document_title: Mars Attacks!

question_text: who portrayed the president of the united states in the alien invasion comedy mars attacks

text: Mars Attacks!

text: Plot[edit]

text: In Kentucky, a family watches in confusion as a herd of cattle starts running past their home, on fire. A spaceship explodes before it returns to Mars, and hundreds of other Martian ships leave Mars and head towards Earth. President James Dale, along with his aides, addresses the United States concerning the historic event. The President's science aides set up a first contact meeting with the Martians in Pahrump, Nevada as President Dale watches the development on TV with his wife Marsha and his daughter Taffy.

text: Using a translation machine, the Ambassador of Mars announces that they "come in peace". When a hippie releases a dove as a symbol of peace, the Ambassador shoots and kills it before he and the other Martians slaughter a large number of people at the event, including General Casey, news reporter Jason Stone and Billy-Glenn Norris before capturing chat-show host Nathalie Lake and her pet Chihuahua Poppy, whose heads they later transpose back onboard one of their flying saucers.

text: Thinking that the Martians assumed that the dove was a symbol of war, President Dale tells Professor Donald Kessler to renegotiate with the Martians, whose ambassador is invited to address the United States Congress. At this meeting, the Martians massacre most of Congress. Donald begs the Martian Ambassador to stop, but is rendered unconscious and taken aboard their ship, where he is later shown with his body parts dismembered and his disembodied head remaining animated. General Decker tries to convince President Dale to retaliate with nuclear warfare, but the President refuses.

text: After a failed attempt to assassinate President Dale, the Martians invade Earth, starting with Washington, D.C. As they attack the White House (and incinerate the White House tour guide), the Secret Service evacuates the President, but the First Lady Marsha is crushed to death by the Nancy Reagan chandelier. Taffy vanishes during the chaos. After the U.S. government unsuccessfully attempts a nuclear attack on the mother ship, the Martians expand their invasion to the rest of Earth, defacing world landmarks for their own amusement as they do so. That night, the Martians breach the bunker where Dale has been taken and the leader reduces Decker to the size of an insect before killing him. The Martians kill everyone else in the bunker except for Dale, who makes an impassioned speech in an attempt to plea for peace and his life. The Martians seem convinced, but then use a false hand to kill the President.

text: As the Martians ravage Las Vegas with Art Land, a Las Vegas developer, being among their victims, Byron Williams, a casino employee and former world champion boxer, leads a small group of survivors consisting of Barbara Land (Art's wife), Tom Jones, a beautiful waitress named Cindy, and a gambling lawyer to an airfield in the hopes of flying a small jet to safety. They barely make it, losing the lawyer in the process, but discover a large group of Martians stationed there as they are preparing to take off. Byron creates a diversion by challenging them to a fistfight. While he succeeds in killing the Ambassador, he is outnumbered and overwhelmed, but Tom, Barbara and Cindy escape.

text: Billy-Glenn's brother Richie discovers that the Martians' heads explode when they hear Slim Whitman's song "Indian Love Call." He and his grandmother Florence drive around town, using the song to kill the Martians. The military thereafter broadcast the song around the globe, killing most of the Martians and their leader and causing the few remaining survivors to try to flee from Earth. Nathalie and Donald's disembodied heads kiss while the Martian spaceship they are on explodes when it crashes into the ocean.

text: In the aftermath, Richie and Florence are awarded the Medal of Honor by Taffy, she being the only surviving member of the government. Byron, who survived his brawl with the Martians, arrives in D.C. to reunite with his former wife Louise and their two sons Cedric and Neville (who saved Dale's life back in the White House using two guns they stole from a dead Martian) as the devastation is being cleaned up. Barbara, Cindy and Tom Jones emerge from a cave with some animals to see dozens of crashed Martian ships in the adjacent Lake Tahoe.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Jack Nicholson as President James Dale, the President of the United States.

Nicholson also portrays Art Land, a developer in Las Vegas.

Glenn Close as First Lady Marsha Dale, James Dale's wife.
Annette Bening as Barbara Land, Art Land's wife.
Pierce Brosnan as Professor Donald Kessler, a scientist working for President Dale who is later captured and experimented on by the Martians.
Danny DeVito as Rude Gambler
Martin Short as Press Secretary Jerry Ross
Sarah Jessica Parker as Nathalie Lake, a talk show host who is later captured and experimented on by the Martians.
Michael J. Fox as Jason Stone, a news reporter who is killed during the Martians' first attack.
Rod Steiger as General Decker, a U.S. Army general who works for President Dale.
Lukas Haas as Richie Norris, Billy-Glenn Norris's younger brother.
Natalie Portman as Taffy Dale, James and Marsha Dale's daughter.
Jim Brown as Byron Williams, a Las Vegas casino employee and former boxer.
Lisa Marie Smith as Martian Girl, a Martian posing as a human female.
Sylvia Sidney as Florence Norris, Richie and Billy-Glenn's grandmother.
Tom Jones as Himself
Christina Applegate as Sharona, Billy-Glenn's girlfriend.
Pam Grier as Louise Williams, Byron's former wife.
Jack Black as Billy-Glenn Norris, a U.S. Army private who is Richie's older brother and gets himself killed trying to stand up to the Martians.
Paul Winfield as General Casey
Janice Rivera as Cindy, a co-worker of Byron.
Brian Haley as Mitch, a Secret Service agent.
Joe Don Baker as Mr. Norris, Billy-Glenn and Richie's father.
O-Lan Jones as Sue-Ann Norris, Billy-Glenn and Richie's mother.
Ray J and Brandon Hammond as Cedric and Neville Williams, Byron and Louise's sons.
Jerzy Skolimowski as Dr. Zeigler, a scientist who created a device that (badly) translated the Martian language.
Barbet Schroeder as Maurice, the President of France.
Joseph Maher as White House Decorator
Steve Valentine as TV Director
Frank Welker as Martian Vocal Effects
Roger L. Jackson as Dr. Zeigler's translator (voice uncredited)

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: In 1985, Alex Cox pitched the idea of a film based on the Mars Attacks trading card series as a joint-production to Orion and Tristar Pictures. He wrote three drafts over the next four years, but was replaced by Martin Amis before Orion/Tristar placed Mars Attacks in turnaround.[2]

text: Jonathan Gems, who had previously written multiple unproduced screenplays for director Tim Burton, came up with his own idea for a Mars Attacks film in 1993. The writer pitched both concepts of Mars Attacks and Dinosaurs Attack! to Burton,[3] who both decided that Dinosaurs Attack! would be too similar to Jurassic Park (1993).[4] Burton, who was busy preparing Ed Wood (1994), believed that Mars Attacks! would be a perfect opportunity to pay homage to the films of Edward D. Wood, Jr., especially Plan 9 from Outer Space (1959), and other 1950s science fiction B movies,[3] such as Invaders from Mars (1953),[5] It Came from Outer Space (1953),[4] The War of the Worlds (1953), Target Earth (1954), Invasion of the Body Snatchers (1956) and Earth vs. the Flying Saucers (1956).[3]

text: Burton set Mars Attacks! up with Warner Bros. and the studio purchased the film rights to the trading card series on his behalf.[6] The original theatrical release date was planned for the summer of 1996. Gems completed his original script in 1994, which was budgeted by Warner Bros. at $260 million. The studio wanted to make the film for no more than $60 million.[7] After turning in numerous drafts in an attempt to lower the budget, Gems was replaced by Ed Wood writers Scott Alexander and Larry Karaszewski.[3]

text: Gems eventually returned to the project, writing a total of 12 drafts of the script. Although he is credited with both the screen story and screenplay of Mars Attacks!, Gems dedicates his novelization of the movie to Burton, who "co-wrote the screenplay and didn't ask for a credit".[3] Warner Bros. was dubious of the Martian dialogue and wanted Burton to add closed captioning subtitles, but he resisted.[8] Working with Burton, Gems pared the film's 60 leading characters down to 23, and the worldwide destruction planned for the film was isolated to three major cities. Scenes featuring Martians attacking China, the Philippines, Japan, Europe, Africa, India, and Russia were deleted from the screenplay. "Bear in mind this was way before Independence Day (1996) was written," Gems commented. "We had things like Manhattan being destroyed building by building, the White House went and so did the Empire State Building. Warner Bros. figured all this would be too expensive, so we cut most of that out to reduce the cost."[7] Howard Stern claimed that the film's climax, where an attack by Martians was thwarted by playing Slim Whitman songs to them, was originally created by him when he worked at WNBC in 1982, in a sketch named "Slim Whitman vs. The Midget Aliens From Mars." As Burton listened to the sketch while being interviewed by Stern, he dismissed it as mere coincidence.[9]

text: Casting[edit]

text: The decision to hire an A-list ensemble cast for Mars Attacks! parallels the strategy Irwin Allen used for his disaster films, notably The Poseidon Adventure (1972) and The Towering Inferno (1974).[3] Jack Nicholson, approached for the role of president, jokingly remarked he wanted to play all the roles.[10] Burton agreed to cast Nicholson as both Art Land and President Dale, specifically remembering his positive working relationship with the actor on Batman.[3]

text: Susan Sarandon was originally set to play Barbara Land before Annette Bening was cast.[10] Bening modeled the character after Ann-Margret's performance in Viva Las Vegas (1964).[4] Hugh Grant was the first choice for Professor Donald Kessler, which eventually went to Pierce Brosnan.[11] Meryl Streep, Diane Keaton and Stockard Channing were considered for First Lady Marsha Dale, but Glenn Close won the role.[10] In addition to Nicholson, other actors who reunited with Burton on Mars Attacks! include Sylvia Sidney from Beetlejuice (1988), O-Lan Jones from Edward Scissorhands (1990), and Danny DeVito from Batman Returns (1992), continuing Burton's trend of recasting actors several times from his previous works.[12] Tim Burton offered the role of reporter Jason Stone to Johnny Depp, but he rejected the offer cold. The role was given to Michael J. Fox instead.

text: Filming[edit]

text: The originally scheduled start date was mid-August 1995, but filming was delayed until February 26, 1996.[11] Director Tim Burton hired Peter Suschitzky as the cinematographer, because he was a fan of his work in David Cronenberg's films. Production designer Thomas Wynn (A Beautiful Mind, Malcolm X) intended to have the war room pay tribute to Dr. Strangelove (1964).[13] During production, Burton insisted that the art direction, cinematography and costume design of Mars Attacks! incorporate the look of the 1960s trading cards.[5]

text: On designing the Martian (played by Burton's then-girlfriend Lisa Marie Smith) who seduces Jerry Ross (Martin Short), costume designer Colleen Atwood took combined inspiration from the playing cards, Marilyn Monroe, the work of Alberto Vargas and Jane Fonda in Barbarella (1968).[14] Filming for Mars Attacks! ended on June 1, 1996.[15] The film score was written/composed by Burton's regular Danny Elfman, to whom Burton was reconciled after a quarrel occurred during The Nightmare Before Christmas (1993), for which they did not co-operate in producing Ed Wood (1994). Elfman enlisted the help of Oingo Boingo lead guitarist Steve Bartek to help arrange the compositions for the orchestra.[3]

text: Visual effects[edit]

text: Tim Burton initially intended to use stop motion animation to feature the Martians,[4] viewing it as a homage to the work of Ray Harryhausen, primarily Jason and the Argonauts. Similar to his own Beetlejuice, Burton "wanted to make [the special effects] look cheap and purposely fake-looking as possible."[3] He first approached Henry Selick, director of The Nightmare Before Christmas, to supervise the stop motion work, but Selick was busy directing James and the Giant Peach, also produced by Burton. Despite the fact that Warner Bros. was skeptical of the escalating budget and had not yet greenlit the film for production, Burton hired Barry Purves to shepherd the stop-motion work. Purves created an international team of about 70 animators, who worked on Mars Attacks! for eight months[4] and began compiling test footage in Burbank, California.[3] The department workers studied Gloria Swanson's choreography and movement as Norma Desmond in Sunset Boulevard for inspiration on the Martians' movement.[4]

text: When the budget was projected at $100 million[15] (Warner Bros. wanted it for no more than $75 million),[3] producer Larry J. Franco commissioned a test reel from Industrial Light & Magic (ILM), the visual effects company he worked with on Jumanji. Burton was persuaded to change his mind to employ computer animation, which brought the final production budget to $80 million. Although Purves was uncredited for his work,[4] stop-motion supervisors Ian Mackinnon and Peter Saunders, who would later collaborate with Burton on Corpse Bride, received character design credit.[3] Warner Digital Studios was responsible for the scenes of global destruction, airborne flying saucer sequences, the Martian landing in Nevada, and the robot that chases Richie Norris in his pickup truck. Warner Digital also used practical effects, such as building scale models of Big Ben and other landmarks. The destruction of Art Land's hotel was footage of the real-life night-time demolition of The Landmark Hotel and Casino, a building Burton wished to immortalize.[12]

text: Title sequence[edit]

text: The movie’s opening sequence, which depicts the saucers leaving Mars and flying to Earth, "measured some 5,000 frames long and was created almost entirely by computer graphics. While the first shot showing a lone reconnaissance ship leaving earth was handled by ILM, the tour de force sequence’s remaining 12 shots were all done by Warner Digital.... On Mars, irises open over the craters dotting the craggy surface, emitting hundreds of thousands of saucers that assume battle formations and head for Earth." [16][17][18]

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text:
Mars Attacks!

Soundtrack album by Danny Elfman

Released
March 4, 1997

Recorded
1996

Genre
Soundtrack

Length
46:44

Label
Atlantic Records

Producer
Danny Elfman

Danny Elfman chronology

Extreme Measures
(1996)Extreme Measures1996
Mars Attacks!
(1996)
Men in Black
(1997)Men in Black1997

text: The film's music was composed by Danny Elfman. The soundtrack was released on March 4, 1997 by Atlantic Records.

text: Track listing[edit]

text: All music composed by Danny Elfman (except "Indian Love Call", performed by Slim Whitman and "It's Not Unusual", performed by Tom Jones).

text:
No.
Title
Length

1.
"Introduction"
1:40

2.
"Main Titles"
2:22

3.
"First Sighting"
1:26

4.
"The Landing"
6:01

5.
"Ungodly Experiments"
0:53

6.
"State Address"
3:06

7.
"Martian Madame"
3:02

8.
"Martian Lounge"
2:54

9.
"Return Message"
2:17

10.
"Destructo X"
1:17

11.
"Loving Heads"
1:20

12.
"Pursuit"
2:55

13.
"The War Room"
1:31

14.
"Airfield Dilemma"
2:05

15.
"New World"
1:45

16.
"Ritchie's Speech"
3:09

17.
"End Credits"
3:53

18.
"Indian Love Call" (performed by Slim Whitman)
3:08

19.
"It's Not Unusual" (performed by Tom Jones)
2:00

Total length:
46:44

text: Reception[edit]

text: Release and box office[edit]

text: Warner Bros. spent $20 million on the movie's marketing campaign; together with $80 million spent during production, the final combined budget came to $100 million.[19] A novelization, written by screenwriter Jonathan Gems, was published by Puffin Books in January 1997.[20] The film was released in the United States on December 13, 1996, earning $9.38 million in its opening weekend. Mars Attacks! eventually made $37.77 million in US totals and $63.6 million elsewhere, coming to a worldwide total of $101.37 million.[21]

text: The film was considered a box office bomb in the US but generally achieved greater success both critically and commercially in Europe.[22] Many observers found similarities with Independence Day, which also came out in 1996. "It was just a coincidence. Nobody told me about it. I was surprised how close it was," director Tim Burton continued, "but then it's a pretty basic genre I guess. Independence Day was different in tone – it was different in everything. It almost seemed like we had done kind of a Mad magazine version of Independence Day."[3] During the film's theatrical run in January 1997, TBS purchased the broadcasting rights of the film.[23]

text: Critical reaction[edit]

text: Mars Attacks! drew mixed responses from critics. Based on 63 reviews collected by Rotten Tomatoes, 52% of the reviewers enjoyed the film, with an average score of 5.9/10.[24] By comparison, Metacritic calculated an average score of 52/100 from 19 reviews.[25] Roger Ebert observed the homages to the 1950s science fiction B movies. "Ed Wood himself could have told us what's wrong with this movie: the makers felt superior to the material. To be funny, even schlock has to believe in itself. Look for Infra-Man (1975) or Invasion of the Bee Girls (1973) and you will find movies that lack stars and big budgets and fancy special effects but are funny and fun in a way that Burton's megaproduction never really understands."[26]

text: Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times wrote that "Mars Attacks! is all 1990s cynicism and disbelief, mocking the conventions that Independence Day takes seriously. This all sounds clever enough but in truth, Mars Attacks! is not as much fun as it should be. Few of its numerous actors make a lasting impression and Burton's heart and soul is not in the humor".[27] Desson Thomson from The Washington Post said "Mars Attacks! evokes plenty of sci-fi classics, from The Day the Earth Stood Still (1951) to Dr. Strangelove (1964), but it doesn't do much beyond that superficial exercise. With the exception of Burton's jolting sight gags (I may never recover from the vision of Sarah Jessica Parker's head grafted on to the body of a chihuahua), the comedy is half-developed, pedestrian material. And the climactic battle between Earthlings and Martians is dull and overextended."[28]

text: Richard Schickel, writing in Time magazine, gave a positive review. "You have to admire everyone's chutzpah: the breadth of Burton's (and writer Jonathan Gems') movie references, which range from Kurosawa to Kubrick; and above all their refusal to offer us a single likable character. Perhaps they don't create quite enough deeply funny earthlings to go around, but a thoroughly mean-spirited big-budget movie is always a treasurable rarity."[29] Jonathan Rosenbaum from the Chicago Reader praised the surreal humor and black comedy, which he found to be in the vein of Dr. Strangelove and Gremlins (1984). He said it was far from clear whether the movie was a satire, although critics were describing it as one.[30] Todd McCarthy of Variety called Mars Attacks! "a cult sci-fi comedy miscast as an elaborate, all-star studio extravaganza."[31]

text: Awards[edit]

text: Mars Attacks! was on the shortlist for the Academy Award for Best Visual Effects nomination, but the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences chose Independence Day, Dragonheart and Twister instead.[32] The film was nominated for seven categories at the Saturn Awards. Danny Elfman won Best Music, while director Tim Burton, writer Jonathan Gems, actor Lukas Haas, costume designer Colleen Atwood and the visual effects department at Industrial Light & Magic received nominations. Mars Attacks! was nominated for both the Saturn Award for Best Science Fiction Film (which went to Independence Day)[33] and the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation.[34]


document_title: Microchip implant (animal)

question_text: where is the chip located on a dog

question_tokens: where is the chip located on a dog

root

text: Microchip implant (animal)

text: Uses and benefits[edit]

text: Animal shelters, animal control officers and veterinarians routinely look for microchips to return lost pets quickly to their owners, avoiding expenses for housing, food, medical care, outplacing and euthanasia. Many shelters place chips in all outplaced animals.

tag: p

text: Microchips are also used by kennels, breeders, brokers, trainers, registries, rescue groups, humane societies, clinics, farms, stables, animal clubs and associations, researchers, and pet stores.

text: Microchips can activate some pet doors[1] programmed to recognize specific animals.

text: Some countries require microchips in imported animals to match vaccination records. Microchip tagging may also be required for CITES-regulated international trade in certain endangered animals: for example, Asian Arowana are tagged to limit import to captive-bred fish. Also, birds not banded who cross international borders as pets or for trade must be microchipped so that each bird is uniquely identifiable.

text: Usage[edit]

text: Microchips can be implanted by a veterinarian or at a shelter. After checking that the animal does not already have a chip, the vet or technician injects the chip with a syringe and records the chip's unique ID. No anesthetic is required it is a simple procedure and causes little discomfort: the pain is minimal and short-lived[2]. A test scan ensures correct operation.

text: An enrollment form is completed with chip ID, owner contact information, pet name and description, shelter and/or veterinarian contact information, and an alternate emergency contact designated by the pet owner. Some shelters and vets designate themselves as the primary contact to remain informed about possible problems with the animals they place. The form is sent to a registry, who may be the chip manufacturer, distributor or an independent entity such as a pet recovery service. Some countries have a single official national database. For a fee, the registry typically provides 24-hour, toll-free telephone service for the life of the pet. Some veterinarians leave registration to the owner, usually done online, but a chip without current contact information is essentially useless.

text: The owner receives a registration certificate with the chip ID and recovery service contact information. The information can also be imprinted on a collar tag worn by the animal. Like an automobile title, the certificate serves as proof of ownership and is transferred with the animal when it is sold or traded; an animal without a certificate could be stolen.

text: Authorities and shelters examine strays for chips, providing the recovery service with the ID number, description and location so they may notify the owner or contact. If the pet is wearing the collar tag, the finder does not need a chip reader to contact the registry. An owner can also report a missing pet to the recovery service, as vets look for chips in new animals and check with the recovery service to see if it has been reported lost or stolen.

text: Many veterinarians scan an animal's chip on every visit to verify correct operation. Some use the chip ID as their database index and print it on receipts, test results, vaccination certifications and other records.

text: Some veterinary tests and procedures require positive identification of the animal, and a microchip may be acceptable for this purpose as an alternative to a tattoo.

text: Components of a microchip[edit]

text: A microchip implant is a passive RFID device. Lacking an internal power source, it remains inert until it is powered by the scanner.

text: Most implants contain three elements: a 'chip' or integrated circuit; a coil inductor, possibly with a ferrite core; and a capacitor. The chip contains unique identification data and electronic circuits to encode that information. The coil acts as the secondary winding of a transformer, receiving power inductively coupled to it from the scanner. The coil and capacitor together form a resonant LC circuit tuned to the frequency of the scanner's oscillating magnetic field to produce power for the chip. The chip then transmits its data back through the coil to the scanner.

text: These components are encased in biocompatible soda lime or borosilicate glass and hermetically sealed. Barring rare complications, dogs and cats are unaffected by them.

text: Implant location[edit]

text: In dogs and cats, chips are usually inserted below the skin at the back of the neck between the shoulder blades on the dorsal midline. According to one reference, continental European pets get the implant in the left side of the neck.[3] The chip can often be felt under the skin. Thin layers of connective tissue form around the implant and hold it in place.

text: Horses are microchipped on the left side of the neck, halfway between the poll and withers and approximately one inch below the midline of the mane, into the nuchal ligament.

text: Birds are implanted in their breast muscles. Proper restraint is necessary so the operation requires either two people (an avian veterinarian and a veterinary technician) or general anesthesia.

text: Implanted microchips can distort magnetic resonance imaging (MRIs), including those of the spinal cord.[4]

text: Animal species[edit]

text: Many animal species have been microchipped, including cockatiels and other parrots, horses, llamas, alpacas, goats, sheep, miniature pigs, rabbits, deer, ferrets, penguins, sharks, snakes, lizards, alligators, turtles, toads, frogs, rare fish, chimpanzees, mice, and prairie dogs—even whales and elephants. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service uses microchipping in its research of wild bison, black-footed ferrets, grizzly bears, elk, white-tailed deer, giant land tortoises and armadillos.

text: Worldwide use[edit]

text: Microchips are not yet universal, but they are legally required in some jurisdictions such as the state of New South Wales, Australia[5] and the United Kingdom (for dogs, since 6 April 2016[6]).

text: Some countries, such as Japan, require ISO-compliant microchips or a compatible reader on imported dogs and cats.[7]

text: In New Zealand, all dogs first registered after 1 July 2006 must be microchipped. Farmers protested that farm dogs should be exempt, drawing a parallel to the Dog Tax War of 1898.[8] Farm dogs were exempted from microchipping in an amendment to the legislation passed in June 2006.[9] A National Animal Identification and Tracing scheme in New Zealand is currently being developed for tracking livestock.

text: In April 2012 Northern Ireland became the first part of the United Kingdom to require microchipping of individually licensed dogs.[10] Dog microchipping became mandatory in England on 6 April 2016.[11]

text: In Israel, microchips in dogs are mandatory.[citation needed]

text: Australia has a National Livestock Identification System.

text: The United States uses the National Animal Identification System for farm and ranch animals other than dogs and cats. In most species except horses, an external eartag is typically used in lieu of an implant microchip. Eartags with microchips or simply stamped with a visible number can be used. Both use ISO 15 digit microchip numbers with the U.S. country code of 840.

text: Cross-compatibility and standards issues[edit]

text: In most countries, pet ID chips adhere to an international standard to promote compatibility between chips and scanners. In the United States, however, three proprietary types of chips compete along with the international standard. Scanners distributed to United States shelters and veterinarians well into 2006 could each read at most three of the four types. Scanners with quad-read capability are now available and are increasingly considered required equipment. Older scanner models will be in use for some time, so United States pet owners must still choose between a chip with good coverage by existing scanners and one compatible with the international standard. The four types include:

text:
The ISO Conformant Full Duplex type has the greatest international acceptance. It is common in many countries including Europe (since the late 1990s) and Canada. It is one of two chip protocol types (along with the "Half Duplex" type sometimes used in farm and ranch animals) that conform to International Organization for Standardization standards ISO 11784 & 11785. To support international/multivendor application, the 3-digit country code can contain an assigned ISO country code or a manufacturer code from 900 to 998 plus its identifying serial number.[Note 1] In the United States, distribution of this type has been controversial. When 24PetWatch.com began distributing them in 2003 (and more famously Banfield Pet Hospitals in 2004) many shelter scanners couldn't read them. (Some still can't; asking local shelters about this is still a good idea.) At least one Banfield-chipped pet was inadvertently euthanized.[12]
The Trovan Unique type is another pet chip protocol type in use since 1990 in pets in the United States.[13] Patent problems forced the withdrawal of Trovan's implanter device from United States distribution and they became uncommon in pets in the United States, although Trovan's original registry database "infopet.biz" remained in operation. In early 2007, the American Kennel Club's chip registration service, AKC Companion Animal Recovery Corp, which had been the authorized registry for HomeAgain brand chips made by Destron/Digital Angel, began distributing Trovan chips with a different implanter. These chips are read by the Trovan, HomeAgain (Destron Fearing), and Bayer (Black Label) readers. Despite multiple offers from Trovan to AVID [14] to license the technology to read the Trovan chips, AVID continues to distribute readers that do not read Trovan or the ISO compliant chips.
A third type sometimes known as FECAVA or Destron[Note 2] is available under various brand names. These include, in the United States, "Avid Eurochip", the common current 24PetWatch chips, and the original (and still popular) style of HomeAgain chips. (HomeAgain and 24Petwatch can now supply the true ISO chip instead on request.) Chips of this type have 10 digit [hexadecimal] chip numbers. This "FECAVA" type is readable on a wide variety of scanners in the United States and has been less controversial, although its level of adherence to the ISO standards is sometimes exaggerated in some descriptions.[15][16][17] The ISO standard has an annex (appendix) recommending that three older chip types be supported by scanners, including a 35-bit "FECAVA"/"Destron" type.[18] The common Eurochip/HomeAgain chips don't agree perfectly with the annex description, although the differences are sometimes considered minor.[Note 3] But the ISO standard also makes it clear[Note 4] that only its 64-bit "full-duplex" and "half-duplex" types are "conformant"; even chips (e.g., the Trovan Unique) that match one of the Annex descriptions are not. More visibly, FECAVA cannot support the ISO standard's required country/manufacturer codes. They may be accepted by authorities in many countries where ISO-standard chips are the norm, but not by those requiring literal ISO conformance.
Finally, there's the AVID brand Friendchip type, which is peculiar due to its encryption characteristics. Cryptographic features are not necessarily unwelcome; few pet rescuers or humane societies would object to a design that outputs an ID number "in the clear" for anyone to read, along with authentication features for detection of counterfeit chips, but the authentication in "Friendchips" has been found lacking and rather easy to spoof to the AVID scanner. Although no authentication encryption is involved, obfuscation requires proprietary information to convert transmitted chip data to its original label ID code. Well into 2006, scanners containing the proprietary decryption were provided to the United States market only by AVID and Destron/Digital Angel; Destron/Digital Angel put the decryption feature in some, but not all, of its scanners, possibly as early as 1996. (For years, its scanners distributed to shelters through HomeAgain usually had full decryption, while many sold to veterinarians would only state that an AVID chip had been found.) Well into 2006, both were resisting calls from consumers and welfare group officials to bring scanners to the United States shelter community combining AVID decryption capability with the ability to read ISO-compliant chips. Some complained[19] that AVID itself had long marketed combination pet scanners compatible with all common pet chips except possibly Trovan outside the United States. By keeping them out of the United States, it could be considered partly culpable in the missed-ISO chips problem others blamed on Banfield.[Note 5] In 2006, the European manufacturer Datamars, a supplier of ISO chips used by Banfield and others, gained access to the decryption secrets and began supplying scanners with them to United States customers. This "Black Label" scanner was the first four-standard full-multi pet scanner in the United States market. Later in 2006, Digital Angel announced[20] that it would supply a full-multi scanner in the United States.[Note 6] In 2008 AVID announced a "breakthrough" scanner,[21] although as of October 2010[update] AVID's is still so uncommon that it's unclear whether it supports the Trovan chip. Trovan also acquired the decryption technology in 2006 or earlier, and now provides it in scanners distributed in the United States by AKC-CAR. (Some are quad-read, but others lack full ISO support.)

tag: ul

text: Numerous references in print state that the incompatibilities between different chip types are a matter of "frequency". One may find claims that early ISO adopters in the United States endangered their customers' pets by giving them ISO chips that work at a "different frequency" from the local shelter's scanner, or that the United States government considered forcing an incompatible frequency change. These claims were little challenged by manufacturers and distributors of ISO chips, although later evidence suggests the claims were disinformation. In fact, all chips operate at the scanner's frequency. Although ISO chips are optimized for 134.2 kHz, in practice they are readable at 125 kHz and the "125 kHz" chips are readable at 134.2 kHz. Confirmation comes from government filings that indicate the supposed "multi-frequency" scanners now commonly available are really single-frequency scanners operating at 125, 134.2 or 128 kHz. In particular, the United States HomeAgain scanner didn't change excitation frequency when ISO-read capability was added; it's still a single frequency, 125 kHz scanner.[22]

text:
Scanner Compatibility table for chip types used in pets

Expected results for chip type
(OK=Good read
NR=No read
DO=Detect Only with no number given)

Scanner to test
ISO Conformant Full Duplex chip
AVID Encrypted "FriendChip"
Original U.S. HomeAgain, AVID Eurochip,[Note 7] or FECAVA
"Trovan Unique" and current AKC CAR chips

Minimal ISO Conformant Scanner (also must read HALF Duplex chips common in livestock ear tags)
OK
NR
NR
NR

AVID Basic U.S. Scanner[23]
NR
OK
NR
NR

AVID Deluxe U.S. Scanner
NR
OK
OK
NR

AVID Universal Scanner sold outside U.S.[24]
OK
OK
OK
NR Assumed

AVID MiniTracker Pro Scanner announced August 2008[25]
OK
OK
OK
NR according to some (Few have seen one.)

Various vintages of U.S. HomeAgain "Universal" Shelter Scanners by Destron/Digital Angel Corp.
NR,DO, or OK
OK
OK
Possibly all OK

Typical Destron/Digital Angel Corp. U.S. Veterinarian's scanner pre-2007
[26]

NR
DO
OK
DO

Trovan LID-560-MULTI per mfr. specifications on Web[27]
OK
OK
OK
OK

U.S. Trovan Pocket Scanner per AKC-CAR Web Site[28]
DO
OK
OK
OK

U.S. Trovan ProScan700 per AKC-CAR Web Site[29]
OK
OK
OK
OK

Original 2006 Datamars Black Label Scanner[30]
OK
OK
OK
OK but Reliability Questioned

Datamars Black Label Scanner "classypets" model[31]
OK
NR or DO?
OK
OK but Reliability Questioned

Banfield-Distributed 2004-2005 Vintage Datamars Scanners
OK
Possibly all DO
OK
Possibly all OK but Reliability Questioned (Undocumented Feature)

Datamars Minimax and Micromax[32]
OK
NR
NR
NR

Typical Homemade Scanner[33]
OK
OK but extra step required (web-based decryption service)
OK
OK

tag: table

text: (For users requiring Shelter-Grade certainty, this table is not a substitute for testing the scanner with a set of specimen chips. One study[34] cites problems with certain Trovan chips on the Datamars Black Label scanner. In general, the study found none of the tested scanners to read all four standards without some deficiency. The study predates the most recent scanner models, however.)

text: Reported adverse reactions[edit]

text: RFID chips are used in animal research, and at least three studies conducted since the 1990s have reported tumors at the site of implantation in laboratory mice and rats.[35] Noted veterinary associations[36] responded with continued support for the procedure as reasonably safe for cats and dogs, pointing to rates of serious complications on the order of one in a million in the U.K., which has a system for tracking such adverse reactions and has chipped over 3.7 million pet dogs. A recent study found no safety concerns for microchipped animals with RFID chips undergoing MRI at one Tesla magnetic field strength.[37] In 2011 a microchip-associated fibrosarcoma was reported found in the neck of a 9-year old, neutered-male cat. Histological examination was consistent with postinjection sarcoma, but all prior vaccinations occurred in the hindlegs.[38]


document_title: Material requirements planning

question_text: at which step in mrp ii are requirements for component parts and sub-assemblies determined

text: Material requirements planning

text: History[edit]

text: Prior to MRP, and before computers dominated industry, reorder point (ROP)/reorder-quantity (ROQ) type methods like EOQ (economic order quantity) had been used in manufacturing and inventory management.[1]

text: MRP was created initially to supply the Polaris program then, in 1964, as a response to the Toyota Manufacturing Program, Joseph Orlicky developed material requirements planning (MRP). The first company to use MRP was Black & Decker in 1964, with Dick Alban as project leader. Orlicky's 1975 book Material Requirements Planning has the subtitle The New Way of Life in Production and Inventory Management.[2] By 1975, MRP was implemented in 700 companies. This number had grown to about 8,000 by 1981.

text: In 1983, Oliver Wight developed MRP into manufacturing resource planning (MRP II).[3] In the 1980s, Joe Orlicky's MRP evolved into Oliver Wight's manufacturing resource planning (MRP II) which brings master scheduling, rough-cut capacity planning, capacity requirements planning, S&OP in 1983 and other concepts to classical MRP. By 1989, about one third of the software industry was MRP II software sold to American industry ($1.2 billion worth of software).[4]

text: The scope of MRP in manufacturing[edit]

text: Dependent demand vs independent demand[edit]

text: Independent demand is demand originating outside the plant or production system, while dependent demand is demand for components. The bill of materials (BOM) specifies the relationship between the end product (independent demand) and the components (dependent demand). MRP takes as input the information contained in the BOM.[5] [6]

text: The basic functions of an MRP system include: inventory control, bill of material processing, and elementary scheduling. MRP helps organizations to maintain low inventory levels. It is used to plan manufacturing, purchasing and delivering activities.

text: "Manufacturing organizations, whatever their products, face the same daily practical problem - that customers want products to be available in a shorter time than it takes to make them. This means that some level of planning is required."

text: Companies need to control the types and quantities of materials they purchase, plan which products are to be produced and in what quantities and ensure that they are able to meet current and future customer demand, all at the lowest possible cost. Making a bad decision in any of these areas will make the company lose money. A few examples are given below:

text:
If a company purchases insufficient quantities of an item used in manufacturing (or the wrong item) it may be unable to meet contract obligations to supply products on time.
If a company purchases excessive quantities of an item, money is wasted - the excess quantity ties up cash while it remains as stock that might never be used at all.
Beginning production of an order at the wrong time can cause customer deadlines to be missed.

text: MRP is a tool to deal with these problems. It provides answers for several questions:

text:
What items are required?
How many are required?
When are they required?...

text: MRP can be applied both to items that are purchased from outside suppliers and to sub-assemblies, produced internally, that are components of more complex items.

text: Data[edit]

text: The data that must be considered include:

text:
The end item (or items) being created. This is sometimes called independent demand, or Level "0" on BOM (bill of materials).
How much is required at a time.
When the quantities are required to meet demand.
Shelf life of stored materials.
Inventory status records. Records of net materials available for use already in stock (on hand) and materials on order from suppliers.
Bills of materials. Details of the materials, components and sub-assemblies required to make each product.
Planning data. This includes all the restraints and directions to produce such items as: routing, labor and machine standards, quality and testing standards, pull/work cell and push commands, lot sizing techniques (i.e. fixed lot size, lot-for-lot, economic order quantity), scrap percentages, and other inputs.

text: Outputs[edit]

text: There are two outputs and a variety of messages/reports:

text:
Output 1 is the "Recommended Production Schedule." This lays out a detailed schedule of the required minimum start and completion dates, with quantities, for each step of the Routing and Bill Of Material required to satisfy the demand from the master production schedule (MPS).
Output 2 is the "Recommended Purchasing Schedule." This lays out both the dates on which the purchased items should be received into the facility and the dates on which the purchase orders or blanket order release should occur in order to match the production schedules.

text: Messages and reports:

text:
Purchase orders. An order to a supplier to provide materials.
Reschedule notices. These recommend cancelling, increasing, delaying or speeding up existing orders.

text: Methods to find order quantities[edit]

text: Well-known methods to find order quantities are:

text:
Dynamic lot-sizing
Silver–Meal heuristic
Least-Unit-Cost heuristic

text: Mathematical formulation[edit]

text: MRP can be expressed as an optimal control problem:[7]

text:
Initial conditions:

x

i

′

(
0
)
=

x

i
0

′

{\displaystyle x'_{i}(0)=x'_{i0}}

 i=1,...,J

Dynamics:

x

i

′

(
t
+
1
)
=

x

i

′

(
t
)
+

z

i

(
t
)
−

d

i

′

(
t
)
−

∑

j
ϵ
S
u
c
(
i
)

z

j

(
t
+

L

i
j

′

−
1
)

{\displaystyle x'_{i}(t+1)=x'_{i}(t)+z_{i}(t)-d'_{i}(t)-\sum _{j\epsilon Suc(i)}z_{j}(t+L'_{ij}-1)}

t=0,...,T-1,i=1,...,J

Constraints:

x

i

′

(
t
)
≥
0

{\displaystyle x'_{i}(t)\geq 0}

 t=1,...,T,i=1,...,J

z

i

(
t
)
≥
0

{\displaystyle z_{i}(t)\geq 0}

 t=0,...,T-1,i=1,...,J

Objective:

m
i
n

∑

i

∑

t
=
0

T
−
1

[

k

i

(
t
)
δ
(

z

i

(
t
)
)
+

c

i

(
t
)

z

i

(
t
)

]

+

∑

i

∑

t
=
1

T

h

i

′

(
t
)

x

i

′

(
t
)

{\displaystyle min\sum _{i}\sum _{t=0}^{T-1}\left[k_{i}(t)\delta (z_{i}(t))+c_{i}(t)z_{i}(t)\right]+\sum _{i}\sum _{t=1}^{T}h'_{i}(t)x'_{i}(t)}

text: Where x' is local inventory (the state), z the order size (the control), d is local demand, k represents fixed order costs, c variable order costs, h local inventory holding costs. δ() is the Heaviside function. Changing the dynamics of the problem leads to a multi-item analogue of the dynamic lot-size model.[7]

text: Problems with MRP systems[edit]

text:
Integrity of the data. If there are any errors in the inventory data, the bill of materials (commonly referred to as 'BOM') data, or the master production schedule, then the output data will also be incorrect ("GIGO": garbage in, garbage out). Data integrity is also affected by inaccurate cycle count adjustments, mistakes in receiving input and shipping output, scrap not reported, waste, damage, box count errors, supplier container count errors, production reporting errors, and system issues. Many of these type of errors can be minimized by implementing pull systems and using bar code scanning. Most vendors in this type of system recommend at least 99% data integrity for the system to give useful results.
Systems require that the user specify how long it will take for a factory to make a product from its component parts (assuming they are all available). Additionally, the system design also assumes that this "lead time" in manufacturing will be the same each time the item is made, without regard to quantity being made, or other items being made simultaneously in the factory.
A manufacturer may have factories in different cities or even countries. It is not good for an MRP system to say that we do not need to order some material, because we have plenty of it thousands of miles away. The overall ERP system needs to be able to organize inventory and needs by individual factory and inter-communicate the needs in order to enable each factory to redistribute components to serve the overall enterprise. This means that other systems in the enterprise need to work properly, both before implementing an MRP system and in the future. For example, systems like variety reduction and engineering, which makes sure that product comes out right first time (without defects), must be in place.
Production may be in progress for some part, whose design gets changed, with customer orders in the system for both the old design, and the new one, concurrently. The overall ERP system needs to have a system of coding parts such that the MRP will correctly calculate needs and tracking for both versions. Parts must be booked into and out of stores more regularly than the MRP calculations take place. Note, these other systems can well be manual systems, but must interface to the MRP. For example, a 'walk around' stock intake done just prior to the MRP calculations can be a practical solution for a small inventory (especially if it is an "open store").
The other major drawback of MRP is that it fails to account for capacity in its calculations. This means it will give results that are impossible to implement due to manpower, machine or supplier capacity constraints. However this is largely dealt with by MRP II. Generally, MRP II refers to a system with integrated financials. An MRP II system can include finite or infinite capacity planning. But, to be considered a true MRP II system must also include financials. In the MRP II (or MRP2) concept, fluctuations in forecast data are taken into account by including simulation of the master production schedule, thus creating a long-term control.[8] A more general feature of MRP2 is its extension to purchasing, to marketing and to finance (integration of all the functions of the company), ERP has been the next step.

text: Solutions to data integrity issues[edit]

text:
Bill of material – The best practice is to physically verify the bill of material either at the production site or by disassembling the product.
Cycle count – The best practice is to determine why a cycle count that increases or decreases inventory has occurred. Find the root cause and correct the problem from occurring again.
Scrap reporting – This can be the most difficult area to maintain with any integrity. Start with isolating the scrap by providing scrap bins at the production site and then record the scrap from the bins on a daily basis. One benefit of reviewing the scrap on site is that preventive action can be taken by the engineering group.
Receiving errors – Manual systems of recording what has been received are error prone. The best practice is to implement the system of receiving by ASN from the supplier. The supplier sends an ASN (advanced shipping notification). When the components are received into the facility, the ASN is processed and then company labels are created for each line item. The labels are affixed to each container and then scanned into the MRP system. Extra labels reveal a shortage from the shipment and too few labels reveal an over shipment. Some companies pay for ASN by reducing the time in processing accounts payable.
Shipping errors – The container labels are printed from the shipper. The labels are affixed to the containers in a staging area or when they are loaded on the transport.
Production reporting – The best practice is to use bar code scanning to enter production into inventory. A product that is rejected should be moved to an MRB (material review board) location. Containers that require sorting need to be received in reverse.
Replenishment – The best replenishment practice is replacement using bar code scanning, or via pull system. Depending upon the complexity of the product, planners can actually order materials using scanning with a min-max system.

text: Demand driven MRP[edit]

text: In 2011, the third edition of "Orlicky's Materials Requirements Planning[9]" introduced a new type of MRP called "demand driven MRP" (DDMRP).[6] The new edition of the book was written, not by Orlicky himself (he died in 1986) but by Carol Ptak and Chad Smith at the invitation of McGraw Hill to update Orlicky's work.

text: Demand driven MRP is a multi-echelon formal planning and execution technique with five distinct components:[6]

text:
Strategic inventory positioning – The first question of effective inventory management is not, "how much inventory should we have?" Nor is it, "when should we make or buy something?" The most fundamental question to ask in today's manufacturing environments is, "given our system and environment, where should we place inventory to have the best protection?" Inventory is like a break wall to protect boats in a marina from the roughness of incoming waves. Out on the open ocean the break walls have to be 50–100 feet tall, but in a small lake the break walls are only a couple feet tall. In a glassy smooth pond no break wall is necessary.
Buffer profiles and level – Once the strategically replenished positions are determined, the actual levels of those buffers have to be initially set. Based on several factors, different materials and parts behave differently (but many also behave nearly the same). DDMRP calls for the grouping of parts and materials chosen for strategic replenishment and that behave similarly into "buffer profiles." Buffer profiles take into account important factors including lead time (relative to the environment), variability (demand or supply), whether the part is made or bought or distributed and whether there are significant order multiples involved. These buffer profiles are made up of "zones" that produce a unique buffer picture for each part as their respective individual part traits are applied to the group traits.
Dynamic adjustments – Over the course of time, group and individual traits can and will change as new suppliers and materials are used, new markets are opened and/or old markets deteriorate and manufacturing capacities and methods change. Dynamic buffer levels allow the company to adapt buffers to group and individual part trait changes over time through the use of several types of adjustments. Thus, as more or less variability is encountered or as a company's strategy changes these buffers adapt and change to fit the environment.
Demand-driven planning – takes advantage of the sheer computational power of today's hardware and software. It also takes advantage of the new demand-driven or pull-based approaches. When these two elements are combined then there is the best of both worlds; relevant approaches and tools for the way the world works today and a system of routine that promotes better and quicker decisions and actions at the planning and execution level.
Highly visible and collaborative execution – Simply launching purchase orders (POs), manufacturing orders (MOs) and transfer orders (TOs) from any planning system does not end the materials and order management challenge. These POs, MOs and TOs have to be effectively managed to synchronize with the changes that often occur within the "execution horizon." The execution horizon is the time from which a PO, MO or TO is opened until the time it is closed in the system of record. DDMRP defines a modern, integrated and greatly needed system of execution for all part categories in order to speed the proliferation of relevant information and priorities throughout an organization and supply chain.

tag: ol

text: These five components work together to greatly dampen, if not eliminate, the nervousness of traditional MRP systems and the bullwhip effect in complex and challenging environments. The Demand Driven Institute claims the following: In utilizing these approaches, planners will no longer have to try to respond to every single message for every single part that is off by even one day. This approach provides real information about those parts that are truly at risk of negatively impacting the planned availability of inventory. DDMRP sorts the significant few items that require attention from the many parts that are being managed. Under the DDMRP approach, fewer planners can make better decisions more quickly. That means companies will be better able to leverage their working and human capital as well as the huge investments they have made in information technology. One down-side, however, is that DDMRP can not run on the majority of MRPII/ERP systems in use today, so organisations will have to implement a compatible system in order to run DDMRP.

text: DDMRP has been successfully applied to a variety of environments including CTO (configure to order), MTS (make to stock), MTO (make to order) and ETO (engineer to order).[6] The methodology is applied differently in each environments but the five step process remains the same. DDMRP leverages knowledge from theory of constraints (TOC), traditional MRP & DRP, Six Sigma and lean. It is effectively an amalgam of MRP and kanban techniques. As such, it incorporates the strengths of both but also the weaknesses of both; hence its limited adoption.

text: Additional references are included below. [10][11][12]


document_title: Garibi Hatao

question_text: garibi hatao was the main objective of which plan

text: Garibi Hatao

text: Garibi Hatao desh bachao ("Abolish poverty, save the nation") was the theme and slogan of Indira Gandhi's 1971 election bid and later also used by her son Rajiv Gandhi.[1] The slogan and the proposed anti-poverty programs that came with it were designed to give Gandhi an independent national support, based on rural and urban poor, which would allow her to by-pass the dominant rural castes both in and out of state and local government; likewise the urban commercial class. And, for their part, the previously voiceless poor would at last gain both political worth and political weight.

text: The programs created through garibi hatao, though carried out locally, were funded, developed, supervised, and staffed by Government officials in New Delhi and Congress Party officials. All in all, garibi hatao did little and accomplished less: only about 4% of all funds allocated for economic development went to the three main anti-poverty programs, and precious few of these ever reached the 'poorest of the poor', but it did help secure Gandhi's election.[citation needed] It was part of the 5th Five-Year Plan.


document_title: Coronary circulation

question_text: where does the left coronary artery supply blood to

text: Coronary circulation

text: Structure[edit]

text: Coronary arteries supply blood to the myocardium and other components of the heart. Two coronary arteries originate from the left side of the heart at the beginning (root) of the aorta, just after the aorta exits the left ventricle. There are three aortic sinuses (dilations) in the wall of the aorta just superior to the aortic semilunar valve. Two of these, the left posterior aortic sinus and anterior aortic sinus, give rise to the left and right coronary arteries, respectively. The third sinus, the right posterior aortic sinus, typically does not give rise to a vessel. Coronary vessel branches that remain on the surface of the artery and follow the sulci of the heart are called epicardial coronary arteries.[1]

text: The left coronary artery distributes blood to the left side of the heart, the left atrium and ventricle, and the interventricular septum. The circumflex artery arises from the left coronary artery and follows the coronary sulcus to the left. Eventually, it will fuse with the small branches of the right coronary artery. The larger anterior interventricular artery, also known as the left anterior descending artery (LAD), is the second major branch arising from the left coronary artery. It follows the anterior interventricular sulcus around the pulmonary trunk. Along the way it gives rise to numerous smaller branches that interconnect with the branches of the posterior interventricular artery, forming anastomoses. An anastomosis is an area where vessels unite to form interconnections that normally allow blood to circulate to a region even if there may be partial blockage in another branch. The anastomoses in the heart are very small. Therefore, this ability is somewhat restricted in the heart so a coronary artery blockage often results in myocardial infarction causing death of the cells supplied by the particular vessel.[1]

text: The right coronary artery proceeds along the coronary sulcus and distributes blood to the right atrium, portions of both ventricles, and the heart conduction system. Normally, one or more marginal arteries arise from the right coronary artery inferior to the right atrium. The marginal arteries supply blood to the superficial portions of the right ventricle. On the posterior surface of the heart, the right coronary artery gives rise to the posterior interventricular artery, also known as the posterior descending artery. It runs along the posterior portion of the interventricular sulcus toward the apex of the heart, giving rise to branches that supply the interventricular septum and portions of both ventricles.[1]

text: Anastomoses[edit]

text: There are some anastomoses between branches of the two coronary arteries. However the coronary arteries are functionally end arteries and so these meetings are referred to as potential anastamoses, which lack function, as opposed to true anastomoses like that in the palm of the hand. This is because blockage of one coronary artery generally results in death of the heart tissue due to lack of sufficient blood supply from the other branch. When two arteries or their branches join, the area of the myocardium receives dual blood supply. These junctions are called anastomoses. If one coronary artery is obstucted by an atheroma, the second artery is still able to supply oxygenated blood to the myocardium. However, this can only occur if the atheroma progresses slowly, giving the anastomoses a chance to proliferate.

text: Under the most common configuration of coronary arteries, there are three areas of anastomoses. Small branches of the LAD (left anterior descending/anterior interventricular) branch of the left coronary join with branches of the posterior interventricular branch of the right coronary in the interventricular groove. More superiorly, there is an anastomosis between the circumflex artery (a branch of the left coronary artery) and the right coronary artery in the atrioventricular groove. There is also an anastomosis between the septal branches of the two coronary arteries in the interventricular septum. The photograph shows area of heart supplied by the right and the left coronary arteries.

text: Variation[edit]

text: The left and right coronary arteries occasionally arise by a common trunk, or their number may be increased to three; the additional branch being the posterior coronary artery (which is smaller in size). In rare cases, a person will have the third coronary artery run around the root of the aorta.

text: Occasionally, a coronary artery will exist as a double structure (i.e. there are two arteries, parallel to each other, where ordinarily there would be one).

text: Coronary artery dominance[edit]

text: The artery that supplies the posterior third of the interventricular septum – the posterior descending artery (PDA)[2] determines the coronary dominance.[3]

text:
If the posterior descending artery is supplied by the right coronary artery (RCA), then the coronary circulation can be classified as "right-dominant".
If the posterior descending artery is supplied by the circumflex artery (CX), a branch of the left artery, then the coronary circulation can be classified as "left-dominant".
If the posterior descending artery is supplied by both the right coronary artery and the circumflex artery, then the coronary circulation can be classified as "co-dominant".

text: Approximately 70% of the general population are right-dominant, 20% are co-dominant, and 10% are left-dominant.[3] A precise anatomic definition of dominance would be the artery which gives off supply to the AV node i.e. the AV nodal artery. Most of the time this is the right coronary artery.

text: Function[edit]

text: Supply to papillary muscles[edit]

text: The papillary muscles attach the mitral valve (the valve between the left atrium and the left ventricle) and the tricuspid valve (the valve between the right atrium and the right ventricle) to the wall of the heart. If the papillary muscles are not functioning properly, the mitral valve may leak during contraction of the left ventricle. This causes some of the blood to travel "in reverse", from the left ventricle to the left atrium, instead of forward to the aorta and the rest of the body. This leaking of blood to the left atrium is known as mitral regurgitation. Similarly, the leaking of blood from the right ventricle through the tricuspid valve and into the right atrium can also occur, and this is described as tricuspid insufficiency or tricuspid regurgitation.

text: The anterolateral papillary muscle more frequently receives two blood supplies: left anterior descending (LAD) artery and the left circumflex artery (LCX).[4] It is therefore more frequently resistant to coronary ischemia (insufficiency of oxygen-rich blood). On the other hand, the posteromedial papillary muscle is usually supplied only by the PDA.[4] This makes the posteromedial papillary muscle significantly more susceptible to ischemia. The clinical significance of this is that a myocardial infarction involving the PDA is more likely to cause mitral regurgitation.

text: Changes in diastole[edit]

text: During contraction of the ventricular myocardium (systole), the subendocardial coronary vessels (the vessels that enter the myocardium) are compressed due to the high ventricular pressures. This compression results in momentary retrograde blood flow (i.e., blood flows backward toward the aorta) which further inhibits perfusion of myocardium during systole. However, the epicardial coronary vessels (the vessels that run along the outer surface of the heart) remain open. Because of this, blood flow in the subendocardium stops during ventricular contraction. As a result, most myocardial perfusion occurs during heart relaxation (diastole) when the subendocardial coronary vessels are open and under lower pressure. Flow never comes to zero in the right coronary artery, since the right ventricular pressure is less than the diastolic blood pressure.

text: Changes in oxygen demand[edit]

text: The heart regulates the amount of vasodilation or vasoconstriction of the coronary arteries based upon the oxygen requirements of the heart. This contributes to the filling difficulties of the coronary arteries. Compression remains the same. Failure of oxygen delivery caused by a decrease in blood flow in front of increased oxygen demand of the heart results in tissue ischemia, a condition of oxygen deficiency. Brief ischemia is associated with intense chest pain, known as angina. Severe ischemia can cause the heart muscle to die from hypoxia, such as during a myocardial infarction. Chronic moderate ischemia causes contraction of the heart to weaken, known as myocardial hibernation.

text: In addition to metabolism, the coronary circulation possesses unique pharmacologic characteristics. Prominent among these is its reactivity to adrenergic stimulation. The majority of vasculature in the body constricts in response to norepinephrine, a sympathetic neurotransmitter that the body uses to increase blood pressure. In the coronary circulation, however, norepinephrine vasoconstriction, due to the predominance of beta-adrenergic receptors in the coronary circulation. However, metabolic control factors will increase as a result of increased oxygen demand in the heart and will more greatly influence vasodilation. Thus sympathetic innervation to the coronary arteries ultimately causes vasodilation.

text: Branches[edit]

text: The following are the named branches of the coronary circulation in a right-dominant heart:

text:
Aorta

Left coronary artery / Left main coronary artery (LMCA)

Left circumflex artery (LCX)

Obtuse marginal artery #1 (OM1)
Obtuse marginal artery #2 (OM2)

Left anterior descending artery (LAD)

Diagonal artery #1
Diagonal artery #2

Right coronary artery (RCA)

Atrioventricular nodal branch
Right marginal artery
Posterior descending artery (PDA)
Posteriolateral artery #1 (PL#1)
Posteriolateral artery #2 (PL#2)

text: Additional images[edit]

text:
Anterior view of coronary circulation

Posterior view of coronary circulation

Illustration of coronary arteries


document_title: Italian meal structure

question_text: what is the most important meal in italy

text: Italian meal structure

text: Daytime meal structure[edit]

text: Breakfast (Colazione)[edit]

text: Italian breakfast (prima colazione) consists of caffè latte (hot coffee with milk) or coffee with bread or rolls, butter and jam. A cookie-like rusk hard bread, called fette biscottate, and cookies are commonly eaten. Children drink hot chocolate, plain milk, or hot milk with very little coffee. If breakfast is eaten in a bar (coffee shop), it is composed of cappuccino and cornetto (frothed hot milk with coffee and a pastry) or espresso and pastry. Other products, such as breakfast cereals, fruit salad (macedonia), muesli and yogurt, are becoming increasingly common as part of the meal. However, Italian breakfasts vary by region and by season. In some regions, such as Tuscany and Umbria, in the past, people used to drink red wine (notably Chianti) into which they would dip their biscuits.

text: It is also very common for Italians to have a quick breakfast snack during the middle of the morning (typically a tramezzino or bread roll).

text: Lunch (Pranzo)[edit]

text: Lunch is usually regarded as the most important meal. Most shops close for the pausa pranzo (lunch break) between 13:00 and 15:00. In most schools, children are given a lunch break when they can go home for lunch, or eat at the school cafeteria, or eat a packed lunch. Since the introduction of fast foods, takeaways and frozen and tinned foods, Italians tend to eat less home-made food but fresh food is still quite common and most people buy bread, milk and other foods daily. Many adults still make their own food (e.g., tomato sauce from their own tomatoes) and takeaways are still not very frequent. A typical Italian lunch consists of a first course il primo (pasta, rice or similar), a second-course il secondo (meat or fish) served together with a side dish il contorno (vegetable or salad) and fruit.

text: Commuters and other workers tend to eat less often at home but instead, have a quick meal in a restaurant or pizzeria. Many foreign fast-food chains operate in Italy, especially in big cities and along motorways. Italian fast-food chains, like Autogrill, are also prevalent, often featuring versions of local dishes.

text: Mid-afternoon snack (Merenda)[edit]

text: Many children and adults have a mid-afternoon snack called merenda, generally consumed after school or in mid-afternoon. This may include a wide variety of foods. Merenda is often similar to breakfast, and might consist of a hot milky drink with bread and honey/jam or brioches; other foods are also eaten, such as yogurt, gelato, granita, fruit salad (or just fruit), nuts, biscuits and cookies, cake, sweets, etc.

text: Supper (Cena)[edit]

text: For cena, people tend to have the same or more amount of food than for "pranzo" and usually it consists of the same kind of dishes reported above.

text: Formal meal structure[edit]

text: A structure of an Italian meal in its full form, usually performed during festivities.[1]