document_title: Periodic table

question_text: this is a horizontal arrangement of elements in the periodic table

question_tokens: this is a horizontal arrangement of elements in the periodic table

root

text: Periodic table

text: Overview

text:
v
t
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tag: ul

text:
Group
1
2
3

4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

Alkali metals
Alkaline earth metals

Pnictogens
Chalcogens
Halogens
Noble gases

Period
1

Hydrogen1H7000100800000000000♠1.008

Helium2He7000400260000000000♠4.0026

2
Lithium3Li7000694000000000000♠6.94
Beryllium4Be7000901220000000000♠9.0122

Boron5B7001108100000000000♠10.81
Carbon6C7001120110000000000♠12.011
Nitrogen7N7001140070000000000♠14.007
Oxygen8O7001159990000000000♠15.999
Fluorine9F7001189980000000000♠18.998
Neon10Ne7001201800000000000♠20.180

3
Sodium11Na7001229899999999999♠22.990
Magnesium12Mg7001243050000000000♠24.305

Aluminium13Al7001269820000000000♠26.982
Silicon14Si7001280850000000000♠28.085
Phosphorus15P7001309740000000000♠30.974
Sulfur16S7001320600000000000♠32.06
Chlorine17Cl7001354500000000000♠35.45
Argon18Ar7001399480000000000♠39.948

4
Potassium19K7001390980000000000♠39.098
Calcium20Ca7001400780000000000♠40.078
Scandium21Sc7001449560000000000♠44.956

Titanium22Ti7001478670000000000♠47.867
Vanadium23V7001509420000000000♠50.942
Chromium24Cr7001519960000000000♠51.996
Manganese25Mn7001549380000000000♠54.938
Iron26Fe7001558450000000000♠55.845
Cobalt27Co7001589330000000000♠58.933
Nickel28Ni7001586930000000000♠58.693
Copper29Cu7001635460000000000♠63.546
Zinc30Zn7001653800000000000♠65.38
Gallium31Ga7001697230000000000♠69.723
Germanium32Ge7001726300000000000♠72.630
Arsenic33As7001749220000000000♠74.922
Selenium34Se7001789710000000000♠78.971
Bromine35Br7001799040000000000♠79.904
Krypton36Kr7001837980000000000♠83.798

5
Rubidium37Rb7001854680000000000♠85.468
Strontium38Sr7001876200000000000♠87.62
Yttrium39Y7001889060000000000♠88.906

Zirconium40Zr7001912240000000000♠91.224
Niobium41Nb7001929060000000000♠92.906
Molybdenum42Mo7001959500000000000♠95.95
Technetium43Tc[98]
Ruthenium44Ru7002101070000000000♠101.07
Rhodium45Rh7002102910000000000♠102.91
Palladium46Pd7002106420000000000♠106.42
Silver47Ag7002107870000000000♠107.87
Cadmium48Cd7002112410000000000♠112.41
Indium49In7002114820000000000♠114.82
Tin50Sn7002118710000000000♠118.71
Antimony51Sb7002121760000000000♠121.76
Tellurium52Te7002127600000000000♠127.60
Iodine53I7002126900000000000♠126.90
Xenon54Xe7002131289999999999♠131.29

6
Caesium55Cs7002132910000000000♠132.91
Barium56Ba7002137330000000000♠137.33
Lanthanum57La7002138910000000000♠138.91

Hafnium72Hf7002178490000000000♠178.49
Tantalum73Ta7002180950000000000♠180.95
Tungsten74W7002183840000000000♠183.84
Rhenium75Re7002186210000000000♠186.21
Osmium76Os7002190230000000000♠190.23
Iridium77Ir7002192220000000000♠192.22
Platinum78Pt7002195080000000000♠195.08
Gold79Au7002196970000000000♠196.97
Mercury80Hg7002200590000000000♠200.59
Thallium81Tl7002204380000000000♠204.38
Lead82Pb7002207200000000000♠207.2
Bismuth83Bi7002208980000000000♠208.98
Polonium84Po[209]
Astatine85At[210]
Radon86Rn[222]

7
Francium87Fr[223]
Radium88Ra[226]
Actinium89Ac[227]

Rutherfordium104Rf[267]
Dubnium105Db[268]
Seaborgium106Sg[269]
Bohrium107Bh[270]
Hassium108Hs[270]
Meitnerium109Mt[278]
Darmstadtium110Ds[281]
Roentgenium111Rg[282]
Copernicium112Cn[285]
Nihonium113Nh[286]
Flerovium114Fl[289]
Moscovium115Mc[290]
Livermorium116Lv[293]
Tennessine117Ts[294]
Oganesson118Og[294]

Cerium58Ce7002140120000000000♠140.12
Praseodymium59Pr7002140910000000000♠140.91
Neodymium60Nd7002144240000000000♠144.24
Promethium61Pm[145]
Samarium62Sm7002150360000000000♠150.36
Europium63Eu7002151960000000000♠151.96
Gadolinium64Gd7002157250000000000♠157.25
Terbium65Tb7002158930000000000♠158.93
Dysprosium66Dy7002162500000000000♠162.50
Holmium67Ho7002164930000000000♠164.93
Erbium68Er7002167260000000000♠167.26
Thulium69Tm7002168930000000000♠168.93
Ytterbium70Yb7002173050000000000♠173.05
Lutetium71Lu7002174970000000000♠174.97

Thorium90Th7002232040000000000♠232.04
Protactinium91Pa7002231040000000000♠231.04
Uranium92U7002238030000000000♠238.03
Neptunium93Np[237]
Plutonium94Pu[244]
Americium95Am[243]
Curium96Cm[247]
Berkelium97Bk[247]
Californium98Cf[251]
Einsteinium99Es[252]
Fermium100Fm[257]
Mendelevium101Md[258]
Nobelium102No[259]
Lawrencium103Lr[266]

tag: table

tag: p

text: 1 (red)=Gas 3 (black)=Solid 80 (green)=Liquid 109 (gray)=Unknown Color of the atomic number shows state of matter (at 0 °C and 1 atm)

text:
Ca: 7001400780000000000♠40.078 — Formal short value, rounded (no uncertainty)[5]
Po: [209] — mass number of the most stable isotope

text: Background color shows subcategory in the metal–metalloid–nonmetal trend:

text:
Metal
Metalloid
Nonmetal
Unknown
chemical
properties

Alkali metal
Alkaline earth metal
Lanthanide
Actinide
Transition metal
Post-transition metal
Reactive nonmetal
Noble gas

text: Each chemical element has a unique atomic number (Z) representing the number of protons in its nucleus.[n 2] Most elements have differing numbers of neutrons among different atoms, with these variants being referred to as isotopes. For example, carbon has three naturally occurring isotopes: all of its atoms have six protons and most have six neutrons as well, but about one per cent have seven neutrons, and a very small fraction have eight neutrons. Isotopes are never separated in the periodic table; they are always grouped together under a single element. Elements with no stable isotopes have the atomic masses of their most stable isotopes, where such masses are shown, listed in parentheses.[6]

text: In the standard periodic table, the elements are listed in order of increasing atomic number Z (the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom). A new row (period) is started when a new electron shell has its first electron. Columns (groups) are determined by the electron configuration of the atom; elements with the same number of electrons in a particular subshell fall into the same columns (e.g. oxygen and selenium are in the same column because they both have four electrons in the outermost p-subshell). Elements with similar chemical properties generally fall into the same group in the periodic table, although in the f-block, and to some respect in the d-block, the elements in the same period tend to have similar properties, as well. Thus, it is relatively easy to predict the chemical properties of an element if one knows the properties of the elements around it.[7]

text: As of 2016[update], the periodic table has 118 confirmed elements, from element 1 (hydrogen) to 118 (oganesson). Elements 113, 115, 117 and 118, the most recent discoveries, were officially confirmed by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) in December 2015. Their proposed names, nihonium (Nh), moscovium (Mc), tennessine (Ts) and oganesson (Og) respectively, were announced by the IUPAC in June 2016 and made official in November 2016.[8][9][10][11]

text: The first 94 elements occur naturally; the remaining 24, americium to oganesson (95–118), occur only when synthesized in laboratories. Of the 94 naturally occurring elements, 83 are primordial and 11 occur only in decay chains of primordial elements.[3] No element heavier than einsteinium (element 99) has ever been observed in macroscopic quantities in its pure form, nor has astatine (element 85); francium (element 87) has been only photographed in the form of light emitted from microscopic quantities (300,000 atoms).[12]

text: Grouping methods

text: Groups

text: A group or family is a vertical column in the periodic table. Groups usually have more significant periodic trends than periods and blocks, explained below. Modern quantum mechanical theories of atomic structure explain group trends by proposing that elements within the same group generally have the same electron configurations in their valence shell.[13] Consequently, elements in the same group tend to have a shared chemistry and exhibit a clear trend in properties with increasing atomic number.[14] In some parts of the periodic table, such as the d-block and the f-block, horizontal similarities can be as important as, or more pronounced than, vertical similarities.[15][16][17]

text: Under an international naming convention, the groups are numbered numerically from 1 to 18 from the leftmost column (the alkali metals) to the rightmost column (the noble gases).[18] Previously, they were known by roman numerals. In America, the roman numerals were followed by either an "A" if the group was in the s- or p-block, or a "B" if the group was in the d-block. The roman numerals used correspond to the last digit of today's naming convention (e.g. the group 4 elements were group IVB, and the group 14 elements were group IVA). In Europe, the lettering was similar, except that "A" was used if the group was before group 10, and "B" was used for groups including and after group 10. In addition, groups 8, 9 and 10 used to be treated as one triple-sized group, known collectively in both notations as group VIII. In 1988, the new IUPAC naming system was put into use, and the old group names were deprecated.[19]

text: Some of these groups have been given trivial (unsystematic) names, as seen in the table below, although some are rarely used. Groups 3–10 have no trivial names and are referred to simply by their group numbers or by the name of the first member of their group (such as "the scandium group" for group 3), since they display fewer similarities and/or vertical trends.[18]

text: Elements in the same group tend to show patterns in atomic radius, ionization energy, and electronegativity. From top to bottom in a group, the atomic radii of the elements increase. Since there are more filled energy levels, valence electrons are found farther from the nucleus. From the top, each successive element has a lower ionization energy because it is easier to remove an electron since the atoms are less tightly bound. Similarly, a group has a top-to-bottom decrease in electronegativity due to an increasing distance between valence electrons and the nucleus.[20] There are exceptions to these trends: for example, in group 11, electronegativity increases farther down the group.[21]

text:
v
t
e

text:
IUPAC group
1
2
3a
a
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

Mendeleev (I–VIII)
IA
IIA
IIIB

IVB
VB
VIB
VIIB
VIIIB
IB
IIB
IIIB
IVB
VB
VIB
VIIB
b

CAS (US, A-B-A)
IA
IIA
IIIB

IVB
VB
VIB
VIIB
VIIIB
IB
IIB
IIIA
IVA
VA
VIA
VIIA
VIIIA

old IUPAC (Europe, A-B)
IA
IIA
IIIA

IVA
VA
VIA
VIIA
VIIIB
IB
IIB
IIIB
IVB
VB
VIB
VIIB
0

Trivial name
Alkali metals
Alkaline earth metalsr

Coinage metals

Triels
Tetrels
Pnictogensr
Chalcogensr
Halogensr
Noble gasesr

Name by elementr
Lithium group
Beryllium group
Scandium group

Titanium group
Vanadium group
Chromium group
Manganese group
Iron group
Cobalt group
Nickel group
Copper group
Zinc group
Boron group
Carbon group
Nitrogen group
Oxygen group
Fluorine group
Helium or Neon group

Period 1
h H h

He

Period 2
Li
Be

B
C
N
O
F
Ne

Period 3
Na
Mg

Al
Si
P
S
Cl
Ar

Period 4
K
Ca
Sc

Ti
V
Cr
Mn
Fe
Co
Ni
Cu
Zn
Ga
Ge
As
Se
Br
Kr

Period 5
Rb
Sr
Y

Zr
Nb
Mo
Tc
Ru
Rh
Pd
Ag
Cd
In
Sn
Sb
Te
I
Xe

Period 6
Cs
Ba
La
Ce–Lu
Hf
Ta
W
Re
Os
Ir
Pt
Au
Hg
Tl
Pb
Bi
Po
At
Rn

Period 7
Fr
Ra
Ac
Th–Lr
Rf
Db
Sg
Bh
Hs
Mt
Ds
Rg
Cn
Nh
Fl
Mc
Lv
Ts
Og

text: Periods

text: A period is a horizontal row in the periodic table. Although groups generally have more significant periodic trends, there are regions where horizontal trends are more significant than vertical group trends, such as the f-block, where the lanthanides and actinides form two substantial horizontal series of elements.[23]

text: Elements in the same period show trends in atomic radius, ionization energy, electron affinity, and electronegativity. Moving left to right across a period, atomic radius usually decreases. This occurs because each successive element has an added proton and electron, which causes the electron to be drawn closer to the nucleus.[24] This decrease in atomic radius also causes the ionization energy to increase when moving from left to right across a period. The more tightly bound an element is, the more energy is required to remove an electron. Electronegativity increases in the same manner as ionization energy because of the pull exerted on the electrons by the nucleus.[20] Electron affinity also shows a slight trend across a period. Metals (left side of a period) generally have a lower electron affinity than nonmetals (right side of a period), with the exception of the noble gases.[25]

text: Blocks

text: Specific regions of the periodic table can be referred to as blocks in recognition of the sequence in which the electron shells of the elements are filled. Each block is named according to the subshell in which the "last" electron notionally resides.[26][n 3] The s-block comprises the first two groups (alkali metals and alkaline earth metals) as well as hydrogen and helium. The p-block comprises the last six groups, which are groups 13 to 18 in IUPAC group numbering (3A to 8A in American group numbering) and contains, among other elements, all of the metalloids. The d-block comprises groups 3 to 12 (or 3B to 2B in American group numbering) and contains all of the transition metals. The f-block, often offset below the rest of the periodic table, has no group numbers and comprises lanthanides and actinides.[27]

text: Metals, metalloids and nonmetals

text: According to their shared physical and chemical properties, the elements can be classified into the major categories of metals, metalloids and nonmetals. Metals are generally shiny, highly conducting solids that form alloys with one another and salt-like ionic compounds with nonmetals (other than noble gases). A majority of nonmetals are coloured or colourless insulating gases; nonmetals that form compounds with other nonmetals, feature covalent bonding. In between metals and nonmetals are metalloids, which have intermediate or mixed properties.[28]

text: Metal and nonmetals can be further classified into subcategories that show a gradation from metallic to non-metallic properties, when going left to right in the rows. The metals may be subdivided into the highly reactive alkali metals, through the less reactive alkaline earth metals, lanthanides and actinides, via the archetypal transition metals, and ending in the physically and chemically weak post-transition metals. Nonmetals may be simply subdivided into the polyatomic nonmetals, being nearer to the metalloids and show some incipient metallic character; the essentially nonmetallic diatomic nonmetals, nonmetallic and the almost completely inert, monatomic noble gases. Specialized groupings such as refractory metals and noble metals, are examples of subsets of transition metals, also known[29] and occasionally denoted.[30]

text: Placing elements into categories and subcategories based just on shared properties is imperfect. There is a large disparity of properties within each category with notable overlaps at the boundaries, as is the case with most classification schemes.[31] Beryllium, for example, is classified as an alkaline earth metal although its amphoteric chemistry and tendency to mostly form covalent compounds are both attributes of a chemically weak or post-transition metal. Radon is classified as a nonmetallic noble gas yet has some cationic chemistry that is characteristic of metals. Other classification schemes are possible such as the division of the elements into mineralogical occurrence categories, or crystalline structures. Categorizing the elements in this fashion dates back to at least 1869 when Hinrichs[32] wrote that simple boundary lines could be placed on the periodic table to show elements having shared properties, such as metals, nonmetals, or gaseous elements.

text: Periodic trends and patterns

text: Electron configuration

text: The electron configuration or organisation of electrons orbiting neutral atoms shows a recurring pattern or periodicity. The electrons occupy a series of electron shells (numbered 1, 2, and so on). Each shell consists of one or more subshells (named s, p, d, f and g). As atomic number increases, electrons progressively fill these shells and subshells more or less according to the Madelung rule or energy ordering rule, as shown in the diagram. The electron configuration for neon, for example, is 1s2 2s2 2p6. With an atomic number of ten, neon has two electrons in the first shell, and eight electrons in the second shell; there are two electrons in the s subshell and six in the p subshell. In periodic table terms, the first time an electron occupies a new shell corresponds to the start of each new period, these positions being occupied by hydrogen and the alkali metals.[33][34]

text: Since the properties of an element are mostly determined by its electron configuration, the properties of the elements likewise show recurring patterns or periodic behaviour, some examples of which are shown in the diagrams below for atomic radii, ionization energy and electron affinity. It is this periodicity of properties, manifestations of which were noticed well before the underlying theory was developed, that led to the establishment of the periodic law (the properties of the elements recur at varying intervals) and the formulation of the first periodic tables.[33][34]

text: Atomic radii

text: Atomic radii vary in a predictable and explainable manner across the periodic table. For instance, the radii generally decrease along each period of the table, from the alkali metals to the noble gases; and increase down each group. The radius increases sharply between the noble gas at the end of each period and the alkali metal at the beginning of the next period. These trends of the atomic radii (and of various other chemical and physical properties of the elements) can be explained by the electron shell theory of the atom; they provided important evidence for the development and confirmation of quantum theory.[35]

text: The electrons in the 4f-subshell, which is progressively filled across the lanthanide series, are not particularly effective at shielding the increasing nuclear charge from the sub-shells further out. The elements immediately following the lanthanides have atomic radii that are smaller than would be expected and that are almost identical to the atomic radii of the elements immediately above them.[36] Hence hafnium has virtually the same atomic radius (and chemistry) as zirconium, and tantalum has an atomic radius similar to niobium, and so forth. This is known as the lanthanide contraction. The effect of the lanthanide contraction is noticeable up to platinum (element 78), after which it is masked by a relativistic effect known as the inert pair effect.[37] The d-block contraction, which is a similar effect between the d-block and p-block, is less pronounced than the lanthanide contraction but arises from a similar cause.[36]

text: Ionization energy

text: The first ionization energy is the energy it takes to remove one electron from an atom, the second ionization energy is the energy it takes to remove a second electron from the atom, and so on. For a given atom, successive ionization energies increase with the degree of ionization. For magnesium as an example, the first ionization energy is 738 kJ/mol and the second is 1450 kJ/mol. Electrons in the closer orbitals experience greater forces of electrostatic attraction; thus, their removal requires increasingly more energy. Ionization energy becomes greater up and to the right of the periodic table.[37]

text: Large jumps in the successive molar ionization energies occur when removing an electron from a noble gas (complete electron shell) configuration. For magnesium again, the first two molar ionization energies of magnesium given above correspond to removing the two 3s electrons, and the third ionization energy is a much larger 7730 kJ/mol, for the removal of a 2p electron from the very stable neon-like configuration of Mg2+. Similar jumps occur in the ionization energies of other third-row atoms.[37]

text: Electronegativity

text: Electronegativity is the tendency of an atom to attract a shared pair of electrons.[38] An atom's electronegativity is affected by both its atomic number and the distance between the valence electrons and the nucleus. The higher its electronegativity, the more an element attracts electrons. It was first proposed by Linus Pauling in 1932.[39] In general, electronegativity increases on passing from left to right along a period, and decreases on descending a group. Hence, fluorine is the most electronegative of the elements,[n 5] while caesium is the least, at least of those elements for which substantial data is available.[21]

text: There are some exceptions to this general rule. Gallium and germanium have higher electronegativities than aluminium and silicon respectively because of the d-block contraction. Elements of the fourth period immediately after the first row of the transition metals have unusually small atomic radii because the 3d-electrons are not effective at shielding the increased nuclear charge, and smaller atomic size correlates with higher electronegativity.[21] The anomalously high electronegativity of lead, particularly when compared to thallium and bismuth, appears to be an artifact of data selection and data availability. Methods of calculation other than the Pauling method show the normal periodic trends for these elements.[40]

text: Electron affinity

text: The electron affinity of an atom is the amount of energy released when an electron is added to a neutral atom to form a negative ion. Although electron affinity varies greatly, some patterns emerge. Generally, nonmetals have more positive electron affinity values than metals. Chlorine most strongly attracts an extra electron. The electron affinities of the noble gases have not been measured conclusively, so they may or may not have slightly negative values.[43]

text: Electron affinity generally increases across a period. This is caused by the filling of the valence shell of the atom; a group 17 atom releases more energy than a group 1 atom on gaining an electron because it obtains a filled valence shell and is therefore more stable.[43]

text: A trend of decreasing electron affinity going down groups would be expected. The additional electron will be entering an orbital farther away from the nucleus. As such this electron would be less attracted to the nucleus and would release less energy when added. In going down a group, around one-third of elements are anomalous, with heavier elements having higher electron affinities than their next lighter congenors. Largely, this is due to the poor shielding by d and f electrons. A uniform decrease in electron affinity only applies to group 1 atoms.[44]

text: Metallic character

text: The lower the values of ionization energy, electronegativity and electron affinity, the more metallic character the element has. Conversely, nonmetallic character increases with higher values of these properties.[45] Given the periodic trends of these three properties, metallic character tends to decrease going across a period (or row) and, with some irregularities (mostly) due to poor screening of the nucleus by d and f electrons, and relativistic effects,[46] tends to increase going down a group (or column or family). Thus, the most metallic elements (such as caesium and francium) are found at the bottom left of traditional periodic tables and the most nonmetallic elements (oxygen, fluorine, chlorine) at the top right. The combination of horizontal and vertical trends in metallic character explains the stair-shaped dividing line between metals and nonmetals found on some periodic tables, and the practice of sometimes categorizing several elements adjacent to that line, or elements adjacent to those elements, as metalloids.[47][48]

text: Linking or bridging groups

text:
Hydrogen

Helium

Lithium
Beryllium

Boron
Carbon
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Fluorine
Neon

Sodium
Magnesium

Aluminium
Silicon
Phosphorus
Sulfur
Chlorine
Argon

Potassium
Calcium
Scandium

Titanium
Vanadium
Chromium
Manganese
Iron
Cobalt
Nickel
Copper
Zinc
Gallium
Germanium
Arsenic
Selenium
Bromine
Krypton

Rubidium
Strontium
Yttrium

Zirconium
Niobium
Molybdenum
Technetium
Ruthenium
Rhodium
Palladium
Silver
Cadmium
Indium
Tin
Antimony
Tellurium
Iodine
Xenon

Caesium
Barium
Lanthanum
Cerium
Praseodymium
Neodymium
Promethium
Samarium
Europium
Gadolinium
Terbium
Dysprosium
Holmium
Erbium
Thulium
Ytterbium
Lutetium
Hafnium
Tantalum
Tungsten
Rhenium
Osmium
Iridium
Platinum
Gold
Mercury (element)
Thallium
Lead
Bismuth
Polonium
Astatine
Radon

Francium
Radium
Actinium
Thorium
Protactinium
Uranium
Neptunium
Plutonium
Americium
Curium
Berkelium
Californium
Einsteinium
Fermium
Mendelevium
Nobelium
Lawrencium
Rutherfordium
Dubnium
Seaborgium
Bohrium
Hassium
Meitnerium
Darmstadtium
Roentgenium
Copernicium
Nihonium
Flerovium
Moscovium
Livermorium
Tennessine
Oganesson

text: From left to right across the four blocks of the long- or 32-column form of the periodic table are a series of linking or bridging groups of elements, located approximately between each block.[49] These groups, like the metalloids, show properties in between, or that are a mixture of, groups to either side. Chemically, the group 3 elements, scandium, yttrium, lanthanum and actinium behave largely like the alkaline earth metals[50] or, more generally, s block metals[51][52] but have some of the physical properties of d block transition metals.[53] Lutetium and lawrencium, at the end of the end of the f block, may constitute another linking or bridging group. Lutetium behaves chemically as a lanthanide but shows a mix of lanthanide and transition metal physical properties.[54][55] Lawrencium, as an analogue of lutetium, would presumable display like characteristics.[n 6] The coinage metals in group 11 (copper, silver, and gold) are chemically capable of acting as either transition metals or main group metals.[58] The volatile group 12 metals, zinc, cadmium and mercury are sometimes regarded as linking the d block to the p block. Notionally they are d block elements but they have few transition metal properties and are more like their p block neighbors in group 13.[59][60] The relatively inert noble gases, in group 18, bridge the most reactive groups of elements in the periodic table—the halogens in group 17 and the alkali metals in group 1.[49]

text: History

text: First systemization attempts

text: In 1789, Antoine Lavoisier published a list of 33 chemical elements, grouping them into gases, metals, nonmetals, and earths.[61] Chemists spent the following century searching for a more precise classification scheme. In 1829, Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner observed that many of the elements could be grouped into triads based on their chemical properties. Lithium, sodium, and potassium, for example, were grouped together in a triad as soft, reactive metals. Döbereiner also observed that, when arranged by atomic weight, the second member of each triad was roughly the average of the first and the third;[62] this became known as the Law of Triads.[63] German chemist Leopold Gmelin worked with this system, and by 1843 he had identified ten triads, three groups of four, and one group of five. Jean-Baptiste Dumas published work in 1857 describing relationships between various groups of metals. Although various chemists were able to identify relationships between small groups of elements, they had yet to build one scheme that encompassed them all.[62]

text: In 1857, German chemist August Kekulé observed that carbon often has four other atoms bonded to it. Methane, for example, has one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms.[64] This concept eventually became known as valency; different elements bond with different numbers of atoms.[65]

text: In 1862, Alexandre-Emile Béguyer de Chancourtois, a French geologist, published an early form of periodic table, which he called the telluric helix or screw. He was the first person to notice the periodicity of the elements. With the elements arranged in a spiral on a cylinder by order of increasing atomic weight, de Chancourtois showed that elements with similar properties seemed to occur at regular intervals. His chart included some ions and compounds in addition to elements. His paper also used geological rather than chemical terms and did not include a diagram; as a result, it received little attention until the work of Dmitri Mendeleev.[66]

text: In 1864, Julius Lothar Meyer, a German chemist, published a table with 44 elements arranged by valency. The table showed that elements with similar properties often shared the same valency.[67] Concurrently, English chemist William Odling published an arrangement of 57 elements, ordered on the basis of their atomic weights. With some irregularities and gaps, he noticed what appeared to be a periodicity of atomic weights among the elements and that this accorded with "their usually received groupings".[68] Odling alluded to the idea of a periodic law but did not pursue it.[69] He subsequently proposed (in 1870) a valence-based classification of the elements.[70]

text: English chemist John Newlands produced a series of papers from 1863 to 1866 noting that when the elements were listed in order of increasing atomic weight, similar physical and chemical properties recurred at intervals of eight; he likened such periodicity to the octaves of music.[71][72] This so termed Law of Octaves was ridiculed by Newlands' contemporaries, and the Chemical Society refused to publish his work.[73] Newlands was nonetheless able to draft a table of the elements and used it to predict the existence of missing elements, such as germanium.[74] The Chemical Society only acknowledged the significance of his discoveries five years after they credited Mendeleev.[75]

text: In 1867, Gustavus Hinrichs, a Danish born academic chemist based in America, published a spiral periodic system based on atomic spectra and weights, and chemical similarities. His work was regarded as idiosyncratic, ostentatious and labyrinthine and this may have militated against its recognition and acceptance.[76][77]

text: Mendeleev's table

text: Russian chemistry professor Dmitri Mendeleev and German chemist Julius Lothar Meyer independently published their periodic tables in 1869 and 1870, respectively.[78] Mendeleev's table was his first published version; that of Meyer was an expanded version of his (Meyer's) table of 1864.[79] They both constructed their tables by listing the elements in rows or columns in order of atomic weight and starting a new row or column when the characteristics of the elements began to repeat.[80]

text: The recognition and acceptance afforded to Mendeleev's table came from two decisions he made. The first was to leave gaps in the table when it seemed that the corresponding element had not yet been discovered.[81] Mendeleev was not the first chemist to do so, but he was the first to be recognized as using the trends in his periodic table to predict the properties of those missing elements, such as gallium and germanium.[82] The second decision was to occasionally ignore the order suggested by the atomic weights and switch adjacent elements, such as tellurium and iodine, to better classify them into chemical families.

text: Mendeleev published in 1869, using atomic weight to organize the elements, information determinable to fair precision in his time. Atomic weight worked well enough to allow Mendeleev to accurately predict the properties of missing elements.

text: Following the discovery, in 1911, by Ernest Rutherford of the atomic nucleus, it was proposed that the integer count of the nuclear charge is identical to the sequential place of each element in the periodic table. In 1913, Henry Moseley using X-ray spectroscopy confirmed this proposal experimentally. Moseley determined the value of the nuclear charge of each element, and showed that Mendeleev's ordering actually places the elements in sequential order by nuclear charge.[83] Nuclear charge is identical to proton count, and determines the value of the atomic number (Z) of each element. Using atomic number gives a definitive, integer-based sequence for the elements. Moseley predicted, in 1913, that the only elements still missing between aluminium (Z=13) and gold (Z=79) were Z = 43, 61, 72, and 75, all of which were later discovered. The atomic number is the absolute definition of an element, and gives a factual basis for the ordering of the periodic table. The periodic table is used to predict the properties of new synthetic elements before they are produced and studied.[84]

text: Second version and further development

text: In 1871, Mendeleev published his periodic table in a new form, with groups of similar elements arranged in columns rather than in rows, and those columns numbered I to VIII corresponding with the element's oxidation state. He also gave detailed predictions for the properties of elements he had earlier noted were missing, but should exist.[85] These gaps were subsequently filled as chemists discovered additional naturally occurring elements.[86] It is often stated that the last naturally occurring element to be discovered was francium (referred to by Mendeleev as eka-caesium) in 1939.[87] Plutonium, produced synthetically in 1940, was identified in trace quantities as a naturally occurring element in 1971.[88]

text: The popular[89] periodic table layout, also known as the common or standard form (as shown at various other points in this article), is attributable to Horace Groves Deming. In 1923, Deming, an American chemist, published short (Mendeleev style) and medium (18-column) form periodic tables.[90][n 7] Merck and Company prepared a handout form of Deming's 18-column medium table, in 1928, which was widely circulated in American schools. By the 1930s Deming's table was appearing in handbooks and encyclopaedias of chemistry. It was also distributed for many years by the Sargent-Welch Scientific Company.[91][92][93]

text: With the development of modern quantum mechanical theories of electron configurations within atoms, it became apparent that each period (row) in the table corresponded to the filling of a quantum shell of electrons. Larger atoms have more electron sub-shells, so later tables have required progressively longer periods.[94]

text: In 1945, Glenn Seaborg, an American scientist, made the suggestion that the actinide elements, like the lanthanides, were filling an f sub-level. Before this time the actinides were thought to be forming a fourth d-block row. Seaborg's colleagues advised him not to publish such a radical suggestion as it would most likely ruin his career. As Seaborg considered he did not then have a career to bring into disrepute, he published anyway. Seaborg's suggestion was found to be correct and he subsequently went on to win the 1951 Nobel Prize in chemistry for his work in synthesizing actinide elements.[95][96][n 8]

text: Although minute quantities of some transuranic elements occur naturally,[3] they were all first discovered in laboratories. Their production has expanded the periodic table significantly, the first of these being neptunium, synthesized in 1939.[97] Because many of the transuranic elements are highly unstable and decay quickly, they are challenging to detect and characterize when produced. There have been controversies concerning the acceptance of competing discovery claims for some elements, requiring independent review to determine which party has priority, and hence naming rights.[98] In 2010, a joint Russia–US collaboration at Dubna, Moscow Oblast, Russia, claimed to have synthesized six atoms of tennessine (element 117), making it the most recently claimed discovery. It, along with nihonium (element 113), moscovium (element 115), and oganesson (element 118), are the four most recently named elements, whose names all became official on 28 November 2016.[99]

text: Different periodic tables

text: The long- or 32-column table

text: The modern periodic table is sometimes expanded into its long or 32-column form by reinstating the footnoted f-block elements into their natural position between the s- and d-blocks. Unlike the 18-column form this arrangement results in "no interruptions in the sequence of increasing atomic numbers".[100] The relationship of the f-block to the other blocks of the periodic table also becomes easier to see.[101] Jensen advocates a form of table with 32 columns on the grounds that the lanthanides and actinides are otherwise relegated in the minds of students as dull, unimportant elements that can be quarantined and ignored.[102] Despite these advantages the 32-column form is generally avoided by editors on account of its undue rectangular ratio (compared to a book page ratio),[103] and the familiarity of chemists with the modern form (as introduced by Seaborg).[104]

text: Tables with different structures

text: Within 100 years of the appearance of Mendeleev's table in 1869 it has been estimated that around 700 different periodic table versions were published.[105] As well as numerous rectangular variations, other periodic table formats have been shaped, for example,[n 9] like a circle, cube, cylinder, building, spiral, lemniscate,[106] octagonal prism, pyramid, sphere, or triangle. Such alternatives are often developed to highlight or emphasize chemical or physical properties of the elements that are not as apparent in traditional periodic tables.[105]

text: A popular[107] alternative structure is that of Theodor Benfey (1960). The elements are arranged in a continuous spiral, with hydrogen at the centre and the transition metals, lanthanides, and actinides occupying peninsulas.[108]

text: Most periodic tables are two-dimensional;[3] three-dimensional tables are known to as far back as at least 1862 (pre-dating Mendeleev's two-dimensional table of 1869). More recent examples include Courtines' Periodic Classification (1925),[109] Wringley's Lamina System (1949),[110] Giguère's Periodic helix (1965)[111] and Dufour's Periodic Tree (1996).[112] Going one further, Stowe's Physicist's Periodic Table (1989)[113] has been described as being four-dimensional (having three spatial dimensions and one colour dimension).[114]

text: The various forms of periodic tables can be thought of as lying on a chemistry–physics continuum.[115] Towards the chemistry end of the continuum can be found, as an example, Rayner-Canham's "unruly"[116] Inorganic Chemist's Periodic Table (2002),[117] which emphasizes trends and patterns, and unusual chemical relationships and properties. Near the physics end of the continuum is Janet's Left-Step Periodic Table (1928). This has a structure that shows a closer connection to the order of electron-shell filling and, by association, quantum mechanics.[118] A somewhat similar approach has been taken by Alper,[119] albeit criticized by Eric Scerri as disregarding the need to display chemical and physical periodicity.[120] Somewhere in the middle of the continuum is the ubiquitous common or standard form of periodic table. This is regarded as better expressing empirical trends in physical state, electrical and thermal conductivity, and oxidation numbers, and other properties easily inferred from traditional techniques of the chemical laboratory.[121] Its popularity is thought to be a result of this layout having a good balance of features in terms of ease of construction and size, and its depiction of atomic order and periodic trends.[69][122]

text:
v
t
e

text:
f1
f2
f3
f4
f5
f6
f7
f8
f9
f10
f11
f12
f13
f14
d1
d2
d3
d4
d5
d6
d7
d8
d9
d10
p1
p2
p3
p4
p5
p6
s1
s2

1s

H
He

2s

Li
Be

2p 3s

B
C
N
O
F
Ne
Na
Mg

3p 4s

Al
Si
P
S
Cl
Ar
K
Ca

3d 4p 5s

Sc
Ti
V
Cr
Mn
Fe
Co
Ni
Cu
Zn
Ga
Ge
As
Se
Br
Kr
Rb
Sr

4d 5p 6s

Y
Zr
Nb
Mo
Tc
Ru
Rh
Pd
Ag
Cd
In
Sn
Sb
Te
 I
Xe
Cs
Ba

4f 5d 6p 7s
La
Ce
Pr
Nd
Pm
Sm
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Ho
Er
Tm
Yb
Lu
Hf
Ta
W
Re
Os
Ir
Pt
Au
Hg
Tl
Pb
Bi
Po
At
Rn
Fr
Ra

5f 6d 7p 8s
Ac
Th
Pa
U
Np
Pu
Am
Cm
Bk
Cf
Es
Fm
Md
No
Lr
Rf
Db
Sg
Bh
Hs
Mt
Ds
Rg
Cn
Nh
Fl
Mc
Lv
Ts
Og
119
120

f-block
d-block
p-block
s-block

text: Open questions and controversies

text: Placement of hydrogen and helium

text: Simply following electron configurations, hydrogen (electronic configuration 1s1) and helium (1s2) should be placed in groups 1 and 2, above lithium (1s22s1) and beryllium (1s22s2).[26] While such a placement is common for hydrogen, it is rarely used for helium outside of the context of electron configurations: When the noble gases (then called "inert gases") were first discovered around 1900, they were known as "group 0", reflecting no chemical reactivity of these elements known at that point, and helium was placed on the top of that group, as it did share the extreme chemical inertness seen throughout the group. As the group changed its formal number, many authors continued to assign helium directly above neon, in group 18; one of the examples of such placing is the current IUPAC table.[123]

text: Hydrogen's chemical properties are not very close to those of the alkali metals, which occupy group 1. On this basis it is sometimes placed elsewhere. A common alternative is at the top of group 17[120] given hydrogen's strictly univalent and largely non-metallic chemistry, and the strictly univalent and non-metallic chemistry of fluorine (the element otherwise at the top of group 17). Sometimes, to show hydrogen has properties corresponding to both those of the alkali metals and the halogens, it is shown at the top of the two columns simultaneously.[124] Another suggestion is above carbon in group 14: placed that way, it fits well into the trends of increasing ionization potential values and electron affinity values, and is not too far from the electronegativity trend, even though hydrogen cannot show the tetravalence characteristic of the heavier group 14 elements.[125] Finally, hydrogen is sometimes placed separately from any group; this is based on how general properties of hydrogen differ from that of any group. The other period 1 element, helium, is sometimes placed separately from any group as well.[126] The property that distinguishes helium from the rest of the noble gases (even though the extraordinary inertness of helium is extremely close to that of neon and argon)[127] is that in its closed electron shell, helium has only two electrons in the outermost electron orbital, while the rest of the noble gases have eight.

text: Group 3 and its elements in periods 6 and 7

text: Although scandium and yttrium are always the first two elements in group 3, the identity of the next two elements is not completely settled. They are commonly lanthanum and actinium, and less often lutetium and lawrencium. The two variants originate from historical difficulties in placing the lanthanides in the periodic table, and arguments as to where the f block elements start and end.[128][n 10][n 11] It has been claimed that such arguments are proof that, "it is a mistake to break the [periodic] system into sharply delimited blocks".[130] A third variant shows the two positions below yttrium as being occupied by the lanthanides and the actinides.

text: Chemical and physical arguments have been made in support of lutetium and lawrencium[131][132] but the majority of authors seem unconvinced.[133] Most working chemists are not aware there is any controversy.[134] In December 2015 an IUPAC project was established to make a recommendation on the matter.[135]

text: Lanthanum and actinium

text: La and Ac below Y

text: Lanthanum and actinium are commonly depicted as the remaining group 3 members.[136][n 12] It has been suggested that this layout originated in the 1940s, with the appearance of periodic tables relying on the electron configurations of the elements and the notion of the differentiating electron. The configurations of caesium, barium and lanthanum are [Xe]6s1, [Xe]6s2 and [Xe]5d16s2. Lanthanum thus has a 5d differentiating electron and this establishes it "in group 3 as the first member of the d-block for period 6".[137] A consistent set of electron configurations is then seen in group 3: scandium [Ar]3d14s2, yttrium [Kr]4d15s2 and lanthanum [Xe]5d16s2. Still in period 6, ytterbium was assigned an electron configuration of [Xe]4f135d16s2 and lutetium [Xe]4f145d16s2, "resulting in a 4f differentiating electron for lutetium and firmly establishing it as the last member of the f-block for period 6".[137] Later spectroscopic work found that the electron configuration of ytterbium was in fact [Xe]4f146s2. This meant that ytterbium and lutetium—the latter with [Xe]4f145d16s2—both had 14 f-electrons, "resulting in a d- rather than an f- differentiating electron" for lutetium and making it an "equally valid candidate" with [Xe]5d16s2 lanthanum, for the group 3 periodic table position below yttrium.[137] Lanthanum has the advantage of incumbency since the 5d1 electron appears for the first time in its structure whereas it appears for the third time in lutetium, having also made a brief second appearance in gadolinium.[138]

text: In terms of chemical behaviour,[139] and trends going down group 3 for properties such as melting point, electronegativity and ionic radius,[140][141] scandium, yttrium, lanthanum and actinium are similar to their group 1–2 counterparts. In this variant, the number of f electrons in the most common (trivalent) ions of the f-block elements consistently matches their position in the f-block.[142] For example, the f-electron counts for the trivalent ions of the first three f-block elements are Ce 1, Pr 2 and Nd 3.[143]

text: Lutetium and lawrencium

text: Lu and Lr below Y

text: In other tables, lutetium and lawrencium are the remaining group 3 members.[n 13] Early techniques for chemically separating scandium, yttrium and lutetium relied on the fact that these elements occurred together in the so-called "yttrium group" whereas La and Ac occurred together in the "cerium group".[137] Accordingly, lutetium rather than lanthanum was assigned to group 3 by some chemists in the 1920s and 30s.[n 14] Several physicists in the 1950s and '60s favoured lutetium, in light of a comparison of several of its physical properties with those of lanthanum.[137] This arrangement, in which lanthanum is the first member of the f-block, is disputed by some authors since lanthanum lacks any f-electrons. It has been argued that this is not valid concern given other periodic table anomalies—thorium, for example, has no f-electrons yet is part of the f-block.[144] As for lawrencium, its gas phase atomic electron configuration was confirmed in 2015 as [Rn]5f147s27p1. Such a configuration represents another periodic table anomaly, regardless of whether lawrencium is located in the f-block or the d-block, as the only potentially applicable p-block position has been reserved for nihonium with its predicted configuration of [Rn]5f146d107s27p1.[145][n 15]

text: Chemically, scandium, yttrium and lutetium (and presumably lawrencium) behave like trivalent versions of the group 1–2 metals.[147] On the other hand, trends going down the group for properties such as melting point, electronegativity and ionic radius, are similar to those found among their group 4–8 counterparts.[137] In this variant, the number of f electrons in the gaseous forms of the f-block atoms usually matches their position in the f-block. For example, the f-electron counts for the first five f-block elements are La 0, Ce 1, Pr 3, Nd 4 and Pm 5.[137]

text: Lanthanides and actinides

text: Markers below Y

text: A few authors position all thirty lanthanides and actinides in the two positions below yttrium (usually via footnote markers). This variant emphasizes similarities in the chemistry of the 15 lanthanide elements (La–Lu), possibly at the expense of ambiguity as to which elements occupy the two group 3 positions below yttrium, and a 15-column wide f block (there can only be 14 elements in any row of the f block).[n 16]

text: Groups included in the transition metals

text: The definition of a transition metal, as given by IUPAC, is an element whose atom has an incomplete d sub-shell, or which can give rise to cations with an incomplete d sub-shell.[148] By this definition all of the elements in groups 3–11 are transition metals. The IUPAC definition therefore excludes group 12, comprising zinc, cadmium and mercury, from the transition metals category.

text: Some chemists treat the categories "d-block elements" and "transition metals" interchangeably, thereby including groups 3–12 among the transition metals. In this instance the group 12 elements are treated as a special case of transition metal in which the d electrons are not ordinarily involved in chemical bonding. The 2007 report of mercury(IV) fluoride (HgF4), a compound in which mercury would use its d electrons for bonding, has prompted some commentators to suggest that mercury can be regarded as a transition metal.[149] Other commentators, such as Jensen,[150] have argued that the formation of a compound like HgF4 can occur only under highly abnormal conditions; indeed, its existence is currently disputed. As such, mercury could not be regarded as a transition metal by any reasonable interpretation of the ordinary meaning of the term.[150]

text: Still other chemists further exclude the group 3 elements from the definition of a transition metal. They do so on the basis that the group 3 elements do not form any ions having a partially occupied d shell and do not therefore exhibit any properties characteristic of transition metal chemistry.[151] In this case, only groups 4–11 are regarded as transition metals. Though the group 3 elements show few of the characteristic chemical properties of the transition metals, they do show some of their characteristic physical properties (on account of the presence in each atom of a single d electron).[53]

text: Elements with unknown chemical properties

text: Although all elements up to oganesson have been discovered, of the elements above hassium (element 108), only copernicium (element 112), nihonium (element 113), and flerovium (element 114) have known chemical properties, and only for copernicium is there enough evidence for a conclusive categorisation at present. The other elements may behave differently from what would be predicted by extrapolation, due to relativistic effects; for example, flerovium has been predicted to possibly exhibit some noble-gas-like properties, even though it is currently placed in the carbon group.[152] The current experimental evidence still leaves open the question of whether flerovium behaves more like a metal or a noble gas.[153]

text: Further periodic table extensions

text:
Ununennium
Unbinilium
Unbiunium

Unquadquadium
Unquadpentium
Unquadhexium
Unquadseptium
Unquadoctium
Unquadennium
Unpentnilium
Unpentunium
Unpentbium
Unpenttrium
Unpentquadium
Unpentpentium
Unpenthexium
Unpentseptium
Unpentoctium
Unpentennium
Unhexnilium
Unhexunium
Unhexbium
Unhextrium
Unhexquadium
Unhexpentium
Unhexhexium
Unhexseptium
Unhexoctium
Unhexennium
Unseptnilium
Unseptunium
Unseptbium

Unbibium
Unbitrium
Unbiquadium
Unbipentium
Unbihexium
Unbiseptium
Unbioctium
Unbiennium
Untrinilium
Untriunium
Untribium
Untritrium
Untriquadium
Untripentium
Untrihexium
Untriseptium
Untrioctium
Untriennium
Unquadnilium
Unquadunium
Unquadbium
Unquadtrium

text: It is unclear whether new elements will continue the pattern of the current periodic table as period 8, or require further adaptations or adjustments. Seaborg expected the eighth period to follow the previously established pattern exactly, so that it would include a two-element s-block for elements 119 and 120, a new g-block for the next 18 elements, and 30 additional elements continuing the current f-, d-, and p-blocks, culminating in element 168, the next noble gas.[155] More recently, physicists such as Pekka Pyykkö have theorized that these additional elements do not follow the Madelung rule, which predicts how electron shells are filled and thus affects the appearance of the present periodic table. There are currently several competing theoretical models for the placement of the elements of atomic number less than or equal to 172. In all of these it is element 172, rather than element 168, that emerges as the next noble gas after oganesson, although these must be regarded as speculative as no complete calculations have been done beyond element 122.[156]

text: Element with the highest possible atomic number

text: The number of possible elements is not known. A very early suggestion made by Elliot Adams in 1911, and based on the arrangement of elements in each horizontal periodic table row, was that elements of atomic weight greater than circa 256 (which would equate to between elements 99 and 100 in modern-day terms) did not exist.[157] A higher—more recent—estimate is that the periodic table may end soon after the island of stability,[158] which is expected to centre around element 126, as the extension of the periodic and nuclides tables is restricted by proton and neutron drip lines.[159] Other predictions of an end to the periodic table include at element 128 by John Emsley,[3] at element 137 by Richard Feynman,[160] and at element 155 by Albert Khazan.[3][n 17]

text: The Bohr model exhibits difficulty for atoms with atomic number greater than 137, as any element with an atomic number greater than 137 would require 1s electrons to be travelling faster than c, the speed of light.[161] Hence the non-relativistic Bohr model is inaccurate when applied to such an element.

text: The relativistic Dirac equation has problems for elements with more than 137 protons. For such elements, the wave function of the Dirac ground state is oscillatory rather than bound, and there is no gap between the positive and negative energy spectra, as in the Klein paradox.[162] More accurate calculations taking into account the effects of the finite size of the nucleus indicate that the binding energy first exceeds the limit for elements with more than 173 protons. For heavier elements, if the innermost orbital (1s) is not filled, the electric field of the nucleus will pull an electron out of the vacuum, resulting in the spontaneous emission of a positron.[163] This does not happen if the innermost orbital is filled, so that element 173 is not necessarily the end of the periodic table.[160]

text: Optimal form

text: The many different forms of periodic table have prompted the question of whether there is an optimal or definitive form of periodic table.[164] The answer to this question is thought to depend on whether the chemical periodicity seen to occur among the elements has an underlying truth, effectively hard-wired into the universe, or if any such periodicity is instead the product of subjective human interpretation, contingent upon the circumstances, beliefs and predilections of human observers. An objective basis for chemical periodicity would settle the questions about the location of hydrogen and helium, and the composition of group 3. Such an underlying truth, if it exists, is thought to have not yet been discovered. In its absence, the many different forms of periodic table can be regarded as variations on the theme of chemical periodicity, each of which explores and emphasizes different aspects, properties, perspectives and relationships of and among the elements.[n 18][citation needed]


document_title: Super Dancer

question_text: who has eliminated from super dancer chapter 2

text: Super Dancer

text: Concept[edit]

text: The show Super Dancer - Dance Ka Kal aims to find a kid prodigy who has the potential to be the future of dance. The kids are aged between 4 and 13 years of age. They are not only required to have 3Ds of dancing - Desire, Discipline and Determination - but also should be a keen learner, adaptable to all dance styles and circumstances and should be a passionate dancer with a unique personality. This show is an ideal opportunity for every kid to hone their talent and dancing skills. [2]

text: After the initial auditions and mega auditions, 12 Super Dancers are selected to be competing for the title of Dance Ka Kal (future of dance). They are each paired with one choreographer (Super Guru) who has a unique style similar to theirs. These Super Gurus train them, choreograph acts for them and also perform with them. The Super Dancers perform on Saturdays and along with their choreographers on Sunday. The performances are voted by the audience every week on the website or the SonyLiv App. On the basis of the number of votes, one kid is being eliminated every week.

text: Season 1[edit]

text: Participants[edit]

text:
Contestant
From
Choreographer
Notes

Ditya Sagar Bhande
Mumbai
Ruel Dausan
WINNER

Dipali Borkar
Pune
Sonali Kar
Finalist

Masoom Narzary
Guwahati
Palden Lama Mawroh
Finalist

Yogesh Sharma
Mathura
Vaibhav Ghughe
Finalist

Laxman Kumbhar
Raipur
Paul Marshal
Finalist
Eliminated on 23 October 2016
Power Card entry on 30 October 2016

Siddhanth Damedhar
Aurangabad
Shyam Yadav
Eliminated on 23 October 2016
Power Card entry on 30 October 2016
Eliminated on 26 November 2016

Ashis Das
Guwahati
Lipsa Acharya
Eliminated on 19 November 2016

Ananya Choksi
Raipur
Amrita Maitra
Eliminated on 12 November 2016

Varsha Mishra
Agra
Nishant Bhat
Eliminated on 16 October 2016

Harsh Prajapati
Jaipur
Anuja
Eliminated on 16 October 2016

Mahi Soni
Chattarpur
Sneha Kapoor
Eliminated on 9 October 2016

Lakshay Sinha
Malda
Biki Das
Eliminated

text: Power Card Entry[edit]

text: Five contestants - Laxman Kumbhar, Siddhanth Damedhar (both of whom were eliminated from the show earlier), Lakshay Sinha (who couldn't perform earlier in the competition due to his injury), Tiyash Saha & Harsh Dhara (both standby contestants) were called back on 30 October 2016 to gain a Power Card Entry into the competition. The judges chose Laxman Kumbhar & Siddhanth Damedhar and they Re-entered the competition.

text: Winner

text: Ditya Sagar Bhande from Mumbai won the first season of Super dancer. Her choreographer was Ruel Dausan.

text: Season 2[edit]

text: Participants[edit]

text:
Contestant
From
Choreographer
Notes

Bishal Sharma
Jorhat, Assam
Vaibhav Ghuge

Ritik Diwaker
Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh
Pratik Ramesh Utekar

Akash Thapa
Dehradun, Uttarakhand
Vivek Chachere

Shagun Singh
Bhilai, Chhattisgarh
Aishwarya Radhakrishnan

Vaishnavi Prajapati
Panipat,Haryana
Manan Sachdeva
Power card entry on 26th November 2017

Akash Mitra
Patna, Bihar
Rishikaysh Jogadaand
Power card entrant (Eliminated on 25 February 2018)

Muskan Sharma
Indore, Madhya Pradesh
Paul Marshal
Eliminated on 11th February 2018

Mishti Sinha
Ahmednagar, Maharashtra
Omkar Shinde
Palden Lama Mawroh

Eliminated on 12 November 2017
Power card entry on 26th November 2017
Eliminated on 26th January 2018

Arushi Saxena
Ludhiana, Punjab
Nishant Bhat
Eliminated on 14 January 2018

Vivek Jogdande
Aurangabad, Maharashtra
Ruel Dausan Varindani
Eliminated on 19th November 2017

Jyoti Ranjan Sahu
Bhubaneswar, Odisha
Anuradha Iyengar
Eliminated on 19 November 2017

Abir Rahman
Kolkata, West Bengal
Sonali Kar
Eliminated on 12 November 2017

Kunal Jyoti Rabha
Guwahati, Assam
Palden Lama Mawroh
Eliminated on 29 October 2017

Chandresh Delwar
Indore, Madhya Pradesh
Khushboo Gupta
Eliminated on 29 October 2017

text: Power Card Entry[edit]

text: Three contestants, Vaishnavi Prajapati from Panipat with her Super Guru Manan, Akash Mitra from Patna with his Super Guru Rishikesh Jogdand and Mishti Sinha from Ahmednagar with her Super Guru Palden Lama Mowroh took a return on Power Card Entry. With top 9, voting started. For almost 6 weeks at a stretch, there was not a single elimination on the show. Firstly, Arushi Saxena (known as all rounder of the show) had to leave the show by normal elimination and provided the show Super 8. Mishti Sinha had to bid goodbye to the show due to an injury in her leg. Doctors suggested her to have respite and show got Super 7 .

text: Robo Girl Trend[edit]

text: Muskan Sharma termed as “robotic girl” of the show had set a trend of perfect indomitable robotics. She pursued such a different and tough dance form making many persons her fan. She performed robotics with contemporary and salsa which gave her a distinct look. Appreciated, she was said as trendsetter by shilpa shetty as the incredible girl invigorated and emboldened many other girls to chase robotics. Her Super Guru Paul always tried to present a message in her dance in which they were invincible. But voted less till super 7, she was eliminated.

text: 5-Year Old Dancers[edit]

text: Akash mitra is an amazing child on the show. He is always indifferent to all the situations and is termed as "God Ka Favourite Bachcha”. With his Super Guru Rishikesh, this 5 year old showcase his talent in many styles. He is majorly seen in feud with his friend Vaishnavi.

text: Vaishnavi is a 5 year old talented girl on the show who gets tickled easily. Judges were shocked when they come to know about her handicapped but willing mentor. She and her Super Guru Manan does simple but effective acts on the stage without getting encumbered.

text: Season[edit]

text: Tellyserialwiki , Super Dancer Season 2: Winner Name 2018


document_title: Flag of Venezuela

question_text: what does the colors of the venezuelan flag mean

text: Flag of Venezuela

text: Original flag[edit]

text: The flag is essentially the one designed by Francisco de Miranda for his unsuccessful 1806 expedition to liberate Venezuela and later adopted by the National Congress of 1811. It consisted of three equal horizontal stripes of yellow, blue and red. Miranda's flag is also the inspiration for the flags of Colombia and Ecuador. This original design was first flown on March 12, 1806 at Jacmel, Haiti as Miranda's expedition prepared to make the final leg of its voyage to Venezuela. The flag was first flown over Venezuelan soil at La Vela de Coro, on August 3. Until August 3, 2006, Flag Day was celebrated in Venezuela on March 12. Since 2006 it has been celebrated on August 3.

text: Miranda gave at least two sources of inspiration for his flag. In a letter written to Count Semyon Vorontsov in 1792, Miranda stated that the colors were based on a theory of primary colors given to him by the German writer and philosopher Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. Miranda described a late-night conversation he had with Goethe at a party in Weimar during the winter of 1785. Fascinated with Miranda's account of his exploits in the United States Revolutionary War and his travels throughout the Americas and Europe, Goethe told him that, "Your destiny is to create in your land a place where primary colors are not distorted.” He proceeded to clarify what he meant by this:

text: "First he explained to me the way the iris transforms light into the three primary colors […] then he proved to me why yellow is the most warm, noble and closest to [white] light; why blue is that mix of excitement and serenity, a distance that evokes shadows; and why red is the exaltation of yellow and blue, the synthesis, the vanishing of light into shadow.

text: It is not that the world is made of yellows, blues and reds; it is that in this manner, as if in an infinite combination of these three colors, we human beings see it. […] A country starts out from a name and a flag, and it then becomes them, just as a man fulfils his destiny."

text: After Miranda later designed his flag based on this conversation, he happily recalled seeing a fresco by Lazzaro Tavarone in the Palazzo Belimbau in Genoa that depicted Christopher Columbus unfurling a similar-colored flag in Veragua during his fourth voyage.[1]

text: In his military diary, Miranda gave another source of inspiration: the yellow, blue and red standard of the Burgers' Guard (Bürgerwache) of Hamburg, which he also saw during his travels in Germany.[2] The idea of the flag is documented in his 1801 plan for an army to liberate Spanish America, which he submitted unsuccessfully to the British cabinet. In it Miranda requested the materials for "ten flags, whose colours shall be red, yellow and blue, in three zones."[3]

text: The symbolism traditionally ascribed to the colors are that the yellow band stands for the wealth of the land, the red for courage, and the blue for the independence from Spain, or "golden" America separated from bloody Spain by the deep blue sea.[citation needed]

text: Colors and symbolism[edit]

text: The official colors

text:
Scheme
Yellow
Blue
Red

Pantone
116
287
186

RGB (hex)
252-209-22 (#FCD116)
0-56-147 (#003893)
206-17-38 (#CE1126)

CMYK
C0-M17.1-Y91.3-K0
C100-M61.9-Y0-K42.4
C0-M91.7-Y81.6-K19.2

text: According to the current interpretation, the colors signify:

text:
Yellow: Represents the riches of the country, the wealth of Venezuelan soil, gold, sovereignty, harmony, justice and agriculture, as well as the Sun, the source of Light.

  Blue: represents the seas on Venezuela's shores, the rivers that run through, and the sky above.

  Red: represents the blood spilled for Venezuela's independence.

text: 19th-century changes[edit]

text: During the first half of the 19th century, seven stars were added to the flag to represent the seven signatories to the Venezuelan declaration of independence, being the provinces of Caracas, Cumaná, Barcelona, Barinas, Margarita, Mérida, and Trujillo.

text:
Flag of Venezuela (1810–1812)

 Flag of Venezuela (1813-1814)

 Flag of Venezuela (1817–1819)

 Flag of Venezuela (1830–1836)

 Flag of Venezuela (1836–1859)

 Flag of Venezuela (1859)

 Flag of Venezuela (1859–1863)

 Flag of Venezuela (1863–1905)

 Flag of Venezuela (1905–1930)

text: After the Guayana campaign, Simón Bolívar added an eighth star to the national flag (the so-called Flag of Angostura) in representation of the newly freed province. Bolívar issued the following decree:

text: 1954 changes[edit]

text: The Law of the National Flag, Coat of Arms and Anthem added the Coat of Arms to the flag on February 19, 1954. The coat of arms was not incorporated into the Civil or Maritime Flag, which is intended for non-governmental purposes, such as civilian use, merchant craft, and international sports competition.

text: 2006 changes[edit]

text: In 2006 the President of Venezuela Hugo Chávez announced plans to add an eighth star to the flag of Venezuela to bring about a much belated fulfillment to Bolívar's 1817 decree. The eighth star represents the Guayana Province, one of the Provinces of Venezuela at the time of the declaration of independence. The changes also include a white horse galloping left instead of right, a bow and arrow representing Venezuela’s indigenous people and a machete to represent the labor of workers. Although the new flag was approved by the Venezuelan government, opposition spokesperson Óscar Pérez stated that they would not use the new flag.[5]

text: Customs and regulations[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: As with most other national flags, the Venezuelan flag should be flown every day by the legally registered public institutions from 7 a.m. until 6 p.m. Private institutions, businesses and citizens should fly the flag on national holidays or on days determined by the National Executive. Institutions which should fly the flag by obligation are:

text:
The Federal Legislative Palace, when the National Assembly is in session and buildings in which a legislative council is being held,
Public national, state and municipal offices on national holidays and other days determined by special resolution of the relevant authorities,
Embassies, legations, consulates and other national agencies abroad, on national holidays or when required by the protocol of the host nation,
Miraflores Palace, the building of the office of the President of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, daily,
Buildings of the Armed Forces, fortresses and other military buildings, as determined by law and pertinent regulations,
Venezuelan merchant ships, using the civil ensign, since they operate in a civil capacity.

text: There is currently no regulation as to the dimensions of the flag, its use inside private or public institutions or by the public in general, its form and protocol. The conventions that currently exist have been freely determined. Nevertheless, educational institutions currently follow a protocol modeled on the regulations issued for the armed forces for use in raising the flag on special days.

text: Out of respect for the flag, popular culture holds that upon raising the flag, the national anthem should be played and all present should stand still, straight, with closed hands at the sides and without any headgear.[citation needed]

text: Folding the flag[edit]

text: Although there is no official regulation on the manner in which the flag should be folded, there is, as in other countries, a procedure with widespread acceptance in schools, scout groups and military institutions. Its origins are not known, but there are several possibilities, such as the adoption of the custom from other nations of the region, such as the United States, in which this singular way of folding a flag originated. In the Venezuelan case, there are two ways of folding the flag depending on whether it is a civil or state flag.

text:
For the state flag, the flag is lowered and taken to the place where it will be folded. It is then held at all four corners by at least two people. The red stripe is folded over the blue and then the yellow over the red, so that the yellow stripe and the national arms are on top and the blue stripe with stars on the bottom. The flag is then folded under in a triangular manner from the fly to the hoist such that at the end the remaining material is tucked into the last fold and the resulting triangle is all yellow with the national arms.
For the civil flag, the flag is also lowered in the same manner as above but the yellow stripe is folded first over the blue one, then the red one over the yellow stripe, with the blue stripe and stars facing down. The flag is then folded over in a triangular manner so that the resulting triangle is only blue with stars.

text: Flag anthem[edit]

text: The flag has its own anthem, which was composed in 1889 with music by Francisco Araldi and lyrics by Zolessi Geronimo, which reads:

text:
Himno de la Bandera

Spanish
English

Verse I

Oh, Bandera del pueblo Caribe
vivo foco de luz y de honor
en tus pliegues mi patria se exhibe
grande en gloria y rica en valor.

Oh, flag of the Caribbean people
Living focus of light and honor
in your folds my homeland is shown
great in glory and rich in valour.

Verse II

Difundiste por cumbres y llanos
la epopeya de la libertad
y dejaste sobre ambos océanos
los relumbres de la heroicidad.

You spread throughout peaks and plains
the epic of freedom
and left on both oceans
shining flashes of heroism.

Verse III

Venezuela la hermosa y pujante
en sus brazos la gloria te alzó
y en tu seno de amor palpitante
ocho estrellas de vida encendió.

Venezuela, the beautiful and thriving
in its arms glory has raised you
and in your breast of throbbing love
eight stars of life have been lit

text: Student Oath to the Flag[edit]

text: Similarly, a Flag Oath has also been written for students to be said on August 3, which is as follows:

text:
Spanish
English

¡Bandera Mía!
¡Mi Patria eres tú!
Y la Patria es la tierra: ¡Venezuela!
Es el Llano, son los Andes, es el Mar que nos rodea.
Es la Selva y sus riquezas.
Son sus ríos.
Son sus hombres, sus mujeres y sus niños.
Es su música.
Es la Lengua Castellana en que te hablamos.
Es la Historia que es Bolívar.
¡Son mis padres, mis hermanos, mis amigos, mis maestros!.
Aquí vengo reverente,
El cariño, el respeto y la adhesión que te debemos
¡Porque eres, mi Bandera, todo eso! Y eres más.
Te prometo, cada día, ser mejor:
Estudiar con dedicación.
Ser honesto y capaz.
Contribuir a tu grandeza
Y elevar, hasta el cielo,
Esas franjas amarilla, azul y roja
¡Y entregarle ocho estrellas que le faltan!

My Flag!
My Fatherland you are!
And the Fatherland is the land: Venezuela!
It's the Plains, the Andes, and the sea that surrounds us.
It's the rainforest and its virtues.
It's its rivers.
AIt's their men, women and children.
It's its music.
It is the Spanish language with which we speak to you.
It is the history that is Bolivar.
They are my parents, my brothers, my friends, my teachers!.
Here I come in reverence,
The love, respect and commitment we owe you
Because you're my banner, all that! And you are more.
I promise you, every day, to be better:
Studying with dedication.
Being honest and capable.
To contribute to your greatness
And raise up to the sky,
Those stripes of yellow, blue and red
And give it the eight stars it's missing!

text: This is followed by the following pledge for those in schools:

text:
Spanish
English

Pledge to the National Flag

Maestro:
¡Joven venezolano
que de la Bandera has hecho
una imagen de la Patria!
¡Has hecho una promesa!
¿Juras cumplirla?

Estudiantes:
¡Juramos!

Pledge to the National Flag

Teacher:
Young Venezuelans,
this Flag holds before you
an image of the Fatherland!
And it has a promise!
Do you swear to fulfill it?

Students:
Yes, we pledge!

text: Versions of this oath and pledge are used for the National Armed Forces of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela and the Policia Nacional Bolivariana, but in this case, only the pledge is used during graduation and passing out parades.