document_title: Heavy metals

question_text: which heavy metal has highest concentration in earth's crust

question_tokens: which heavy metal has highest concentration in earth 's crust

text: Heavy metals

text: Definitions[edit]

text:
Heat map of heavy metals in the periodic table

1
2
3

4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

1
H

He

2
Li
Be

B
C
N
O
F
Ne

3
Na
Mg

Al
Si
P
S
Cl
Ar

4
K
Ca
Sc

Ti
V
Cr
Mn
Fe
Co
Ni
Cu
Zn
Ga
Ge
As
Se
Br
Kr

5
Rb
Sr
Y

Zr
Nb
Mo
Tc
Ru
Rh
Pd
Ag
Cd
In
Sn
Sb
Te
I
Xe

6
Cs
Ba
La

Hf
Ta
W
Re
Os
Ir
Pt
Au
Hg
Tl
Pb
Bi
Po
At
Rn

7
Fr
Ra
Ac

Rf
Db
Sg
Bh
Hs
Mt
Ds
Rg
Cn
Nh
Fl
Mc
Lv
Ts
Og

Ce
Pr
Nd
Pm
Sm
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Ho
Er
Tm
Yb
Lu

Th
Pa
U
Np
Pu
Am
Cm
Bk
Cf
Es
Fm
Md
No
Lr

Number of criteria met:
Number of elements:

10
3

9
5

8
14

6–7
56

4–5
14

1–3
4

0
3

nonmetals
19

This table shows the number of heavy metal criteria met by each metal, out of the ten criteria listed in this section i.e. two based on density, three on atomic weight, two on atomic number, and three on chemical behaviour.[n 1] It illustrates the lack of agreement surrounding the concept, with the possible exception of mercury, lead and bismuth.
Six elements near the end of periods (rows) 4 to 7 sometimes considered metalloids are treated here as metals, including germanium (Ge), arsenic (As), selenium (Se), antimony (Sb), tellurium (Te), and astatine (At).[15][n 2] Oganesson (Og) is treated as a nonmetal.
Metals enclosed by a dashed line have (or, for At and Fm–Ts, are predicted to have) densities of more than 5 g/cm3.

text: There is no widely agreed criterion-based definition of a heavy metal. Different meanings may be attached to the term, depending on the context. In metallurgy, for example, a heavy metal may be defined on the basis of density,[16] whereas in physics the distinguishing criterion might be atomic number,[17] and a chemist would likely be more concerned with chemical behaviour.[9]

text: Density criteria range from above 3.5 g/cm3 to above 7 g/cm3.[2] Atomic weight definitions can range from greater than sodium (atomic weight 22.98);[2] greater than 40 (excluding s- and f-block metals, hence starting with scandium);[3] or more than 200, i.e. from mercury onwards.[4] Atomic numbers of heavy metals are generally given as greater than 20 (calcium);[2] sometimes this is capped at 92 (uranium).[5] Definitions based on atomic number have been criticised for including metals with low densities. For example, rubidium in group (column) 1 of the periodic table has an atomic number of 37 but a density of only 1.532 g/cm3, which is below the threshold figure used by other authors.[18] The same problem may occur with atomic weight based definitions.[19]

text: Criteria based on chemical behaviour or periodic table position have been used or suggested. The United States Pharmacopeia includes a test for heavy metals that involves precipitating metallic impurities as their coloured sulfides."[6][n 3] In 1997, Stephen Hawkes, a chemistry professor writing in the context of fifty years' experience with the term, said it applied to "metals with insoluble sulfides and hydroxides, whose salts produce colored solutions in water and whose complexes are usually colored". On the basis of the metals he had seen referred to as heavy metals, he suggested it would useful to define them as (in general) all the metals in periodic table columns 3 to 16 that are in row 4 or greater, in other words, the transition metals and post-transition metals.[9][n 4] The lanthanides satisfy Hawkes' three-part description; the status of the actinides is not completely settled.[n 5][n 6]

text: In biochemistry, heavy metals are sometimes defined—on the basis of the Lewis acid (electronic pair acceptor) behaviour of their ions in aqueous solution—as class B and borderline metals.[40] In this scheme, class A metal ions prefer oxygen donors; class B ions prefer nitrogen or sulfur donors; and borderline or ambivalent ions show either class A or B characteristics, depending on the circumstances.[n 7] Class A metals, which tend to have low electronegativity and form bonds with large ionic character, are the alkali and alkaline earths, aluminium, the group 3 metals, and the lanthanides and actinides.[n 8] Class B metals, which tend to have higher electronegativity and form bonds with considerable covalent character, are mainly the heavier transition and post-transition metals. Borderline metals largely comprise the lighter transition and post-transition metals (plus arsenic and antimony). The distinction between the class A metals and the other two categories is sharp.[44] A frequently cited proposal[n 9] to use these classification categories instead of the more evocative[10] name heavy metal has not been widely adopted.[46]

text: List of heavy metals based on density[edit]

text: A density of more than 5 g/cm3 is sometimes mentioned as a common heavy metal defining factor[47] and, in the absence of a unanimous definition, is used to populate this list and (unless otherwise stated) guide the remainder of the article. Metalloids meeting the applicable criteria–arsenic and antimony for example—are sometimes counted as heavy metals, particularly in environmental chemistry,[48] as is the case here. Selenium (density 4.8 g/cm3)[49] is also included in the list. It falls marginally short of the density criterion and is less commonly recognised as a metalloid[15] but has a waterborne chemistry similar in some respects to that of arsenic and antimony.[50] Other metals sometimes classified or treated as "heavy" metals, such as beryllium[51] (density 1.8 g/cm3),[52] aluminium[51] (2.7 g/cm3),[53] calcium[54] (1.55 g/cm3),[55] and barium[54] (3.6 g/cm3)[56] are here treated as light metals and, in general, are not further considered.

text:
Produced mainly by commercial mining (informally classified by economic significance)

Strategic (30)

Considered vital to multiple nations'
strategic interests[57]

These 30 include 22 listed here and
8 below (6 precious & 2 commodity).

Antimony†
Cerium
Dysprosium
Erbium
Europium
Gadolinium
Gallium
Germanium†
Holmium
Indium
Lanthanum
Lutetium
Neodymium
Niobium
Praseodymium
Samarium
Tantalum
Terbium
Thulium
Tungsten
Uranium
Ytterbium

Precious (8)

Rare and costly[58]

Strategic:

Iridium
Osmium
Palladium
Platinum
Rhodium
Ruthenium

Non-strategic:

Gold
Silver

Commodity (9)

Traded by the tonne on the LME

Strategic:

Chromium
Cobalt

Non-strategic:

Copper
Iron
Lead
Molybdenum
Nickel
Tin
Zinc

Minor (14)

Neither strategic, precious, nor commodity

Arsenic†
Bismuth
Cadmium
Hafnium
Manganese
Mercury
Protactinium
Rhenium
Selenium†
Tellurium†
Thallium
Thorium
Vanadium
Zirconium

Produced mainly by artificial transmutation (informally classified by stability)

Long-lived (15)

Half-life greater than 1 day

Actinium¶
Americium
Berkelium
Californium
Curium
Dubnium
Einsteinium
Fermium
Mendelevium
Neptunium¶
Plutonium¶
Polonium¶
Promethium¶
Radium¶
Technetium¶

Ephemeral (16)

Half-life less than 1 day

Astatine ‡ ¶
Bohrium
Copernicium
Darmstadtium
Flerovium
Hassium
Lawrencium
Livermorium
Meitnerium
Moscovium
Nihonium
Nobelium
Roentgenium
Rutherfordium
Seaborgium
Tennessine

†
Antimony, arsenic, germanium and tellurium are commonly recognised as metalloids; selenium less commonly so.[15]

‡
Astatine is predicted to be a metal.[59]

All isotopes of these 34 elements are unstable and hence radioactive. While this is also true of bismuth, it is not so marked since its half-life of 19 billion billion years is over a billion times the 13.8 billion year estimated age of the universe.[60][61]

¶
These eight elements do occur naturally but in amounts too small for economically viable extraction.[62]

text: Origins and use of the term[edit]

text: The heaviness of naturally occurring metals such as gold, copper, and iron may have been noticed in prehistory and, in light of their malleability, led to the first attempts to craft metal ornaments, tools, and weapons.[63] All metals discovered from then until 1809 had relatively high densities; their heaviness was regarded as a singularly distinguishing criterion.[64]

text: From 1809 onwards, light metals such as sodium, potassium, and strontium were isolated. Their low densities challenged conventional wisdom and it was proposed to refer to them as metalloids (meaning "resembling metals in form or appearance").[65] This suggestion was ignored; the new elements came to be recognised as metals, and the term metalloid was then used to refer to nonmetallic elements and, later, elements that were hard to describe as either metals or nonmetals.[66]

text: An early use of the term "heavy metal" dates from 1817, when the German chemist Leopold Gmelin divided the elements into nonmetals, light metals, and heavy metals.[67] Light metals had densities of 0.860–5.0 g/cm3; heavy metals 5.308–22.000.[68][n 10] The term later became associated with elements of high atomic weight or high atomic number.[18] It is sometimes used interchangeably with the term heavy element. For example, in discussing the history of nuclear chemistry, Magee[69] notes that the actinides were once thought to represent a new heavy element transition group whereas Seaborg and co-workers, "favoured ... a heavy metal rare-earth like series ...". In astronomy, however, a heavy element is any element heavier than hydrogen and helium.[70]

text: Criticism[edit]

text: In 2002, Scottish toxicologist John Duffus reviewed the definitions used over the previous 60 years and concluded they were so diverse as to effectively render the term meaningless.[71] Along with this finding, the heavy metal status of some metals is occasionally challenged on the grounds that they are too light, or are involved in biological processes, or rarely constitute environmental hazards. Examples include scandium (too light);[18][72] vanadium to zinc (biological processes);[73] and rhodium, indium, and osmium (too rare).[74]

text: Popularity[edit]

text: Despite its questionable meaning, references to the term heavy metal appear regularly in scientific literature. A 2010 study found that it had been increasingly used and seemed to have become part of the language of science.[75] It is said to be an acceptable term, given its convenience and familiarity, as long as it is accompanied by a strict definition.[40] The counterparts to the heavy metals, the light metals, are alluded to by The Minerals, Metals and Materials Society as including "aluminium, magnesium, beryllium, titanium, lithium, and other reactive metals."[76] The named metals have densities of 0.534 to 4.54 g/cm3.

text: Biological role[edit]

text:
Amount of heavy metals in
an average 70 kg human body

Element
Milligrams[77]

Iron
4000
4000

Zinc
2500
2500

Lead[n 11]
120
120

Copper
70
70

Tin[n 12]
30
30

Vanadium
20
20

Cadmium
20
20

Nickel[n 13]
15
15

Selenium
14
14

Manganese
12
12

Other[n 14]
200
200

Total
7000

text: Trace amounts of some heavy metals, mostly in period 4, are required for certain biological processes. These are iron and copper (oxygen and electron transport); cobalt (complex syntheses and cell metabolism); zinc (hydroxylation);[82] vanadium and manganese (enzyme regulation or functioning); chromium (glucose utilisation); nickel (cell growth); arsenic (metabolic growth in some animals and possibly in humans) and selenium (antioxidant functioning and hormone production).[83] Periods 5 and 6 contain fewer essential heavy metals, consistent with the general pattern that heavier elements tend to be less abundant and that scarcer elements are less likely to be nutritionally essential.[84] In period 5, molybdenum is required for the catalysis of redox reactions; cadmium is used by some marine diatoms for the same purpose; and tin may be required for growth in a few species.[85] In period 6, tungsten is required by some bacteria for metabolic processes.[86] A deficiency of any of these period 4–6 essential heavy metals may increase susceptibility to heavy metal poisoning[87] (conversely, an excess may also have adverse biological effects). An average 70 kg human body is about 0.01% heavy metals (~7 g, equivalent to the weight of two dried peas, with iron at 4 g, zinc at 2.5 g, and lead at 0.12 g comprising the three main constituents), 2% light metals (~1.4 kg, the weight of a bottle of wine) and nearly 98% nonmetals (mostly water).[88][n 15]

text: A few non-essential heavy metals have been observed to have biological effects. Gallium, germanium (a metalloid), indium, and most lanthanides can stimulate metabolism, and titanium promotes growth in plants[89] (though it is not always considered a heavy metal).

text: Toxicity[edit]

text: Heavy metals are often assumed to be highly toxic or damaging to the environment.[90] Some are, while certain others are toxic only if taken in excess or encountered in certain forms.

text: Environmental heavy metals[edit]

text: Chromium, arsenic, cadmium, mercury, and lead have the greatest potential to cause harm on account of their extensive use, the toxicity of some of their combined or elemental forms, and their widespread distribution in the environment.[91] Hexavalent chromium, for example, is highly toxic as are mercury vapour and many mercury compounds.[92] These five elements have a strong affinity for sulfur; in the human body they usually bind, via thiol groups (–SH), to enzymes responsible for controlling the speed of metabolic reactions. The resulting sulfur-metal bonds inhibit the proper functioning of the enzymes involved; human health deteriorates, sometimes fatally.[93] Chromium (in its hexavalent form) and arsenic are carcinogens; cadmium causes a degenerative bone disease; and mercury and lead damage the central nervous system.

text:
Chromium crystals
and 1 cm3 cube

Arsenic, sealed in a
container to stop tarnishing

Cadmium bar
and 1 cm3 cube

Mercury being
poured into a petri dish

Oxidised lead
nodules and 1 cm3 cube

text:
Lead is the most prevalent heavy metal contaminant.[94] Levels in the aquatic environments of industrialised societies have been estimated to be two to three times those of pre-industrial levels.[95] As a component of tetraethyl lead, (CH
3CH
2)
4Pb, it was used extensively in gasoline during the 1930s–1970s.[96] Although the use of leaded gasoline was largely phased out in North America by 1996, soils next to roads built before this time retain high lead concentrations.[97] Later research demonstrated a statistically significant correlation between the usage rate of leaded gasoline and violent crime in the United States; taking into account a 22-year time lag (for the average age of violent criminals), the violent crime curve virtually tracked the lead exposure curve.[98]

text: Other heavy metals noted for their potentially hazardous nature, usually as toxic environmental pollutants, include manganese (central nervous system damage);[99] cobalt and nickel (carcinogens);[100] copper,[101] zinc,[102] selenium[103] and silver[104] (endocrine disruption, congenital disorders, or general toxic effects in fish, plants, birds, or other aquatic organisms); tin, as organotin (central nervous system damage);[105] antimony (a suspected carcinogen);[106] and thallium (central nervous system damage).[101][n 16][n 17]

text: Nutritionally essential heavy metals[edit]

text:
Heavy metals essential for life can be toxic if taken in excess; some have notably toxic forms. Vanadium pentoxide (V2O5) is carcinogenic in animals and, when inhaled, causes DNA damage.[101] The purple permanganate ion MnO–
4 is a liver and kidney poison.[110] Ingesting more than 0.5 grams of iron can induce cardiac collapse; such overdoses most commonly occur in children and may result in death within 24 hours.[101] Nickel carbonyl (Ni2(CO)4), at 30 parts per million, can cause respiratory failure, brain damage and death.[101] Imbibing a gram or more of copper sulfate (Cu(SO4)2) can be fatal; survivors may be left with major organ damage.[111] More than five milligrams of selenium is highly toxic; this is roughly ten times the 0.45 milligram recommended maximum daily intake;[112] long-term poisoning can have paralytic effects.[101][n 18]

text: Other heavy metals[edit]

text: A few other non-essential heavy metals have one or more toxic forms. Kidney failure and fatalities have been recorded arising from the ingestion of germanium dietary supplements (~15 to 300 g in total consumed over a period of two months to three years).[101] Exposure to osmium tetroxide (OsO4) may cause permanent eye damage and can lead to respiratory failure[114] and death.[115] Indium salts are toxic if more than few milligrams are ingested and will affect the kidneys, liver, and heart.[116] Cisplatin (PtCl2(NH3)2), which is an important drug used to kill cancer cells, is also a kidney and nerve poison.[101] Bismuth compounds can cause liver damage if taken in excess; insoluble uranium compounds, as well as the dangerous radiation they emit, can cause permanent kidney damage.[117]

text: Exposure sources[edit]

text: Heavy metals can degrade air, water, and soil quality, and subsequently cause health issues in plants, animals, and people, when they become concentrated as a result of industrial activities.[118] Common sources of heavy metals in this context include mining and industrial wastes; vehicle emissions; lead-acid batteries; fertilisers; paints; and treated timber;[119] aging water supply infrastructure;[120] and microplastics floating in the world's oceans.[121] Recent examples of heavy metal contamination and health risks include the occurrence of Minamata disease, in Japan (1932–1968; lawsuits ongoing as of 2016);[122] the Bento Rodrigues dam disaster in Brazil,[123] and high levels of lead in drinking water supplied to the residents of Flint, Michigan, in the north-east of the United States.[124]

text: Formation, abundance, occurrence, and extraction[edit]

text:
Heavy metals in the Earth's crust:

abundance and main occurrence or source[n 19]

1
2
3

4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

1
H

He

2
Li
Be

B
C
N
O
F
Ne

3
Na
Mg

Al
Si
P
S
Cl
Ar

4
K
Ca
Sc

Ti
V
Cr
Mn
Fe
Co
Ni
Cu
Zn
Ga
Ge
As
Se
Br
Kr

5
Rb
Sr
Y

Zr
Nb
Mo

Ru
Rh
Pd
Ag
Cd
In
Sn
Sb
Te
 I
Xe

6
Cs
Ba
La

Hf
Ta
W
Re
Os
Ir
Pt
Au
Hg
Tl
Pb
Bi

7

Ce
Pr
Nd

Sm
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Ho
Er
Tm
Yb
Lu

Th

U

   Most abundant (7004563000000000000♠56300 ppm by weight)

   Rare (0.01–0.99 ppm)

   Abundant (100–7002999000000000000♠999 ppm)

   Very rare (0.0001–0.0099 ppm)

   Uncommon (1–99 ppm)

Heavy metals left of the dividing line occur (or are sourced) mainly as lithophiles; those to the right, as chalcophiles except gold (a siderophile) and tin (a lithophile).

text: Heavy metals up to the vicinity of iron (in the periodic table) are largely made via stellar nucleosynthesis. In this process, lighter elements from hydrogen to silicon undergo successive fusion reactions inside stars, releasing light and heat and forming heavier elements with higher atomic numbers.[128]

text: Heavier heavy metals are not usually formed this way since fusion reactions involving such nuclei would consume rather than release energy.[129] Rather, they are largely synthesised (from elements with a lower atomic number) by neutron capture, with the two main modes of this repetitive capture being the s-process and the r-process. In the s-process ("s" stands for "slow"), singular captures are separated by years or decades, allowing the less stable nuclei to beta decay,[130] while in the r-process ("rapid"), captures happen faster than nuclei can decay. Therefore, the s-process takes a more or less clear path: for example, stable cadmium-110 nuclei are successively bombarded by free neutrons inside a star until they form cadmium-115 nuclei which are unstable and decay to form indium-115 (which is nearly stable, with a half-life 7004300000000000000♠30000 times the age of the universe). These nuclei capture neutrons and form indium-116, which is unstable, and decays to form tin-116, and so on.[128][131][n 20] In contrast, there is no such path in the r-process. The s-process stops at bismuth due to the short half-lives of the next two elements, polonium, and astatine, which decay to bismuth or lead. The r-process is so fast it can skip this zone of instability and go on to create heavier elements such as thorium and uranium.[133]

text: Heavy metals condense in planets as a result of stellar evolution and destruction processes. Stars lose much of their mass when it is ejected late in their lifetimes, and sometimes thereafter as a result of a neutron star merger,[134][n 21] thereby increasing the abundance of elements heavier than helium in the interstellar medium. When gravitational attraction causes this matter to coalesce and collapse new stars and planets are formed.[136]

text: The Earth's crust is made of approximately 5% of heavy metals by weight, with iron comprising 95% of this quantity. Light metals (~20%) and nonmetals (~75%) make up the other 95% of the crust.[125] Despite their overall scarcity, heavy metals can become concentrated in economically extractable quantities as a result of mountain building, erosion, or other geological processes.[137]

text: Heavy metals are primarily found as lithophiles (rock-loving) or chalcophiles (ore-loving). Lithophile heavy metals are mainly f-block elements and the more reactive of the d-block elements. They have a strong affinity for oxygen and mostly exist as relatively low density silicate minerals.[138] Chalcophile heavy metals are mainly the less reactive d-block elements, and period 4–6 p-block metals and metalloids. They are usually found in (insoluble) sulfide minerals. Being denser than the lithophiles, hence sinking lower into the crust at the time of its solidification, the chalcophiles tend to be less abundant than the lithophiles.[139]

text: On the other hand, gold is a siderophile, or iron-loving element. It does not readily form compounds with either oxygen or sulfur.[140] At the time of the Earth's formation, and as the most noble (inert) of metals, gold sank into the core due to its tendency to form high-density metallic alloys. Consequently, it is a relatively rare metal.[141] Some other (less) noble heavy metals—molybdenum, rhenium, the platinum group metals (ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, osmium, iridium, and platinum), germanium, and tin—can be counted as siderophiles but only in terms of their primary occurrence in the Earth (core, mantle and crust), rather the crust. These metals otherwise occur in the crust, in small quantities, chiefly as chalcophiles (less so in their native form).[142][n 22]

text: Concentrations of heavy metals below the crust are generally higher, with most being found in the largely iron-silicon-nickel core. Platinum, for example, comprises approximately 1 part per billion of the crust whereas its concentration in the core is thought to be nearly 6,000 times higher.[143][144] Recent speculation suggests that uranium (and thorium) in the core may generate a substantial amount of the heat that drives plate tectonics and (ultimately) sustains the Earth's magnetic field.[145][n 23]

text: The winning of heavy metals from their ores is a complex function of ore type, the chemical properties of the metals involved, and the economics of various extraction methods. Different countries and refineries may use different processes, including those that differ from the brief outlines listed here.

text: Broadly speaking, and with some exceptions, lithophile heavy metals can be extracted from their ores by electrical or chemical treatments, while chalcophile heavy metals are obtained by roasting their sulphide ores to yield the corresponding oxides, and then heating these to obtain the raw metals.[147][n 24] Radium occurs in quantities too small to be economically mined and is instead obtained from spent nuclear fuels.[150] The chalcophile platinum group metals (PGM) mainly occur in small (mixed) quantities with other chalcophile ores. The ores involved need to be smelted, roasted, and then leached with sulfuric acid to produce a residue of PGM. This is chemically refined to obtain the individual metals in their pure forms.[151] Compared to other metals, PGM are expensive due to their scarcity[152] and high production costs.[153]

text: Gold, a siderophile, is most commonly recovered by dissolving the ores in which it is found in a cyanide solution.[154] The gold forms a dicyanoaurate(I), for example: 2 Au + H2O +½ O2 + KCN → 2 K[Au(CN)2] + 2 KOH. Zinc is added to the mix and, being more reactive than gold, displaces the gold: 2[Au(CN)2] + Zn → K2[Zn(CN)4] + 2 Au. The gold precipitates out of solution as a sludge, and is filtered off and melted.[155]

text: Properties compared with light metals[edit]

text: Some general physical and chemical properties of light and heavy metals are summarised in the table. The comparison should be treated with caution since the terms light metal and heavy metal are not always consistently defined. Also the physical properties of hardness and tensile strength can vary widely depending on purity, grain size and pre-treatment.[156]

text:
Properties of light and heavy metals

Physical properties
Light metals
Heavy metals

Density
Usually lower
Usually higher

Hardness[157]
Tend to be soft, easily cut or bent
Most are quite hard

Thermal expansivity[158]
Mostly higher
Mostly lower

Melting point
Mostly low[159]
Low to very high[160]

Tensile strength[161]
Mostly lower
Mostly higher

Chemical properties
Light metals
Heavy metals

Periodic table location
Most found in groups 1 and 2[162]
Nearly all found in groups 3 through 16

Abundance in Earth's crust[125][163]
More abundant
Less abundant

Main occurrence (or source)
Lithophiles[127]
Lithophiles or chalcophiles (Au is a siderophile)

Reactivity[76][163]
More reactive
Less reactive

Sulfides
Soluble to insoluble[n 25]
Extremely insoluble[168]

Hydroxides
Soluble to insoluble[n 26]
Generally insoluble[172]

Salts[165]
Mostly form colourless solutions in water
Mostly form coloured solutions in water

Complexes
Mostly colourless[173]
Mostly coloured[174]

Biological role[175]
Include macronutrients (Na, Mg, K, Ca)
Include micronutrients (V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Mo)

text: These properties make it relatively easy to distinguish a light metal like sodium from a heavy metal like tungsten, but the differences become less clear at the boundaries. Light structural metals like beryllium, scandium, and titanium have some of the characteristics of heavy metals, such as higher melting points;[n 27] post-transition heavy metals like zinc, cadmium, and lead have some of the characteristics of light metals, such as being relatively soft, having lower melting points,[n 28] and forming mainly colourless complexes.[20][22][23]

text: Uses[edit]

text: Heavy metals are present in nearly all aspects of modern life. Iron may be the most common as it accounts for 90% of all refined metals. Platinum may be the most ubiquitous given it is said to be found in, or used to produce, 20% of all consumer goods.[180]

text: Some common uses of heavy metals depend on the general characteristics of metals such as electrical conductivity and reflectivity or the general characteristics of heavy metals such as density, strength, and durability. Other uses depend on the characteristics of the specific element, such as their biological role as nutrients or poisons or some other specific atomic properties. Examples of such atomic properties include: partly filled d- or f- orbitals (in many of the transition, lanthanide, and actinide heavy metals) that enable the formation of coloured compounds;[181] the capacity of most heavy metal ions (such as platinum,[182] cerium[183] or bismuth[184]) to exist in different oxidation states and therefore act as catalysts;[185] poorly overlapping 3d or 4f orbitals (in iron, cobalt, and nickel, or the lanthanide heavy metals from europium through thulium) that give rise to magnetic effects;[186] and high atomic numbers and electron densities that underpin their nuclear science applications.[187] Typical uses of heavy metals can be broadly grouped into the following six categories.[188][n 29]

text: Weight- or density-based[edit]

text: Some uses of heavy metals, including in sport, mechanical engineering, military ordnance, and nuclear science, take advantage of their relatively high densities. In underwater diving, lead is used as a ballast;[190] in handicap horse racing each horse must carry a specified lead weight, based on factors including past performance, so as to equalize the chances of the various competitors.[191] In golf, tungsten, brass, or copper inserts in fairway clubs and irons lower the centre of gravity of the club making it easier to get the ball into the air;[192] and golf balls with tungsten cores are claimed to have better flight characteristics.[193] In fly fishing, sinking fly lines have a PVC coating embedded with tungsten powder, so that they sink at the required rate.[194] In track and field sport, steel balls used in the hammer throw and shot put events are filled with lead in order to attain the minimum weight required under international rules.[195] Tungsten was used in hammer throw balls at least up to 1980; the minimum size of the ball was increased in 1981 to eliminate the need for what was, at that time, an expensive metal (triple the cost of other hammers) not generally available in all countries.[196] Tungsten hammers were so dense that they penetrated too deeply into the turf.[197]

text: In mechanical engineering, heavy metals are used for ballast in boats,[198] aeroplanes,[199] and motor vehicles;[200] or in balance weights on wheels and crankshafts,[201] gyroscopes, and propellers,[202] and centrifugal clutches,[203] in situations requiring maximum weight in minimum space (for example in watch movements).[199]

text:
The higher the projectile density, the more effectively it can penetrate heavy armor plate ... Os, Ir, Pt, and Re ... are expensive ... U offers an appealing combination of high density, reasonable cost and high fracture toughness.

AM Russell and KL Lee
Structure–property relations
in nonferrous metals (2005, p. 16)

tag: div

text: In military ordnance, tungsten or uranium is used in armour plating[204] and armour piercing projectiles,[205] as well as in nuclear weapons to increase efficiency (by reflecting neutrons and momentarily delaying the expansion of reacting materials).[206] In the 1970s, tantalum was found to be more effective than copper in shaped charge and explosively formed anti-armour weapons on account of its higher density, allowing greater force concentration, and better deformability.[207] Less-toxic heavy metals, such as copper, tin, tungsten, and bismuth, and probably manganese (as well as boron, a metalloid), have replaced lead and antimony in the green bullets used by some armies and in some recreational shooting munitions.[208] Doubts have been raised about the safety (or green credentials) of tungsten.[209]

text: Because denser materials absorb more radioactive emissions than lighter ones, heavy metals are useful for radiation shielding and to focus radiation beams in linear accelerators and radiotherapy applications.[210]

text: Strength- or durability-based[edit]

text: The strength or durability of heavy metals such as chromium, iron, nickel, copper, zinc, molybdenum, tin, tungsten, and lead, as well as their alloys, makes them useful for the manufacture of artefacts such as tools, machinery,[213] appliances,[214] utensils,[215] pipes,[214] railroad tracks,[216] buildings[217] and bridges,[218] automobiles,[214] locks,[219] furniture,[220] ships,[198] planes,[221] coinage[222] and jewellery.[223] They are also used as alloying additives for enhancing the properties of other metals.[n 31] Of the two dozen elements that have been used in the world's monetised coinage only two, carbon and aluminium, are not heavy metals.[225][n 32] Gold, silver, and platinum are used in jewellery[n 33] as are (for example) nickel, copper, indium, and cobalt in coloured gold.[228] Low-cost jewellery and children's toys may be made, to a significant degree, of heavy metals such as chromium, nickel, cadmium, or lead.[229]

text: Copper, zinc, tin, and lead are mechanically weaker metals but have useful corrosion prevention properties. While each of them will react with air, the resulting patinas of either various copper salts,[230] zinc carbonate, tin oxide, or a mixture of lead oxide, carbonate, and sulfate, confer valuable protective properties.[231] Copper and lead are therefore used, for example, as roofing materials;[232][n 34] zinc acts as an anti-corrosion agent in galvanised steel;[233] and tin serves a similar purpose on steel cans.[234]

text: The workability and corrosion resistance of iron and chromium are increased by adding gadolinium; the creep resistance of nickel is improved with the addition of thorium. Tellurium is added to copper and steel alloys to improve their machinability; and to lead to make it harder and more acid-resistant.[235]

text: Biological and chemical[edit]

text: The biocidal effects of some heavy metals have been known since antiquity.[237] Platinum, osmium, copper, ruthenium, and other heavy metals, including arsenic, are used in anti-cancer treatments, or have shown potential.[238] Antimony (anti-protozoal), bismuth (anti-ulcer), gold (anti-arthritic), and iron (anti-malarial) are also important in medicine.[239] Copper, zinc, silver, gold, or mercury are used in antiseptic formulations;[240] small amounts of some heavy metals are used to control algal growth in, for example, cooling towers.[241] Depending on their intended use as fertilisers or biocides, agrochemicals may contain heavy metals such as chromium, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, arsenic, cadmium, mercury, or lead.[242]

text: Selected heavy metals are used as catalysts in fuel processing (rhenium, for example), synthetic rubber and fibre production (bismuth), emission control devices (palladium), and in self-cleaning ovens (where cerium(IV) oxide in the walls of such ovens helps oxidise carbon-based cooking residues).[243] In soap chemistry, heavy metals form insoluble soaps that are used in lubricating greases, paint dryers, and fungicides (apart from lithium, the alkali metals and the ammonium ion form soluble soaps).[244]

text: Colouring and optics[edit]

text: The colours of glass, ceramic glazes, paints, pigments, and plastics are commonly produced by the inclusion of heavy metals (or their compounds) such as chromium, manganese, cobalt, copper, zinc, selenium, zirconium, molybdenum, silver, tin, praseodymium, neodymium, erbium, tungsten, iridium, gold, lead, or uranium.[246] Tattoo inks may contain heavy metals, such as chromium, cobalt, nickel, and copper.[247] The high reflectivity of some heavy metals is important in the construction of mirrors, including precision astronomical instruments. Headlight reflectors rely on the excellent reflectivity of a thin film of rhodium.[248]

text: Electronics, magnets, and lighting[edit]

text: Heavy metals or their compounds can be found in electronic components, electrodes, and wiring and solar panels where they may be used as either conductors, semiconductors, or insulators. Molybdenum powder is used in circuit board inks.[249] Ruthenium(IV) oxide coated titanium anodes are used for the industrial production of chlorine.[250] Home electrical systems, for the most part, are wired with copper wire for its good conducting properties.[251] Silver and gold are used in electrical and electronic devices, particularly in contact switches, as a result of their high electrical conductivity and capacity to resist or minimise the formation of impurities on their surfaces.[252] The semiconductors cadmium telluride and gallium arsenide are used to make solar panels. Hafnium oxide, an insulator, is used as a voltage controller in microchips; tantalum oxide, another insulator, is used in capacitors in mobile phones.[253] Heavy metals have been used in batteries for over 200 years, at least since Volta invented his copper and silver voltaic pile in 1800.[254] Promethium, lanthanum, and mercury are further examples found in, respectively, atomic, nickel-metal hydride, and button cell batteries.[255]

text: Magnets are made of heavy metals such as manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, niobium, bismuth, praseodymium, neodymium, gadolinium, and dysprosium. Neodymium magnets are the strongest type of permanent magnet commercially available. They are key components of, for example, car door locks, starter motors, fuel pumps, and power windows.[256]

text: Heavy metals are used in lighting, lasers, and light-emitting diodes (LEDs). Flat panel displays incorporate a thin film of electrically conducting indium tin oxide. Fluorescent lighting relies on mercury vapour for its operation. Ruby lasers generate deep red beams by exciting chromium atoms; the lanthanides are also extensively employed in lasers. Gallium, indium, and arsenic;[257] and copper, iridium, and platinum are used in LEDs (the latter three in organic LEDs).[258]

text: Nuclear[edit]

text: Niche uses of heavy metals with high atomic numbers occur in diagnostic imaging, electron microscopy, and nuclear science. In diagnostic imaging, heavy metals such as cobalt or tungsten make up the anode materials found in x-ray tubes.[262] In electron microscopy, heavy metals such as lead, gold, palladium, platinum, or uranium are used to make conductive coatings and to introduce electron density into biological specimens by staining, negative staining, or vacuum deposition.[263] In nuclear science, nuclei of heavy metals such as chromium, iron, or zinc are sometimes fired at other heavy metal targets to produce superheavy elements;[264] heavy metals are also employed as spallation targets for the production of neutrons[265] or radioisotopes such as astatine (using lead, bismuth, thorium, or uranium in the latter case).[266]

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Criteria used were density:[2] (1) above 3.5 g/cm3; (2) above 7 g/cm3; atomic weight: (3) > 22.98;[2] (4) > 40 (excluding s- and f-block metals);[3] (5) > 200;[4] atomic number: (6) > 20; (7) 21–92;[5] chemical behaviour: (8) United States Pharmacopeia;[6][7][8] (9) Hawkes' periodic table-based definition (excluding the lanthanides and actinides);[9] and (10) Nieboer and Richardson's biochemical classifications.[10] Densities of the elements are mainly from Emsley.[11] Predicted densities have been used for At, Fr and Fm–Ts.[12] Indicative densities were derived for Fm, Md, No and Lr based on their atomic weights, estimated metallic radii,[13] and predicted close-packed crystalline structures.[14] Atomic weights are from Emsley,[11] inside back cover
Jump up ^ Metalloids were, however, excluded from Hawkes' periodic table-based definition given he noted it was "not necessary to decide whether semimetals [i.e. metalloids] should be included as heavy metals."[9]
Jump up ^ The test is not specific for any particular metals but is said to be capable of at least detecting Mo, Cu, Ag, Cd, Hg, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, and Bi.[7] In any event, when the test uses hydrogen sulfide as the reagent cannot detect Th, Ti, Zr, Nb, Ta, or Cr.[8]
Jump up ^ Transition and post-transition metals that do not usually form coloured complexes are Sc and Y in group 3;[20] Ag in group 11;[21] Zn and Cd in group 12;[20][22] and the metals of groups 13–16.[23]
Jump up ^ Lanthanide (Ln) sulfides and hydroxides are insoluble;[24] the latter can be obtained from aqueous solutions of Ln salts as coloured gelatinous precipitates;[25] and Ln complexes have much the same colour as their aqua ions (the majority of which are coloured).[26] Actinide (An) sulfides may or may not be insoluble, depending on the author. Divalent uranium monosulfide is not attacked by boiling water.[27] Trivalent actinide ions behave similarly to the trivalent lanthanide ions hence the sulfides in question may be insoluble but this is not explicitly stated.[28] Tervalent An sulfides decompose[29] but Edelstein et al. say they are soluble[30] whereas Haynes says thorium(IV) sulfide is insoluble.[31] Early in the history of nuclear fission it had been noted that precipitation with hydrogen sulfide was a "remarkably" effective way of isolating and detecting transuranium elements in solution.[32] In a similar vein, Deschlag writes that the elements after uranium were expected to have insoluble sulfides by analogy with third row transition metals. But he goes on to note that the elements after actinium were found to have properties different from those of the transition metals and claims they do not form insoluble sulfides.[33] The An hydroxides are, however, insoluble[30] and can be precipitated from aqueous solutions of their salts.[34] Finally, many An complexes have "deep and vivid" colours.[35]
Jump up ^ The heavier elements commonly to less commonly recognised as metalloids—Ge; As, Sb; Se, Te, Po; At—satisfy some of the three parts of Hawkes' definition. All of them have insoluble sulfides[34][36] but only Ge, Te, and Po apparently have effectively insoluble hydroxides.[37] All bar At can be obtained as coloured (sulfide) precipitates from aqueous solutions of their salts;[34] astatine is likewise precipitated from solution by hydrogen sulfide but, since visible quantities of At have never been synthesised, the colour of the precipitate is not known.[36][38] As p-block elements, their complexes are usually colourless.[39]
Jump up ^ The class A and class B terminology is analogous to the "hard acid" and "soft base" terminology sometimes used to refer to the behaviour of metal ions in inorganic systems.[41]
Jump up ^ Be and Al are exceptions to this general trend. They have somewhat higher electronegativity values.[42] Being relatively small their +2 or +3 ions have high charge densities, thereby polarising nearby electron clouds. The net result is that Be and Al compounds have considerable covalent character.[43]
Jump up ^ Google Scholar has recorded more than 900 citations for the paper in question.[45]
Jump up ^ If Gmelin had been working with the imperial system of weights and measures he may have chosen 300 lb/ft3 as his light/heavy metal cutoff in which case selenium (density 300.27 lb/ft3 ) would have made the grade, whereas 5 g/cm3 = 312.14lb/ft3.
Jump up ^ Lead, which is a cumulative poison, has a relatively high abundance due to its extensive historical use and human-caused discharge into the environment.[78]
Jump up ^ Haynes shows an amount of < 17 mg for tin[79]
Jump up ^ Iyengar records a figure of 5 mg for nickel;[80] Haynes shows an amount of 10 mg[79]
Jump up ^ Encompassing 45 heavy metals occurring in quantities of less than 10 mg each, including As (7 mg), Mo (5), Co (1.5), and Cr (1.4)[81]
Jump up ^ Of the elements commonly recognised as metalloids, B and Si were counted as nonmetals; Ge, As, Sb, and Te as heavy metals.
Jump up ^ Ni, Cu, Zn, Se, Ag and Sb appear in the United States Government's Toxic Pollutant List;[107] Mn, Co, and Sn are listed in the Australian Government's National Pollutant Inventory.[108]
Jump up ^ Tungsten could be another such toxic heavy metal.[109]
Jump up ^ Selenium is the most toxic of the heavy metals that are essential for mammals.[113]
Jump up ^ Trace elements having an abundance equalling or much less than one part per trillion (namely Tc, Pm, Po, At, Ra, Ac, Pa, Np, and Pu) are not shown. Abundances are from Lide[125] and Emsley;[126] occurrence types are from McQueen.[127]
Jump up ^ In some cases, for example in the presence of high energy gamma rays or in a very high temperature hydrogen rich environment, the subject nuclei may experience neutron loss or proton gain resulting in the production of (comparatively rare) neutron deficient isotopes.[132]
Jump up ^ The ejection of matter when two neutron stars collide is attributed to the interaction of their tidal forces, possible crustal disruption, and shock heating (which is what happens if you floor the accelerator in car when the engine is cold).[135]
Jump up ^ Iron, cobalt, nickel, germanium and tin are also siderophiles from a whole of Earth perspective.[127]
Jump up ^ Heat escaping from the inner solid core is believed to generate motion in the outer core, which is made of liquid iron alloys. The motion of this liquid generates electrical currents which give rise to a magnetic field.[146]
Jump up ^ Heavy metals that occur naturally in quantities too small to be economically mined (Tc, Pm, Po, At, Ac, Np and Pu) are instead produced by artificial transmutation.[148] The latter method is also used to produce heavy metals from americium onwards.[149]
Jump up ^ Sulfides of the Group 1 and 2 metals, and aluminium, are hydrolysed by water;[164] scandium,[165] yttrium[166] and titanium sulfides[167] are insoluble.
Jump up ^ For example, the hydroxides of potassium, rubidium, and caesium have solubilities exceeding 100 grams per 100 grams of water[169] whereas those of aluminium (0.0001)[170] and scandium (<0.000 000 15 grams)[171] are regarded as being insoluble.
Jump up ^ Beryllium has what is described as a "high" melting point of 1560 K; scandium and titanium melt at 1814 and 1941 K.[176]
Jump up ^ Zinc is a soft metal with a Moh's hardness of 2.5;[177] cadmium and lead have lower hardness ratings of 2.0 and 1.5.[178] Zinc has a "low" melting point of 693 K; cadmium and lead melt at 595 and 601 K.[179]
Jump up ^ Some violence and abstraction of detail was applied to the sorting scheme in order to keep the number of categories to a manageable level.
Jump up ^ The skin has largely turned green due to the formation of a protective patina composed of antlerite Cu3(OH)4SO4, atacamite Cu4(OH)6Cl2, brochantite Cu4(OH)6SO4, cuprous oxide Cu2O, and tenorite CuO.[212]
Jump up ^ For the lanthanides, this is their only structural use as they are otherwise too reactive, relatively expensive, and moderately strong at best.[224]
Jump up ^ Weller[226] classifies coinage metals as precious metals (e.g., silver, gold, platinum); heavy metals of very high durability (nickel); heavy metals of low durability (copper, iron, zinc, tin, and lead); and light metals (aluminium).
Jump up ^ Emsley[227] estimates a global loss of six tonnes of gold a year due to 18-carat wedding rings slowly wearing away.
Jump up ^ Sheet lead exposed to the rigours of industrial and coastal climates will last for centuries[190]
Jump up ^ Electrons impacting the tungsten anode generate X-rays;[260] rhenium gives tungsten better resistance to thermal shock;[261] molybdenum and graphite act as heat sinks. Molybdenum also has a density nearly half that of tungsten thereby reducing the weight of the anode.[259]

text: Sources[edit]


document_title: United States license plate designs and serial formats

question_text: what state has a buffalo on its license plate

root

text: Trends in serial formats[edit]

text: Formats for license plate numbers may be consistent within the state. For example, Delaware and Rhode Island were formerly able to use six-digit all-numeric serials due to their low respective populations; both now use five-digit serials, with Delaware using a letter and four numbers, and Rhode Island using two letters and three numbers. Several populous states use seven-character formats of three letters and four numbers, including 1ABC234 in California and ABC-1234 (or variations thereof) in Arizona, Georgia, Michigan, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Texas, Virginia, Washington, and Wisconsin. Other seven-digit formats include Connecticut and Illinois, which use AB-12345, and Maryland, which uses 1AB2345.

tag: p

text: Many less-populous states, such as Alaska, Arkansas, Colorado, Hawaii, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Minnesota, Mississippi, Nebraska, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, and South Carolina use a 3-letter, 3-number format in the format ABC-123, 123-ABC, or some variant thereof. However, Florida uses ABC-D12 (four letters and two numbers) despite being one of the most populous states in the U.S.

text: Serial coding[edit]

text: License plate numbers are usually assigned in ascending order, beginning with a starting point such as AAA-001. Thus, an observer familiar with the sequence can determine roughly when the plate was issued. In a few cases, numbers have been assigned in descending order. For example, when Virginia switched to seven characters for its standard issue in 1993, numbers beginning with AAA-1000 were already in use for extra-cost, optional-issue plates; therefore, the new standard license plates were issued in descending order from ZZZ-9999.[1]

text: Expiration date[edit]

text: In some states, the month of expiration or the county of registration is incorporated into the plate's serial. The last number on a Massachusetts license plate indicates the month the vehicle's registration expires (for example, 1234 AB would expire in April, the fourth month; 0 indicates October expirations; and X and Y were used for November and December expirations, respectively, on commercial plates and pre-1978 passenger plates), as does the first number or letter on West Virginia plates (1 to 9 for January through September, and O, N, and D for October, November, and December expirations, respectively). Maine trailer plates start with two digits and a dash. All plates expire on the last day of February, and the first two digits of the plate are the year it expires.

text: County of issuance[edit]

text: Although increasingly few states place the full name of the county of registration explicitly on their standard-issue plates but not as part of the plate serial, Florida, Georgia, Iowa, Kentucky, Mississippi, and Tennessee continue the practice. However, Florida allows its residents to choose either "Sunshine State" or "In God We Trust" slogans instead of their county, and in Miami-Dade County, all plates are issued with one of these slogans due to the targeting for crimes of cars registered there in the early 1990s. Florida also terminated a practice by which plates registered to rented vehicles had the letter Y or Z as their first digit, which also led to targeting of cars for theft due to the ease of replacement and the softer hit on the affected driver. Georgia and Kentucky both allow drivers to choose the slogan "In God We Trust" in place of the county name where the vehicle is registered.

text: In Alabama, Montana, Nebraska, South Dakota, and Wyoming, a one- or two-digit number representing the county of issue begins a license plate number. Standard-issue Idaho license plate numbers begin with a single-letter or a number-letter code representing the county of issue. County codes have been based on historical population figures, the county names in alphabetical order, or some combination thereof.

text: Only three places in the United States use letters to designate a residence where a vehicle was registered. In Hawaii, the license plates have a unique letter designation based on the island counties that residents purchased or registered the vehicles from; a vehicle with a registration number beginning with H or Z is registered in Hawai‘i County, one beginning with K is registered in Kaua‘i County, one beginning with M or L is registered in Maui County, and one beginning with any other letter (and not containing H, K, L, M, or Z) is registered in the City and County of Honolulu. In the State of Idaho the first one or two characters are used to designate the county of residence/registration. For example, all vehicles registered in Ada county start with 1A, vehicles in Twin Falls County start with 2T and vehicles in Valley county start with V (as there is only one county that starts with the letter V). In the US territory of Guam, the license plates use the first two letters that are coded by village of issuance, for example, "TM-1234" refers to a vehicle that was registered by a person who lives the village of Tamuning.

text: Several states do require vehicles to display county codes, but these codes are not part of the serial. Indiana and Ohio display two-number county codes, while Kansas plates display two-letter county codes, but these codes are placed on a sticker or are printed in the corner of the plate in a smaller font size. Texas places the county name only on the windshield registration sticker, where the car's license plate number is also printed.

text: Skipping characters[edit]

text: For various reasons related to visibility and readability, some states and territories exclude certain letters from use in their license plate serial formats. The most commonly skipped characters are I, O, and Q, with some states using only one or two of the three while others will skip all three of these letters. Other states, such as Colorado and Georgia have gradually adopted one or more of these letters over a course of years after previously skipping them in order to accommodate the demands of population growth and depletion of available serial combinations. The most common argument behind skipping I, O, and Q is that they can be too easily confused with 0, 1, and other characters, particularly when there isn't adequate spacing or divider between numbers and letters.

text: California currently only uses I, O, and Q in between two other letters, for example "1AQA000". A unique example of character use is Texas, which used to issue serials using all 26 letters but currently skips all vowels along with the letter Q on passenger plates (as these letters are reserved for truck plates).

text: In amateur radio license plate issues, all states that have them available, except Pennsylvania, use a unique slashed zero character in place of the standard "0" character due to lack of spacing between letters and numbers. In Pennsylvania, the die used for the number "0" is different than the one used for the letter "O" since the state's number dies are taller and narrower than its letter dies. Iowa is a unique example in the use of this character, which began using the slashed zero beginning in 2012 on all standard passenger plates as opposed to the traditional symbol for zero to differentiate it from the letter "O" which is also used.

text: Persons with disabilities[edit]

text: In the states, special plates displaying the International Symbol of Accessibility are issued to persons with disabilities that entitle them to special parking privileges. Alternately, a placard, which in some jurisdictions can be hung from the rear view mirror, may be issued; the placard has the advantage of being transferred from vehicle to vehicle.

text: Current standard-issue passenger plate designs and serial formats[edit]

text: The following tables give information on license plates currently being issued, with 2014 or later expiration dates, for private (non-commercial) use on passenger vehicles by the governments of the fifty U.S. states, the District of Columbia, and the U.S. territories. Information on serial numbering patterns is also given. Older designs and serial formats previously issued may still be valid for continued usage in certain jurisdictions; these are noted in a separate table below.

text: In addition to "regular" passenger plates, all jurisdictions also provide plates for other types of vehicles that may only be roughly similar in design and layout. Additionally, there has been an increasing trend in the field of "specialty" plates to promote specific causes or interests. To keep this table as simple as possible, most of these alternate types of plates will not be noted. More information may also be found within the individual articles for each state, as linked within the table. Exceptions to this guideline may be made for specialty plates that are available at no extra cost to the motorist, as these tend to be seen more commonly on the roads.

text:
Current Table Format

Jurisdiction
Image
First issued
Type & slogan
Design
Plate style
Serial format

Alabama
Link to image
January 2, 2014
Standard issue
no slogan
lake and forest graphic
Screened serial;
Reflective sheeting
Numerically coded by county:[2]

0AB1234 (single-digit counties)
00AB123 (double-digit counties)[3]

Alaska

January 2010[4]
Standard issue
The Last Frontier
blue on gold with state flag
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
ABC 123

American Samoa

1999
Standard issue
Centennial 2000
blue on reflective white
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
1234

Arizona

2008
Standard issue
Grand Canyon State
dark green on desert landscape
Screened serial;
Reflective sheeting
ABC1234[5]

Arkansas

2006
Standard issue
The Natural State
black on a diamond background, representing Crater of Diamonds State Park in Murfreesboro[6]
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
123 ABC[7]

California

Late 2011
Standard issue
dmv.ca.gov
dark blue on white with red state name graphic and slogan printed in red at the bottom
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
1ABC234[8]

Colorado

2000
Standard issue
dark green on reflective white grey and green Rocky Mountains scene graphic
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
123-ABC, ABC-123 (the second serial set is limited to characters that were unused previously, such as Q).

Connecticut

2000
Standard issue
Constitution State
dark blue on blue and white gradient fade
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
AB•12345 (2015–present)
1AB•CD2 (2013–2015)
1ABCD2 (2013)
123•ABC (2000–2013)[9]

Delaware

1969
Standard issue
The First State
gold on navy blue
Screened serial;
Reflective sheeting
123456 (variable number of digits)

District of Columbia

July 2013
Standard issue
Taxation without Representation; jurisdiction name displayed as "District of Columbia"
blue on reflective white with red flag separator
Screened serial;
Reflective sheeting
AB-1234

2001
Optional issue:
www.washingtondc.gov[10]

Florida

December 2003
Standard issue
myFLORIDA.com with county name[11] or "Sunshine State"
green on reflective white with state map and citrus orange graphic
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
ABC D12 (2009–present)
123 ABC (2006 to 2009)
A12 3BC (2003 to 2009)

October 1, 2008
Optional issue
myFLORIDA.com with "In God We Trust" slogan
123 4AB

Georgia

May 2012
Standard issue
Peach State with county name or "In God We Trust" sticker
black on reflective blue with hills, peach tree, and peaches
Screened serial;
Reflective sheeting
ABC1234

May 2012
Optional issue
GEORGIA with county name or "In God We Trust" sticker
black on reflective white

Guam

February 27, 2009
Standard issue
Tano Y Chamorro
black on reflective white with grey latte stone and three red bougainvillea flowers at center[12]
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
Coded by municipality of issuance
AB 1234

Hawaii

1991
Standard issue
Aloha State
black on reflective white with rainbow graphic
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
Coded by county of issuance:

ABC 123, where first letter is A-G, J, N, P, or R-Y (City and County of Honolulu)
HAB 123/ZAB 123 (Hawai‘i County)
KAB 123 (Kaua‘i County)
LAB 123/MAB 123 (Maui County)

Idaho

2008
Standard issue
Famous Potatoes
black on reflective white with red gradient and dark blue mountain scene
Screened serial;
Reflective sheeting
Coded by county of issuance:

A 123456 (variable number of digits following space)
0A 12345 (variable number of digits following space)
0A B1234 (following exhaustion of above format)
0A BC123 (following exhaustion of above format)
0A 1B234 (following exhaustion of above format)
0A 1234B (following exhaustion of above format)
00A 1234 (variable number of digits following space)

Illinois

January 2017
Standard issue
Land of Lincoln
Reflective gradient blue-to-white with white Chicago and Springfield skyline and gray Abraham Lincoln graphic at far left; state name screened in black at top
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
AB 12345 (2017–Present)
AB1 2345 (2016)[13]

Indiana

January 2017
Standard issue
Dark blue serial on reflective country scene graphic featuring a covered bridge; expiration date, year, county number and recycling symbol in corners clockwise from top left
Screened serial;
Reflective sheeting
123A
123AB
123ABC

Optional issue
In God We Trust
black on white with American flag graphic
ABC123

Iowa

Late 2011
Standard issue
black on reflective white farm scene foreground and city skyline background
Screened serial;
Reflective sheeting [14]
ABC 123 (December 2012 – present)
123 ABC (2011–2012)

Kansas

April 2007
Standard issue
dark blue on light blue gradient with state seal graphic and county code sticker
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
123 ABC

Kentucky

2005
Standard issue
Unbridled Spirit
Standard issue
dark blue on light blue graident with county name sticker
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
123 ABC

2011
Optional issue
In God We Trust

Louisiana

2005 to 2010; 2013, and 2016
Standard issue
"Sportsman's Paradise"; black on yellow-pink gradient with pelican graphic in center
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
ABC 123 (through 2016)
123 ABC (2016 – present)

Maine

1999
Standard issue
Vacationland
black on reflective white with a chickadee and pine tassel graphic at left
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
1234 AB (variable number of digits preceding space)

Maryland

September 2016
Standard issue
Maryland Proud
Black on reflective white with Maryland flag graphic
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
1AB2345

Massachusetts

1988
Standard issue
The Spirit of America
red on reflective white
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
Coded by month of expiration:

1ABC 23
1AB 234
123 AB4
12A B34
123 ABC

Michigan

2013
Standard issue
Pure Michigan
blue on reflective white with blue wave at bottom
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
ABC 1234

2007
Optional issue
Spectacular Peninsulas
green and blue with Great Lakes outline on reflective white with black characters
1AB C23

2014
Optional issue
The Mackinac Bridge
white to yellow fade and blue with stylized Mackinac Bridge in background with black characters
ABC 123

Minnesota

June 2009
Standard issue
Explore Minnesota.com, 10,000 Lakes
black on reflective white with lake scene graphic
Screened serial;
Reflective sheeting
123-ABC

Mississippi

October 2012
Standard issue
"Birthplace of America's Music"
dark blue on guitar graphic and "Celebrating Mississippi's Creative Culture" with county name
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
ABC 123

Missouri

June 2008
Standard issue
Show Me State
dark blue on light blue gradient fade with state outline and bluebird graphic
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
Coded by month of expiration
AB1 C2D

Montana

January 2010
Standard issue
Treasure State
white on blue with white state outline
Screened serial;
Reflective sheeting
Coded by county of issuance:

0-12345A (variable number of digits following divider)
00-1234A (variable number of digits following divider)

Optional issues:[15]
replica 1989 Centennial base
replica 1991 "Big Sky" base
replica 2000 base
replica 2006 "Big Sky Country" base
blue on white with gold and maroon graphics
ABC123

black on light blue gradient with multicolor state outline
Coded by county of issuance:

0-12345A (variable number of digits following divider)
00-1234A (variable number of digits following divider)

black on light blue with blue and tan graphics

black on light blue gradient with multicolor state outline

Nebraska

January 2011
Standard issue
nebraska.gov
green on white with western meadowlark and goldenrod
Screened serial;
Reflective sheeting
ABC 123[16]
Or coded by county of issuance:[17]

0-A1234 (variable number of digits following letter)
0-AB123 (following exhaustion of above format; variable number of digits following letter)
00-A123 (variable number of digits following divider)
00-AB12 (following exhaustion of above format; variable number of digits following divider)

Nevada

April 2015[18]
Standard issue
The Silver State
dark blue on sunset graphic
Embossed on screen serial;
Reflective sheeting
12A•345

New Hampshire

January 1999
Standard issue
Live Free or Die
green on Old Man of the Mountain graphic
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
123 4567 (2000–present)
123 456 (1999)[19]

New Jersey

2007
Standard issue
Garden State
black on yellow gradient fade
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
D12-ABC (2010–present)[20]
ABC-12D (2007–2010)

New Mexico

1989
Standard issue
Land of Enchantment
red on yellow with turquoise yucca graphics and red Zia sun symbol
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
123-ABC

2010
Standard issue
upper: Centennial 1912–2012

lower: Land of Enchantment
yellow on turquoise with large yellow and red Zia sun symbol
ABC-123

New York

2010
Standard issue
Empire State
dark blue on reflective gold
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
ABC-1234

North Carolina

2011[21]
Standard issue
First in Flight
blue on white with Wright Flyer graphic
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
ABC-1234

North Dakota

2015
Standard issue
Legendary
black on light blue gradient fade to sunrise with prairie scene and buffalo graphic
Screened serial;
Reflective sheeting
123 ABC

Northern Mariana Islands

1989
Standard issue
Hafa Adai
dark blue on white with seal in center
Embossed on screened serial;
Reflective sheeting
ABC 123

Ohio

June 7, 2010
Standard issue
Birthplace of Aviation
blue on white various slogans in gray with a red border
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
ABC 1234

Oklahoma

January 2017
Standard issue
TRAVELOK.COM
Screened black on reflective blue with state-shaped separator; scissor-tailed flycatcher in the middle, mountains on the left, oceans in the background and Explore above the state name
Screened serial;
Reflective sheeting
ABC-123

Oregon

1990
Standard issue
dark blue on fir tree and mountain graphic
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
123 ABC (2004–present)
ABC 123 (1990–2004)

Pennsylvania

2006
Standard issue
visitPA.com
blue on white with yellow and blue bars
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
ABC-1234

Puerto Rico

2011
Standard issue
Puerto Rico Does It Better/Puerto Rico Lo Hace Mejor
black on white with green gradient at bottom and grey building in background
Screened serial;
Reflective sheeting
ABC-123

Rhode Island

1996 – 2017
Standard issue
Ocean State
dark blue on stylized grey and white ocean wave graphic
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
123-456 (2007–present[22]
AB-123 and 12345 (1996–2007)

2017[23]
Beautiful Rhode Island (top), Ocean State (Bottom)
white on dark blue with the Reliance in the upper left corner
Screened serial;
Reflective sheeting
123-456 (2007–present), 12345 and AB-123 (1996–2007)

South Carolina

January 2016
Standard issue
While I Breathe, I Hope.
black on white and blue background with palmetto tree in center
Screened serial;
Reflective sheeting
ABC 123

February 14, 2003
Optional issue
In God We Trust
black on multicolored background
Embossed on screened serial;
Reflective sheeting
123 4AB

South Dakota

2006
Standard issue
Great Faces. Great Places.
blue on Mount Rushmore graphic
Screened serial;
Reflective sheeting
Coded by county of issuance:

0AB 123
0AB C12 (following exhaustion of above format)
00A 123
00A B23 (following exhaustion of above format)
00A BC3 (following exhaustion of above format)

Tennessee

2011
Standard issue
www.tnvacation.com
black on mountain scene with county name sticker
Screened serial;
Reflective sheeting
A12-34B

Texas

July 2012
Standard issue
The Lone Star State
black on white with 5-point star in the upper left corner.
Screened serial;
Reflective sheeting
ABC-1234

Utah

Late 2007
Greatest Snow on Earth and Life Elevated
dark blue on skier graphic[24][25]
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
A12 3BC

Life Elevated
dark blue on graphic of Delicate Arch
A12 3BC[26]

2017
In God We Trust
dark blue on white
1234A

Vermont

1985
Standard issue
Green Mountain State
white on green with small white tree in top left corner
Debossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
ABC 123 (1990–present)
12AB3 (1989)
1AB23 (1988)
123A4 (1986–1987)
1A234 (1985)

U.S. Virgin Islands

2005
Standard issue
America's Caribbean
black on beach scene graphic
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
Coded by island of issuance:[27]
ABC 123, ABC 123 (for St. John)

Virginia

March 1, 2014
Standard issue
Virginia is for Lovers
blue on white
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
ABC-1234[28]

Washington

1987
Standard issue
Evergreen State
dark blue on white with light blue Mount Rainier graphic
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
ABC1234 (2010–present)
123-ABC (1987–2010)

West Virginia

2006[29]
Standard issue
Wild, Wonderful
blue on white with state name in dark blue bar
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
Coded by month of expiration:

0AB 123 (1 through 9 for January through September, respectively)
ABC 123 (O, N, and D for October, November, and December, respectively)

Wisconsin

June 2000
Standard issue
America's Dairyland
black on reflective white with stylized lake and farm graphic
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
ABC-1234 (2017-present)
123-ABC (2000-2017)

Wyoming

2008
Standard issue
black on Grand Tetons graphic
Screened serial;
Reflective sheeting
Coded by county of issuance:

0-12345 (variable number of digits following divider)
0-1234A (following exhaustion of above format; variable number of digits following divider)
00-12345 (variable number of digits following divider)

tag: table

text: Plate types no longer issued but still valid[edit]

text: Plates with the following designs and serial formats are no longer being issued but may still be valid for use in certain instances. This table does not include year of manufacture registrations.

text:
Jurisdiction
Image
Dates issued
Type
Plate style
Serial format
Status

Alabama

early 2007 – October 2013
Optional issue
God Bless America
dark blue on American flag background
AB12345
12345AB[3]
Being replaced upon expiration, October 2013 to October 2014.

Alaska

1981 – late 2004
"The Last Frontier"; blue on gold with state flag
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
ABC 123
Valid.

late 1997 – late 2004
"Gold Rush Centennial"
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
ABC 123

January 2, 2008 – December 31, 2009
"Celebrating Statehood 1959–2009"; dark blue on mountain landscape background
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
ABC123[30]

American Samoa

none

Arizona

1980 – 1996
white on maroon
Embossed serial;
Reflective characters on nonreflective background
ABC-123
Valid.

1996 – late 2007
desert scene with embossed serials
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
123•ABC

Arkansas

none

California

1963 – 1969
yellow on black
Embossed serial;
Non-reflective background
ABC 123
Valid.

1969 – 1980
yellow on blue
Embossed serial;
Non-reflective background
123 ABC

1980 – January 1987
1ABC234

January 1987 – October 1987
"The Golden State"
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting

October 1987 – 1995
blue on white with red embossed state name

1995 – 1998; 2000 – 2011
blue on white with red screened state name
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting

1998 – 2000
"Sesquicentennial – 150 Years"
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting

Colorado

1978 – 2000
embossed mountain scene
Reflective embossed serial;
Non-reflective background
Coded by county of issuance: AB-1234, ABC-123, ABC1234
Valid.

Connecticut

none

Delaware

white on black

up to 12–345
Valid.

silver on black

up to 123456

yellow on blue without slogan

up to 123456

District of Columbia

"A Capital City"

123–456
Valid.

"Celebrate & Discover"
1991 – November 2000
AB-1234 (1997–2000)
123–456 (1991–1997)

2001
blue on reflective white with red flag separator and "WWW.Washingtondc.gov"
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
BB-1234

2001 – July 2013
blue on reflective white with red flag separator and "Taxation without Representation" with jurisdiction name displayed as "Washington, D.C."
Screened serial;
Reflective sheeting
AB-1234

Florida

December 2003 – early 2009
green on reflective white with state map, citrus orange graphic, and myFLORIDA.com with county name
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
A12 3BC
Being replaced on a ten-year rolling basis.

December 2003 – 2006
green on reflective white with state map, citrus orange graphic, and myFLORIDA.com with "Sunshine State" slogan

Georgia

1997 – December 2003
"...on my mind"

123 ABC
12345 QA
1234 AB
1234 ABC
Valid.

December 2003 – May 2007
www.GEORGIA.gov
ABC 1234

May 2007 – May 2012
GEORGIA.gov
ABC 1234

Guam

black on reflective white with map graphic in center, "Tano Y Chamorro"

Coded by municipality of issuance:

ABC1234 (variable number of digits following space)
ABC123A (following exhaustion of above format)

Valid.

Hawaii

none

Idaho

dark blue on reflective white with red gradient and dark blue mountain scene, "Famous Potatoes"
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
Coded by county of issuance:

A 123456 (variable number of digits following space)
0A 12345 (variable number of digits following space)
0A B1234 (following exhaustion of above format)
0A BC123 (following exhaustion of above format)

Illinois

July 2016
"Land of Lincoln": red on blue gradient fade with Abraham Lincoln portrait graphic in center
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
AB 12345 (2017–Present)
AB1 2345 (2016)
A12 3456 (2006–2016)
123 4567 (2001–2006)[31]
Valid for 10 years.

Indiana

none

Iowa

1997 - late 2011
blue on reflective white farm scene foreground and skyline background
Embossed or screened serial;
Reflective sheeting[14]
123 ABC[32]
Valid.

Kansas

January 2001 – April 2007
state capitol
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
ABC 123
Valid.

Kentucky

none

Louisiana

1993 – 2001; 2004 – 2005
"Sportsman's Paradise" without pelican
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
ABC 123
Valid.

January 2002 - early 2004
"Louisiana Purchase Bicentennial 1803–2003" written in early 18th-century lettering and has the Louisiana Purchase Bicentennial logo as the separator[33]
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting

2011 – 2012
"200 Years"
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
ABC123

2014 - 2015
www.louisianatourism.com
Bicentennial, Battle of New Orleans, 1815–2015
blue on reflective white with silhouette of Andrew Jackson on horse at left
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting

Maine

none

Maryland

February 1986 – early 2005
no slogan

1AB C23 (2004–2005)
ABC 123 (1986–2004)
Valid.

early 2005 – June 2010
www.Maryland.gov
black on reflective white with state crest in center

1AB C23

Massachusetts

green on white (coded by month of expiration)
"The Spirit of America" (coded by month of expiration)

123-450
120-ABC
Valid.

Michigan

1996 – 2007
Optional issue
"Great Lakes Splendor"

1AB C23[34]
Valid

1996
Optional issue
"World's Motor Capital"
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
ABC 12
12 ABC
Valid

2007 – 2013
Optional issue
"www.Michigan.gov"
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
ABC 1234[35]
Valid

2013 – 2014
Optional issue
The Mackinac Bridge
yellow to orange fade and blue with stylized Mackinac Bridge in background with white characters.
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
ABC 123
Valid

Minnesota

circa 2000 – 2008
blue on reflective white with lake scene graphic, "Explore Minnesota; 10,000 lakes"; second slogan displayed in small blue gradient across bottom of plate
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
ABC-123
Being replaced on a seven-year rolling basis.

2008 – 2009
black on reflective white with lake scene graphic, "Explore Minnesota; 10,000 lakes"
Screened serial;
Reflective sheeting
123-ABC

Mississippi

none

Missouri

none

Montana

2006 – 2009
black on grey and white gradient with mountain graphic; "Big Sky Country"
Screened serial;
Reflective sheeting
Coded by county of issuance:

0C-12345 (variable number of digits following divider)
0C-1234A (following exhaustion of above format; variable number of digits following divider)
0-12345A (variable number of digits following divider)

Valid if permanently registered.

Nebraska

none

Nevada

white on blue

A12345, AB1234, ABC123, 123ABC

New Hampshire

none

New Jersey

1959 – 1969; 1970 – 1973
black on tan, non-reflective, state abbreviated "N. J."

ABC-123
Valid.

1969 – 1970
black on tan, reflective, state abbreviated "N. J."

ABC-123

1973 – 1977
black on tan, non-reflective, state abbreviated "N. J."

123-ABC

1977 – 1979
black on tan, non-reflective, full state name

123-ABC

1979 – 1985
buff on blue, non-reflective

123-ABC

1985

ABC-123

1985 – 1992

ABC-12D

1992 – 1993
black on yellow and white gradient, reflective, sticker boxes

ABC1234

1993 – 1999

AB-123D

1999 – 2007

ABC-12D[36]

New Mexico

1999 – 2010
Land of Enchantment
hot air balloon
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
NM1234
1NM234
12NM34
123NM4
1234NM
AB 123
ABC123
Valid.

New York

2001 – 2010
dark blue on reflective white with blue bars (upper blue bar has the state name over a skyline of Niagara Falls, the Adirondack Mountains, and New York City; lower bar includes the words "The Empire State" in white)
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
ABC-1234[37]
Valid.

North Carolina

2007 – 2011
red on reflective white with blue and red graphics, "First in Flight"

ABC-1234
Valid.

North Dakota

1993 – 2015
black on light blue gradient fade with prairie scene graphic, "Discover The Spirit"
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
ABC-123
Valid through 2016

Northern Marianas Islands

none

Ohio

1996 – 1998
dark blue on gold gradient fade "The Heart of it All"

ABC 1234
Valid.

1998 – 2001
dark blue on gold gradient fade "The Birthplace of Aviation"

ABC 1234

2001 – 2003
red, white, and blue "Ohio Bicentennial"

AB12CD

2004 – 2010
dark blue on reflective white with state seal ("Sunburst") graphic and red and blue bars

ABC 1234

2010 – 2013
"Beautiful Ohio": dark blue on rolling hills with farm, distant skyline, and airborne biplane

ABC 1234

Oklahoma

2009 - 2016
"Native America": dark red on white and blue with photograph of Sacred Rain Arrow sculpture
Screened serial;
Reflective sheeting
123ABC
Valid until expiration.

Oregon

1956 – 1959
gold on blue

1A-1234
Valid.

1959 – 1964
gold on blue with "Pacific Wonderland" slogan

1964 – 1974
gold on blue

ABC 123 (A-M corresponds to January–December, skipping I)

1974 – 1988
blue on gold

ABC 123 (A-M corresponds to January–December, skipping I; N and later series had no month correlation)

1988 – 1990
blue on light green tree graphic

ABC 123 (A-M corresponds to January–December, skipping I, N-series had no month correlation)

Pennsylvania

1999 – 2004
blue on blue, white and yellow gradient, "www.state.pa.us"

ABC-1234
Valid.

Puerto Rico

1986 – 2007
Standard issue
black on reflective white with Fortaleza graphic, "Isla del Encanto"
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
ABC 123
valid

Optional issue
black on reflective flag graphics, "Cincuentenario 1952–2002"
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
ABC 123

2007 – 2011
Standard issue
black on reflective blue with Fortaleza graphic, "Isla del Encanto"
Screened serial;
Reflective sheeting
ABC 123
ABC-123

Rhode Island

none

South Carolina

summer 2008 – December 2015
Standard issue
travel2sc.com
black on orange, white, and blue gradient with palmetto tree in center

Screened serial;
Reflective sheeting
ABC 123

South Dakota

none

Tennessee

2006 – 2011
black on mountain scene with "The Volunteer State" and county name sticker
Screened serial;
Reflective sheeting
123-ABC
valid

Texas

2009 – 2012
black on Davis Mountains and sky background with a lone star and streaks of red and blue in the upper-left corner
Screened serial;
Reflective sheeting
AB1-C234
Valid.

U.S. Virgin Islands

none

Utah

1972 – 1985
black on white
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
ABC 123
ABC-123
Valid.

1985 – 2008
blue on white with skier graphic, "Ski Utah!", and "Greatest Snow on Earth"
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
123 ABC

1992 – 2008
dark blue on Delicate Arch background; "Centennial"
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
123 ABC[26]

2002
2002 Winter Olympics commemorative plate with snowflake logo above "Salt Lake 2002" and the Olympic rings; "Olympic Winter 2002"[38]
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
123A4

Vermont

none

Virginia

1979 – 1994
dark blue on white with blue state name in sentence case
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
ABC-1234 (1994)
ABC-123 (1979–1993)
Valid.

1994 – July 2002; 2007 – February 28, 2014
dark blue on white with blue state name in all capital letters
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
ABC-1234[39]

July 2002 – 2006
400th Anniversary
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
ABC-1234

2006 – 2007
Jamestown
America's 400th Anniversary
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting

Washington

none

West Virginia

December 2002 – early 2006
blue on reflective white with state name in dark blue bar, "Wild, Wonderful / www.callwv.com"

Coded by month of expiration:

0AB 123 (1 through 9 for January through September, respectively)
ABC 123 (O, N, and D for October, November, and December, respectively)

Valid.

Wisconsin

none

Wyoming

none

text: Diplomatic license plates[edit]

text: Diplomatic license plates are issued by the United States Department of State to accredited diplomats.

text: Prior to 1984 license plates for diplmatic vehicles were provided by the jurisdiction where the foreign mission was located. The District of Columbia provided license plates for missions headquartered in the capital, and New York provided plates for members of the United Nations, etc. Upon passage of the Foreign Missions Act in 1984 registration authority for foreign mission vehicles was centralized with the U.S. Department of State.[40][41][42][43]

text: From 1984 until August 28, 2007, all plates issued followed the pattern of a letter identifying the status of the owner, followed by the two-letter country code, followed by a random three or four-digit number (S AB 1234). For member countries of the Organization of American States (OAS), a subset of that numbering pattern is allotted to vehicles based at those countries' missions to the OAS. Plates issued to cars based at the headquarters of the United Nations in New York City are issued in the reverse format, with the three or four-digit number first, followed by the two-letter country code, followed by the status code (1234 AB S).

text: The location of the status codes, either as the first or last character, allows the city of assignment to be easily identified because representatives of certain countries are limited to travel in a certain radii from their base. The status codes used until 2007 were "C" for Foreign Consul; "D" for Diplomat; "S" for Non-Diplomatic Staff; and "A" for the OAS. Status codes used for U.N. personnel until 2007 were "A" for the U.N. Secretariat; "D" for U.N. missions and diplomatic personnel; and "S" for U.N. Staff. The rights of the driver and car under diplomatic immunity are defined by this status code.

text: The country codes are unique to each particular country, but do not correlate to ISO Country Codes or other standards format. For example, in the system used until 2007, France is "DJ" rather than "F", and Australia is "XZ" rather than "AUS".

text:
Diplomatic License Plates

Jurisdiction
Image
Dates issued
Type
Plate style
Serial format
Status

U.S. Dept. of State

1984 – December 31, 2008
Standard issue; red, white, and blue background with "DIPLOMAT", "CONSUL" or blank at top, and black serial centered on a white background
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
A AB1234
A 12345
1234AA A
12345 A
Expired

U.S. Dept. of State

Unknown – December 31, 2008
Standard issue; red, white, and blue background with "DIPLOMAT", "CONSUL" or blank at top, and blue serial centered on a white background
Screened serial;
Reflective sheeting
A AB1234
A 12345
1234AA A
12345 A
Expired

U.S. Dept. of State

August 28, 2007 - Current
Standard issue; black serial on sky blue background, concave curved red top with the Dept. of State seal, "DIPLOMAT", "CONSUL" or blank at top center, and Office of Foreign Mission (OFM) logo
Embossed serial;
Reflective sheeting
ABC 1234
A 123456
1234 ABC
123456 A
Valid

text:
U.S. diplomatic plate country codes

Codes
Country or Organization

AA
 Congo

AB
 Taiwan (Issued with "E" status code)[44][45]

AC
 Ivory Coast

AE
 Uzbekistan

AF
 Japan

AH
 Madagascar

AJ
 Panama

AK
 Cape Verde

AQ
 Syria

AU
 Uganda

AV
 Israel

AW
African Union

AX
 Marshall Islands

BL
 South Africa

BV
 Solomon Islands

BW
World Bank

BY
 Solomon Islands

BZ
 Iraq

CB
 Cambodia

CC
 Ethiopia

CE
 Moldova

CG
 Marshall Islands

CK
 Namibia

CM
 Micronesia

CN
International Organization

CS
 Afghanistan

CT
 Bhutan

CU
 Botswana

CV
 Myanmar (Burma)

CW
 Cameroon

CX
 Burundi

CY
 China

DA
 Colombia

DB
 Costa Rica

DC
 Cuba (UN only)

DD
 Cyprus

DF
 Dominican Republic

DG
 Ecuador

DH
 Ivory Coast

DI
 South Africa

DJ
 France

DK
 Greece

DL
 India

DM
 Iran (UN only)

DN
 Denmark

DP
 Bangladesh

DR
 Slovakia

DZ
 Palau

FC
 Soviet Union (discontinued)

FF
 Antigua & Barbuda

FG
 Central African Republic

FH
 Ireland

FJ
 Lebanon

FK
 Kenya

FL
 Liberia

FM
 Libya

FN
 Malta

FP
 Morocco

FR
 Philippines

FS
 Netherlands

FT
 Qatar

FV
 Sri Lanka

FW
  Vatican City

FX
 Sierra Leone

FZ
 Suriname

GC
 Sweden

GD
 Ukraine

GE
 Azerbaijan

GG
 Zambia

GM
 Turkey

GN
 Turkey

GP
 Albania

GQ
 North Korea (UN only)

GX
 Vanuatu

GY
 Chile

HB
 Tonga

HD
 Argentina

HL
 Saint Lucia

HM
 Andorra

HN
 Mongolia

HV
 Belgium

HW
 Guatemala

HX
 Benin

HY
 Guinea-Bissau

HZ
 Haiti

JB
 Honduras

JC
 Kuwait

JD
 Mauritius

JF
 Nigeria

JG
 Portugal

JH
 Somalia

JJ
 Chad

JK
 Turkey

JM
 Yugoslavia (discontinued)

JP
 Tunisia

JQ
 Togo

JS
 Slovenia

JT
 Croatia

JY
 Cyprus

KB
 Monaco

KD
 Eritrea

KE
 Georgia

KG
 Equatorial Guinea

KH
 Hungary

KJ
 Lithuania

KK
 Fiji

KL
 Jordan

KM
 Jamaica

KN
 Gabon

KP
 Luxembourg

KQ
 Israel

KR
 Malaysia

KS
 Mexico

KT
 Namibia

KU
 São Tomé and Príncipe

KV
 Saudi Arabia

KW
 Seychelles

KX
 Sudan

LC
 Venezuela

LD
 Vietnam

LG
 Turkey

LH
 Israel

LJ
 Israel

LK
European Economic Communities

LM
 Macedonia

LN
 Saudi Arabia

LR
 Bosnia-Herzegovina

LW
 Germany

MF
International Monetary Fund

MG
Unknown

MK
 Djibouti

ML
 Diego Garcia

MN
 Comoros

MP
 Bahamas

MW
 Maldives

NA
 Oman

NB
 Papua New Guinea

NC
 Paraguay

ND
 Romania

NQ
 Angola

NX
 Malaysia

PA
 Austria

PB
 Barbados

PC
 Belize

PD
 United Kingdom

PF
 Bolivia

PG
 Belarus

PH
 Czech Republic

PI
 Israel

PK
 Norway

PL
 Chile

PM
 Brunei

PR
 Argentina

PS
 Zimbabwe

PV
 Democratic Republic of the Congo

QA
 Yemen

QD
 Burkina Faso

QL
 St. Kitts & Nevis

QM
 Bulgaria

QN
 Laos

QP
 Latvia

QQ
 Lesotho

QR
 Malawi

QS
 Mozambique

QT
 New Zealand

QU
 Nicaragua

QV
 Niger

QW
 Poland

QX
 Pakistan

QX
 Iran (DC only)

QY
 Yemen

QZ
 Indonesia

RB
 Rwanda

RC
 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

RD
 Senegal

RJ
Template:Country data African Union Mission (seen in DC 2017 park outside African Union Mission)

RL
 Uruguay

RM
Unknown, Seen DC July 2013

RO
 Romania

RQ
Unknown, Seen DC February 2011

RV
 San Marino

SF
 Czech Republic

SG
 Israel

ST
 Dominica

SX
 Soviet Union (discontinued)

TC
 Mali

TF
 Algeria,  Iraq (DC Only)

TG
 Canada

TH
 Egypt

TJ
 Germany

TK
 Liechtenstein

TL
 El Salvador

TM
 Iceland

TN
   Nepal

TP
 Mauritania

TQ
 Mali

TR
 Italy

TS
 Iraq (UN only)

TT
 Guyana

TU
 Guinea

TV
 Ghana

TW
 Gambia

TX
 Finland

TY
 Grenada

TZ
 Peru

UA
 Bahrain

UF
 Estonia

UH
 Spain

UX
 Trinidad & Tobago

VF
 Thailand

VG
 Tanzania

VH
  Switzerland

VJ
 Brazil

VK
 Singapore

VL
 Swaziland

VM
 Nauru

WB
 United Arab Emirates

WD
 South Korea

WM
 Samoa

WZ
 United Kingdom

XA
 Bangladesh

XC
 Fiji

XD
 Myanmar (Burma)

XE
 Ghana

XF
 Turkey

XG
 Norway

XY
 Ireland

XZ
 Australia

YA
 Armenia

YJ
 Tajikistan

YK
 Kazakhstan

YM
 Moldova

YR
 Russia

YT
 Turkmenistan

YY
 Kyrgyzstan

YZ
 Azerbaijan