document_title: 90 Day Fiancé

question_text: what is jorge last name from 90 day fiance

text: 90 Day Fiancé

text: K-1 visa Process[edit]

text: First, the petitioner must meet the beneficiary inside or outside the USA and then file a I-129F petition with evidence of meeting and of a relationship. After the petition is approved, the petitioner must pass biometrics and then the process is sent to the foreign embassy of the beneficiary. The beneficiary then files for a visa, before or after passing the medical requirements and is called for an interview. The beneficiary must prove that they meet the requirements of the visa including strong evidence of meeting and a valid relationship. The foreign fiancé travels to the States to live with his or her prospective American spouse. The couple must marry within 90 days, otherwise the beneficiary must leave the country. The couple may face language barriers, culture shock, the stigma of being thought of as a "mail-order bride" as well as skepticism of friends and family.

text: Season 1 Cast[edit]

text: Russ & Pao[edit]

text: Russ Mayfield (27, from Owasso, Oklahoma) met Paola "Pao" (26, from Bucaramanga, Colombia), a fashion designer, while he was in Colombia on a work assignment in the petroleum industry. They married and moved to Tulsa, Oklahoma. Russ is a graduate of Oklahoma State University–Stillwater and works as a field engineer, although he lost his job shortly after marrying. Paola then moved to Miami to seek more opportunities modeling and as a personal trainer and for its larger South American community, while Russ initially remains in Oklahoma City. Eventually, Russ moves to Miami, but is concerned about Pao's skimpy outfits during her modeling jobs. Paola advanced to the second round of the 2017 Maxim's Finest competition, but was eventually eliminated.

text: Alan & Kirlyam[edit]

text: Alan Cox (29, from Los Angeles, California) met Kirlyam (21, from Goiânia, Brazil) while he was on a Mormon mission to her hometown. She moved to the United States to live with him, although the two were virgins at the time of their wedding. She tried modeling, but Alan was jealous of the attention that she received. They were married in a Mormon temple, and although Kirlyam's family was unable to attend, they watched a live streaming video of the event from Brazil. The couple went to Hawaii for their honeymoon.

text: Kirlyam is waiting for her green card so that she can find employment. Alan is employed by Breen Engineering as a project lead/photo simulation specialist. They are still together and Kirlyam gave birth to the couple's first child, a boy named Liam.

text: Louis & Aya[edit]

text: Louis Roy Gattone, Jr. (37, from Indianapolis, Indiana) met Aya (33, from Ormoc, Philippines), via an online dating service. Aya wanted Louis to move to the Philippines, but they decided to live in the United States because he has two young sons. They were married in a Catholic church. Louis is taking classes and is almost done with his degree. Aya is working. They plan to buy a house in the near future. The boys live with them and they plan on having a child or children of their own. The couple decided not to participate in the season 2 update. They are still married.

text: Mike & Aziza[edit]

text: Mike Eloshway (31, from Cleveland, Ohio) and Aziza (21, from Volgograd, Russia) met on a language acquisition website. Their relationship was initially platonic. Sometime after Aziza's application for a work visa was denied, their relationship turned romantic. In the summer of 2014, she arrived to America to live with Mike. They were married although Aziza was very saddened because her family was unable to attend the wedding. Mike is employed as a technical support specialist for the Cleveland Municipal Court. Mike wants to have children right away, while Aziza does not. Aziza found employment at an optics lab. The couple traveled to Russia where Mike met Aziza's parents. They are still married.

text: Season 2 cast[edit]

text: Chelsea & Yamir[edit]

text: Yamir Castillo (28, from Managua, Nicaragua) and Chelsea Macek (25, from Galesburg, Illinois) met while she was volunteering in Nicaragua. Yamir was a member of a Nicaraguan boy band. He moved to the United States to live with Chelsea and her parents. This caused a large rift between him and the members of his band. Chelsea’s parents are very supportive of the relationship. Yamir sends some demo tapes to a few music producers in Chicago and receives a reply. He travels to Chicago to meet with producers. The producers say that he needs to move to Chicago to have better opportunities. Unfortunately, Chelsea is resistant to the idea because neither is employed and they can live for free with her parents in Galesburg. Yamir made his music debut in the United States with Chelsea playing his spouse in the music video, "Party Love". Chelsea found employment as an elementary school teacher. Yamir and Chelsea filed for divorce in 2017 and Yamir is still living in Chicago, working on his music. Yamir stated that "Just because two people aren't together any longer doesn't mean you cannot have a relationship with that person. Although we no longer have the bond that united us, there's no hate!"

text: Danielle & Mohamed[edit]

text: Mohamed Jbali, (26, from Tunis, Tunisia), met Danielle Mullins (41, from Norwalk, Ohio) in an online chat room. The two were engaged, and Mohammed moved to Ohio. Danielle had 3 teenage daughters and 1 adult son from previous relationships. Mohamed claimed to have a job, but Danielle discovered that it was a lie. Mohamed also found out that Danielle had lied about aspects of her private life including passing bad checks and using someone else's credit card fraudulently. Shortly after the wedding, Mohamed left Danielle. He went to Florida with a female friend, and Danielle saw intimate photos of them on social media and consulted a lawyer. She filed for an annulment, or a retroactive cancellation of the marriage which, if granted, would mean that Mohamed would be deported. In court Mohamed said he would fight the annulment and the judge stated it would be difficult for Danielle to win; Danielle's lawyer advised her to change the filing, and she removed the annulment.[3] They divorced, and, in October 2017, Mohamed moved to Texas. Danielle is still trying to get Mohamed deported, despite pleas from fellow cast members and fans to "let it go."

text: Justin & Evelin[edit]

text: Justin (34, from San Jose, California) and Evelin (29, from Cali, Colombia) met while they were both attending a rugby match at the 2013 World Games in Colombia. After their first night together, Justin told Evelin to vacuum and clean the dishes, while he watched a football game. They spent the following 7 days together and fell in love. Justin works as a physical education teacher at an elementary school. In Colombia, Evelin worked as a dance instructor. Since moving to the United States, Evelin has changed the spelling of her name to Evelyn. They are still married.

text: Brett & Daya[edit]

text: Brett Otto (31, from Snohomish, Washington) and Daya De Arce (29, from San Carlos, Negros Occidental, Philippines) met via an online dating service. Brett was divorced and has a 6-year-old daughter from his first marriage. His daughter lives with her mother in Montana. Brett works in tool services for Boeing, and Daya found a job in the United States. He had two roommates, but they moved out once Daya arrived. Brett and Daya were married on February 14, 2015. Brett's mother chose not to attend the wedding. They are still married and have a daughter named Isabella.

text: Jason & Cássia[edit]

text: Jason Hitch (38, from Spring Hill, Florida) and Cássia Tavares (23, from Curitiba, Brazil) met through Facebook while Cássia was in an online relationship with Jason's friend. Once that relationship ended, Jason and Cássia began dating. Cássia came to the United States and moved in with Jason and his father. Jason is originally from Champaign, Illinois, and is a United States Army veteran. He lives very frugally. He buys items from garage sales, auctions, and estate sales, and sells them online for a profit. They started a mail-order snack business called "Gifting Fun". In 2017, they separated. In 2018, they filed for divorce after Jason was charged with domestic violence. [4] In April 2018, they dismissed their divorce case and are working on their marriage. [5]

text: Danny & Amy[edit]

text: Danny Frishmuth (23, from Norristown, Pennsylvania), and Amy (21, from Cape Town, South Africa) met in Australia while they were on a Bible study trip. They fell in love and got engaged. When Amy arrived in America, she lived with Danny's brother because she and Danny wanted to be virgins when they wed. Danny works in home construction for X-Treme Works in Malvern, Pennsylvania. Danny's father initially objected to the marriage because Amy is not white, but he eventually accepted her into the family. They are still married and are now living in Texas. They have one son, Jedidiah John Frishmuth and a daughter Anna Elise Frishmuth.

text: Season 3 Cast[edit]

text: Mark & Nikki[edit]

text: Mark Shoemaker (58, from Baltimore, Maryland) and Nikki (19, from Cebu City, Philippines) met via an online dating service. Mark owns a piano rental business. He has 4 adult children from a previous marriage who are all older than Nikki. He and his first wife's relationship ended when the children were very young, and Mark was left to raise the children. Mark's first wife and Nikki are both from Cebu, Philippines. Shortly after meeting Nikki, Mark proposed to her with a zip tie in the shape of a ring. When Nikki came to Maryland, Mark surprised her with a car and taught her how to drive. When Mark told Nikki that the car was the same make and model as the car that he put a deposit on for his first wife, Nikki was confused as she thought it was the very exact same car. Mark later freaked out when Nikki's fingerprints were smudged on the car. He demanded that Nikki sign a prenuptial agreement. Mark's daughter, Elise, felt uncomfortable with the relationship because she is a year older than Nikki. Elise shared her discomfort when Mark wanted to give Nikki clothes that she had previously discarded. They sued TLC for how they are portrayed in the show, but the lawsuit was thrown out.

text: Loren & Alexei[edit]

text: Alexei Brovarnik (27, from Nazareth Illit, Israel, originally from Ukraine) and Loren Goldstone (27, from New York City), met while she was on a Birthright Israel trip, where he was a medic. Loren was an executive assistant in New York, but she quit and moved to Parkland, Florida to save money. Loren admits to liking expensive things, but claims she is not a spoiled child. She is a graduate of the University of North Florida. In addition to marrying in the United States, Alexei and Loren got married in Israel, surrounded by Alexei's family and friends and Loren's parents. At a meeting with Alexei's parents, Loren's parents misinformed them about Loren's Tourette syndrome. Alexei confronts Loren and her parents on why he was not informed that her illness can be genetic and affect their future children. Loren wants Alexei to be a model, while he wants to be a firefighter, paramedic, or policeman. Soon after they are married Alexei's mom travels to Florida to explore ways to move the whole family from Israel to the United States. The couple is still together and resides in Fort Lauderdale, Florida.

text: Kyle & Noon[edit]

text: Kyle Huckabee (28, from New Orleans, Louisiana) and Bajaree Boonma aka Noon (25, from Bangkok, Thailand) met online through Facebook while he was doing research for a trip to Thailand. The two met in person while he was there on vacation. They were engaged and Noon came to America even though Kyle hadn't officially proposed. They initially lived in Kyle's bachelor apartment with his roommate, but the situation was less than ideal. Kyle started working extra shifts at his job as a bartender on Bourbon Street so that they could afford an apartment of their own. Kyle proposed during a parachuting trip, and they moved into a new apartment. Before he met Noon, Kyle was estranged from his parents who are divorced. With Noon's support, he restarted the relationship with his mother. Kyle & Noon were married in a Buddhist temple, but unfortunately, Noon's family was unable to attend the ceremony. Kyle’s mom chose not to attend. They are still married.

text: Melanie & Devar[edit]

text: Devar Walters (28, from Runaway Bay, Jamaica) and Melanie Bowers (33, from Orwigsburg, Pennsylvania) met while Melanie was on vacation at a Jamaican resort where Devar was employed as a lifeguard. Melanie is a registered nurse. She has custody of her 11-year-old son, Hunter, on weekends. She was married to his father for 5 years before the marriage ended in divorce when she was 26. Devar proposed to Melanie while she was still vacationing, and she accepted. Back in Pennsylvania, Melanie’s sister, Bev, is extremely concerned and does not trust Devar. The couple hits a rough patch when Devar mentions he wants to send most of the money he earns to his family in Jamaica; Melanie ponders out loud that she will look into a prenuptial agreement. Devar has been training to become a welder. They are still together and the couple has a daughter named Avah, who was born in November 2017.

text: Fernando & Carolina[edit]

text: Fernando (39, from Doral, Florida) and Carolina (22, from Medellín, Colombia) met in Colombia while both were on dates with other people. The two were engaged before he returned to the United States. Fernando was previously married. After his marriage ended, Fernando invited his parents to share his house. When Carolina moves to Florida, Fernando's mom makes inappropriate remarks such as telling Carolina that all people from Colombia are cocaine addicts. Even though Carolina does not get along with Fernando's mom, they get married. The couple happily settled in together, though Carolina admits she calls her mom 3 times per day and misses her cat, while Fernando is allergic to cats. Fernando gained 50 pounds since meeting Carolina. Fernando says he did not cheat, although Carolina found emails that he exchanged with an ex-girlfriend. They are still married.

text: Josh & Aleksandra[edit]

text: Josh Strobel (22, from Rexburg, Idaho) and Aleksandra Iarovikova (21, from Kirov, Russia), met in Prague, Czech Republic, while Josh was on a Mormon mission and Aleksandra was attending Metropolitan University Prague. Initially an atheist, Aleksandra converted to Mormonism and Josh played a role in this. Before converting, she was also employed as a go-go dancer at a club and loved drinking and partying. The couple kept in touch after Josh's mission and began dating. Josh visited Russia and proposed in 2015. [6] Josh and Aleksandra were married in August 2015, soon after Aleksandra's arrival to the United States from Prague, where she had to finalize her semester in June. They had a daughter named Kaya in March 2016.

text: Josh graduated with a BS from Creighton University in 2016, but was not accepted to a medical school that year and started working for his father. At the beginning of 2018, Josh started medical school at the University of Queensland, in Australia, and the family moved to Brisbane, Australia.

text: Season 4 Cast[edit]

text: Jorge & Anfisa[edit]

text: Anfisa Arkhipchenko (20, from Moscow, Russia) was contacted by Jorge Nava (27, from Riverside, California) via Facebook after he saw her photos online. Though Anfisa was at first resistant to his messages, Anfisa eventually agreed to meet him and Jorge ends up taking her on an expensive vacation around Europe. Shortly before Anfisa was scheduled to come to the United States, she asked Jorge for a $10,000 handbag, which Jorge declined to buy. Anfisa erased Jorge's cellphone and cancelled the flights, though the two reconciled and eventually Anfisa agreed to travel to the United States. Jorge had pleaded guilty to marijuana trafficking, which made it hard for him to rent an apartment. They move into a hotel and Anfisa is not impressed; though why exactly Jorge does not have his own place to live has not been revealed. They later move into a small apartment. Jorge does not buy an engagement ring or wedding dress for Anfisa. Jorge's friends and family are concerned about Anfisa's motives. Anfisa admits that she is indeed interested in Jorge providing for her, and she opines that while she may be using Jorge for his money, she believes that Jorge is primarily interested in her for her looks and would not want to marry her if she was ugly. At some point, Anfisa was considering going back to Russia, and Jorge considered for a while that he would not try to stop her. Later on, they get married alone in a simple courthouse ceremony, after which Jorge promises to buy the ring to Anfisa and to have a bigger ceremony later on so that her family could attend.

text: Jorge's sister confronted Anfisa at a restaurant about her demands. They still live in a small apartment, he still did not buy her a ring and she does not have a car. Despite a bitter and hate-filled separation, Anfisa and Jorge are still married. In early 2018, Jorge was arrested for transporting 293 pounds of marijuana.

text: Nicole & Azan[edit]

text: Nicole Nafziger (21, from Bradenton, Florida) and Azan Tefou (23, from Agadir, Morocco), met via an online dating service mobile app. Though somewhat against her parents wishes, Nicole decides to go to Morocco for 5 weeks, leaving her toddler-aged daughter May with her sister. Upon meeting Nicole at the airport, Azan remarks that she is "big...a little bit" but concedes that he is happy. Nicole is thrilled to be in Morocco with Azan (later calling him her "Arabian Prince"), though he has a hard time persuading her that in his culture it is not acceptable for unmarried couples to be physically affectionate. Nicole persists in trying to hug and kiss Azan, which only causes him to become irritated. Nicole feels shunned and unsure of their relationship. Azan takes Nicole to Agadir to visit his family; she is warmly welcomed by the family. Nicole later reveals that she cheated on Azan, which could end the relationship. Azan takes Nicole to the desert and proposes, and she accepts. However, she continues to chafe at the customs of the Culture of Islam. She refuses to convert to Islam and he refuses to convert to Christianity. Their wedding is delayed indefinitely due to Nicole not being able to afford to fund the government sponsorship requirements for Azan's staying in the U.S, and her Mom refusing to co sponsor the effort. Nicole believes it will take at least 2 years and hopes Azan will wait. In addition, Nicole promised to lose weight and Azan became irritated when he caught her hoarding mini-donuts and Little Debbie oatmeal creme pies. Their future is unsure, they are still together, but living in separate countries. In late 2017, Nicole's father agreed to sponsor Azan.

text: Narkyia & Olulowo[edit]

text: Olulowo (28, from Lagos, Nigeria) met Narkyia (36, from Camp Hill, Pennsylvania) via an online dating service for overweight women. They faced many obstacles for meeting. Narkyia and her friends and family were skeptical of him and are wary of a romance scam, but he did not ask for any money. They broke up after Olulowo lied to Narkyia about still having been contacting and pursuing a relationship with a woman he had previously had a baby with in the early stages of his relationship with Narkyia. They got back together and are living in the United States.

text: Matt & Alla[edit]

text: Matt Ryan (42, from Williamstown, Kentucky), and Alla Fedoruk (30, from Kiev, Ukraine), met several years ago using an online dating service but lost touch after Matt married his 3rd wife. A few years and a divorce later, Matt and Alla reconnected. Alla, also a divorcee, has a 7-year-old son named Max. The reserved Alla is easily overwhelmed by Matt's friends and family while Matt continues to deal with lingering issues caused by infidelity by his previous wives. Alla dreams of a wedding on the beach but Matt's family tries to persuade her to scale back her plans. When Alla says that she does not love Matt yet, his friends are very concerned. However, the couple marry. They are later shown looking for a new house, closer to city and Matt's family. They are still together.

text: Chantel & Pedro[edit]

text: Chantel (real name: CeAir) Everett (25, from Atlanta, Georgia) met Pedro Jimeno while on a trip to the Dominican Republic, after being introduced by a Spanish teacher. Chantel frequently went to the Dominican Republic to visit him, and on one of those trips he proposed to her. Because Chantel was worried that her family would think that Pedro was only going after a green card to enter the U.S, Chantel told her parents that he was in America on a student travel visa. Eventually, Chantel and Pedro marry in the United States. However, Chantel and Pedro are planning to get married in the Dominican Republic as well, but Pedro doesn't think her family will want to go. They go to the Dominican Republic, but then have some explosive fights and arguments with the family members, since Pedro's family now expect him to send them money. Chantel's family is upset because of the obvious improvement of the standard of living of Pedro's family, while Chantel and Pedro have very modest living in the United States. Pedro's family offers Chantel's family chicken feet, which is taken as a sign of disrespect. They did get married and reside in Georgia.

text: Season 5 Cast[edit]

text: Elizabeth & Andrei[edit]

text: Elizabeth Potthast (27, from Tampa, Florida), met Andrei Castravet (31, from Chisinau, Moldova), while Elizabeth visited Dublin, where Andrei resided and worked as a bouncer. At first, Andrei does not get along with Elizabeth's family due to his controlling nature and the haste of the marriage. Elizabeth's father refuses to financially support the couple. Elizabeth and her sisters go to Miami for a bachelorette party and they go clubbing, against Andrei's wishes. The couple got married in an outdoor ceremony and are still married.[7]

text: Evelyn & David[edit]

text: David Vázquez Zermeño (27, from Granada, Spain) and Evelyn Cormier (18, from Claremont, New Hampshire), both from religious Christian families and both virgins before marriage, met after David saw the Facebook page for Evelyn's band[8] and sent her a message. David had only discussed sex once in his life, with his family at the age of 13, and did not want to talk with Evelyn about sex on camera. Despite David's objections to living in a small town, they got married and live in Claremont, New Hampshire.

text: Molly & Luis[edit]

text: Molly Hopkins (41, from Woodstock, Georgia), met Luis Mendez (26, from Dominican Republic) at the bar he worked at while she was on a trip with friends to the Dominican Republic.[7]

text: They did not have a wedding but did legally get married during the 90-day visa period. Luis did not get along with Molly's 2 kids and was not interested in fatherhood. He left Molly but later returned for the final episode, "Tell All".

text: In January 2018, after 6 months of being married, Molly filed for divorce while Luis claimed that he was emotionally and physically abused by her during their marriage.[9]

text: David & Annie[edit]

text: David Toborowsky (48, from Louisville, Kentucky), met Annie Suwan (24, from Bueng Kan, Thailand) at a bar while he was living in Thailand. David has no money and needs his best friend, Chris Thieneman, to sponsor Annie and give David enough money to pay the bride price to Annie's parents, which frustrates Chris's wife, Nikki. Despite David's past infidelity, drinking problems, and destitution, the couple got married. They live in Louisville, Kentucky, although they think about moving back to Asia.[7]

text: Josh & Aika[edit]

text: Josh Batterson (43, from Mesa, Arizona) met Aika (36 from Quezon City, Philippines). Despite  doubts about the future of their relationship due to Josh's reluctance to get surgery to reverse his vasectomy and allow him to impregnate Aika, who wants children, Josh & Aika got married in Las Vegas.

text: Nicole & Azan[edit]

text: Nicole and Azan, who also appeared in season 4, are featured again in season 5.

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Series overview[edit]

text: SeasonEpisodesOriginally airedFirst airedLast aired16January 12, 2014 (2014-01-12)February 23, 2014 (2014-02-23)212October 19, 2014 (2014-10-19)December 28, 2014 (2014-12-28)312October 11, 2015 (2015-10-11)December 6, 2015 (2015-12-06)414September 11, 2016 (2016-09-11)November 20, 2016 (2016-11-20)513October 8, 2017 (2017-10-08)December 18, 2017 (2017-12-18)

text: Season 1 (2014)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byOriginal air date11"I Got My Visa!"Jessica HernandezJanuary 12, 2014 (2014-01-12)
Four women come to the US to live with their American fiances using a unique 90 day K-1 visa. The couples have 90 days to wed before the visas expire.
22"Culture Shock"Jessica HernandezJanuary 19, 2014 (2014-01-19)
Paola has to adapt to living with Russ' parents and her wild ways leads to collisions with Russ's friends. Kirlyam misses her parents. Aziza meets Mike's skeptical family. Louis prepares his sons and ex-wife for Aya.
33"Enough Is Enough"Jessica HernandezJanuary 26, 2014 (2014-01-26)
Paola and Russ move into their new apartment. Aya meets Louis' ex-wife and sons. Kirlyam goes to a salon where she is been referred to a modeling agency. Aziza and Mike hit a milestone in their relationship.
44"90 Days Isn't Enough"Jessica Hernandez & Kevin RhoadesFebruary 9, 2014 (2014-02-09)
Russ takes Paola to a tailgate but their wedding plans are jeopardized. Alan is concerned when Kirlyam gets a modelling opportunity. Aziza is confronted by Mike's Mom at her bachelorette party. Aya gets upset as Louis cuts corners on their wedding.
55"Didn't Expect This..."Jessica Hernandez & Kevin RhoadesFebruary 16, 2014 (2014-02-16)
Aziza upsets Mike when he went missing after his bachelor party. Kirlyam and Alan rush their wedding. Paola shops for a wedding dress but Russ might be called back to work. Aya cannot have the wedding of her dreams because of a limited budget.
66"Time's Up"Jessica Hernandez & Kevin RhoadesFebruary 23, 2014 (2014-02-23)
Paola has her bachelorette party but is unsure if her wedding will take place. Aziza gets nervous before her wedding. Kirylam and Alan are both virgins at their wedding night. Louis has Aya doubt as he arrives late for filing in this his wedding.

text: Season 2 (2014)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleOriginal air date71"Where Are They Now? Season 1 Couples"October 19, 2014 (2014-10-19)
82"New Couples, New Journeys"October 19, 2014 (2014-10-19)
93"I'm Home, America!"October 26, 2014 (2014-10-26)
104"Watch You Like a Hawk"November 2, 2014 (2014-11-02)
115"Touchdown!"November 10, 2014 (2014-11-10)
126"Mo' Money, Mo' Problems"November 17, 2014 (2014-11-17)
137"Fears, Family, Future"November 23, 2014 (2014-11-23)
148"I Have to Tell You Something"November 30, 2014 (2014-11-30)
159"Going Once, Going Twice...Gone?"December 7, 2014 (2014-12-07)
1610"Red Flags"December 14, 2014 (2014-12-14)
1711"I'm Gonna Go Home"December 21, 2014 (2014-12-21)
1812"The Couples Tell All"December 28, 2014 (2014-12-28)

text: Season 3 (2015)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleOriginal air date191"Where Are They Now? Season 2 Couples"October 11, 2015 (2015-10-11)
202"Departures and Arrivals"October 11, 2015 (2015-10-11)
213"Welcome to the Family"October 18, 2015 (2015-10-18)
224"Questions & Answers"October 25, 2015 (2015-10-25)
235"Full of Surprises"November 1, 2015 (2015-11-01)
246"Missing Home"November 8, 2015 (2015-11-08)
257"Lights, Camera, Drama"November 15, 2015 (2015-11-15)
268"Don't Push Me"November 22, 2015 (2015-11-22)
279"Bachelorette Blues"November 29, 2015 (2015-11-29)
2810"What Do You Know About Love?"November 29, 2015 (2015-11-29)
2911"This Is It"December 6, 2015 (2015-12-06)
3012"Season 3 Tell All"December 6, 2015 (2015-12-06)

text: Season 4 (2016)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleOriginal air date311"For Your Eyes Only"August 22, 2016 (2016-08-22)
322"You Say Goodbye, I Say Hello"September 11, 2016 (2016-09-11)
333"Meet the Family"September 18, 2016 (2016-09-18)
344"Life's a Beach"September 25, 2016 (2016-09-25)
355"Testing the Waters"October 2, 2016 (2016-10-02)
366"I Can See the Cracks"October 9, 2016 (2016-10-09)
377"Time to Tell the Truth"October 16, 2016 (2016-10-16)
388"This Is What You Came For"October 23, 2016 (2016-10-23)
399"You're Gonna Miss Me When I'm Gone"October 30, 2016 (2016-10-30)
4010"Confessions of a Foreign Fiancé"November 6, 2016 (2016-11-06)
4111"Are You Ready for This?"November 13, 2016 (2016-11-13)
4212"Too Little Too Late"November 13, 2016 (2016-11-13)
4313"Speak Now or Forever Hold Your Peace"November 20, 2016 (2016-11-20)
4414"Season 4 Tell All"November 20, 2016 (2016-11-20)

text: Season 5 (2017)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleOriginal air date451"Waiting Is The Hardest Part"October 8, 2017 (2017-10-08)
462"Parental Approval"October 15, 2017 (2017-10-15)
473"Bring on the 90 Days"October 22, 2017 (2017-10-22)
484"Good Morning America"October 29, 2017 (2017-10-29)
495"Family First"November 5, 2017 (2017-11-05)
506"Crossing the Line"November 12, 2017 (2017-11-12)
517"Welcome to Real Life"November 19, 2017 (2017-11-19)
528"Out of Nowhere"November 26, 2017 (2017-11-26)
539"Wake Up Call"December 3, 2017 (2017-12-03)
5410"Breaking Point"December 10, 2017 (2017-12-10)
5511"Second Thoughts"December 17, 2017 (2017-12-17)
5612"I Now Pronounce You"December 18, 2017 (2017-12-18)
5713"Season 5: Tell All"December 18, 2017 (2017-12-18)

text: Spin-offs[edit]

text: 90 Day Fiancé: Happily Ever After?[edit]

text: 90 Day Fiancé: Happily Ever After? is an American documentary series (Docu-Series) on TLC and a spin-off of 90 Day Fiancé. The series follows six couples from previous seasons and documents the ups and downs of their relationships post-marriage.

text:
90 Day Fiancé: Happily Ever After? Couples

Couples

Original Season

Seasons

Season 1 (2016)

Season 2 (2017)

Season 3 (2018)

Russ & Paola
Season 1

Main

Danielle & Mohamed
Season 2

Main

Brett & Daya

Main

Melanie & Devar
Season 3

Main

Kyle & Noon

Main

Loren & Alexei

Main

Jorge & Anfisa
Season 4

Main

Chantel & Pedro

Main

Nicole & Azan
Season 5

Main

Molly & Luis

Main

David & Annie

Main

text: Season 1[edit]

text: Returning couples included Season 1's Russ & Paola; Season 2's Danielle & Mohamed and Brett & Daya; and Season 3's Melanie & Devar, Loren & Alexei, and Kyle & Noon. TLC announced the spin-off series in August 2016. The series debuted on September 11, 2016, following the premiere of season 4 of 90 Day Fiancé. The first season ended in November 2016 with a two-part "Tell All" special.

text: Episodes

text:
No. inseries

No. inseason

Title

Original air date

11"It's Only the Beginning"September 11, 2016 (2016-09-11)
22"It's My Secret to Tell"September 18, 2016 (2016-09-18)
33"Something's Up"September 25, 2016 (2016-09-25)
44"What Don't I Know?"October 2, 2016 (2016-10-02)
55"The Truth Hurts"October 9, 2016 (2016-10-09)
66"Facing the Past"October 16, 2016 (2016-10-16)
77"Destination Impossible"October 23, 2016 (2016-10-23)
88"You Can't Run..."October 30, 2016 (2016-10-30)
99"I Came All This Way"October 30, 2016 (2016-10-30)
1010"The Roles Reverse"November 6, 2016 (2016-11-06)
1111"The Couples Tell All Part 1"November 6, 2016 (2016-11-06)
1212"The Couples Tell All Part 2"November 13, 2016 (2016-11-13)

text: Season 2[edit]

text: 90 Day Fiancé: Happily Ever After? was renewed for a second season in November 2016.[10] The second season debuted on June 25, 2017, and features 90 Day Fiancé Season 1's Russ & Paola, Season 2's Danielle & Mohamed, Season 3's Loren & Alexei, and Season 4's Jorge & Anfisa and Chantel & Pedro.

text:
No. inseries

No. inseason

Title

Original air date

131"Happy Wife, Happy Life?"June 25, 2017 (2017-06-25)
142"When The Past Catches Up"July 2, 2017 (2017-07-02)
153"We Got Bad Blood"July 9, 2017 (2017-07-09)
164"Family Secrets"July 16, 2017 (2017-07-16)
175"Lost in Translation"July 23, 2017 (2017-07-23)
186"Lies & Goodbyes"July 30, 2017 (2017-07-30)
197"Models, Moms & Meltdowns"August 6, 2017 (2017-08-06)
208"I Do's & I Don'ts"August 13, 2017 (2017-08-13)
219"Where Do We Go From Here?"August 20, 2017 (2017-08-20)
2210"The Couples Tell All Part 1"August 27, 2017 (2017-08-27)
2311"The Couples Tell All Part 2"September 3, 2017 (2017-09-03)
2412"The Couples Tell All Part 3"September 10, 2017 (2017-09-10)

text: Season 3[edit]

text: 90 Day Fiancé: Happily Ever After? was renewed for a third season in January 2018. The third season debuted on May 20, 2018, and features 90 Day Fiancé Season 1's Russ & Paola, Season 4's Jorge & Anfisa, Chantel & Pedro and Nicole & Azan, and Season 5's Molly & Luis and David & Annie.

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleOriginal air date251"Home Sweet Home?"May 20, 2018 (2018-05-20)
262"Disruptive Behavior"May 27, 2018 (2018-05-27)
273"There is Something They Don't Know"June 3, 2018 (2018-06-03)
284"Boiling Point"June 10, 2018 (2018-06-10)
295"The Blame Game"June 17, 2018 (2018-06-17)
306"Big Little Lies"June 24, 2018 (2018-06-24)
317"Not Off the Hook"July 1, 2018 (2018-07-01)
328"No Turning Back"July 8, 2018 (2018-07-08)
339"The End of the Line"July 15, 2018 (2018-07-15)
3410"The Couples Tell All Part 1"July 22, 2018 (2018-07-22)
3511"The Couples Tell All Part 2"July 29, 2018 (2018-07-29)

text: 90 Day Fiancé: Before the 90 Days[edit]

text: In November 2016, TLC announced a second spin-off series titled 90 Day Fiancé: Before the 90 Days.[10][11]

text: Season 1[edit]

text: The premise follows six couples - Paul and Karine, Darcey and Jesse, Larry and Jenny, Cortney and Antonio, Sean and Abby, and Patrick and Myriam -  as they start a relationship before the K-1 Visa process begins. It premiered on August 6, 2017.[12]

text: Episodes

text:
No. inseries

No. inseason

Title

Original air date

11"Bon Voyage!"August 6, 2017 (2017-08-06)
22"Going the Distance"August 13, 2017 (2017-08-13)
33"Language of Love"August 20, 2017 (2017-08-20)
44"Meet the Parents"August 27, 2017 (2017-08-27)
55"Secrets and Lies"September 3, 2017 (2017-09-03)
66"Decisions, Decisions"September 10, 2017 (2017-09-10)
77"Baby, I'm Worth It"September 17, 2017 (2017-09-17)
88"Moment of Truth"September 24, 2017 (2017-09-24)
99"Red Flags"October 1, 2017 (2017-10-01)
1010"Reality Check"October 8, 2017 (2017-10-08)
1111"On The Brink"October 15, 2017 (2017-10-15)
1212"Line in the Sand"October 22, 2017 (2017-10-22)
1313"All or Nothing"October 29, 2017 (2017-10-29)
1414"The Couples Tell All"October 30, 2017 (2017-10-30)

text: Season 2[edit]

text: 90 Day Fiancé: Before the 90 Days was renewed for a second season in January 2018. The second season is scheduled to debut on August 5, 2018.

text: The spin-off will feature the return of season 1's Darcey and Jesse and Paul and Karine. New couples include Angela (United States) and Michael (Nigeria), Jon (England) and Rachel (United States), Ricky (United States) and Melissa (Colombia), Tarik (United States) and Hazel (Philippines), and Marta (United States) and Daya (Algeria).

text: Episodes

text:
No. inseries

No. inseason

Title

Original air date

151"And So It Begins"August 5, 2018 (2018-08-05)
162"Face to Face"August 12, 2018 (2018-08-12)
173"Blindsided"August 19, 2018 (2018-08-19)
184"Family Ties"August 26, 2018 (2018-08-26)
195"Seeds of Doubt"September 2, 2018 (2018-09-02)

text: 90 Day Fiancé: What Now?[edit]

text: In March 2017, TLC also announced an original digital spin-off series with the title of 90 Day Fiancé: What Now? for TLCgo.[11] The show provided updates on Kirlyam & Alan from season 1, Aleksandra & Josh and Melanie & Devar from season 3, and Alla & Matt and Narkyia & Olulowo from season 4. TLC uploaded all seven episodes online on July 30, 2017. The network combined the segments into TV episodes that aired on September 17 and September 24, 2017, following 90 Day Fiancé: Before the 90 Days.

text: The What Now? series was brought back in 2018 for another series of updates. The show provided updates on Kirlyam & Alan from season 1, Danielle & Mohamed from season 2 (although Mohamed did not participate), Melanie & Devar from season 3, and Elizabeth & Andrei and Josh & Aika from season 5; Before the 90 Days couples featured included Cortney & Antonio and Patrick & Myriam. TLC uploaded all three episodes online in July 2018. The network combined the segments into TV episodes that aired on July 15, 22 and 29, following 90 Day Fiancé: Happily Ever After?.


document_title: Jamaican Maroons

question_text: how many maroon villages still exist in jamaica today

root

text: Jamaican Maroons

text: History[edit]

text: In all likelihood, the words "Maroon" and "Seminole" share the same origin in the Spanish word cimarrón, meaning "wild" or "untamed". This word usually referred to runaways or castaways and is ultimately derived from the word for "thicket" in Old Spanish.[1]

tag: p

text: When the British captured Jamaica in 1655, the Spanish colonists fled. Many of their slaves escaped and, together with free blacks and mulattoes, former slaves, and some native Taíno[2][3][4] coalesced into several heterogeneous groups in the Jamaican interior.[5]

text: Some created palenques, or stockaded mountain farms at Lluidas Vale in modern-day St Catharine Parish under Juan de Bolas (also known as Lubolo). Toward the western end of Cockpit Country were the ‘Varmahaly or Karmahaly Negroes’ under the leadership of Juan de Serras; a third group was active in the region of Porus, in modern Manchester Parish; and there was possibly a fourth in the Blue Mountains.[5][6] During the first decade of British rule, these groups were active on behalf of the Spanish. But, as it became increasingly obvious that the British would hold their conquest, the group run by de Bolas changed its position.

text: Faced with discovery and defeat in 1659, de Bolas allied with the British and guided their troops on a raid which resulted in the final expulsion of the Spanish in 1660. In exchange, in 1663, Governor Lyttleton signed the first maroon treaty, granting de Bolas and his people land on the same terms as British settlers.[7] The colonial authorities paid the men of de Bolas to hunt the supporters of de Serras and recent runaways.[8] However, de Bolas was eventually killed in an ambush, probably by Maroons belonging to de Serras. While the Maroons belonging to de Bolas disappeared from history, the English authorities failed to subdue the Karmahaly Maroons.[9]

text: The other maroon groups remained independent in the mountainous interior of Jamaica, surviving by subsistence farming and periodic raids of plantations. These initial maroon groups dwindled, migrating or merging with settlers.[10] Others may have coalesced to form the nucleus of what would later be called the Windward Maroons.[11] Over time, runaway slaves increased the maroon population, which eventually came to control large areas of the Jamaican mountainous interior.[12]

text: Establishment of the Leeward and Windward Maroons[edit]

text: Between 1673 and 1690 there were several major slave uprisings, mainly prompted by newly arrived, highly militarized Fante or Coromantee groups from Cape Coast and Ashanti Empire.[13] On 31 July 1690, a rebellion involving 500 slaves from the Sutton estate in Clarendon Parish led to the formation of Jamaica’s most stable and best organized Maroon group. Although some were killed, recaptured or surrendered, more than 200, including women and children, remained free after the rebellion was considered over.[13]

text: They established an Ashanti-style polity based in the eastern parts of the Cockpit Country, notably Cudjoe's Town (Trelawny Town); the most famous ruler of the western Maroons was Cudjoe. They incorporated outsiders only after newcomers had satisfied a strict probationary period.[14] The leader of the eastern Maroons when they agreed to peace was Quao.[15]

text: The Windward Maroons, in the wilder parts of eastern Jamaica, were always composed of separate highly mobile and culturally heterogeneous groups.[16] It is possible that the runaway slaves from de Serras' group of Karmahaly Maroons formed the initial nucleus of the Windward Maroons.[17] From early on, the Jamaican governors considered their settlements an impediment to British development of the interior. They ordered raids on the Maroon settlements in 1686 and 1702, to little effect.[18]

text: By about 1720, a stronger Windward community had developed around the culturally Africanised group of three villages known as Nanny Town, under the spiritual leadership of Queen Nanny, an Ashanti woman, sometimes in allegiance and sometimes in competition with other Windward groups.[19] She was known for her exceptional leadership skills, especially in guerrilla warfare during the First Maroon War. One tactic particular to the Jamaican Maroons involved the art of camouflage using plants. Her remains are reputedly buried at "Bump Grave" in Moore Town, the main town of the Windward Maroons, who are concentrated in and around the Rio Grande valley in the northeastern parish of Portland. Queen Nanny, also known as Granny Nanny (died c.1750s), is the only woman honored as one of Jamaica's National Heroes. She has been immortalised in songs and legends.[20]

text: First Maroon War 1731–1739[edit]

text: Disturbed by plantation raiding, the colonial authorities of Jamaica wanted to eradicate the maroon communities in order to promote British settlement. Their strategy, beginning in the 1730s, was to break off lines of communication between the Windward and Leeward Maroons, then first pick off the less organized Windward Maroons.[21] In practice, the Maroon troops’ command of the territory and skill in guerrilla warfare gave them a strong advantage over colonial forces.[22]

text: After much fighting, the British took and destroyed Nanny Town in 1734, but most of the Windward Maroons simply dispersed and formed new settlements.[23] At this point, however, fighting shifted to Leeward, where the British troops had equally limited success against the well-trained and organized forces of Cudjoe.[24]

text: By the mid-1730s, warfare was proving costly to Maroons and British alike and was turning into an ongoing stalemate. Cudjoe rejected suggestions of a treaty in 1734 and 1736, but by 1738 he agreed to parley with John Guthrie. This local planter and militia officer was known to and respected by the Maroons.[25] In 1739, the treaty signed under British governor Edward Trelawny granted Cudjoe’s Maroons 1500 acres of land between their strongholds of Trelawny Town and Accompong in the Cockpits and a certain amount of political autonomy and economic freedoms, in return for which the Maroons were to provide military support in case of invasion or rebellion, and to return runaway slaves in exchange for a bounty of two dollars each. This last clause in the treaty caused tension between the maroons and the enslaved black population, although from time to time runaways from the plantations still found their way into maroon settlements.[26]

text: In addition, a British superintendent was to be assigned to live in each maroon town.[26] In 1740, similar treaties were signed by Quao and Nanny, major leaders of the Windward Maroons.[27] The Windward Maroons were originally located at Crawford's Town and the new Nanny Town (now called Moore Town). In all, about 600 Maroons came to terms with the British authorities through these two treaties.[28]

text: Not all the Maroons accepted the treaties. Rebellions occurred in Maroon communities in the years that followed. After the treaties, the white superintendents appointed by the governors eventually took control of the Maroon towns.[29] In the 1740s, some Leeward Maroons who opposed the 1739 treaty rose in revolt, but Cudjoe crushed those rebellions.[30]

text: In 1754, Quao attempted to overthrow Edward Crawford, the new Maroon leader of the Windward Maroon town, and in the resulting conflict, Crawford's Town was destroyed. Governor Charles Knowles re-established control over the uprising with the help of other Maroons. He then ordered that the Maroons of Crawford's Town be resettled in the new, nearby Windward Maroon towns of Charles Town and Scott's Hall.[31]

text: Intervention in Tacky's War 1760[edit]

text: In April 1760, the Jamaican government called upon the maroons to honor their treaties and come to their assistance during the major slave uprising led by the Fante leader, Tacky. The Windward Maroons were first to be mobilized. Their intervention often appeared half-hearted: the Scott's Hall Maroons began by claiming outstanding arrears in bounty, while those of Down's Cove simply took cover when attacked by the rebels.[32] In the end, it was a Scott's Hall Maroon, Lieutenant Davy the Maroon, who killed Tacky during a skirmish.[33] Although the loss of Tacky's leadership essentially ended the rebellion, by October, related uprisings broke out on the leeward side of the island. Cudjoe's well-trained forces were also mobilized to help deal with them, apparently to good effect.[34]

text: In the years that followed the rebellion, many Maroon officers such as Samuel Grant (Maroon), allegedly the son of Davy, made a career out of hunting runaway slaves for the colonial authorities.[35] In the eighteenth century, Maroons also hunted and killed notorious escaped slaves and their deputies, such as Ancoma, Three Fingered Jack (Jamaica) and Dagger. However, while they were successful in capturing and killing some runaways and their leaders, most members of the runaway communities continued to thrive under new leaders.[36]

text: Second Maroon War 1795–1796[edit]

text: The Second Maroon War began in 1795 against the background of the British Jamaican plantocracy panicked by the excesses of French Revolution, and by the corresponding start of a slave revolt in neighboring Saint-Domingue, which ended with the independence of Haiti in 1804. At the same time, an increasing hunger for land among expanding maroon communities in Jamaica coincided with several more immediate and proximate causes of grievance among the maroons of Cudjoe's Town (Trelawny Town).[37]

text: The treaties following the First Maroon War had called for the assignment of a white ‘superintendent’ in each maroon community. Trelawny Town had objected to the official recently assigned to them and eventually expelled him.[38] At this, the new, hardline Governor, Balcarres, sent William Fitch to march on Trelawny Town with a military force to demand their immediate submission. Balcarres ignored the advice of local planters, who suggested giving the Maroons some more land in order to avoid conflict. The governor refused to heed the advice, and instead provoked a conflict that could have been avoided by demanding their unconditional surrender.[39] The Trelawny Maroons, led by their colonel, Montague James, chose to fight and were initially successful, fighting a guerrilla war in small bands under several captains, of whom the most noted were Johnson, Parkinson and Palmer.[40] The casualties suffered by Fitch and his men were significantly higher than those felt by the Maroons of Trelawny Town.[41] When the Trelawny Town Maroons killed Fitch, several of his officers, some Accompong Maroon trackers, and many militia soldiers in an ambush, Balcarres appointed a new general, George Walpole.[42] This new general suffered more setbacks, until he eventually opted to besiege the Cockpit Country on a massive scale, surrounding it with watchposts, firing in shells from a long distance, and intending to destroy or cut off all maroon provision grounds.[43] Meanwhile, maroon attempts to recruit plantation slaves met with a mixed response,[44] and other maroon communities maintained neutrality. Accompong Town, however, fought on the side of the colonial militias against Trelawny Town.[45]

text: Despite signs that the siege was working, Balcarres grew impatient and sent to Cuba for a hundred hunting dogs and handlers. The reputation of these was so fearsome that their arrival quickly prompted the surrender of the majority of Trelawny forces.[46] The Maroons however, only put down their arms on condition that they would not be deported, and Walpole gave his word that would be the case.[41] To Walpole's dismay, Balcarres refused to treat with the defeated maroons and had them deported from Jamaica, at first to Nova Scotia, then to the new British colony of Sierra Leone, and joined the ‘African American founders’ who established the Colony of Sierra Leone and the settlement of Freetown, Sierra Leone.[47][48][49] From the 1830s on some Maroons (or their descendents) returned to Jamaica to work as free laborers (although many of these returnees resettled in Sierra Leone)[50] (see Jamaican Maroons in Sierra Leone) or formed the new Creole ethnic group of Sierra Leone which established diaspora communities along the West African shores from Sierra Leone to the Gambia to Fernando Pó.[51]

text: Maroons in the 19th century[edit]

text: When the colonial authorities deported the Maroons of Trelawny Town, they left a void which was filled by communities of runaway slaves. The Maroons of the smaller town of Accompong were unable to cope with the growing numbers of runaways in western Jamaica, who found refuge in the Cockpit Country.

text: The Accompong Maroons tried but failed in their attempts to disperse the runaway community of Cuffee (Jamaica), who established a community of runaway slaves in the Cockpit Country in 1798.[52] When Cuffee's group faded from the colonial records, their place was taken by another group of runaways, who established themselves in the Cockpit Country in 1812. The community of Me-no-sen-You-no-Come also resisted attempts by the Accompong Maroons and the colonial militias to disperse them in the 1820s.[53] At about the same time, a large group of runaway slaves established themselves near Hellshire Beach, and it thrived there for years until it was finally dispersed by a party of Windward Maroons in 1819.[54]

text: Maroons in the 21st century[edit]

text: To this day, the maroons in Jamaica are to a small extent autonomous and separate from Jamaican culture. Those of Accompong have preserved their land since 1739. The isolation used to their advantage by their ancestors has today resulted in their communities being amongst the most inaccessible on the island.

text: Today, the four official Maroon towns still in existence in Jamaica are Accompong Town, Moore Town, Charles Town and Scott's Hall. They hold lands allotted to them in the 1739-1740 treaties with the British.[55] These maroons still maintain their traditional celebrations and practices, some of which have West African origin. For example, the council of a Maroon settlement is called an Asofo,[56] from the Twi Akan word asafo (assembly, church, society).[57][58]

text: Native Jamaicans and island tourists are allowed to attend many of these events. Others considered sacred are  held in secret and shrouded in mystery. Singing, dancing, drum-playing and preparation of traditional foods form a central part of most gatherings.[59] In their largest town, Accompong, in the parish of St. Elizabeth, the Leeward Maroons have a vibrant community of about 600. Tours of the village are offered to foreigners.[60] They hold a large festival annually on 6 January to commemorate the signing of the peace treaty with the British after the First Maroon War.[61][62]

text: Moore Town, located between the Blue Mountains and John Crow Mountains in Portland Parish, was relisted on the UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2008 for its Maroon heritage, particularly music.

text: Films[edit]

text: 1984 - Caribbean Crucible. From Repercussions: A Celebration of African-American Music TV series, program 6. Directed by Dennis Marks and Geoffrey Haydon.

tag: ul


document_title: Weapon of mass destruction

question_text: who coined the term weapons of mass destruction

question_tokens: who coined the term weapons of mass destruction

text: Weapon of mass destruction

text: Early uses of term[edit]

text: The first use of the term "weapon of mass destruction" on record[citation needed] is by Cosmo Gordon Lang, Archbishop of Canterbury, in 1937 in reference to the aerial bombardment of Guernica, Spain:

text: Who can think at this present time without a sickening of the heart of the appalling slaughter, the suffering, the manifold misery brought by war to Spain and to China? Who can think without horror of what another widespread war would mean, waged as it would be with all the new weapons of mass destruction?[1]

text: At the time, nuclear weapons had not been developed. Japan conducted research on biological weapons (see Unit 731),[2] and chemical weapons had seen wide battlefield use in World War I. They were outlawed by the Geneva Protocol of 1925.[3] Italy used mustard agent against civilians and soldiers in Ethiopia in 1935–36.[4]

text: Following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki that ended World War II and during the Cold War, the term came to refer more to non-conventional weapons. The application of the term to specifically nuclear and radiological weapons is traced by William Safire to the Russian phrase "Оружие массового поражения" – oruzhiye massovogo porazheniya (weapons of mass destruction).[citation needed]

text: He[who?] credits James Goodby (of the Brookings Institution) with tracing what he considers the earliest known English-language use soon after the nuclear bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (although it is not quite verbatim): a communique from a 15 November 1945, meeting of Harry Truman, Clement Attlee and Mackenzie King (probably drafted by Vannevar Bush, as Bush claimed in 1970) referred to "weapons adaptable to mass destruction."[citation needed]

text: Safire says Bernard Baruch used that exact phrase in 1946 (in a speech at the United Nations probably written by Herbert Bayard Swope).[5] The phrase found its way into the very first resolution the United Nations General assembly adopted in January 1946 in London, which used the wording "the elimination from national armaments of atomic weapons and of all other weapons adaptable to mass destruction."[6] The resolution also created the Atomic Energy Commission (predecessor of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)).[citation needed]

text: An exact use of this term was given in a lecture "Atomic Energy as an Atomic Problem" by J. Robert Oppenheimer. He delivered the lecture to the Foreign Service and the State Department, on 17 September 1947; it is reprinted in The Open Mind (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1955).[citation needed]

text: It is a very far reaching control which would eliminate the rivalry between nations in this field, which would prevent the surreptitious arming of one nation against another, which would provide some cushion of time before atomic attack, and presumably therefore before any attack with weapons of mass destruction, and which would go a long way toward removing atomic energy at least as a source of conflict between the powers.[citation needed]

text: The term was also used in the introduction to the hugely influential U.S. government document known as NSC 68 written in 1950.[7]

text: During a speech at Rice University on 12 September 1962, President John F. Kennedy spoke of not filling space "with weapons of mass destruction, but with instruments of knowledge and understanding."[8] The following month, during a televised presentation about the Cuban Missile Crisis on 22 October 1962, Kennedy made reference to "offensive weapons of sudden mass destruction."[9]

text: An early use of the exact phrase in an international treaty was in the Outer Space Treaty of 1967, but no definition was provided.[citation needed]

text: Evolution of its use[edit]

text: During the Cold War, the term "weapons of mass destruction" was primarily a reference to nuclear weapons. At the time, in the West the euphemism "strategic weapons" was used to refer to the American nuclear arsenal, which was presented as a necessary deterrent against nuclear or conventional attack from the Soviet Union under Mutual Assured Destruction.[citation needed]

text: Subsequent to Operation Opera, the destruction of a pre-operational nuclear reactor inside Iraq by the Israeli Air Force, the Israeli prime minister, Menachem Begin, countered criticism by saying that "on no account shall we permit an enemy to develop weapons of mass destruction against the people of Israel." This policy of pre-emptive action against real or perceived weapons of mass destruction became known as the Begin Doctrine.[citation needed]

text: The term "weapons of mass destruction" continued to see periodic use, usually in the context of nuclear arms control; Ronald Reagan used it during the 1986 Reykjavík Summit, when referring to the 1967 Outer Space Treaty.[10] Reagan's successor, George H.W. Bush, used the term in a 1989 speech to the United Nations, primarily in reference to chemical arms.[11]

text: The end of the Cold War reduced U.S. reliance on nuclear weapons as a deterrent, causing it to shift its focus to disarmament. With the 1990 invasion of Kuwait and 1991 Gulf War, Iraq's nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons programs became a particular concern of the first Bush Administration.[12] Following the war, Bill Clinton and other western politicians and media continued to use the term, usually in reference to ongoing attempts to dismantle Iraq's weapons programs.[citation needed]

text: After the 11 September 2001 attacks and the 2001 anthrax attacks in the United States, an increased fear of nonconventional weapons and asymmetrical warfare took hold in many countries. The fear reached a crescendo with the 2002 Iraq disarmament crisis and the alleged existence of weapons of mass destruction in Iraq that became the primary justification for the 2003 invasion of Iraq; however, American forces found none in Iraq. They found old stockpiles of chemical munitions including sarin and mustard agents, but all were considered to be unusable because of corrosion or degradation.[13] Iraq, however, declared a chemical weapons stockpile in 2009. The stockpile contained mainly chemical precursors, but some munitions remained usable.[14]

text: Because of its prolific use and (worldwide) public profile during this period, the American Dialect Society voted "weapons of mass destruction" (and its abbreviation, "WMD") the word of the year in 2002,[15] and in 2003 Lake Superior State University added WMD to its list of terms banished for "Mis-use, Over-use and General Uselessness" (and "as a card that trumps all forms of aggression").[16]

text: In its criminal complaint against the main suspect of the Boston Marathon bombing of 15 April 2013, the FBI refers to a pressure-cooker improvised bomb as a "weapon of mass destruction."[17]

text: Definitions of the term[edit]

text: United States[edit]

text: Strategic definition[edit]

text: The most widely used definition of "weapons of mass destruction" is that of nuclear, biological, or chemical weapons (NBC) although there is no treaty or customary international law that contains an authoritative definition. Instead, international law has been used with respect to the specific categories of weapons within WMD, and not to WMD as a whole. While nuclear, chemical and biological weapons are regarded as the three major types of WMDs,[18] some analysts have argued that radiological materials as well as missile technology and delivery systems such as aircraft and ballistic missiles could be labeled as WMDs as well.[18]

text: The abbreviations NBC (for nuclear, biological and chemical) or CBR (chemical, biological, radiological) are used with regards to battlefield protection systems for armored vehicles, because all three involve insidious toxins that can be carried through the air and can be protected against with vehicle air filtration systems.[citation needed]

text: However, there is an argument that nuclear and biological weapons do not belong in the same category as chemical and "dirty bomb" radiological weapons, which have limited destructive potential (and close to none, as far as property is concerned), whereas nuclear and biological weapons have the unique ability to kill large numbers of people with very small amounts of material, and thus could be said to belong in a class by themselves.[citation needed]

text: The NBC definition has also been used in official U.S. documents, by the U.S. President,[19][20] the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency,[21] the U.S. Department of Defense,[22][23] and the U.S. Government Accountability Office.[24]

text: Other documents expand the definition of WMD to also include radiological or conventional weapons. The U.S. military refers to WMD as:

text: Chemical, biological, radiological, or nuclear weapons capable of a high order of destruction or causing mass casualties and exclude the means of transporting or propelling the weapon where such means is a separable and divisible part from the weapon. Also called WMD.[25]

text: This may also refer to nuclear ICBMs (intercontinental ballistic missiles).[citation needed]

text: The significance of the words separable and divisible part of the weapon is that missiles such as the Pershing II and the SCUD are considered weapons of mass destruction, while aircraft capable of carrying bombloads are not.[citation needed]

text: In 2004, the United Kingdom's Butler Review recognized the "considerable and long-standing academic debate about the proper interpretation of the phrase 'weapons of mass destruction'". The committee set out to avoid the general term but when using it, employed the definition of United Nations Security Council Resolution 687, which defined the systems which Iraq was required to abandon:[citation needed]

text:
"Nuclear weapons or nuclear-weapons-usable material or any sub-systems or components or any research, development, support or manufacturing facilities relating to [nuclear weapons].
Chemical and biological weapons and all stocks of agents and all related subsystems and components and all research, development, support and manufacturing facilities.
Ballistic missiles with a range greater than 150 kilometres and related major parts, and repair and production facilities."[26]

text: Chemical weapons expert Gert G. Harigel considers only nuclear weapons true weapons of mass destruction, because "only nuclear weapons are completely indiscriminate by their explosive power, heat radiation and radioactivity, and only they should therefore be called a weapon of mass destruction". He prefers to call chemical and biological weapons "weapons of terror" when aimed against civilians and "weapons of intimidation" for soldiers.[citation needed]

text: Testimony of one such soldier expresses the same viewpoint.[27] For a period of several months in the winter of 2002–2003, U.S. Deputy Secretary of Defense Paul Wolfowitz frequently used the term "weapons of mass terror", apparently also recognizing the distinction between the psychological and the physical effects of many things currently falling into the WMD category.[citation needed]

text: Gustavo Bell Lemus, the Vice President of Colombia, at 9 July 2001 United Nations Conference on the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons in All Its Aspects, quoted the Millennium Report of the UN Secretary-General to the General Assembly, in which Kofi Annan said that small arms could be described as WMD because the fatalities they cause "dwarf that of all other weapons systems – and in most years greatly exceed the toll of the atomic bombs that devastated Hiroshima and Nagasaki".[28]

text: An additional condition often implicitly applied to WMD is that the use of the weapons must be strategic. In other words, they would be designed to "have consequences far outweighing the size and effectiveness of the weapons themselves".[29] The strategic nature of WMD also defines their function in the military doctrine of total war as targeting the means a country would use to support and supply its war effort, specifically its population, industry, and natural resources.[citation needed]

text: Within U.S. civil defense organizations, the category is now Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear, and Explosive (CBRNE), which defines WMD as:

text: (1) Any explosive, incendiary, poison gas, bomb, grenade, or rocket having a propellant charge of more than four ounces [113 g], missile having an explosive or incendiary charge of more than one-quarter ounce [7 g], or mine or device similar to the above. (2) Poison gas. (3) Any weapon involving a disease organism. (4) Any weapon that is designed to release radiation at a level dangerous to human life.[30]

text: Military definition[edit]

text: For the general purposes of national defense,[31] the U.S. Code[32] defines a weapon of mass destruction as:

text:
any weapon or device that is intended, or has the capability, to cause death or serious bodily injury to a significant number of people through the release, dissemination, or impact of:

toxic or poisonous chemicals or their precursors
a disease organism
radiation or radioactivity[33]

text: For the purposes of the prevention of weapons proliferation,[34] the U.S. Code defines weapons of mass destruction as "chemical, biological, and nuclear weapons, and chemical, biological, and nuclear materials used in the manufacture of such weapons".[35]

text: Criminal (civilian) definition[edit]

text: For the purposes of U.S. criminal law concerning terrorism,[36] weapons of mass destruction are defined as:

text:
any "destructive device" defined as any explosive, incendiary, or poison gas – bomb, grenade, rocket having a propellant charge of more than four ounces, missile having an explosive or incendiary charge of more than one-quarter ounce, mine, or device similar to any of the devices described in the preceding clauses[37]
any weapon that is designed or intended to cause death or serious bodily injury through the release, dissemination, or impact of toxic or poisonous chemicals, or their precursors
any weapon involving a biological agent, toxin, or vector
any weapon that is designed to release radiation or radioactivity at a level dangerous to human life[38]

text: The Federal Bureau of Investigation's definition is similar to that presented above from the terrorism statute:[39]

text:
any "destructive device" as defined in Title 18 USC Section 921: any explosive, incendiary, or poison gas – bomb, grenade, rocket having a propellant charge of more than four ounces, missile having an explosive or incendiary charge of more than one-quarter ounce, mine, or device similar to any of the devices described in the preceding clauses
any weapon designed or intended to cause death or serious bodily injury through the release, dissemination, or impact of toxic or poisonous chemicals or their precursors
any weapon involving a disease organism
any weapon designed to release radiation or radioactivity at a level dangerous to human life
any device or weapon designed or intended to cause death or serious bodily injury by causing a malfunction of or destruction of an aircraft or other vehicle that carries humans or of an aircraft or other vehicle whose malfunction or destruction may cause said aircraft or other vehicle to cause death or serious bodily injury to humans who may be within range of the vector in its course of travel or the travel of its debris.

text: Indictments and convictions for possession and use of WMD such as truck bombs,[40] pipe bombs,[41] shoe bombs,[42] and cactus needles coated with a biological toxin[43] have been obtained under 18 USC 2332a.

text: As defined by 18 USC §2332 (a), a Weapon of Mass Destruction is:

text:
(a) any destructive device as defined in section 921 of the title;
(B) any weapon that is designed or intended to cause death or serious bodily injury through the release, dissemination, or impact of toxic or poisonous chemicals, or their precursors;
(C) any weapon involving a biological agent, toxin, or vector (as those terms are defined in section 178 of this title); or
(D) any weapon that is designed to release radiation or radioactivity at a level dangerous to human life;

text: Under the same statute, conspiring, attempting, threatening, or using a Weapon of Mass Destruction may be imprisoned for any term of years or for life, and if resulting in death, be punishable by death or by imprisonment for any terms of years or for life. They can also be asked to pay a maximum fine of $250,000.[44]

text: The Washington Post reported on 30 March 2006: "Jurors asked the judge in the death penalty trial of Zacarias Moussaoui today to define the term 'weapons of mass destruction' and were told it includes airplanes used as missiles". Moussaoui was indicted and tried for the use of airplanes as WMD.[citation needed]

text: The surviving Boston Marathon bombing perpetrator, Dzhokhar Tsarnaev, was charged in June 2013 with the federal offense of "use of a weapon of mass destruction" after he and his brother Tamerlan Tsarnaev allegedly placed crude shrapnel bombs, made from pressure cookers packed with ball bearings and nails, near the finish line of the Boston Marathon. He was convicted in April 2015. The bombing resulted in three deaths and at least 264 injuries.[citation needed]

text: Treaties[edit]

text: The development and use of WMD is governed by several international conventions and treaties, although not all countries have signed and ratified them:[citation needed]

text:
Partial Test Ban Treaty
Outer Space Treaty
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)
Seabed Arms Control Treaty
Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT, has not entered into force as of 2015)
Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BWC)
Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC)

text: Use, possession and access[edit]

text: Nuclear weapons[edit]

text: The only country to have used a nuclear weapon in war is the United States, which dropped two atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki during World War II. There are eight countries that have declared they possess nuclear weapons and are known to have tested a nuclear weapon, only five of which are members of the NPT. The eight are China, France, India, North Korea, Pakistan, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States.[citation needed]

text: Israel is considered by most analysts to have nuclear weapons numbering in the low hundreds as well, but maintains an official policy of nuclear ambiguity, neither denying nor confirming its nuclear status.[citation needed]

text: South Africa developed a small nuclear arsenal in the 1980s but disassembled them in the early 1990s, making it the only country to have fully given up an independently developed nuclear weapons arsenal. Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine inherited stockpiles of nuclear arms following the break-up of the Soviet Union, but relinquished them to the Russian Federation.[citation needed]

text: Countries with access to nuclear weapons through nuclear sharing agreements include Belgium, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, and Turkey.[citation needed]

text: United States politics[edit]

text: Due to the potentially indiscriminate effects of WMD, the fear of a WMD attack has shaped political policies and campaigns, fostered social movements, and has been the central theme of many films. Support for different levels of WMD development and control varies nationally and internationally. Yet understanding of the nature of the threats is not high, in part because of imprecise usage of the term by politicians and the media.[citation needed]

text: Fear of WMD, or of threats diminished by the possession of WMD, has long been used to catalyze public support for various WMD policies. They include mobilization of pro- and anti-WMD campaigners alike, and generation of popular political support.[citation needed] The term WMD may be used as a powerful buzzword[45] or to generate a culture of fear.[46] It is also used ambiguously, particularly by not distinguishing among the different types of WMD.[47]

text: A television commercial called Daisy, promoting Democrat Lyndon Johnson's 1964 presidential candidacy, invoked the fear of a nuclear war and was an element in Johnson's subsequent election.[citation needed]

text: Later, United States' President George W. Bush used the threat of potential WMD in Iraq as justification for the 2003 invasion of Iraq.[48] Broad reference to Iraqi WMD in general was seen as an element of President Bush's arguments.[47] The claim that Iraq possessed Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) was a major factor that led to the invasion of Iraq in 2003 by Coalition forces.[citation needed]

text: Over 500 munitions containing mustard agent and sarin were discovered throughout Iraq since 2003; they were made in the 1980s and are no longer usable as originally intended due to corrosion.[49]

text: In 2004, Polish troops found nineteen 1980s-era rocket warheads, thwarting an attempt by militants to buy them at $5000 each. Some of the rockets contained extremely deteriorated nerve agent.[50]

text: The American Heritage Dictionary defines a weapon of mass destruction as: "a weapon that can cause widespread destruction or kill large numbers of people, especially a nuclear, chemical, or biological weapon."[51] In other words, it does not have to be nuclear, biological or chemical (NBC). For example, the terrorist for the Boston Marathon bombings was charged under United States law 18 U.S.C. 2332A[52] for using a weapon of mass destruction[53] and that was a pressure cooker bomb. In other words, it was a weapon that caused large-scale death and destruction, without being an NBC weapon.

text: Media coverage[edit]

text: In 2004, the Center for International and Security Studies at Maryland (CISSM) released a report[54] examining the media’s coverage of WMD issues during three separate periods: nuclear weapons tests by India and Pakistan in May 1998; the U.S. announcement of evidence of a North Korean nuclear weapons program in October 2002; and revelations about Iran's nuclear program in May 2003. The CISSM report argues that poor coverage resulted less from political bias among the media than from tired journalistic conventions. The report’s major findings were that:[citation needed]

text:
Most media outlets represented WMD as a monolithic menace, failing to adequately distinguish between weapons programs and actual weapons or to address the real differences among chemical, biological, nuclear, and radiological weapons.
Most journalists accepted the Bush administration’s formulation of the "War on Terror" as a campaign against WMD, in contrast to coverage during the Clinton era, when many journalists made careful distinctions between acts of terrorism and the acquisition and use of WMD.
Many stories stenographically reported the incumbent administration’s perspective on WMD, giving too little critical examination of the way officials framed the events, issues, threats, and policy options.
Too few stories proffered alternative perspectives to official line, a problem exacerbated by the journalistic prioritizing of breaking-news stories and the "inverted pyramid" style of storytelling.

tag: ol

text: In a separate study published in 2005,[55] a group of researchers assessed the effects reports and retractions in the media had on people’s memory regarding the search for WMD in Iraq during the 2003 Iraq War. The study focused on populations in two coalition countries (Australia and the United States) and one opposed to the war (Germany). Results showed that U.S. citizens generally did not correct initial misconceptions regarding WMD, even following disconfirmation; Australian and German citizens were more responsive to retractions. Dependence on the initial source of information led to a substantial minority of Americans exhibiting false memory that WMD were indeed discovered, while they were not. This led to three conclusions:

text:
The repetition of tentative news stories, even if they are subsequently disconfirmed, can assist in the creation of false memories in a substantial proportion of people.
Once information is published, its subsequent correction does not alter people's beliefs unless they are suspicious about the motives underlying the events the news stories are about.
When people ignore corrections, they do so irrespective of how certain they are that the corrections occurred.

text: A poll conducted between June and September 2003 asked people whether they thought evidence of WMD had been discovered in Iraq since the war ended. They were also asked which media sources they relied upon. Those who obtained their news primarily from Fox News were three times as likely to believe that evidence of WMD had been discovered in Iraq than those who relied on PBS and NPR for their news, and one third more likely than those who primarily watched CBS.[citation needed]

text:
Media source
Respondents believing evidence of WMD had been found in Iraq

Fox
33%

CBS
23%

NBC
20%

CNN
20%

ABC
19%

Print media
17%

PBS–NPR
11%

tag: table

text: Based on a series of polls taken from June–September 2003.[56]

text: In 2006 Fox News reported the claims of two Republican lawmakers that WMDs had been found in Iraq,[57] based upon unclassified portions of a report by the National Ground Intelligence Center. Quoting from the report, Senator Rick Santorum said "Since 2003, coalition forces have recovered approximately 500 weapons munitions which contain degraded mustard or sarin nerve agent". According to David Kay, who appeared before the U.S. House Armed Services Committee to discuss these badly corroded munitions, they were leftovers, many years old, improperly stored or destroyed by the Iraqis.[58] Charles Duelfer agreed, stating on NPR's Talk of the Nation: "When I was running the ISG – the Iraq Survey Group – we had a couple of them that had been turned in to these IEDs, the improvised explosive devices. But they are local hazards. They are not a major, you know, weapon of mass destruction."[59]

text: Later, wikileaks would show that WMDs of these kinds continued to be found as the Iraqi occupation continued.[60]

text: Many news agencies, including Fox News, reported the conclusions of the CIA that, based upon the investigation of the Iraq Survey Group, WMDs are yet to be found in Iraq.[61][62]

text: Public perceptions[edit]

text: Awareness and opinions of WMD have varied during the course of their history. Their threat is a source of unease, security, and pride to different people. The anti-WMD movement is embodied most in nuclear disarmament, and led to the formation of the British Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament in 1957.[citation needed]

text: In order to increase awareness of all kinds of WMD, in 2004 the nuclear physicist and Nobel Peace Prize winner Joseph Rotblat inspired the creation of The WMD Awareness Programme[63] to provide trustworthy and up to date information on WMD worldwide.

text: In 1998 University of New Mexico's Institute for Public Policy released their third report[64] on U.S. perceptions – including the general public, politicians and scientists – of nuclear weapons since the breakup of the Soviet Union. Risks of nuclear conflict, proliferation, and terrorism were seen as substantial.[citation needed]

text: While maintenance of the U.S. nuclear arsenal was considered above average in importance, there was widespread support for a reduction in the stockpile, and very little support for developing and testing new nuclear weapons.[citation needed]

text: Also in 1998, but after the UNM survey was conducted, nuclear weapons became an issue in India's election of March,[65] in relation to political tensions with neighboring Pakistan. Prior to the election the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) announced it would "declare India a nuclear weapon state" after coming to power.[citation needed]

text: BJP won the elections, and on 14 May, three days after India tested nuclear weapons for the second time, a public opinion poll reported that a majority of Indians favored the country’s nuclear build-up.[citation needed]

text: On 15 April 2004, the Program on International Policy Attitudes (PIPA) reported[66] that U.S. citizens showed high levels of concern regarding WMD, and that preventing the spread of nuclear weapons should be "a very important U.S. foreign policy goal", accomplished through multilateral arms control rather than the use of military threats.[citation needed]

text: A majority also believed the United States should be more forthcoming with its biological research and its Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty commitment of nuclear arms reduction.[citation needed]

text: A Russian opinion poll conducted on 5 August 2005 indicated half the population believes new nuclear powers have the right to possess nuclear weapons.[67] 39% believes the Russian stockpile should be reduced, though not fully eliminated.[citation needed]

text: In popular culture[edit]

text: Weapons of mass destruction and their related impacts have been a mainstay of popular culture since the beginning of the Cold War, as both political commentary and humorous outlet. The actual phrase "weapons of mass destruction" has been used similarly and as a way to characterise any powerful force or product since the Iraqi weapons crisis in the lead up to the Coalition invasion of Iraq in 2003.[citation needed]

text: Common hazard symbols[edit]

text:
Symbol
Unicode
Image

Toxic symbol
☠
U+2620
[68]

Radioactive symbol
☢
U+2622
[69]

Biohazard symbol
☣
U+2623
[70]

text: Radioactive weaponry/hazard symbol[edit]

text: The international radioactivity symbol (also known as trefoil) first appeared in 1946, at the University of California, Berkeley Radiation Laboratory. At the time, it was rendered as magenta, and was set on a blue background.[71]

text: It is drawn with a central circle of radius R, the blades having an internal radius of 1.5R and an external radius of 5R, and separated from each other by 60°.[72] It is meant to represent a radiating atom.[citation needed]

text: The International Atomic Energy Agency found that the trefoil radiation symbol is unintuitive and can be variously interpreted by those uneducated in its meaning; therefore, its role as a hazard warning was compromised as it did not clearly indicate "danger" to many non-Westerners and children who encountered it. As a result of research, a new radiation hazard symbol was developed in 2007 to be placed near the most dangerous parts of radiation sources featuring a skull, someone running away, and using a red rather than yellow background.[73]

text: The red background is intended to convey urgent danger, and the sign is intended to be used on equipment where very strong radiation fields can be encountered if the device is dismantled or otherwise tampered with. The intended use of the sign is not in a place where the normal user will see it, but in a place where it will be seen by someone who has started to dismantle a radiation-emitting device or equipment. The aim of the sign is to warn people such as scrap metal workers to stop work and leave the area.[74]

text: Biological weaponry/hazard symbol[edit]

text: Developed by Dow Chemical company in the 1960s for their containment products.[75]

text: According to Charles Dullin, an environmental-health engineer who contributed to its development:[72]

text: We wanted something that was memorable but meaningless, so we could educate people as to what it means.


document_title: H

question_text: how do you pronounce the letter h in english

text: H

text: History

text:
Egyptian hieroglyph
fence
Old Semitic
ħ
Phoenician
heth
Greek
heta
Etruscan
H |
Latin
H

text: The original Semitic letter Heth most likely represented the voiceless pharyngeal fricative (ħ). The form of the letter probably stood for a fence or posts.

text: The Greek eta 'Η' in Archaic Greek alphabets still represented /h/ (later on it came to represent a long vowel, /ɛː/). In this context, the letter eta is also known as heta to underline this fact. Thus, in the Old Italic alphabets, the letter heta of the Euboean alphabet was adopted with its original sound value /h/.

text: While Etruscan and Latin had /h/ as a phoneme, almost all Romance languages lost the sound—Romanian later re-borrowed the /h/ phoneme from its neighbouring Slavic languages, and Spanish developed a secondary /h/ from /f/, before losing it again; various Spanish dialects have developed [h] as an allophone of /s/ or /x/ in most Spanish-speaking countries, and various dialects of Portuguese use it as an allophone of /ʀ/. 'H' is also used in many spelling systems in digraphs and trigraphs, such as 'ch', which represents /tʃ/ in Spanish, Galician, Old Portuguese and English, /ʃ/ in French and modern Portuguese, /k/ in Italian, French and English, /x/ in German, Czech language, Polish, Slovak, one native word of English and a few loanwords into English, and /ç/ in German.

text: Name in English

text: For most English speakers, the name for the letter is pronounced as /eɪtʃ/ and spelled 'aitch'[1] or occasionally 'eitch'. The pronunciation /heɪtʃ/ and the associated spelling 'haitch' is often considered to be h-adding and is considered nonstandard in England.[2] It is, however, a feature of Hiberno-English.[3]

text: The perceived name of the letter affects the choice of indefinite article before initialisms beginning with H: for example "an H-bomb" or "a H-bomb". The pronunciation /ˈheɪtʃ/ may be a hypercorrection formed by analogy with the names of the other letters of the alphabet, most of which include the sound they represent.[4]

text: The haitch pronunciation of h has spread in England, being used by approximately 24% of English people born since 1982[5] and polls continue to show this pronunciation becoming more common among younger native speakers. Despite this increasing number, the pronunciation without the /h/ sound is still considered to be standard in England, although the pronunciation with /h/ is also attested as a legitimate variant.[2]

text: Authorities disagree about the history of the letter's name. The Oxford English Dictionary says the original name of the letter was [ˈaha] in Latin; this became [ˈaka] in Vulgar Latin, passed into English via Old French [ˈatʃ], and by Middle English was pronounced [ˈaːtʃ]. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language derives it from French hache from Latin haca or hic. Anatoly Liberman suggests a conflation of two obsolete orderings of the alphabet, one with H immediately followed by K and the other without any K: reciting the former's ..., H, K, L,... as [...(h)a ka el ...] when reinterpreted for the latter ..., H, L,... would imply a pronunciation [(h)a ka] for H.[6]

text: Use in writing systems

text: English

text: In English, ⟨h⟩ occurs as a single-letter grapheme (being either silent or representing /h/) and in various digraphs, such as ⟨ch⟩ /tʃ/, /ʃ/, /k/, or /x/), ⟨gh⟩ (silent, /ɡ/, /k/, /p/, or /f/), ⟨ph⟩ (/f/), ⟨rh⟩ (/r/), ⟨sh⟩ (/ʃ/), ⟨th⟩ (/θ/ or /ð/), ⟨wh⟩ (/hw/[7]). The letter is silent in a syllable rime, as in ah, ohm, dahlia, cheetah, pooh-poohed, as well as in certain other words (mostly of French origin) such as hour, honest, herb (in American but not British English) and vehicle. Initial /h/ is often not pronounced in the weak form of some function words including had, has, have, he, her, him, his, and in some varieties of English (including most regional dialects of England and Wales) it is often omitted in all words (see '⟨h⟩'-dropping). It was formerly common for an rather than a to be used as the indefinite article before a word beginning with /h/ in an unstressed syllable, as in "an historian", but use of a is now more usual (see English articles § Indefinite article).

text: Other languages

text: In the German language, the name of the letter is pronounced /haː/. Following a vowel, it often silently indicates that the vowel is long: In the word erhöhen ('heighten'), only the first ⟨h⟩ represents /h/. In 1901, a spelling reform eliminated the silent ⟨h⟩ in nearly all instances of ⟨th⟩ in native German words such as thun ('to do') or Thür ('door'). It has been left unchanged in words derived from Greek, such as Theater ('theater') and Thron ('throne'), which continue to be spelled with ⟨th⟩ even after the last German spelling reform.

text: In Spanish and Portuguese, ⟨h⟩ ("hache" in Spanish, pronounced Spanish pronunciation: ['atʃe], or agá in Portuguese, pronounced [aˈɣa] or [ɐˈɡa]) is a silent letter with no pronunciation, as in hijo [ˈixo] ('son') and húngaro [ˈũɡaɾu] ('Hungarian'). The spelling reflects an earlier pronunciation of the sound /h/. It is sometimes pronounced with the value [h], in some regions of Andalusia, Extremadura, Canarias, Cantabria and the Americas in the beginning of some words. ⟨h⟩ also appears in the digraph ⟨ch⟩, which represents /tʃ/ in Spanish and northern Portugal, and /ʃ/ in oral traditions that merged both sounds (the latter originarily represented by ⟨x⟩ instead) e.g. in most of the Portuguese language and some Spanish-speaking places, prominently Chile, as well as ⟨nh⟩ /ɲ/ and ⟨lh⟩ /ʎ/ in Portuguese, whose spelling is inherited from Occitan.

text: In French, the name of the letter is pronounced /aʃ/. The French orthography classifies words that begin with this letter in two ways, one of which can affect the pronunciation, even though it is a silent letter either way. The H muet, or "mute" ⟨h⟩, is considered as though the letter were not there at all, so for example the singular definite article le or la, which is elided to l' before a vowel, elides before an H muet followed by a vowel. For example, le + hébergement becomes l'hébergement ('the accommodation'). The other kind of ⟨h⟩ is called h aspiré ("aspirated '⟨h⟩'", though it is not normally aspirated phonetically), and does not allow elision or liaison. For example in le homard ('the lobster') the article le remains unelided, and may be separated from the noun with a bit of a glottal stop. Most words that begin with an H muet come from Latin (honneur, homme) or from Greek through Latin (hécatombe), whereas most words beginning with an H aspiré come from Germanic (harpe, hareng) or non-Indo-European languages (harem, hamac, haricot); in some cases, an orthographic ⟨h⟩ was added to disambiguate the [v] and semivowel [ɥ] pronunciations before the introduction of the distinction between the letters ⟨v⟩ and ⟨u⟩: huit (from uit, ultimately from Latin octo), huître (from uistre, ultimately from Greek through Latin ostrea).

text: In Italian, ⟨h⟩ has no phonological value. Its most important uses are in the digraphs 'ch' /k/ and 'gh' /ɡ/, as well as to differentiate the spellings of certain short words that are homophones, for example some present tense forms of the verb avere ('to have') (such as hanno, 'they have', vs. anno, 'year'), and in short interjections (oh, ehi).

text: Some languages, including Czech, Slovak, Hungarian, and Finnish, use ⟨h⟩ as a breathy voiced glottal fricative [ɦ], often as an allophone of otherwise voiceless /h/ in a voiced environment.

text: In Ukrainian and Belarusian, when written in the Latin alphabet, ⟨h⟩ is also commonly used for /ɦ/, which is otherwise written with the Cyrillic letter ⟨г⟩.

text: In Irish, ⟨h⟩ is not considered an independent letter, except for a very few non-native words, however ⟨h⟩ placed after a consonant is known as a "séimhiú" and indicates lenition of that consonant; ⟨h⟩ began to replace the original form of a séimhiú, a dot placed above the consonant, after the introduction of typewriters.

text: In most dialects of Polish, both ⟨h⟩ and the digraph ⟨ch⟩ always represent /x/.

text: Other systems

text: As a phonetic symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), it is used mainly for the so-called aspirations (fricative or trills), and variations of the plain letter are used to represent two sounds: the lowercase form ⟨h⟩ represents the voiceless glottal fricative, and the small capital form ⟨ʜ⟩ represents the voiceless epiglottal fricative (or trill). With a bar, minuscule ⟨ħ⟩ is used for a voiceless pharyngeal fricative. Specific to the IPA, a hooked ⟨ɦ⟩ is used for a voiced glottal fricative, and a superscript ⟨ʰ⟩ is used to represent aspiration.

text: Related characters

text: Descendants and related characters in the Latin alphabet

text:
H with diacritics: Ĥ ĥ Ȟ ȟ Ħ ħ Ḩ ḩ Ⱨ ⱨ ẖ ẖ Ḥ ḥ Ḣ ḣ Ḧ ḧ Ḫ ḫ ꞕ
IPA-specific symbols related to H: ʜ ꟸ ɦ ʰ ʱ ɥ ᶣ[8]
ᴴ : Modifier letter H is used in the Uralic Phonetic Alphabet[9]
ₕ : Subscript small h was used in the Uralic Phonetic Alphabet prior to its formal standardization in 1902[10]
ʰ : Modifier letter small h is used in Indo-European studies[11]
ʮ and ʯ : Turned H with fishhook and turned H with fishhook and tail are used in Sino-Tibetanist linguistics[12]
Ƕ ƕ : Latin letter hwair, derived from a ligature of the digraph hv, and used to transliterate the Gothic letter 𐍈 (which represented the sound [hʷ])
Ⱶ ⱶ : Claudian letters[13]

text: Ancestors, siblings and descendants in other alphabets

text:
𐤇 : Semitic letter Heth, from which the following symbols derive

Η η : Greek letter Eta, from which the following symbols derive

𐌇 : Old Italic H, the ancestor of modern Latin H

ᚺ, ᚻ : Runic letter haglaz, which is probably a descendant of Old Italic H

Һ һ : Cyrillic letter Shha, which derives from Latin H
𐌷 : Gothic letter haal

text: Derived signs, symbols and abbreviations

text:
h : Planck constant
ℏ : reduced Planck constant
ℍ: Double-struck capital H

text: Computing codes

text:
Character
H
h

Unicode name
LATIN CAPITAL LETTER H
    LATIN SMALL LETTER H

Encodings
decimal
hex
decimal
hex

Unicode
72
U+0048
104
U+0068

UTF-8
72
48
104
68

Numeric character reference
H
H
h
h

EBCDIC family
200
C8
136
88

ASCII 1
72
48
104
68

text: 1 and all encodings based on ASCII, including the DOS, Windows, ISO-8859 and Macintosh families of encodings.

text: Other representations

text:
NATO phonetic
Morse code

Hotel
····

text:
Signal flag
Flag semaphore
American manual alphabet (ASL fingerspelling)
Braille
dots-125