document_title: Ice-sheet dynamics

question_text: in a cross-section of a glacier the greatest flow velocities (speeds) occur

question_tokens: in a cross-section of a glacier the greatest flow velocities ( speeds ) occur

text: Ice-sheet dynamics

text: Flow dynamics[edit]

text: The main cause of flow within glaciers can be attributed to an increase in the surface slope, brought upon by an imbalance between the amounts of accumulation vs. ablation. This imbalance increases the shear stress on a glacier until it begins to flow. The flow velocity and deformation will increase as the equilibrium line between these two processes is approached, but are also affected by the slope of the ice, the ice thickness and temperature.[1][2]

text: When the amount of strain (deformation) is proportional to the stress being applied, ice will act as an elastic solid. Ice will not flow until it has reached a thickness of 30 meters (98 ft), but after 50 meters (164 ft), small amounts of stress can result in a large amount of strain, causing the deformation to become a plastic flow rather than elastic. At this point the glacier will begin to deform under its own weight and flow across the landscape. According to the Glen–Nye Flow law, the relationship between stress and strain, and thus the rate of internal flow, can be modeled as follows:[1][2]

text: where:

text: The lowest velocities are near the base of the glacier and along valley sides where friction acts against flow, causing the most deformation. Velocity increases inward toward the center line and upward, as the amount of deformation decreases. The highest flow velocities are found at the surface, representing the sum of the velocities of all the layers below.[1][2]

text: Glaciers may also move by basal sliding, where the base of the glacier is lubricated by meltwater, allowing the glacier to slide over the terrain on which it sits. Meltwater may be produced by pressure-induced melting, friction or geothermal heat. The more variable the amount of melting at surface of the glacier, the faster the ice will flow.[3]

text: The top 50 meters of the glacier form the fracture zone, where ice moves as a single unit. Cracks form as the glacier moves over irregular terrain, which may penetrate the full depth of the fracture zone.

text: Subglacial processes[edit]

text: Most of the important processes controlling glacial motion occur in the ice-bed contact—even though it is only a few meters thick.[4] Glaciers will move by sliding when the basal shear stress drops below the shear resulting from the glacier's weight.[clarification needed]

text: For a given glacier, the two variables are τD, which varies with h, the depth of the glacier, and τB, the basal shear stress.[clarification needed]

text: Basal shear stress[edit]

text: The basal shear stress is a function of three factors: the bed's temperature, roughness and softness.[4]

text: Whether a bed is hard or soft depends on the porosity and pore pressure; higher porosity decreases the sediment strength (thus increases the shear stress τB).[4] If the sediment strength falls far below τD, movement of the glacier will be accommodated by motion in the sediments, as opposed to sliding. Porosity may vary through a range of methods.

text:
Movement of the overlying glacier may cause the bed to undergo dilatancy; the resulting shape change reorganises blocks. This reorganises closely packed blocks (a little like neatly folded, tightly packed clothes in a suitcase) into a messy jumble (just as clothes never fit back in when thrown in in a disordered fashion). This increases the porosity. Unless water is added, this will necessarily reduce the pore pressure (as the pore fluids have more space to occupy).[4]
Pressure may cause compaction and consolidation of underlying sediments.[4] Since water is relatively incompressible, this is easier when the pore space is filled with vapour; any water must be removed to permit compression. In soils, this is an irreversible process.[4]
Sediment degradation by abrasion and fracture decreases the size of particles, which tends to decrease pore space, although the motion of the particles may disorder the sediment, with the opposite effect.[4] These processes also generate heat, whose importance will be discussed later.

text: A soft bed, with high porosity and low pore fluid pressure, allows the glacier to move by sediment sliding: the base of the glacier may even remain frozen to the bed, where the underlying sediment slips underneath it like a tube of toothpaste. A hard bed cannot deform in this way; therefore the only way for hard-based glaciers to move is by basal sliding, where meltwater forms between the ice and the bed itself.[5]

text: Bed softness may vary in space or time, and changes dramatically from glacier to glacier. An important factor is the underlying geology; glacial speeds tend to differ more when they change bedrock than when the gradient changes.[5]

text: As well as affecting the sediment stress, fluid pressure (pw) can affect the friction between the glacier and the bed. High fluid pressure provides a buoyancy force upwards on the glacier, reducing the friction at its base. The fluid pressure is compared to the ice overburden pressure, pi, given by ρgh. Under fast-flowing ice streams, these two pressures will be approximately equal, with an effective pressure (pi – pw) of 30 kPa; i.e. all of the weight of the ice is supported by the underlying water, and the glacier is afloat.[4]

text: Basal melt[edit]

text: A number of factors can affect bed temperature, which is intimately associated with basal meltwater. The melting point of water decreases under pressure, meaning that water melts at a lower temperature under thicker glaciers.[4] This acts as a "double whammy", because thicker glaciers have a lower heat conductance, meaning that the basal temperature is also likely to be higher.[5]

text: Bed temperature tends to vary in a cyclic fashion. A cool bed has a high strength, reducing the speed of the glacier. This increases the rate of accumulation, since newly fallen snow is not transported away. Consequently, the glacier thickens, with three consequences: firstly, the bed is better insulated, allowing greater retention of geothermal heat. Secondly, the increased pressure can facilitate melting. Most importantly, τD is increased. These factors will combine to accelerate the glacier. As friction increases with the square of velocity, faster motion will greatly increase frictional heating, with ensuing melting – which causes a positive feedback, increasing ice speed to a faster flow rate still: west Antarctic glaciers are known to reach velocities of up to a kilometre per year.[4] Eventually, the ice will be surging fast enough that it begins to thin, as accumulation cannot keep up with the transport. This thinning will increase the conductive heat loss, slowing the glacier and causing freezing. This freezing will slow the glacier further, often until it is stationary, whence the cycle can begin again.[5]

text: Supraglacial lakes represent another possible supply of liquid water to the base of glaciers, so they can play an important role in accelerating glacial motion. Lakes of a diameter greater than ~300 m are capable of creating a fluid-filled crevasse to the glacier/bed interface. When these crevasses form, the entirety of the lake's (relatively warm) contents can reach the base of the glacier in as little as 2–18 hours – lubricating the bed and causing the glacier to surge.[6] Water that reaches the bed of a glacier may freeze there, increasing the thickness of the glacier by pushing it up from below.[7]

text: Finally, bed roughness can act to slow glacial motion. The roughness of the bed is a measure of how many boulders and obstacles protrude into the overlying ice. Ice flows around these obstacles by melting under the high pressure on their lee sides; the resultant meltwater is then forced down a steep pressure gradient into the cavity arising in their stoss,[clarification needed] where it re-freezes.[4] Cavitation on the stoss side increases this pressure gradient, which assists flow.[4]

text: Erosional effects[edit]

text: Because ice can flow faster where it is thicker, the rate of glacier-induced erosion is directly proportional to the thickness of overlying ice. Consequently, pre-glacial low hollows will be deepened and pre-existing topography will be amplified by glacial action, while nunataks, which protrude above ice sheets, barely erode at all – erosion has been estimated as 5 m per 1.2 million years.[8] This explains, for example, the deep profile of fjords, which can reach a kilometer in depth as ice is topographically steered into them. Being the principal conduits for draining ice sheets, fjords' extension inland increases the rate of ice sheet thinning. It also makes the ice sheets more sensitive to changes in climate and the ocean.[8]

text: Pipe and sheet flow[edit]

text: The flow of water under the glacial surface can have a large effect on the motion of the glacier itself. Subglacial lakes contain significant amounts of water, which can move fast: cubic kilometres can be transported between lakes over the course of a couple of years.[9]

text: This motion is thought to occur in two main modes: pipe flow involves liquid water moving through pipe-like conduits, like a sub-glacial river; sheet flow involves motion of water in a thin layer. A switch between the two flow conditions may be associated with surging behaviour. Indeed, the loss of sub-glacial water supply has been linked with the shut-down of ice movement in the Kamb ice stream.[9] The subglacial motion of water is expressed in the surface topography of ice sheets, which slump down into vacated subglacial lakes.[9]

text: Boundary conditions[edit]

text: The interface between an ice stream and the ocean is a significant control of the rate of flow.

text: Ice shelves – thick layers of ice floating on the sea – can stabilise the glaciers that feed them. These tend to have accumulation on their tops, may experience melting on their bases, and calve icebergs at their periphery. The catastrophic collapse of the Larsen B ice shelf in the space of three weeks during February 2002 yielded some unexpected observations. The glaciers that had fed the ice sheet (Crane, Jorum, Green, Hektoria – see image) increased substantially in velocity. This cannot have been due to seasonal variability, as glaciers flowing into the remnants of the ice shelf (Flask, Leppard) did not accelerate.[10]

text: Ice shelves exert a dominant control in Antarctica, but are less important in Greenland, where the ice sheet meets the sea in fjords. Here, melting is the dominant ice removal process,[11] resulting in predominant mass loss occurring towards the edges of the ice sheet, where icebergs are calved in the fjords and surface meltwater runs into the ocean.

text: Tidal effects are also important; the influence of a 1 m tidal oscillation can be felt as much as 100 km from the sea.[4] On an hour-to-hour basis, surges of ice motion can be modulated by tidal activity. During larger spring tides, an ice stream will remain almost stationary for hours at a time, before a surge of around a foot in under an hour, just after the peak high tide; a stationary period then takes hold until another surge towards the middle or end of the falling tide.[12][13] At neap tides, this interaction is less pronounced, without tides surges would occur more randomly, approximately every 12 hours.[12]

text: Ice shelves are also sensitive to basal melting. In Antarctica, this is driven by heat fed to the shelf by the circumpolar deep water current, which is 3 °C above the ice's melting point.[14]

text: As well as heat, the sea can also exchange salt with the oceans. The effect of latent heat, resulting from melting of ice or freezing of sea water, also has a role to play. The effects of these, and variability in snowfall and base sea level combined, account for around 80 mm a−1 variability in ice shelf thickness.

text: Long-term changes[edit]

text: Over long time scales, ice sheet mass balance is governed by the amount of sunlight reaching the earth. This variation in sunlight reaching the earth, or insolation, over geologic time is in turn determined by the angle of the earth to the sun and shape of the Earth's orbit, as it is pulled on by neighboring planets; these variations occur in predictable patterns called Milankovitch cycles. Milankovitch cycles dominate climate on the glacial–interglacial timescale, but there exist variations in ice sheet extent that are not linked directly with insolation.

text: For instance, during at least the last 100,000 years, portions of the ice sheet covering much of North America, the Laurentide ice sheet broke apart sending large flotillas of icebergs into the North Atlantic. When these icebergs melted they dropped the boulders and other continental rocks they carried, leaving layers known as ice rafted debris. These so-called Heinrich events, named after their discoverer Hartmut Heinrich, appear to have a 7,000–10,000-year periodicity, and occur during cold periods within the last interglacial.[15]

text: Internal ice sheet "binge-purge" cycles may be responsible for the observed effects, where the ice builds to unstable levels, then a portion of the ice sheet collapses. External factors might also play a role in forcing ice sheets. Dansgaard–Oeschger events are abrupt warmings of the northern hemisphere occurring over the space of perhaps 40 years. While these D–O events occur directly after each Heinrich event, they also occur more frequently – around every 1500 years; from this evidence, paleoclimatologists surmise that the same forcings may drive both Heinrich and D–O events.[16]

text: Hemispheric asynchrony in ice sheet behavior has been observed by linking short-term spikes of methane in Greenland ice cores and Antarctic ice cores. During Dansgaard–Oeschger events, the northern hemisphere warmed considerably, dramatically increasing the release of methane from wetlands, that were otherwise tundra during glacial times. This methane quickly distributes evenly across the globe, becoming incorporated in Antarctic and Greenland ice. With this tie, paleoclimatologists have been able to say that the ice sheets on Greenland only began to warm after the Antarctic ice sheet had been warming for several thousand years. Why this pattern occurs is still open for debate.

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (June 2008)

text: Effects of climate change on ice sheet dynamics[edit]

text: The implications of the current climate change on ice sheets are difficult to ascertain. It is clear that increasing temperatures are resulting in reduced ice volumes globally.[11] (Due to increased precipitation, the mass of parts of the Antarctic ice sheet may currently be increasing, but the total mass balance is unclear.[11])

text: Since the surging nature of ice sheet motion is a relatively recent discovery, and is still a long way from being entirely understood, no models have yet made a comprehensive evaluation of the effects of climate change. However, it is clear that climate change will act to destabilise ice sheets by a number of mechanisms.

text: Rising sea levels will reduce the stability of ice shelves, which have a key role in reducing glacial motion. Some Antarctic ice shelves are currently thinning by tens of metres per year, and the collapse of the Larsen B shelf was preceded by thinning of just 1 metre per year.[11] Further, increased ocean temperatures of 1 °C may lead to up to 10 metres per year of basal melting.[11] Ice shelves are always stable under mean annual temperatures of −9 °C, but never stable above −5 °C; this places regional warming of 1.5 °C, as preceded the collapse of Larsen B, in context.[11]

text: Increasing global air temperatures take around 10,000 years to directly propagate through the ice before they influence bed temperatures, but may have an effect through increased surfacal melting, producing more supraglacial lakes, which may feed warm water to glacial bases and facilitate glacial motion.[11] In areas of increased precipitation, such as Antarctica, the addition of mass will increase rate of glacial motion, hence the turnover in the ice sheet. Observations, while currently limited in scope, do agree with these predictions of an increasing rate of ice loss from both Greenland and Antarctica.[11] A possible positive feedback may result from shrinking ice caps, in volcanically active Iceland at least. Isostatic rebound may lead to increased volcanic activity, causing basal warming – and, through CO2 release, further climate change.[17]


document_title: North American Plate

question_text: which two plates meet along the west coast of the usa

root

text: North American Plate

text: Boundaries[edit]

text: The southerly boundary with the Cocos Plate to the west and the Caribbean Plate to the east is a transform fault, represented by the Cayman Trench under the Caribbean Sea and the Motagua Fault through Guatemala. The parallel Septentrional and Enriquillo-Plantain Garden faults, which run through the island of Hispaniola and bound the Gonâve Microplate, are also a part of the boundary. The rest of the southerly margin which extends east to the Mid Atlantic Ridge and marks the boundary between the North American Plate and the South American Plate is vague but located near the Fifteen-Twenty Fracture Zone around 16°N.

tag: p

text: On the northerly boundary is a continuation of the Mid-Atlantic ridge called the Gakkel Ridge. The rest of the boundary in the far northwestern part of the plate extends into Siberia. This boundary continues from the end of the Gakkel Ridge as the Laptev Sea Rift, on to a transitional deformation zone in the Chersky Range, then the Ulakhan Fault between it and the Okhotsk Plate, and finally the Aleutian Trench to the end of the Queen Charlotte Fault system.

text: The westerly boundary is the Queen Charlotte Fault running offshore along the coast of Alaska and the Cascadia subduction zone to the north, the San Andreas Fault through California, the East Pacific Rise in the Gulf of California, and the Middle America Trench to the south.

text: On its western edge, the Farallon Plate has been subducting under the North American Plate since the Jurassic Period. The Farallon Plate has almost completely subducted beneath the western portion of the North American Plate leaving that part of the North American Plate in contact with the Pacific Plate as the San Andreas Fault. The Juan de Fuca, Explorer, Gorda, Rivera, Cocos and Nazca plates are remnants of the Farallon Plate.

text: The boundary along the Gulf of California is complex. The Gulf is underlain by the Gulf of California Rift Zone, a series of rift basins and transform fault segments between the northern end of the East Pacific Rise in the mouth of the gulf to the San Andreas Fault system in the vicinity of the Salton Trough rift/Brawley seismic zone.[2][3]

text: It is generally accepted that a piece of the North American Plate was broken off and transported north as the East Pacific Rise propagated northward, creating the Gulf of California. However, it is as yet unclear whether the oceanic crust east of the Rise and west of the mainland coast of Mexico is actually a new plate beginning to converge with the North American Plate, consistent with the standard model of rift zone spreading centers generally.[citation needed]

text: Hotspots[edit]

text: A few hotspots are thought to exist below the North American Plate. The most notable hotspots are the Yellowstone (Wyoming), Raton (New Mexico), and Anahim (British Columbia) hotspots. These are thought to be caused by a narrow stream of hot mantle convecting up from the Earth's core-mantle boundary called a mantle plume,[4] although some geologists think that upper-mantle convection is a more likely cause.[5][6] The Yellowstone and Anahim hotspots are thought to have first arrived during the Miocene period and are still geologically active, creating earthquakes and volcanoes. The Yellowstone hotspot is most notable for the Yellowstone Caldera and the many calderas that lie in the Snake River Plain while the Anahim hotspot is most notable for the Anahim Volcanic Belt, currently found in the Nazko Cone area.

text: Plate motion[edit]

text: For the most part, the North American Plate moves in roughly a southwest direction away from the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.

text: The motion of the plate cannot be driven by subduction as no part of the North American Plate is being subducted, except for a small section comprising part of the Puerto Rico Trench; thus other mechanisms continue to be investigated.

text: One recent study suggests that a mantle convective current is propelling the plate.[7]


document_title: Pocahontas (1995 film)

question_text: what's the hummingbird's name in pocahontas

question_tokens: what 's the hummingbird 's name in pocahontas

text: Pocahontas (1995 film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: In 1607, the Susan Constant sails to the New World from London, carrying English settlers from the Virginia Company. On board are Captain John Smith and the voyage's leader Governor Ratcliffe, who seeks gold to bring him wealth and status. Along the way, the Susan Constant is caught in a North Atlantic storm, and Smith saves a young, inexperienced crewmate named Thomas from drowning. As they approach the New World, the settlers, including Smith, talk of adventure, finding gold, fighting 'Injuns', and perhaps settling in the new land.

text: In the Powhatan tribe in Tsenacommacah, North America, Pocahontas, the daughter of Chief Powhatan, fears being possibly wed to Kocoum, a brave warrior whom she sees as too serious for her own free-spirited personality. Powhatan gives Pocahontas her mother's necklace as a present. Pocahontas, along with her friends, the raccoon Meeko and hummingbird Flit, visit Grandmother Willow, a spiritual talking willow tree, and speaks of a dream involving a spinning arrow, and her confusion regarding what her path in life should be. Grandmother Willow then alerts Pocahontas to the arriving English.

text: Ratcliffe has Jamestown built in a wooded clearing and immediately has the crewmen dig for gold. Smith departs to explore the wilderness and encounters Pocahontas. They quickly bond, fascinated by each other's worlds and end up falling in love, despite Powhatan's orders to keep away from the English after Kocoum and other warriors engage them in a fight. Meanwhile, Meeko meets Percy, Ratcliffe's pet pug, and becomes the bane of his existence. Pocahontas introduces Smith to Grandmother Willow and avoids two other crewmen, but Pocahontas's best friend Nakoma discovers her relationship with Smith and warns Kocoum. Ratcliffe also learns of Smith's encounters and angrily warns Smith against sparing any natives he comes across on pain of death.

text: Later, Smith and Pocahontas meet with Grandmother Willow and plan to bring peace between the colonists and the tribe. Smith and Pocahontas share a kiss, while Kocoum and Thomas, sent by Ratcliffe to spy on Smith, witness from afar. Enraged, Kocoum screaming a Battle cry for attacks and attempts to kill Smith, but Thomas intervenes with his musket and kills Kocoum, who destroys Pocahontas' necklace in the process. Smith orders Thomas to leave just before the tribesmen come and capture Smith while Kocoum's body is taken away. Enraged at Kocoum's death, Powhatan declares war on the English, beginning with Smith's execution at sunrise. Pocahontas tries to convince him otherwise, but Powhatan refuses to listen, as he is furious with her for not listening to his orders to remain in the village.

text: Thomas reaches Jamestown safely at night and warns the crewmen of Smith's capture. Ratcliffe then rallies his men to battle using this as an excuse to annihilate the tribe and find their non-existent gold. That same night, Powhatan also orders his men to prepare for battle. A desperate Pocahontas visits Grandmother Willow, where Meeko hands her Smith's compass. Pocahontas realizes Smith's compass was the spinning arrow from her real life encounter, which leads to her destiny. Just then morning comes, and Powhatan and his tribe forcibly bring Smith to a cliff overlooking a clearing for execution. Meanwhile, Ratcliffe leads the armed colonists to the cliff to fight Powhatan's warriors. Just as Powhatan is about to kill Smith, Pocahontas stops him and finally convinces him to end the fighting between the two groups. Everyone accepts gracefully, except Ratcliffe, who tries to shoot Powhatan dead in anger, but inadvertently shoots Smith instead when he shields Powhatan. Ratcliffe is then arrested by his crewmen, who turn on him for hurting their comrade. In the end, Smith is forced to return home to receive medical treatment, while Ratcliffe is also sent back to England to face punishment for his crimes. Smith asks Pocahontas to come with him, but she chooses to stay with her tribe. Meeko and Percy, now friends, give Pocahontas her mother's necklace completely fixed. Smith leaves without Pocahontas but with Powhatan's blessing to return in the future.

text: Cast[edit]

text: Irene Bedard as Pocahontas, the daughter of Chief Powhatan. She is an adventurous woman who violates her father's strict prohibition of meeting white men and falls in love with Captain John Smith. Glen Keane served as the supervising animator for Pocahontas.

tag: ul

text: Judy Kuhn as singing voice of Pocahontas

text:
Mel Gibson as John Smith, the love interest of Pocahontas. He is the only settler in Jamestown willing to befriend the natives due to his love for Pocahontas and acceptance of other cultures.
David Ogden Stiers as Governor Ratcliffe, the greedy and ruthlessly ambitious governor who leads an expedition to Virginia to find gold and other riches (which he wants to keep for himself).

Stiers also provided the voice of Wiggins, Ratcliffe's manservant.

John Kassir as Meeko, Pocahontas' pet raccoon who is friendly to John Smith and loves eating.
Russell Means as Chief Powhatan, Pocahontas' father and chief of the Powhatan tribe.

text: Jim Cummings as singing voice of Chief Powhatan

text:
Christian Bale as Thomas, a loyal friend of John Smith.
Linda Hunt as Grandmother Willow, a speaking willow tree that acts as Pocahontas's guide.
Danny Mann as Percy, Governor Ratcliffe's pet pug.
Billy Connolly and Joe Baker as Ben and Lon, two of the settlers.
Frank Welker as Flit, Pocahontas' pet hummingbird who prefers Kocoum over John Smith but eventually befriends the latter.
Michelle St. John as Nakoma, Pocahontas' friend who secretly adores Kocoum.
James Apaumut Fall as Kocoum, a handsome, strong and brave but stern and aggressive Powhatan warrior who was asked to marry Pocahontas. He attempts to kill John Smith after seeing him and Pocahontas kiss, but is killed by Thomas.
Gordon Tootoosis as Kekata, the shaman of the Powhatan.

text: Jim Cummings as singing voice of Kekata

text: Three actors in the film have been involved in other Pocahontas-related projects. Gordon Tootoosis acted as Chief Powhatan in Pocahontas: The Legend (1995).[3] Christian Bale and Irene Bedard would portray John Rolfe and Pocahontas's mother, respectively, in Terrence Malick's The New World (2005).[4]

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: Following the release of The Rescuers Down Under (1990), director Mike Gabriel was eager to collaborate with veteran Disney story artist Joe Grant on a follow-up project that was vastly different from the animated adventure film. During Thanksgiving weekend, 1990, Gabriel considered adapting Western legends such as Annie Oakley, Buffalo Bill, and Pecos Bill into animated films before conceiving of Pocahontas.[5] Pitching his idea at the Gong Show meeting, Gabriel wrote the title Walt Disney's Pocahontas on an image of Tiger Lily from Peter Pan (1953), to the back of which he taped a brief pitch that read "an Indian princess who is torn between her father's wishes to destroy the English settlers and her wishes to help them — a girl caught between her father and her people, and her love for the enemy."[6] Coincidentally, Feature Animation president Peter Schneider had been developing an animated version of William Shakespeare's play Romeo and Juliet, and observed several similarities between his idea and Gabriel's Pocahontas pitch; Schneider recalled, "We were particularly interested in exploring the theme of 'If we don't learn to live with one another, we will destroy ourselves.'"[5][7] Gabriel's pitch was quickly accepted, becoming the quickest story turnaround in Disney studio history.[8]

text: After Beauty and the Beast (1991) was unprecedentedly nominated for an Academy Award for Best Picture at the 64th Academy Awards, then-studio chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg opted to produce another animated romance film in the hopes of achieving a similar feat. While Aladdin (1992) and The Lion King (1994) were considered to be too far into development, Katzenberg deemed Pocahontas a promising candidate, and thus pushed for the heroine to be older, the romance between her and Smith to be more mature, and the animals to be mute.[9] Head of Story Tom Sito went on the record stating he wanted to include "broader" jokes, but the "higher-ups wanted it more winsome, more gentle. Some of the folks were so concerned about political correctness, they didn't want to be cuckoo-wacky about it."[10] Likewise, Eric Goldberg – following his contributions to Aladdin as the supervising animator of the Genie and with all animation units for The Lion King already occupied – was asked to co-direct Pocahontas alongside Gabriel, to which he agreed.[11][12] Goldberg had originally expected the film to be more comedic and cartoonish like Aladdin, but Schneider informed him that the film would be produced in a vein more similar to that of Beauty and the Beast;[13] the then-ongoing 1992 Los Angeles riots further convinced Goldberg to commit to the film due to its racial themes.[14] Executive interference would eventually grow so much that Goldberg himself decided to work for Chuck Jones Productions under the pseudonym "Claude Raynes" during production.[13] Executive paranoia peaked when Joe Grant drew Percy wearing an Indian feather, by which the animators took the concept one step further by placing a Spanish ruff on Meeko. One executive exclaimed, "Animals don't have the intelligence to switch their clothes! They don't even have opposing thumbs." The animators would retain their concept for the film.[15]

text: Under Katzenberg, Frank Wells, and Michael Eisner, the Disney studios began a correlation of hiring Broadway personnel to manage the Disney animation staff on their feature films that brought such producers as Amy Pell to Aladdin and Sarah McArthur and Thomas Schumacher to The Lion King.[16] In June 1992, the filmmakers embarked on a research trip to the Jamestown Settlement where Pentecost first met Shirley "Little Dove" Custalow-McGowan and Debbie "White Dove" Custalow, both descendants of the Powhatan Indians. The trip also included a visit to the Pamunkey Indian Reservation, and conducted interviews with historians at Old Dominion University.[17] Following the research trip, Custalow-McGowan served as a consultant traveling to the Disney studios three times, and while Custalow-McGowan offered her services for free, Disney paid her a $500 daily consulting fee plus expenses.[18] Ultimately, when it came to light that historical accuracy was not being pursued to the extent she had hoped, McGowan has voiced her feelings of shame she felt in conjunction with her work on the film, saying, "[she] wish[ed her] name wasn't on it".[19] Additional Native American consultants were brought in to authenticate the clothing and war dance choreography.[20] That same month, Katzenberg held a meeting with the Feature Animation staff in which he predicted that Pocahontas would be a commercial hit, while deeming The Lion King experimental and less likely to succeed.[21] As a result, most of the animators of Walt Disney Feature Animation decided to work on Pocahontas instead, believing it would be the more prestigious and successful of the two.[22]

text: Writing[edit]

text: In January 1993, Carl Binder joined the project,[23] having previous expertise as a television writer on shows such as Punky Brewster, War of the Worlds, Friday the 13th: The Series, and Top Cops.[24] Four months later, Susannah Grant and Philip LaZebnik joined the writing team. Susannah Grant was selected by Disney as a screenwriter on Pocahontas after winning the Nicholl Fellowships in Screenwriting awarded by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences the year before while still attending film school.[25] Onboard as a screenwriter, she was only one of the many who was contributing the specific vision the upper management at Disney had in mind, and collaborated with Native American consultants. While working on the movie, Susannah Grant wrote to a specific story outline, and no scene was rewritten less than thirty-five times until she felt it was perfect.[26]

text: Story supervisor Tom Sito, who became the project's unofficial historical consultant, did extensive research into the early colonial era and the story of John Smith and Pocahontas, and was confronted over the historical inaccuracies from historians.[27] Already knowing that in reality Pocahontas married John Rolfe, Gabriel explained it was felt that "the story of Pocahontas and Rolfe was too complicated and violent for a youthful audience" so instead, they would focus on Pocahontas's meeting with John Smith.[28] The filmmakers discovered that Pocahontas was around twelve years old and Smith was "not a very likeable character", and producer James Pentecost confessed that dramatic license was needed to be taken.[29] Likewise, when searching for an appropriate age for Pocahontas to begin her relationship with Smith, Glen Keane explained, "We had the choice of being historically accurate or socially responsible, so we chose the socially responsible side" by increasing Pocahontas's age from a girl into a young woman.[30]

text: One of Gabriel's early ideas was for Pocahontas's mother to be embodied in a certain star in the sky that by the end of the film, she would help Pocahontas find her path to Smith.[31] The Lion King however had concurrently carried a similar idea of the ancestors giving wisdom and guidance to the protagonist so the idea was discarded.[14] Michael Eisner pushed for Pocahontas to have a mother, lamenting that "We're always getting fried for having no mothers." The writers countered that Powhatan was polygamous and formed dynastic alliances among other neighboring tribes by impregnating a local women and giving away the child, so it was believed that Pocahontas herself probably did not see her mother that much.[32] "Well", Eisner conceded, "I guess that means we're toasted."[10] Ultimately, her mother's spirit would become the swirling wind that occurs throughout the film.[31] For the villain, they chose John Ratcliffe, whose portrayal was based on actual English captains, including John Martin, Christopher Newport and Edward Maria Wingfield. In reality, it was Wingfield who despised John Smith, but the filmmakers preferred the sinister sound of "Ratcliffe".[33] The writers would continue to adapt actual events into the film such as Pocahontas warning Smith that the Indians were after him so he could escape in the middle of the night, Powhatan ordering the captured Smith to make bead necklaces to humiliate him, and Pocahontas being captured by Ratcliffe instead of Samuel Argall, though none of them worked with the story.[10]

text: Sito mentioned that Joe Grant contributed heavily towards the film,[34] as he was the creator of Redfeather, Meeko, and Flit.[35] Redfeather was a wise-cracking turkey planning to be voiced by John Candy, and Percy, who was to be voiced by Richard E. Grant, was revised to become mute.[36] Following the death of John Candy in March 1994, co-screenwriter Susannah Grant decided the turkey was inappropriate for the script she co-wrote for Pocahontas,[37] and a more realistic approach would have the animals pantomime instead of talking.[10] Joe Grant stated Redfeather "had comic potential–he thought he was handsome, a lady's man. When we decided he couldn't talk, and, having no hands, he couldn't mime..." Joe Grant would later draw a concept sketch of a hair-braiding raccoon, in which Glen Keane animated and claimed the directors "loved the idea and got rid of the turkey character."[38] Likewise, according to Sito, Meeko was created because they were "naturally enigmatic, because they have little hands and a little mask over their face like a thief."[39] Gabriel described the inspiration for Flit the hummingbird where "I have hummingbirds all over my backyard, [and] I thought, 'That's a great animal to animate.'"[40] According to the directors, Governor Ratcliffe's pampered pet, Percy, was based on history as the royalty of the time often carried small pugs wherever they went.[40]

text: For the spiritual ancestor, a male character named Old Man River was originally envisioned, and Gregory Peck was cast in the role. Peck later realized that the character ought to be a maternal figure and reluctantly turned down the role.[41] Conceived as a tree of life whose seasonal changes would frame the story,[42] Grandmother Willow grew out of a concept sketch of a sawed-off tree with a branch pointing to its right drawn by Joe Grant,[43] which would serve as a narrator that would "remember back to Pocahontas 300 years earlier".[42] Joe Grant would continue to protest to have the tree be more a character within the story, and her character flowered into the idea of a grandmotherly spiritual adviser to Pocahontas.[42] Because of Katzenberg's opposition to having Grandmother Willow in the story, Joe Grant assisted fellow veteran story artist Burny Mattinson with coming up tree puns such as "My bark is worse than my bite", "The roots of all problems", and "They're barking up the wrong tree." Mattinson reluctantly added them to his pitch for the next morning, and during the story meeting, he exclaimed, "Everybody loved it! All of a sudden: 'Oh, I want her in!' 'Let's build her part bigger!'"[44]

text: Casting[edit]

text: In September 1992, Disney began casting actors for Pocahontas telling talent agents that they were particularly interested in Native American actors for the project.[45] For the role of Pocahontas, Broadway actress-singer Judy Kuhn was hired to provide the singing voice for the eponymous character before Irene Bedard was cast. Kuhn explained, "They said, 'You are going to do the dialogue unless we find a Native American actress whose singing voice matched yours.' I was cast before Irene, so it actually went backwards."[46] Bedard herself was filming Lakota Woman: Siege at Wounded Knee (1994) where she was informed by the casting director that they were looking for someone to voice the title role. According to Bedard, she took a train to Buffalo, New York where she was walked in wearing a sundress and a straw hat, and read for the part. Back on the set of Lakota Woman, she learned that she was cast in the role.[47] Michelle St. John had also auditioned for the role of Pocahontas, and was given the role of Nakoma after Bedard was cast.[14]

text: Mel Gibson was cast as English settler John Smith following a desire to make "something for my kids."[48] In a notable contrast to previous voice actors for Disney animated features, Gibson provided the singing voice for his character,[49] which the actor has described as the most difficult part of his role.[48] Christian Bale auditioned for the role of Thomas. As he explained in an interview with Disney Adventures, "the directors played with Thomas being Irish and Scottish and younger than I am, so I had to raise my voice and do different accents. But the more we did it, the more he became like me--older and English."[40] Richard White, the voice of Gaston in Beauty and the Beast, was supposed to voice Ratcliffe, but the crew was worried he might sound too much like Gaston, so he was replaced by his co-star David Ogden Stiers.[50] Russell Means was cast as Chief Powhatan, though he initially expressed displeasure with the script in that Native Americans addressed each other using proper names rather than the traditional "my father" or "my friend".[51] Aboriginal Canadian actor Gordon Tootoosis was also cast as the tribal shaman Nekata.[52] Throughout most of the production, the cast members performed their dialogue in separate recording sessions.[53][54]

text: Design and animation[edit]

text: Renowned for animating female characters such as Ariel, supervising animator Glen Keane was immediately tapped to draw the titular Indian princess.[55] Following the demands of Jeffrey Katzenberg to make the title character "the most idealized and finest woman ever made", Keane first began to sought his inspirations for his depictions for Pocahontas from Shirley 'Little Dove' Custalow-McGowan and Devi White Dove, women he had met during the research trip to Virginia.[56] Keane recalled meeting the women:

text: So I turned around and there's this beautiful Indian woman walking up; a Native American. She said 'Are you Glen Keane? The animator that's going to do Pocahontas?' I said 'Well, yeah.' And then from behind another tree another woman came up and she said, 'Well, my name is Shirley Little Dove, and this is my sister Devi White Dove, and we are descended from Pocahontas.' And as they stood there, I mean I took a picture of both of them, and between their faces was Pocahontas' face in my mind – I could see her.[57]

text: Other inspirations were Filipino model Dyna Taylor,[58] Christy Turlington,[59] Natalie Belcon, Naomi Campbell, Jamie Pillow, white supermodel Kate Moss, Charmaine Craig, and Irene Bedard, who provided the character's speaking voice.[60][61] Keane also looked to a 1620 depiction of Pocahontas from a history book, though Keane would state she was "not exactly a candidate for People's 'Most Beautiful' issue [so] I made a few adjustments to add an Asian feeling to her face."[48] Due to the complexity of the color schemes, shapes, and expressions in the animation, a total of 55 animators worked on the design of Pocahontas' character alone,[62] including Mark Henn and Pres Romanillos.[63][64]

text: Following the closure of Sullivan-Bluth Studios in 1993, John Pomeroy, who notoriously resigned alongside Don Bluth during work on The Fox and the Hound (1981) in 1979,[65] worked on the film. Pomeroy noted that initially John Smith was portrayed as well-groomed before the film's animators tried designs where the character was "sloppier", bearded, and carried daggers and knives. Pomeroy was more satisfied with the character's design the more simple it became.[40] Additionally, Pomeroy cited inspiration for John Smith from Errol Flynn and physical attributes of Gibson.[66]

text: Initially assigned as a supervising animator on The Lion King, Nik Ranieri did character designs and test animation for Timon, but moved over to Pocahontas growing frustrated with an indecisive vision from the directors. There, he was assigned to animate Redfeather until Jeffrey Katzenberg ordered for the animals to be mute. Finding feathers difficult for Redfeather to gesture with, he was again assigned to animate Meeko using a Little Golden Books animal book illustrated by Alice and Martin Provensen as reference.[67] Duncan Marjoribanks utilized geometric shapes to create Ratcliffe. In early drafts of the character, he had the body similar to a pear, but to make him appear more arrogant, the animator increased the force of gravity on his chest so that he seemed more pompous and physically threatening.[68] Chris Buck served as the supervising animator for Percy, Wiggins, and Grandmother Willow. For Grandmother Willow, the face was traditionally animated by Buck, while the cowl and the trunk of the tree was digitally animated under the supervision of Steve Goldberg. Assisted with the effect animators, a 3D software program was employed for the bark to be individually manipulated and for the face to match with the computer-generated texture.[5] The following supervising animators included Anthony DeRosa for Nakoma, Michael Cedeno for Kocoum, Ken Duncan for Thomas, T. Daniel Hofstedt for the settlers Lon and Ben, and Dave Pruiksma for Flit.[69] While Mulan (1998) was within its pre-production stages, 18 minutes were animated by 170 animators and artists at the Disney-MGM Studios.[70]

text: For the film's art director, Gabriel selected Michael Giamo who shared his painting style of shape-based and secondary art details.[71] For Giamo, he relied on a color-saturated, elegant designs in a less-than-realistic format inspired by "prehistory Caribbean themes and creatures derived from Mexican and African folk art."[71] Giamo also sought out inspiration for the film's look from the works produced by earlier Disney art designers such as Richard Kelsey's story sketches from his unproduced film Hiawatha,[72] Eyvind Earle, who worked on Sleeping Beauty (1959),[73] and Mary Blair.[74]

text: Music[edit]

text: Howard Ashman and Alan Menken were planning to write songs for this film once they were finished working on Aladdin, but Ashman died in 1991. Following the death of his longtime collaborator, Menken wrote the remaining songs for Aladdin with Tim Rice at his home in London, which the New York-based composer found to be difficult.[75] When work on Aladdin was finished, Menken was planning to write songs for the film with Rice. Kevin Bannerman, the film's director of development, stated Rice "was always gallivanting around the world and it was difficult to get him and Alan together...And so here was Stephen [Schwartz], who had written scores that we all loved and we were huge fans of, and he lived in the New York area." Disney immediately contacted Stephen Schwartz, who, after working on Working, Rags, and Children of Eden, had quit theater and was taking psychology courses at New York University; he was brought on board to write the lyrics.[76][77] This would mark the first time Menken had collaborated without Ashman for a Disney animated film.[78] Menken commented that their work included moments of tension because Schwartz was also capable of writing music and Menken had experience with lyrics.[79]

text: Due to corporate interest in the film surrounding its theme of promoting understanding between different groups, and its inclusion of violence and threats of greater conflict, Schwartz became heavily involved in the storytelling. Bannerman estimated that he spent a week with one of the screenwriters and helped work out the overall themes of tolerance and cooperation.[80] In June 1992, Schwartz researched Jamestown, Virginia where he absorbed the atmosphere and bought tapes of Native American music and English sea shanties, as well as other music from the early seventeenth century that helped inspire numbers in the film.[81] Schwartz modeled his lyrical writing for people of other ethnicities on that of Oscar Hammerstein II and Sheldon Harnick.[82] "Colors of the Wind" was the first song to be written for the film. Gabriel, Goldberg, and Pentecost insisted that the song help define the film's "heart and soul".[14] Schwartz began "Colors" with a few draft ideas for lyrics taking inspiration from Chief Seattle's letter to the United States Congress.[83] Then, Menken wrote the melody with Schwartz listening at the piano and making suggestions. Schwartz would add lyrics before a session together where they were refined.[84] "Just Around the Riverbend", also composed by Menken and Schwartz, was devised by Schwartz's wife Carole, with the idea that Pocahontas would have a recurring dream that suggested something coming her way, paving the way for her "I Want" song.[85] The song almost did not make it into the completed film when Disney executives doubted whether her song would have the kind of impact they wanted at that point. Schwartz however stated he and Menken "believed in it very strongly. Indeed, at one point we wrote a different song for that spot, but Alan and I were never as happy with the second song and ultimately everybody at Disney came to feel that way, too."[86]

text: The filmmakers had planned for a song for when Pocahontas and Smith met in the glade, just before Kocoum attacks his rival and one of the settlers stalking Smith kills Kocoum. There were an estimated three to four songs at this point, including "In the Middle of the River",[87] "First to Dance", which was deemed too silly to as it took place before Kocoum's death, and "Powerful Magic", which was another attempt at a happy song.[88] A love song, titled "If I Never Knew You", had been finished by the animators, but following a test screening where younger audiences were not interested in it and the teenagers felt giddy as it played, Menken suggested that the song be removed from the film. It was, although its melody remained in the orchestral underscoring.[89] The film's soundtrack was successful, reaching number-one on the Billboard 200 charts during the week of July 22, 1995.[90] It received a triple platinum certification.[91]

text: Release[edit]

text: Marketing[edit]

text: To replicate the promotional buzz of The Lion King, the four-minute musical number, "Colors of the Wind", was released in November 1994, accompanying a theatrical re-release of The Lion King.[92] On February 3, 1995, Disney began its promotional marketing campaign starting in San Diego, California launching a nationwide 18-week tour of fashion malls located within twenty-five cities where a mall exhibit named Pocahontas Animation Discovery Adventure was created to help promote the release.[93][94] There, a Disney animator would guide shoppers on a presentation tour, which featured a walk-through maze with interactive lily pads, flying birds, and huge video wall, a studio workshop where visitors can become the voice of their favorite animated character, and an area where visitors can electronically manipulate images. Additionally, they would demonstrate animation techniques and discuss the design and creation of Pocahontas' character.[95] Further promotional tie-ins included Burger King distributing 55 million toy replicas of the film's characters with kids' meals, Payless Shoes selling a line of moccasins, and Mattel peddling a Barbie-like Pocahontas doll.[93]

text: A behind-the-scenes documentary television special titled The Making of Pocahontas: A Legend Comes to Life was aired on June 20, 1995, on the Disney Channel where the animators, voice cast, crew, and studio heads were interviewed on the production of the film. The special was hosted by actress Irene Bedard.[96]

text: The film had the largest premiere in history, on June 10, 1995, in New York's Central Park, followed by a live performance by Vanessa Williams.[97] Disney officials estimated the crowd at 100,000.[97] The premiere's attendees included then-New York Mayor Rudy Giuliani, Caroline Kennedy, Mariah Carey and Michael Eisner.[97]

text: Home media[edit]

text: At first announced to be released on March 6, 1996,[98] Pocahontas was first released on VHS and laserdisc in the United States on February 28, 1996, under the "Masterpiece Collection" lineup. Some prototype copies of the VHS release used the 1989 Walt Disney Classics logo, while copies produced from February 28, 1996, onwards used the standard Masterpiece Collection logo. A deluxe VHS edition included the film and a documentary on the making of the film alongside a special edition of The Art of Pocahontas book and Disney-certified lithograph prints.[99] Released on November 13, 1996, the CAV laserdisc Deluxe Edition contained the film, a historical documentary on Pocahontas, and The Making of Pocahontas, along with added storyboards, character design artwork, concept art, rough animation, publicity and promotional trailers, the deleted "If I Never Knew You" musical sequence, and an audio commentary on a total of four double sided discs. The release was also accompanied with a Special Edition of the Art of Pocahontas book.[100] Disney initially shipped 17 million VHS copies to retail stores,[101] with nine million copies sold within its first weekend exceeding the VHS sales of Cinderella (1950) released in the previous fall but falling short of the retail sales of The Lion King.[102] By the summer of 1998, sales and rentals of the VHS release had accumulated to $200 million.[103]

text: In January 2000, Walt Disney Home Video launched the Gold Classic Collection, with Pocahontas re-issued on VHS and DVD on June 6, 2000.[104] The DVD contained the film in its 1.66:1 aspect ratio enhanced with 5.1 surround sound, and was accompanied with special features including two music videos, a trivia game, the theatrical trailer, and a "Fun with Nature" activity booklet.[105] In 2005, a 10th Anniversary 2-disc Special Edition DVD set was released, which featured a new extended cut of the film (adding two performances of "If I Never Knew You") and numerous bonus features.[106] Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released Pocahontas, alongside its sequel Pocahontas II: Journey to a New World, on Blu-ray Disc as a 2-Movie Collection on August 21, 2012.[107] Pocahontas was re-released yet again in 2016 as a Blu-Ray, DVD and Digital HD combo pack, available exclusively through the Disney Movie Club. It featured brand-new cover art, and, for the first time, a digital copy download of the film alongside the physical release.[108]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: Timed with Pocahontas' 400th birthday,[5] Pocahontas had a limited release in North America on June 16, 1995, playing in only six selected theaters.[109] The film grossed nearly $2.7 million during its first weekend, standing at the eighth place in the box office ranking.[110] The wide release followed on June 24, 1995, in 2,596 screens. Studio estimates initially anticipated Pocahontas earning $30.5 million, ranking first and beating out the previous box office champion Batman Forever (1995).[111] The figure was later revised to $28.8 million with Pocahontas falling second behind Batman Forever.[112] The final estimates placed Pocahontas narrowly ranking first grossing $29.5 million in its first weekend with Batman Forever falling into second place taking $29.2 million.[113] By January 1996, the film grossed $141.5 million in the United States,[114] being the fourth-highest-grossing film in North America behind Apollo 13 (1995), Toy Story (1995), and Batman Forever, respectively.[115] Foreign wise, the film was expected to gross $225 million outside the United States,[116] though foreign box office grosses eventually amounted to $204.5 million.[2] Cumulatively, Pocahontas grossed $346.1 million worldwide.[2] Seen as a commercial box office disappointment in comparison to The Lion King,[117] then-Disney CEO Michael Eisner contested in an annual shareholders' meeting in January 1996 that "Pocahontas is well on its way to being one of our most successful films of all time. It equalled Beauty and the Beast's box office numbers domestically, and now it has taken Europe by storm and is playing well in every country in which it is being shown. Sales of Pocahontas merchandise have been phenomenal."[118]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: Pocahontas received generally mixed reviews from film critics.[112] Roger Ebert, writing for the Chicago Sun-Times, gave the film 3 out of 4 stars writing the film was "the best-looking of the modern Disney animated features, and one of the more thoughtful" though he was more critical of the story and portrayal of the villain, ultimately summarizing that "on a list including Mermaid, Beauty, Aladdin and Lion King, I'd rank it fifth. It has a lot of good intentions, but a severe scoundrel shortage."[119] On the television program Siskel & Ebert, Ebert repeated the same sentiment, while his partner Gene Siskel was more praising of the film. Both critics gave the film a "Thumbs Up".[120] In his print review for the Chicago Tribune, Siskel awarded the film 3½ stars out of 4 commenting that the film is a "surprisingly serious, thoughtful and beautifully drawn Disney animated feature about the American birthright of exploitation and racism". He praised it for "sending powerful images to children about threats to the natural order", restoring "a certain majesty to the Indian culture", and for having "the courage that leads to the life-goes-on ending."[121]

text: The film's writing and lack of humor received mixed reviews. Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly stated "With dismay, I realize that virtually everything in the movie — every character, every story twist, every song — is as generic as the two hygienic lovers. As a fairy-tale confection, a kind of West Side Story in Jamestown, Pocahontas is pleasant to look at, and it will probably satisfy very small kiddies, but it's the first of the new-era Disney cartoons that feels less than animated."[122] Peter Travers of Rolling Stone bemoaned that there were "no funny, fast-talking animals — Meeko the raccoon and Flit the hummingbird remain silent pals to Pocahontas and make you miss the verbal fun that Nathan Lane's wisecracking meerkat brought to The Lion King."[123] Desson Howe, reviewing for The Washington Post, likewise criticized the writing as recycling "elements from Snow White to The Lion King, with a father-child clash, a heroine's saintly pureness that transforms an entire people, a forbidden love, consultations with an oracle/shaman (in this case a tree spirit, voiced by Linda Hunt) and the usual sideshow of funny, fuzzy animals."[124] While calling the screenplay was the "film's weakest element", Janet Maslin of The New York Times summarized that "Gloriously colorful, cleverly conceived and set in motion with the usual Disney vigor, Pocahontas is one more landmark feat of animation. It does everything a children's film should do except send little viewers home humming its theme song."[125]

text: According to Chief Roy Crazy Horse of the Powhatan Renape Nation, the film "distorts history beyond recognition" and "perpetuates a dishonest and self-serving myth at the expense of the Powhatan Nation". Roy claims that Disney refused the tribe's offers to help create a more culturally and historically accurate film.[126] An editorial by Angela Aleiss in the Los Angeles Times pointed out America's fascination with the Indian princess who was rarely shown as having anything more important in her life than her male relationships.[127] Professor and Director of Indigenous Nations Studies Cornel Pewewardy argues that the film presents damaging stereotypes of the Native American population. Pewewardy feels that the representation of Native characters, like Grandmother Willow, Meeko, and Flit, as animals, has a marginalizing effect.[128] Anthropologist Kiyomi Kutsuzawa also observed that in the film, Kocoum and John Smith fight for Pocahontas's affection. Kutsuzawa viewed Smith's victory over Kocoum in this arena as symbolic of Western Europe's domination of the Americas and the white man's domination over men of color.[129]

text: Conversely, Native American activist Russell Means, who portrays Chief Powhatan in the film, praised the film's racial overtones, saying that "Pocahontas is the first time Eurocentric male society has admitted its historical deceit. It makes the stunning admission that the British came over here to kill Indians and rape and pillage the land."[51] Means also said that the film marked "the first time, other than on Northern Exposure, that a human face has been put on an Indian female," dubbing Pocahontas "the finest feature film on American Indians Hollywood has turned out."[130] Sophie Gilbert of The Atlantic concurred, writing that the film "had a progressive attitude when it came to interpreting history, depicting the English settlers as plunderers searching for non-existent gold who were intent upon murdering the 'savages' they encountered in the process."[130]

text: The review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reports that 56% of critics gave the film a positive review based on 52 reviews, with an average score of 6/10. The site's consensus states "Pocahontas means well, and has moments of startling beauty, but it's largely a bland, uninspired effort, with uneven plotting and an unfortunate lack of fun."[131] Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 from top reviews from mainstream critics, calculated a score of 58 based on 23 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews."[132]

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
Ceremony
Recipient
Category
Result
Ref(s)

Academy Awards
"Colors of the Wind"
(Alan Menken, Composer; Stephen Schwartz, Lyricist)
Best Original Song
Won
[133]

Alan Menken (Composer), Stephen Schwartz (Lyricist)
Best Musical or Comedy Score
Won

Annie Awards

Best Animated Feature
Won
[134]

Nik Ranieri (Supervising Animator for "Meeko")
Individual Achievement for Animation
Won

Chris Buck (Supervising Animator for "Grandmother Willow")
Nominated

David Pruiksma (Supervising Animator for "Flit")
Nominated

Alan Menken (Composer)
Stephen Schwartz (Lyricist)
Best Individual Achievement for Music in the Field of Animation
Won

Michael Giamo (Art Director)
Best Individual Achievement for Production Design in Animation
Won

Rasoul Azadani (Layout Artistic Supervisor)
Nominated

Artios Awards
Brian Chavanne
Ruth Lambert
Outstanding Achievement in Animated Voice-Over Casting
Won
[135]

Environmental Media Awards

Best Feature Film
Won
[136]

Golden Globe Awards
"Colors of the Wind"
Best Original Song
Won
[137]

Alan Menken (Composer)
Best Original Score
Nominated

Golden Reel Awards

Best Sound Editing – Music Animation
Won
[138]

Grammy Awards
"Colors of the Wind"
Best Song Written for a Motion Picture, Television or Other Visual Media
Won
[139]

tag: table

text: Historical accuracy[edit]

text: Pocahontas' real name was Matoaka. "Pocahontas" was only a nickname, and it can variously be translated to "little wanton", "playful one", "little brat" or "the naughty one".[140] In the film, Pocahontas is a young adult; in reality, she was around 10 or 11 at the time John Smith arrived with the Virginia Company in 1607.[140]

text: Smith is portrayed as an amiable man; in reality, he was described as having a harsh exterior by his fellow colonists.[140]

text: Historically, there is no evidence of a romantic relationship emerging between Pocahontas and John Smith.[141] Whether or not Pocahontas saved Smith's life is debated.[142] English colonists led by Samuel Argall captured Pocahontas three years after John Smith departed for England; she converted to Christianity in Henricus and later married John Rolfe, who was known for introducing tobacco as a cash crop.[141]

text: Ebert criticized the film's deviations from history, writing "Having led one of the most interesting lives imaginable, Pocahontas serves here more as a simplified symbol".[119] Sophie Gilbert of The Atlantic wrote that "The movie might have fudged some facts", but that this allowed it to tell "a compelling romantic story".[130]

text: Animator Tom Sito defended the film's relationship to history, saying "Contrary to the popular verdict that we ignored history on the film, we tried hard to be historically correct and to accurately portray the culture of the Virginia Algonquins."[130]

text: Legacy[edit]

text: Pocahontas became the first Native American Disney Princess and the first woman of color to be the lead character in a Disney film.[130][143]

text: A video game entitled Disney's Pocahontas based on the film was released on the Sega Genesis/Mega Drive on January 1, 1996.[144] Pocahontas was followed by a direct-to-video sequel entitled Pocahontas II: Journey to a New World (1998). Bedard and Kuhn reprised their roles as Pocahontas' speaking and singing voices, respectively, while John Smith was voiced by Donal Gibson.[145] Pocahontas, alongside other Disney Princesses, is set to briefly appear in the film Ralph Breaks the Internet: Wreck-It Ralph 2 (2018), with Bedard returning to the role.[146]

text: Critics have also discussed the influence of Pocahontas on other films. Sophie Gilbert of The Atlantic argues that the strong and brave title character of Pocahontas influenced the portrayal of subsequent heroines of Disney animated films, specifically Mulan, Rapunzel, Merida, and Elsa.[130] Similarly, The Verge's Tasha Robinson wrote that Moana (2016) "draws on" Pocahontas in its portrayal of a woman buoyed by her culture.[147] According to HuffPost, James Cameron's Avatar (2009) is a "rip-off" of Pocahontas.[148] Avatar's producer Jon Landau has said that Avatar is akin to Pocahontas with the Na'vi aliens taking the place of Native Americans.[149] Cameron has said that he first conceived of Avatar in the 1960s, long before Pocahontas was released but he has also said that Avatar does reference the story of Pocahontas, the historical figure. Kirsten Acuna of Business Insider wrote that, while Avatar may be based on Cameron's own ideas, it nevertheless takes inspiration from animated films like Pocahontas and FernGully: The Last Rainforest (1992).[150]


document_title: Baez

question_text: where does the last name baez originate from

text: Baez

text: Báez or Baez is a surname of Hispanic origin meaning son of Pelayo[1] (Peláez > Páez > Báez). As of 2008, it was the 20th most popular surname in Paraguay.[2]

text: People[edit]

text: People having this surname include:

text:
Albert Baez (1912–2007), physicist, father of Joan Baez
Anthony Baez (1965–1994), victim of NYPD police brutality
Danys Báez (born 1977), Cuban baseball player
Javier Báez (born 1992), Puerto Rican baseball player
Joan Baez (born 1941), American folk singer
John C. Baez (born 1961), mathematical physicist, cousin of Joan Baez
José Báez (disambiguation), several people
 Luis Báez de Torres (born c. 1565; fl. 1607), Iberian maritime explorer
Maria Baez, a former New York City councilwoman
Maria Baez, a fictional detective on the TV series Blue Bloods
Myrna Báez, painter and printmaker
Pedro Báez (born 1988), Dominican baseball player
Ramón Buenaventura Báez (1812–1884), president of the Dominican Republic
Ramón Báez (1858–1929), provisional president of the Dominican Republic
Ramón Báez III, Dominican businessman and sportsman
Ramón Báez IV (born 1956), Dominican businessman, jailed from the collapse of Banco Intercontinental
Xavier Báez (born 1987), Mexican football player


document_title: Sweet Home Alabama

question_text: who played the guitar solo on sweet home alabama

text: Sweet Home Alabama

text: Creation and recording[edit]

text: "Sweet Home Alabama" was a major chart hit for a band whose previous singles had "lazily sauntered out into release with no particular intent". The hit led to two TV rock show offers, which the band turned down.[2] In addition to the original appearance on Second Helping, the song has appeared on numerous Lynyrd Skynyrd collections and live albums.

text: None of the three writers of the song were from Alabama.[original research?] Ronnie Van Zant and Gary Rossington were both born in Jacksonville, Florida. Ed King was from Glendale, California.

text: Controversy[edit]

text: "Sweet Home Alabama" was written as an answer to two songs, "Southern Man" and "Alabama" by Neil Young, which dealt with themes of racism and slavery in the American South. "We thought Neil was shooting all the ducks in order to kill one or two," said Ronnie Van Zant at the time.[2] The following excerpt shows the Neil Young mention in the song:

text:
Well, I heard Mister Young sing about her
Well, I heard ol' Neil put her down
Well, I hope Neil Young will remember
A Southern man don't need him around anyhow

text: In his 2012 autobiography Waging Heavy Peace, Young commented on his role in the song's creation, writing "My own song 'Alabama' richly deserved the shot Lynyrd Skynyrd gave me with their great record. I don't like my words when I listen to it. They are accusatory and condescending, not fully thought out, and too easy to misconstrue".[3]

text: Van Zant's other response was also controversial, with references to the Governor of Alabama, George Wallace (a noted supporter of segregation) and the Watergate scandal:

text:
In Birmingham, they love the governor (boo boo boo)
Now we all did what we could do
Now Watergate does not bother me
Does your conscience bother you?
Tell the truth
...
Sweet home Alabama, oh, sweet home baby
Where the skies are so blue and the governor's true

text: Music historians point out that the choice[not in citation given] of Birmingham in connection with the governor (rather than the capital Montgomery) is significant[not in citation given] for the controversy as "In 1963, the city was the site of massive civil rights activism, as thousands of demonstrators led by Martin Luther King, Jr. sought to desegregate downtown businesses... [and] was the scene of some of the most violent moments of the Civil Rights Movement. Segregationist police chief Bull Connor unleashed attack dogs and high-pressure water cannons against peaceful marchers, including women and children; just weeks later, Ku Klux Klansmen bombed a black church, killing four little girls."[4]

text: In 1975, Van Zant said: "The lyrics about the governor of Alabama were misunderstood. The general public didn't notice the words 'Boo! Boo! Boo!' after that particular line, and the media picked up only on the reference to the people loving the governor."[5] "The line 'We all did what we could do' is sort of ambiguous," Al Kooper notes. "'We tried to get Wallace out of there' is how I always thought of it."[5] Towards the end of the song, Van Zant adds "where the governor's true" to the chorus's "where the skies are so blue," a line rendered ironic by the previous booing of the governor. Journalist Al Swenson argues that the song is more complex than it is sometimes given credit for, suggesting that it only looks like an endorsement of Wallace.[5] "Wallace and I have very little in common," Van Zant himself said, "I don't like what he says about colored people."[5]

text: Music historians examining the juxtaposition of invoking Richard Nixon and Watergate after Wallace and Birmingham note that one reading of the lyrics is an "attack against the liberals who were so outraged at Nixon's conduct" while others interpret it regionally: "the band was speaking for the entire South, saying to northerners, we're not judging you as ordinary citizens for the failures of your leaders in Watergate; don't judge all of us as individuals for the racial problems of southern society".[4]

text: Muscle Shoals[edit]

text: One verse of the song includes the line, "Now Muscle Shoals has got the Swampers/And they've been known to pick a song or two." This refers to the town of Muscle Shoals, Alabama, a popular location for recording popular music because of the "sound" crafted by local recording studios and back-up musicians. "The Swampers" referred to in the lyrics are the Muscle Shoals Rhythm Section. These musicians, who crafted the "Muscle Shoals Sound", were inducted into the Alabama Music Hall of Fame in 1995[6] for a "Lifework Award for Non-Performing Achievement" and into the Musician's Hall Of Fame in 2008 (the performers inducted into the latter were the four founding Swampers—Barry Beckett, Roger Hawkins, David Hood, Jimmy Johnson—plus Pete Carr, Clayton Ivey, Randy McCormack, Will McFarlane, and Spooner Oldham).[7][8] The nickname "The Swampers" was given to the Muscle Shoals Rhythm Section by producer Denny Cordell during a recording session by singer/songwriter Leon Russell, in reference to their 'swampy' sound.

text: Part of the reference comes from the 1971–1972 demo reels that Lynyrd Skynyrd had recorded in Muscle Shoals with Johnson as a producer/recording engineer. Johnson helped refine many of the songs first heard publicly on the Pronounced album, and it was Van Zant's "tip of the hat" to Johnson for helping out the band in the early years and essentially giving the band its first break.

text: Lynyrd Skynyrd remains connected to Muscle Shoals, having since recorded a number of works in the city and making it a regular stop on their concert tours.

text: The PBS show Independent Lens aired a documentary on Muscle Shoals and its place in music history in mid-April 2014.

text: Personnel[edit]

text: Lynyrd Skynyrd

text:
Ronnie Van Zant – lead vocals
Ed King – lead guitar, backing vocals (first "woo" at the end of the last chorus)
Leon Wilkeson – bass guitar, backing vocals (second "woo" at the end of the last chorus)
Bob Burns – drums
Billy Powell – piano
Allen Collins – rhythm guitar (left channel)
Gary Rossington – rhythm guitar (right channel), acoustic guitar (left channel)

text: Additional personnel

text:
Al Kooper – backing vocals (left channel)
Clydie King – background vocals[2]
Merry Clayton – background vocals[2]

text: Charts[edit]

text: Weekly charts[edit]

text:
Chart (1974-76)
Peak
position

Austrian Singles Chart
56

Canada RPM Top Singles
6

German Singles Chart
87

Swiss Singles Chart
51

UK Singles Chart
31

US Billboard Hot 100
9

Chart (2008)
Peak
position

UK Singles (Official Charts Company)[9]
44

text: Year-end chart[edit]

text:
Chart (1974)
Peak
position

US Cashbox Top 100
58

Canadian RPM Top Singles
81

text: Sales and certifications[edit]

text:
Region
Certification
Certified units/Sales

Italy (FIMI)[10]
Platinum
50,000*

United Kingdom (BPI)[11]
Platinum
600,000

United States (RIAA)[12]
Gold
3,680,000 (digital)[13]

sales+streaming figures based on certification alone

text: "All Summer Long"[edit]

text: Kid Rock's 2008 song "All Summer Long" samples "Sweet Home Alabama" on the chorus and uses the guitar solo and piano outro, as well as the "turn it up" shout before the guitar solo; Billy Powell is featured on the track. "All Summer Long" also samples Warren Zevon's "Werewolves of London", which has similar chord progression to "Sweet Home Alabama". Since Kid Rock's release, the original song has charted in the UK charts at number 44.

text: The song is credited to Matthew Shafer, Waddy Wachtel, R.J. Ritchie, Leroy Marinell, Warren Zevon, Edward King, Gary Rossington and Ronnie Van Zant.

text: Zevon apparently hated "Sweet Home Alabama" and referred to it as "that dead band's song". He surmised that those who listen to it only do so because their own lives are miserable, and his views on the song are articulated in "Play It All Night Long", which appears on his 1980 album Bad Luck Streak in Dancing School.[citation needed]

text: Other uses[edit]

text: In September 2007, Alabama Governor Bob Riley announced the phrase "Sweet Home Alabama" would be used to promote Alabama state tourism in a multimillion-dollar ad campaign.[14]

text: Before every race at the Talladega Superspeedway in Talladega, where two Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series races are annually held, the song plays before the green flag is waved. This tradition dates back to at least the late 1990s.

text: As of 2009, the State of Alabama has begun using the phrase "Sweet Home Alabama" as an official slogan on license plates for motor vehicles, with Governor Bob Riley noting that Lynyrd Skynyrd's anthem is the third most-played song referring to a specific destination.[15] (This is also the second Alabama license plate in a row to make reference to a popular song, with the state's previous plate having featured "Stars Fell on Alabama".)

text: In the 1980s and 1990s, the song played during warmups of the University of Alabama in Huntsville Charger Hockey team during home games. This song can also be heard before, during, and after many University of Alabama sporting events. Majority of the Alabama fan base have mixed the words "Roll Tide Roll" in the middle of the chorus to relate Alabama sports to the Great State of Alabama.

text:
It appears in a 2017 TV commercial for Chili's restaurants.[16]
In 1990, southern gangster rap group The Geto Boys sampled Lynyrd Skynyrd's "Sweet Home Alabama" on "Gangsta of Love". Contained on later versions of their self-titled LP, the mix uses a sample from "Sweet Home" instead of the Steve Miller Band's "The Joker" due to copyright issues. The version included on the original pressing of its 1989 album Grip It! On That Other Level had contained the Miller Band sample.[citation needed]
Used in the remake of The Texas Chainsaw Massacre (2003), even though the story in the film takes place in 1973.[citation needed]
Used in the 2010 film Despicable Me and featured on its soundtrack album.

text: Recognition and awards[edit]

text:
In May 2006, National Review ranked the song number 4 on its list of "50 greatest conservative rock songs".[17]
In July 2006, CMT ranked it number 1 on the "20 Greatest Southern Rock songs".
In 2004, the song was ranked number 398 on Rolling Stone's list of "the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time".
In 2007, the song was used on the Top Gear Greatest Driving Songs album.
In 1997, the song was used in movie Con Air. While the song plays in background, Garland Greene (by Steve Buscemi) says to Poe and Baby-O: "Define irony. Bunch of idiots dancing on a plane to a song made famous by a band that died in a plane crash", a reference to the band's 1977 plane crash. The song is also used briefly in the end credits beginning with Buscemi's character gambling until the end of the main cast credits.


document_title: Evaporite

question_text: what is the most abundant mineral that forms from evaporating water

text: Evaporite

text: Formation of evaporite rocks[edit]

text: Although all water bodies on the surface and in aquifers contain dissolved salts, the water must evaporate into the atmosphere for the minerals to precipitate. For this to happen, the water body must enter a restricted environment where water input into this environment remains below the net rate of evaporation. This is usually an arid environment with a small basin fed by a limited input of water. When evaporation occurs, the remaining water is enriched in salts, and they precipitate when the water becomes supersaturated.

text: Evaporite depositional environments[edit]

text: Marine evaporites[edit]

text: Marine evaporites tend to have thicker deposits and are usually the focus of more extensive research.[2] They also have a system of evaporation. When scientists evaporate ocean water in a laboratory, the minerals are deposited in a defined order that was first demonstrated by Usiglio in 1884.[2] The first phase of the experiment begins when about 50% of the original water depth remains. At this point, minor carbonates begin to form.[2] The next phase in the sequence comes when the experiment is left with about 20% of its original level. At this point, the mineral gypsum begins to form, which is then followed by halite at 10%,[2] excluding carbonate minerals that tend not to be evaporites. The most common minerals that are generally considered to be the most representative of marine evaporites are calcite, gypsum and anhydrite, halite, sylvite, carnallite, langbeinite, polyhalite, and kainite. Kieserite (MgSO4) may also be included, which often will make up less than four percent of the overall content.[2] However, there are approximately 80 different minerals that have been reported found in evaporite deposits (Stewart,1963;Warren,1999), though only about a dozen are common enough to be considered important rock formers.[2]

text: Non-marine evaporites[edit]

text: Non-marine evaporites are usually composed of minerals that are not common in marine environments because in general the water from which non-marine evaporite precipitates has proportions of chemical elements different from those found in the marine environments.[2] Common minerals that are found in these deposits include blödite, borax, epsomite, gaylussite, glauberite, mirabilite, thenardite and trona. Non-marine deposits may also contain halite, gypsum, and anhydrite, and may in some cases even be dominated by these minerals, although they did not come from ocean deposits. This, however, does not make non-marine deposits any less important; these deposits often help to paint a picture into past Earth climates. Some particular deposits even show important tectonic and climatic changes. These deposits also may contain important minerals that help in today's economy.[3] Thick non-marine deposits that accumulate tend to form where evaporation rates will exceed the inflow rate, and where there is sufficient soluble supplies. The inflow also has to occur in a closed basin, or one with restricted outflow, so that the sediment has time to pool and form in a lake or other standing body of water.[3] Primary examples of this are called "saline lake deposits".[3] Saline lakes includes things such as perennial lakes, which are lakes that are there year-round, playa lakes, which are lakes that appear only during certain seasons, or any other terms that are used to define places that hold standing bodies of water intermittently or year-round. Examples of modern non-marine depositional environments include the Great Salt Lake in Utah and the Dead Sea, which lies between Jordan and Israel.

text: Evaporite depositional environments that meet the above conditions include:

text:
Graben areas and half-grabens within continental rift environments fed by limited riverine drainage, usually in subtropical or tropical environments

Example environments at the present that match this is the Denakil Depression, Ethiopia; Death Valley, California

Graben environments in oceanic rift environments fed by limited oceanic input, leading to eventual isolation and evaporation

Examples include the Red Sea, and the Dead Sea in Jordan and Israel

Internal drainage basins in arid to semi-arid temperate to tropical environments fed by ephemeral drainage

Example environments at the present include the Simpson Desert, Western Australia, the Great Salt Lake in Utah

Non-basin areas fed exclusively by groundwater seepage from artesian waters

Example environments include the seep-mounds of the Victoria Desert, fed by the Great Artesian Basin, Australia

Restricted coastal plains in regressive sea environments

Examples include the sabkha deposits of Iran, Saudi Arabia, and the Red Sea; the Garabogazköl of the Caspian Sea

Drainage basins feeding into extremely arid environments

Examples include the Chilean deserts, certain parts of the Sahara, and the Namib

text: The most significant known evaporite depositions happened during the Messinian salinity crisis in the basin of the Mediterranean.

text: Evaporitic formations[edit]

text: Evaporite formations need not be composed entirely of halite salt. In fact, most evaporite formations do not contain more than a few percent of evaporite minerals, the remainder being composed of the more typical detrital clastic rocks and carbonates. Examples of evaporite formations include occurrences of evaporite sulfur in Eastern Europe and West Asia.[4]

text: For a formation to be recognised as evaporitic it may simply require recognition of halite pseudomorphs, sequences composed of some proportion of evaporite minerals, and recognition of mud crack textures or other textures.

text: Economic importance of evaporites[edit]

text: Evaporites are important economically because of their mineralogy, their physical properties in-situ, and their behaviour within the subsurface.

text: Evaporite minerals, especially nitrate minerals, are economically important in Peru and Chile. Nitrate minerals are often mined for use in the production on fertilizer and explosives.

text: Thick halite deposits are expected to become an important location for the disposal of nuclear waste because of their geologic stability, predictable engineering and physical behaviour, and imperviousness to groundwater.

text: Halite formations are famous for their ability to form diapirs, which produce ideal locations for trapping petroleum deposits.

text: Halite deposits are often mined for use as salt.

text: Major groups of evaporite minerals[edit]

text: This is a chart that shows minerals that form the marine evaporite rocks, they are usually the most common minerals that appear in this kind of deposit.

text:
Mineral class
Mineral name
Chemical Composition

Chlorides
Halite
Sylvite
Carnallite
Kainite

NaCl
KCl
KMgCl3 * 6H2O
KMg(SO4)Cl * 3H2O

Sulfates
Anhydrite
Gypsum
Kieserite
Langbeinite
Polyhalite

CaSO4
CaSO4 * 2H2O
MgSO4 * H2O
K2Mg2(SO4)3
K2Ca2Mg(SO4)6 * H2O

Carbonates
Dolomite
Calcite
Magnesite

CaMg(CO3)2
CaCO3
MgCO3

text:
Halides: halite, sylvite (KCl), and fluorite
Sulfates: such as gypsum, barite, and anhydrite
Nitrates: nitratine (soda niter) and niter
Borates: typically found in arid-salt-lake deposits plentiful in the southwestern US. A common borate is borax, which has been used in soaps as a surfactant.
Carbonates: such as trona, formed in inland brine lakes.

Some evaporite minerals, such as Hanksite, are from multiple groups.

text: Evaporite minerals start to precipitate when their concentration in water reaches such a level that they can no longer exist as solutes.

text: The minerals precipitate out of solution in the reverse order of their solubilities, such that the order of precipitation from sea water is:

text:
Calcite (CaCO3) and dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2)
Gypsum (CaSO4-2H2O) and anhydrite (CaSO4).
Halite (i.e. common salt, NaCl)
Potassium and magnesium salts

tag: ol

text: The abundance of rocks formed by seawater precipitation is in the same order as the precipitation given above. Thus, limestone (calcite) and dolomite are more common than gypsum, which is more common than halite, which is more common than potassium and magnesium salts.

text: Evaporites can also be easily recrystallized in laboratories in order to investigate the conditions and characteristics of their formation.