document_title: History of Papua New Guinea

question_text: when did papua new guinea become an independent country

text: History of Papua New Guinea

text: Archaeology[edit]

text: Archaeological evidence indicates that humans arrived on New Guinea perhaps 60,000 years ago, although this is under debate.[1][2] They came probably by sea from Southeast Asia during an Ice Age period when the sea was lower and distances between islands shorter. Although the first arrivals were hunters and gatherers, early evidence shows that people managed the forest environment to provide food. There also are indications of neolithic gardening having been practiced at Kuk at the same time that agriculture was developing in Mesopotamia and Egypt. Today's staples – sweet potatoes and pigs – were later arrivals, but shellfish and fish have long been mainstays of coastal dwellers' diets. Recent archaeological research suggests that 50,000 years ago people may have occupied sites in the highlands at altitudes of up to 2,000 m (6,600 ft), rather than being restricted to warmer coastal areas.[3]

text: European contact[edit]

text: When Europeans first arrived, inhabitants of New Guinea and nearby islands, whose technologies included bone, wood, and stone tools, had a productive agricultural system. They traded along the coast (mainly in pottery, shell ornaments and foodstuffs) and in the interior (exchanging forest products for shells and other sea products).

text: The first known Europeans to sight New Guinea were probably the Portuguese and Spanish navigators sailing in the South Pacific in the early part of the 16th century. In 1526–1527 the Portuguese explorer Jorge de Menezes accidentally came upon the principal island and is credited with naming it "Papua", after a Malay word for the frizzled quality of Melanesian people's hair. The Spaniard Yñigo Ortiz de Retez applied the term "New Guinea" to the island in 1545 because of a perceived resemblance between the islands' inhabitants and those found on the African Guinea coast.

text: Although European navigators visited the islands and explored their coastlines thereafter, European researchers knew little of the inhabitants until the 1870s, when Russian anthropologist Nicholai Miklukho-Maklai made a number of expeditions to New Guinea, spending several years living among native tribes, and described their way of life in a comprehensive treatise.

text: Territory of Papua[edit]

text: In 1883, the Colony of Queensland tried to annex the southern half of eastern New Guinea, but the British government did not approve. However, when Germany began settlements in the north a British protectorate was proclaimed in 1884 over the southern coast of New Guinea and its adjacent islands. The protectorate, called British New Guinea, was annexed outright on 4 September 1888. The possession was placed under the authority of the Commonwealth of Australia in 1902. Following the passage of the Papua Act in 1905, British New Guinea became the Territory of Papua, and formal Australian administration began in 1906, although Papua remained under their control a British possession until the independence of Papua New Guinea in 1975.[4]

text: There was little economic activity in Papua. Australia administered it separately under the Papua Act until it was invaded by the Empire of Japan in 1941, and civil administration suspended. During the Pacific War, Papua was governed by an Australian military administration from Port Moresby, where General Douglas MacArthur occasionally made his headquarters.

text: German New Guinea[edit]

text: With Europe's growing desire for coconut oil, Godeffroy's of Hamburg, the largest trading firm in the Pacific, began trading for copra in the New Guinea Islands. In 1884, the German Empire formally took possession of the northeast quarter of the island and put its administration in the hands of a chartered trading company formed for the purpose, the German New Guinea Company. In the charter granted to this company by the German Imperial Government in May 1885, it was given the power to exercise sovereign rights over the territory and other "unoccupied" lands in the name of the government, and the ability to "negotiate" directly with the native inhabitants. Relationships with foreign powers were retained as the preserve of the German government. The Neu Guinea Kompanie paid for the local governmental institutions directly, in return for the concessions which had been awarded to it. In 1899, the German imperial government assumed direct control of the territory, thereafter known as German New Guinea.

text: New Guinea was basically a business venture. Thousands of local workers were hired as cheap labor on cocoa and copra plantations. In 1899, the German government took control of the colony from the New Guinea company of Berlin. Education was in the hands of missionaries. In 1914 when the First World War broke out Australia seized the German colony. The plantations were given to Australian war veterans and in 1921 the League of Nations gave Australia a trusteeship over New Guinea. The plantations and gold mining generated a degree of prosperity.[5]

text: Territory of New Guinea[edit]

text: The Commonwealth of Australia assumed a mandate from the League of Nations for governing the former German territory of New Guinea in 1920. It was administered under this mandate until the Japanese invasion in December 1941 brought about the suspension of Australian civil administration. Much of the Territory of New Guinea, including the islands of Bougainville and New Britain, was occupied by Japanese forces before being recaptured by Australian and American forces during the final months of the war (see New Guinea campaign).

text: Exploration of Mandated Territory of New Guinea[edit]

text: Akmana Expedition 1929–1930[edit]

text: ‘The exploration of Papua–New Guinea has been a continuing process. Even today (October 2017) new groups of people occasionally are still contacted. Not until recent years has New Guinea’s exploration been planned; much of it has been the work of miners, labour recruiters, missionaries, adventurers, with different objectives in mind. Many of these people have been doers, not recorders of facts, with the result that our knowledge of the territory’s exploration has not kept pace with the exploration itself.’[6]

text: An exception is the record of the Akmana Gold Prospecting Company’s Field Party which carried out two expeditions from September to December 1929 and from mid February to the end of June 1930.[7] They journeyed on the "Banyandah", a cruiser of 12 metres (38 ft) from Madang up the coast to the mouth of the Sepik River, travelling along that river to Marienberg and Moim, then along the Karosameri River to the Karrawaddi River and on to the Arrabundio River and Yemas, after which it was necessary to transport their stores and equipment by pinnace, canoe and ultimately on foot to their Mountain Base on the upper Arrabundio River.

text: During their first expedition the Akmana Field Party prospected the tributaries of the Arrabundio and then trekked across a spur of the Central Mountain Range to sample the Upper Karrawaddi River. Retracing their steps to the Arrabundio they then headed out across another spur of the Central Mountain Range to the Junction of the Yuat River with the Jimmi and Baiyer Rivers, again without finding gold in sufficient quantity. Returning to Madang at the end of December 1929, several of the party went back to Sydney to obtain instructions from the Akmana Gold Prospecting Company.

text: In mid February 1930 the second expedition quickly returned to their Mountain Base and on across the mountains to the junction of the Yuat with the Baiyer and Jimmi Rivers. They prospected south along the Baiyer River to its junction with the Maramuni and Tarua Rivers, where they established a palisaded forward camp naming the place ‘Akmana Junction.’ From this base they prospected along the Maramuni River and its tributaries, again without success. Finally they prospected the Tarua River south past the tributary which flows to Waipai, once more without success and on the advice of mining engineer Seale, it was decided there was nothing to justify further exploration. They had not progressed to any country on the southern watershed through which the early explorers and prospectors travelled to the Hagan Range and Wabag. The party returned to Madang, sailing for Sydney on 3 July 1930.

text: After leading the first expedition, Sam Freeman did not return and Reg Beazley became party leader of the second expedition, with Pontey Seale mining engineer, Bill MacGregor and Beazley prospectors and recruiters, and Ernie Shepherd in charge of transport and supplies, prospecting when opportunity arose. They had all served overseas during World War I with the AIF on the western front, in Egypt and the Levant and had previously been to New Guinea. In 1926 Freeman was near Marienberg with Ormildah drilling for oil; Shepherd was with Dr. Wade and R.J. Winters on their geological survey of an oil lease of 26,000 square kilometres (10,000 sq mi) in the Bogia and Nubio to Ramu region and up the Sepik River to Kubka 100 km (60 mi) above Ambunto. Beazley was drilling test sites for oil with Matahower in the lower Sepik and he and McGregor recruited labour on the Sepik and explored grass country to Wee Wak. Beazley also prospected the Arrabundio for gold and on his promising report to Freeman, Akmana Gold Prospecting Coy was floated in 1928.

text: The Akmana Gold Prospecting Field Party made contact with many peoples they called: grass country people, head hunters, pygmies, wig–men, Kanakas, Poomani. These contacts were often with the help of Drybow/Dribu, a leader and spokesman of the wig–men, a most intelligent man of goodwill, with a quiet authority that brought forth friendly cooperation. ‘We made a peaceful entry into this new country, establishing a reputation for fair trade and decent behaviour ... but gold was our interest and we had traced the rivers and tributaries as far as practicable where conditions and results justified the effort and found nothing worthwhile. In the many years since, there have been quite a few reports of prospecting parties in the area. But nothing of note has been reported: So we did not leave much behind, it seems.’[8]

text: ‘Members of the Akmana party donated wigs they had brought back to various museums. Two of them went to The Australian Museum, Sydney (from Beazley and Shepherd). Current records at the Australian Museum show that Beazley’s wig, described as “a cap composed of human hair from the headwaters of the U–at River, Central Mountains, Mandated Territory of NG”, was lodged on 31 January 1930, presumably on his quick visit to Sydney after the first expedition. Shepherd presented another wig to Father Kirschbaum, who wanted to send it to Germany. The wigs at The Australian Museum were later confused with some brought out of the Highlands 10 years afterwards by Jim Taylor during his Hagen–Sepik patrol, and wrongly attributed to him when put on display. Seale presented two wigs to the National Museum Canberra in 1930.’[9]

text: World War II[edit]

text: Shortly after the start of the Pacific War, the island of New Guinea was invaded by the Japanese. Most of West Papua, at that time known as Dutch New Guinea, was occupied, as were large parts of the Territory of New Guinea (the former German New Guinea, which was also under Australian rule after World War I), but Papua was protected to a large extent by its southern location and the near-impassable Owen Stanley Ranges to the north.

text: The New Guinea campaign opened with the battles for New Britain and New Ireland in the Territory of New Guinea in 1942. Rabaul, the capital of the Territory was overwhelmed on 22–23 January and was established as a major Japanese base from whence they landed on mainland New Guinea and advanced towards Port Moresby and Australia.[10] Having had their initial effort to capture Port Moresby by a seaborne invasion disrupted by the U.S. Navy in the Battle of the Coral Sea, the Japanese attempted a landward invasion from the north via the Kokoda Trail. From July 1942, a few Australian reserve battalions, many of them very young and untrained, fought a stubborn rearguard action against a Japanese advance along the Kokoda Track, towards Port Moresby, over the rugged Owen Stanley Ranges.[11] Local Papuans, called Fuzzy Wuzzy Angels by the Australians, assisted and escorted injured Australian troops down the Kokoda trail. The militia, worn out and severely depleted by casualties, were relieved in late August by regular troops from the Second Australian Imperial Force, returning from action in the Mediterranean theatre.

text: The Japanese were driven back. The bitter Battle of Buna-Gona followed in which Australian and United States forces attacked the main Japanese beachheads in New Guinea, at Buna, Sanananda and Gona. Facing tropical disease, difficult terrain and well constructed Japanese defences, the allies only secured victory with heavy casualties.[12]

text: In early September 1942 Japanese marines attacked a strategic Royal Australian Air Force base at Milne Bay, near the eastern tip of Papua. They were beaten back by the Australian Army, and the Battle of Milne Bay is remembered as the first outright defeat on Japanese land forces during World War II.[13] The offensives in Papua and New Guinea of 1943–44 were the single largest series of connected operations ever mounted by the Australian armed forces.[14] The Supreme Commander of operations was the United States General Douglas MacArthur, with Australian General Thomas Blamey taking a direct role in planning and operations being essentially directed by staff at New Guinea Force headquarters in Port Moresby.[15] Bitter fighting continued in New Guinea between the largely Australian force and the Japanese 18th Army based in New Guinea until the Japanese surrender in 1945.

text: The New Guinea campaign was a major campaign of the Pacific War. In all, some 200,000 Japanese soldiers, sailors and airmen died during the campaign against approximately 7,000 Australian and 7,000 American service personnel.[16]

text: The Territory of Papua and New Guinea[edit]

text: Following the surrender of the Japanese in 1945, civil administration of Papua as well as New Guinea was restored, and under the Papua New Guinea Provisional Administration Act, (1945–46), Papua and New Guinea were combined in an administrative union.

text: The Papua and New Guinea Act 1949 formally approved the placing of New Guinea under the international trusteeship system and confirmed the administrative union under the title of The Territory of Papua and New Guinea. The Act provided for a Legislative Council (established in 1951), a judicial organization, a public service, and a system of local government, with Sir Donald Cleland as administrator. Cleland remained in the position till his retirement in 1967, then remaining in Port Moresby until his death in 1975.[17] The House of Assembly of Papua and New Guinea replaced the Legislative Council in 1963, and after elections on 15 February, opened on 8 June 1964. In 1972, the name of the territory was changed to Papua New Guinea. Australia's change of policy towards Papua New Guinea largely commenced with the invitation from the Australian Government to the World Bank to send a mission to the Territory to advise on measures to be taken towards its economic development and political preparation. The mission's report, The Economic Development of the Territory of Papua New Guinea, published in 1964, set out the framework upon which much of later economic policy, up to and beyond independence, proceeded.

text: Independence[edit]

text: Elections in 1972 resulted in the formation of a ministry headed by Chief Minister Michael Somare, who pledged to lead the country to self-government and then to independence. Papua New Guinea became self-governing on 1 December 1973 and achieved independence on 16 September 1975. The country joined the United Nations (UN) on 10 October 1975 by way of Security Council Resolution 375 and General Assembly resolution 3368. The 1977 national elections confirmed Michael Somare as Prime Minister at the head of a coalition led by the Pangu Party. However, his government lost a vote of confidence in 1980 and was replaced by a new cabinet headed by Sir Julius Chan as prime minister. The 1982 elections increased Pangu's plurality, and parliament again chose Somare as prime minister. In November 1985, the Somare government lost another vote of no confidence, and the parliamentary majority elected Paias Wingti, at the head of a five-party coalition, as prime minister. A coalition, headed by Wingti, was victorious in very close elections in July 1987. In July 1988, a no-confidence vote toppled Wingti and brought to power Rabbie Namaliu, who a few weeks earlier had replaced Somare as leader of the Pangu Party.

text: Such reversals of fortune and a revolving-door succession of prime ministers continue to characterize Papua New Guinea's national politics. A plethora of political parties, coalition governments, shifting party loyalties and motions of no confidence in the leadership all lend an air of instability to political proceedings.

text: Under legislation intended to enhance stability, new governments remain immune from no-confidence votes for the first 18 months of their incumbency.

text: A nine-year secessionist revolt on the island of Bougainville claimed some 20,000 lives. The rebellion began in early 1989, active hostilities ended with a truce in October 1997 and a permanent ceasefire was signed in April 1998. A peace agreement between the Government and ex-combatants was signed in August 2001. A regional peace-monitoring force and a UN observer mission monitors the government and provincial leaders who have established an interim administration and are working toward complete surrender of weapons, the election of a provincial government and an eventual referendum on independence.

text: Although close relations have been maintained since peaceful independence and Australia remains the largest bilateral aid donor to Papua New Guinea, relations with Australia have recently shown signs of strain. While on an official visit in March 2005, the PNG Prime Minister, Michael Somare, was asked to submit to a security check and remove his shoes upon arriving at the airport in Brisbane. Despite demands from the PNG government that Australia apologize, the latter refused. Additionally, problems have arisen with regard to Australia's latest aid package for the country. Valued at A$760 million, the program was to tackle crime and corruption in PNG by sending 200 Australian police to Port Moresby and installing 40 Australian officials within the national bureaucracy. However, after the first detachment of police arrived, Papua New Guinea's high court ruled that the arrangement was unconstitutional, and the police returned home. A new arrangement, by which only 30 officers will serve as a training force for the local force has been described by the Australian foreign minister as "second-best".[18]

text: The government and rebels negotiated a peace agreement that established the Bougainville Autonomous District and Province. The autonomous Bougainville elected Joseph Kabui as president in 2005, who served until his death in 2008. He was succeeded by his deputy John Tabinaman as acting president while an election to fill the unexpired term was organised. James Tanis won that election in December 2008 and served until the inauguration of John Momis, the winner of the 2010 elections. As part of the current peace settlement, a referendum on independence is planned to be held in Bougainville sometime before mid-2020. Preparations were underway in 2015.[19][20]

text: Numerous Chinese have worked and lived in Papua New Guinea, establishing Chinese-majority communities. Chinese merchants became established in the islands before European exploration. Anti-Chinese rioting involving tens of thousands of people broke out in May 2009. The initial spark was a fight between ethnic Chinese and Papua New Guinean workers at a nickel factory under construction by a Chinese company. Native resentment against Chinese ownership of numerous small businesses and their commercial monopoly in the islands led to the rioting. The Chinese have long been merchants in Papua New Guinea.[21][22] On the same year, Papua New Guinea asked various Southeast nations for their support for Papua New Guinea's full membership bid in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations. Indonesia supported the bid after Papua New Guinea supported Indonesia's hold on West Papua. However, Christian-majority Philippines and Buddhist-majority Thailand, Vietnam, and Cambodia have expressed displeasure over Papua New Guinea's anti-LGBT laws, stating that equality-friendly Timor-Leste would most likely be a more feasible ASEAN member state in the future.[23][24]

text: In 2012, despite a refugee crisis between the borders of Papua New Guinea and West Papua, the country was steadfast in its support to Indonesia, which promised Papua New Guinea a bigger role in ASEAN in the future. By 2017, the Indonesian-led genocide against West Papuan natives peaked with almost 25% of the native population killed within a 50-year period.[25][26] The realization caused massive backlash from Oceania nations against Papua New Guinea's policy on West Papua. In January 2017, Papua New Guinea gave citizenship to 138 West Papuan refugees in a bid to calm tensions.[27] In September 2017, Papua New Guinea rejected the West Papuan Independence Petition in the United Nations General Assembly, to the pleasure of Indonesia.[28]

text: From April to March 2018, a chain of earthquakes hit Papua New Guinea, causing various damages. Various nations from Oceania, Australia, the Philippines, and Timor-Leste immediately sent aid to the country.[29][30]

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ J.F. O’Connella, J. Allen (9 November 2003). "Dating the colonization of Sahul (Pleistocene Australia–New Guinea): a review of recent research" (PDF). Journal of Archaeological Science. 31: 835–853. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2003.11.005. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 November 2013.
Jump up ^ Alan J. Redd1, Mark Stoneking (September 1999). "Peopling of Sahul: mtDNA Variation in Aboriginal Australian and Papua New Guinean Populations". American Journal of Human Genetics. 65 (3): 808–828. doi:10.1086/302533. PMC 1377989 . PMID 10441589.
Jump up ^ "Early humans lived in PNG highlands 50,000 years ago". Reuters. 30 September 2010. Retrieved 2011-06-21.
Jump up ^ John Waiko. Short History of Papua New Guinea' (1993)
Jump up ^ John Dademo Waiko, Papua New Guinea: A History of Our Times (2003)
Jump up ^ Stuart Inder, Editor "Pacific Islands Monthly" April 1971 p. 40 Introduction
Jump up ^ Ernest Alfred Shepherd, 'Akmana: A new name in the continuing story of New Guinea exploration' "Pacific Islands Monthly" April 1971 pp. 41–9
Jump up ^ Ernest Alfred Shepherd, "Akmana: A new name in the continuing story of New Guinea exploration" Pacific Islands Monthly April 1971 p. 49
Jump up ^ Ernest Alfred Shepherd, "Akmana: A new name in the continuing story of New Guinea exploration" Pacific Islands Monthly April 1971 p.49
Jump up ^ http://ajrp.awm.gov.au/ajrp/remember.nsf/Web-Printer/C6FD73CC5C579789CA256AC000135979?OpenDocument
Jump up ^ http://www.awm.gov.au/units/event_291.asp
Jump up ^ http://www.awm.gov.au/units/event_340.asp
Jump up ^ http://www.awm.gov.au/units/event_345.asp
Jump up ^ http://www.awm.gov.au/wartime/23/new-guinea-offensive/
Jump up ^ http://www.awm.gov.au/wartime/23/new-guinea-offensive/
Jump up ^ http://ajrp.awm.gov.au/ajrp/remember.nsf/Web-Printer/58EBD6D993E15CE8CA256D05002671FD?OpenDocument
Jump up ^ H. N. Nelson, 'Cleland, Sir Donald Mackinnon (1901–1975)', Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 13, Melbourne University Press, 1993, pp 440–441.
Jump up ^ "Thirty Years On". The Economist. 25 August 2005. [dead link]
Jump up ^ "Australia's interest in Bougainville's independence is far from locals' wishes", The Guardian. 20 May 2015
Jump up ^ "Bougainville makes first preparations for referendum". Radio New Zealand. 17 April 2015
Jump up ^ Callick, Rowan (23 May 2009). "Looters shot dead amid chaos of Papua New Guinea's anti-Chinese riots". The Australian. Retrieved 30 June 2014.
Jump up ^ "Overseas and under siege", The Economist, 11 August 2009
Jump up ^ "Papua New Guinea asks RP support for Asean membership bid | News | GMA News Online". Gmanetwork.com. 30 March 2009. Retrieved 10 June 2013.
Jump up ^ "Papua New Guinea keen to join ASEAN | The Brunei Times". bt.com.bn. Retrieved 2015-10-25.
Jump up ^ http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-03-18/png-resettles-hundreds-of-west-papuan-asylum-seekers/7259438
Jump up ^ https://medium.com/namorong-report/can-the-next-png-government-do-better-on-west-papua-8a2259995236
Jump up ^ https://www.radionz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/333382/png-grants-citizenship-to-138-west-papuan-refugees
Jump up ^ https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/sep/30/west-papua-independence-petition-is-rebuffed-at-un
Jump up ^ https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/apr/05/papua-new-guinea-earthquake-un-pulls-out-aid-workers-from-violence-hit-region
Jump up ^ https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/mar/08/papua-new-guinea-earthquake-anger-grows-among-forgotten-victims

tag: ol

text: Further reading[edit]

text:
Biskup, Peter, B. Jinks and H. Nelson. A Short History of New Guinea (1970)
Connell, John. Papua New Guinea: The Struggle for Development (1997) online
Gash, Noel. A pictorial history of New Guinea (1975)
Golson, Jack. 50,000 years of New Guinea history (1966)
Griffin, James. Papua New Guinea: A political history (1979)
Knauft, Bruce M. South Coast New Guinea Cultures: History, Comparison, Dialectic (1993) excerpt and text search
McCosker, Anne. Masked Eden: A History of the Australians in New Guinea (1998)
Waiko. John. Short History of Papua New Guinea' (1993)
Waiko, John Dademo. Papua New Guinea: A History of Our Times (2003)
Zimmer-Tamakoshi, Laura, ed. Modern Papua New Guinea (1998) online

tag: ul

text: Primary sources[edit]

text:
Jinks, Brian, ed. Readings in New Guinea history (1973)
Malinowski, Bronislaw. Argonauts of the Western Pacific: An Account of Native Enterprise and Adventure in the Archipelagoes of Melanesian New Guinea (2002) famous anthropological account of the Trobriand Islanders; based on field work in 1910s online
Visser, Leontine, ed. Governing New Guinea: An Oral History of Papuan Administrators, 1950-1990 (2012)
Whitaker, J.L. et al. eds. Documents and readings in New Guinea history: Pre-history to 1889 (1975)


document_title: Peter Mayhew

question_text: who plays chewbacca in star wars the last jedi

root

text: Peter Mayhew

text: Early life[edit]

text: Mayhew was born on 19 May 1944 in Barnes, South West London, where he was also raised.[1] His height is not a product of gigantism — "I don't have the big head" — but of a connective tissue disorder called Marfan syndrome.[2][3] His peak height was 7 feet 3 inches (221 cm).[4]

tag: p

text: Career[edit]

text: Early work[edit]

text: Mayhew got his first acting job in 1976 when the producers of Sinbad and the Eye of the Tiger discovered him from a photograph in a newspaper article about men with large feet, and cast him in the role of the minotaur.[5][6]

text: Chewbacca[edit]

text: When casting his first Star Wars film, producer George Lucas needed a tall actor who could fit the role of the hairy alien Chewbacca. He originally had in mind 6-foot-6-inch (1.98 m) bodybuilder David Prowse, but instead Prowse chose to play Darth Vader. This led Lucas on a search which turned up Mayhew, who was working as an orderly and says that all he had to do to be cast in the role of Chewbacca was stand up.

text: Mayhew has played Chewbacca in five Star Wars films: the original trilogy (Star Wars, The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi), Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith and Star Wars: The Force Awakens.[7] He played the role in the 1978 television film Star Wars Holiday Special and in an appearance on The Muppet Show. He also recorded dialogue for the Star Wars: The Clone Wars Season 3 finale episode "Wookiee Hunt".[8][9]

text: Mayhew plays the role in commercials and in hospital appearances for sick children and has made numerous appearances as Chewbacca outside the Star Wars films. Mayhew as Chewbacca was honoured with a Lifetime Achievement Award at the MTV Film Awards 1997. He was additionally honoured at the release of the new PlayStation Portable where he dressed as Chewbacca and held up the new PSP slim version.

text: He has made other media appearances without the Chewbacca costume. He appeared on NBC's Identity, where his identity was based on the fact that he played Chewbacca and was a frequent guest in the early days of Slice of SciFi.

text: While Mayhew portrayed Chewbacca in Star Wars: The Force Awakens, he was not in Star Wars: The Last Jedi. Mayhew retired from playing Chewbacca due to health issues. Joonas Suotamo, who split time with Mayhew on Star Wars: The Force Awakens, took over[10] portraying Chewbacca.[11]

text: Other work[edit]

text: Outside Star Wars, Mayhew has appeared in the 1978 horror film Terror, directed by Norman J. Warren. In the English version of Dragon Ball GT: A Hero's Legacy, he provided the voice for Susha. He also appeared in Yesterday Was a Lie.[12]

text: Books[edit]

text: Mayhew has written two books for younger audience: "Growing Up Giant"[13] which explains that being different is a strength instead of a weakness and anti-bullying book for children "My Favorite Giant".[14]

text: Personal life[edit]

text: Mayhew lives in Boyd, Texas[15] and is a business owner. He became a naturalised citizen of the United States in 2005 at a ceremony in Arlington, Texas.[16] In an interview with the Fort Worth Star-Telegram he joked that he did not get a medal at this ceremony either, a reference to the Star Wars scene in which Luke and Han get medals but Chewbacca does not. Mayhew noted in an MTV interview that although Chewbacca does not get a medal in the film, he does get the last line, when he roars.[17]

text: Mayhew underwent double knee replacement surgery in 2013.[18] In January 2015, Mayhew was briefly hospitalised near his home in Texas, due to a bout of pneumonia.[19][20]

text: Filmography[edit]

text: Film[edit]

text:
Year
Title
Role
Notes
Ref.

1977
Sinbad and the Eye of the Tiger
Minotaur
Uncredited
[5]

Star Wars
Chewbacca

[7]

1978
Terror
The Mechanic

1980
The Empire Strikes Back
Chewbacca
[7]

1982
Return of the Ewok
Video short

1983
Return of the Jedi

[7]

1987
Star Tours
Short, uncredited

2004
Comic Book: The Movie
Himself

2005
Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith
Chewbacca
[7]

2008
Yesterday Was a Lie
Dead Man
[12]

2015
Star Wars: The Force Awakens
Chewbacca
Shared role with Joonas Suotamo
[7]

tag: table

text: Television[edit]

text:
Year
Title
Role
Notes

1977
Donny & Marie
Chewbacca
Episode # 3.1

1978
Star Wars Holiday Special
TV Special

1980
The Muppet Show
Episode: The Stars of Star Wars

1981
Dark Towers
The Tall Knight
5 episodes

1985
The Kenny Everett Television Show
Various
Episode #3.3

2011
Star Wars: The Clone Wars
Chewbacca
Episode: Wookiee Hunt, voice

Glee
Episode: Extraordinary Merry Christmas


document_title: Miranda Hobbes

question_text: where did miranda move in sex and the city

text: Miranda Hobbes

text: Character analysis[edit]

text:
“
Do any of you have a completely unremarkable friend or maybe a houseplant I could go to dinner with on Saturday night?
”

text: Miranda Hobbes is a career-minded lawyer with extremely cynical views on relationships and men. A 1990 Harvard University law graduate from the Philadelphia area, she is Carrie's confidante and voice of reason. In the early seasons she is portrayed as masculine and distrustful and resentful of men, but this image softens over the years, particularly after she becomes pregnant by her on-again, off-again boyfriend, Steve Brady, whom she eventually marries. The birth of her son, Brady Hobbes, brings up new issues for her Type A, workaholic personality, but she eventually finds a way to balance career, being single, and motherhood. Of the four women, she is the first to purchase an apartment (an indicator of her success), which she gives up when she moves into a Brooklyn townhouse in the final season to make room for her growing family.

text: Sex and the City: The Movie[edit]

text: In the movie, Miranda is still married to Steve, and they are living in Brooklyn with their son Brady, who is now five years old. We learn that she is still employing Magda and that Steve's mother Mary is living in a nursing home, as she now suffers from advancing Alzheimer's. Miranda and Steve's relationship has become stale, with Miranda under pressure of her job and caring for Brady. After a shared laugh one night over Miranda having a milk moustache, the two have sex in a moment of newfound passion, but midway through Miranda tells Steve to hurry up because she has to get up early, which upsets him. At one of their coffee dates, Miranda tells the girls that she and Steve have not had sex in six months, and shortly afterwards Steve confesses he had sex with another woman one time out of frustration. Although Steve begs for forgiveness, Miranda insists on splitting up, and she moves to the Lower East Side. In a moment of shortsighted selfishness, she tells Big the night before his and Carrie's wedding that they are crazy to get married because it ruins everything, causing him to leave Carrie at the altar. Miranda wants to confess everything right after, but Charlotte convinces her it was not really her fault but Big's. The girls change the honeymoon trip into a vacation trip for themselves. Almost a (lonely) year passes by before Miranda confesses it on Valentine's Day to Carrie about her wrongdoing. Carrie berates Miranda for wanting forgiveness for her own mistake but refusing to forgive Steve. Miranda and Steve go to couples' therapy, during which they decide to meet on the Brooklyn Bridge in two weeks if they want to forgive and forget what happened and start over. Miranda starts contemplating her relationship with Steve by making a pro and cons list. She looks in the mirror and sees that she has a milk moustache. This makes her realize she wants to be with Steve after all and she hurries to the Brooklyn Bridge to reconcile with him.

text: Sex and the City 2[edit]

text: In Sex and the City 2, Miranda is an overworked lawyer who barely has enough time to show up to her son's school activities. She feels that she's being taken advantage of at work, overlooked because she is a woman. When Steve suggests she quit her job, she is reluctant but does after she is overlooked—then shushed—by her boss during a meeting. To get over the shock, she decides to accompany Samantha, Carrie and Charlotte to Abu Dhabi. While there, she is obsessed with learning the language and enjoying the traditions. She also sympathizes with Charlotte at her feeling inadequate, confessing that it's exhausting being a "good" mother. When she arrives home, after they're kicked out of the hotel, she looks for and finds a more self-fulfilling job. She is last seen at an outdoor staff meeting (having found a new position at another, more relaxed law firm) where she is obviously flourishing and appreciated.

text: Relationships[edit]

text: Skipper Johnston[edit]

text: Skipper Johnston (Ben Weber) is a 27-year-old website developer with whom Miranda enters into a tentative relationship in the first season. Originally introduced by Carrie, Miranda finds Skipper young and immature, and is irritated by his romantic view of life and love, which contrasts sharply with her cynical outlook. Although they occasionally engage in an on-again, off-again sexual relationship, she never plans for him to become a serious interest.

text: In contrast, Skipper is terribly smitten with Miranda from the start, even going so far as to break up with a girl in mid-intercourse when Miranda calls, as he believes it means that "the woman he loves most" wants to be with him. Horrified at learning this, Miranda suggests dating other people but Skipper, angered by Miranda's attitude, breaks it off and leaves. He is next seen when his latest girlfriend ends things with him and as this has happened a lot, Skipper is angry - attracting Miranda's attention again.

text: Dr. Robert Leeds[edit]

text: Dr. Robert Leeds (Blair Underwood) is a successful sports medicine doctor for the New York Knicks, whom Miranda meets while interviewing him with fellow members of her building's tenant board to occupy a vacant apartment. Upon Robert's arrival, Miranda is instantly charmed by him, and somewhat hijacks the interview in order to learn more about him. Robert is eventually approved to move in, and in time the two begin a short but lively romantic relationship. Despite Miranda and Robert's sparks of chemistry, Miranda cannot control her longing for her current on-again, off-again boyfriend, Steve Brady. Eventually, at her son's first birthday party, Miranda professes her love to Steve, and her relationship with Robert is ended off-screen. After a few awkward encounters, Robert overcomes his anger towards Miranda and Steve, and is last seen in the series with two scantily dressed women in his apartment.

text: Steve Brady[edit]

text: Steve Brady (David Eigenberg) and Miranda meet during the second season when Miranda is waiting for Carrie at the bar where Steve works. Although Miranda simply sees Steve as a one-night stand after they meet, Steve senses a strong connection, and he asks to see her again. Miranda refuses at first, but they become a couple after she realizes her strong attraction for Steve. The couple's difference in economic status creates tension in their relationship, and they eventually break up. However, they remain on friendly terms, often leading to a sexual relationship between the two. After Steve loses one of his testicles to cancer, Miranda sleeps with him to convince him that having one ball will not prevent women from having sex with him. This union results in her pregnancy. She initially decides to have an abortion without planning to inform Steve of her pregnancy. At the clinic, she changes her mind, and decides to keep the baby. Miranda tells Steve she is pregnant and will take on full responsibility, including raising the child and providing all the related finances, but Steve can visit whenever he wants and generally be a part of the baby's life. Steve later proposes to Miranda, which prompts her to yell at him that she doesn't want to marry him, to which Steve responds that he doesn't really want to marry her. Miranda gives birth to Brady Hobbes (an homage to their respective surnames), and the two try to raise him together as platonic partners, with difficulty. Miranda initially pretends that she doesn't love Steve, but when she attempts to admit her feelings for him, she discovers he is now seeing another woman, Debbie. Eventually, at Brady's first birthday party, Miranda ends up blurting out her love for Steve and, to her delight and surprise, Steve admits that he, too, loves Miranda, and that she is "the one." They kiss, and within three weeks they are back together; they remain together for the rest of the series, eventually getting married in a simple ceremony with their closest friends and family in a community garden and purchasing a townhouse in Brooklyn for their growing family. In Sex and the City: The Movie, the pair go through a rough part whereby Steve cheats on Miranda. The couple split and then go through counselling and reunite at the end of the film.


document_title: Computer data storage

question_text: the two most common tertiary storage media are

question_tokens: the two most common tertiary storage media are

text: Computer data storage

text: Functionality[edit]

text: Without a significant amount of memory, a computer would merely be able to perform fixed operations and immediately output the result. It would have to be reconfigured to change its behavior. This is acceptable for devices such as desk calculators, digital signal processors, and other specialized devices. Von Neumann machines differ in having a memory in which they store their operating instructions and data.[1]:20 Such computers are more versatile in that they do not need to have their hardware reconfigured for each new program, but can simply be reprogrammed with new in-memory instructions; they also tend to be simpler to design, in that a relatively simple processor may keep state between successive computations to build up complex procedural results. Most modern computers are von Neumann machines.

text: Data organization and representation[edit]

text: A modern digital computer represents data using the binary numeral system. Text, numbers, pictures, audio, and nearly any other form of information can be converted into a string of bits, or binary digits, each of which has a value of 1 or 0. The most common unit of storage is the byte, equal to 8 bits. A piece of information can be handled by any computer or device whose storage space is large enough to accommodate the binary representation of the piece of information, or simply data. For example, the complete works of Shakespeare, about 1250 pages in print, can be stored in about five megabytes (40 million bits) with one byte per character.

text: Data are encoded by assigning a bit pattern to each character, digit, or multimedia object. Many standards exist for encoding (e.g., character encodings like ASCII, image encodings like JPEG, video encodings like MPEG-4).

text: By adding bits to each encoded unit, redundancy allows the computer to both detect errors in coded data and correct them based on mathematical algorithms. Errors generally occur in low probabilities due to random bit value flipping, or "physical bit fatigue", loss of the physical bit in storage of its ability to maintain a distinguishable value (0 or 1), or due to errors in inter or intra-computer communication. A random bit flip (e.g., due to random radiation) is typically corrected upon detection. A bit, or a group of malfunctioning physical bits (not always the specific defective bit is known; group definition depends on specific storage device) is typically automatically fenced-out, taken out of use by the device, and replaced with another functioning equivalent group in the device, where the corrected bit values are restored (if possible). The cyclic redundancy check (CRC) method is typically used in communications and storage for error detection.  A detected error is then retried.

text: Data compression methods allow in many cases (such as a database) to represent a string of bits by a shorter bit string ("compress") and reconstruct the original string ("decompress") when needed. This utilizes substantially less storage (tens of percents) for many types of data at the cost of more computation (compress and decompress when needed). Analysis of trade-off between storage cost saving and costs of related computations and possible delays in data availability is done before deciding whether to keep certain data compressed or not.

text: For security reasons certain types of data (e.g., credit-card information) may be kept encrypted in storage to prevent the possibility of unauthorized information reconstruction from chunks of storage snapshots.

text: Hierarchy of storage[edit]

text: This article appears to contradict the  article Memory hierarchy. Please see discussion on the linked talk page. (March 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Generally, the lower a storage is in the hierarchy, the lesser its bandwidth and the greater its access latency is from the CPU. This traditional division of storage to primary, secondary, tertiary and off-line storage is also guided by cost per bit.

text: In contemporary usage, "memory" is usually semiconductor storage read-write random-access memory, typically DRAM (dynamic RAM) or other forms of fast but temporary storage. "Storage" consists of storage devices and their media not directly accessible by the CPU (secondary or tertiary storage), typically hard disk drives, optical disc drives, and other devices slower than RAM but non-volatile (retaining contents when powered down).[2]

text: Historically, memory has been called core memory, main memory, real storage or internal memory. Meanwhile, non-volatile storage devices have been referred to as secondary storage, external memory or auxiliary/peripheral storage.

text: Primary storage[edit]

text: Primary storage (also known as main memory or internal memory), often referred to simply as memory, is the only one directly accessible to the CPU. The CPU continuously reads instructions stored there and executes them as required. Any data actively operated on is also stored there in uniform manner.

text: Historically, early computers used delay lines, Williams tubes, or rotating magnetic drums as primary storage. By 1954, those unreliable methods were mostly replaced by magnetic core memory. Core memory remained dominant until the 1970s, when advances in integrated circuit technology allowed semiconductor memory to become economically competitive.

text: This led to modern random-access memory (RAM). It is small-sized, light, but quite expensive at the same time. (The particular types of RAM used for primary storage are also volatile, i.e. they lose the information when not powered).

text: As shown in the diagram, traditionally there are two more sub-layers of the primary storage, besides main large-capacity RAM:

text:
Processor registers are located inside the processor. Each register typically holds a word of data (often 32 or 64 bits). CPU instructions instruct the arithmetic logic unit to perform various calculations or other operations on this data (or with the help of it). Registers are the fastest of all forms of computer data storage.
Processor cache is an intermediate stage between ultra-fast registers and much slower main memory. It was introduced solely to improve the performance of computers. Most actively used information in the main memory is just duplicated in the cache memory, which is faster, but of much lesser capacity. On the other hand, main memory is much slower, but has a much greater storage capacity than processor registers. Multi-level hierarchical cache setup is also commonly used—primary cache being smallest, fastest and located inside the processor; secondary cache being somewhat larger and slower.

text: Main memory is directly or indirectly connected to the central processing unit via a memory bus. It is actually two buses (not on the diagram): an address bus and a data bus. The CPU firstly sends a number through an address bus, a number called memory address, that indicates the desired location of data. Then it reads or writes the data in the memory cells  using the data bus. Additionally, a memory management unit (MMU) is a small device between CPU and RAM recalculating the actual memory address, for example to provide an abstraction of virtual memory or other tasks.

text: As the RAM types used for primary storage are volatile (uninitialized at start up), a computer containing only such storage would not have a source to read instructions from, in order to start the computer. Hence, non-volatile primary storage containing a small startup program (BIOS) is used to bootstrap the computer, that is, to read a larger program from non-volatile secondary storage to RAM and start to execute it. A non-volatile technology used for this purpose is called ROM, for read-only memory (the terminology may be somewhat confusing as most ROM types are also capable of random access).

text: Many types of "ROM" are not literally read only, as updates to them are possible; however it is slow and memory must be erased in large portions before it can be re-written. Some embedded systems run programs directly from ROM (or similar), because such programs are rarely changed. Standard computers do not store non-rudimentary programs in ROM, and rather, use large capacities of secondary storage, which is non-volatile as well, and not as costly.

text: Recently, primary storage and secondary storage in some uses refer to what was historically called, respectively, secondary storage and tertiary storage.[3]

text: Secondary storage[edit]

text: It has been suggested that Auxiliary memory be merged into this article. (Discuss) Proposed since November 2017.

text: Secondary storage (also known as external memory or auxiliary storage), differs from primary storage in that it is not directly accessible by the CPU. The computer usually uses its input/output channels to access secondary storage and transfers the desired data using intermediate area in primary storage. Secondary storage does not lose the data when the device is powered down—it is non-volatile. Per unit, it is typically also two orders of magnitude less expensive than primary storage. Modern computer systems typically have two orders of magnitude more secondary storage than primary storage and data are kept for a longer time there.

text: In modern computers, hard disk drives are usually used as secondary storage. The time taken to access a given byte of information stored on a hard disk is typically a few thousandths of a second, or milliseconds. By contrast, the time taken to access a given byte of information stored in random-access memory is measured in billionths of a second, or nanoseconds. This illustrates the  significant access-time difference which distinguishes solid-state memory from rotating magnetic storage devices: hard disks are typically about a million times slower than memory. Rotating optical storage devices, such as CD and DVD drives, have even longer access times. With disk drives, once the disk read/write head reaches the proper placement and the data of interest rotates under it, subsequent data on the track are very fast to access. To reduce the seek time and rotational latency, data are transferred to and from disks in large contiguous blocks.

text: When data reside on disk, accessing them in large blocks to hide latency offers an opportunity to design efficient external memory algorithms. Sequential or block access on disks is orders of magnitude faster than random access, and many sophisticated paradigms have been developed to design efficient algorithms based upon sequential and block access. Another way to reduce the I/O bottleneck is to use multiple disks in parallel in order to increase the bandwidth between primary and secondary memory.[4]

text: Some other examples of secondary storage technologies are flash memory (e.g. USB flash drives or keys), floppy disks, magnetic tape, paper tape, punched cards, standalone RAM disks, and Iomega Zip drives.

text: The secondary storage is often formatted according to a file system format, which provides the abstraction necessary to organize data into files and directories, providing also additional information (called metadata) describing the owner of a certain file, the access time, the access permissions, and other information.

text: Most computer operating systems use the concept of virtual memory, allowing utilization of more primary storage capacity than is physically available in the system. As the primary memory fills up, the system moves the least-used chunks (pages) to secondary storage devices (to a swap file or page file), retrieving them later when they are needed. As more of these retrievals from slower secondary storage are necessary, the more the overall system performance is degraded.

text: Tertiary storage[edit]

text: Tertiary storage or tertiary memory[5] provides a third level of storage. Typically, it involves a robotic mechanism which will mount (insert) and dismount removable mass storage media into a storage device according to the system's demands; such data are often copied to secondary storage before use. It is primarily used for archiving rarely accessed information since it is much slower than secondary storage (e.g. 5–60 seconds vs. 1–10 milliseconds). This is primarily useful for extraordinarily large data stores, accessed without human operators. Typical examples include tape libraries and optical jukeboxes.

text: When a computer needs to read information from the tertiary storage, it will first consult a catalog database to determine which tape or disc contains the information. Next, the computer will instruct a robotic arm to fetch the medium and place it in a drive. When the computer has finished reading the information, the robotic arm will return the medium to its place in the library.

text: Tertiary storage is also known as nearline storage because it is "near to online". The formal distinction between online, nearline, and offline storage is:[6]

text:
Online storage is immediately available for I/O.
Nearline storage is not immediately available, but can be made online quickly without human intervention.
Offline storage is not immediately available, and requires some human intervention to become online.

text: For example, always-on spinning hard disk drives are online storage, while spinning drives that spin down automatically, such as in massive arrays of idle disks (MAID), are nearline storage. Removable media such as tape cartridges that can be automatically loaded, as in tape libraries, are nearline storage, while tape cartridges that must be manually loaded are offline storage.

text: Off-line storage[edit]

text: Off-line storage is a computer data storage on a medium or a device that is not under the control of a processing unit.[7] The medium is recorded, usually in a secondary or tertiary storage device, and then physically removed or disconnected. It must be inserted or connected by a human operator before a computer can access it again. Unlike tertiary storage, it cannot be accessed without human interaction.

text: Off-line storage is used to transfer information, since the detached medium can be easily physically transported. Additionally, in case a disaster, for example a fire, destroys the original data, a medium in a remote location will probably be unaffected, enabling disaster recovery. Off-line storage increases general information security, since it is physically inaccessible from a computer, and data confidentiality or integrity cannot be affected by computer-based attack techniques. Also, if the information stored for archival purposes is rarely accessed, off-line storage is less expensive than tertiary storage.

text: In modern personal computers, most secondary and tertiary storage media are also used for off-line storage. Optical discs and flash memory devices are most popular, and to much lesser extent removable hard disk drives. In enterprise uses, magnetic tape is predominant. Older examples are floppy disks, Zip disks, or punched cards.

text: Characteristics of storage[edit]

text: Storage technologies at all levels of the storage hierarchy can be differentiated by evaluating certain core characteristics as well as measuring characteristics specific to a particular implementation. These core characteristics are volatility, mutability, accessibility, and addressability. For any particular implementation of any storage technology, the characteristics worth measuring are capacity and performance.

text: Volatility[edit]

text: Non-volatile memory retains the stored information even if not constantly supplied with electric power.[8] It is suitable for long-term storage of information. Volatile memory requires constant power to maintain the stored information. The fastest memory technologies are volatile ones, although that is not a universal rule. Since the primary storage is required to be very fast, it predominantly uses volatile memory.

text: Dynamic random-access memory is a form of volatile memory that also requires the stored information to be periodically reread and rewritten, or refreshed, otherwise it would vanish. Static random-access memory is a form of volatile memory similar to DRAM with the exception that it never needs to be refreshed as long as power is applied; it loses its content when the power supply is lost.

text: An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) can be used to give a computer a brief window of time to move information from primary volatile storage into non-volatile storage before the batteries are exhausted.  Some systems, for example EMC Symmetrix, have integrated batteries that maintain volatile storage for several minutes.

text: Mutability[edit]

text: Accessibility[edit]

text: Addressability[edit]

text: Capacity[edit]

text: Performance[edit]

text: Utilities such as hdparm and sar can be used to measure IO performance in Linux.

text: Energy use[edit]

text:
Storage devices that reduce fan usage, automatically shut-down during inactivity, and low power hard drives can reduce energy consumption by 90 percent.[9]
2.5-inch hard disk drives often consume less power than larger ones.[10][11] Low capacity solid-state drives have no moving parts and consume less power than hard disks.[12][13][14] Also, memory may use more power than hard disks.[14] Large caches, which are used to avoid hitting memory wall, may also consume a large amount of power.[15]

text: Storage media[edit]

text: As of  2011[update], the most commonly used data storage media are semiconductor, magnetic, and optical, while paper still sees some limited usage. Some other fundamental storage technologies, such as all-flash arrays (AFAs) are proposed for development.

text: Semiconductor[edit]

text: Semiconductor memory uses semiconductor-based integrated circuits to store information. A semiconductor memory chip may contain millions of tiny transistors or capacitors. Both volatile and non-volatile forms of semiconductor memory exist. In modern computers, primary storage almost exclusively consists of dynamic volatile semiconductor memory or dynamic random-access memory. Since the turn of the century, a type of non-volatile semiconductor memory known as flash memory has steadily gained share as off-line storage for home computers. Non-volatile semiconductor memory is also used for secondary storage in various advanced electronic devices and specialized computers that are designed for them.

text: As early as 2006, notebook and desktop computer manufacturers started using flash-based solid-state drives (SSDs) as default configuration options for the secondary storage either in addition to or instead of the more traditional HDD.[16][17][18][19][20]

text: Magnetic[edit]

text:
showvteMagnetic storage media
Wire (1898)
Tape (1928)
Drum (1932)
Ferrite core (1949)
Hard disk (1956)
Stripe card (1956)
MICR (1956)
Thin film (1962)
CRAM (1962)
Twistor (~1968)
Floppy disk (1969)
Bubble (~1970)
MRAM (1995)
Racetrack (2008)

text: Magnetic storage uses different patterns of magnetization on a magnetically coated surface to store information. Magnetic storage is non-volatile. The information is accessed using one or more read/write heads which may contain one or more recording transducers. A read/write head only covers a part of the surface so that the head or medium or both must be moved relative to another in order to access data. In modern computers, magnetic storage will take these forms:

text:
Magnetic disk
Floppy disk, used for off-line storage
Hard disk drive, used for secondary storage
Magnetic tape, used for tertiary and off-line storage
Carousel memory (magnetic rolls)

text: In early computers, magnetic storage was also used as:

text:
Primary storage in a form of magnetic memory, or core memory, core rope memory, thin-film memory and/or twistor memory.
Tertiary (e.g. NCR CRAM) or off line storage in the form of magnetic cards.
Magnetic tape was then often used for secondary storage.

text: Optical[edit]

text:
showvteOptical storage mediaBlu-ray (2003)
BD-R (2006)
BD-RE (2006)
BD-R XL (2010)
BD-RE XL (2010)
DVD (1995)
DVD-R (1997)
DVD-RW (1999)
DVD+RW (2001)
DVD+R (2002)
DVD+R DL (2004)
DVD-R DL (2005)
Compact disc (1982)
CD-R (1988)
CD-RW (1997)
Discontinued
Microform (1870)
Optical tape (20th century)
Optical disc (20th century)
LaserDisc (1978)
WORM (1979)
UDO (2003)
ProData (2003)
UMD (2004)
HD DVD (2006)
Magneto-optic Kerr effect (1877)
MO disc (1980s)
MiniDisc (1992)
Hi-MD (2004)
Optical Assist
Laser turntable (1986)
Floptical (1991)
Super DLT (1998)

text: Optical storage, the typical optical disc, stores information in deformities on the surface of a circular disc and reads this information by illuminating the surface with a laser diode and observing the reflection. Optical disc storage is non-volatile. The deformities may be permanent (read only media), formed once (write once media) or reversible (recordable or read/write media). The following forms are currently in common use:[21]

text:
CD, CD-ROM, DVD, BD-ROM: Read only storage, used for mass distribution of digital information (music, video, computer programs)
CD-R, DVD-R, DVD+R, BD-R: Write once storage, used for tertiary and off-line storage
CD-RW, DVD-RW, DVD+RW, DVD-RAM, BD-RE: Slow write, fast read storage, used for tertiary and off-line storage
Ultra Density Optical or UDO is similar in capacity to BD-R or BD-RE and is slow write, fast read storage used for tertiary and off-line storage.

text: Magneto-optical disc storage is optical disc storage where the magnetic state on a ferromagnetic surface stores information. The information is read optically and written by combining magnetic and optical methods. Magneto-optical disc storage is non-volatile, sequential access, slow write, fast read storage used for tertiary and off-line storage.

text: 3D optical data storage has also been proposed.

text: Light induced magnetization melting in magnetic photoconductors has also been proposed for high-speed low-energy consumption magneto-optical storage.[22]

text: Paper[edit]

text:
showvtePaper data storage mediaAntiquity
Writing on papyrus (c. 3000 BCE)
Paper (105 CE)
Modern
Index card (1640s)
Punched tape (mid-1800s)
Punched card (1880s)
Edge-notched card (1904)
Optical mark recognition (1930s)
Barcode (1948)
Optical character recognition (1950s)

text:
Paper data storage, typically in the form of paper tape or punched cards, has long been used to store information for automatic processing, particularly before general-purpose computers existed. Information was recorded by punching holes into the paper or cardboard medium and was read mechanically (or later optically) to determine whether a particular location on the medium was solid or contained a hole.
A few technologies allow people to make marks on paper that are easily read by machine—these are widely used for tabulating votes and grading standardized tests. Barcodes made it possible for any object that was to be sold or transported to have some computer readable information securely attached to it.

text: Other storage media or substrates[edit]

text: Related technologies[edit]

text: Redundancy[edit]

text: While a group of bits malfunction may be resolved by error detection and correction mechanisms (see above), storage device malfunction requires different solutions. The following solutions are commonly used and valid for most storage devices:

text:
Device mirroring (replication) – A common solution to the problem is constantly maintaining an identical copy of device content on another device (typically of a same type). The downside is that this doubles the storage, and both devices (copies) need to be updated simultaneously with some overhead and possibly some delays. The upside is possible concurrent read of a same data group by two independent processes, which increases performance. When one of the replicated devices is detected to be defective, the other copy is still operational, and is being utilized to generate a new copy on another device (usually available operational in a pool of stand-by devices for this purpose).
Redundant array of independent disks (RAID) – This method generalizes the device mirroring above by allowing one device in a group of N devices to fail and be replaced with the content restored (Device mirroring is RAID with N=2). RAID groups of N=5 or N=6 are common. N>2 saves storage, when comparing with N=2, at the cost of more processing during both regular operation (with often reduced performance) and defective device replacement.

text: Device mirroring and typical RAID are designed to handle a single device failure in the RAID group of devices. However, if a second failure occurs before the RAID group is completely repaired from the first failure, then data can be lost. The probability of a single failure is typically small. Thus the probability of two failures in a same RAID group in time proximity is much smaller (approximately the probability squared, i.e., multiplied by itself). If a database cannot tolerate even such smaller probability of data loss, then the RAID group itself is replicated (mirrored). In many cases such mirroring is done geographically remotely, in a different storage array, to handle also recovery from disasters (see disaster recovery above).

text: Network connectivity[edit]

text: A secondary or tertiary storage may connect to a computer utilizing computer networks. This concept does not pertain to the primary storage, which is shared between multiple processors to a lesser degree.

text:
Direct-attached storage (DAS) is a traditional mass storage, that does not use any network. This is still a most popular approach. This retronym was coined recently, together with NAS and SAN.
Network-attached storage (NAS) is mass storage attached to a computer which another computer can access at file level over a local area network, a private wide area network, or in the case of online file storage, over the Internet. NAS is commonly associated with the NFS and CIFS/SMB protocols.
Storage area network (SAN) is a specialized network, that provides other computers with storage capacity. The crucial difference between NAS and SAN, is that NAS presents and manages file systems to client computers, while SAN provides access at block-addressing (raw) level, leaving it to attaching systems to manage data or file systems within the provided capacity. SAN is commonly associated with Fibre Channel networks.

text: Robotic storage[edit]

text: Large quantities of individual magnetic tapes, and optical or magneto-optical discs may be stored in robotic tertiary storage devices. In tape storage field they are known as tape libraries, and in optical storage field optical jukeboxes, or optical disk libraries per analogy. Smallest forms of either technology containing just one drive device are referred to as autoloaders or autochangers.

text: Robotic-access storage devices may have a number of slots, each holding individual media, and usually one or more picking robots that traverse the slots and load media to built-in drives. The arrangement of the slots and picking devices affects performance. Important characteristics of such storage are possible expansion options: adding slots, modules, drives, robots. Tape libraries may have from 10 to more than 100,000 slots, and provide terabytes or petabytes of near-line information. Optical jukeboxes are somewhat smaller solutions, up to 1,000 slots.

text: Robotic storage is used for backups, and for high-capacity archives in imaging, medical, and video industries. Hierarchical storage management is a most known archiving strategy of automatically migrating long-unused files from fast hard disk storage to libraries or jukeboxes. If the files are needed, they are retrieved back to disk.


document_title: List of Girlfriends' Guide to Divorce episodes

question_text: girlfriends' guide to divorce season 4 how many episodes

question_tokens: girlfriends ' guide to divorce season 4 how many episodes

text: Series overview[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Originally aired

First aired
Last aired

1
13
December 2, 2014 (2014-12-02)
February 24, 2015 (2015-02-24)

2
13
December 1, 2015 (2015-12-01)
February 23, 2016 (2016-02-23)

3
7
January 11, 2017 (2017-01-11)
February 22, 2017 (2017-02-22)

4
6
August 17, 2017 (2017-08-17)[3]
September 21, 2017 (2017-09-21)

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Season 1 (2014–15)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)

1
1
"Rule No. 23: Never Lie to the Kids"
Adam Brooks
Marti Noxon
December 2, 2014 (2014-12-02)
1.04[4]

Abby McCarthy, a self-help author who writes about marriage and childcare, struggles to hide the truth about her marriage as she continues to spend time with divorced moms Phoebe and Lyla. Taking advantage of the separation, Abby goes out to a club and later hooks up with a younger man. Lyla gets back at her ex-husband Dan after having sex with him. During a book signing, Abby breaks down and declares her book a lie, exposing the truth about her marriage.

2
2
"Rule No. 174: Never Trust Anyone Who Charges By the Hour"
Adam Brooks
Marti Noxon
December 9, 2014 (2014-12-09)
0.84[5]

After her breakdown at the book signing, Abby tries to do damage control. While working out the particulars of the divorce with Jake, such as finding a place for him to live, Abby meets with Delia, a divorce attorney and Lyla's business rival. Phoebe tries to pick an idea for her next business venture, deciding upon infant jewelry. Lyla gets payback on Dan after he has her car impounded with tickets, resulting in him asking for full custody.

3
3
"Rule No. 47: Always Take Advantage of "Me" Time"
Leslie Libman
Liz Kruger & Craig Shapiro
December 16, 2014 (2014-12-16)
0.70[6]

Abby has the weekend to herself and uses it to come up with book ideas. However, after getting drunk and wrecking Lilly's poster, Abby, Phoebe and Lyla go out to find a new poster. Jake finally settles into his new place and has the kids over for the weekend. When the kids get bored, he calls Max for help and has Becca Riley come over to liven the evening. Lyla sends her nanny to story time at her kids school, but gets reprimanded by the principal.

4
4
"Rule No. 426: Fantasyland: A Great Place to Visit"
Robert Duncan McNeill
Paul Adelstein
December 23, 2014 (2014-12-23)
0.77[7]

Abby pursues a relationship with Nate, but has trouble trying to connect with him on a deeper level. At the suggestion of everyone around her, Lyla tries to find methods of de-stressing. She later fights with Phoebe after trying a special massage without warning of what it entails. Max and Ford are honored at the Family Equality Gala, but Max has trouble getting with the program. Phoebe pursues a relationship with a married man as a way of "saving the relationship".
Paul Adelstein does not appear in this episode.

5
5
"Rule No. 21: Leave Childishness to Children"
David Katzenberg
Ed Roe
December 30, 2014 (2014-12-30)
0.87[8]

Abby runs into Will and tries dating him, and begins experiencing some youthfulness as a result. Lyla's mother (Bernadette Peters) visits during the weekend when she has her first dinner with a court-appointed caseworker. Phoebe's relationship with Vika and Merete reaches a new level. Jake has the kids for the weekend, but loses Lilly, who runs out to the same club Abby is at.

6
6
"Rule No 33: When in Doubt, Run Away"
Victor Nelli, Jr.
Marti Noxon & Ilene Rosenzweig
January 6, 2015 (2015-01-06)
0.87[9]

Phoebe takes Abby, Lyla and Delia to Vegas to promote her infant jewelry line. After being called out by rising author Cleo Stevens, Abby uses the trip to gain some inspiration. Lyla uses the trip to de-stress following an embarrassing dinner with a social worker. Jake and Becca go on a retreat to a visit a shaman to help Jake make a deeper connection in their relationship. Jake stumbles out of the retreat, high, and goes back home, where he and Abby have sex.

7
7
"Rule No. 67: Don't Kill the Princess"
Daisy Mayer
Janine Nabers
January 13, 2015 (2015-01-13)
0.77[10]

Abby holds Lilly's birthday party at the house. She also sets the boundaries for the party, initially forbidding Becca from coming, but yields when the party turns out to be a bust. The party suffers a complication when the girls get drunk and put vodka-laced tampons on. Delia handles the divorce of a wealthy businessman (Matthew Glave), but soon becomes enamored with him, starting a secret affair. Becca breaks up with Jake after finding out about his and Abby's tryst.

8
8
"Rule No. 17: Ask the Answer Lady"
Brian Dannelly
Ashley Cardiff
January 20, 2015 (2015-01-20)
0.69[11]

Abby's friend Jo (Alanna Ubach) comes to visit during a very hectic time for Abby. She preps for the proposal of her next book while trying to take care of Charlie as Jake takes a directing job for Blood Sisters. Phoebe preps for her baby jewelry launch event while consorting with Ralf's new girlfriend. Delia's affair with Gordon comes to a head when she reaches an impasse on a condition of his divorce with his ex-wife. After experiencing some discourse, Max and Ford try to reconnect on a date.

9
9
"Rule No. 32: F-You, Rob Frumpkis"
Robert Duncan McNeill
Marti Noxon
January 27, 2015 (2015-01-27)
0.91[12]

Abby's pitch leads to an opportunity with Huffington Post in which she goes on ten dates and writes about them, one of them with former flame Will. Looking for a new path in life, Phoebe helps out at a home grown foods farm while eyeing the head farmer, Marco (Brandon Jay McLaren). Delia convinces Courtney to give up Asia in the divorce, but breaks up with Gordon after finding out he slept with Courtney. Jo accompanies Abby on several of her dates, and goes home with one of them, which leads to a fight between her and Abby. Meanwhile, her daughter Zooey flies over to stay with her. Max and Ford settle their issues by reverting to their old arrangement.

10
10
"Rule No. 3: Don't Stand in the Doorway"
Silver Tree
Liz Kruger & Craig Shapiro
February 3, 2015 (2015-02-03)
0.74[13]

Abby's article trends all over Twitter, so much that she is offered a job as senior editor. However, the article also creates problems for Lilly as her name appears on a slut list circulating throughout the school. Delia struggles to let Gordon into her life while Phoebe helps make Marco's business more successful. When Jo tries to settle her financials and send Zooey to school, she finds out that her husband has a second wife.

11
11
"Rule No. 46: Keep the Holidays Low Key"
Robert Duncan McNeill
Ed Roe
February 10, 2015 (2015-02-10)
0.83[14]

Abby hosts a Thanksgiving dinner for her friends and boyfriend, but has to add the kids to the mix when Jake gets sick, and Jake soon after when Charlie begs for him to come. Delia deals with her difficult father while Phoebe invites Marco to the Thanksgiving dinner. Meanwhile, Abby and Jo look through a box found in the backyard containing photos and letters of a former tenant.

12
12
"Rule No. 92: Don't Do the Crime If You Can't Do the Time"
Millicent Shelton
Ilene Rosenzweig
February 17, 2015 (2015-02-17)
0.74[15]

Abby and Jake's divorce is coming to a close, but Abby gets cold feet when Jake starts making strides in his career. After Gordon pulls his business of the law firm, Delia must face her unresolved issues with Gordon to save her job. Phoebe has trouble facing a person from her past while defining the limitations of her relationship with Marco. Jo tries to help Zooey become more social at school while helping out with the school fundraiser.

13
13
"Rule No. 101: Know When It's Time to Move On"
Robert Duncan McNeill
Marti Noxon
February 24, 2015 (2015-02-24)
0.79[16]

Abby and Jake finalize the divorce and go out on a divorce signing date to sign it together. Towards the end of the date, Jake proposes that they don't file the papers, expressing that he still loves her. Delia is offered a partner position at the firm, but upon learning the terms of deal, she demands full equity partnership. Meanwhile, Delia reconciles with Gordon but when confronted with the idea of marriage, becomes apprehensive and breaks up with Gordon. Jo holds a divorce party to celebrate Abby's divorce, while going to therapy with her embattled daughter. After blowing up at Kori at school, Phoebe confides in Abby and Marco what Kori did to her when she was younger. Max and Ford continue their arrangement, but soon find out how complicated it is. Becca tells Jake that she is pregnant.

text: Season 2 (2015–16)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)

14
1
"Rule No. 58: Avoid the Douchemobile"
Adam Brooks
Marti Noxon
December 1, 2015 (2015-12-01)
0.70[17]

Abby and Jake are secretly hooking up with each other while at the time she has a meeting with an online magazine called SheShe. In her meeting with the people from SheShe, Abby goes on to tell how divorce can be fun but one of the editors Barbara (Retta) who is also divorced disagrees. Delia gets engaged to Gordon. Kori puts out a restraining order against Phoebe after Phoebe attacked her. To retaliate Phoebe wants to make public all she went through with Kori when she was younger. Jo asks Abby if she and Zooey can move in permanently. Becca tells Jake that she has decided to keep the baby and not have an abortion. Will gets mad when he figures out that Abby and Jake are sleeping with each other.

15
2
"Rule No. 77: Don't Blow The Bubble"
Brian Dannelly
Carol Barbee
December 8, 2015 (2015-12-08)
0.62[18]

After walking in on Abby and Jake making out, Zooey promises to not tell anyone what she saw. The two continue to keep their relationship a secret from everyone else. One of the SheShe people tell Abby that she is the sexy face of divorce and needs go to events such as fashion shows. Jo prepares for the opening of her vegan bakery, Rize, and has a problem when her chef, Scott uses butter in one of the pastries. The two talk and then she decides to sell both vegan food and non vegan food, and says that if anyone has a problem with it, there are plenty of other vegan restaurants in Los Angeles. Delia meets with a wedding planner, Jo finds a new place to live, and Phoebe and Marco break up.

16
3
"Rule No. 8: Timing Is Everything"
Randy Zisk
Marti Noxon and Lisa Edelstein
December 15, 2015 (2015-12-15)
0.59[19]

Abby goes on a date with a TV doctor, Dr. Harris. Everyone plans for Delia and Gordon's engagement party. Jo decides to take some time off from seeing Abby. Jake tells Becca that he is back together with Abby but he hasn't told her yet about Becca's pregnancy. Delia asks Gordon's mom to help plan the wedding. Abby gets angry at Jake when she finds out that he went a month without telling her about Becca.

17
4
"Rule #65: You Can Go Home Again"
Robert Duncan McNeill
Paul Adelstein
December 22, 2015 (2015-12-22)
0.57[20]

After sending the kids away, Abby and Jake spend the weekend together completely alone at home to evaluate their relationship. When Delia and Gordon go house hunting they find out that they have different tastes and don't want the same things. Jo finds out that Zooey gets along well with her step-mother. Zooey then returns from visiting her father and step-mother in Kentucky. After spending the weekend together Abby and Jake both come to the same agonizing conclusion about their relationship. Even though they still love each other, their insecurities will prevent them from being a couple again.

18
5
"Rule #72: It's Never Too Late to Be a Mean Girl"
Millicent Shelton
Adam Milch
December 29, 2015 (2015-12-29)
0.68[21]

A 1990s-themed prom is thrown for Phoebe to celebrate her getting her GED. Abby goes on a second date with Dr. Harris. Frumpkis comes to Los Angeles to spend time with Zooey. After seeing a totally reformed Rob Frumpkis, Jo discovers that she wants him back.

19
6
"Rule #25: Beware the Second Chance"
J. Miller Tobin
Ilene Rosenzweig
January 5, 2016 (2016-01-05)
0.60[22]

While in New York trying to sell her 'Girlfriends' Guide to Divorce' book to a publisher, Abby runs into Dr. Harris. TMZ has learned about Becca's pregnancy and is going to announce it to the public. Jo finally meets Frumpkis' new wife Charlene, Phoebe takes a class on Gender Studies.

20
7
"Rule #14: No...Means No"
Michael B. Silver
Janine Nabers
January 12, 2016 (2016-01-12)
0.76[23]

Abby gets a visit from her parents George (Barry Bostwick) and Dina (Lesley Ann Warren). Abby and Becca talk. Jo is in risk of losing her bakery because of her custody battle with her ex so she has to prove that she got the bakery through inheritance. Her family also comes to town. Jo and Phoebe try out the dating scene with Jo online dating and Phoebe dating her college professor. Delia is getting cold feet and gets close to her boss, Albert. Jake leaves for Latvia to direct a movie there for a few months.

21
8
"Rule #79: Labels Are For Canned Goods"
Silver Tree
Ashley Cardiff
January 19, 2016 (2016-01-19)
0.65[24]

Abby and Barbara attend SplitCon, a convention for people who are broken up from relationships. Frumpkis ask Jo if Charlene can work at the store and be co-manager since he owns half of the store, much to her chagrin. The two fight on how to run the store. Delia tells her boss that she has to stop seeing him. Someone at the convention gets Abby to have her own line of merchandise. Phoebe's new beau(Niall Matter) introduces her to the LA art scene. Jo catches Charlene fooling around with Scott. Jo tells Frumpkis to leave the store alone until the judge decides who gets it. Abby confess to one of the guys at SheShe that she tried to reconcile with Jake. Someone sends Delia incriminating photos of her affair with Albert.

22
9
"Rule #81: There's No Crying in Porn"
Robert Duncan McNeill
Marti Noxon & Vicki Iovine
January 26, 2016 (2016-01-26)
0.74[25]

Abby runs into Carl, the professional gigolo she met while in Las Vegas, who is currently in L.A. entertaining a client. Jo warns Charlene not to do anything nuts around Zooey or she's going after her. Delia worries about Gordon finding about her affair with Albert. She goes to Albert to talk about it and there she finds out that he is a serial cheater. A baby-shower for Becca is thrown by her friends at Abby's house. Phoebe meets J.D., an extremely shy artist, and is intrigued by both his work and him.

23
10
"Rule #36: If You Can't Stand the Heat, You're Cooked"
Uta Briesewitz
Adam Milch
February 2, 2016 (2016-02-02)
0.69[26]

Abby's editor wants her to finish her book sooner, and to include details about her dates with Dr. Harris. Phoebe introduces J.D. to Ralph, who then helps put on an exhibit and auction for J.D.'s art. The girls question Abby about her taking care of Becca. Abby hosts a party at her house with disastrous results: Dr. Harris arrives, meeting Charlie and finding out that Becca is staying in the guest house, Delia gets embarrassed by Gordon's rude behavior, and Jo and Scott consummate their feelings for each other. Becca goes into labor with Abby at her side. Abby faints when she sees that the baby boy is black.

24
11
"Rule #118: Let Her Eat Cake"
Andy Wolk
Ilene Rozenwwig
February 9, 2016 (2016-02-09)
0.64[27]

Abby has been admitted to the hospital after she passed out. During her checkup the doctor tells her that she doesn't look too good and prescribes her with fluids, to eat a sandwich, and rest. Abby tells the kids that Jake is not the father of Becca's baby. Lily asks if she can still see the baby and maybe babysit for Becca sometime. Things get awkward between Jo and Scott at work so they talk about the night before. J.D. insults Phoebe in front of an art dealer. Delia gets surprised with a bachelorette party. At the party Abby gets drunk, out of control and outs Delia and Albert's affair to everyone. Albert tells Delia to marry him instead but tells him no, they're through.

25
12
"Rule #876: Everything Does Not Happen For a Reason"
Robert Duncan McNeil
Ashley Cardiff & Janine Nabers
February 16, 2016 (2016-02-016)
0.64[28]

Delia's wedding day has arrived, and Abby says she's not going. Abby rushes to finish her book. Zooey tells Jo that Charlene left Frumpkis, and that she is worried about her dad's drinking problem. Jo, Phoebe, and Barbara stop by Abby's to check on her and drag her to the wedding. Before heading to the church, Gordon receives a package for him that has the pictures of Delia and Albert together. Abby's editor says her book is gibberish and wants her to re-write it. Gordon confronts Delia and has her go through the wedding as a punishment. Once the wedding is finished, Gordon leaves Delia once they walk out of the church.

26
13
"Rule #59: Happily Ever After Is An Oxymoron"
Marti Noxon
Marti Noxon
February 23, 2016 (2016-02-23)
0.76[29]

After Gordon walked out on Delia after the wedding, they try to make sure that people won't notice that he is missing during the reception. Delia lies and tells everyone that Gordon got sick and can't attend. Abby's editor Kat, reveals to her that Carl released the names of the women he has been with in an article. Abby tells her that she never paid to sleep with him, just paid to talk to him. In the article Carl says a whole bunch of stuff that Abby told him about her personal life. Jake returns from Latvia and visits Becca. Becca asks Jake to take care of the baby so she can rest. J.D. accidentally let it slip to a drunk Frumpkis that Gordon left Delia for what she did to him. Frumpkis then goes to the microphone and blurts out the real reason why Gordon left and that he is not sick. Jake takes the baby to pick up Lily from the reception and hears about Abby and goes to find her. Jake and Abby talk about their lives and Abby tells Jake about Carl. Together they both tell Lily about Carl. Barbra tells Abby that her brand has helped her. J.D. and Phoebe got married the day before. Kat wants Abby to write a tell all or she's finished. Abby refuses to write it and fires Kat. When Jake takes the baby home, they find out that Becca isn't there.

text: Season 3 (2017)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)

27
1
"Rule #43: When One Door Opens, There's An Icy Draft"
Robert Duncan McNeil
Marti Noxon & Emily Fox
January 11, 2017 (2017-01-11)
0.44[30]

Jake has been stuck with Becca's baby Christopher for days, he's tired and suggests surrendering the baby at a fire station. Abby intervenes and offers to take care of him so that Jake can rest. Abby is called into work and Delia says she will baby-sit while she is gone. While in her meeting with her boss she is fired by Mitchell who wants "to go in a different direction." He has Barbara write Abby's article. Delia wants to move to New York for a fresh start. Abby discovers she is having hot flashes when she mistakes it for the baby having a fever. Jake is able to get the baby off their hands after getting in touch with Becca who fled to Florida. Abby thinks that Becca isn't ready to be a mother, and suggest that she and Jake raise Christopher because they work well together. Jake insists that neither he or she wants to raise any more kids.

28
2
"Rule #137: Move Your Car"
Brian Dannelly
Adam Milch & Vince Calandra
January 18, 2017 (2017-01-18)
0.37[31]

Since Abby no longer has a job she doesn't know what to do now. Barbara is having a hard time writing Abby's article, she doesn't quite get the criticism of the article, plus her writing style is the opposite of what SheShe is looking for. Charlie starts playing baseball and Abby becomes one of those crazy baseball moms when Charlie gets benched. Scott's sex addiction gets the best of Jo and she breaks up with him. After a talk with Barbara she goes to make up with him but it's too late when she arrives to his empty trailer and sees that he's gone. Delia is ready to fight when she realizes that Albert tricked her into taking a clingy client. Phoebe is having some financial troubles due to her no longer getting alimony payments from Ralph. She wants to make things work with J.D., and has to sacrifice no longer buying the luxurious things she's accustom to.

29
3
"Rule #188: Mind Your Side of the Plate"
Michael B. Silver
Lisa Edelstein
January 25, 2017 (2017-01-25)
0.40[32]

Abby and Barbara spend the night out on the town where Barbara gets ideas for her column. The two get into it when Abby attacks her about her weight, Barbara answers right back and calls her a skinny bitch. They eventually apologize for their behavior. Abby fantasies about Charlie's baseball coach, Mike Brady when she's writing her book. Phoebe and JD takes her kids camping, Jo deals with Scott's departure.

30
4
"Rule #225: What Happens in Bakersfield Stays in Bakersfield"
Steven Tsuchida
Ilene Rosenzweig
February 1, 2017 (2017-02-01)
0.40[33]

Charlie's baseball team travels to Bakersfield for a tournament and Abby tries to make friends with the other moms. Delia, Jo and Phoebe head to Palm Springs where Delia runs into Gordon. All the baseball moms get carried away with heckling the umpire. Abby takes it too far, making the ump angry which later leads to Mike being thrown out from the game for his dispute with the ump. He blames Abby for it. Later that night the two end up fondling in the hotel's laundry room but he stops before things go any further because he doesn't want to go over the line. Jo has Frumpkis watch the store while she's gone and spies on him via a video surveillance app. He "broke" out of rehab which concerns her. While talking to her on the phone he sees the camera in the corner of the store and chastises her for spying on him. Gordon agrees to have breakfast with Delia but it doesn't happen since she gets arrested for a CUI (Cycling Under the Influence). Gordon bails her out, they talk where he says that he still loves her but he will never trust her again. He also doesn't want to see her again.

31
5
"Rule #99: Cook Naked"
Kat Coiro
Janine Nabers
February 8, 2017 (2017-02-08)
0.42[34]

Abby hosts a party for Charlie's baseball team as a way to spend time with Mike. With everybody outside, the two use the laundry room to be naughty, but Linda accidentally walks in on them. Barbara looks to get her kitchen remolded, and Phoebe introduces her to someone (Malcolm-Jamal Warner) to give her ideas, although Barbara is unimpressed with his slick style and high-end catalog of appliances. Phoebe continues to spend hours on end with Gemma. Zooey finds new strength in being assertive in a way to be noticeable to Ethan. However, all that comes crashing down after finding her dad collapsed at home with an empty liquor bottle by his side. Frumpkis is taken to the hospital, where he admits the true extent of his alcoholism to Jo, who tells him that he has to get clean for real this time.

32
6
"Rule #218: There's No Crying in Baseball"
Andy Wolk
Matthew Shire
February 15, 2017 (2017-02-15)
0.28[35]

Abby is processing that Mike is still living with his ex. She also tries to make it through Charlie's last baseball game of the season without creating any conflict. Lily and Zooey fight over Ethan which leads to Zooey bullying Lily. Standing up for their daughters, Abby and Jo end up fighting with themselves. Barbara steps in to up break up the fights. Phoebe worries about the art direction J.D. is going in after seeing the painting he painted for Gemma. When Jo tells Zooey that her behavior was not acceptable, Zooey quickly tells her mom that she learned that behavior from her. Delia's new client isn't helping her get her former reputation back at the firm. Mike comes over to tell Abby that he now has his own place, and with this they go up to her bedroom to have sex.

33
7
"Rule #91: Run Toward What Scares You"
Robert Duncan McNeill
Adam Milch & Emily Fox
February 22, 2017 (2017-02-22)
0.29[36]

text: Season 4 (2017)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)

34
1
"Rule #776: The Cat is Always on the Roof"
Robert Duncan McNeill
Emily Fox
August 17, 2017 (2017-08-17)
0.37[37]

35
2
"Rule #10: Just Survive"
Scott Williams
Ilene Rosenzweig
August 24, 2017 (2017-08-24)
0.36[38]

36
3
"Rule #706: Let Them Eat Cupcakes"
Tanya Wexler
Janine Nabers & Emmylou Diaz
August 31, 2017 (2017-08-31)
0.37[39]

37
4
"Rule #49: Let It Shine"
Terrell Clegg
Matthew Shire
September 7, 2017 (2017-09-07)
0.42[40]

38
5
"Rule #930: Plan for New Plans"
Jude Weng
Matthew Scott Hunter
September 14, 2017 (2017-09-14)
0.42[41]

39
6
"Rule #155: Go with the Magician"
Jonathan Frakes
Adam Milch
September 21, 2017 (2017-09-21)
0.32[42]