document_title: Porsche Cayenne

question_text: what engine is in the porsche cayenne diesel

text: Porsche Cayenne

text: First generation (2002–2010)[edit]

text:
First generation (9PA) Chassis E1

Overview

Production
2002–2010

Model years
2003–2010

Powertrain

Engine
3.2 L 240 hp (179 kW) VR6
3.6 L 290 hp (216 kW) VR6
4.5 L 340 hp (254 kW) V8 (S)
4.5 L 450 hp (336 kW) V8 TT (Turbo)
4.5 L 521 hp (389 kW) V8 Twin-turbo

Transmission
6-speed automatic
6-speed manual

Dimensions

Wheelbase
2,855 mm (112.4 in)

Length
4,780 mm (188.2 in)
Turbo: 4,783 mm (188.3 in)

Width
1,928 mm (75.9 in)

Height
1,700 mm (66.9 in)

text: The Porsche Cayenne entered the market with mixed anticipation. However, it soon proved that it was the performance vehicle among SUVs and was praised for its excellent handling and powerful engines.[3] The lineup initially consisted of the V8-powered Cayenne S and Cayenne Turbo. Later in the model cycle, VR6 and diesel-powered versions joined the lineup.

text: The base model is powered by a 3.2-L VR6 engine producing 250 PS (184 kW); modifications in the exhaust manifold allow power to peak at 6700 rpm. Acceleration from 0 to 60 mph (97 km) is approx 7.5 seconds with manual transmission and 8.1 seconds with the Tiptronic S.

text: Cayenne S[edit]

text: The S is powered by an 8-cylinder engine with a dry-sump lubrication system and variable valve timing. The Cayenne S engine produces 340 PS (250 kW) and 310 lb⋅ft (420 N⋅m) of torque. Acceleration from 0–60 mph is 7.1 seconds and the top speed is 150 mph.[4]

text: Introduced only for 2006 (Pre-GTS concept), a special distinctive Cayenne S Titanium Edition Wagon (9PA), a 1 Year exclusive, limited production SUV featuring a lightweight steel body (it is lighter than the Cayenne S), titanium-painted accented body parts, side lower rocker body panels, 4 sports chrome tailpipes, 19" titanium painted alloy wheels, bi-xenon headlights, two-tone interior upholstery, Porsche PCM w/ trip computer navigation, MP3 audio and Bose cabin surround sound. Exhaust tone is aggressive and deep, even at idle. This sporty design S(Ti) is also powered by an alloy 4.5L V8 engine with a dry-sump lubrication system and variable valve timing. The Cayenne S(Ti) engine produces healthy 340 PS (250 kW) and 310 lb·ft (420 N·m) of torque. Acceleration is quicker from 0–60 mph at sub 6.8 seconds and the top speed is 150+ mph. It featured sport tuned suspension, and includes a low-range case, a locking differential and six-speed automatic Tiptronic transmission (See Turbo & Turbo S).[3]

text: Cayenne GTS[edit]

text: The GTS is powered with a 405 PS (298 kW) 4.8-L V8 and features a sport suspension and 21-inch (530 mm) wheels. It is lighter than the Cayenne S and has an aerodynamic body kit. The Porsche Cayenne GTS has a 0 to 100 km/h (62 mph) time of 5.7 seconds. A six-speed manual transmission is also offered.[5]

text: Cayenne Turbo and Turbo S[edit]

text: The first-generation Cayenne Turbo had 450 PS (331 kW), and accelerated from 0 to 100 km/h (62 mph) in 5.3 seconds.[4] A Turbo S version was built in 2006 to compete with the Mercedes-Benz ML 63 AMG. The Cayenne Turbo and Turbo S included a low-range case, a locking differential, and the height-adjustable, off-road suspension. The S was powered by a twin-turbocharged 4.5-L V8 that produced 521 PS (383 kW) and 720 N⋅m (530 lb⋅ft) of torque; Acceleration from 0–60 mph (96 km/h) was 5.0 seconds and the top speed was 171 miles per hour; It featured a six-speed automatic Tiptronic transmission.

text: In 2008 an updated Turbo model, featuring a larger 4.8-L engine, was revealed at the Beijing auto show. It produced 50 PS (37 kW) more power, and now accelerated from 0–60 mph (96 km/h) in 4.9 seconds.[6] Also revealed with the new Turbo was a new 550-horsepower (410 kW) Turbo S. Acceleration from 0–60 mph is 4.7 seconds and it has optional ceramic composite brakes.

text: Cayenne Diesel[edit]

text: Porsche has sold a diesel version of the Cayenne powered by a 3.0-L V6 TDI engine since February 2009.[7] The engine is rated at 240 PS (177 kW; 237 hp) and 550 N⋅m (410 lb⋅ft) of torque. The car was unveiled in 2009 Geneva Motor Show.[8] The diesel can accelerate from 0–60 mph in 9.2 seconds.

text: Cayenne S Transsyberia[edit]

text: Originally a racing vehicle for Transsyberia rally, only 26 were built.[9]

text: The street version was later built to commemorate Porsche's victory in Transsyberia rally. It is a variant with the 405 hp (302 kW) direct-inject 4.8-L V8 from the Cayenne GTS. Sales began in January 2009, with a production run of 600 road vehicles.[10]

text: Cayenne GTS Porsche Design Edition 3 (2010)[edit]

text: In May 2009,[11] a limited edition version based on Cayenne GTS was introduced, designed by Porsche Design Studio and included a Porsche Design chronograph Type P’6612. Production was limited to 1000 units, 100 in the USA.[12]

text: Engines[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
Model
Production period
Engine
Power (PS, torque)@rpm

Cayenne
2003-2007
3,189 cc (3.2 L; 194.6 cu in) V6
250 PS (180 kW; 250 hp)@6000, 310 N⋅m (230 lb⋅ft)@2500

Cayenne 3.6
2007-2010
3,598 cc (3.6 L; 219.6 cu in) V6
290 PS (210 kW; 290 hp)@6200, 385 N⋅m (284 lb⋅ft)@3000

Cayenne S
2002-2007
4,511 cc (4.5 L; 275.3 cu in) V8
340 PS (250 kW; 340 hp)@6000, 420 N⋅m (310 lb⋅ft)@2500

Cayenne S(Ti) Titanium Edition
2006
4,511 cc (4.5 L; 275.3 cu in) V8
340 PS (250 kW; 340 hp)@6000, 420 N⋅m (310 lb⋅ft)@2500

Cayenne S
2007-2010
4,806 cc (4.8 L; 293.3 cu in) V8
385 PS (283 kW; 380 hp)@6200, 500 N⋅m (370 lb⋅ft)@3500

Cayenne S Transsyberia
2009
4,806 cc (4.8 L; 293.3 cu in) V8
405 PS (298 kW; 399 hp)@6500, 500 N⋅m (370 lb⋅ft)@3500

Cayenne GTS
2008-2010
4,806 cc (4.8 L; 293.3 cu in) V8
405 PS (298 kW; 399 hp)@6500, 500 N⋅m (370 lb⋅ft)@3500

Cayenne GTS Porsche Design Edition 3
2009-2009
4,806 cc (4.8 L; 293.3 cu in) V8
405 PS (298 kW; 399 hp)@6500, 500 N⋅m (370 lb⋅ft)@3500

Cayenne Turbo
2002-2007
4,511 cc (4.5 L; 275.3 cu in) twin turbo V8
450 PS (330 kW; 440 hp)@6000, 620 N⋅m (460 lb⋅ft)@2250

Cayenne Turbo
2007-2010
4,806 cc (4.8 L; 293.3 cu in) twin turbo V8
500 PS (370 kW; 490 hp)@6000, 700 N⋅m (520 lb⋅ft)@4500

Cayenne Turbo S
2006-2007
4,511 cc (4.5 L; 275.3 cu in) twin turbo V8
520 PS (380 kW; 510 hp)@5500, 720 N⋅m (530 lb⋅ft)@2750

Cayenne Turbo S
2008-2010
4,806 cc (4.8 L; 293.3 cu in) twin turbo V8
550 PS (400 kW; 540 hp)@6000, 750 N⋅m (550 lb⋅ft)@2250

Cayenne Diesel
2009-2010
2,967 cc (3.0 L; 181.1 cu in) V6
240 PS (180 kW; 240 hp)@4000, 550 N⋅m (410 lb⋅ft)@2000

text: Second generation (2010–2017)[edit]

text:
Second generation (92A) Chassis E2

Overview

Production
2010-2017

Model years
2011-2017

Powertrain

Engine
petrol
3.0 S/C V6 333PS
3.6 VR6 300PS
4.8 V8 400PS / 420PS
4.8 T V8 500PS / 550PS
diesel
3.0 V6 250PS
4.1 V8 385 PS

Transmission
6-Speed ZF Manual [13]
8-Speed Aisin Tiptronic S Automatic[14]

Dimensions

Wheelbase
2,895 mm (114.0 in)

Length
4,846 mm (190.8 in) (2010-14)
4,855 mm (191.1 in)(2014-)

Width
1,938 mm (76.3 in) (2010-14)
1,939 mm (76.3 in)(2014-)

Height
1,705 mm (67.1 in)

Curb weight
2085 kg to 2215 kg (DIN)

text: The second-generation Porsche Cayenne went on sale in April–May 2010 as a 2011 model, with an official debut at the 2010 Geneva Motor Show. In preparation for the unveiling, the Cayenne production facility in Leipzig, Germany, closed in December 2009 to commence factory retooling for the new model, a process that took 2–3 months.[citation needed]

text: The 2011 Porsche Cayenne is larger than its predecessors, but features a more slanted rear window, less upright windshield, a more sloping roofline, door-mounted mirrors, smaller windows at the rear of the vehicle, headlights inspired by the Carrera GT, taillights that extend onto the car's tailgate, LED daytime running lights and a vastly redesigned interior modeled after the Panamera.[15] The 2011 Cayenne is almost 250 kg (550 lb) lighter than the previous models due to extensive use of aluminum and magnesium, making it more fuel efficient than the previous lineup.[16] Despite its lower stance, the new vehicle's off-road capabilities have been retained without compromising the street performance-oriented layout and design.[citation needed]. In addition to a diesel offering, a hybrid version is available.[17] Also, model year 2013 - 2016 diesel Porsche Cayennes are included in the Volkswagen emissions scandal.

text: Standard features of the 2011 Porsche Cayenne include air conditioning with dual-zone climate controls, interior air filter, tilt/telescopic leather-wrapped steering wheel with radio controls, cruise control, leather upholstery, eight-way power front seats, outside-temperature indicator, and universal garage door opener in the base model. The Cayenne S adds a power sunroof and memory for the driver's seat.[16] The Cayenne GTS added an optional rearview camera, keyless access and start, and memory system. Finally, the most upscale Cayenne Turbo and Turbo S added a navigation system with voice recognition, optional four-zone climate controls, heated rear seats, premium sound system with six-disc CD changer.[18]

text: The Cayenne's naturally aspirated and turbocharged V8 engines are shared with the Panamera and have been upgraded for faster acceleration times with more horsepower and torque, as well as more powerful direct-injection technology to improve efficiency. The base Cayenne model Cayenne is tuned to offer 300 hp.[citation needed]

text: The Cayenne comes powered by a 3.6-L VR6 engine producing 300 PS (221 kW; 296 hp), the Cayenne S features the same 4.8-L V8 in the Panamera S models producing 400 PS (294 kW; 395 hp) and the Cayenne Turbo comes with Panamera Turbo's 4.8-L twin turbo V8 producing 500 PS (368 kW; 493 hp).[16] The Cayenne S Hybrid uses an Volkswagen-sourced 3.0-L V6 engine producing 333 PS (245 kW; 328 hp) paired with a nickel metal hydride battery capable of 47 PS (35 kW; 46 hp) for a total of 380 PS (279 kW; 375 hp).[19] A manual gearbox serves as the standard transmission system on the base Cayenne, with all other models featuring an eight-speed Tiptronic as standard equipment. The low-range transfer case found in the previous generation has been removed. All vehicles will feature about 10% less weight than their predecessors, 70 kg worth of standard equipment in excess of that found on the current model and a more heavily contoured rear bench.[citation needed]

text: Available Porsche Dynamic Chassis Control (PDCC) active anti-roll bars,[20] Adaptive air suspension and Porsche Active Suspension Management (PASM).

text: In September 2012 Porsche announced the Cayenne S Diesel.[21] This model is fitted with the Volkswagen 4.1-L V8 TDI engine. In October 2012, Porsche confirmed the addition of a new Cayenne Turbo S.[22]

text: In July 2014, Porsche launched a facelifted Cayenne range, with minor exterior alterations and new power-train options, including a plug-in E-Hybrid and downsizing of the S model's 4.8-L V8 to a turbocharged 3.6-L V6.[citation needed]

text: Hybrid[edit]

text: At the IAA 2005, Porsche announced it would produce a hybrid version of the Cayenne before 2010 (Porsche Cayenne Hybrid). Two years later, at the IAA 2007, Porsche presented a functioning Cayenne Hybrid and demonstration model of the drivetrain.[citation needed]

text: Notable modifications to this car include an electric vacuum pump and hydraulic steering pump, allowing the car to function even when the engine is deactivated. A 288-volt nickel metal hydride battery is placed under the boot floor, occupying the space normally used for a spare tire.[23]

text: The production version, called the S Hybrid, was launched in 2010, with a 3.0-L petrol V6 linked with an electric motor to achieve CO2 emissions of 193 g/km.[24] The S Hybrid was launched in the U.S. market in November 2010.[25]

text: Plug-in hybrid[edit]

text: In July 2014, Porsche announced the launch of the Porsche Cayenne S E-Hybrid, a plug-in hybrid with an all-electric range between 18 and 36 km (11 and 22 mi) under the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) standard. The plug-in model displaced the Cayenne S Hybrid from the line up, and it is part of the revised range. The Cayenne S E-Hybrid is the first plug-in hybrid in the premium SUV segment, allowing Porsche to become the first automaker with three production plug-in hybrid models.[26] Deliveries in Germany were scheduled to begin in October 2014.[27] Sales in the U.S. began in November 2014.[28]

text: The following are the official EPA ratings of the Cayenne S E-Hybrid compared with the others models of the 2015 line up available in the U.S.:

text:
Vehicle
Model
year
Operating
mode
(AER)
EPA fuel economy ratings[29]

Combined
City
Highway

Porsche Cayenne S E-Hybrid
2015
Electricity
and gasoline
(14 mi)
47 mpg-e
(69 kWh/100 mi)
-
-

Gasoline only
22 mpg
-
-

Porsche Cayenne Diesel
2015
Diesel only
23 mpg
20 mpg
29 mpg

Porsche Cayenne S
2015
Gasoline only
20 mpg
17 mpg
24 mpg

Porsche Cayenne Turbo
2015
Gasoline only
17 mpg
14 mpg
21 mpg

text: Engines[edit]

text:
Model
Production period
Engine
Power (PS, torque)@rpm
Emissions CO2

Cayenne
2010-2014
3,598 cc (3.6 L; 219.6 cu in) VR6
300 PS (220 kW; 300 hp)@6300, 400 N⋅m (300 lb⋅ft)@3000
236 g/km

Cayenne
2014-2018
3,598 cc (3.6 L; 219.6 cu in) VR6
300 PS (220 kW; 300 hp)@6300, 400 N⋅m (300 lb⋅ft)@3000
215 g/km

Cayenne S
2010-2014
4,806 cc (4.8 L; 293.3 cu in) V8
400 PS (290 kW; 390 hp)@6500, 500 N⋅m (370 lb⋅ft)@3500
245 g/km

Cayenne S
2014-2018
3,604 cc (3.6 L; 219.9 cu in) twin turbo V6
420 PS (310 kW; 410 hp)@6000, 500 N⋅m (370 lb⋅ft)@1350
223 g/km

Cayenne S Hybrid
2010-2014
2,995 cc (3.0 L; 182.8 cu in) V6
333 PS (245 kW; 328 hp)@5250, 440 N⋅m (320 lb⋅ft)@3000
193 g/km

Cayenne S E-Hybrid
2014-2018
2,995 cc (3.0 L; 182.8 cu in) V6
416 PS (306 kW; 410 hp)@5500, 590 N⋅m (440 lb⋅ft)@3000
79 g/km

Cayenne GTS
2010-2014
4,806 cc (4.8 L; 293.3 cu in) V8
420 PS (310 kW; 410 hp)@6500, 515 N⋅m (380 lb⋅ft)@3500
251 g/km

Cayenne GTS
2015-2018
3,604 cc (3.6 L; 219.9 cu in) twin turbo V6
440 PS (320 kW; 430 hp)@6000, 600 N⋅m (440 lb⋅ft)@1600
228 g/km

Cayenne Turbo
2010-2014
4,806 cc (4.8 L; 293.3 cu in) twin turbo V8
500 PS (370 kW; 490 hp)@6000, 700 N⋅m (520 lb⋅ft)@2250
270 g/km

Cayenne Turbo
2014-2018
4,806 cc (4.8 L; 293.3 cu in) twin turbo V8
520 PS (380 kW; 510 hp)@6000, 750 N⋅m (550 lb⋅ft)@2250
261 g/km

Cayenne Turbo S
2010-2014
4,806 cc (4.8 L; 293.3 cu in) twin turbo V8
550 PS (400 kW; 540 hp)@6000, 750 N⋅m (550 lb⋅ft)@2250
270 g/km

Cayenne Turbo S
2015-2018
4,806 cc (4.8 L; 293.3 cu in) twin turbo V8
570 PS (420 kW; 560 hp)@6000, 800 N⋅m (590 lb⋅ft)@2500
267 g/km

Cayenne Diesel
2010-2011
2,967 cc (3.0 L; 181.1 cu in) V6
240 PS (180 kW; 240 hp)@4000, 550 N⋅m (410 lb⋅ft)@2000

Cayenne Diesel
2011-2014
2,967 cc (3.0 L; 181.1 cu in) V6
245 PS (180 kW; 242 hp)@4000, 550 N⋅m (410 lb⋅ft)@1750
189 g/km

Cayenne Diesel
2012-2018
2,967 cc (3.0 L; 181.1 cu in) V6
262 PS (193 kW; 258 hp)@4000, 580 N⋅m (430 lb⋅ft)@1750
173 g/km

Cayenne S Diesel
2014-2018
4,134 cc (4.1 L; 252.3 cu in) V8
385 PS (283 kW; 380 hp)@3750, 850 N⋅m (630 lb⋅ft)@2000
209 g/km

text: Guinness World Record[edit]

text: On 1 May 2017, a 2017 Porsche Cayenne S Diesel set the Guinness World Record for heaviest aircraft pulled by a production car. The Cayenne towed a 285 ton Air France Airbus A380 to a distance of 42 meters, breaking the previous 2013 record of a Nissan Patrol towing a 170 ton Ilyushin Il-76 to a distance of 50 meters.[30] After the attempt Porsche repeated the test using a petrol-powered Cayenne Turbo S with 800 Nm of torque, 50 Nm less than the S Diesel, in an effort to prove the Cayenne's remarkable ability.[31]

text: Third generation (2017–present)[edit]

text:
Third generation (PO536)

Porsche Cayenne (Third Generation)

Overview

Production
2017–present

Model years
2018–present (Europe)
2019–present (US&Canada)

Designer
Michael Mauer

Body and chassis

Related
Volkswagen Touareg
Audi Q7
Audi Q8
Bentley Bentayga
Audi A4
Audi A5
Audi A8
Porsche Panamera
Lamborghini Urus

Powertrain

Engine
Petrol:
3.0 L Audi V6 Turbo FSI
2.9 L Audi V6 Twin-turbo FSI
4.0 L Audi-Porsche V8 Twin-turbo

Transmission
8-speed ZF automatic

text: The third-generation Porsche Cayenne was revealed online on August 29, 2017 as a 2019 model, based on the Volkswagen Group MLB platform.[32]

text: Engines[edit]

text: All engines of the third generation models are turbocharged.[32]

text:
Model
Production period
Engine
Power (PS, torque)@rpm
Emissions CO2

Cayenne
2019-
2,995 cc (3.0 L; 182.8 cu in) V6
340 PS (250 kW; 340 hp)@5300-6400, 450 N⋅m (330 lb⋅ft)@1340-5300
205 g/km

Cayenne S
2019-
2,894 cc (2.9 L; 176.6 cu in) V6
440 PS (320 kW; 430 hp)@5700-6600, 550 N⋅m (410 lb⋅ft)@1800-5500
209 g/km

Cayenne Turbo
2019-
3,996 cc (4.0 L; 243.9 cu in) V8
558 PS (410 kW; 550 hp)@5750, 770 N⋅m (570 lb⋅ft)@1960
272-267 g/km


document_title: Sydney Harbour Bridge

question_text: when did construction start on the sydney harbour bridge

question_tokens: when did construction start on the sydney harbour bridge

root

text: Sydney Harbour Bridge

text: Structure[edit]

text: The southern end of the bridge is located at Dawes Point in The Rocks area, and the northern end at Milsons Point in the lower North Shore area. There are six original lanes of road traffic through the main roadway, plus an additional two lanes of road traffic on its eastern side, using lanes that were formerly tram tracks. Adjacent to the road traffic, a path for pedestrian use runs along the eastern side of the bridge, whilst a dedicated path for bicycle use only runs along the western side; between the main roadway and the western bicycle path are two lanes used for railway tracks, servicing the T1 North Shore Line for Sydney Trains.

tag: p

text: The main roadway across the bridge is known as the Bradfield Highway and is about 2.4 km (1.5 mi) long, making it one of the shortest highways in Australia.[citation needed]

text: Arch[edit]

text: The arch is composed of two 28-panel arch trusses; their heights vary from 18 m (59 ft) at the centre of the arch to 57 m (187 ft) at the ends next to the pylons.[10]

text: The arch has a span of 504 m (1,654 ft) and its summit is 134 m (440 ft) above mean sea level; expansion of the steel structure on hot days can increase the height of the arch by  18 cm (7.1 in).[11]

text: The total weight of the steelwork of the bridge, including the arch and approach spans, is 52,800 tonnes (52,000 long tons; 58,200 short tons), with the arch itself weighing 39,000 tonnes (38,000 long tons; 43,000 short tons).[12] About 79% of the steel was imported from England, with the rest being sourced from Newcastle.[13] On site, the contractors (Dorman Long and Co.) set up two workshops at Milsons Point, at the site of the present day Luna Park, and fabricated the steel into the girders and other required parts.[13]

text: The bridge is held together by six million Australian-made hand-driven rivets supplied by the McPherson company of Melbourne,[14][15] the last being driven through the deck on 21 January 1932.[13][16] The rivets were heated red-hot and inserted into the plates; the headless end was immediately rounded over with a large pneumatic rivet gun.[17] The largest of the rivets used weighed 3.5 kg (8 lb) and was 39.5 cm (15.6 in) long.[12][18] The practice of riveting large steel structures, rather than welding, was, at the time, a proven and understood construction technique, whilst structural welding had not at that stage been adequately developed for use on the bridge.[17]

text: Pylons[edit]

text: At each end of the arch stands a pair of 89 m (292 ft) high concrete pylons, faced with granite.[19] The pylons were designed by the Scottish architect Thomas S. Tait,[20] a partner in the architectural firm John Burnet & Partners.[21]

text: Some 250 Australian, Scottish, and Italian stonemasons and their families relocated to a temporary settlement at Moruya, NSW, 300 km (186 mi) south of Sydney, where they quarried around 18,000 m3 (635,664 cu ft) of granite for the bridge pylons.[13] The stonemasons cut, dressed, and numbered the blocks, which were then transported to Sydney on three ships built specifically for this purpose. The Moruya quarry was managed by John Gilmore, a Scottish stonemason who emigrated, with his young family to Australia in 1924, at the request of the project managers.[13][22][23] The concrete used was also Australian-made and supplied from Railton, Tasmania.[24]

text: Abutments at the base of the pylons are essential to support the loads from the arch and hold its span firmly in place, but the pylons themselves have no structural purpose. They were included to provide a frame for the arch panels and to give better visual balance to the bridge. The pylons were not part of the original design, and were only added to allay public concern about the structural integrity of the bridge.[25]

text: Although originally added to the bridge solely for their aesthetic value, all four pylons have now been put to use. The south-eastern pylon contains a museum and tourist centre, with a 360° lookout at the top providing views across the harbour and city. The south-western pylon is used by the New South Wales Roads and Traffic Authority (RTA) to support its CCTV cameras overlooking the bridge and the roads around that area. The two pylons on the north shore include venting chimneys for fumes from the Sydney Harbour Tunnel, with the base of the southern pylon containing the RMS maintenance shed for the bridge, and the base of the northern pylon containing the traffic management shed for tow trucks and safety vehicles used on the bridge.[citation needed]

text: In 1942 the pylons were modified to include parapets and anti-aircraft guns designed to assist in both Australia's defence and general war effort.[26]The top level of stonework was never removed.[citation needed]

text: History[edit]

text: Early proposals[edit]

text: There had been plans to build a bridge as early as 1815, when convict and noted architect Francis Greenway reputedly proposed to Governor Lachlan Macquarie that a bridge be built from the northern to the southern shore of the harbour.[7][27] In 1825, Greenway wrote a letter to the then "The Australian" newspaper stating that such a bridge would "give an idea of strength and magnificence that would reflect credit and glory on the colony and the Mother Country".[27]

text: Nothing came of Greenway's suggestions, but the idea remained alive, and many further suggestions were made during the nineteenth century. In 1840, naval architect Robert Brindley proposed that a floating bridge be built. Engineer Peter Henderson produced one of the earliest known drawings of a bridge across the harbour around 1857. A suggestion for a truss bridge was made in 1879, and in 1880 a high-level bridge estimated at $850,000 was proposed.[27]

text: In 1900, the Lyne government committed to building a new Central railway station and organised a worldwide competition for the design and construction of a harbour bridge. Local engineer Norman Selfe submitted a design for a suspension bridge and won the second prize of £500. In 1902, when the outcome of the first competition became mired in controversy, Selfe won a second competition outright, with a design for a steel cantilever bridge. The selection board were unanimous, commenting that, "The structural lines are correct and in true proportion, and... the outline is graceful".[28] However due to an economic downturn and a change of government at the 1904 NSW State election construction never began.[citation needed]

text: A unique three-span bridge was proposed in 1922 by Ernest Stowe with connections at Balls Head, Millers Point, and Balmain with a memorial tower and hub on Goat Island.[29][30]

text: Planning[edit]

text: In 1914 John Bradfield was appointed "Chief Engineer of Sydney Harbour Bridge and Metropolitan Railway Construction", and his work on the project over many years earned him the legacy as the "father" of the bridge.[4] Bradfield's preference at the time was for a cantilever bridge without piers, and in 1916 the NSW Legislative Assembly passed a bill for such a construction, however it did not proceed as the Legislative Council rejected the legislation on the basis that the money would be better spent on the war effort.[27]

text: Following World War I, plans to build the bridge again built momentum.[7] Bradfield persevered with the project, fleshing out the details of the specifications and financing for his cantilever bridge proposal, and in 1921 he travelled overseas to investigate tenders. On return from his travels Bradfield decided that an arch design would also be suitable[27] and he and officers of the NSW Department of Public Works prepared a general design[4][7] for a single-arch bridge based upon New York City's Hell Gate Bridge.[6][31] In 1922 the government passed the Sydney Harbour Bridge Act No. 28, specifying the construction of a high-level cantilever or arch bridge across the harbour between Dawes Point and Milsons Point, along with construction of necessary approaches and electric railway lines,[27] and worldwide tenders were invited for the project.[4]

text: As a result of the tendering process, the government received twenty proposals from six companies; on 24 March 1924 the contract was awarded to British firm Dorman Long and Co Ltd, of Middlesbrough well known as the contractors who built the similar Tyne Bridge of Newcastle Upon Tyne, for an arch bridge at a quoted price of AU£4,217,721 11s 10d.[4][27] The arch design was cheaper than alternative cantilever and suspension bridge proposals, and also provided greater rigidity making it better suited for the heavy loads expected.[27]

text: Bradfield and his staff were ultimately to oversee the entire bridge design and building process, while Dorman Long and Co's Consulting Engineer, Sir Ralph Freeman of Sir Douglas Fox and Partners, and his associate Mr. G.C. Imbault, carried out the detailed design and erection process of the bridge.[4] Architects for the contractors were from the British firm John Burnet & Partners of Glasgow, Scotland.[21]

text: The building of the bridge coincided with the construction of a system of underground railways in Sydney's CBD, known today as the City Circle, and the bridge was designed with this in mind. The bridge was designed to carry six lanes of road traffic, flanked on each side by two railway tracks and a footpath. Both sets of rail tracks were linked into the underground Wynyard railway station on the south (city) side of the bridge by symmetrical ramps and tunnels. The eastern-side railway tracks were intended for use by a planned rail link to the Northern Beaches;[32] in the interim they were used to carry trams from the North Shore into a terminal within Wynyard station, and when tram services were discontinued in 1958, they were converted into extra traffic lanes. The Bradfield Highway, which is the main roadway section of the bridge and its approaches, is named in honour of Bradfield's contribution to the bridge.

text: Construction[edit]

text: The building of the bridge was under the management of Bradfield. Three other people heavily involved in the bridge's design and construction were Lawrence Ennis, Edward Judge, and Sir Ralph Freeman. Ennis was the engineer-in-charge at Dorman Long and Co and the main on-site supervisor (Bradfield visited occasionally throughout the project and, in particular, at many key stages of the project, to inspect progress and make managerial decisions), Judge was chief technical engineer of Dorman Long, and Freeman was hired by the company to design the accepted model in further detail. Later a bitter disagreement broke out between Bradfield and Freeman as to who actually designed the bridge.

text: The official ceremony to mark the "turning of the first sod" occurred on 28 July 1923, on the spot at Milsons Point on the north shore where two workshops to assist in building the bridge were to be constructed.[33]

text: An estimated 469 buildings on the north shore, both private homes and commercial operations, were demolished to allow construction to proceed, with little or no compensation being paid. Work on the bridge itself commenced with the construction of approaches and approach spans, and by September 1926 concrete piers to support the approach spans were in place on each side of the harbour.[33]

text: As construction of the approaches took place, work was also started on preparing the foundations required to support the enormous weight of the arch and loadings. Concrete and granite faced abutment towers were constructed, with the angled foundations built into their sides.[33]

text: Once work had progressed sufficiently on the support structures, a giant "creeper crane" was erected on each side of the harbour.[34] These cranes were fitted with a cradle, and then used to hoist men and materials into position to allow for erection of the steelwork. To stabilise works while building the arches, tunnels were excavated on each shore with steel cables passed through them and then fixed to the upper sections of each half-arch to stop them collapsing as they extended outwards.[33]

text: Arch construction itself began on 26 October 1928. The southern end of the bridge was worked on ahead of the northern end, to detect any errors and to help with alignment. The cranes would "creep" along the arches as they were constructed, eventually meeting up in the middle. In less than two years, on Tuesday, 19 August 1930, the two halves of the arch touched for the first time. Workers riveted both top and bottom sections of the arch together, and the arch became self-supporting, allowing the support cables to be removed. On 20 August 1930 the joining of the arches was celebrated by flying the flags of Australia and the United Kingdom from the jibs of the creeper cranes.[33]

text: Once the arch was completed, the creeper cranes were then worked back down the arches, allowing the roadway and other parts of the bridge to be constructed from the centre out. The vertical hangers were attached to the arch, and these were then joined with horizontal crossbeams. The deck for the roadway and railway were built on top of the crossbeams, with the deck itself being completed by June 1931, and the creeper cranes were dismantled. Rails for trains and trams were laid, and road was surfaced using concrete topped with asphalt.[33] Power and telephone lines, and water, gas, and drainage pipes were also all added to the bridge in 1931.[citation needed]

text: The pylons were built atop the abutment towers, with construction advancing rapidly from July 1931. Carpenters built wooden scaffolding, with concreters and masons then setting the masonry and pouring the concrete behind it. Gangers built the steelwork in the towers, while day labourers manually cleaned the granite with wire brushes. The last stone of the north-west pylon was set in place on 15 January 1932, and the timber towers used to support the cranes were removed.[19][33]

text: On 19 January 1932, the first test train, a steam locomotive, safely crossed the bridge.[35] Load testing of the bridge took place in February 1932, with the four rail tracks being loaded with as many as 96 steam locomotives positioned end-to-end. The bridge underwent testing for three weeks, after which it was declared safe and ready to be opened.[33] The construction worksheds were demolished after the bridge was completed, and the land that they were on is now occupied by Luna Park.[36]

text: The standards of industrial safety during construction were poor by today's standards. Sixteen workers died during construction,[37] but surprisingly only two from falling off the bridge. Several more were injured from unsafe working practices undertaken whilst heating and inserting its rivets, and the deafness experienced by many of the workers in later years was blamed on the project. Henri Mallard between 1930 and 1932 produced hundreds of stills[38] and film footage[39] which reveal at close quarters the bravery of the workers in tough Depression-era conditions.[citation needed]

text: Interviews were conducted between 1982-1989 with a variety of tradesmen who worked on the building of the bridge. Among the tradesmen interviewed were drillers, riveters, concrete packers, boilermakers, riggers, ironworkers, plasterers, stonemasons, an official photographer, sleepcutters, engineers and draughtsmen.[40]

text: The total financial cost of the bridge was AU£6.25 million, which was not paid off in full until 1988.[41]

text: Opening[edit]

text: The bridge was formally opened on Saturday, 19 March 1932.[42] Amongst those who attended and gave speeches were the Governor of New South Wales, Sir Philip Game, and the Minister for Public Works, Lawrence Ennis. The Premier of New South Wales, Jack Lang, was to open the bridge by cutting a ribbon at its southern end.[citation needed]

text: However, just as Lang was about to cut the ribbon, a man in military uniform rode up on a horse, slashing the ribbon with his sword and opening the Sydney Harbour Bridge in the name of the people of New South Wales before the official ceremony began. He was promptly arrested.[43] The ribbon was hurriedly retied and Lang performed the official opening ceremony and Game thereafter inaugurated the name of the bridge as 'Sydney Harbour Bridge' and the associated roadway as the 'Bradfield Highway'. After they did so, there was a 21-gun salute and an RAAF flypast. The intruder was identified as Francis de Groot. He was convicted of offensive behaviour and fined £5 after a psychiatric test proved he was sane, but this verdict was reversed on appeal. De Groot then successfully sued the Commissioner of Police for wrongful arrest, and was awarded an undisclosed out of court settlement. De Groot was a member of a right-wing paramilitary group called the New Guard, opposed to Lang's leftist policies and resentful of the fact that a member of the Royal Family had not been asked to open the bridge.[43] De Groot was not a member of the regular army but his uniform allowed him to blend in with the real cavalry. This incident was one of several involving Lang and the New Guard during that year.[44]

text: A similar ribbon-cutting ceremony on the bridge's northern side by North Sydney's mayor, Alderman Primrose, was carried out without incident. It was later discovered that Primrose was also a New Guard member but his role in and knowledge of the de Groot incident, if any, are unclear.[citation needed] The pair of golden scissors used in the ribbon cutting ceremonies on both sides of the bridge was also used to cut the ribbon at the dedication of the Bayonne Bridge, which had opened in Bayonne, New Jersey, close to New York City, the year before.[45][46]

text:
Despite the bridge opening in the midst of the Great Depression, opening celebrations were organised by the Citizens of Sydney Organising Committee, an influential body of prominent men and politicians that formed in 1931 under the chairmanship of the Lord Mayor to oversee the festivities. The celebrations included an array of decorated floats, a procession of passenger ships sailing below the bridge, and a Venetian Carnival.[47] A message from a primary school in Tottenham, 515 km (320 mi) away in rural New South Wales, arrived at the bridge on the day and was presented at the opening ceremony. It had been carried all the way from Tottenham to the bridge by relays of school children, with the final relay being run by two children from the nearby Fort Street Boys' and Girls' schools.
After the official ceremonies, the public was allowed to walk across the bridge on the deck, something that would not be repeated until the 50th anniversary celebrations.[27] Estimates suggest that between 300,000 and one million people took part in the opening festivities,[27] a phenomenal number given that the entire population of Sydney at the time was estimated to be 1,256,000.[48]

text: There had also been numerous preparatory arrangements. On 14 March 1932, three postage stamps were issued to commemorate the imminent opening of the bridge. Several songs were composed for the occasion.[49]

text: The bridge itself was regarded as a triumph over Depression times, earning the nickname "the Iron Lung", as it kept many Depression-era workers employed.[50]

text: Operations[edit]

text: In 2010, the average daily traffic included 204 trains, 160,435 vehicles and 1650 bicycles.[51]

text: Road[edit]

text: From the Sydney CBD side, motor vehicle access to the bridge is normally via Grosvenor Street, Clarence Street, Kent Street, the Cahill Expressway, or the Western Distributor. Drivers on the northern side will find themselves on the Warringah Freeway, though it is easy to turn off the freeway to drive westwards into North Sydney or eastwards to Neutral Bay and beyond upon arrival on the northern side.[citation needed]

text: The bridge originally only had four wider traffic lanes occupying the central space which now has six, as photos taken soon after the opening clearly show. In 1958 tram services across the bridge were withdrawn and the tracks replaced by two extra road lanes; these lanes are now the leftmost southbound lanes on the bridge and are still clearly distinguishable from the other six road lanes. Lanes 7 and 8 now connect the bridge to the elevated Cahill Expressway that carries traffic to the Eastern Distributor.

text: In 1988, work began to build a tunnel to complement the bridge. It was determined that the bridge could no longer support the increased traffic flow of the 1980s. The Sydney Harbour Tunnel was completed in August 1992 and carries only motor vehicles.

text: The Bradfield Highway is designated as a Travelling Stock Route[52] which means that it is permissible to herd livestock across the bridge, but only between midnight and dawn, and after giving notice of intention to do so. In practice, owing to the high-density urban nature of modern Sydney, and the relocation of abattoirs and markets, this has not taken place for approximately half a century.[citation needed]

text: Tidal flow[edit]

text: The bridge is equipped for tidal flow operation, permitting the direction of traffic flow on the bridge to be altered to better suit the morning and evening rush hours' traffic patterns.[53]

text: The bridge has eight lanes in total, numbered one to eight from west to east. Lanes three, four and five are reversible. One and two always flow north. Six, seven, and eight always flow south. The default is four each way. For the morning rush hour, the lane changes on the bridge also require changes to the Warringah Freeway, with its inner western reversible carriageway directing traffic to the bridge lane numbers three and four southbound.[citation needed]

text: The bridge has a series of overhead gantries which indicate the direction of flow for each traffic lane. A green arrow pointing down to a traffic lane means the lane is open. A flashing red "X" indicates the lane is closing, but is not yet in use for traffic travelling in the other direction. A static red "X" means the lane is in use for oncoming traffic. This arrangement was introduced in the 1990s, replacing a slow operation where lane markers were manually moved to mark the centre median.[citation needed]

text: It is possible to see odd arrangements of flow during night periods when maintenance occurs, which may involve completely closing some lanes. Normally this is done between midnight and dawn, because of the enormous traffic demands placed on the bridge outside these hours.[citation needed]

text: Tolls[edit]

text:
The vehicular traffic lanes on the bridge are operated as a toll road. As of 27 January 2009 there is a variable tolling system for all vehicles headed into the CBD (southbound). The toll paid is dependent on the time of day in which the vehicle passes through the toll plaza. The toll varies from a minimum value of $2.50 to a maximum value of $4.[54] There is no toll for northbound traffic (though taxis travelling north may charge passengers the toll in anticipation of the toll the taxi must pay on the return journey). There are toll plazas at the northern and southern ends. The two eastern lanes (which continue over the Cahill Expressway at the southern end of the bridge) have their tollbooths at the northern end, while the other southbound lanes (for CBD traffic) are serviced by tollbooths at the southern end of the bridge. There is a bridge-long median strip between lanes 6 and 7 to separate traffic which has already paid the toll (at the northern end) from other southbound traffic (which must pay the toll at the southern end), and these toll booths clearly can be seen on "Google Earth".
The toll was originally placed on travel across the bridge, in both directions, to recoup the cost of its construction. This cost was recovered in the 1980s, but the toll has been kept (indeed increased) by the state government's Roads and Traffic Authority to recoup the costs of the Sydney Harbour Tunnel.[citation needed]

text: After the decision to build the Sydney Harbour Tunnel was made in the early 1980s, the toll was increased (from 20 cents to $1, then to $1.50, and finally to $2 by the time the tunnel opened) to pay for its construction. The tunnel also had an initial toll of $2 southbound. After the increase to $1, the concrete barrier on the bridge separating the Bradfield Highway from the Cahill Expressway was increased in height, because of the large numbers of drivers crossing it illegally from lane 6 to 7, to avoid the toll. The toll for all southbound vehicles was increased to $3 in March 2004.[citation needed]

text: Originally it cost a car or motorcycle six pence to cross, a horse and rider being three pence. Use of the bridge by bicycle riders (provided that they use the cycleway) and by pedestrians is free. Later governments capped the fee for motorcycles at one-quarter of the passenger-vehicle cost, but now it is again the same as the cost for a passenger vehicle, although quarterly flat-fee passes are available which are much cheaper for frequent users.[55]

text: In July 2008 a new electronic tolling system called e-TAG was introduced. The Sydney Harbour Tunnel was converted to this new tolling system while the Sydney Harbour Bridge itself had several cash lanes. The electronic system as of 12 January 2009 has now replaced all booths with E-tag lanes.[56] In January 2017 work commenced to remove the southern toll booths.[57]

text: Pedestrians[edit]

text: The pedestrian-only footway is located on the east side of the bridge. Access from the northern side involves climbing an easily spotted flight of stairs, located on the east side of the bridge at Broughton St, Kirribilli. Pedestrian access on the southern side is more complicated, but signposts in the Rocks area now direct pedestrians to the long and sheltered flight of stairs that leads to the bridge's southern end. These stairs are located near Gloucester Street and Cumberland Street.[citation needed]

text: The bridge can also be approached from the south by accessing Cahill Walk, which runs along the Cahill Expressway. Pedestrians can access this walkway from the east end of Circular Quay by a flight of stairs or a lift. Alternatively it can be accessed from the Botanic Gardens.[citation needed]

text: Cyclists[edit]

text: The bike-only cycleway is located on the western side of the bridge. Access from the northern side involves carrying or pushing a bicycle up a staircase, consisting of 55 steps, located on the western side of the bridge at Burton St, Milsons Point. A wide smooth concrete strip in the centre of the stairs permits cycles to be wheeled up and down from the bridge deck whilst the rider is dismounted. A campaign to eliminate the steps on this popular cycling route to the CBD has been running since at least 2008.[58][59] On 7 December 2016 the NSW Roads Minister Duncan Gay confirmed that the northern stairway would be replaced with a A$20 million ramp alleviating the needs for cyclists to dismount. At the same time the NSW Government announced plans to upgrade the southern ramp at a projected cost of A$20 million. Both projects are expected to completed by late 2020.[60][61][62] Access to the cycleway on the southern side is via the northern end of the Kent Street cycleway and/or Upper Fort Street in The Rocks.[63]

text: Rail[edit]

text: The bridge lies between Milsons Point and Wynyard railway stations, located on the north and south shores respectively, with two tracks running along the western side of the bridge. These tracks are part of the North Shore railway line.

text: In 1958 tram services across the bridge were withdrawn and the tracks they had used were removed and replaced by two extra road lanes; these lanes are now the leftmost southbound lanes on the bridge and are still clearly distinguishable from the other six road lanes. The original ramp that took the trams into their terminus at the underground Wynyard railway station is still visible at the southern end of the main walkway under lanes 7 and 8, although around 1964, the former tram tunnels and station were converted for use as a carpark for the Menzies Hotel and as public parking. One of the tunnels was converted for use as a storage facility after reportedly being used by the NSW police as a pistol firing range.[64]

text: Maintenance[edit]

text: The Sydney Harbour Bridge requires constant inspections and other maintenance work to keep it safe for the public, and to protect from corrosion. Among the trades employed on the bridge are painters, ironworkers, boilermakers, fitters, electricians, plasterers, carpenters, plumbers, and riggers.[31]

text: The most noticeable maintenance work on the bridge involves painting. The steelwork of the bridge that needs to be painted is a combined 485,000 m2 (120 acres), the equivalent of sixty football fields. Each coat on the bridge requires some 30,000 L (6,600 imp gal) of paint.[31] A special fast-drying paint is used, so that any paint drops have dried before reaching the vehicles or bridge surface.[18] One notable identity from previous bridge-painting crews is Australian comedian and actor Paul Hogan, who worked as a bridge painter before rising to media fame in the 1970s.[7]

text: In 2003 the Roads & Traffic Authority began completely repainting the southern approach spans of the bridge. This involved removing the old lead-based paint, and repainting the 90,000 m2 (22 acres) of steel below the deck. Workers operated from self-contained platforms below the deck, with each platform having an air extraction system to filter airborne particles. An abrasive blasting was used, with the lead waste collected and safely removed from the site for disposal.[31]

text: Between December 2006 and March 2010 the bridge was subject to works designed to ensure its longevity. The work included some strengthening.[65]

text: Since 2013, two grit-blasting robots specially developed with the University of Technology, Sydney have been employed to help with the paint stripping operation on the bridge.[66] The robots, nicknamed Rosie and Sandy,[67] are intended to reduce workers' potential exposure to dangerous lead paint and asbestos and the blasting equipment which has enough force to cut through clothes and skin.[68]

text: Tourism[edit]

text: South-east pylon[edit]

text: Even during its construction, the bridge was such a prominent feature of Sydney that it would attract tourist interest. One of the ongoing tourist attractions of the bridge has been the south-east pylon, which is accessed via the pedestrian walkway across the bridge, and then a climb to the top of the pylon of about 200 steps.[16]

text: Not long after the bridge's opening, commencing in 1934, Archer Whitford first converted this pylon into a tourist destination.[69] He installed a number of attractions, including a café, a camera obscura, an Aboriginal museum, a "Mother's Nook" where visitors could write letters, and a "pashometer". The main attraction was the viewing platform, where "charming attendants" assisted visitors to use the telescopes available,[69] and a copper cladding (still present) over the granite guard rails identified the suburbs and landmarks of Sydney at the time.[70]

text: The outbreak of World War II in 1939 saw tourist activities on the bridge cease, as the military took over the four pylons and modified them to include parapets and anti-aircraft guns.[71]

text: In 1948 Yvonne Rentoul opened the "All Australian Exhibition" in the pylon. This contained dioramas, and displays about Australian perspectives on subjects such as farming, sport, transport, mining, and the armed forces. An orientation table was installed at the viewing platform, along with a wall guide and binoculars. The owner kept several white cats in a rooftop cattery, which also served as an attraction, and there was a souvenir shop and postal outlet.[72] Rentoul's lease expired in 1971, and the pylon and its lookout remained closed to the public for over a decade.[73]

text: The pylon was reopened in 1982, with a new exhibition celebrating the bridge's 50th anniversary.[74] In 1987 a "Bicentennial Exhibition" was opened to mark the 200th anniversary of European settlement in Australia in 1988.[75]

text: The pylon was closed from April to November 2000 for the Roads & Traffic Authority and BridgeClimb to create a new exhibition called "Proud Arch". The exhibition focussed on Bradfield, and included a glass direction finder on the observation level, and various important heritage items.[76]

text: The pylon again closed for four weeks in 2003 for the installation of an exhibit called "Dangerous Works", highlighting the dangerous conditions experienced by the original construction workers on the bridge, and two stained glass feature windows in memory of the workers.[77]

text: BridgeClimb[edit]

text: In 1950s and 1960s there were occasional newspaper reports of climbers who had made illegal arch traversals of the bridge, invariably by night. In 1973 Philippe Petit walked across a wire between the two pylons at the southern end of the Sydney Harbour Bridge. Since 1998, BridgeClimb[78] has made it possible for tourists to legally climb the southern half of the bridge. Tours run throughout the day, from dawn to night, and are only cancelled for electrical storms or high wind.[79]

text: Groups of climbers are provided with protective clothing appropriate to the prevailing weather conditions, and are given an orientation briefing before climbing. During the climb, attendees are secured to the bridge by a wire lifeline. Each climb begins on the eastern side of the bridge and ascends to the top. At the summit, the group crosses to the western side of the arch for the descent. Each climb takes three-and-a-half-hours, including the preparations.[79]

text: In December 2006, BridgeClimb[78] launched an alternative to climbing the upper arches of the bridge. The Discovery Climb allows climbers to ascend the lower chord of the bridge and view its internal structure. From the apex of the lower chord, climbers ascend a staircase to a platform at the summit.[citation needed]

text: Celebrations[edit]

text: Since the opening, the bridge has been the focal point of much tourism and national pride.[citation needed]

text: 50th Anniversary celebrations (1982)[edit]

text: In 1982 the bridge celebrated the 50th anniversary of its opening. For the first time since its opening in 1932, the bridge was closed to most vehicles with the exception of vintage vehicles, and pedestrians were allowed full access for the day.[13] The celebrations were attended by Edward Judge, who represented Dorman Long.[citation needed] [80]

text: Bicentennial Australia Day celebrations (1988)[edit]

text: Australia's bicentennial celebrations on 26 January 1988 attracted large crowds in the bridge's vicinity as merrymakers flocked to the foreshores to view the events on the harbour. The highlight was the biggest parade of sail ever held in Sydney, square-riggers from all over the world, surrounded by hundreds of smaller craft of every description, passing majestically under the Sydney Harbour Bridge. The day's festivities culminated in a fireworks display in which the bridge was the focal point of the finale, with fireworks streaming from the arch and roadway. This was to become the pattern for later firework displays.[citation needed]

text: Sydney New Year's Eve (1993–present)[edit]

text: The Harbour Bridge is an integral part of the Sydney New Year's Eve celebrations, generally being used in spectacular ways during the fireworks displays at 21:00 and midnight. In recent times, the bridge has included a ropelight display on a framework in the centre of the eastern arch, which is used to complement the fireworks. As the scaffolding and framework are clearly visible for some weeks before the event, revealing the outline of the design, there is much speculation as to how the effect is to be realised.

text: During the millennium celebrations in 2000, the Sydney Harbour Bridge was lit up with the word "Eternity", as a tribute to the legacy of Arthur Stace a Sydney artist who for many years inscribed that word on pavements in chalk in beautiful copperplate writing despite the fact that he was illiterate.[citation needed]

text: The effects have been as follows:[citation needed]

text:
NYE1997: Smiley face
NYE1999: The word "Eternity" in copperplate writing[81]
NYE2000: Rainbow Serpent and Federation Star
NYE2001: Uluru, the Southern Cross and the Dove of Peace
NYE2002: Dove of Peace and the word "PEACE"
NYE2003: Light show
NYE2004: "Fanfare"
NYE2005: Three concentric hearts
NYE2006: Coathanger and a diamond
NYE2007: Mandala
NYE2008: The Sun
NYE2009: Taijitu Symbol, a Blue moon and a ring of fire
NYE2010: Handprint, "X" Mark and a Spot
NYE2011: Thought Bubble, Sun and Endless Rainbow
NYE2012: Butterfly and a Lip
NYE2013: Eye
NYE2014: Light bulb
NYE2015: Sydney Harbour Bridge
NYE2016: Light show

tag: ul

text: The numbers for the New Year's Eve countdown also appear on the eastern side of the Bridge pylons.[82]

text: Walk for Reconciliation (2000)[edit]

text: In May 2000 the bridge was closed to vehicular access for a day to allow a special reconciliation march—the "Walk for Reconciliation"—to take place. This was part of a response to an Aboriginal Stolen Generations inquiry, which found widespread suffering had taken place amongst Australian Aboriginal children forcibly placed into the care of white parents in a little-publicised state government scheme. Between 200,000 and 300,000 people were estimated to have walked the bridge in a symbolic gesture of crossing a divide.[83]

text: Sydney 2000 Olympics[edit]

text: During the Sydney 2000 Olympics in September and October 2000, the bridge was adorned with the Olympic Rings. It was included in the Olympic torch's route to the Olympic stadium. The men's and women's Olympic marathon events likewise included the bridge as part of their route to the Olympic stadium. A fireworks display at the end of the closing ceremony ended at the bridge. The east-facing side of the bridge has been used several times since as a framework from which to hang static fireworks, especially during the elaborate New Year's Eve displays.[84]

text: Formula One promotion (2005)[edit]

text: In 2005 Mark Webber drove a Williams-BMW Formula One car across the bridge.[85]

text: 75th anniversary (2007)[edit]

text: In 2007, the 75th anniversary of its opening was commemorated with an exhibition at the Museum of Sydney, called "Bridging Sydney".[86] An initiative of the Historic Houses Trust, the exhibition featured dramatic photographs and paintings with rare and previously unseen alternative bridge and tunnel proposals, plans and sketches.[citation needed]

text: On 18 March 2007, the Sydney Harbour Bridge celebrated its 75th anniversary. The occasion was marked with a ribbon-cutting ceremony by the governor, Marie Bashir and the premier of New South Wales, Morris Iemma. The bridge was subsequently open to the public to walk southward from Milsons Point or North Sydney. Several major roads, mainly in the CBD, were closed for the day. An Aboriginal smoking ceremony was held at 19:00.[citation needed]

text: Approximately 250,000 people (50,000 more than were registered) took part in the event. Bright yellow souvenir caps were distributed to walkers. A series of speakers placed at intervals along the bridge formed a sound installation. Each group of speakers broadcast sound and music from a particular era (e.g. King Edward VIII's abdication speech; Gough Whitlam's speech at Parliament House in 1975), the overall effect being that the soundscape would "flow" through history as walkers proceeded along the bridge. A light-show began after sunset and continued late into the night, the bridge being bathed in constantly changing, multi-coloured lighting, designed to highlight structural features of the bridge. In the evening the bright yellow caps were replaced by orange caps with a small, bright LED attached. The bridge was closed to walkers at about 20:30.[citation needed]

text: Breakfast on the Bridge (2009–10)[edit]

text: On 25 October 2009 turf was laid across the eight lanes of bitumen, and 6,000 people celebrated a picnic on the bridge accompanied by live music.[87] The event was repeated in 2010.[88] Although originally scheduled again in 2011, this event was moved to Bondi Beach due to traffic concerns about the prolonged closing of the bridge.[89][90]

text: 80th anniversary[edit]

text:
On 19 March 2012 the 80th anniversary of the Sydney Harbour Bridge was celebrated with a picnic dedicated to the stories of people with personal connections to the bridge.[91] In addition, Google dedicated its Google Doodle on the 19th to the event.[92]
The proposal to upgrade the bridge tolling equipment was announced by the NSW Roads Minister Duncan Gay.[93]

text: Quotations[edit]

text: There the proud arch Colossus like bestrideYon glittering streams and bound the strafing tide.

text: I open this bridge in the name of His Majesty the King and all the decent citizens of NSW.

text: To get on in Australia, you must make two observations. Say, "You have the most beautiful bridge in the world" and "They tell me you trounced England again in the cricket." The first statement will be a lie. Sydney Bridge  [sic] is big, utilitarian and the symbol of Australia, like the Statue of Liberty or the Eiffel Tower. But it is very ugly. No Australian will admit this.

text: ...in a gesture of anomalous exhilaration, at the worst time of the depression Sydney opened its Harbour Bridge, one of the talismanic structures of the earth, and by far the most striking thing ever built in Australia. At that moment, I think, contemporary Sydney began, perhaps definitive Sydney.

text: ...you can see it from every corner of the city, creeping into frame from the oddest angles, like an uncle who wants to get into every snapshot. From a distance it has a kind of gallant restraint, majestic but not assertive, but up close it is all might. It soars above you, so high that you could pass a ten-storey building beneath it, and looks like the heaviest thing on earth. Everything that is in it – the stone blocks in its four towers, the latticework of girders, the metal plates, the six-million rivets (with heads like halved apples) – is the biggest of its type you have ever seen... This is a great bridge.


document_title: Space Jam

question_text: who played michael jordan as a kid in space jam

text: Space Jam

text: Plot[edit]

text: On a summer night in 1973, a young Michael Jordan is practicing basketball. His father steps out and tells him it is bedtime, but lets him make a few more shots. Jordan shoots while making several wishes like going to the University of North Carolina, playing on a championship team, joining the NBA, going on to play baseball, and successfully scores every shot. Impressed, Jordan's father jokingly asks if next he is going to wish he could fly, and Jordan turns to make one final shot.

text: In 1993, Jordan announces his retirement from professional basketball to follow his now deceased father's career as a baseball player. However, it becomes evident that he is not as skilled in baseball as he was in basketball. Jordan is assigned a publicist and assistant, the bumbling Stan Podolak, to make his new career less bumpy.

text: Elsewhere, in outer space, an intergalactic amusement park called Moron Mountain faces dwindling popularity, so its owner, Mr. Swackhammer, sends his diminutive minions, the Nerdlucks, to capture the Looney Tunes as new entertainment. The Looney Tunes live in an animated world called "Looney Tunes Land" hidden in the center of the Earth, but ignore the Nerdlucks' threats and challenge them to a game of basketball.

text: The Nerdlucks steal the talents of professional basketball players Charles Barkley, Shawn Bradley, Patrick Ewing, Larry Johnson and Muggsy Bogues, leaving them incapable of playing. The Nerdlucks absorb the talent, transforming into the gigantic "Monstars" who easily intimidate the Looney Tunes. While playing golf with Bill Murray, Larry Bird and Stan, Jordan is sucked down a hole and is recruited by Bugs Bunny to help the Tunes win against the Monstars. Jordan at first refuses, saying he does not play basketball anymore, but changes his decision after he is insulted and humiliated by the Monstars when they squash him into the shape of a basketball and bounce him around like one. He then sends Bugs and Daffy Duck to his house to retrieve his basketball gear.

text: Meanwhile, Stan has been digging out the golf hole to find Jordan, but spots Bugs and Daffy leaping down another one and pursues them, reuniting with Jordan in the Tunes' world and joins their team, the Tune Squad. Another new recruit is Lola Bunny, a skilled basketball player whom Bugs falls in love with. On the day of the match, the Monstars dominate the first half, leaving the Looney Tunes unconfident. Stan overhears a conversation between the Monstars and Swackhammer, learning of how they gained their talent and informs Jordan and the Tune Squad. Bugs and Jordan convince the rest of the Tune Squad to fight back and the first quarter of the second half allows the Tunes to catch up using old school gags and Acme weaponry. During a timeout, Jordan raises the stakes of the game with Swackhammer: a win by the Tune Squad would require the Monstars to give their stolen talents back to the NBA players, while a Monstars win would get Jordan as a new attraction.

text: To ensure his victory, Swackhammer has the Monstars play rough and injure all of the Tune Squad until only Jordan, Bugs, Daffy, Lola and Stan are left. Stan becomes the fifth player and manages to score, but is literally flattened by the Monstars and is removed from the court to be inflated. The referee, Marvin the Martian, informs Jordan that unless the team gets a fifth player, they will have to forfeit the game, at which point Murray appears and volunteers to be the team's fifth member. In the final seconds of the game, Jordan gains the ball and manages to use cartoon physics to extend his arm and score the winning points. Murray retires from the sport and the Monstars blast Swackhammer to the Moon in a rocket when Jordan makes them realize that they do not have to take his abuse anymore. Jordan convinces them to give up the stolen talents, and the Looney Tunes agree to recruit the reformed Nerdlucks in their ensemble. Jordan and a recovered Stan return to the surface, the Nerdlucks dropping them off at Jordan's next baseball game. Later on, the two visit the incapacitated basketball players and return their talent. The players invite Jordan to a three-on-three match, but when he declines, they question his loss of talent. Jordan later returns to the Chicago Bulls to resume his basketball career.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Michael Jordan as himself, an NBA shooting guard for the Chicago Bulls who retires to pursue a career in baseball.

Brandon Hammond portrays a younger Jordan.

Wayne Knight as Stanley "Stan" Podolak, a publicist and assistant who helps Michael Jordan.
Theresa Randle as Juanita Jordan, Michael's supportive wife.
Bill Murray as himself, an actor and Jordan's friend.[4]
Larry Bird as himself, the Boston Celtics forward and Jordan's friend.
Charles Barkley as himself, the Phoenix Suns power forward who gets his talent stolen by Pound.
Patrick Ewing as himself, the New York Knicks center who gets his talent stolen by Bang.
Shawn Bradley as himself, the Philadelphia 76ers center who gets his talent stolen by Blanko.
Larry Johnson as himself, the Charlotte Hornets power forward who gets his talent stolen by Bupkus.
Muggsy Bogues as himself, the Hornets point guard who gets his talent stolen by Nawt.
Thom Barry as James R. Jordan, Sr., Michael's father.
Penny Bae Bridges as Jasmine Jordan, Michael's daughter.
Dan Castellaneta and Patricia Heaton as basketball fans.

text: Voices[edit]

text:
Billy West as Bugs Bunny and Elmer Fudd
Dee Bradley Baker as Daffy Duck, Tasmanian Devil and Toro
Bob Bergen as Marvin the Martian, Porky Pig, Tweety Bird, Hubie and Bertie
Bill Farmer as Foghorn Leghorn, Yosemite Sam and Sylvester the Cat
Maurice LaMarche as Pepé Le Pew
June Foray as Granny
Kath Soucie as Lola Bunny, a female rabbit who plays for the Tune Squad. Lola is a new character introduced in this film.
Frank W. Welker as Charles, Michael's pet bulldog who menaces both Bugs and Daffy when they are in Michael's house.
Danny DeVito as Mr. Swackhammer, the proprietor of the intergalactic theme park "Moron Mountain" who seeks new attractions to save his failing business.
Colleen Wainwright as Sniffles, a tiny mouse.
Pound, the orange leader of the Nerdlucks, is voiced by Jocelyn Blue as a Nerdluck and Darnell Suttles as a Monstar.
Bang, the belligerent green Nerdluck, is voiced by June Melby as a Nerdluck and Joey Camen as a Monstar.
Bupkus, the giggly and crazy purple Nerdluck, is voiced by Catherine Reitman as a Nerdluck and Dorian Harewood as a Monstar.
Blanko, the dim-witted and gangly blue Nerdluck, is voiced by Charity James as a Nerdluck and Steve Kehela as a Monstar.
Nawt, the diminutive and clever red Nerdluck, is voiced by Colleen Wainwright as a Nerdluck and T. K. Carter as a Monstar.

text: Music[edit]

text: The soundtrack sold enough albums to be certified as 6x Platinum.[5] It also served as a high point for musical artist R. Kelly, whose song "I Believe I Can Fly" not only was a hit, but earned him two Grammy Awards.[6] Other tracks included a cover of Steve Miller Band's "Fly Like an Eagle" (by Seal), "Hit 'Em High (The Monstars' Anthem)" (by B-Real, Busta Rhymes, Coolio, LL Cool J, and Method Man), "Basketball Jones" (by Barry White & Chris Rock), "Pump up the Jam[7]" (by Technotronic[8]), "I Turn to You" (by All-4-One) and "For You I Will" (by Monica). The movie's title song was performed by the Quad City DJ's.

text: Merchandise[edit]

text: Comics[edit]

text: The film was adapted into a graphic novel, drawn by Leonardo Batic.[9]

text: Video games[edit]

text: There was a licensed pinball game by Sega based on the film, a video game for the PlayStation, Sega Saturn and MS-DOS by Acclaim, and a handheld LCD game by Tiger Electronics.[10]

text: Home media[edit]

text: Warner Home Video released the film on VHS, Laserdisc and DVD on March 11, 1997. The VHS tape was re-printed and re-released through Warner Home Video's catalog promotions: the Warner Bros. 75th Anniversary Celebration (1998), Century Collection (1999), Century 2000 (2000) and Warner Spotlight (2001). The film was re-released on DVD on July 25, 2000. On October 28, 2003, the film was released as a 2-disc special edition DVD including newly made extras such as a commentary track and a featurette. On November 6, 2007, the movie was featured as one of four films in Warner Home Video's 4-Film Favorites: Family Comedies collection DVD (the other three being Looney Tunes: Back in Action (released seven years after Space Jam), Osmosis Jones and Funky Monkey). On February 8, 2011, the first disc of the previous 2-disc edition was released by itself in a movie only edition DVD and on October 4, the film was released for the first time in widescreen HD on Blu-ray which, save for an hour of classic Looney Tunes shorts, ported over all the extras from the 2003 2-disc edition DVD. A double DVD and Blu-ray release, paired with Looney Tunes: Back in Action, was released on June 7, 2016.[11] On November 15, 2016, Warner Bros. released another Blu-ray for Space Jam, to commemorate the movie's 20th Anniversary.

text: Toys[edit]

text: Toys were released coinciding with the film, including various action figures released by Playmates under the short lived banner "WB Toy". The toys had limited articulation and paired Michael Jordan or another characters of the movie (Charles Barkley and the Monstars with a Looney Tunes character and accessories). Some figures depicted Michael Jordan as a basketball player, a baseball player and a golf player. The line included stuffed toys, decorated basketballs, as well as a McDonald's Happy Meal promotion.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: On the critical response aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a rating of 38%, based on 53 reviews, with an average rating of 5.1/10. The site's consensus reads, "A harmless mishmash of basketball and animation that'll entertain kids but leave adults less than thrilled."[13] On Metacritic, it has a score of 59 out of 100, based on reviews from 22 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[14]

text: Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave Space Jam a thumbs up,[15] as did Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune, although his zeal was more subdued.[16] In his print review, Ebert gave the film 3 1/2 stars, noting, "Space Jam is a happy marriage of good ideas—three films for the price of one, giving us a comic treatment of the career adventures of Michael Jordan, crossed with a Looney Tunes cartoon and some showbiz warfare. ... the result is delightful, a family movie in the best sense (which means the adults will enjoy it, too)."[15] Siskel focused much of his praise on Jordan's performance, saying, "He wisely accepted as a first movie a script that builds nicely on his genial personality in an assortment of TV ads. The sound bites are just a little longer."[16] Leonard Maltin also gave the film a positive review (three stars), stating, "Jordan is very engaging, the vintage characters perform admirably ... and the computer-generated special effects are a collective knockout."[17] Todd McCarthy of Variety praised the film for its humor. He also praised the Looney Tunes' antics and Jordan's acting.[18]

text: Although Janet Maslin of The New York Times criticized the film's animation, she later went on to say that the film is a "fond tribute to [the Looney Tunes characters'] past."[4] Michael Wilmington of the Chicago Tribune complained about some aspects of the movie, stating, "...we don't get the co-stars' best stuff. Michael doesn't soar enough. The Looney Tunes don't pulverize us the way they did when Chuck Jones, Friz Freleng or Bob Clampett were in charge." Yet overall, he also liked the film, giving it 3 stars and saying: "Is it cute? Yes. Is it a crowd-pleaser? Yup. Is it classic? Nope. (Though it could have been.)"[19] TV Guide gave the movie only two stars, calling it a "cynical attempt to cash in on the popularity of Warner Bros. cartoon characters and basketball player Michael Jordan, inspired by a Nike commercial."[20] Margaret A. McGurk of The Cincinnati Enquirer gave the film 2 1/2 stars, saying, "Technical spectacle amounts do nothing without a good story."[21]

text: Veteran Looney Tunes/Merrie Melodies director Chuck Jones was highly critical of the film. In a 1998 interview, he expressed his views that the film was "terrible" and said, as a man who worked with the characters for almost thirty years, the story was deeply flawed. "I can tell you, with the utmost confidence," he said, "Porky Pig would never say 'I think I wet myself.'" Jones added that, had the film been more true to the source material, Bugs Bunny would not have enlisted the help of Jordan or the other Looney Tunes characters to defeat the Monstars "and moreover, it wouldn't have taken him an hour and a half. Those aliens, whether they were tiny or colossal, would've been dealt with in short order come the seven minute mark."[12] Finally, Jones also recounted that after the film's release he was invited to a dinner on the Warner Bros. Studio Lot with the executives that produced Space Jam, and was asked to give a speech his thoughts on the film. At the dinner, Jones tried to give his honest opinion in a polite and respectful manner, but before he could finish Warner Bros. security proceeded to "escort" him off the lot.[12][22]

text: Box office[edit]

text: Space Jam was a box office success. At the end of its run, it grossed approximately $90.4 million domestically and an estimated $230–$250 million internationally.[23][24] As of July 2017, Box Office Mojo ranks it as the highest grossing basketball film of all time.[25]

text: The film made its cable television premiere on TNT on March 14, 1999

text: The film made its television premiere on ABC's The Wonderful World of Disney on November 14, 1999.[26]

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
1997 ASCAP Film and Television Music Awards

Won: Most Performed Songs from Motion Pictures (Diane Warren for the song "For You I Will")
Won: Top Box Office Films (James Newton Howard)

1997 Annie Awards

Won: Best Individual Achievement: Technical Achievement
Nomination: Best Animated Feature
Nomination: Best Individual Achievement: Directing in a Feature Production (Bruce W. Smith and Tony Cervone)
Nomination: Best Individual Achievement: Producing in a Feature Production (Ron Tippe)

1997 Grammy Awards

Won: Best Song Written Specifically for Motion Picture or for Television (R. Kelly for the song "I Believe I Can Fly")

1997 MTV Movie Awards

Nomination: Best Movie Song (R. Kelly for the song "I Believe I Can Fly")

1997 Satellite Awards

Nomination: Best Motion Picture- Animated or Mixed Media (Daniel Goldberg, Joe Medjuck, Ivan Reitman)

1997 World Animation Celebration

Won: Best Use of Animation in a Motion Picture Trailer

1997 Young Artist Awards

Nomination: Best Family Feature- Animation or Special Effects

text: In other media[edit]

text: The Monstars make a cameo in the Animaniacs and Pinky and the Brain episode "Star Warners" (a parody of Star Wars). Jordan himself, who was a spokesman for MCI Communications before the film was made, would appear with the Looney Tunes characters (as his "Space Jam buddies") in several MCI commercials for several years after the film was released before MCI merged with WorldCom and subsequently Verizon Communications.[27] Bugs had previously appeared with Jordan as "Hare Jordan" in Nike ads for the Air Jordan VII and Air Jordan VIII.[28][29] In 2013, Yahoo! Screen released a parody of ESPN's 30 for 30 about the game shown in the film. The short dates the game as taking place on November 17, 1995, although Jordan's real-life return to basketball occurred on March 18.[30]

text: Sequel[edit]

text: In February 2014, Warner Bros. announced a potential sequel set to star LeBron James. Charlie Ebersol was set to produce, with a script by his brother, Willie.[31] Representatives of James denied the claim that he would be involved.[32] In May 2014, James was quoted as saying, "I've always loved Space Jam. It was one of my favorite movies growing up. If I have the opportunity, it will be great."[33] In July 2015, James and his production company, SpringHill Entertainment, signed a deal with Warner Bros. for television, movies and digital content after receiving positive reviews for his acting role in Trainwreck.[34][35][36] On May 2, 2016, Justin Lin was said to be in talks to direct the sequel; co-writing the screenplay with Andrew Dodge and Alfredo Botello.[37] In August 2016, the Sneaker Bar Detroit company said that the movie is still in the works.[38] On November 15, 2016, the film's anniversary, a teaser trailer, in the form of a Nike advertisement, was released on Twitter under #MonstarsBack.[39] On December 1, 2016, Bugs Bunny and the Monstars returned in a Foot Locker commercial starring Blake Griffin and Jimmy Butler.[40][41]

text: In a November 2016 interview with Mr. Wavvy, Space Jam director Joe Pytka revealed that following the first film's success, he had been pitched a "really weird" idea for a sequel that would have starred pro golfer Tiger Woods, with Jordan in a smaller role. Pytka explained how the idea came from an out of studio script conference, with people who worked on the original film allegedly involved. Ultimately, nothing materialized from the idea.[42][43] Producer Ivan Reitman participated in similar interview with Mr. Wavvy, also in November 2016, in which he also revealed an idea he had for a sequel, though his sequel would have starred Jordan.[44]


document_title: American tea culture

question_text: when did america switch from tea to coffee

text: American tea culture

text: History[edit]

text:
The American tea culture[3] is a part of the history of the United States, as this beverage appeals to all classes and has adapted to the customs of the United States of America.
In the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam, now known as New York, tea was served with the best silver strainers, the finest porcelain cups and pots, and wooden tea caddies.[4] Tea became a very popular drink in the colonies, and tea ceremonies were common among all classes. In Salem, MA, tea leaves were boiled to create a bitter brew, then served as a vegetable side dish with butter. By the time of the American Revolution, tea was drunk everywhere from the backwoods to the cities.[5]

text: However, tea and tea taxes became a bone of contention between the American Colonies and Great Britain.  This led to the 1773 Boston Tea Party, a precipitating event of the Revolution, when angry Colonists destroyed the tea cargo of three British ships by dumping them into Boston Harbor. As a consequence, tea drinking became unpatriotic. Boycotts of tea led to an increase in consumption of other beverages, such as coffee or herbal teas infused with peppermint, sage or dandelions.[5][6]

text: To this day, coffee remains more popular than tea in the United States; however the U.S. still consumed 7.8 gallons of tea per capita annually.[7] While coffee is by far more popular, hot brewed black tea is enjoyed both with meals and as a refreshment by much of the population. Similarly, iced tea is consumed throughout. In the Southeastern states sweet tea, sweetened with large amounts of sugar or an artificial sweetener and chilled, is the fashion. Outside the Southeast, sweet tea is sometimes found, but primarily because of cultural migration and commercialization.[citation needed]

text: The American specialty tea market has quadrupled in the years from 1993–2008, now being worth $6.8 billion a year.[8]  Specialty tea houses and retailers also started to pop up during this period.[9]

text: American Tea Masters[edit]

text: The American Tea Masters Association was founded to provide Mastery Level training, education, and professional certification to individuals desiring to become tea masters and tea sommeliers.[10]

text: Iced tea[edit]

text: Iced tea is usually prepared from bagged tea.[citation needed] In addition to tea bags and loose tea, powdered "instant iced tea mix" is available in stores. This is made by preparing tea and then dehydrating it, similar to instant coffee. Iced tea can be purchased, like soda, in canned or bottled form at vending machines and convenience stores; usually, this pre-made tea is sweetened with corn syrup, and sometimes some other flavoring, such as lemon or raspberry, is added. Also, like other soft drinks, it can be purchased as a fountain drink, though in some establishments it is pumped from a Bag-In-Box, and in others, it is simply poured from a separate container that contains freshly brewed tea.

text: In restaurants, iced tea is usually served unsweetened except in the Southeastern United States where iced tea is much more common and is available both sweet and unsweetened and "iced tea" is often considered to be "sweet tea" unless otherwise specified. The reason for the presweetening is that it may be difficult to dissolve sugar in iced tea, even with constant stirring. The result can be insufficiently sweetened tea or gritty, undissolved sugar crystals in the tea.  Some restaurants have begun serving iced tea that has been pre-flavored with fruit essences, particularly passion fruit, often as the only iced tea made available.

text: Iced tea's popularity in the United States has led to an addition to standard cutlery sets; the iced tea spoon is a standard flatware teaspoon, but with a long handle, suitable for stirring sugar into the taller glasses commonly used for iced tea.

text: Tea bags[edit]

text: Thomas Sullivan is credited with inventing tea bags in 1908. Sullivan, a New York tea importer, inadvertently invented tea bags when he sent tea samples to clients in small silk bags to cut costs, and they mistakenly steeped the bags whole.[11]

text: The customers were more interested in the brewing convenience of the novel silk bags than his bulk teas. Sullivan did not realize this until they all started to complain that the orders they received were not in the same small bags the samples had been in. Silk was too expensive for everyday disposal; therefore, he invented tea bags made of gauze.[11] The tea bag made of paper fiber was a later American invention.

text: The nylon pyramidal teabag containing broken teas and semi-leaf teas made an appearance in the marketplace for aficionados. The pyramidal shape - it is said - allows more room for the leaf to steep. Environmentalists prefer silk to nylon because of the health and biodegradable issues.[12]

text: Most tea sold in the United States is sold in bags, although loose leaf teas and iced are also available.

text: Instant tea[edit]

text: In 1946, Nestle USA introduced the first instant tea, Nestea.[13]  Instant teas are produced from black tea by extracting the liquor from processed portion of tea typically from offgrade black teas; green tea in a smaller proportion has traditionally been used by the instant tea makers as a "clarification agent" - again, in effort to maximize the clarity of color and minimize off-colors created by certain teas that cloud. The extract is concentrated under low pressure, and drying the concentrate to a powder by freeze-drying, spray-drying, or vacuum-drying. Low temperatures tend to be used to minimize loss of flavor. The American market for instant tea powders, which developed quickly following Nestle's introduction, has slackened off considerably over the past quarter century, as Americans have more and more turned to naturally icing their favorite loose teas, as well as preparing iced tea from tea bags, and to ready-to-drink iced teas where the smaller sizes are found in the supermarkets' refrigerated drinks sections and the larger gallon sizes are found in the supermarkets' non-refrigerated drinks sections.

text: Revival of fine teas[edit]

text: Yellow and white teas became difficult to find in the United States and even green tea had become uncommon because of the People's Republic of China's ban on exports to the USA which was lifted in 1971. After the resumption of trade between mainland China and the USA, these teas typical to China re-entered the American market for the first time since the first two decades of the 20th century.[14]

text: In the early 1980s, a mini-revival of demand for better quality teas from all origins occurred in the United States. Prior to this time, much of the tea available in 20th century USA was blended specifically for gallon and half-gallon sized iced tea bags, with the quality of not "creaming down" (a creamy looking color that imparts to some teas after cooling down) when iced as a needed aspect; "clear-liquoring" teas were required.

text: Most iced tea blends in the USA have traditionally been made from the teas of Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Kenya, Argentina and Malawi.[15] Even though there is no correlation between the quality of cloudy teas versus clear teas, clear iced teas were considered more attractive by the consumer.

text: A recent rise in the demand for orthodox tea in both gallon and half-gallon iced tea bags, as well as 500 and 1,000 gram loose tea packs has caused manufacturers to reinstate orthodox manufacturing methods. This is a departure from the more common Sri Lankan, Indonesian, Argentinian and other nations' orthodox rotorvane tea-making method which has limitations and can not produce whole leaf black tea. The rotorvane method was adopted primarily to satisfy the demand for the smaller leaf sizes that fit into small (1-2 gram) tea bag blends worldwide starting in the early 20th century.

text: Varieties of teas[edit]

text: Currently, there is a revival of interest in the many varieties of black teas throughout the United States.[16]  Additionally, other exotic teas (such as the vast variety of African, Asian and South American teas) and different brewing styles are becoming more commonplace. Teas from all origins and elevations, made in all methods of manufacture, are popular in the USA, a tea market which has traditionally been more flexible and willing to try new types of drinks than tea markets throughout the old world.

text: Decaffeinated tea is widely available in the United States, for those who wish to reduce the physiological effects of caffeine. There are many who are aware that the sales trend for decaf teas in the USA has shown a decreasing curve in demand at retail over the past 20 years, yet the high price of decaf remains unchanged. The reasons are twofold.

text: Not only is decaf tea more expensive than non-decaf tea, the processes of decaffeinating that is commonly used depletes a great deal of the flavor out of the tea.[17] The teas with the highest caffeine content fall far below the coffees with the lowest caffeine content. In this light, and considering that most people would prefer to buy better quality teas rather than the less flavorful decaf teas, the American consumer has been buying decaf tea slightly less in recent years.  For those who are caffeine intolerant, however, the invention of decaffeinated tea has been welcomed as a refreshing and tasty alternative to caffeinated beverages.

text: U.S. regional tea traditions[edit]

text: Sweet tea[edit]

text: Sweet tea, with sugar or corn syrup added (usually while the tea is still hot from brewing), the mixture then being cooled with ice, is ubiquitous in the Southeastern United States. In these states, when a person says "tea", they normally mean sweetened iced tea. The unsweetened variant is often called "unsweet" tea instead of unsweetened or plain. The consumption of sweet tea with many meals leads to it sometimes called the "table wine of the South", and this trait is considered an important marker of the culture of the Southern United States. Southern sweet tea is made by brewing tea at double strength, adding a large amount of sugar to the freshly brewed hot tea, and diluting to the proper strength.  It is served over a glass full of ice cubes and is often garnished with a slice of lemon.  While high fructose corn syrup is commonly used as a sweetener for commercially manufactured tea, more often consumers are unaware of this, and when made at home, refined sugar is used.

text: In the Northern United States and the Western United States, "tea" generally means the hot beverage and iced tea is referred to by name.

text: Sun tea[edit]

text: Sun tea is frequently brewed in temperate areas by placing tea and room-temperature water together in a glass jar left outdoors in direct sunlight. Steeping times are necessarily long, two to four hours. Tea may also be brewed with no heat at all by simply immersing the tea bags or infuser in room-temperature water and allowing a period of several hours (typically overnight) for steeping.  Since sun brewing occurs in a temperature range that can promote the development of bacteria, particularly Alcaligenes viscolactis, the Centers for Disease Control and the Tea Association of the U.S.A. Inc. suggest storing sun-brewed tea in the refrigerator and discarding it after 24 hours.

text: Alcoholic "tea"[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: The so-called Long Island Iced Tea usually contains no tea; it is an alcoholic cocktail that looks like iced tea. A variant recipe uses actual iced tea as a mixer and is named after a professional golfer; the drink, called John Daly, contains iced or sweet tea, and vodka, and is based on the Arnold Palmer, which contains half iced tea and half lemonade.

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
Tea & coffee warehouse advertisement listing teas for sale in the Boston Almanac, 1856, described as a 13-year-old business supplying "families, hotel keepers, boarding houses, ship's use, and schools"

Interior view of the Oriental Tea Company store of Boston, 1800s

In this advertisement from 1897, Chase & Sanborn, a Boston company that claims to be the first to can coffee, also dealt in imported tea, here a packaged tea from Formosa is shown

Sylvia Sweets Tea Room, corner of School and Main streets, Brockton, Mass., 1940–41

text: In popular culture[edit]

text: Architecture[edit]

text: Chester teapot, a teapot shaped building made in 1938, and billed as "world's largest" to represent a local pottery industry

text: Idioms[edit]

text: "Not my cup of tea" (not one's choice or preference)[18]

text: Museums and tea farms[edit]

text:
Charleston Tea Plantation
Sparta Teapot Museum, a former American museum of more than 6,000 teapots, closed a few years after a funding controversy

text: Music[edit]

text:
"I'm a Little Teapot" (formally titled "The Teapot Song"), a children's song from 1939 and a related dance
My Cup of Tea
""Tea for Two" (song), a song from the 1925 musical No, No, Nanette


document_title: Port and starboard

question_text: on a boat what is port and starboard

question_tokens: on a boat what is port and starboard

text: Port and starboard

text: Port and starboard are nautical and aeronautical terms for left and right, respectively. Port is the left-hand side of a vessel or aircraft, facing forward. Starboard is the right-hand side, facing forward. Since port and starboard never change, they are unambiguous references that are not relative to the observer.[2][3]

text: The term starboard derives from the Old English steorbord, meaning the side on which the ship is steered. Before ships had rudders on their centrelines, they were steered with a steering oar at the stern of the ship and, because more people are right-handed, on the right-hand side of it.[2] Since the steering oar was on the right side of the boat, it would tie up at the wharf on the other side. Hence the left side was called port.[4]

text: Formerly, larboard was used instead of port. This is from Middle-English ladebord and the term lade is related to the modern load.[3] Larboard sounds similar to starboard and in 1844 the Royal Navy ordered that port be used instead.[5] The United States Navy followed suit in 1846.[6] Larboard continued to be used well into the 1850s by whalers.[citation needed]

text: The navigational treaty convention, the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea—for instance, as appears in the Merchant Shipping (Distress Signals and Prevention of Collisions) Regulations of 1996 (and comparable US documents from the US Coast Guard),[7]—sets forth requirements for maritime vessels to avoid collisions, whether by sail or powered, and whether a vessel is overtaking, approaching head-on, or crossing.[7]:11-12 To set forth these navigational rules, the terms starboard and port are absolutely essential, and to aid in in situ decision-making, the two sides of each vessel are marked, dusk to dawn, by navigation lights, the vessel's starboard side by green and its port side by red.[7]:15 Aircraft are lit in the same way.