document_title: Atmosphere of Earth

question_text: what are the main components of earth's atmosphere

question_tokens: what are the main components of earth 's atmosphere

text: Atmosphere of Earth

text: Composition

text: The three major constituents of air, and therefore of Earth's atmosphere, are nitrogen, oxygen, and argon. Water vapor accounts for roughly 0.25% of the atmosphere by mass. The concentration of water vapor (a greenhouse gas) varies significantly from around 10 ppm by volume in the coldest portions of the atmosphere to as much as 5% by volume in hot, humid air masses, and concentrations of other atmospheric gases are typically quoted in terms of dry air (without water vapor).[4] The remaining gases are often referred to as trace gases,[5] among which are the greenhouse gases, principally carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Filtered air includes trace amounts of many other chemical compounds. Many substances of natural origin may be present in locally and seasonally variable small amounts as aerosols in an unfiltered air sample, including dust of mineral and organic composition, pollen and spores, sea spray, and volcanic ash. Various industrial pollutants also may be present as gases or aerosols, such as chlorine (elemental or in compounds), fluorine compounds and elemental mercury vapor. Sulfur compounds such as hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide (SO2) may be derived from natural sources or from industrial air pollution.

text:
Major constituents of dry air, by volume[6]

Gas
Volume(A)

Name
Formula
in ppmv(B)
in %

Nitrogen
N2
780,840
78.084

Oxygen
O2
209,460
20.946

Argon
Ar
9,340
0.9340

Carbon dioxide
CO2
400
0.04[7]

Neon
Ne
18.18
0.001818

Helium
He
5.24
0.000524

Methane
CH4
1.79
0.000179

Not included in above dry atmosphere:

Water vapor(C)
H2O
10–50,000(D)
0.001%–5%(D)

notes:
(A) volume fraction is equal to mole fraction for ideal gas only,
    also see volume (thermodynamics)
(B) ppmv: parts per million by volume
(C) Water vapor is about 0.25% by mass over full atmosphere
(D) Water vapor strongly varies locally[4]

text: The relative concentration of gasses remains constant until about 10,000 m (33,000 ft).[8]

text: Structure of the atmosphere

text: Principal layers

text: In general, air pressure and density decrease with altitude in the atmosphere. However, temperature has a more complicated profile with altitude, and may remain relatively constant or even increase with altitude in some regions (see the temperature section, below). Because the general pattern of the temperature/altitude profile is constant and measurable by means of instrumented balloon soundings, the temperature behavior provides a useful metric to distinguish atmospheric layers. In this way, Earth's atmosphere can be divided (called atmospheric stratification) into five main layers. Excluding the exosphere, the atmosphere has four primary layers, which are the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere.[9] From highest to lowest, the five main layers are:

text:
Exosphere: 700 to 10,000 km (440 to 6,200 miles)
Thermosphere: 80 to 700 km (50 to 440 miles)[10]
Mesosphere: 50 to 80 km (31 to 50 miles)
Stratosphere: 12 to 50 km (7 to 31 miles)
Troposphere: 0 to 12 km (0 to 7 miles)[11]

text: Exosphere

text: The exosphere is the outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere (i.e. the upper limit of the atmosphere). It extends from the exobase, which is located at the top of the thermosphere at an altitude of about 700 km above sea level, to about 10,000 km (6,200 mi; 33,000,000 ft) where it merges into the solar wind.

text: This layer is mainly composed of extremely low densities of hydrogen, helium and several heavier molecules including nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide closer to the exobase. The atoms and molecules are so far apart that they can travel hundreds of kilometers without colliding with one another. Thus, the exosphere no longer behaves like a gas, and the particles constantly escape into space. These free-moving particles follow ballistic trajectories and may migrate in and out of the magnetosphere or the solar wind.

text: The exosphere is located too far above Earth for any meteorological phenomena to be possible. However, the aurora borealis and aurora australis sometimes occur in the lower part of the exosphere, where they overlap into the thermosphere. The exosphere contains most of the satellites orbiting Earth.

text: Thermosphere

text: The thermosphere is the second-highest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It extends from the mesopause (which separates it from the mesosphere) at an altitude of about 80 km (50 mi; 260,000 ft) up to the thermopause at an altitude range of 500–1000 km (310–620 mi; 1,600,000–3,300,000 ft). The height of the thermopause varies considerably due to changes in solar activity.[10] Because the thermopause lies at the lower boundary of the exosphere, it is also referred to as the exobase. The lower part of the thermosphere, from 80 to 550 kilometres (50 to 342 mi) above Earth's surface, contains the ionosphere.

text: The temperature of the thermosphere gradually increases with height. Unlike the stratosphere beneath it, wherein a temperature inversion is due to the absorption of radiation by ozone, the inversion in the thermosphere occurs due to the extremely low density of its molecules. The temperature of this layer can rise as high as 1500 °C (2700 °F), though the gas molecules are so far apart that its temperature in the usual sense is not very meaningful. The air is so rarefied that an individual molecule (of oxygen, for example) travels an average of 1 kilometre (0.62 mi; 3300 ft) between collisions with other molecules.[12] Although the thermosphere has a high proportion of molecules with high energy, it would not feel hot to a human in direct contact, because its density is too low to conduct a significant amount of energy to or from the skin.

text: This layer is completely cloudless and free of water vapor. However, non-hydrometeorological phenomena such as the aurora borealis and aurora australis are occasionally seen in the thermosphere. The International Space Station orbits in this layer, between 350 and 420 km (220 and 260 mi).

text: Mesosphere

text: The mesosphere is the third highest layer of Earth's atmosphere, occupying the region above the stratosphere and below the thermosphere. It extends from the stratopause at an altitude of about 50 km (31 mi; 160,000 ft) to the mesopause at 80–85 km (50–53 mi; 260,000–280,000 ft) above sea level.

text: Temperatures drop with increasing altitude to the mesopause that marks the top of this middle layer of the atmosphere. It is the coldest place on Earth and has an average temperature around −85 °C (−120 °F; 190 K).[13][14]

text: Just below the mesopause, the air is so cold that even the very scarce water vapor at this altitude can be sublimated into polar-mesospheric noctilucent clouds. These are the highest clouds in the atmosphere and may be visible to the naked eye if sunlight reflects off them about an hour or two after sunset or a similar length of time before sunrise. They are most readily visible when the Sun is around 4 to 16 degrees below the horizon. A type of lightning referred to as either sprites or ELVES occasionally forms far above tropospheric thunderclouds. The mesosphere is also the layer where most meteors burn up upon atmospheric entrance. It is too high above Earth to be accessible to jet-powered aircraft and balloons, and too low to permit orbital spacecraft. The mesosphere is mainly accessed by sounding rockets and rocket-powered aircraft.

text: Stratosphere

text: The stratosphere is the second-lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It lies above the troposphere and is separated from it by the tropopause. This layer extends from the top of the troposphere at roughly 12 km (7.5 mi; 39,000 ft) above Earth's surface to the stratopause at an altitude of about 50 to 55 km (31 to 34 mi; 164,000 to 180,000 ft).

text: The atmospheric pressure at the top of the stratosphere is roughly 1/1000 the pressure at sea level. It contains the ozone layer, which is the part of Earth's atmosphere that contains relatively high concentrations of that gas. The stratosphere defines a layer in which temperatures rise with increasing altitude. This rise in temperature is caused by the absorption of ultraviolet radiation (UV) radiation from the Sun by the ozone layer, which restricts turbulence and mixing. Although the temperature may be −60 °C (−76 °F; 210 K) at the tropopause, the top of the stratosphere is much warmer, and may be near 0 °C.[15]

text: The stratospheric temperature profile creates very stable atmospheric conditions, so the stratosphere lacks the weather-producing air turbulence that is so prevalent in the troposphere. Consequently, the stratosphere is almost completely free of clouds and other forms of weather. However, polar stratospheric or nacreous clouds are occasionally seen in the lower part of this layer of the atmosphere where the air is coldest. The stratosphere is the highest layer that can be accessed by jet-powered aircraft.

text: Troposphere

text: The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It extends from Earth's surface to an average height of about 12 km, although this altitude actually varies from about 9 km (30,000 ft) at the poles to 17 km (56,000 ft) at the equator,[11] with some variation due to weather. The troposphere is bounded above by the tropopause, a boundary marked in most places by a temperature inversion (i.e. a layer of relatively warm air above a colder one), and in others by a zone which is isothermal with height.[16][17]

text: Although variations do occur, the temperature usually declines with increasing altitude in the troposphere because the troposphere is mostly heated through energy transfer from the surface. Thus, the lowest part of the troposphere (i.e. Earth's surface) is typically the warmest section of the troposphere. This promotes vertical mixing (hence the origin of its name in the Greek word τρόπος, tropos, meaning "turn"). The troposphere contains roughly 80% of the mass of Earth's atmosphere.[18] The troposphere is denser than all its overlying atmospheric layers because a larger atmospheric weight sits on top of the troposphere and causes it to be most severely compressed. Fifty percent of the total mass of the atmosphere is located in the lower 5.6 km (18,000 ft) of the troposphere.

text: Nearly all atmospheric water vapor or moisture is found in the troposphere, so it is the layer where most of Earth's weather takes place. It has basically all the weather-associated cloud genus types generated by active wind circulation, although very tall cumulonimbus thunder clouds can penetrate the tropopause from below and rise into the lower part of the stratosphere. Most conventional aviation activity takes place in the troposphere, and it is the only layer that can be accessed by propeller-driven aircraft.

text: Other layers

text: Within the five principal layers that are largely determined by temperature, several secondary layers may be distinguished by other properties:

text:
The ozone layer is contained within the stratosphere. In this layer ozone concentrations are about 2 to 8 parts per million, which is much higher than in the lower atmosphere but still very small compared to the main components of the atmosphere. It is mainly located in the lower portion of the stratosphere from about 15–35 km (9.3–21.7 mi; 49,000–115,000 ft), though the thickness varies seasonally and geographically. About 90% of the ozone in Earth's atmosphere is contained in the stratosphere.
The ionosphere is a region of the atmosphere that is ionized by solar radiation. It is responsible for auroras. During daytime hours, it stretches from 50 to 1,000 km (31 to 621 mi; 160,000 to 3,280,000 ft) and includes the mesosphere, thermosphere, and parts of the exosphere. However, ionization in the mesosphere largely ceases during the night, so auroras are normally seen only in the thermosphere and lower exosphere. The ionosphere forms the inner edge of the magnetosphere. It has practical importance because it influences, for example, radio propagation on Earth.
The homosphere and heterosphere are defined by whether the atmospheric gases are well mixed. The surface-based homosphere includes the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and the lowest part of the thermosphere, where the chemical composition of the atmosphere does not depend on molecular weight because the gases are mixed by turbulence.[20] This relatively homogeneous layer ends at the turbopause found at about 100 km (62 mi; 330,000 ft), the very edge of space itself as accepted by the FAI, which places it about 20 km (12 mi; 66,000 ft) above the mesopause.

text: The planetary boundary layer is the part of the troposphere that is closest to Earth's surface and is directly affected by it, mainly through turbulent diffusion. During the day the planetary boundary layer usually is well-mixed, whereas at night it becomes stably stratified with weak or intermittent mixing. The depth of the planetary boundary layer ranges from as little as about 100 metres (330 ft) on clear, calm nights to 3,000 m (9,800 ft) or more during the afternoon in dry regions.

text: The average temperature of the atmosphere at Earth's surface is 14 °C (57 °F; 287 K)[21] or 15 °C (59 °F; 288 K),[22] depending on the reference.[23][24][25]

text: Physical properties

text: Pressure and thickness

text: The average atmospheric pressure at sea level is defined by the International Standard Atmosphere as 101325 pascals (760.00 Torr; 14.6959 psi; 760.00 mmHg). This is sometimes referred to as a unit of standard atmospheres (atm). Total atmospheric mass is 5.1480×1018 kg (1.135×1019 lb),[27] about 2.5% less than would be inferred from the average sea level pressure and Earth's area of 51007.2 megahectares, this portion being displaced by Earth's mountainous terrain. Atmospheric pressure is the total weight of the air above unit area at the point where the pressure is measured. Thus air pressure varies with location and weather.

text: If the entire mass of the atmosphere had a uniform density from sea level, it would terminate abruptly at an altitude of 8.50 km (27,900 ft). It actually decreases exponentially with altitude, dropping by half every 5.6 km (18,000 ft) or by a factor of 1/e every 7.64 km (25,100 ft), the average scale height of the atmosphere below 70 km (43 mi; 230,000 ft). However, the atmosphere is more accurately modeled with a customized equation for each layer that takes gradients of temperature, molecular composition, solar radiation and gravity into account.

text: In summary, the mass of Earth's atmosphere is distributed approximately as follows:[28]

text:
50% is below 5.6 km (18,000 ft).
90% is below 16 km (52,000 ft).
99.99997% is below 100 km (62 mi; 330,000 ft), the Kármán line. By international convention, this marks the beginning of space where human travelers are considered astronauts.

text: By comparison, the summit of Mt. Everest is at 8,848 m (29,029 ft); commercial airliners typically cruise between 10 km (33,000 ft) and 13 km (43,000 ft) where the thinner air improves fuel economy; weather balloons reach 30.4 km (100,000 ft) and above; and the highest X-15 flight in 1963 reached 108.0 km (354,300 ft).

text: Even above the Kármán line, significant atmospheric effects such as auroras still occur. Meteors begin to glow in this region, though the larger ones may not burn up until they penetrate more deeply. The various layers of Earth's ionosphere, important to HF radio propagation, begin below 100 km and extend beyond 500 km. By comparison, the International Space Station and Space Shuttle typically orbit at 350–400 km, within the F-layer of the ionosphere where they encounter enough atmospheric drag to require reboosts every few months. Depending on solar activity, satellites can experience noticeable atmospheric drag at altitudes as high as 700–800 km.

text: Temperature and speed of sound

text: The division of the atmosphere into layers mostly by reference to temperature is discussed above. Temperature decreases with altitude starting at sea level, but variations in this trend begin above 11 km, where the temperature stabilizes through a large vertical distance through the rest of the troposphere. In the stratosphere, starting above about 20 km, the temperature increases with height, due to heating within the ozone layer caused by capture of significant ultraviolet radiation from the Sun by the dioxygen and ozone gas in this region. Still another region of increasing temperature with altitude occurs at very high altitudes, in the aptly-named thermosphere above 90 km.

text: Because in an ideal gas of constant composition the speed of sound depends only on temperature and not on the gas pressure or density, the speed of sound in the atmosphere with altitude takes on the form of the complicated temperature profile (see illustration to the right), and does not mirror altitudinal changes in density or pressure.

text: Density and mass

text: The density of air at sea level is about 1.2 kg/m3 (1.2 g/L, 0.0012 g/cm3). Density is not measured directly but is calculated from measurements of temperature, pressure and humidity using the equation of state for air (a form of the ideal gas law). Atmospheric density decreases as the altitude increases. This variation can be approximately modeled using the barometric formula. More sophisticated models are used to predict orbital decay of satellites.

text: The average mass of the atmosphere is about 5 quadrillion (5×1015) tonnes or 1/1,200,000 the mass of Earth. According to the American National Center for Atmospheric Research, "The total mean mass of the atmosphere is 5.1480×1018 kg with an annual range due to water vapor of 1.2 or 1.5×1015 kg, depending on whether surface pressure or water vapor data are used; somewhat smaller than the previous estimate. The mean mass of water vapor is estimated as 1.27×1016 kg and the dry air mass as 5.1352 ±0.0003×1018 kg."

text: Optical properties

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Solar radiation (or sunlight) is the energy Earth receives from the Sun. Earth also emits radiation back into space, but at longer wavelengths that we cannot see. Part of the incoming and emitted radiation is absorbed or reflected by the atmosphere. In May 2017, glints of light, seen as twinkling from an orbiting satellite a million miles away, were found to be reflected light from ice crystals in the atmosphere.[30][31]

text: Scattering

text: When light passes through Earth's atmosphere, photons interact with it through scattering. If the light does not interact with the atmosphere, it is called direct radiation and is what you see if you were to look directly at the Sun. Indirect radiation is light that has been scattered in the atmosphere. For example, on an overcast day when you cannot see your shadow there is no direct radiation reaching you, it has all been scattered. As another example, due to a phenomenon called Rayleigh scattering, shorter (blue) wavelengths scatter more easily than longer (red) wavelengths. This is why the sky looks blue; you are seeing scattered blue light. This is also why sunsets are red. Because the Sun is close to the horizon, the Sun's rays pass through more atmosphere than normal to reach your eye. Much of the blue light has been scattered out, leaving the red light in a sunset.

text: Absorption

text: Different molecules absorb different wavelengths of radiation. For example, O2 and O3 absorb almost all wavelengths shorter than 300 nanometers. Water (H2O) absorbs many wavelengths above 700 nm. When a molecule absorbs a photon, it increases the energy of the molecule. This heats the atmosphere, but the atmosphere also cools by emitting radiation, as discussed below.

text: The combined absorption spectra of the gases in the atmosphere leave "windows" of low opacity, allowing the transmission of only certain bands of light. The optical window runs from around 300 nm (ultraviolet-C) up into the range humans can see, the visible spectrum (commonly called light), at roughly 400–700 nm and continues to the infrared to around 1100 nm. There are also infrared and radio windows that transmit some infrared and radio waves at longer wavelengths. For example, the radio window runs from about one centimeter to about eleven-meter waves.

text: Emission

text: Emission is the opposite of absorption, it is when an object emits radiation. Objects tend to emit amounts and wavelengths of radiation depending on their "black body" emission curves, therefore hotter objects tend to emit more radiation, with shorter wavelengths. Colder objects emit less radiation, with longer wavelengths. For example, the Sun is approximately 6,000 K (5,730 °C; 10,340 °F), its radiation peaks near 500 nm, and is visible to the human eye. Earth is approximately 290 K (17 °C; 62 °F), so its radiation peaks near 10,000 nm, and is much too long to be visible to humans.

text: Because of its temperature, the atmosphere emits infrared radiation. For example, on clear nights Earth's surface cools down faster than on cloudy nights. This is because clouds (H2O) are strong absorbers and emitters of infrared radiation. This is also why it becomes colder at night at higher elevations.

text: The greenhouse effect is directly related to this absorption and emission effect. Some gases in the atmosphere absorb and emit infrared radiation, but do not interact with sunlight in the visible spectrum. Common examples of these are CO2 and H2O.

text: Refractive index

text: The refractive index of air is close to, but just greater than 1. Systematic variations in refractive index can lead to the bending of light rays over long optical paths. One example is that, under some circumstances, observers onboard ships can see other vessels just over the horizon because light is refracted in the same direction as the curvature of Earth's surface.

text: The refractive index of air depends on temperature, giving rise to refraction effects when the temperature gradient is large. An example of such effects is the mirage.

text: Circulation

text: Atmospheric circulation is the large-scale movement of air through the troposphere, and the means (with ocean circulation) by which heat is distributed around Earth. The large-scale structure of the atmospheric circulation varies from year to year, but the basic structure remains fairly constant because it is determined by Earth's rotation rate and the difference in solar radiation between the equator and poles.

text: Evolution of Earth's atmosphere

text: Earliest atmosphere

text: The first atmosphere consisted of gases in the solar nebula, primarily hydrogen. There were probably simple hydrides such as those now found in the gas giants (Jupiter and Saturn), notably water vapor, methane and ammonia. As the solar nebula dissipated, these gases escaped, partly driven off by the solar wind.[32]

text: Second atmosphere

text: Outgassing from volcanism, supplemented by gases produced during the late heavy bombardment of Earth by huge asteroids, produced the next atmosphere, consisting largely of nitrogen plus carbon dioxide and inert gases.[32] A major part of carbon-dioxide emissions soon dissolved in water and built up carbonate sediments.[clarification needed]

text: Researchers have found water-related sediments dating from as early as 3.8 billion years ago.[33] About 3.4 billion years ago, nitrogen formed the major part of the then stable "second atmosphere". An influence of life has to be taken into account rather soon in the history of the atmosphere, because hints of early life-forms appear as early as 3.5 billion years ago.[34] How Earth at that time maintained a climate warm enough for liquid water and life, if the early Sun put out 30% lower solar radiance than today, is a puzzle known as the "faint young Sun paradox".

text: The geological record however shows a continually relatively warm surface during the complete early temperature record of Earth - with the exception of one cold glacial phase about 2.4 billion years ago. In the late Archean Eon an oxygen-containing atmosphere began to develop, apparently produced by photosynthesizing cyanobacteria (see Great Oxygenation Event), which have been found as stromatolite fossils from 2.7 billion years ago. The early basic carbon isotopy (isotope ratio proportions) strongly suggests conditions similar to the current, and that the fundamental features of the carbon cycle became established as early as 4 billion years ago.

text: Ancient sediments in the Gabon dating from between about 2,150 and 2,080 million years ago provide a record of Earth's dynamic oxygenation evolution. These fluctuations in oxygenation were likely driven by the Lomagundi carbon isotope excursion.[35]

text: Third atmosphere

text: The constant re-arrangement of continents by plate tectonics influences the long-term evolution of the atmosphere by transferring carbon dioxide to and from large continental carbonate stores. Free oxygen did not exist in the atmosphere until about 2.4 billion years ago during the Great Oxygenation Event and its appearance is indicated by the end of the banded iron formations.

text: Before this time, any oxygen produced by photosynthesis was consumed by oxidation of reduced materials, notably iron. Molecules of free oxygen did not start to accumulate in the atmosphere until the rate of production of oxygen began to exceed the availability of reducing materials that removed oxygen. This point signifies a shift from a reducing atmosphere to an oxidizing atmosphere. O2 showed major variations until reaching a steady state of more than 15% by the end of the Precambrian.[38] The following time span from 541 million years ago to the present day is the Phanerozoic Eon, during the earliest period of which, the Cambrian, oxygen-requiring metazoan life forms began to appear.

text: The amount of oxygen in the atmosphere has fluctuated over the last 600 million years, reaching a peak of about 30% around 280 million years ago, significantly higher than today's 21%. Two main processes govern changes in the atmosphere: Plants use carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, releasing oxygen. Breakdown of pyrite and volcanic eruptions release sulfur into the atmosphere, which oxidizes and hence reduces the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere. However, volcanic eruptions also release carbon dioxide, which plants can convert to oxygen. The exact cause of the variation of the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere is not known. Periods with much oxygen in the atmosphere are associated with rapid development of animals. Today's atmosphere contains 21% oxygen, which is high enough for this rapid development of animals.[39]

text: The scientific consensus is that the anthropogenic greenhouse gases currently accumulating in the atmosphere are the main cause of global warming.[40]

text: Air pollution

text: Air pollution is the introduction into the atmosphere of chemicals, particulate matter or biological materials that cause harm or discomfort to organisms.[41] Stratospheric ozone depletion is caused by air pollution, chiefly from chlorofluorocarbons and other ozone-depleting substances.

text: Images from space

text: On October 19, 2015 NASA started a website containing daily images of the full sunlit side of Earth on http://epic.gsfc.nasa.gov/. The images are taken from the Deep Space Climate Observatory (DSCOVR) and show Earth as it rotates during a day.[42]

text:
Blue light is scattered more than other wavelengths by the gases in the atmosphere, giving Earth a blue halo when seen from space.

The geomagnetic storms cause beautiful displays of aurora across the atmosphere.

Limb view, of Earth's atmosphere. Colors roughly denote the layers of the atmosphere.

This image shows the Moon at the centre, with the limb of Earth near the bottom transitioning into the orange-colored troposphere. The troposphere ends abruptly at the tropopause, which appears in the image as the sharp boundary between the orange- and blue-colored atmosphere. The silvery-blue noctilucent clouds extend far above Earth's troposphere.

Earth's atmosphere backlit by the Sun in an eclipse observed from deep space onboard Apollo 12 in 1969.


document_title: Chloe Sullivan

question_text: when does chloe sullivan find out about clark

root

text: Chloe Sullivan

text: Role in Smallville[edit]

text: Introduced in the series pilot, Chloe spends much of season one helping her best friend Clark Kent (Tom Welling) stop the citizens of Smallville who have developed special abilities from genetic mutations, caused by the meteor rocks that fell to Smallville in 1989, from committing crimes. It is established that Chloe is the editor of the school newspaper the Torch at the start of the first season. Her journalistic curiosity—always wanting to "expose falsehoods" and "know the truth"[2]—causes tension with her friends, especially when she is digging into Clark's past in the season two episode "Lineage".[3] In the early seasons, Chloe hides the fact that she is in love with Clark, although the feeling is not reciprocated; she confesses her true feelings to Clark in season two's "Fever" while he is sick, but he calls out Lana Lang's name in his delirium.[4] Her feelings for Clark get in the way of her better judgment as she betrays his trust in the season two finale, after witnessing him and Lana Lang (Kristin Kreuk) sharing a kiss in his barn, and agrees to uncover information on Clark for Lionel Luthor (John Glover) in exchange for a job at the Daily Planet.[5]

tag: p

text: Chloe and Clark patch their relationship in the season three episode "Whisper", after Clark discovers that she has been helping Lionel. When Chloe stops her investigation, Lionel has her fired from the Daily Planet, and also fires her father from his job at LuthorCorp.[6] In season three's "Forsaken", Chloe decides to assist Lex Luthor (Michael Rosenbaum), Lionel's son, with getting Lionel arrested for the murder of Lex' grandparents; Chloe's hope is to get out from under Lionel's control.[7] In the season three finale, the F.B.I. place Chloe and her father in a safe-house until Lionel's trial; unfortunately, the safe-house explodes once Chloe and her father enter and they are presumed dead.[8] Chloe's cousin, Lois Lane (Erica Durance), comes to Smallville to investigate Chloe's death in the fourth season premiere.[9] In season four's "Gone", Clark and Lois team-up and discover that Lex's security team found the explosives in the safe-house, pulled Chloe and her father to safety before they detonated, and that he has been hiding her ever since. After Chloe's testimony in the same episode, Lionel is convicted of murder and sentenced to life imprisonment.[10] In the season four episode "Pariah", Chloe discovers Clark's secret when Alicia Baker (Sarah Carter), Clark's girlfriend, decides that it needs to be exposed to the world in order for him to feel more comfortable about who he really is. Alicia hopes that Chloe will write a story exposing Clark, but Chloe decides that Clark kept his secret for a reason and decides not to write the story.[11]

text: Chloe finally reveals to Clark in the season five premiere that she has known his secret, but that she wanted him to be comfortable enough to tell her on his own. At the same time, Clark reveals that he was not infected by the meteor rocks in Smallville, as Chloe initially suspected, but that he is in fact an alien who was sent to Earth as a baby during the meteor shower of 1989.[12] In season five's "Thirst", Chloe earns her dream job at the Daily Planet, starting in the basement.[13] In the season six episode "Justice", Chloe begins assisting Green Arrow (Justin Hartley) and his team of superheroes under the codename "Watchtower".[14] In "Freak", she discovers she herself is meteor-infected, with an unknown ability, and begins to worry that she is a "time bomb" heading towards insanity.[15] She later discovers in "Progeny" that her institutionalized mother, Moira Sullivan (Lynda Carter), is meteor-infected as well.[16] In the season finale, Chloe learns that her special power lets her heal any wound and even reverse death, when it activates to save Lois.[17] In season seven's "Descent", when Chloe attempts to keep information regarding "The Traveler" a secret from Lex, who is unaware that "The Traveler" is really Clark, he fires her from her job at the Daily Planet.[18] When in "Sleeper", Lana falls into a catatonic state having been attacked by the Kryptonian artificial intelligence known as Brainiac (James Marsters), Chloe takes over Lana's Isis Foundation, a free clinic for individuals who have been infected by the meteor rocks.[19] In the seventh season finale, Chloe is attacked by Brainiac, but her healing powers prevent him from harming her. When she returns home, Jimmy Olsen (Aaron Ashmore), her on-again-off-again boyfriend since season six, proposes marriage. Before Chloe can answer the Department of Domestic Security (DDS) appears and arrests her for hacking into the government database.[20]

text: At the start of season eight, it is revealed that Chloe was not arrested by DDS, but Lex's security personnel impersonating DDS agents. While subjected to their tests, Chloe discovers that her altercation with Brainiac has apparently caused to her to lose her meteor-related powers, but instilled two new abilities: vast super intelligence and technopathy.[21] Returning to Smallville, Chloe reopens the Isis Foundation. Though she loves Jimmy, she finds herself attracted to paramedic Davis Bloome (Samuel Witwer). In the episode "Abyss", Brainiac's infestation causes Chloe to lose her memories. Clark takes Chloe to his biological father Jor-El, who restores her memories.[22] After Chloe marries Jimmy in "Bride", she is kidnapped by Doomsday, a genetically engineered killing machine bent on destroying Earth and becomes Brainiac's vessel once again.[23] Brainiac attempts to drain the world of all its human knowledge but is stopped and removed from Chloe's body by the Legion, superheroes from the future, in "Legion".[24] In "Hex", Chloe assumes the codename Watchtower full time because she feels her life needs more meaning.[25] Chloe discovers that Davis is Doomsday in "Eternal". She attempts to assist Davis' suicide using kryptonite; when this fails, she stays by his side in order to keep Doomsday under control.[26] In the episode "Beast", she and Davis leave town together; Chloe reasons it will protect Clark.[27] In the season eight finale, she uses black kryptonite to separate Davis from Doomsday; Clark buries Doomsday beneath Metropolis. However, when Davis discovers that Chloe is still in love with Jimmy, he stabs Jimmy and attempts to kill Chloe; Jimmy impales him on a metal rod, and they both die. Chloe vows to keep the Watchtower Jimmy gave her as a wedding gift open, in the hope that all lost heroes—namely Oliver and his team—will find their way home.[28]

text: At the start of the ninth season, using Oliver's money, Chloe transforms the Watchtower into an information fortress and superhero headquarters.[29] In this capacity, she acquires a rival in Tess's computer expert Stuart Campbell (Ryan McDonell);[30] her status as superhero information broker also makes her a target for Checkmate bosses Amanda Waller (Pam Grier) and Maxwell Lord (Gil Bellows).[31] Over the course of the season, she grows romantically close to Oliver.[32] In the season ten première, when Oliver is kidnapped by Suicide Squad leader Rick Flag (Ted Whittall), Chloe risks her own sanity by putting on the helmet of Doctor Fate to learn his location. With the information acquired from Fate's helmet, she organizes a switch for Oliver; in Flag's captivity, Chloe fakes suicide and goes off-the-grid.[33] Chloe returns in "Collateral", and reveals that she has been helping Clark, Oliver, and the rest of the heroes while in hiding, having blackmailed the Suicide Squad into helping her. Afterward, she resumes her relationships with the show's protagonists.[34] In the episode "Fortune", Chloe decides to move to Star City to return to journalism following her marriage to Oliver Queen.[35] In a flashforward in the series finale, Chloe is now the mother to a young boy, but remains in touch with Clark and Lois.[36][37]

text: Portrayal[edit]

text: Chloe Sullivan was introduced by the show's creators to be a "Lois Lane archetype", as well as be Smallville's "outsider", which series developers Gough and Millar felt the show needed in order to have a character that notices the strange happenings in Smallville.[38] She is the original creation of Al Gough and Miles Miller, having not been produced first in the DC Comics Universe, unlike the other main characters Clark Kent, Lana Lang, Lex Luthor, and Pete Ross.[39] When they first began developing the series, Gough and Millar had intended for Chloe to have an "ethnic background".[2] After learning about Smallville from the show's casting director, Dee Dee Bradley, Allison Mack toyed with the idea of auditioning for the role of Lana Lang, but chose instead to audition for the role of Chloe Sullivan.[2] Gough and Millar felt she had a "rare ability to deliver large chunks of expositionary  [sic] dialogue conversationally", and decided to cast her against their initial intention to give the character an ethnic origin.[38] According to Mack, the reason she got the role was because she went into her second audition with a "very flippant attitude".[40] Kristen Bell also auditioned for the role of Chloe Sullivan; she would eventually go on to star in the television series Veronica Mars.[41] Aside from Allison Mack, Roan Curtis portrayed Chloe as a child in the season six episode "Progeny", with Victoria Duffield taking on the role in the eighth season episode "Abyss". Mack enjoys the fact that her character was created specifically for the show, because she feels like she does not have to worry about being compared to someone else in the same role, which she likens to people comparing Michael Rosenbaum's performance as Lex Luthor to Gene Hackman's portrayal in the Superman film series of the 1970s – 1980s.[40] Mack only signed on for five episodes of the tenth and final season.[1]

text: Character development[edit]

text: Storyline progression[edit]

text: Allison Mack was disappointed that the character "lost some of her backbone" in the second season. The second season was about exploring Chloe's heart, and the idea of her being this "lovelorn […] angsty teenager". As Mack describes her, "[Chloe] was a little spineless and a little bit too much of a pushover [in season two]." Mack does believe that by the end of the season Chloe manages to get some of that integrity back.[42] The actress likes to make sure that her character is kept "smart" and "ambitious",[43] but at the end of season two Chloe's impulsiveness causes her to get stuck under Lionel's control, when she "spitefully" agrees to uncover Clark's secrets for Lionel Luthor after Clark is not honest with her about his newly established relationship with Lana.[42]

text: For season three, Mack wanted the character to be given a major obstacle to overcome, something that would help the character mature. The obstacle in question became Lionel's control over Chloe, after she made a deal to spy on Clark. Allison Mack believes that Chloe is in her own comfort zone while she is working at the Torch, as she is in complete control, but likens Chloe being under Lionel's control to that of a "caged animal". When she ruins the lives of a mother and her son in season three's "Truth", after exposing the mother as a fugitive from the law, Chloe is forced to look deeper into her own self. Mack believes that this event was a turning point for Chloe's maturity; it is the moment that she realizes that there needs to be a line she should never cross.[43] After it is revealed to Clark in the season five premiere that Chloe knows his secret, the character becomes a larger part of the storyline for the show. Knowing Clark's secret allowed Chloe to finally come to terms with her feelings for Clark, and recognize where their relationship will always be; Chloe's acceptance of her place in Clark's life provides a means for the two to have a more meaningful friendship, without the concerns of Chloe's unrequited love. According to Mack, Chloe has learned to evolve her love for Clark into something more "genuine" and "selfless".[44]

text: For the actress, having Chloe become part of the meteor infected community in season six allowed Mack's character to continue to evolve. Mack views this transition as a means for her character to become more emotionally connected to those people—the meteor infected—she spent five seasons trying to expose to the public. Being infected by the meteors gives Chloe motivation to try to understand them and allows her to grow closer to Clark, as she can better understand what it feels like to live in a world where you have a special ability. Writer Holly Harold believes that, in addition to being infected by the meteor rocks, bringing Lois into the journalistic field also provides Chloe with a lot of ammunition for growth and development. Lois's presence at the Daily Planet allows Chloe the chance to reflect upon herself, and discover what things are most important to her – her career or her family and friends. The competition that Lois provides is beneficial, as it gives Chloe a chance to bring out the best in herself.[45]

text: Characterization[edit]

text: Allison Mack characterizes Chloe as being a "misfit" during the first season; more of "a really smart girl with attitude". She goes on to describe Chloe as intelligent and independent. Another of Chloe's defining characteristics is her need to "expose falsehoods" and find the truth in every situation. The character is curious, and wants to be honest with people. She is always trying to make sense of the situation.[40] Next to her curiosity, her impulsiveness is a key characteristic that eventually leaves her under the control of Lionel Luthor, when she offers to uncover information on Clark for Lionel.[42] The reason for this betrayal is based on Chloe's love for Clark. As Allison Mack explains, Chloe is so blinded by her love for Clark that she neglects to see all of the mistakes that he makes. It is this unrequited love for Clark that "drives [Chloe] to be as ambitious and as focused as she is".[43]

text: A leading theory among audiences was that Chloe would eventually change her name to Lois Lane, Clark's wife in the comics, as she embodies various characteristics that Lois Lane has in the comic books.[40] The creative team removed the notion that Chloe was going to turn into Clark's future wife when they introduced Lois Lane in season four. Though the characters share similarities, according to Mack, Chloe and Lois are more "different shades of the same color […] Chloe is a softer version of Lois". Chloe's upbringing allows her to be less jaded than Lois. Chloe also looks to the future, whereas Lois is more shortsighted.[46]

text: The season six finale reveals that Chloe has the ability to heal others.[17] Mack describes Chloe's newfound meteor power as similar to "empathy". The actress further defines the power as the ability to heal others by taking their pain and making it her own.[47] Writer Todd Slavkin contends that giving Chloe the power to heal was the best choice for the character. According to Slavkin, Chloe has sacrificed so much in her life for the greater good that it only seemed natural that her meteor power would reflect that. For the writer, it did not make sense for her ability to be something "malicious and evil and destructive".[45] In season eight, Chloe discovers that she also has super-intelligence – being able to solve complex algorithms faster than LuthorCorp's most powerful supercomputer.[21] She and Clark later deduce that her newfound intelligence was brought on during her encounter with Brainiac, who infected her with a part of himself during his attack.[48]

text: Relationships[edit]

text: One of Chloe's key relationships is with the series protagonist, Clark Kent. Although believers in the "Chlois" theory initially suspected that Chloe would eventually become Lois Lane, Clark's future wife in the comics, Mack contends that Clark does not love Chloe in the way that she loves him. The actress does not believe that Clark's feelings will ever change.[40] Regardless of Clark's feelings, Mack recognizes that Chloe is blinded by her love for Clark, which ultimately affects her judgment in not only seeing Clark's faults, but making choices that place her character in danger.[43] In season five, Clark finally discovers that Chloe knows his secret, and this revelation allows Chloe the opportunity to come to terms with her feelings for Clark; this also provided a means for the two have a more meaningful friendship, without the concerns of Chloe's unrequited love.[44]

text: Speaking on the evolving relationship of Clark and Chloe, Mack believes that the season six introduction of Jimmy Olsen into Chloe's life increased her value to Clark. Before, Chloe would drop anything for Clark, but now that Chloe has other priorities, it makes Clark realize how valuable she is to him. The introduction of Jimmy Olsen also provides Chloe with someone she can finally have a romantic relationship with. The relationship is strained when Chloe has to lie to cover up Clark's secret, as well as keeping the fact that she is meteor-infected hidden. Writer Holly Harold questions whether or not Jimmy has taken over the place in Chloe's heart that Clark occupied for so long.[45]

text: Chloe's relationship with her mother is one tackled both off-screen and behind the scenes. In a brainstorming session, Mack, Gough and Millar came up with the idea that Chloe's mother had left her at a young age. Mack wanted to make the character a "latchkey kid", in an effort to explain why she is out all hours of the night. Mack feels that Chloe has real abandonment issues, which play on the fact that she never feels like she is good enough for anyone. These abandonment issues were meant to provide a reason for why the character is devastated by the fact that Clark does not love her the same way that she loves him, as well as the reason for why Chloe does not have many female friends.[42] One of Chloe's story arcs in season five involved her finding her mother in a mental institution, and living with the fear that she will have a mental breakdown of her own and end up in a psychiatric facility. This fear also affects Clark, who worries that keeping his secret will have negative effects on Chloe, like it did Pete.[44]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Allison Mack has been nominated for a number of awards for her role as Chloe Sullivan. She was nominated for a Saturn Award as best supporting actress in a television program in 2006 and 2007.[49][50] Mack has been nominated seven consecutive times—between 2002 and 2009—for Teen Choice Award's Choice Teen Sidekick; she won the award in 2006 and 2007.[51][52][53][54][55]

text: Other media appearances[edit]

text: Apart from her appearances on television, Chloe has also appeared in her own online spin-off, a series of young adult novels, a bi-monthly Smallville comic book, and been given a 2010 introduction into the official DC comics universe.

text: Chloe Chronicles[edit]

text: Apart from the television series Smallville, the character of Chloe Sullivan appeared in her own web-based spin-off series, titled Smallville: Chloe Chronicles. Allison Mack continued her duties as the investigative, high school reporter, with the series originally airing exclusively on AOL.com. The first volume aired between April 29, 2003 and May 20, 2003.[56] The web series eventually made its way to Britain's Channel 4 website. Smallville: Chloe Chronicles was created by Mark Warshaw, with the scripts written by Brice Tidwell; Allison Mack was given final script approval. This final approval allowed Mack to review and make changes to the script as she saw fit. Warshaw also communicated regularly with Gough and Millar so that he could find more unique ways to expand Smallville stories over to Chloe's Chronicles.[57]

text:
"I think it's a bit more like The X-Files or NYPD Blue. The Chronicles are like a detective story, with Chloe following clues and interviewing people, going from spot to spot, figuring things out."

— Allison Mack describes Chloe Chronicles.[57]

tag: div

text: In the first volume, picking up some time after the events of season one's "Jitters", Chloe begins checking into the rumors of the "Level 3" facility at the Smallville LuthorCorp plant. Here, she starts investigating the death of LuthorCorp employee Earl Jenkins, which takes her to a research company known as Nu-Corp. Chloe interviews Nu-Corp's Dr. Arthur Walsh, who reveals that he knows what really happened to Earl Jenkins while he was working at LuthorCorp. Walsh disappears before Chloe can get the all of information.[58]

text: In volume two, Chloe is contacted by an ex-Navy SEAL, Bix, and former member of LuthorCorp's "Deletion Group" who has information regarding Dr. Walsh's disappearance. Walsh begins sending Chloe videos, which lead Chloe to discover that Walsh was working with Donovan Jameson, the head of Nu-Corp, and Dr. Stephen Hamilton on experimentations involving the meteor rocks. Chloe and Pete Ross (Sam Jones III), who accompanies Chloe as her cameraman, learn that Jameson is experimenting on meteor infected people in order to steal their abilities. Jameson, exhibiting the same jitters as Earl Jenkins, attempts to kill Chloe and Pete to hide what he has been doing, but his jitters become uncontrollable and he kills himself in his lab. As Chloe and Pete leave the lab they come across Lionel Luthor, leading Chloe to realize that Lionel was funding Jameson's efforts.[59]

text: The third volume of the Chloe Chronicles, titled Vengeance Chronicles, features Chloe teaming up with the "Angel of Vengeance" Andrea Rojas (Denise Quiñones), from season five's "Vengeance", to stop Lex Luthor. Andrea informs Chloe that Lex turned Lionel's "Level 3" facility into his own "33.1" research lab. Rojas, working with meteor infected individuals Yang and Molly Griggs, wants Chloe's help to expose LuthorCorp's experimentation on the meteor infected.[60]

text: Young-adult novels[edit]

text: Chloe's first appearance in literature was in the Aspect published Smallville: Strange Visitors. Here, Chloe is conned into believing that Dr. Donald Jacobi, a "faith healer" is interested in her research on the meteor rocks. She quickly realizes, after attending one of Jacobi's shows, that he is nothing more than a con artist, which causes her to devote her time to proving that so no one will fall victim to his schemes.[61] In Smallville: Dragon, Chloe attempts to solve the murder of one of her teachers, Mr. Tait, which she and Clark believe to be the work of recently released convict Ray Dansk. While attending a party put on by Lex, Chloe is injured during an attack on the crowd by Dansk, who has turned into a reptilian creature thanks to exposure to the meteor rocks.[62]

text: Comic books[edit]

text: Smallville[edit]

text: In 2012, the Smallville series was continued through the comic book medium with Smallville: Season 11. Written by Bryan Q. Miller, who also wrote for the television series, the first issue reveals that Chloe and Oliver Queen are living in Star City. Chloe is working for the Star City Gazette, but remains a friend and ally to the heroes. She and Lois discover a spacecraft in Earth's atmosphere,[63] later revealing the pilot is Chloe's counterpart from a parallel reality (the same universe where Clark Luthor and alternate-Lionel Luthor was from). She was sent by her cousin, Lois Queen (the alternate version of Lois Lane and Clark's ally of that world), to warn Clark of the coming "Crisis", which destroyed her world. She dies after Oliver and Chloe take her to a hospital.[64] After Chloe asks Lois to steal the components and plans of Lionel Luthor's memory device, Project Intercept, with Oliver, Chloe had Emil Hamilton build it with upgrades so she can find information from the remnants of her deceased counterpart's memories. Inside what is left of her counterpart's mind, Chloe finds a universe coming to an end, caused by an attack led by a powerful gargantuan being; she also witnesses Lois Queen's death.[65] She finds she now has some of the memories of her counterpart,[66] and discovers her killer is one of the Multiverse's guardians, the Monitors.[67] After taking a leave of absence with Oliver, Chloe later return as Clark begins to gather everyone to make a stand against The Monitors. At this point, Chloe is now about nine months pregnant.[68][69] After the Monitors' defeat, Chloe and Oliver join the Department of Extranormal Operations. She later gives birth to a baby boy, whom she and Oliver named "Jonathan," after Clark's late-adoptive father Jonathan Kent.[70]

text: Other versions[edit]

text: Although Chloe appeared alongside her television cohorts in the Smallville comic books,[71] which featured tie-ins to the Chloe Chronicles webisodes,[72] DC writers hoped to bring Chloe into DC continuity at least as early as 2007. The character ultimately made her first appearance in the mainstream DC Comics Universe in 2010.[73][74] According to writer Kurt Busiek, the problem of bringing Chloe into the mainstream comic book universe, and keeping her television background, was that she would have filled two roles: "the Girl from Back Home and the Reporter". Those roles were already filled by the adult comic book versions of Lana Lang and Lois Lane, so the plan was to give the character a new background. Busiek hoped to make Chloe the younger sister of someone Clark had gone to school with, who was a now interning at the Daily Planet. Busiek believed that this would make her different from Lana and Lois, but still familiar to readers who also watched the show. Another distinguishing feature would be that this version of Chloe would not know Clark's secret, nor would she be meteor infected. These ideas never came to fruition.[75]

text: Chloe first appeared in "Jimmy Olsen's Big Week", a serialized Jimmy Olsen story written by Nick Spencer, beginning in Action Comics #893 (November 2010).[1][76] Spencer stated that introducing Chloe has been his first "positive contribution" to the DC Universe. Because of the continuity differences between Smallville and the comic book Superman stories, Spencer chose to stay "as true to the character" as he could by honoring her romantic history with Jimmy Olsen from later Smallville seasons, as well as her journalistic background from its early seasons. Spencer decided to introduce Chloe after he began conceiving of a clever, dogged female reporter for Jimmy Olsen to interact with, and realized that he had been subconsciously writing about Chloe.[77]

text: Television[edit]

text: Chloe Sullivan is mentioned during a flashback in a season three episode of Supergirl titled "Midvale" where she helps a teenage Alex and Kara Danvers in solving a murder mystery of a classmate through email correspondence. Parallel to the original interpretation, she is referred as Clark Kent's best friend and knows his secrets and even has a "Wall of Weird."


document_title: Trophic level

question_text: where do the organisms in the first trophic level get their energy from

text: Trophic level

text: History[edit]

text: The concept of trophic level was developed by Raymond Lindeman (1942), based on the terminology of August Thienemann (1926): "producers", "consumers" and "reducers" (modified to "decomposers" by Lindeman).[2][3]

text: Overview[edit]

text: The three basic ways in which organisms get food are as producers, consumers and decomposers.

text:
Producers (autotrophs) are typically plants or algae. Plants and algae do not usually eat other organisms, but pull nutrients from the soil or the ocean and manufacture their own food using photosynthesis. For this reason, they are called primary producers. In this way, it is energy from the sun that usually powers the base of the food chain.[4] An exception occurs in deep-sea hydrothermal ecosystems, where there is no sunlight. Here primary producers manufacture food through a process called chemosynthesis.[5]
Consumers (heterotrophs) are species that cannot manufacture their own food and need to consume other organisms. Animals that eat primary producers (like plants) are called herbivores. Animals that eat other animals are called carnivores, and animals that eat both plant and other animals are called omnivores.
Decomposers (detritivores) break down dead plant and animal material and wastes and release it again as energy and nutrients into the ecosystem for recycling. Decomposers, such as bacteria and fungi (mushrooms), feed on waste and dead matter, converting it into inorganic chemicals that can be recycled as mineral nutrients for plants to use again.

tag: ul

text: Trophic levels can be represented by numbers, starting at level 1 with plants. Further trophic levels are numbered subsequently according to how far the organism is along the food chain.

text:
Level 1: Plants and algae make their own food and are called producers.
Level 2: Herbivores eat plants and are called primary consumers.
Level 3: Carnivores that eat herbivores are called secondary consumers.
Level 4: Carnivores that eat other carnivores are called tertiary consumers.
Level 5: Apex predators that have no predators are at the top of the food chain.

text:
Second trophic level
Rabbits eat plants at the first trophic level, so they are primary consumers.

Third trophic level
Foxes eat rabbits at the second trophic level, so they are secondary consumers.

Fourth trophic level
Golden eagles eat foxes at the third trophic level, so they are tertiary consumers.

Decomposers
The fungi on this tree feed on dead matter, converting it back to nutrients that primary producers can use.

text: In real world ecosystems, there is more than one food chain for most organisms, since most organisms eat more than one kind of food or are eaten by more than one type of predator. A diagram that sets out the intricate network of intersecting and overlapping food chains for an ecosystem is called its food web.[6] Decomposers are often left off food webs, but if included, they mark the end of a food chain.[6] Thus food chains start with primary producers and end with decay and decomposers. Since decomposers recycle nutrients, leaving them so they can be reused by primary producers, they are sometimes regarded as occupying their own trophic level.[7][8]

text: Biomass transfer efficiency[edit]

text: In general, each trophic level relates to the one below it by absorbing some of the energy it consumes, and in this way can be regarded as resting on, or supported by, the next lower trophic level. Food chains can be diagrammed to illustrate the amount of energy that moves from one feeding level to the next in a food chain. This is called an energy pyramid. The energy transferred between levels can also be thought of as approximating to a transfer in biomass, so energy pyramids can also be viewed as biomass pyramids, picturing the amount of biomass that results at higher levels from biomass consumed at lower levels.

text: The efficiency with which energy or biomass is transferred from one trophic level to the next is called the ecological efficiency. Consumers at each level convert on average only about 10% of the chemical energy in their food to their own organic tissue (the ten-percent law). For this reason, food chains rarely extend for more than 5 or 6 levels. At the lowest trophic level (the bottom of the food chain), plants convert about 1% of the sunlight they receive into chemical energy. It follows from this that the total energy originally present in the incident sunlight that is finally embodied in a tertiary consumer is about 0.001%[7]

text: Evolution of trophic levels[edit]

text: Both the number of trophic levels and the complexity of relationships between them evolve as life diversifies through time, the exception being intermittent mass extinction events.[9]

text: Fractional trophic levels[edit]

text: Food webs largely define ecosystems, and the trophic levels define the position of organisms within the webs. But these trophic levels are not always simple integers, because organisms often feed at more than one trophic level.[10][11] For example, some carnivores also eat plants, and some plants are carnivores. A large carnivore may eat both smaller carnivores and herbivores; the bobcat eats rabbits, but the mountain lion eats both bobcats and rabbits. Animals can also eat each other; the bullfrog eats crayfish and crayfish eat young bullfrogs. The feeding habits of a juvenile animal, and, as a consequence, its trophic level, can change as it grows up.

text: The fisheries scientist Daniel Pauly sets the values of trophic levels to one in plants and detritus, two in herbivores and detritivores (primary consumers), three in secondary consumers, and so on. The definition of the trophic level, TL, for any consumer species is:[8]

text:
where

T

L

j

{\displaystyle TL_{j}}

 is the fractional trophic level of the prey j, and

D

C

i
j

{\displaystyle DC_{ij}}

 represents the fraction of j in the diet of i.

text: In the case of marine ecosystems, the trophic level of most fish and other marine consumers takes value between 2.0 and 5.0. The upper value, 5.0, is unusual, even for large fish,[12] though it occurs in apex predators of marine mammals, such as polar bears and killer whales.[13]

text: In addition to observational studies of animal behavior, and quantification of animal stomach contents, trophic level can be quantified through stable isotope analysis of animal tissues such as muscle, skin, hair, bone collagen. This is because there is a consistent increase in the nitrogen isotopic composition at each trophic level caused by fractionations that occur with the synthesis of biomolecules; the magnitude of this increase in nitrogen isotopic composition is approximately 3–4‰.[14][non-primary source needed]

text: Mean trophic level[edit]

text: In fisheries, the mean trophic level for the fisheries catch across an entire area or ecosystem is calculated for year y as:

text:
where

Y

i
y

{\displaystyle Y_{iy}}

 is the catch of the species or group i in year y, and

T

L

i

{\displaystyle TL_{i}}

 is the trophic level for species i as defined above.[8]

text: Fish at higher trophic levels usually have a higher economic value, which can result in overfishing at the higher trophic levels. Earlier reports found precipitous declines in mean trophic level of fisheries catch, in a process known as fishing down the food web.[15] However, more recent work finds no relation between economic value and trophic level;[16] and that mean trophic levels in catches, surveys and stock assessments have not in fact declined, suggesting that fishing down the food web is not a global phenomenon.[17] However Pauly et al. note that trophic levels peaked at 3.4 in 1970 in the northwest and west-central Atlantic, followed by a subsequent decline to 2.9 in 1994. They report a shift away from long-lived, piscivorous, high-trophic-level bottom fishes, such as cod and haddock, to short-lived, planktivorous, low-trophic-level invertebrates (e.g., shrimps) and small, pelagic fish (e.g., herrings). This shift from high-trophic-level fishes to low-trophic-level invertebrates and fishes is a response to changes in the relative abundance of the preferred catch. They argue this is part of the global fishery collapse.[13][18]

text: FiB index[edit]

text: Since biomass transfer efficiencies are only about 10%, it follows that the rate of biological production is much greater at lower trophic levels than it is at higher levels. Fisheries catches, at least to begin with, will tend to increase as the trophic level declines. At this point the fisheries will target species lower in the food web.[18] In 2000, this led Pauly and others to construct a "Fisheries in Balance" index, usually called the FiB index.[19] The FiB index is defined, for any year y, by[8]

text:
where

Y

y

{\displaystyle Y_{y}}

 is the catch at year y,

T
L

y

{\displaystyle {TL}_{y}}

 is the mean trophic level of the catch at year y,

Y

0

{\displaystyle Y_{0}}

 is the catch,

T
L

0

{\displaystyle {TL}_{0}}

 the mean trophic level of the catch at the start of the series being analyzed, and

T
E

{\displaystyle TE}

 is the transfer efficiency of biomass or energy between trophic levels.

text: The FiB index is stable (zero) over periods of time when changes in trophic levels are matched by appropriate changes in the catch in the opposite direction. The index increases if catches increase for any reason, e.g. higher fish biomass, or geographic expansion.[8] Such decreases explain the “backward-bending” plots of trophic level versus catch originally observed by Pauly and others in 1998.[18]

text: Tritrophic and other interactions[edit]

text: One aspect of trophic levels is called tritrophic interaction. Ecologists often restrict their research to two trophic levels as a way of simplifying the analysis; however, this can be misleading if tritrophic interactions (such as plant–herbivore–predator) are not easily understood by simply adding pairwise interactions (plant–herbivore plus herbivore–predator, for example). Significant interactions can occur between the first trophic level (plant) and the third trophic level (a predator) in determining herbivore population growth, for example. Simple genetic changes may yield morphological variants in plants that then differ in their resistance to herbivores because of the effects of the plant architecture on enemies of the herbivore.[20] Plants can also develop defenses against herbivores such as chemical defenses.[21]

text: Examples[edit]

text: Depending on the nature of the species the precise trophic level of the species may be somewhat ambiguous and its precise value may vary depending on the source. Virtually all plants as well as phytoplankton and similar organisms are classified at level 1.0. Many worms would be typically classified at level 2.1; a typical insect 2.2; a jellyfish 3.0; a typical bird 3.6.[22] A 2013 study published in the National Academy of Sciences estimates the average trophic level of human beings at 2.21, similar to pigs or anchovy.[23] This is only an average, and plainly both modern and ancient human eating habits are complex and vary greatly. For example, a traditional Eskimo living on a diet consisting primarily of seals would have a trophic level of nearly 5.[24]


document_title: Large denominations of United States currency

question_text: when did they stop making thousand dollar bills

text: Overview and history[edit]

text:
Large-denomination currency (i.e., banknotes with a face value of $500 or higher)[1] had been used in the United States since the late 18th century.[2] The first $500 note was issued by the Province of North Carolina, authorized by legislation dated May 10, 1780.[3] Virginia quickly followed suit and authorized the printing of $500 and $1,000 notes on October 16, 1780[4] and $2,000 notes on May 7, 1781.[5] High-denomination treasury notes were issued, for example during the War of 1812 ($1,000 notes authorized by an act dated June 30, 1812).[6] During the American Civil War Confederate currency included $500 and $1,000 notes.[7] During the Federal banknote issuing period (1861 to present), the earliest high-denomination notes included three-year Interest-bearing notes of $500, $1,000, and $5,000, authorized by Congress on July 17, 1861.[8] In total, 11 different types of U.S. currency were issued in high-denomination notes across nearly 20 different series dates.
The obverse of United States banknotes generally depict either historical figures, allegorical figures symbolizing significant concepts (e.g., liberty, justice), or a combination of both. The reverse designs range from abstract scroll-work with ornate denomination identifiers to reproductions of historical art works.

text: Public versus institutional use[edit]

text: Series 1934 gold certificates ($100, $1,000, $10,000  and $100,000) were issued after the gold standard was repealed and gold was compulsorily confiscated by order of President Franklin Roosevelt on March 9, 1933 (see United States Executive Order 6102). Thus the series 1934 notes were used only for intragovernmental (i.e., Federal Reserve Bank) transactions and were not issued to the public. This series was discontinued in 1940. The series 1928 gold certificate reverse was printed in black and green. See history of the United States dollar.

text: Passive retirement[edit]

text: Although they are still technically legal tender in the United States, high-denomination bills were last printed on December 27, 1945, and officially discontinued on July 14, 1969, by the Federal Reserve System,[9] due to 'lack of use'. The $5,000 and $10,000 effectively disappeared well before then.[nb 1]

text: The Federal Reserve began taking high-denomination currency out of circulation (destroying large bills received by banks) in 1969. As of  May 30, 2009[update], only 336 $10,000 bills were known to exist; 342 remaining $5,000 bills; and 165,372 remaining $1,000 bills.[10] Due to their rarity, collectors often pay considerably more than the face value of the bills to acquire them. Some are in museums in other parts of the world.

text: For the most part, these bills were used by banks and the Federal government for large financial transactions. This was especially true for gold certificates from 1865 to 1934. However, for the most part, the introduction of an electronic money system has made large-scale cash transactions obsolete. When combined with concerns about counterfeiting and the use of cash in unlawful activities such as the illegal drug trade and money laundering, it is unlikely that the U.S. government will re-issue large denomination currency in the near future, despite the amount of inflation that has occurred since 1969 (a $100 bill is now worth less, in real terms, than a $20 bill was worth in 1969). According to the U.S. Department of Treasury website, "The present denominations of our currency in production are $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $50 and $100. The purpose of the United States currency system is to serve the needs of the public and these denominations meet that goal. Neither the Department of the Treasury nor the Federal Reserve System has any plans to change the denominations in use today."[11]

text: In popular culture[edit]

text: Before they were 'retired', host Monty Hall regularly tempted or teased contestants on Let's Make a Deal with a $1,000 bill featuring Grover Cleveland.[12]

text: Ridiculously high denomination bills are sometimes used in fiction, for example the trillion dollar bill possessed by Montgomery Burns in The Simpsons.

text: High-denomination banknote issuing data[edit]

text:
Key to high denomination banknote type abbreviations[nb 2]

Abbr

Type

Size[nb 3]

Series dates

High denomination series date

Comments

$500

$1,000

$5,000

$10,000

$100,000

LT

Legal tender

Large

1862–1923

1862186318691874187518781880

18621863186918781880

1878

1878

–

[nb 4]

CITN

Compound interest treasury note

Exception

1863–1864

18631864

1864

–

–

–

IBN

Interest bearing note

Exception

1861–1865

1861186318641865

1861186318641865

1861186318641865

–

–

[nb 5]

SC

Silver certificate

Large

1878–1923

18781880

187818801891

–

–

–

TN

Treasury note

Large

1890–1891

1891[nb 6]

18901891

–

–

–

NBN

National bank note

Large

1865–1875

18651875

18651875

–

–

–

FRN

Federal reserve note

Large

1914–1918

1918

1918

1918

1918

–

NGBN

National gold bank note

Large

1870–1883

1870[nb 7]

–[nb 8]

–

–

–

[nb 9]

GC

Gold certificate

Large[nb 10]

1865–1922

18651870187518821922

186518701875188219071922

1865187018821888

186518701875188218881900

–

FRN

Federal reserve note

Small

1928–present

19281934

19281934

19281934

19281934

–

GC

Gold certificate

Small

1928–1934[nb 11]

1928

19281934

1928

19281934

1934

tag: table

text: High-denomination United States banknotes[edit]

text: The National Numismatic Collection at the Smithsonian Institution contains (among other things) the Bureau of Engraving and Printing (BEP) certified proofs and the Treasury Department collection of United States currency. Using a combination of proofs and issued notes, a nearly complete type set of high-denomination currency was compiled. Notably missing are several types of Compound and Interest Bearing Notes. Printed during the early to mid-1860s on very thin paper, these high-denomination notes are virtually non-existent. Their issuance (1861–65) pre-dates the BEP's responsibility for U.S. Currency (1870s), so it is fortunate that any proofs exist in the current archives.

text:
High denomination United States banknotes[nb 12]

Value

Type

Series

Fr.

Image

Portrait/engraving[nb 13]

Comments[nb 14]

000500$500

LT

1862–63

Fr.183c

Gallatin-AlbertAlbert Gallatin

4 known (variety)7 known (type)[19]

000500$500

LT

1869

Fr.184

Adams-John-QuincyJohn Quincy Adams(Charles Burt)[20]Justice(Stephen A. Schoff)[21]

4 known (only one privately)[22]

000500$500

LT

1874–78

Fr.185b

Mansfield-JosephJoseph Mansfield(Charles Burt)[20]Victory(Charles Burt)[23]

000500$500

LT

1880

Fr.185l

Mansfield-JosephJoseph Mansfield(Charles Burt)[20]Victory(Charles Burt)[23]

5 known (variety)[nb 15]

000500$500

CITN

1864

Fr.194aProof

zStandard Bearer-New IronsidesStandard Bearer (left)(George D. Baldwin)[25]New Ironsides (right)(James Smillie)[26]

Unknown[27]

000500$500

SC

1878

Fr.345a

Sumner-CharlesCharles Sumner(Charles Burt)[20]

Unique (variety and type)[28]

000500$500

SC

1880

Fr.345c

Sumner-CharlesCharles Sumner(Charles Burt)[20]

5 known (variety)7 known (type)[28]

000500$500

TN

1891

Fr.379Proof

Sherman-WilliamWilliam Tecumseh Sherman

None issued[29]

000500$500

NBN

1865–75

Fr.464

zCivilization-Sirius-BurgoyneCivilization (left)(James D. Smillie)[30]Sirius arriving in New York (right)Surrender of General Burgoyne (rev)(Frederick Girsch)[31]

2 known (variety)3 known (type)[32]

000500$500

FRN

1918

Fr.1132d

Marshall-JohnJohn Marshall(Charles Schlecht)[33]de Soto discovering the Mississippi (rev)(Frederick Girsch)[31]

000500$500

GC

1863

Fr.1166dProof

zEagle-shieldEagle with shield or E Pluribus Unum(Charles Skinner)[34]

Unknown[35]

000500$500

GC

1870–75

Fr.1166i

Lincoln-AbrahamAbraham Lincoln(Charles Burt)[20]

Unique[35]

000500$500

GC

1882–1922

Fr.1216a

Lincoln-AbrahamAbraham Lincoln(Charles Burt)[20]

000500$500

FRN

1928–34

Fr.2200g

McKinley-WilliamWilliam McKinley(John Eissler)[36]

000500$500

GC

1928

Fr.2407

McKinley-WilliamWilliam McKinley(John Eissler)[36]

001000$1,000

LT

1862–63

Fr.186e

Morris-RobertRobert Morris(Charles Schlecht)[33]

Unique (variety)5 known (type)[37]

001000$1,000

LT

1869

Fr.186fProof

Clinton-DeWittDeWitt Clinton

2 known[38]

001000$1,000

LT

1878

Fr.187a

Clinton-DeWittDeWitt ClintonColumbus in his study(Henry Gugler)[39]

001000$1,000

LT

1880

Fr.187k

Clinton-DeWittDeWitt ClintonColumbus in his study(Henry Gugler)[39]

4 known (variety)~20–25 known (type)[nb 16]

001000$1,000

IBN

1863

Fr.201Proof

zJustice-LibertyJustice (left); Liberty (right)

Unknown[40]

001000$1,000

IBN

1863

Fr.206Proof

zShipsGuerriere and the Constitution (left) and Discovery of the Mississippi by De Soto (right)

Unknown[41]

001000$1,000

SC

1878

Fr.346aProof

Marcy-WilliamWilliam Marcy(Charles Schlecht)[33]

Unknown[42]

001000$1,000

SC

1880

Fr.346d

Marcy-WilliamWilliam Marcy(Charles Schlecht)[33]

5 known (variety)5 known (type)[42]

001000$1,000

SC

1891

Fr.346e

Marcy-WilliamWilliam Marcy(Charles Schlecht)[33]Liberty(Charles Burt)[43]

2 known[42]

001000$1,000

TN

1890

Fr.379a

Meade-GeorgeGeorge Meade(Charles Burt)[20]

5 known (variety)7 known (type)[44]

001000$1,000

TN

1891

Fr.379c

Meade-GeorgeGeorge Meade(Charles Burt)[20]

2 known (variety)3 known (type)[44]

001000$1,000

NBN

1865–75

Fr.465Proof

zScott-Winfield-Washington-GeorgeScott entering City of Mexico (left)(Alfred Jones)[45]United States Capitol (right)(James Smillie)[26]Washington resigning his commission (rev)(Frederick Girsch)[31]

Unknown[46]

001000$1,000

FRN

1918

Fr.1133d

Hamilton-AlexanderAlexander Hamilton(G.F.C. Smillie)[47]Eagle (rev)(Marcus W. Baldwin)[48]

001000$1,000

GC

1863

Fr.1166eProof

zEagle-shield-Justice-scalesEagle with shield or E Pluribus Unum(Charles Skinner)[34]Justice with scales

Unique[35]

001000$1,000

GC

1870–75

Fr.1166oProof

Hamilton-AlexanderAlexander Hamilton(Charles Burt)[49]

Unique[35]

001000$1,000

GC

1882

Fr.1218g

Hamilton-AlexanderAlexander Hamilton(G.F.C. Smillie)[47]

001000$1,000

GC

1907–22

Fr.1219

Hamilton-AlexanderAlexander Hamilton

001000$1,000

FRN

1928–34

Fr.2210g

Cleveland-GroverGrover Cleveland(John Eissler)[36]

001000$1,000

GC

1928

Fr.2408

Cleveland-GroverGrover Cleveland(John Eissler)[36]

001000$1,000

GC

1934

Fr.2409

Cleveland-GroverGrover Cleveland(John Eissler)[36]

005000$5,000

LT

1878

Fr.188Proof

Madison-JamesJames Madison(Alfred Sealey)[50]Eagle(William Chorlton)[51]

All notes have been redeemed, none outstanding[15]

005000$5,000

IBN

1863

Fr.202Proof

zAltar-of-LibertyThe Altar of Liberty(Louis Delnoce)[52]

Unknown[40]

005000$5,000

IBN

1865

Fr.212hProof

zJustice-New IronsidesJustice (left) New Ironsides (center)(James Smillie)[26]

005000$5,000

FRN

1918

Fr.1134d

Madison-JamesJames Madison(Alfred Sealey)[53]Washington resigning his commission (rev)(Louis Delnoce)[52]

Unique (variety)5 known (type)[nb 17]

005000$5,000

GC

1863

Fr.1166fProof

zEagle-Shield-FemaleEagle with shield or E Pluribus Unum(Charles Skinner)[34]Female

Unique[35]

005000$5,000

GC

1870–75

Fr.1166kProof

Madison-JamesJames Madison(Alfred Sealey)[49]

Unknown[35]

005000$5,000

GC

1882

Fr.1221aProof

Madison-JamesJames Madison(Alfred Sealey)[55]

Two known[35]

005000$5,000

FRN

1928–34

Fr.2220g

Madison-JamesJames Madison(Alfred Sealey)[55]

005000$5,000

GC

1928

Fr.2410

Madison-JamesJames Madison

010000$10,000

LT

1878

Fr.189Proof

Jackson-AndrewAndrew Jackson(Alfred Sealey)[56]

All notes have been redeemed, none outstanding[15]

010000$10,000

FRN

1918

Fr.1135d

Chase-SalmonSalmon Chase; Embarkation of the Pilgrims (rev)

Unique (variety)5 known (type)[nb 18]

010000$10,000

GC

1863

Fr.1166gProof

zEagle-ShieldEagle with shield or E Pluribus Unum(Charles Skinner)[34]

Unknown[35]

010000$10,000

GC

1870–75

Fr.1166lProof

Jackson-AndrewAndrew Jackson

Unique[35]

010000$10,000

GC

1882

Fr.1223aProof

Jackson-AndrewAndrew Jackson(Alfred Sealey)[55]

Two known[35]

010000$10,000

GC

1900

Fr.1225

Jackson-AndrewAndrew Jackson(Alfred Sealey)[55]

010000$10,000

FRN

1928–34

Fr.2230b

Chase-SalmonSalmon P. Chase

010000$10,000

GC

1928

Fr.2411

Chase-SalmonSalmon P. Chase

010000$10,000

GC

1934

Fr.2412

Chase-SalmonSalmon P. Chase

100000$100,000

GC

1934

Fr.2413

Wilson-WoodrowWoodrow Wilson(G.F.C. Smillie)[47]Reverse(Frederick Pauling)[57]


document_title: Marion Crane

question_text: how much money did marion crane steal in the first psycho

text: Marion Crane

text: Fictional character biography[edit]

text: Marion lives in Phoenix, Arizona and is unhappy in her relationship with Sam Loomis (John Gavin), a divorcé who is in too much debt to marry her. Marion rejects his idea to take the afternoon off and rushes back to her storefront real estate office. Her boss of ten years, Mr. Lowery (Vaughn Taylor), arrives shortly afterward with Tom Cassidy (Frank Albertson), a wealthy customer who is buying the Harris Street Property, one of Lowery's houses on the market for $40,000 as a wedding present for his daughter, making cash payment in full, which causes mild alarm to Lowery. However, instead of depositing Cassidy's money in the bank, Marion, wanting to pay Sam's debts and marry him, impulsively goes on the run with the money. She drives to the (fictional) small town of Fairvale, California, where Sam lives, and pays California Charlie (John Anderson), a used car salesman, to trade her car for a new one after a highway patrol officer (Mort Mills) checks her license plate. She turns off the main road without realizing it, and arrives at the Bates Motel. She checks in with the proprietor, Norman Bates (Anthony Perkins), who shyly invites her to have dinner with him. After wrapping the remaining money inside a newspaper, Marion overhears a heated argument between Norman and his mother about letting Marion into the house.[3]

text: During dinner, Marion has a conversation with Norman, who says that he is trapped by his obligation to his mentally ill mother. She realizes that she, too, is stuck in a "private trap", and can only escape it by taking responsibility for stealing the money. She gently suggests to Norman that he put his mother in a mental hospital, which he heatedly refuses to do. She bids him goodnight, and returns to her room. There, she undresses while Norman watches through a peephole hidden in the wall of his office. Resolving to make amends to her employer, Marion makes a few calculations based on how much the escapade has cost her. She then takes a shower. Suddenly, a mysterious figure enters the bathroom — shadowy through the shower curtain — and stabs Marion to death. Believing his mother has committed the murder, Norman puts the naked corpse and shower curtain — and, unknowingly, the money — in the trunk of Marion's car and sinks it in a nearby swamp.

text: The climax of the novel and film reveals that Norman murdered Marion while under the control of an alternate personality—one taking the form of his mother, whom he had murdered ten years before. The psychiatrist who examines Norman explains that, when Norman felt attracted to Marion, the "Mother" personality became jealous and killed her. In the final scene, Norman — now completely controlled by the "Mother" personality — is institutionalized for killing Marion.

text: Differences between the film and novel[edit]

text: In the novel, she is named Mary Crane and she dies after Norman decapitates her; in the film, "Mother" stabs her repeatedly. Her name was changed to Marion in the film because of a then real life Mary Crane residing in Phoenix, Arizona. In the novel, she is Norman's first victim; in the film, he had murdered two young girls before her.

text: Appearances and references in the rest of the series[edit]

text: Psycho's first sequel, 1983's Psycho II, starts off with a flashback to the shower scene. Marion's sister, Lila Crane (Vera Miles), now Lila Loomis, is on a crusade to keep Norman locked up. The film introduces Mary Loomis (Meg Tilly), Lila's daughter with Sam and Marion's niece. Both are killed in the film; Lila is stabbed while in Norman's fruit cellar by a woman who looks like him in his "Mother" guise (later revealed to be Emma Spool, (Claudia Bryar)), and Mary is shot by police when she attempts to kill Norman.

text: In the second sequel, 1986's Psycho III, the shower scene appears again in a flashback, this time when Norman sees Maureen Coyle (Diana Scarwid) who reminds him of Marion. "Mother" tries to kill Maureen in exactly the same room and bathroom of the Bates Motel where Marion died, only to find that Maureen slit her wrists in a bathtub filled with water in an attempted suicide. Later, after being rescued by Norman, Maureen dies falling down the same stairs of the Bates house where private investigator Milton Arbogast died.

text: Marion makes no appearance in the final sequel, 1990's Psycho IV: The Beginning. She is merely referred to a few times as "the girl [Norman] killed in the shower".

text: Comic books[edit]

text: Marion appears in the 1992 three-issue comic book adaptation of the 1960 film Psycho, released by Innovation Publishing.

text: Portrayals[edit]

text: Marion was played by Janet Leigh in the 1960 film Psycho and by Anne Heche in the 1998 remake. Leigh was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress and won the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress. Heche was nominated for a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Actress.

text: Rihanna portrayed Marion in the fifth and final season of the TV series Bates Motel, a contemporary prequel and reimagining of the 1960 film Psycho. This version of the character is a contemporary take on the role.[4] In this continuity, she is a notary public living in Seattle, Washington. When Marion was five years old, her mother got sick and died, Marion's father did not want to raise her and sent Marion to live with her aunt in Miami, Florida. When she was fifteen, Marion ran away from home and moved to Seattle. She is in a long-distance relationship with Sam Loomis (Austin Nichols), who, unbeknownst to her, is married. She meets him at the Bates Motel for a tryst, and the proprietor, Norman Bates (Freddie Highmore), spies on them through a peephole as they make love.[5] She steals $400,000 from her employer so she and Sam can get married. She drives to Sam's hometown of White Pine Bay, Oregon and tells him to meet her at the motel.[6] She meets Norman, who tells her that Sam is using her and gives her his address. At Sam's house, she sees him arguing with his wife and realizes he has made a fool of her; enraged, she takes a lead pipe to his car and smashes it. She returns to the motel and seeks comfort from Norman, who fears that his "Mother" personality will take control and kill her. To save her, he urges her to leave and never come back. She drives away with the money to begin a new life, while Sam who came to the motel to find her is killed by Norman as Sam takes a shower.[7]

text: Appearances[edit]

text: Novels[edit]

text:
Psycho, (1959, as "Mary Crane")
Psycho II, (1982, mentioned only)

text: Films[edit]

text:
Psycho, (1960)
Psycho II, (1983, flashback only)
Psycho III, (1986, flashback only)
Psycho IV: The Beginning, (1990, mentioned only)
Psycho, (1998)

text: Television[edit]

text: Bates Motel, (2017, two episodes)

text: Comics[edit]

text: Alfred Hitchcock's Psycho, (1992)


document_title: Jerome Avenue

question_text: who is jerome avenue in the bronx named after

text: Jerome Avenue

text: Street description[edit]

text: The south end of Jerome Avenue is at interchange 5 of the Major Deegan Expressway.[1] The road begins as a divided highway, intersecting with 161st Street, which goes to Yankee Stadium and its station of the IRT Jerome Avenue Line. Jerome merges into the road to the Macombs Dam Bridge and heads north, paralleling Macombs Dam Park. After some intersections with local roads, Jerome Avenue intersects with 167th Street which at the intersection which, west of there, is named Edward L. Grant Highway. Just east of the intersection is the 167th Street station, another station along the way. Several blocks north, 170th Street intersects, just before crossing the Edward L. Grant Highway. A subway station is also present here.

text: Mt. Eden Avenue intersects in Morris Heights and the Cross Bronx Expressway does soon after.[1] West 176th Street becomes concurrent with Jerome for a short time. The roads soon split, West 176th now known as East 176th. North the intersection with Tremont Avenue, Burnside Avenue intersects as Jerome Avenue leaves Morris Heights. 183rd street is the next major intersection, in University Heights. Fordham Road, both East and West intersect in University Heights. Saint James Park is passed to the east of Jerome, south of the intersection with Kingsbridge Road. As Jerome passes Lehman College, Bedford Park Boulevard (200th Street) intersects. Jerome Avenue then crosses the Mosholu Parkway on an overpass, after passing the train yard for the Avenue's IRT line.

text: Jerome Avenue intersects with Gun Hill Road as it enters Woodlawn.[1] Here, Van Cortlandt Park is to the west. The final station on the IRT line is located in Woodlawn, just before intersecting Bainbridge Avenue. Jerome Avenue continues, cuts between Van Cortlandt Park and Woodlawn Cemetery, and comes to an end at the Major Deegan and 233rd Street. The road continues as a service road for the Major Deegan, until it reaches the Bronx-Westchester border, where it becomes Central Park Avenue (NY 100), one of the main streets of the city of Yonkers.

text: History[edit]

text: Jerome Avenue was put together as a plank road in 1874 for $375,000.[2] It appeared on maps as Central Avenue, because it started from Macombs Dam Bridge to Jerome Park Racetrack.  Borough President Louis F. Haffen selected contractors in 1897 to pave Jerome Avenue.  Three sections of the road were to be remodeled, costing the Bronx about $136,505.[3] The street was to be renamed after an unknown city alderman.[2] Kate Hall Jerome, wife of Lawrence Jerome, was furious, replacing all the signs with the name Jerome Avenue in honor of Jerome Park Racetrack opened by her husband's financier brother, Leonard Jerome in 1866. When the subway line was commissioned, Jerome went from rural road to commercial artery.

text: The southern part of the avenue, from the intersection with 161st Street, formed the western edge of Macombs Dam Park. The parkland was alienated by the state legislature to enable construction of a new Yankee Stadium. Lower portions of the thoroughfare were demapped by the City Planning Commission,[4] followed by the Department of City Planning's 2006 release of the Bronx Harlem River Waterfront Bicycle and Pedestrian Study.[5][6][7] The Park Plaza Apartments at 1005 Jerome Avenue, one of the borough's first and most prominent Art Deco apartment houses and a New York City landmark since 1981, was overlooked in the environmental impact statement and is now in the shadow of the completed new stadium.

text: In March 2018, the New York City Council voted to approve the rezoning of 92 blocks in the South Bronx, centered along Jerome Avenue from 165th to 184th Streets.[8][9] The rezoning will allow developers to construct 4,600 housing units along the corridor, including 1,500 affordable housing units. At the time of the rezoning, the corridor consisted mainly of small businesses, warehouses, and auto-parts shops.[10]

text: Transportation[edit]

text: The New York City Subway's Jerome Avenue elevated line, served by the 4 train, runs along most of Jerome Avenue. The now-demolished Ninth Avenue elevated merged with the Jerome Avenue line south of the 167th Street station. The first station along the Jerome Avenue elevated line is the 161st Street–Yankee Stadium station, served by the 4, B, and D trains. All of the Jerome Avenue Line's elevated stations north of 167th Street, with the exception of Bedford Park Boulevard–Lehman College, are located directly above Jerome Avenue. The line and the 4 train have their northern terminus at Woodlawn, at the eastern edge of Van Cortlandt Park.[11]

text: The Jerome Avenue Line south of Kingsbridge Road opened on June 2, 1917.[12] The Bedford Park Boulevard, Mosholu Parkway, and Woodlawn stations opened on April 15, 1918.[13]

text: Major intersections[edit]

text: The entire route is in the New York City borough of the Bronx.

text:
Locationmi[1]kmDestinationsNotes
Highbridge0.00.0 I-87 north (Major Deegan Expressway)Exit 6 on I-87
Macombs Dam Bridge – ManhattanNorthbound exit only
0.10.16East 161st StreetServes Yankee Stadium
0.20.32 Macombs Dam Bridge to I-87 south (Major Deegan Expressway)
0.71.1 Edward L. Grant Highway to I-95 south (George Washington Bridge)
Morris Heights1.52.4 I-95 / US 1 (Cross Bronx Expressway) to I-87 – George Washington Bridge, New Haven, CTExit 2A on I-95 / US 1
2.03.2Tremont Avenue
Fordham2.94.7 Fordham Road to I-87 (Deegan Expressway) / I-95 (Cross Bronx Expressway)
Bedford Park–Norwoodline4.47.1 To Mosholu ParkwayAccess via service roads
Norwood4.77.6Gun Hill Road
Van Cortlandt Park5.69.0233rd Street
5.79.2 I-87 (Major Deegan Expressway south / New York Thruway north) – Manhattan, Queens, AlbanyExit 13 on I-87; Jerome Avenue serves as service roads for I-87
6.410.3Central Park Avenue northContinuation into Westchester County
1.000 mi = 1.609 km; 1.000 km = 0.621 mi      Incomplete access


document_title: List of female Indian chief ministers

question_text: who became the first woman chief minister of a state in india

text: List of female Indian chief ministers

text: Sixteen women have served as the chief minister of an Indian state. Currently, three are in office — Vasundhara Raje, Mamata Banerjee and Mehbooba Mufti. Of the thirteen states to have been headed by a female chief minister, only three—Delhi, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh—have had two woman premiers. Five of the woman chief ministers belonged to the Indian National Congress, four to the Bharatiya Janata Party and two to the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam.

text: In the Republic of India, a chief minister is the head of government of each of twenty-nine states and two union territories (Delhi and Puducherry). According to the Constitution of India, at the state-level, the governor is de jure head, but de facto executive authority rests with the chief minister. Following elections to the state legislative assembly, the governor usually invites the party (or coalition) with a majority of seats to form the government. The governor appoints the chief minister, whose council of ministers are collectively responsible to the assembly. Given he has the confidence of the assembly, the chief minister's term is for five years; the office is subject to no term limits.[1]

text: Chronological list of female Indian chief ministers[edit]

text: *  incumbent chief minister

text:
No
Name
Portrait
State
Term(s)
Total tenure
Party

1
Sucheta Kriplani

Uttar Pradesh
2 October 1963 – 13 March 1967
1258 days
Indian National Congress

2
Nandini Satpathy
–
Orissa
14 June 1972 – 3 March 1973
6 March 1974 – 16 December 1976
1278 days
Indian National Congress

3
Shashikala Kakodkar

Goa
12 August 1973 – 27 April 1979
2084 days
Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party

4
Syeda Anwara Taimur
–
Assam
6 December 1980 – 30 June 1981
206 days
Indian National Congress

5
Janaki Ramachandran
–
Tamil Nadu
7 January 1988 – 30 January 1988
23 days
All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam

6
Jayalalithaa

Tamil Nadu
24 June 1991 – 12 May 1996
14 May 2001 – 21 September 2001
2 March 2002 – 12 May 2006
16 May 2011 – 27 September 2014
23 May 2015 – 5 December 2016
5238 days
All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam

7
Mayawati

Uttar Pradesh
13 June 1995 – 18 October 1995
21 March 1997 – 21 September 1997
3 May 2002 – 29 August 2003
13 May 2007 – 15 March 2012
2562 days
Bahujan Samaj Party

8
Rajinder Kaur Bhattal
–
Punjab
21 January 1996 – 12 February 1997
388 days
Indian National Congress

9
Rabri Devi

Bihar
25 July 1997 – 11 February 1999
9 March 1999 – 2 March 2000
11 March 2000 – 6 March 2005
2746 days
Rashtriya Janata Dal

10
Sushma Swaraj

Delhi
12 October 1998 – 3 December 1998
52 days
Bharatiya Janata Party

11
Sheila Dikshit

Delhi
3 December 1998 – 28 December 2013
5504 days
Indian National Congress

12
Uma Bharati

Madhya Pradesh
8 December 2003 – 23 August 2004
259 days
Bharatiya Janata Party

13
Vasundhara Raje *

Rajasthan
8 December 2003 – 18 December 2008
8 December 2013 – present
3255 days
Bharatiya Janata Party

14
Mamata Banerjee *

West Bengal
20 May 2011 – present
2356 days
All India Trinamool Congress

15
Anandiben Patel

Gujarat
22 May 2014 – 7 August 2016
808 days
Bharatiya Janata Party

16
Mehbooba Mufti *

Jammu and Kashmir
4 April 2016 – present
575 days
Jammu and Kashmir Peoples Democratic Party