year post-baccalaureate degree program in the United States, preparing the graduate to enter the practice of physical therapy. Admission requirements for the program include completion of an undergraduate degree that includes specific prerequisite coursework, volunteer experience (or other exposure to the profession), and completion of a standardized graduate examination (e.g., GRE).[35]

text: Typical prerequisite courses may include two semesters of anatomy and physiology with labs, two semesters of physics with labs, two semesters of chemistry with labs, a general course in psychology, another course in psychology, statistics, two semesters of biology,[36] and may include other courses required by specific schools.

text: The physical therapist curriculum consists of foundational sciences (i.e., gross anatomy, cellular histology, embryology, neurology, neuroscience, kinesiology, physiology, exercise physiology, pathology, pharmacology, radiology/imaging, medical screening[37]), behavioral sciences (communication, social and psychologic factors, ethics and values, law, business and management sciences, clinical reasoning and evidence-based practice[38]), and clinical sciences (cardiovascular/pulmonary, endocrine and metabolic, gastrointestinal and genitourinary, integumentary, musculoskeletal, neuromuscular). Coursework also includes material specific to the practice of physical therapy (patient/client management model, prevention, wellness, and health promotion, practice management, management of care delivery, social responsibility, advocacy, and core values). Additionally, students have to engage in full-time clinical practice under the supervision of licensed physical therapists with an expectation of providing safe, competent, and effective physical therapy.

text: Advanced clinical science degree[edit]

text: The "advanced clinical science" doctorate (e.g., DPTSc or DScPT, DHSc, ScDPT) is one of several degrees conferred by academic institutions upon successful completion of a post-professional physical therapist education program. This program is intended to provide an experienced clinician with advanced knowledge, clinical skills, and professional behavior, usually in a specific specialty practice area. These programs typically culminate work that contributes new knowledge to clinical practice in the profession. Completion of these advanced clinical science doctoral programs may include credentialed clinical residencies and lead to ABPTS clinical specialization or other advanced certifications.

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: Some UK universities now offer a DPT as a post-professional qualification, but the qualifying degree remains Bachelor or Master of Science, Physiotherapy (with honours). The Doctor of Physiotherapy in the UK differs from a US clinical doctorate in that it is a post-professional Physiotherapy specific research programme,[citation needed] which is offered at the University of Sussex in Brighton, Nottingham University and Robert Gordon University. Glasgow Caledonian University in Glasgow now offers a 3.5 year Doctor in Physiotherapy (pre-registration) programme which is the first clinical doctorate which leads to qualification as a Physiotherapist eligible to register with the CSP and HCPC in the United Kingdom. This programme provides a focus on researcher development as well as professional development within a health and social care context.


document_title: Supreme court

question_text: who or what serves as the last or highest source for legal disputes in the united states

question_tokens: who or what serves as the last or highest source for legal disputes in the united states

text: Supreme court

text: Common law jurisdictions[edit]

text: Bangladesh[edit]

text: The Supreme Court of Bangladesh is created by the provisions of the Constitution of Bangladesh, 1972. There are two Divisions of the Supreme Court, i.e. (a) Appellate Division and (b) High Court Division. Appellate Division is the highest Court of Appeal and usually does not exercise the powers of a court of first instance. Whereas, the High Court Division is a Court of first instance in writ/judicial review, company and admiralty matters.

text: Canada[edit]

text: The Supreme Court of Canada was established in 1875 but only became the highest court in the country in 1949 when the right of appeal to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council was abolished.  This court hears appeals from the courts of appeal from the provinces and territories, and also appeals from the Federal Court of Appeal.  The Supreme Court is a "General Court of Appeal."[2]  It can decide any question of law considered by the lower courts, including constitutional law, federal law, and provincial law. The court's decisions are final and binding on the federal courts and the courts from all provinces and territories. The title "Supreme" can be confusing because, for example, the Supreme Court of British Columbia does not have the final say and controversial cases heard there often get appealed in higher courts - it is in fact one of the lower courts in such a process.

text: Hong Kong[edit]

text: In Hong Kong, the Supreme Court of Hong Kong (now known as the High Court of Hong Kong) was the final court of appeal during its colonial times which ended with transfer of sovereignty in 1997. The final adjudication power, as in any other British Colonies, rested with the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (JCPC) in London, United Kingdom. Now the power of final adjudication is vested in the Court of Final Appeal created in 1997. Under the Basic Law, its constitution, the territory remains a common law jurisdiction. Consequently, judges from other common law jurisdictions (including England and Wales) can be recruited and continue to serve in the judiciary according to Article 92 of the Basic Law. On the other hand, the power of interpretation of the Basic Law itself is vested in the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (NPCSC) in Beijing (without retroactive effect), and the courts are authorised to interpret the Basic Law when trying cases, in accordance with Article 158 of the Basic Law. This arrangement became controversial in light of the right of abode issue in 1999, raising concerns for judicial independence.

text: India[edit]

text: This section may be confusing or unclear to readers.  (June 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
In India, the Supreme Court of India was created on January 28, 1950 after adoption of the Constitution.
Article 141 of the Constitution of India states that the law declared by Supreme Court is to be binding on all Courts within the territory of India. It is the highest court in India and has ultimate judicial authority to interpret the Constitution and decide questions of national law (including local bylaws). The Supreme Court is also vested with the power of judicial review to ensure the application of the rule of law.

text: Note that within the constitutional framework of India, Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) has a special status vis-a-vis the other states of India. Article 370 of the Constitution of India carves out certain exceptions for J&K. However, the Constitution (Application to Jammu and Kashmir) Order 1954 makes Article 141 applicable to the state of J&K and hence law declared by the Supreme Court of India is equally applicable to all courts of J&K including the High Court.

text: Ireland[edit]

text: The Supreme Court is the highest court in the Republic of Ireland. It has authority to interpret the constitution, and strike down laws and activities of the state that it finds to be unconstitutional. It is also the highest authority in the interpretation of the law. Constitutionally it must have authority to interpret the constitution but its further appellate jurisdiction from lower courts is defined by law. The Irish Supreme Court consists of its presiding member, the Chief Justice, and seven other judges. Judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the President in accordance with the binding advice of the Government. The Supreme Court sits in the Four Courts in Dublin.

text: Israel[edit]

text: Israel's Supreme Court is at the head of the court system in the State of Israel. It is the highest judicial instance. The Supreme Court sits in Jerusalem. The area of its jurisdiction is the entire State. A ruling of the Supreme Court is binding upon every court, other than the Supreme Court itself.  The Israeli supreme court is both an appellate court and the high court of justice.  As an appellate court, the Supreme Court considers cases on appeal (both criminal and civil) on judgments and other decisions of the District Courts. It also considers appeals on judicial and quasi-judicial decisions of various kinds, such as matters relating to the legality of Knesset elections and disciplinary rulings of the Bar Association.  As the High Court of Justice (Hebrew: Beit Mishpat Gavoha Le'Zedek בית משפט גבוה לצדק; also known by its initials as Bagatz בג"ץ), the Supreme Court rules as a court of first instance, primarily in matters regarding the legality of decisions of State authorities: Government decisions, those of local authorities and other bodies and persons performing public functions under the law, and direct challenges to the constitutionality of laws enacted by the Knesset. The court has broad discretionary authority to rule on matters in which it considers it necessary to grant relief in the interests of justice, and which are not within the jurisdiction of another court or tribunal. The High Court of Justice grants relief through orders such as injunction, mandamus and Habeas Corpus, as well as through declaratory judgments.  The Supreme Court can also sit at a further hearing on its own judgment. In a matter on which the Supreme Court has ruled - whether as a court of appeals or as the High Court of Justice - with a panel of three or more justices, it may rule at a further hearing with a panel of a larger number of justices. A further hearing may be held if the Supreme Court makes a ruling inconsistent with a previous ruling or if the Court deems that the importance, difficulty or novelty of a ruling of the Court justifies such hearing.  The Supreme Court also holds the unique power of being able to order "trial de novo" (a retrial).

text: Nauru[edit]

text: In Nauru, there is no single highest court for all types of cases. The Supreme Court has final jurisdiction on constitutional matters, but any other case may be appealed further to the Appellate Court. In addition, an agreement between Nauru and Australia in 1976 provides for appeals from the Supreme Court of Nauru to the High Court of Australia in both criminal and civil cases, with the notable exception of constitutional cases.[3][4]

text: New Zealand[edit]

text: In New Zealand, the right of appeal to the Privy Council was  abolished following the passing of the Supreme Court Act (2003). A right of appeal to the Privy Council remains for criminal cases which were decided before the Supreme Court was created, but it is likely that the successful appeal by Mark Lundy to the Privy Council in 2013 will be the last appeal to the Board from New Zealand.

text: The new Supreme Court of New Zealand was officially established at the beginning of 2004, although it did not come into operation until July. The High Court of New Zealand was until 1980 known as the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court has a purely appellate jurisdiction and hears appeals from the Court of Appeal of New Zealand. In some cases, an appeal may be removed directly to the Supreme Court from the High Court.  For certain cases, particularly cases which commenced in the District Court, a lower court (typically the High Court or the Court of Appeal) may be the court of final jurisdiction.

text: Pakistan[edit]

text: The Supreme Court has been the apex court for Pakistan since the declaration of the republic in 1956 (previously the Privy Council had that function). The Supreme Court has the final say on matters of constitutional law, federal law or on matters of mixed federal and provincial competence. It can hear appeals on matters of provincial competence only if a matter of a constitutional nature is raised.

text: With respect to Pakistan's territories (i.e. FATA, Azad Kashmir, Northern Areas and Islamabad Capital Territory (ICT)) the Supreme Court's jurisdiction is rather limited and varies from territory to territory; it can hear appeals only of a constitutional nature from FATA and Northern Areas, while ICT generally functions the same as provinces. Azad Kashmir has its own courts system and the constitution of Pakistan does not apply to it as such; appeals from Azad Kashmir relate to its relationship with Pakistan.

text: The provinces have their own courts system, with the High Court as the apex court, except insofar as where an appeal can go to the Supreme Court as mentioned above.

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom is the ultimate court for criminal and civil matters in England, Wales and Northern Ireland and for civil matters in Scotland. (The supreme court for criminal matters in Scotland is the High Court of Justiciary.) The Supreme Court was established by the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 with effect from 1 October 2009, replacing and assuming the judicial functions of the House of Lords. Devolution issues under the Scotland Act 1998, Government of Wales Act and Northern Ireland Act were also transferred to the new Supreme Court by the Constitutional Reform Act, from the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council.

text: In respect of Community Law the Supreme Court is subject to the decisions of the European Court of Justice. Since there can be no appeal from the Supreme Court, there is an interlocutory procedure by which the Supreme Court may refer to the European Court questions of European law which arise in cases before it, and obtain a definitive ruling before the Supreme Court gives its judgment.

text: The Supreme Court shares its members and accommodation at the Middlesex Guildhall in London with the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council which hears final appeals from certain smaller Commonwealth countries, admiralty cases, and certain appeals from the ecclesiastical courts and statutory private jurisdictions, such as professional and academic bodies.

text: (The Constitutional Reform Act also renamed the Supreme Court of Judicature of Northern Ireland to the Court of Judicature, and the rarely cited Supreme Court of Judicature for England and Wales as the Senior Courts of England and Wales).

text: The Supreme Court was set up in 2009; until then the House of Lords was the ultimate court in addition to being a legislative body, and the Lord Chancellor, with legislative and executive functions, was also a senior judge in the House of Lords.

text: United States[edit]

text: The Supreme Court of the United States, established in 1789, is the highest federal court in the United States, with powers of judicial review first asserted in Calder v. Bull (1798) in Justice Iredell's dissenting opinion.  The power was later given binding authority by Justice Marshall in Marbury v. Madison (1803). There are currently nine seats on the US Supreme Court.

text: Each U.S. state has its own state supreme court, which is the highest authority interpreting that state's law and administering that state's judiciary.  Two states, Oklahoma and Texas, each have two separate highest courts that hear criminal and civil appellate matters.

text: In Texas, the state's Court of Criminal Appeals hears criminal appeals and has sole authority to grant the writ of habeas corpus to a person who has been convicted of a felony, but the Texas Supreme Court also hears appeals in juvenile delinquency matters in additional to civil cases as conventionally defined. Although juvenile cases fall under the Texas Family Code and are classified as civil proceedings, they are "quasi-criminal" in nature. In re M.A.F., 966 S.W.2d 448, 450 (Tex. 1998); see In re L.D.C., 400 S.W.3d 572, 574 (Tex. Crim. App. 2013).

text: Although Delaware has a specialized court, the Court of Chancery, which hears cases in equity and many disputes involving corporate governance because many corporations chose to incorporate in Delaware regardless of where in the United States their operations and head office may be located, it is not a supreme court because the Delaware Supreme Court has appellate jurisdiction over it.[5]

text: The official names of state supreme courts vary, as do the titles of its members, which can cause confusion between jurisdictions because one state may use a name for its highest court that another uses for a lower court.  In New York, Maryland, and the District of Columbia the highest court is called the Court of Appeals, a name used by many states for their intermediate appellate courts.  Further, trial courts of general jurisdiction in New York are called the Supreme Court, and the intermediate appellate court is called the Supreme Court, Appellate Division.  In West Virginia, the highest court of the state is the  Supreme Court of Appeals.  In Maine and Massachusetts the highest court is styled the "Supreme Judicial Court"; the last is the oldest appellate court of continuous operation in the Western Hemisphere. Even within the same jurisdiction, the titles for judicial officeholders can cause confusion. In Texas the members of the Supreme Court and of the 14 intermediate courts of appeals are Justices, while the members of the Court of Criminal Appeals carry the title Judge, which is also used generically. Judges at the lowest trial-court level are called Justices of the Peace or JPs.

text: Civil law jurisdictions[edit]

text: The Roman law and the Corpus Juris Civilis are generally held to be the historical model for civil law. From the late 18th century onwards, civil law jurisdictions began to codify their laws, most of all in civil codes.

text: Argentina[edit]

text: The Supreme Court functions as a last resort tribunal. Its rulings cannot be appealed. It also decides on cases dealing with the interpretation of the constitution (for example, it can overturn a law passed by Congress if it deems it unconstitutional).

text: Austria[edit]

text:
In Austria, the Austrian Constitution of 1920 (based on a draft by Hans Kelsen) introduced judicial review of legislative acts for their constitutionality. This function is performed by the Constitutional Court (Verfassungsgerichtshof), which is also charged with the review of administrative acts on whether they violate constitutionally guaranteed rights.
Other than that, administrative acts are reviewed by the Administrative Court (Verwaltungsgerichtshof).  The Supreme Court (Oberste Gerichtshof (OGH)), stands at the top of Austria's system of "ordinary courts" (ordentliche Gerichte) as the final instance in issues of private law and criminal law.

text: Brazil[edit]

text: In Brazil, the Supreme Federal Tribunal (Supremo Tribunal Federal) is the highest court. It is both the constitutional court and the court of last resort in Brazilian law. It only reviews cases that may be unconstitutional or final habeas corpus pleads for criminal cases. It also judges, in original jurisdiction, cases involving members of congress, senators, ministers of state, members of the high courts and the President and Vice-President of the Republic.  The Superior Court of Justice (Tribunal Superior de Justiça) reviews State and Federal Circuit courts decisions for civil law and criminal law cases, when dealing with federal law or conflicting rulings. The Superior Labour Tribunal (Tribunal Superior do Trabalho) reviews cases involving labour law. The Superior Electoral Tribunal (Tribunal Superior Eleitoral) is the court of last resort of electoral law, and also oversees general elections. The Superior Military Tribunal (Tribunal Superior Militar) is the highest court in matters of federal military law.

text: Croatia[edit]

text: In Croatia, the supreme jurisdiction is given to the Supreme Court, which secures a uniform application of laws.  The Constitutional Court exists to verify  constitutionality of laws and regulations, as well as decide on individual complaints on decisions on governmental bodies. It also decides on jurisdictional disputes between the legislative, executive and judicial branches.

text: Denmark[edit]

text: In Denmark, all ordinary courts have original jurisdiction to hear all types of cases, including cases of a constitutional or administrative nature. As a result, there exists no special constitutional court, and therefore final jurisdiction is vested with the Danish Supreme Court (Højesteret) which was established 14 February 1661 by king Frederik III.

text: France[edit]

text: In France, supreme appellate jurisdiction is divided among three judicial bodies:

text:
for judicial cases, i.e., civil or criminal matters: Court of Cassation (Cour de cassation)
for administrative cases:  Council of State (Conseil d'État)
constitutional challenges of statutory laws: Constitutional Council (Conseil constitutionnel)

text: When there is jurisdictional dispute between judicial and administrative courts: the Court of Arbitration (Tribunal des conflits), which is empanelled half from the Court of Cassation and half from the Council of State and presided over by the Minister of Justice, is called together to settle the dispute or hand down a final decision.

text: The High Court (Haute Cour) exists only to impeach the President of the French Republic in case of "breach of his duties patently incompatible with his continuing in office". Since a constitutional amendment of 2007, the French Constitution states that the High Court is composed of all members of both Houses of Parliament. As of 2012, it has never been convened.

text: Germany[edit]

text: In Germany, there is no de jure single supreme court. Instead, cases are handled by numerous federal courts, depending on their nature.

text: Final interpretation of the German Constitution, the Grundgesetz, is the task of the Bundesverfassungsgericht (Federal Constitutional Court), which is the de facto highest German court, as it can declare both federal and state legislation ineffective, and has the power to overrule decisions of all other federal courts, despite not being a regular court of appeals on itself in the German court system. It is also the only court possessing the power and authority to outlaw political parties.

text: When it comes to civil and criminal cases, the Bundesgerichtshof (Federal Court of Justice) is at the top of the hierarchy of courts. The other branches of the German judicial system each have their own appellate systems, each topped by a high court; these are the Bundessozialgericht (Federal Social Court) for matters of social security, the Bundesarbeitsgericht (Federal Labour Court) for employment and labour, the Bundesfinanzhof (Federal Fiscal Court) for taxation and financial issues, and the Bundesverwaltungsgericht (Federal Administrative Court) for administrative law. The so-called Gemeinsamer Senat der Obersten Gerichtshöfe (Joint Senate of the Supreme Courts) is not a supreme court in itself, but an ad-hoc body that is convened in only when one supreme court intends to diverge from another supreme court's legal opinion or when a certain case exceeds the authority of one court.  As the courts have well-defined areas of responsibility, situations like these are rather rare and so, the Joint Senate gathers very infrequently, and only to consider matters which are mostly definitory.

text: Iceland[edit]

text: The Supreme Court of Iceland (Icelandic: Hæstiréttur Íslands, lit. Highest Court of Iceland) was founded under Act No. 22/1919 and held its first session on 16 February 1920. The Court holds the highest judicial power in Iceland, where the court system has two levels.[6]

text: India[edit]

text:
The Supreme Court of India, also known colloquially as the 'apex court', is the highest judicial body in the Republic of India. Any decision taken by it is final and binding, and can only be modified in some cases (death sentence, etc.) by the President of India. It has several jurisdiction like
1. Original
2.Appellate
3. Advisory

text: It is also known as court of records,  i. e.  all judgements are recorded and printed. These are cited in lower courts as case - law in various cases.

text: Italy[edit]

text: Italy follows the French system of different supreme courts.

text: The Italian court of last resort for most disputes is the Corte Suprema di Cassazione.  There is also a separate constitutional court, the Corte costituzionale, which has a duty of judicial review, and which can strike down legislation as being in conflict with the Constitution.

text: Japan[edit]

text: In Japan, the Supreme Court of Japan is called 最高裁判所 (Saikō-Saibansho; called 最高裁 Saikō-Sai for short), located in Chiyoda, Tokyo, and is the highest court in Japan. It has ultimate judicial authority within Japan to interpret the Constitution and decide questions of national law (including local by laws). It has the power of judicial review (i.e., it can declare Acts of Diet and Local Assembly, and administrative actions, unconstitutional).

text: Luxembourg[edit]

text:
In Luxembourg, challenges on the conformity of the law to the Constitution are brought before the Cour Constitutionnelle (Constitutional Court). — The most used and common procedure to present these challenges is by way of the "question préjudicielle" (prejudicial question).  The Court of last resort for civil and criminal proceedings is the "Cour de Cassation".
For administrative proceedings the highest court is the "Cour Administrative" (Administrative Court).

text: Macau[edit]

text: The supreme court of Macau is the Court of Final Appeal (Portuguese: Tribunal de Última Instância; Chinese: 澳門終審法院).

text: Mexico[edit]

text: The Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation (Spanish: Suprema Corte de Justicia de la Nación) is the highest court in Mexico.

text: The Netherlands[edit]

text: In the Netherlands, the Supreme Court of the Netherlands is the highest court. Its decisions, known as "arresten", are absolutely final. The court is banned from testing legislation against the constitution, pursuant to the principle of the sovereignty of the States-General; the court can, however, test legislation against some treaties. Also, the ordinary courts in the Netherlands, including the Hoge Raad, do not deal with administrative law, which is dealt with in separate administrative courts, the highest of which is the Council of State (Raad van State)

text: Philippines[edit]

text: While the Philippines is generally considered a civil law nation, its Supreme Court is heavily modelled after the American Supreme Court. This can be attributed to the fact that the Philippines was colonized by both Spain and the United States, and the system of laws of both nations strongly influenced the development of Philippine laws and jurisprudence. Even as the body of Philippine laws remain mostly codified, the Philippine Civil Code expressly recognizes that decisions of the Supreme Court "form part of the law of the land", belonging to the same class as statutes. The 1987 Philippine Constitution also explicitly grants to the Supreme Court the power of judicial review over laws and executive actions.  The Supreme Court is composed of 1 Chief Justice and 14 Associate Justices. The court sits either en banc or in divisions, depending on the nature of the case to be decided.

text: People's Republic of China[edit]

text: In the judicial system of mainland China the highest court of appeal is the Supreme People's Court. This supervises the administration of justice by all subordinate "local" and "special" people's courts,  and is the court of last resort for the whole People's Republic of China except for Macau and Hong Kong

text: Portugal[edit]

text: In Portugal, there are several supreme courts, each with a specific jurisdiction:

text:
The Supreme Court of Justice (Supremo Tribunal de Justiça) - for judicial (civil and criminal) matters;
The Constitutional Court (Tribunal Constitucional) - for the constitutional matters;
The Supreme Administrative Court (Supremo Tribunal Administrativo) - for administrative and fiscal matters;
The Court of Auditors (Tribunal de Contas) - for auditing the public expenditure.

text: Until 2003, a fifth supreme court also existed for the military jurisdiction, this being the Supreme Military Court (Supremo Tribunal Militar). Presently, in time of peace, the supreme court for military justice matters is the Supreme Court of Justice, which now includes four military judges.

text: Republic of China[edit]

text: In the Republic of China (Taiwan), there are three different courts of last resort:

text:
Supreme Court of the Republic of China (中華民國最高法院): civil and criminal cases.
Supreme Administrative Court of the Republic of China (中華民國最高行政法院): executive cases.
Council of Grand Justices (大法官會議): interpretation of the Constitution, interpretation of laws and regulations, dissolution of political parties in violation of the Constitution, trial of impeachments against the President or Vice President.

text: The Council of Grand Justices, consisting of 15 justices and mainly dealing with constitutional issues, is the counterpart of constitutional courts in some countries.

text: All three courts are directly under the Judicial Yuan, whose president also serves as Chief Justice in the Council of Grand Justices.

text: Scotland[edit]

text: Founded by papal bull in 1532, the Court of Session is the supreme civil court of Scotland, and the High Court of Justiciary is the supreme criminal court. However, the absolute highest court (excluding criminal matters) is the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom.

text: Spain[edit]

text:
Spanish Supreme Court is the highest court for all cases in Spain (both private and public). Only those cases related to human rights can be appealed at the Constitutional Court (which also decides about acts accordance with Spanish Constitution).
In Spain, high courts cannot create binding precedents;[7] however, lower rank courts usually observe Supreme Court interpretations. In most private law cases, two Supreme Court judgements supporting a claim are needed to appeal at the Supreme Court.[8]
Five sections form the Spanish Supreme court:

text:
Section one judges private law cases (including commercial law).
Section two decides about criminal appeals.
Section three judges administrative cases and controls government normative powers.
Section four is dedicated to labour law.
Section five is dedicated to military justice.

text: Sweden[edit]

text: In Sweden, the Supreme Court and the Supreme Administrative Court respectively function as the highest courts of the land. The Supreme Administrative Court considers cases concerning disputes between individuals and administrative organs, as well as disputes among administrative organs, while the Supreme Court considers all other cases. The judges are appointed by the Government. In most cases, the Supreme Courts will only grant leave to appeal a case (prövningstillstånd) if the case involves setting a precedent in the interpretation of the law. Exceptions are issues where the Supreme Court is the court of first instance. Such cases include an application for a retrial of a criminal case in the light of new evidence, and prosecutions made against an incumbent minister of the Government for severe neglect of duty. If a lower court has to try a case which involves a question where there is no settled interpretation of the law, it can also refer the question to the relevant Supreme Court for an answer.

text: Switzerland[edit]

text: In Switzerland, the Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland[9] is the final court of appeals. Due to Switzerland's system of direct democracy, it has no authority to review the constitutionality of federal statutes, but the people can strike down a proposed law by referendum. According to settled case law, however, the Court is authorised to review the compliance of all Swiss law with certain categories of international law, especially the European Convention of Human Rights.

text: Sri Lanka[edit]

text: In Sri Lanka, the Supreme Court of Sri Lanka was created in 1972 after the adoption of a new Constitution. The Supreme Court is the highest and final superior court of record and is empowered to exercise its powers, subject to the provisions of the Constitution. The court rulings take precedence over all lower Courts. The Sri Lanka judicial system is complex blend of both common-law and civil-law. In some cases such as capital punishment, the decision may be passed on to the President of the Republic for clemency petitions. However, when there is 2/3 majority in the parliament in favour of president (as with present), the supreme court and its judges' powers become nullified as they could be fired from their positions according to the Constitution, if the president wants. Therefore, in such situations, Civil law empowerment vanishes.

text: South Africa[edit]

text: In South Africa, a "two apex" system existed from 1994 to 2013. The Supreme Court of Appeal (SCA) was created in 1994 and replaced the Appellate Division of the Supreme Court of South Africa as the highest court of appeal in non-constitutional matters. The SCA is subordinate to the Constitutional Court, which is the highest court in matters involving the interpretation and application of the Constitution. But in August 2013 the Constitution was amended to make the Constitutional Court the country's single apex court, superior to the SCA in all matters, both constitutional and non-constitutional.

text: Thailand[edit]

text: Historically, citizens appealed directly to the King along his route to places out of the Palace. A Thai King would adjudicate all disputes. During the reign of King Chulalongkorn, an official department for appeals was set up, and, after Thailand adopted a western-styled government, Thai Supreme Court was established in 1891.

text: At present, the Supreme Court of Thailand retains the important status as the highest court of justice in the country. Operating separately from the Administrative Court and the Constitutional Court, the judgement of the Supreme Court is considered as final.

text: United Arab Emirates[edit]

text: In the United Arab Emirates, the Federal Supreme Court of the United Arab Emirates was created in 1973 after the adoption of the Constitution. The Supreme Court is the highest and final superior court of record and is empowered to exercise its powers, subject to the provisions of the Constitution. The court rulings take precedence over all lower Courts. The Emirati  judicial system is complex blend of both Islamic law and civil law. In some cases such as capital punishment, the decision may be passed on to the President of the country (currently Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan).[10]

text: Other civil law jurisdictions[edit]

text:
For Honduras, see Supreme Court of Honduras.
For Peru, see Supreme Court of Peru.
For Poland, see Supreme Court of the Republic of Poland.
For Romania, see High Court of Cassation and Justice.
For Uganda, see Supreme Court of Uganda
For Ukraine, see Supreme Court of Ukraine.
For Vietnam, see Supreme People's Court of Vietnam.

text: Mixed-system jurisdictions[edit]

text: Indonesia[edit]

text: Law of Indonesia at the national level is based on a combination of civil law from the tradition of Roman-Dutch law and customary law from the tradition of Adat.[11] Law in regional jurisdictions can vary from province to province, including even Sharia law,[12] for example Islamic criminal law in Aceh, though even at the national level, individual justices can cite sharia or other forms of non-Dutch law in their legal opinions.

text: The Supreme Court of Indonesia is the main judicial arm of the state, functioning as the final court of appeal as well as a means to re-open cases previously closed. The Supreme Court, which consists of a total of 51 justices, also oversees the regional high courts. It was founded at the country's independence in 1945.

text: The Constitutional Court of Indonesia, on the other hand, is a part of the judicial branch tasked with review of bills and government actions for constitutionality, as well as regulation of the interactions between various arms of the state. The constitutional amendment to establish the court was passed in 2001, and the court itself was established in 2003.[13] The Constitutional Court consists of nine justices serving nine year terms, and they're appointed in tandem by the Supreme Court, the President of Indonesia and the People's Representative Council.[14]

text: Soviet-model jurisdictions[edit]

text: In most nations with constitutions modelled after the Soviet Union, the legislature was given the power of being the court of last resort.  In the People's Republic of China, the final power to interpret the law is vested in the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (NPCSC). This power includes the power to interpret the basic laws of Hong Kong and Macau, the constitutional documents of the two special administrative regions which are common law and Portuguese-based legal system jurisdictions respectively.  This power is a legislative power and not a judicial one in that an interpretation by the NPCSC does not affect cases which have already been decided.


document_title: Saavedra (surname)

question_text: where did the last name saavedra come from

text: Saavedra (surname)

text: Saavedra is a Spanish surname.

text: Notable people with the surname include:

text:
Abelardo Saavedra, American school district superintendent
Álvaro de Saavedra Cerón, Spanish explorer
Asya and Chloe Saavedra, American musicians, members of Chaos Chaos
Catalina Saavedra (born 1968), Chilean television and film actress
Cornelio Saavedra (1761–1829), Argentine soldier and politician
Cornelio Saavedra Rodríguez (1823–1891), Chilean soldier, grandson of Cornelio Saavedra
Craig Saavedra (born 1963), American film director
Daniel Ortega Saavedra (born 1945), Nicaraguan politician
Diego de Saavedra Fajardo (1584–1648), Spanish diplomat,
Francisco Saavedra de Sangronis (1746–1819), Spanish diplomat and administrator
Héctor Puebla Saavedra (born 1955), Chilean footballer
Guillermo Saavedra (poet) (born 1960), Argentine poet
José Ángel Saavedra, Honduran politician
Jose Vilalta Saavedra (1865–1912), Cuban sculptor
Luis Saavedra (1935−2013), Spanish footballer
Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra (1547–1616), Spanish writer, author of Don Quixote
Nélson Saavedra (born 1988), Chilean footballer
Raúl Saavedra (born 1978), Argentinian football defender
Raúl Saavedra (cyclist) (born 1969), Colombian road cyclist
Sebastian Saavedra (born 1990), Colombian race car driver

text: Surname listThis page lists people with the surname Saavedra. If an internal link intending to refer to a specific person led you to this page, you may wish to change that link by adding the person's given name(s) to the link.

text: SurnamesGalician-language surnames

text: Articles with short descriptionAll set index articles