document_title: Conscription in the United States

question_text: when did military draft end in the us

question_tokens: when did military draft end in the us

text: Conscription in the United States

text: History[edit]

text: Colonial to 1862[edit]

text: In colonial times, the Thirteen Colonies used a militia system for defense. Colonial militia laws—and after independence those of the United States and the various states—required able-bodied males to enroll in the militia, to undergo a minimum of military training, and to serve for limited periods of time in war or emergency. This earliest form of conscription involved selective drafts of militiamen for service in particular campaigns. Following this system in its essentials, the Continental Congress in 1778 recommended that the states draft men from their militias for one year's service in the Continental army; this first national conscription was irregularly applied and failed to fill the Continental ranks.

text: For long-term operations, conscription was occasionally used when volunteers or paid substitutes were insufficient to raise the needed manpower. During the American Revolutionary War, the states sometimes drafted men for militia duty or to fill state Continental Army units, but the central government did not have the authority to conscript except for purposes of naval impressment. President James Madison and his Secretary of War James Monroe unsuccessfully attempted to create a national draft of 40,000 men during the War of 1812.[6] This proposal was fiercely criticized on the House floor by antiwar Congressman Daniel Webster of New Hampshire.[7]

text:
"The administration asserts the right to fill the ranks of the regular army by compulsion...Is this, sir, consistent with the character of a free government? Is this civil liberty? Is this the real character of our Constitution? No, sir, indeed it is not...Where is it written in the Constitution, in what article or section is it contained, that you may take children from their parents, and parents from their children, and compel them to fight the battles of any war, in which the folly or the wickedness of government may engage it? Under what concealment has this power lain hidden, which now for the first time comes forth, with a tremendous and baleful aspect, to trample down and destroy the dearest rights of personal liberty?

Daniel Webster (December 9, 1814 House of Representatives Address)

text: Civil War[edit]

text: The United States first employed national conscription during the American Civil War. The vast majority of troops were volunteers; of the 2,100,000 Union soldiers, about 2% were draftees, and another 6% were substitutes paid by draftees.[8][9]

text: The Confederacy had far fewer inhabitants than the Union, and Confederate President Jefferson Davis proposed the first conscription act on March 28, 1862; it was passed into law the next month.[10] Resistance was both widespread and violent, with comparisons made between conscription and slavery.

text: Both sides permitted conscripts to hire substitutes to serve in their place. In the Union, many states and cities offered bounties and bonuses for enlistment. They also arranged to take credit against their draft quota by claiming freed slaves who enlisted in the Union Army.

text: Although both sides resorted to conscription, the system did not work effectively in either.[11] The Confederate Congress on April 16, 1862, passed an act requiring military service for three years from all males aged eighteen to thirty-five not legally exempt; it later extended the obligation. The U.S. Congress followed with the Militia Act of 1862 authorizing a militia draft within a state when it could not meet its quota with volunteers.[citation needed] This state-administered system failed in practice and in 1863 Congress passed the Enrollment Act, the first genuine national conscription law, setting up under the Union Army an elaborate machinery for enrolling and drafting men between twenty and forty-five years of age. Quotas were assigned in each state, the deficiencies in volunteers required to be met by conscription.

text: Still, men drafted could provide substitutes, and until mid-1864 could even avoid service by paying commutation money. Many eligible men pooled their money to cover the cost of any one of them drafted. Families used the substitute provision to select which member should go into the army and which would stay home. The other popular means of procuring a substitute was to pay a soldier whose period of enlistment was about to expire - the advantage of this method was that the Army could retain a trained veteran in place of a raw recruit. Of the 168,649 men procured for the Union Army through the draft, 117,986 were substitutes, leaving only 50,663 who had their personal services conscripted. There was much evasion and overt resistance to the draft, and the New York City draft riots were in direct response to the draft and were the first large-scale resistance against the draft in the United States.

text: The problem of Confederate desertion was aggravated by the inequitable inclinations of conscription officers and local judges. The three conscription acts of the Confederacy exempted certain categories, most notably the planter class, and enrolling officers and local judges often practiced favoritism, sometimes accepting bribes. Attempts to effectively deal with the issue were frustrated by conflict between state and local governments on the one hand and the national government of the Confederacy.[12]

text: World War I[edit]

text: In 1917 the administration of President Woodrow Wilson decided to rely primarily on conscription, rather than voluntary enlistment, to raise military manpower for World War I when only 73,000 volunteers enlisted out of the initial 1 million target in the first six weeks of the war.[13] One claimed motivation was to head off the former President, Theodore Roosevelt, who proposed to raise a volunteer division, which would upstage Wilson. However, there is no evidence that even Roosevelt had the popularity to overcome the unpopular war, also, since Wilson had just started his second term in office the former President's prospects for substantial political gain would seem dubious.

text: The Selective Service Act of 1917 was carefully drawn to remedy the defects in the Civil War system and—by allowing exemptions for dependency, essential occupations, and religious scruples—to place each man in his proper niche in a national war effort. The act established a "liability for military service of all male citizens"; authorized a selective draft of all those between 21 and 31 years of age (later from 18 to 45); and prohibited all forms of bounties, substitutions, or purchase of exemptions. Administration was entrusted to local boards composed of leading civilians in each community. These boards issued draft calls in order of numbers drawn in a national lottery and determined exemptions.

text: In 1917 10 million men were registered. This was deemed to be inadequate, so age ranges were increased and exemptions reduced, and so by the end of 1918 this increased to 24 million men that were registered with nearly 3 million inducted into the military services, with little of the resistance that characterized the Civil War, thanks to a huge campaign by the government to build support for the war, and shut down newspapers and magazines that published articles against the war.[14][15]

text: The draft was universal and included blacks on the same terms as whites, although they served in different units. In all 367,710 black Americans were drafted (13.0% of the total), compared to 2,442,586 white (86.9%). Along with a general opposition to American involvement in a foreign conflict, Southern farmers objected to unfair conscription practices that exempted members of the upper class and industrial workers.

text: Draft boards were localized and based their decisions on social class: the poorest were the most often conscripted because they were considered the most expendable at home. African-Americans in particular were often disproportionately drafted, though they generally were conscripted as laborers and not sent into combat to avoid the tensions that would arise from mixing races in military units. Forms of resistance ranged from peaceful protest to violent demonstrations and from humble letter-writing campaigns asking for mercy to radical newspapers demanding reform. The most common tactics were dodging and desertion, and many communities sheltered and defended their draft dodgers as political heroes.

text: Nearly half a million immigrants were drafted, which forced the military to develop training procedures that took ethnic differences into account. Military leaders invited Progressive reformers and ethnic group leaders to assist in formulating new military policies. The military attempted to socialize and Americanize young immigrant recruits, not by forcing "angloconformity", but by showing remarkable sensitivity and respect for ethnic values and traditions and a concern for the morale of immigrant troops. Sports activities, keeping immigrant groups together, newspapers in various languages, the assistance of bilingual officers, and ethnic entertainment programs were all employed.[16]

text: Opposition[edit]

text: The Conscription Act of 1917 was passed in June. Conscripts were court-martialed by the Army if they refused to wear uniforms, bear arms, perform basic duties, or submit to military authority. Convicted objectors were often given long sentences of 20 years in Fort Leavenworth.[17] In 1918 Secretary Baker created the Board of Inquiry to question the conscientious objectors' sincerity.[18] Military tribunals tried men found by the Board to be insincere for a variety of offenses, sentencing 17 to death, 142 to life imprisonment, and 345 to penal labor camps.[18]

text: In 1917, a number of radicals and anarchists, including Emma Goldman, challenged the new draft law in federal court, arguing that it was a direct violation of the Thirteenth Amendment's prohibition against slavery and involuntary servitude. The Supreme Court unanimously upheld the constitutionality of the draft act in the Selective Draft Law Cases on January 7, 1918. The decision said the Constitution gave Congress the power to declare war and to raise and support armies. The Court, relying partly on Vattel's The Law of Nations, emphasized the principle of the reciprocal rights and duties of citizens:[19]

text: It may not be doubted that the very conception of a just government and its duty to the citizen includes the reciprocal obligation of the citizen to render military service in case of need, and the right to compel it. To do more than state the proposition is absolutely unnecessary in view of the practical illustration afforded by the almost universal legislation to that effect now in force.

text: Conscription was unpopular from left-wing sectors at the start, with many Socialists jailed for "obstructing the recruitment or enlistment service". The most famous was Eugene Debs, head of the Socialist Party of America, who ran for president in 1920 from his Atlanta prison cell. He had his sentence commuted to time served and was released on December 25, 1921, by President Warren G. Harding.

text: The Industrial Workers of the World mobilized to obstruct the war effort through strikes in war-related industries and not registering.

text: Conscientious objectors[edit]

text: Conscientious objector (CO) exemptions were allowed for the Amish, Mennonites, Quakers, and Church of the Brethren only. All other religious and political objectors were forced to participate. Some 64,700 men claimed conscientious objector status; local draft boards certified 57,000, of whom 30,000 passed the physical and 21,000 were inducted into the U.S. Army. About 80% of the 21,000 decided to abandon their objection and take up arms, but 3,989 drafted objectors refused to serve. Most belonged to historically pacifist denominations, especially Quakers, Mennonites, and Moravian Brethren, as well as a few Seventh-day Adventists and Jehovah's Witnesses. About 15% were religious objectors from non-pacifist churches.[20]

text: Ben Salmon was a nationally known political activist who encouraged men not to register and personally refused to comply with the draft procedures. He rejected the Army Review Board proposal that he do noncombatant farm work. Sentenced to 25 years in prison, he again refused a proposed desk job. He was pardoned and released in November 1920 with a "dishonorable discharge".[21]

text: Interwar[edit]

text: The draft ended in 1918 but the Army designed the modern draft mechanism in 1926 and built it based on military needs despite an era of pacifism. Working where Congress would not, it gathered a cadre of officers for its nascent Joint Army-Navy Selective Service Committee, most of whom were commissioned based on social standing rather than military experience.[22] This effort did not receive congressionally approved funding until 1934 when Major General Lewis B. Hershey was assigned to the organization. The passage of a conscription act was opposed by some, including Dorothy Day and George Barry O'Toole, who were concerned that such conscription would not provide adequate protection for the rights of conscientious objectors. However, much of Hershey's work was codified into law with the Selective Training and Service Act of 1940 (STSA).[23]

text: World War II[edit]

text: By the summer of 1940, as Germany conquered France, Americans supported the return of conscription. One national survey found that 67% of respondents believed that a German-Italian victory would endanger the United States, and that 71% supported "the immediate adoption of compulsory military training for all young men".[24] Similarly, a November 1942 survey of American high-school students found that 69% favored compulsory postwar military training.[25]

text: The World War I system served as a model for that of World War II. The 1940 STSA instituted national conscription in peacetime, requiring registration of all men between 21 and 35, with selection for one year's service by a national lottery. The term of service was extended by one year in August 1941. After Pearl Harbor the STSA was further amended (December 19, 1941), extending the term of service to the duration of the war and six months and requiring the registration of all men 18 to 64 years of age. In the massive draft of World War II, 49 million men were registered, 36 million classified[not in citation given], and 10 million inducted.[26] President Roosevelt's signing of the STSA on September 16, 1940, began the first peacetime draft in the United States. It also established the Selective Service System as an independent agency responsible for identifying and inducting young men into military service. Roosevelt named Hershey to head the Selective Service on July 31, 1941, where he remained until 1969.[23] This preparatory act came when other preparations, such as increased training and equipment production, had not yet been approved. Nevertheless, it served as the basis for the conscription programs that would continue to the present. The act set a cap of 900,000 men to be in training at any given time and limited military service to 12 months. An amendment increased this 18 more months in August 1941. Later legislation on December 20, 1942 amended the act to require all men from 18 to 64 to register, with those aged 20 to 44 being able for induction. 18 and 19 year olds were made liable for induction and the upper age limit for the draft was reduced to 37 beginning on November 13, 1942. Service commitments for inductees were set at the length of the war plus six months.[27]

text: As manpower need increased during World War II, draftees were inducted into the Army, Navy, and Marine Corps. The Navy and Marine Corps enlisted inductees and volunteers under the same service agreements, but with different service obligations, while the Army (and Army Air Forces) placed inductees into a special service component known as the Army of the United States, commonly known as the "AUS".[28]

text: By 1942, the Selective Service System moved away from administrative selection by its more than 6,000 local boards to a system of lottery selection. Rather than filling quotas by local selection, the boards now ensured proper processing of men selected by the national lottery.[22] On December 5, 1942, presidential Executive Order 9279 made it so that men from the ages of 18 to 37 could not voluntarily enlist even if they had not been drafted, providing protection for the nation's home front manpower pool. Paul V. McNutt, head of the War Manpower Commission, estimated that the changes would increase the ratio of men drafted from one out of nine to one out of five. The commission's goal was to have nine million men in the armed forces by the end of 1943.[29] This facilitated the massive requirement of up to 200,000 men per month and would remain the standard for the length of the war. The World War II draft operated from 1940 until 1947 when its legislative authorization expired without further extension by Congress. During this time, more than 10 million men had been inducted into military service. With the expiration, no inductions occurred in 1947.[30] However, the SSS remained intact.

text: Opposition[edit]

text: Scattered opposition was encountered especially in the northern cities where African-Americans protested the system. The young Nation of Islam was at the forefront, with many Black Muslims jailed for refusing the draft, and their leader Elijah Muhammed was sentenced to federal prison for 5 years for inciting draft resistance. Organized draft resistance also developed in the Japanese American internment camps, where groups like the Heart Mountain Fair Play Committee refused to serve unless they and their families were released. 300 Nisei men from eight of the ten War Relocation Authority camps were arrested and stood trial for felony draft evasion; most were sentenced to federal prison.[31] American Communists also opposed the war until Germany attacked the Soviet Union in June 1941, whereupon they became supporters.[32]

text: Conscientious objectors[edit]

text: Of the more than 72,000 men registering as conscientious objectors (CO), nearly 52,000 received CO status. Of these, over 25,000 entered the military in noncombatant roles, another 12,000 went to civilian work camps, and nearly 6,000 went to prison. Draft evasion only accounted for about 4% of the total inducted. About 373,000 alleged evaders were investigated with just over 16,000 being imprisoned.[33]

text: Cold War[edit]

text: The second peacetime draft began with passage of the Selective Service Act of 1948 after the STSA expired. The new law required all men, ages 18 to 26, to register. It also created the system for the "Doctor Draft" aimed at inducting health professionals into military service.[34] Unless otherwise exempted or deferred, these men could be called for up to 21 months of active duty and five years of reserve duty service. Congress further tweaked this act in 1950 although the post–World War II surplus of military manpower left little need for draft calls until Truman's declaration of national emergency in December 1950.[35] Only 20,348 men were inducted in 1948 and only 9,781 in 1949.

text: Between the Korean War's outbreak in June 1950 and the armistice agreement in 1953, Selective Service inducted over 1.5 million men.[30] Another 1.3 million volunteered, usually choosing the Navy or Air Force.[22][33] Congress passed the Universal Military Training and Service Act in 1951 to meet the demands of the war. It lowered the induction age to 18½ and extended active-duty service commitments to 24 months. Despite the early combat failures and later stalemate in Korea, the draft has been credited by some as playing a vital role in turning the tide of war.[22] A February 1953 Gallup Poll showed 70 percent of Americans surveyed felt the SSS handled the draft fairly. Notably, Gallup reported that 64 percent of the demographic group including all draft age men (males 21 to 29) believed the draft to be fair.[36]

text: To increase equity in the system, President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed an executive order on July 11, 1953, that ended the paternity deferment for married men.[37] In large part, the change in the draft served the purposes of the burgeoning Cold War. From a program that had just barely passed congressional muster during the fearful prelude to World War II, a more robust draft continued as fears now focused on the Soviet threat. Nevertheless, some dissenting voices in Congress continued to appeal to the history of voluntary American military service as preferable for a democracy.[38][39] The Korean War was the first time any form of student deferment was used. During the Korean War a student carrying at least twelve semester hours was spared until the end of his current semester.[40]

text: The United States breathed easier with the Korean War Armistice on July 27, 1953; however, technology brought new promises and threats. U.S. air and nuclear power fueled the Eisenhower doctrine of "massive retaliation". This strategy demanded more machines and fewer foot soldiers, so the draft slipped to the back burner. However, the head of the SSS, Maj. Gen. Hershey, urged caution fearing the conflict looming in Vietnam. In May 1953, he told his state directors to do everything possible to keep SSS alive in order to meet upcoming needs.[41]

text: Following the 1953 Korean War Armistice, Congress passed the Reserve Forces Act of 1955 with the aim of improving National Guard and federal Reserve Component readiness while also constraining its use by the president. Towards this end, it mandated a six-year service commitment, in a combination of reserve and active duty time, for every line military member regardless of their means of entry. Meanwhile, the SSS kept itself alive by devising and managing a complex system of deferments for a swelling pool of candidates during a period of shrinking requirements. The greatest challenge to the draft came not from protesters but rather lobbyists seeking additional deferments for their constituency groups such as scientists and farmers.[23]

text: Government leaders felt the potential for a draft was a critical element in maintaining a constant flow of volunteers. On numerous occasions Gen. Hershey told Congress for every man drafted, three or four more were scared into volunteering.[42] Assuming his assessment was accurate, this would mean over 11 million men volunteered for service because of the draft between January 1954 and April 1975.[22]

text: The policy of using the draft as a club to force "voluntary" enlistment was unique in U.S. history. Previous drafts had not aimed at encouraging individuals to sign up in order to gain preferential placement or less dangerous postings. However, the incremental buildup of Vietnam without a clear threat to the country bolstered this.[22] Some estimates suggest conscription encompassed almost one-third of all eligible men during the period of 1965–69.[43][44] This group represented those without exemption or resources to avoid military service. During the active combat phase, the possibility of avoiding combat by selecting their service and military specialty led as many as four out of 11 eligible men to enlist.[45][46] The military relied upon this draft-induced volunteerism to make its quotas, especially the Army, which accounted for nearly 95 percent of all inductees during Vietnam. For example, defense recruiting reports show 34% of the recruits in 1964 up to 50% in 1970 indicated they joined to avoid placement uncertainty via the draft.[47][48][49] These rates dwindled to 24% in 1972 and 15% in 1973 after the change to a lottery system. Accounting for other factors, it can be argued up to 60 percent of those who served throughout the Vietnam War did so directly or indirectly because of the draft.[45]

text: In addition, deferments provided an incentive for men to follow pursuits considered useful to the state. This process, known as channeling, helped push men into educational, occupational, and family choices they might not otherwise have pursued. Undergraduate degrees were valued. Graduate work had varying value over time, though technical and religious training received near constant support. War industry support in the form of teaching, research, or skilled labor also received deferred or exempt status. Finally, marriage and family were exempted because of its positive social consequences.[23][50] This included using presidential orders to extend exemptions again to fathers and others.[51] Channeling was also seen as a means of preempting the early loss of the country's "best and brightest" who had historically joined and died early in war.[52]

text: In the only extended period of military conscription of U.S. males during a major peacetime period, the draft continued on a more limited basis during the late 1950s and early 1960s. While a far smaller percentage of eligible males were conscripted compared to war periods, draftees by law served in the Army for two years. Elvis Presley and Willie Mays were two of the most famous people drafted during this period.

text: Public protests in the United States were few during the Korean War. However, the percentage of CO exemptions for inductees grew to 1.5% compared to a rate of just 0.5% in the past two wars. The Justice Department also investigated more than 80,000 draft evasion cases.[44][53][54]

text: Vietnam War[edit]

text: President Kennedy's decision to send military troops to Vietnam as "advisors" was a signal that Selective Service Director Lewis B. Hershey needed to visit the Oval Office. From that visit emerged two wishes of JFK with regard to conscription. The first was that the names of married men with children should occupy the very bottom of the callup list. Just above them should be the names of men who are married. This Presidential policy, however, was not to be formally encoded into Selective Service Status. Men who fit into these categories became known as Kennedy Husbands. When President Lyndon Johnson decided to rescind this Kennedy policy, there was a last-minute rush to the altar by thousands of American couples.[citation needed]

text: Many early rank-and-file anti-conscription protesters had been allied with the National Committee for a SANE Nuclear Policy. The completion in 1963 of a Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty left a mass of undirected youth in search of a cause. Syndicated cartoonist Al Capp portrayed them as S.W.I.N.E, (Students Wildly Indignant About Nearly Everything). The catalyst for protest reconnection was the 1964 Gulf of Tonkin Resolution.

text: Consequently, there was some opposition to the draft even before the major U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War began. The large cohort of Baby Boomers who became eligible for military service during the Vietnam War was responsible for a steep increase in the number of exemptions and deferments, especially for college students. Besides being able to avoid the draft, college graduates who volunteered for military service (primarily as commissioned officers) had a much better chance of securing a preferential posting compared to less-educated inductees.

text: As U.S. troop strength in South Vietnam increased, more young men were drafted for service there, and many of those still at home sought means of avoiding the draft. Since only 15,000 National Guard and Reserve soldiers were sent to South Vietnam, enlistment in the Guard or the Reserves became a popular means of avoiding serving in a war zone. For those who could meet the more stringent enlistment standards, service in the Air Force, Navy, or Coast Guard was a means of reducing the chances of being killed. Vocations to the ministry and the rabbinate soared, because divinity students were exempt from the draft[citation needed]. Doctors and draft board members found themselves being pressured by relatives or family friends to exempt potential draftees.[citation needed]

text: The marriage deferment ended suddenly on August 26, 1965. Around 3:10pm President Johnson signed an order allowing the draft of men who married after midnight that day, then around 5pm he announced the change for the first time.[55]

text: Some conscientious objectors objected to the war based on the theory of Just War. One of these, Stephen Spiro, was convicted of avoiding the draft, but given a suspended sentence of five years. He was later pardoned by President Gerald Ford.[56]

text: There were 8,744,000 servicemembers between 1964 and 1975, of whom 3,403,000 were deployed to Southeast Asia.[57] From a pool of approximately 27 million, the draft raised 2,215,000 men for military service (in the United States, South Vietnam, and elsewhere) during the Vietnam War era. The majority of servicemembers deployed to South Vietnam were volunteers, even though hundreds of thousands of men opted to join the Army, Air Force, Navy, and Coast Guard (for three or four year terms of enlistment) rather than risk being drafted, serve for two years, and have no choice over their military occupational specialty (MOS).[58]

text: Of the nearly 16 million men not engaged in active military service, 57% were exempted (typically because of jobs including other military service), deferred (usually for educational reasons), or disqualified (usually for physical and mental deficiencies but also for criminal records including draft violations).[22] The requirements for obtaining and maintaining an educational deferment changed several times in the late 1960s. For several years, students were required to take an annual qualification test. In 1967 educational deferments were changed for graduate students. Those starting graduate studies in the fall of 1967 were given two semester deferments becoming eligible in June 1968. Those further along in their graduate study who entered prior to the summer of 1967 could continue to receive a deferment until they completed their studies. Peace Corps Volunteers were no longer given deferments and their induction was left to the discretion of their local boards. However most boards allowed Peace Corps Volunteers to complete their two years assignment before inducting them into the service. On December 1, 1969, a lottery was held to establish a draft priority for all those born between 1944 and 1950. Those with a high number no longer had to be concerned about the draft. Nearly 500,000 men were disqualified for criminal records, but less than 10,000 of them were convicted of draft violations.[33] Finally, as many as 100,000 draft eligible men fled the country.[59][60]

text: End of conscription[edit]

text: During the 1968 presidential election, Richard Nixon campaigned on a promise to end the draft.[61] He had first become interested in the idea of an all-volunteer army during his time out of office, based upon a paper by Martin Anderson of Columbia University.[62] Nixon also saw ending the draft as an effective way to undermine the anti-Vietnam war movement, since he believed affluent youths would stop protesting the war once their own probability of having to fight in it was gone.[63] There was opposition to the all-volunteer notion from both the Department of Defense and Congress, so Nixon took no immediate action towards ending the draft early in his presidency.[62]

text: Instead, the Gates Commission was formed, headed by Thomas S. Gates, Jr., a former Secretary of Defense in the Eisenhower administration. Gates initially opposed the all-volunteer army idea, but changed his mind during the course of the 15-member commission's work.[62] The Gates Commission issued its report in February 1970, describing how adequate military strength could be maintained without having conscription.[61][64] The existing draft law was expiring at the end of June 1971, but the Department of Defense and Nixon administration decided the draft needed to continue for at least some time.[64] In February 1971, the administration requested of Congress a two-year extension of the draft, to June 1973.[65][66]

text: Senatorial opponents of the war wanted to reduce this to a one-year extension, or eliminate the draft altogether, or tie the draft renewal to a timetable for troop withdrawal from Vietnam;[67] Senator Mike Gravel of Alaska took the most forceful approach, trying to filibuster the draft renewal legislation, shut down conscription, and directly force an end to the war.[68] Senators supporting Nixon's war efforts supported the bill, even though some had qualms about ending the draft.[66] After a prolonged battle in the Senate, in September 1971 cloture was achieved over the filibuster and the draft renewal bill was approved.[69] Meanwhile, military pay was increased as an incentive to attract volunteers, and television advertising for the U.S. Army began.[61] With the end of active U.S. ground participation in Vietnam, December 1972 saw the last men conscripted, who were born in 1952[70] and who reported for duty in June 1973. On February 2, 1972, a drawing was held to determine draft priority numbers for men born in 1953, but in early 1973 it was announced by Secretary of Defense Melvin Laird that no further draft orders would be issued.[71][72] In March 1973, 1974, and 1975, the Selective Service assigned draft priority numbers for all men born in 1954, 1955, and 1956, in case the draft was extended, but it never was.[73]

text: Command Sergeant Major Jeff Mellinger, believed to be the last drafted enlisted ranked soldier still on active duty, retired in 2011.[74][75]

text: Chief Warrant Officer 5 Ralph E. Rigby, the last Vietnam War-era drafted soldier of Warrant Officer rank, retired from the army in November 10, 2014 after a 42-year career.[76]

text: Post-1980 draft registration[edit]

text: On July 2, 1980, President Carter issued Presidential Proclamation 4771 and re-instated the requirement that young men register with the Selective Service System.[77] At that time it was required that all males, born on or after January 1, 1960, register with the Selective Service System. Those now in this category are male U.S. citizens and male immigrant non-citizens between the ages of 18 and 25, who are required to register within 30 days of their 18th birthday even if they are not eligible to join the military.

text: The Selective Service System describes its mission as "to serve the emergency manpower needs of the Military by conscripting untrained manpower, or personnel with professional health care skills, if directed by Congress and the President in a national crisis".[78] Registration forms are available either online or at any U.S. Post Office.

text: The Selective Service registration form states that failure to register is a felony punishable by up to five years imprisonment or a $250,000 fine.[79] In practice, no one has been prosecuted for failure to comply with draft registration since 1986,[80] in part because prosecutions of draft resisters proved counter-productive for the government, and in part because of the difficulty of proving that noncompliance with the law was "knowing and wilful". In interviews published in U.S. News & World Report in May 2016, current and former Selective Service System officials said that in 1988, the Department of Justice and Selective Service agreed to suspend any further prosecutions of nonregistrants.[81] Many men do not register at all, register late, or change addresses without notifying the Selective Service System.[82] Registration is a requirement for employment by the federal government and some states, as well as for receiving some state benefits such as driver's licenses.[83] Refusing to register can also cause a loss of eligibility for federal financial aid for college.[84]

text: Health care personnel[edit]

text: On December 1, 1989, Congress ordered the Selective Service System to put in place a system capable of drafting "persons qualified for practice or employment in a health care and professional occupation", if such a special-skills draft should be ordered by Congress.[85] In response, Selective Service published plans for the "Health Care Personnel Delivery System" (HCPDS) in 1989 and has had them ready ever since. The concept underwent a preliminary field exercise in Fiscal Year 1998, followed by a more extensive nationwide readiness exercise in Fiscal Year 1999. The HCPDS plans include women and men ages 20–54 in 57 different job categories.[86] As of May 2003, the Defense Department has said the most likely form of draft is a special skills draft, probably of health care workers.[87]

text: Legality[edit]

text: In 1918, the Supreme Court ruled that the World War I draft did not violate the United States Constitution in the Selective Draft Law Cases. The Court summarized the history of conscription in England and in colonial America, a history that it read as establishing that the Framers envisioned compulsory military service as a governmental power. It held that the Constitution's grant to Congress of the powers to declare war and to create standing armies included the power to mandate conscription. It rejected arguments based on states' rights, the 13th Amendment, and other provisions of the Constitution.

text: Later, during the Vietnam War, a lower appellate court also concluded that the draft was constitutional. United States v. Holmes, 387 F.2d 781 (7th Cir.), cert. denied, 391 U.S. 936 (1968).[88] Justice William O. Douglas, in voting to hear the appeal in Holmes, agreed that the government had the authority to employ conscription in wartime, but argued that the constitutionality of a draft in the absence of a declaration of war was an open question, which the Supreme Court should address.

text: During the World War I era, the Supreme Court allowed the government great latitude in suppressing criticism of the draft. Examples include Schenck v. United States, 249 U.S. 47 (1919)[89] and Gilbert v. Minnesota, 254 U.S. 325 (1920).[90] In subsequent decades, however, the Court has taken a much broader view of the extent to which advocacy speech is protected by the First Amendment. Thus, in 1971 the Court held it unconstitutional for a state to punish a man who entered a county courthouse wearing a jacket with the words "F*ck the Draft" visible on it. Cohen v. California, 403 U.S. 15 (1971).[91] Nevertheless, protesting the draft by the specific means of burning a draft registration card can be constitutionally prohibited, because of the government's interest in prohibiting the "nonspeech" element involved in destroying the card. United States v. O'Brien, 391 U.S. 367 (1968).[92]

text: Since the reinstatement of draft registration in 1980, the Supreme Court has heard and decided four cases related to the Military Selective Service Act: Rostker v. Goldberg, 453 U.S. 57 (1981), upholding the Constitutionality of requiring men but not women to register for the draft; Selective Service v. Minnesota Public Interest Research Group (MPIRG), 468 U.S. 841 (1984), upholding the Constitutionality of the first of the federal "Solomon Amendment" laws, which requires applicants for Federal student aid to certify that they have complied with draft registration, either by having registered or by not being required to register; Wayte v. United States, 470 U.S. 598 (1985), upholding the policies and procedures which the Supreme Court thought the government had used to select the "most vocal" nonregistrants for prosecution, after the government refused to comply with discovery orders by the trial court to produce documents and witnesses related to the selection of nonregistrants for prosecution; and Elgin v. Department of the Treasury, 567 U.S. ____ (2012), regarding procedures for judicial review of denial of Federal employment for nonregistrants.[93]

text: In 1981, several men filed lawsuit in the case Rostker v. Goldberg, alleging that the Military Selective Service Act violates the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment by requiring that men only and not also women register with the Selective Service System. The Supreme Court upheld the act, stating that Congress's "decision to exempt women was not the accidental byproduct of a traditional way of thinking about women", that "since women are excluded from combat service by statute or military policy, men and women are simply not similarly situated for purposes of a draft or registration for a draft, and Congress' decision to authorize the registration of only men therefore does not violate the Due Process Clause", and that "the argument for registering women was based on considerations of equity, but Congress was entitled, in the exercise of its constitutional powers, to focus on the question of military need, rather than 'equity.'"[94]

text: The Rostker v. Goldberg opinion's dependence upon deference on decision of the executive to exclude women from combat has garnered renewed scrutiny since the Department of Defense announced its decision in January 2013 to do away with most of the federal policies that have kept women from serving in combat roles in ground war situations. Both the U.S. Navy and the U.S. Air Force had by then already opened up virtually all positions in sea and air combat to women. At least two lawsuits have been filed challenging the continued Constitutionality of requiring men but not women to register with the Selective service System: National Coalition for Men v. Selective Service System (filed April 4, 2013, U.S. District Court for the Central District of California; dismissed by the District Court July 29, 2013 as not "ripe" for decision; appeal argued December 8, 2015 before the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals;[95] reversed and remanded February 19, 2016[96]), and Kyle v. Selective Service System (filed July 3, 2015, U.S. District Court for the District of New Jersey), brought on behalf of Elizabeth Kyle-LaBell, who tried to register but was turned away because she is female.[97]

text: Conscientious objection[edit]

text: According to the Selective Service System,[98]

text: The Supreme Court has ruled in cases United States v. Seeger[99] (1965) and Welsh v. United States[100] (1970) that conscientious objection can be by non-religious beliefs as well as religious beliefs; but it has also ruled in Gillette v. United States (1971) against objections to specific wars as grounds for conscientious objection.[101]

text: There is currently no mechanism to indicate that one is a conscientious objector in the Selective Service system. According to the SSS, after a person is drafted, he can claim Conscientious Objector status and then justify it before the Local Board. This is criticized because during the times of a draft, when the country is in emergency conditions, there could be increased pressure for Local Boards to be more harsh on conscientious objector claims.

text: There are two types of status for conscientious objectors. If a person objects only to combat but not to service in the military, then the person could be given noncombatant service in the military without training of weapons. If the person objects to all military service, then the person could be ordered to "alternative service" with a job "deemed to make a meaningful contribution to the maintenance of the national health, safety, and interest".

text: Poverty Draft[edit]

text: The poverty draft is a controversial belief in some circles that low-income demographics are either intentionally targeted by the military for recruitment, or that their low socioeconomic status makes enlistment especially attractive, such that they are overrepresented in the armed forces. The "poverty draft" is a term describing U.S. military recruiters' purposeful tendency to focus their recruiting efforts on inner-city and poor rural schools. The low-income youth and young people of color who attend these schools generally have fewer good educational and job opportunities than middle-class and wealthy youth and are therefore more likely to enlist. Proponents of the poverty draft view often claim that because of this the U.S. armed forces are disproportionally men and women of color and from poor and working-class backgrounds.[102] [103]

text: Selective Service reforms[edit]

text: The Selective Service System has maintained that they have implemented several reforms that would make the draft more fair and equitable.

text: Some of the measures they have implemented include:[104]

text:
Before and during the Vietnam War, a young man could get a deferment by showing that he was a full-time student making satisfactory progress towards a degree; now deferment only lasts to the end of the semester. If the man is a senior he can defer until the end of the academic year.
The government has said that draft boards are now more representative of the local communities in areas such as race and national origin.
A lottery system would be used to determine the order of people being called up. Previously the oldest men who were found eligible for the draft would be taken first. In the new system, the men called first would be those who are or will turn 20 years old in the calendar year or those whose deferments will end in the calendar year. Each year after, the man will be placed on a lower priority status until his liability ends.

text: Conscription controversies since 2003[edit]

text: The effort to enforce Selective Service registration law was abandoned in 1986. Since then, no attempt to reinstate conscription has been able to attract much support in the legislature or among the public.[82] Since early 2003, when the Iraq War appeared imminent, there had been attempts through legislation and campaign rhetoric to begin a new public conversation on the topic. Public opinion since 1973 has been largely negative.

text: In 2003, several Democratic congressmen (Charles Rangel of New York, Jim McDermott of Washington, John Conyers of Michigan, John Lewis of Georgia, Pete Stark of California, Neil Abercrombie of Hawaii) introduced legislation that would draft both men and women into either military or civilian government service, should there be a draft in the future. The Republican majority leadership suddenly considered the bill, nine months after its introduction, without a report from the Armed Services Committee (to which it had been referred), and just one month prior to the 2004 presidential and congressional elections. The Republican leadership used an expedited parliamentary procedure that would have required a two-thirds vote for passage of the bill. The bill was defeated on October 5, 2004, with two members voting for it and 402 members voting against.

text: In 2004, the platforms of both the Democratic and Republican parties opposed military conscription, but neither party moved to end draft registration. John Kerry in one debate criticized Bush's policies, "You've got stop-loss policies so people can't get out when they were supposed to. You've got a backdoor draft right now."

text: This statement was in reference to the U.S. Department of Defense use of "stop-loss" orders, which have extended the Active Duty periods of some military personnel. All enlistees, upon entering the service, volunteer for a minimum eight-year Military Service Obligation (MSO). This MSO is split between a minimum active duty period, followed by a reserve period where enlistees may be called back to active duty for the remainder of the eight years.[105] Some of these active duty extensions have been for as long as two years. The Pentagon stated that as of August 24, 2004, 20,000 soldiers, sailors, airmen, and Marines had been affected.[106] As of January 31, 2006 it has been reported that more than 50,000 soldiers and reservists had been affected.[107]

text: Despite arguments by defense leaders that they had no interest in re-instituting the draft, Representative Neil Abercrombie's (D-HI) inclusion of a DOD memo in the Congressional Record which detailed a meeting by senior leaders signaled renewed interest. Though the conclusion of the meeting memo did not call for a reinstatement of the draft, it did suggest Selective Service Act modifications to include registration by women and self-reporting of critical skills that could serve to meet military, homeland-defense, and humanitarian needs.[108] This hinted at more targeted draft options being considered, perhaps like that of the "Doctor Draft" that began in the 1950s to provide nearly 66% of the medical professionals who served in the Army in Korea.[109] Once created, this manpower tool continued to be used through 1972. The meeting memo gave DOD's primary reason for opposing a draft as a matter of cost effectiveness and efficiency. Draftees with less than two years' retention were said to be a net drain on military resources providing insufficient benefit to offset overhead costs of using them.[22]

text: Mentions of the draft during the presidential campaign led to a resurgence of anti-draft and draft resistance organizing.[110] One poll of young voters in October 2004 found that 29% would resist if drafted.[111]

text: In November 2006, Representative Charles B. Rangel (D-NY) again called for the draft to be reinstated; Speaker of the House Nancy Pelosi rejected the proposal.[112]

text: On December 19, 2006, President George W. Bush announced that he was considering sending more troops to Iraq. The next day, the Selective Service System's director for operations and chief information officer, Scott Campbell, announced plans for a "readiness exercise" to test the system's operations in 2006, for the first time since 1998.[113]

text: On December 21, 2006, Veterans Affairs Secretary Jim Nicholson, when asked by a reporter whether the draft should be reinstated to make the military more equal, said, "I think that our society would benefit from that, yes sir." Nicholson proceeded to relate his experience as a company commander in an infantry unit which brought together soldiers of different socioeconomic backgrounds and education levels, noting that the draft "does bring people from all quarters of our society together in the common purpose of serving". Nicholson later issued a statement saying he does not support reinstating the draft.[114]

text: On August 10, 2007, with National Public Radio on "All Things Considered", Lieutenant General Douglas Lute, National Security Adviser to the President and Congress for all matters pertaining to the United States Military efforts in Iraq and Afghanistan, expressed support for a draft to alleviate the stress on the Army's all-volunteer force. He cited the fact that repeated deployments place much strain upon one soldier's family and himself which, in turn, can affect retention.[115]

text: A similar bill to Rangel's 2003 one was introduced in 2007, called the Universal National Service Act of 2007 (H.R. 393), but it has not received a hearing or been scheduled for consideration.

text: At the end of June 2014 in Pennsylvania 14,250 letters of conscription were erroneously posted to men born in the 19th century calling upon them to register for the US military draft. This was attributed to a clerk at the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation who failed to select a century during a transfer of 400,000 records to the Selective Service. The Selective Service identified 27,218 records of men born in the 19th century made errantly applicable by the change of century and began sending out notices to them on June 30.[116]

text: On June 14, 2016, the Senate voted to require women to register for the draft, though language requiring this was dropped from later versions of the bill.[117]

text: Non-citizens[edit]

text: The Selective Service (and the draft) in the United States is not limited to citizens. Howard Stringer, for example, was drafted six weeks after arriving from his native Britain in 1965.[118][119] Today, non-citizen males of appropriate age in the United States, who are permanent residents (holders of green cards), seasonal agricultural workers not holding an H-2A Visa, refugees, parolees, asylees, and illegal immigrants, are required to register with the Selective Service System.[120] Refusal to do so is grounds for denial of a future citizenship application. In addition, immigrants who seek to naturalize as citizens must, as part of the Oath of Citizenship, swear to the following:

text: ... that I will bear arms on behalf of the United States when required by the law; that I will perform noncombatant service in the armed forces of the United States when required by the law; that I will perform work of national importance under civilian direction when required by the law;[121]

text: The United States Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) website also states however:

text: However, since 1975, USCIS has allowed the oath to be taken without the clauses: ". . .that I will bear arms on behalf of the United States when required by law; that I will perform noncombatant service in the Armed Forces of the United States when required by law...."

text: Non-citizens who serve in the United States military enjoy several naturalization benefits which are unavailable to non-citizens who do not, such as a waiver of application fees.[122] Permanent resident aliens who die while serving in the U.S. Armed Forces may be naturalized posthumously, which may be beneficial to surviving family members.[123]


document_title: Forbes list of Indian billionaires

question_text: who is the richest person in the india

question_tokens: who is the richest person in the india

root

text: Forbes list of Indian billionaires

text: This article needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (August 2018)

tag: table

text: The Forbes list of Indian billionaires is based on an annual assessment of wealth and assets compiled and published by Forbes magazine in March 2016.[1]

tag: p

text: 2016 List of Billionaires

text: The following is a list of all Indian billionaires and their world rankings.[1][2]

text:
India
World
Name
Age
City of residence
Net Worth in US$
Industry
Comments

01
36
Mukesh Ambani
61
Mumbai
22.7 $billion
Petrochemicals, oil & gas

02
44
Dilip Shanghvi
62
Mumbai
16.7 billion
Pharmaceutical

03
55
Azim Premji
73
Bangalore
15.0 billion
Software services

04
88
Shiv Nadar
73
New Delhi
11.1 billion
Software  services

05
135
Lakshmi Mittal
68
London
8.4 billion
Steel

06
184
Uday Kotak
59
Mumbai
6.3 billion
Banking

07
196
Kumar Birla
51
6.1 billion
Commodity

08
219
Sunil Mittal
60
New Delhi
5.7 billion
Telecom

09
233
Desh Bandhu  Gupta
80
Mumbai
5.5 billion
Pharmaceutical

10
270
Shashi & Ravi Ruia
87
5.0 billion
Diversified
Combined net-worth

69

12
338
Micky Jagtiani
66
Dubai
4.4  billion
Retail

13
358
M. A. Yousuf Ali
62
Abu dhabi
4.2 billion
Retail

14
380
Vikram Lal
76
New Delhi
4.0 billion
Motorcycle

15
435
Subhash Chandra
67
Mumbai
3.6 billion
Broadcast

16
453
Gautam Adani
56
Ahmedabad
3.5 billion
Commodity, Infrastructure

17
Benu Gopal Bangur
87
Kolkata
3.5 billion
Cement

18
Savitri Jindal
68
Hisar
3.5 billion
Steel

19
Pankaj Patel
67
Ahmedabad
3.5 billion
Pharmaceutical

20
549
Rahul & Kapil Bhatia
-
New Delhi
3.1 billion
Airline
Combined net-worth

-

21
Indu Jain
81
3.1  billion
Broadcast

22
569
Sudhir & Samir Mehta
-
Ahmedabad
3.0 billion
Diversified
Combined net-worth

-

23
595
B. Ravi Pillai
64
Dubai
2.9  billion
Construction

24
612
Kushal Pal Singh
86
New Delhi
2.8 billion
Real estate

25
688
Anil Ambani
59
Mumbai
2.5 billion
Diversified

26
Gurbachan & Kuldip Singh Dhingra
-
New Delhi
2.5 billion
Paint
Combined net-worth

-

27
P.V. Ramprasad Reddy
60
Hyderabad
2.5 billion
Pharmaceutical

28
722
Rahul Bajaj
80
Pune
2.4 billion
Motorcycle

29
771
Mangal Prabhat Lodha
62
Mumbai
2.3 billion
Real  estate

30
810
Smita Crishna-Godrej
67
2.2 billion
Diversified

31
Ashwin Dani
75
2.2  billion
Paint

32
Adi Godrej
76
2.2 billion
Consumer goods

33
Jamshyd  Godrej
69
2.2 billion
Consumer  goods

34
Nadir  Godrej
67
2.2 billion
Diversified

35
Kalanithi Maran
53
Chennai
2.2  billion
Broadcast

36
Rishad Naoroji
67
Mumbai
2.2 billion
Consumer  goods

37
906
Murali Divi
67
Hyderabad
2.0 billion
Pharmaceutical

38
Ravi Khatri
39
Delhi
2.0 billion

In form Of Property

39
959
Baba Kalyani
69
Pune
1.9 billion
Engineering

40
N. R. Narayana Murthy
72
Bangalore
1.9 billion
Software services

41
Sunny Varkey
61
Dubai
1.9  billion
Education

42
1,011
Hasmukh Chudgar
84
Ahmedabad
1.8 billion
Pharmaceutical

43
Rakesh Jhunjhunwala
58
Mumbai
1.8 billion
Investment

44
Ajay  Piramal
63
1.8 billion
Pharmaceutical

45
B. R. Shetty
76
Abu Dhabi
1.8  billion
Health care

46
1,067
Lachhman Das Mittal
87
New Delhi
1.7 billion
Tractor

47
Nirav Modi
47
Mumbai
1.7  billion
Diamond jewellery

48
Ranjan Pai
45
Bangalore
1.7  billion
Education

49
Leena Tewari
61
Mumbai
1.7 billion
Pharmaceutical

50
1,121
Senapathy Gopalakrishnan
63
Bangalore
1.6 billion
Software services

51
Ravi Jaipuria
63
New Delhi
1.6  billion
Soft drink

52
Satish Mehta
67
Pune
1.6 billion
Pharmaceutical

53
Nandan  Nilekani
63
Bangalore
1.6 billion
Software services

54
Karsanbhai  Patel
74
Ahmedabad
1.6 billion
Consumer  goods

55
1,198
Harsh Mariwala
67
Mumbai
1.5 billion
Consumer  goods

56
Azad Moopen
65
Dubai
1.5  billion
Health care

57
Jitendra Virwani
52
Bangalore
1.5 billion
Real  estate

58
1,275
Vivek Chand Burman
81
New Delhi
1.4 billion
Consumer  goods

59
Balkrishan K Goenka
52
Mumbai
1.4 billion
Textile

60
1,367
Radhe Shyam Agarwal
73
Kolkata
1.3 billion
Consumer  goods

61
Anand Burman
66
New Delhi
1.3 billion
Consumer  goods

62
Harsh Goenka
60
Mumbai
1.3 billion
Diversified

63
Radhe Shyam  Goenka
72
Kolkata
1.3 billion
Consumer  goods

64
Yusuf Hamied
82
Mumbai
1.3 billion
Pharmaceutical

65
1,476
Anil Agarwal
64
London
1.2 billion
Mining, Metal

66
Binny Bansal
35
Bangalore
1.2  billion
E-commerce

67
Sachin Bansal
37
1.2  billion
E-commerce

68
K. Dinesh
64
1.2 billion
Software  services

69
Abhay Firodia
73
Pune
1.2 billion
Automotive

70
Sameer Gehlaut
44
Mumbai
1.2  billion
Finance

71
Devendra Jain
89
New Delhi
1.2 billion
Chemical

72
T. S. Kalyanaraman
71
Thrissur
1.2 billion
Jewellery

73
Kishore Mariwala
83
Mumbai
1.2 billion
Consumer  goods

74
1,577
Joy Alukkas
61
Thrissur
1.1  billion
Jewellery

75
Chirayu  Amin
71
Vadodara
1.1 billion
Pharmaceutical

76
Achal Bakeri
58
Ahmedabad
1.1  billion
Air cooler

77
Sanjiv  Goenka
63
Kolkata
1.1 billion
Diversified

78
Vinod Gupta
72
New Delhi
1.1  billion
Electrical equipment

79
Anand Mahindra
63
Mumbai
1.1  billion
Automotive

80
Mofatraj  Munot
73
1.1 billion
Real estate

81
S. D.  Shibulal
63
Bangalore
1.1 billion
Software services

82
1684
Niranjan  Hiranandani
68
Jalalabad
1.0 billion
Real  estate


document_title: Automobile air conditioning

question_text: when did air conditioning become available in cars

text: Automobile air conditioning

text: History[edit]

text: A company in New York City in the United States first offered installation of air conditioning for cars in 1933. Most of their customers operated limousines and luxury cars.[1]

text: In 1939, Packard became the first automobile manufacturer to offer an air conditioning unit in its cars.[2] These were manufactured by Bishop and Babcock Co, of Cleveland, Ohio. The "Bishop and Babcock Weather Conditioner" also incorporated a heater. Cars ordered with the new "Weather Conditioner" were shipped from Packard's East Grand Boulevard facility to the B&B factory where the conversion was performed. Once complete, the car was shipped to a local dealer where the customer would take delivery.

text: Packard fully warranted and supported this conversion, and marketed it well. However, it was not commercially successful for a number of reasons:

text:
The main evaporator and blower system took up half of the trunk space (though this became less of a problem as trunks became larger in the post-war period).
It was superseded by more efficient systems in the post-war years.
It had no temperature thermostat or shut-off mechanism other than switching the blower off. (Cold air would still sometimes enter the car with any movement as the drive belt was continuously connected to the compressor—later systems would use electrically operated clutches to remedy this problem.)
The several feet of plumbing going back and forth between the engine compartment and trunk proved unreliable in service.
The price, at US $274 ($4,692.12 in 2014 US dollars), was unaffordable to most people in post-depression/pre-war America.

tag: ul

text: The option was discontinued after 1941.[3]

text: Chrysler Airtemp[edit]

text: The 1953 Chrysler Imperial was one of the first production cars in twelve years to offer modern automobile air conditioning as an option, following tentative experiments by Packard in 1940 and Cadillac in 1941.[4] Walter Chrysler had seen to the invention of Airtemp air conditioning in the 1930s for the Chrysler Building, and had offered it on cars in 1941-42, and again in 1951-52.

text: The Airtemp was more advanced than rival automobile air conditioners by 1953. It was operated by a single switch on the dashboard marked with low, medium, and high positions. As the highest capacity unit available at that time, the system was capable of quickly cooling the passenger compartment and also reducing humidity, dust, pollen, and tobacco smoke. The system drew in more outside air than contemporary systems; thus, reducing the staleness associated with automotive air conditioning at the time. Instead of plastic tubes mounted on the rear window package shelf as on GM cars, small ducts directed cool air toward the ceiling of the car where it filtered down around the passengers instead of blowing directly on them, a feature that modern cars have lost.[4]

text: Cadillac, Buick, and Oldsmobile added air conditioning as an option on some of their models in the 1953 model year.[5] All of these Frigidaire systems used separate engine and trunk mounted components.[6][7]

text: Nash integrated system[edit]

text: In 1954, the Nash Ambassador was the first American automobile to have a front-end, fully integrated heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning system.[8][9] The Nash-Kelvinator corporation used its experience in refrigeration to introduce the automobile industry's first compact and affordable, single-unit heating and air conditioning system optional for its Nash models.[10] This was the first mass market system with controls on the dash and an electric clutch.[11] This system was also compact and serviceable with all of its components installed under the hood or in the cowl area.[12]

text: Combining heating, cooling, and ventilating, the new air conditioning system for the Nash cars was called the "All-Weather Eye".[13] This followed the marketing name of "Weather Eye" for Nash's fresh-air automotive heating and ventilating system that was first used in 1938.[12] With a single thermostatic control, the Nash passenger compartment air cooling option was "a good and remarkably inexpensive" system.[14] The system had cold air for passengers enter through dash-mounted vents.[15] Nash's exclusive "remarkable advance" was not only the "sophisticated" unified system, but also its $345 price that beat all other systems.[16]

text: Most competing systems used a separate heating system and an engine-mounted compressor, driven by the engine crankshaft via a belt, with an evaporator in the car's trunk to deliver cold air through the rear parcel shelf and overhead vents. General Motors made a front-mounted air conditioning system optional in 1954 on Pontiacs with a straight-eight engine that added separate controls and air distribution. The alternative layout pioneered by Nash "became established practice and continues to form the basis of the modern and more sophisticated automatic climate control systems."[17]

text: Growth in demand[edit]

text: Air-conditioning for automobiles came into wide use from the late twentieth century. Although air conditioners use significant power; the drag of a car with closed windows is less than if the windows are open to cool the occupants. There has been much debate on the effect of air conditioning on the fuel efficiency of a vehicle. Factors such as wind resistance, aerodynamics and engine power and weight must be considered, to find the true difference between using the air conditioning system and not using it, when estimating the actual fuel mileage. Other factors can affect the engine, and an overall engine heat increase can affect the cooling system of the vehicle.

text: The innovation was adopted quickly and new features to air conditioning like the Cadillac Comfort Control which was a completely automatic heating and cooling system set by dial thermostat was introduced as an industry first in the 1964 model year.[18] By 1960 about 20% of all cars in the U.S. had air-conditioning, with the percentage increasing to 80% in the warm areas of the Southwest.[19] American Motors made air conditioning standard equipment on all AMC Ambassadors starting with the 1968 model year, a first in the mass market, with a base price starting at $2,671.[20][21] By 1969, 54% of domestic automobiles were equipped with air conditioning, with the feature needed not only for passenger comfort, but also to increase the car's resale value.[22]

text: Evaporative cooling[edit]

text: A car cooler is an automobile evaporative cooler, sometimes referred to as a swamp cooler.[23][24] Most are aftermarket relatively inexpensive accessories consisting of an external window-mounted metal cylinder without moving parts, but internal under dashboard or center floor units with an electric fan are available.[25][26] It was an early type of automobile air conditioner[27] and is not used in modern cars relying on refrigerative systems to cool the interior.

text: To cool the air it used latent heat (in other words, cooling by water evaporation).[28] Water inside the device evaporates and in the process transfers heat from the surrounding air. The cool moisture-laden air is then directed to the inside of the car.[28][29] The evaporate "cooling" effect decreases with humidity because the air already saturated with water. Therefore, the lower humidity, such as in dry desert regions, the better the system works. Car coolers were popular, especially among summer tourists visiting or crossing the southwestern United States states of California, Arizona, Texas, New Mexico, and Nevada.[26]

text: Operating principles[edit]

text: In the refrigeration cycle, heat is transported from the passenger compartment to the environment. A refrigerator is an example of such a system, as it transports the heat out of the interior and into the ambient environment.

text: Circulating refrigerant gas vapor (which also carries the compressor lubricant oil across the system along with it) from the evaporator enters the gas compressor in the engine bay, usually an axial piston pump compressor, and is compressed to a higher pressure, resulting in a higher temperature as well. The hot, compressed refrigerant vapor is now at a temperature and pressure at which it can be condensed and is routed through a condenser, usually in front of the car's radiator. Here the refrigerant is cooled by air flowing across the condenser coils (originating from the vehicle's movement or from a fan, often the same fan of the cooling radiator if the condenser is mounted on it, automatically turned on when the vehicle is stationary or moving at low speeds) and condensed into a liquid. Thus, the circulating refrigerant rejects heat from the system and the heat is carried away by the air.

text: The condensed and pressurized liquid refrigerant is next routed through the receiver-drier, that is, a one way desiccant and filter cartridge that both dehydrates the refrigerant and compressor lubricant oil mixture in order to remove any residual water content (which would become ice inside the expansion valve and therefore clog it) that the vacuum done prior to the charging process didn't manage to remove from the system, and filters it in order to remove any solid particles carried by the mixture, and then through a thermal expansion valve where it undergoes an abrupt reduction in pressure. That pressure reduction results in flash evaporation of a part of the liquid refrigerant, lowering its temperature. The cold refrigerant is then routed through the evaporator coil in the passenger compartment.

text: The air, often after being filtered by a cabin air filter, is blowed by an adjustable speed electric powered centrifugal fan across the evaporator, causing the liquid part of the cold refrigerant mixture to evaporate as well, further lowering the temperature. The warm air is therefore cooled, and also deprived of any humidity (which condenses on the evaporator coils and is drained outside of the vehicle) in the process. It is then passed through an heater matrix, inside of which the engine's coolant circulates, where it can be reheated to a certain degree or even a certain temperature selected by the user and then delivered inside the vehicle's cabin through a set of adjustable vents. Another way of adjusting the desired air temperature, this time by working on the system's cooling capacity, is precisely regulating the centrifugal fan speed so that only the strictly required volumetric flow rate of air is cooled by the evaporator. The user is also given the option to close the vehicle's external air flaps, in order to achieve even faster and stronger cooling by recirculating the already cooled air inside the cabin to the evaporator.

text: To complete the refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant vapor is routed back into the compressor.

text: The warmer is the air that reaches the evaporator, the higher is the pressure of the vapor mixture discharged from it and therefore the higher is the load placed on the compressor and therefore on the engine to keep the refrigerant flowing through the system.

text: The compressor can be driven by the car's engine (e.g. via a belt, often the serpentine belt, and an electromagnetically actuated clutch; an electronically actuated variable displacement compressor can also be always directly driven by a belt without the need of any clutch and magnet at all) or by an electric motor.

text: Power consumption[edit]

text: In a modern automobile, the A/C system will use around 4 horsepower (3 kW) of the engine's power, thus increasing fuel consumption of the vehicle.[30]


document_title: Red Roses for a Blue Lady

question_text: who wrote red roses for a blue lady

question_tokens: who wrote red roses for a blue lady

text: Red Roses for a Blue Lady

text:
"Red Roses for a Blue Lady"Single by Bert KaempfertReleased
1965 (1965)Songwriter(s)

Sid Tepper
Roy C. Bennett

text: "Red Roses for a Blue Lady" is a 1948 popular song by Sid Tepper and Roy C. Bennett (alias Roy Brodsky). It has been recorded by a number of performers. The best-selling recording was made by Vaughn Monroe and His Orchestra Vocalists: Vaughn Monroe and The Moon Men on December 15, 1948. It was released by RCA Victor Records as catalog number 20-3319 (in United States) and by EMI on the His Master's Voice label as catalogue numbers BD 1247, HN 3014, HQ 3071, IM 13425 and GY 478. It first reached the Billboard magazine charts on January 14, 1949 and lasted 19 weeks on the chart, peaking at #4.[1]

text: Another recording was made by Guy Lombardo and his Royal Canadians on December 22, 1948. It was released by Decca Records as catalog number 24549. The record first reached the Billboard magazine charts on February 4, 1949 and lasted 13 weeks on the chart, peaking at #10.[1]

text: The song was revived in 1965 by vocalists Vic Dana and Wayne Newton and instrumentalist Bert Kaempfert; Dana's version was the most successful, peaking at #10 on the pop chart and #2 on the Easy Listening chart.[2]   Kaempfert's peaked at #11 on the same chart. Wayne Newton's version reached #23. All were listed on Billboard's Easy listening (later Adult Contemporary) survey.  Andy Williams released a version in 1965 as the B-side to his hit song "...and Roses and Roses".  Harry James recorded a version in 1965 on his album Harry James Plays Green Onions & Other Great Hits (Dot DLP 3634 and DLP 25634).

text: Bruno Balz has written German lyrics. The German title is "Ich sende dir Rosen". The Cornel Trio recorded it in Berlin on October 15, 1952. The song was released by Electrola as catalog number EG 7848.

text: Lyrical content[edit]

text: The song is about a man who wishes to give flowers as a gift to a woman he loves after the two have had what he describes as a "silly quarrel the other day," and that he made her blue (i.e., sad). He hopes that if she accepts his plea for forgiveness, the two will marry and that he will soon return to pick out "your best white orchid for her wedding gown."


document_title: Henry Danger

question_text: who plays henry's sister in henry danger

question_tokens: who plays henry 's sister in henry danger

text: Henry Danger

text: Plot[edit]

text: Henry Hart is a 13-year-old boy who lives in the town of Swellview. He lands a part-time job as Kid Danger, a sidekick of Captain Man who's a well-known superhero in Swellview. Captain Man tells Henry not to tell anybody about his job, so he attempts to keep it a secret from his best friends, Charlotte and Jasper, his younger sister, Piper, and his parents. Henry goes to a shop called "Junk 'n' Stuff" which has a secret lair called the Man Cave hidden underneath where Captain Man does his work. Captain Man says he will not be around for long and needs help; soon enough, he will need someone to take his place when he is gone.

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Originally aired

First aired
Last aired

1
25
July 26, 2014 (2014-07-26)
May 16, 2015 (2015-05-16)

2
18
September 12, 2015 (2015-09-12)
July 17, 2016 (2016-07-17)

3
19
September 17, 2016 (2016-09-17)
October 7, 2017 (2017-10-07)

4
TBA
October 21, 2017 (2017-10-21)
TBA

text: Cast and characters[edit]

text:
Jace Norman as Henry Hart/Kid Danger[1]
Cooper Barnes as Ray Manchester/Captain Man[2]
Riele Downs as Charlotte
Sean Ryan Fox as Jasper Dunlop[3]
Ella Anderson as Piper Hart[4]

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: The series was picked up with an initial production order of 20 episodes on March 13, 2014, later expanding to 26 episodes. On July 26, 2014, the series started airing with a one-hour special as the first episode. Series creator Dan Schneider stated on Twitter that a character from one of his previous series will make a guest appearance on the series.[5] On November 18, 2014, the series was renewed for a second season.[6] The second season premiered on September 12, 2015. On March 2, 2016, the series was renewed for a third season.[7] The third season premiered on September 17, 2016. The series was renewed for a fourth season on November 16, 2016.[8] The fourth season will premiere on October 21, 2017.[9]

text: Animated spin-off[edit]

text: On March 2, 2017, Nickelodeon announced that a new animated series, under the working title of The Adventures of Kid Danger and Captain Man, is in development with 10 episodes announced.[10][11]

text: Film[edit]

text: On May 5, 2017, the president of Viacom's Nickelodeon group announced a movie based on the series in development.[12][13]

text: Ratings[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
First aired
Last aired
Avg. viewers
(millions)

Date
Viewers
(millions)
Date
Viewers
(millions)

1
25
July 26, 2014 (2014-07-26)
1.94[14]
May 16, 2015 (2015-05-16)
1.55[15]
1.75

2
18
September 12, 2015 (2015-09-12)
2.13[16]
July 17, 2016 (2016-07-17)
2.60[17]
1.80

3
19
September 17, 2016 (2016-09-17)
1.82[18]
October 7, 2017 (2017-10-07)
1.65[19]
1.91

4
1
October 21, 2017 (2017-10-21)
1.41[20]
TBA
TBD
1.41

text: Broadcast[edit]

text: In Canada, the series premiered on October 8, 2014, on YTV.[21] In Australia and New Zealand, the series began airing on January 17, 2015 on Nickelodeon.[22] In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the series premiered on Nickelodeon on February 13, 2015.[23]

text: Crossover[edit]

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text:
Year
Award
Category
Result
Refs

2015
Kids' Choice Awards
Favorite TV Show
Nominated
[26]

2016
Kids' Choice Awards
Favorite TV Show
Nominated
[27]

2017
Kids' Choice Awards
Favorite TV Show – Kids' Show
Won
[28]


document_title: Matthew 7:12

question_text: where in the bible does it talk about the golden rule

text: Matthew 7:12

text: Matthew 7:12 is the twelfth verse of the seventh chapter of the Gospel of Matthew in the New Testament and is part of the Sermon on the Mount. This well known verse presents what has become known as the Golden Rule.

text: In the King James Version of the Bible the text reads:

text: The World English Bible translates the passage as:

text: For a collection of other versions see BibleGateway Matthew 7:12

text: This verse is considered to be a summation of the entire sermon. Some editions append it to the end of Matthew 7:7-11, and the rule does seem to be an expansion on the teaching about prayer in that section. However, the word therefore and the mention of the law and the prophets implies that this is a more far reaching teaching. Davies and Allison note that this is indicated by the mention of the law and the prophets, which links the verse back to Matthew 5:17, the start of the teaching on ethics. The verse is most closely linked with the teaching to "love thy enemies" in Matthew 5:44.[1] In Luke 6:31 the Rule is present just after the teaching about enemies, making the link even more explicit. Luz notes that as well as summarizing the sermon, this rule also adapts it to normal life. While verses like Matthew 5:29 seem incompatible with reality, the teachings in this verse can reasonably be attempted by all.[2]

text: Richard Thomas France notes that the negative form of the Golden Rule, or the "Silver Rule" as it is sometimes called: 'don't do to others what you don’t want them to do to you', appears in several works of Greek philosophy and also in earlier Jewish writings. It also appears in other traditions such as Buddhism and Confucianism.

text: When Jesus spoke to the Sadducees, his words would have been most familiar to them. In the Torah, Moses gives The Shema to his people in the book of Deuteronomy 6:4-9, the most important of all Jewish prayers. It is a declaration of faith and a pledge of allegiance to God. Twice daily, recitation of the Shema Israel is a mitzvah for the Jewish people -- it is said upon rising in the morning and going to sleep at night. It is said when praising God and when petitioning him. The Shema Israel is the first prayer taught to Jewish children and it is the last words a Jew says before death. The Shema is recited in preparation for the reading of the Torah on the Sabbath and Jewish holidays and at the end of the holiest day, Yom Kippur. Judaism teaches that the name of God is not read aloud in the Shema; it is replaced with Adonai ("my Lord")

text: As Reginald H. Fuller says in his Preaching the New Lectionary:

text: "The summary of the law is not original with Jesus. Its two parts represent a combination of Dt 6:5 and Lev 19:18. Nor is the combination itself original to Jesus, for it is found in at least one earlier Jewish work, the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, an amalgam of wisdom and apocalyptic materials.

text: "Jesus’ thought was similarly cast in both molds, wisdom and apocalyptic, and the summary of the Law represents the wisdom facet of his teaching. Jesus undoubtedly appeared not only as the final apocalyptic preacher but also as the authoritative declarer of God’s wisdom.

text: "In the Jewish parallels, the two commandments stand side by side, as a convenient summary. Jesus understands the interlocking of the two commandments in a new and quite radical way.

text: "You cannot have one without the other. Without the love of neighbor, the love of God remains a barren emotion; and without the love of God, love of neighbor is but a refined form of self-love." [3]

text: Luz notes that some scholars see the positive version as being very important because it instructs all disciples to work actively for the good of others, not simply to desist passively from doing harm. However, Luz notes that in actual implementation there is not a great deal of difference between the two formulations. He ascribes much of the efforts to divide the two ideas to anti-Judaic prejudices of many Biblical scholars. Early Christian writers saw little difference between the two versions, and several paraphrased this verse with the negative form.[4]

text: The good end does not justify the evil means. The Golden Rule may not be perverted to justify and an evil means.  St. Augustine noticed this problem and commented on how many redactors rephrased this verse as "whatsoever good you desire…"[5]

text: The concluding phrase indicates that Jesus is here presenting the Golden Rule as a valid summary for the entirety of moral law. It might also be a reference to Hillel, whose negative formulation of the Golden Rule ended with a similar statement that it represented the totality of Biblical teachings. The author of Matthew presents a second summation of religious law at Matthew 22:40, where Jesus tells his followers there are but two laws: to love God and to love neighbour. While phrased differently, these two basic laws are essentially the same.[6]


document_title: 1967 in sports

question_text: which american sporting event took place for the first time in 1967

text: 1967 in sports

text: Alpine skiing[edit]

text:
The first Alpine Skiing World Cup is organised for the three ski events: Downhill, Slalom and Giant Slalom:

Men's overall champion: Jean-Claude Killy, France
Women's overall champion: Nancy Greene, Canada

text: American football[edit]

text:
The first Super Bowl is played on January 15 and NFL champion Green Bay Packers win 35-10 over AFL champion Kansas City Chiefs.
December 31 – Green Bay Packers defeat Dallas Cowboys 21-17 for the 1967 NFL Championship in a now-legendary game at Lambeau Field known as the Ice Bowl
Oakland Raiders defeat the Houston Oilers 40-7 for the 1967 American Football League Championship
The New Orleans Saints are formed.

text: Association football[edit]

text: European Cup[edit]

text: Celtic win the European Cup Final 2-1 against Internazionale in Lisbon, earning the team the nickname of the Lisbon Lions. The team also won the Scottish League Championship and Scottish Cup and the Scottish league Cup, thus becoming the first team to complete a domestic and European quadruple.

text: England[edit]

text: FA Cup final – Tottenham Hotspur 2-1 Chelsea

text: Athletics[edit]

text: August – Athletics at the 1967 Pan American Games held at Winnipeg

text: Australian rules football[edit]

text:
Victorian Football League

Richmond wins the 71st VFL Premiership (Richmond 16.18 (114) d Geelong 15.15 (105))
Brownlow Medal awarded to Ross Smith (St Kilda)

text: Bandy[edit]

text: 1967 Bandy World Championship is held in Finland and won by  Soviet Union.

text: Baseball[edit]

text:
World Series – St. Louis Cardinals win 4 games to 3 over the Boston Red Sox. The series MVP is pitcher Bob Gibson of St. Louis.
October – The Kansas City Athletics become the Oakland Athletics for the 1968 season.

text: Basketball[edit]

text:
NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship –

UCLA wins 79-64 over Dayton. This would be the first of a record seven consecutive titles for the Bruins.

NBA Finals –

Philadelphia 76ers won 4 games to 2 over the San Francisco Warriors

FIBA World Championship

USSR World Champion

The American Basketball Association begins play as a rival league to the NBA.

text: Boxing[edit]

text:
May 9 – Muhammad Ali was stripped of his World Heavyweight Champion titles and was banned from boxing by the various commissions for his refusal to be inducted into the United States Army.
October 27 – death of Robert Carmody (29), American boxer, in the Vietnam War

text: Canadian football[edit]

text:
Grey Cup – Hamilton Tiger-Cats won 24-1 over the Saskatchewan Roughriders
Vanier Cup – Alberta Golden Bears win 10-9 over the McMaster Marauders

text: Cycling[edit]

text:
July 30 – death of Valentín Uriona (26), Spanish road racing cyclist, following a crash during a race
Giro d'Italia won by Felice Gimondi of Italy
Tour de France – Roger Pingeon of France
UCI Road World Championships – Men's road race – Eddy Merckx of Belgium

text: Field hockey[edit]

text:
Pan American Games (Men's Competition) in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada

Gold Medal: Argentina
Silver Medal: Trinidad & Tobago
Bronze Medal: United States

March 11 – In an international women's field-hockey match at Wembley Stadium, England. England beat Ireland 7-1.

text: Figure skating[edit]

text:
World Figure Skating Championships –

Men's champion: Emmerich Dänzer, Austria
Ladies' champion: Peggy Fleming, United States
Pair skating champions: Ludmila Belousova & Oleg Protopopov, Soviet Union
Ice dancing champions: Diane Towler & Bernard Ford, Great Britain

text: Golf[edit]

text: Men's professional

text:
Masters Tournament – Gay Brewer
U.S. Open – Jack Nicklaus
British Open – Roberto DeVicenzo
PGA Championship – Don January
PGA Tour money leader – Jack Nicklaus – $188,998
Ryder Cup – United States wins 23½ to 8½ over Britain in team golf.

text: Men's amateur

text:
British Amateur – Bob Dickson
U.S. Amateur – Bob Dickson

text: Women's professional

text:
Women's Western Open – Kathy Whitworth
LPGA Championship – Kathy Whitworth
U.S. Women's Open – Catherine Lacoste
Titleholders Championship – not played
LPGA Tour money leader – Kathy Whitworth – $32,937

text: Harness racing[edit]

text:
United States Pacing Triple Crown races –

Cane Pace – Meadow Paige
Little Brown Jug – Best Of All
Messenger Stakes – Romulus Hanover

United States Trotting Triple Crown races –

Hambletonian – Speedy Streak
Yonkers Trot
Kentucky Futurity

Australian Inter Dominion Harness Racing Championship –

Pacers: Binshaw

text: Horse racing[edit]

text: Steeplechases

text:
Cheltenham Gold Cup – Woodland Venture
Grand National – Foinavon

text: Flat races

text:
Australia – Melbourne Cup won by Red Handed
Canada – Queen's Plate won by Jammed Lovely
France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe won by Topyo
Ireland – Irish Derby Stakes won by Ribocco
English Triple Crown Races:

2,000 Guineas Stakes – Royal Palace
Epsom Derby – Royal Palace
St. Leger Stakes – Ribocco

United States Triple Crown Races:

Kentucky Derby – Proud Clarion
Preakness Stakes – Damascus
Belmont Stakes – Damascus

text: Ice hockey[edit]

text:
Art Ross Trophy as the NHL's leading scorer during the regular season: Stan Mikita, Chicago Black Hawks
Hart Memorial Trophy – for the NHL's Most Valuable Player: Stan Mikita, Chicago Black Hawks
Stanley Cup – Toronto Maple Leafs won 4 games to 2 over the Montreal Canadiens
World Hockey Championship

Men's champion: Soviet Union defeated Sweden

NCAA Men's Ice Hockey Championship – Cornell University Big Red defeat Boston University Terriers 4-1 in Syracuse, New York
The NHL adds six new teams for the 1967–68 season.

text: Lacrosse[edit]

text:
The inaugural World Lacrosse Championship is held in Toronto, Ontario. The United States win, and Australia is the runner-up.
The Vancouver Carlings win the Mann Cup.
The Elora Mohawks win the Castrol Cup.
The Oshawa Green Gaels win the Minto Cup

text: Motorsport[edit]

text: Radiosport[edit]

text: Fifth Amateur Radio Direction Finding European Championship held in Cervena, Czechoslovakia.

text: Rugby league[edit]

text:
1967 New Zealand rugby league season
1967 NSWRFL season
1966–67 Northern Rugby Football League season / 1967–68 Northern Rugby Football League season
17 December – first Sunday play in professional rugby league.[1]

text: Rugby union[edit]

text: 73rd Five Nations Championship series is won by France

text: Snooker[edit]

text: No World Snooker Championship challenge matches. John Pulman remains world champion

text: Swimming[edit]

text:
July 26 – American swimmer Mark Spitz breaks Kevin Berry's nearly three-year-old world record in the men's 200m butterfly (long course) at the Pan American Games in Winnipeg, Manitoba, with a time of 2:06.4.
August 30 – John Ferris captures the world record from fellow-American Mark Spitz in the men's 200m butterfly (long course) by swimming 2:06.0 at a meet in Tokyo, Japan.
October 8 – Mark Spitz regains his world record in the men's 200m butterfly (long course) at a meet in West Berlin, West Germany, clocking 2:05.7.

text: Tennis[edit]

text: Australia

text:
Australian Men's Singles Championship – Roy Emerson (Australia) defeats Arthur Ashe (USA) 6–4, 6–1, 6–4
Australian Women's Singles Championship – Nancy Richey (USA) defeats Lesley Turner Bowrey (Australia) 6–1, 6–4

text: England

text:
Wimbledon Men's Singles Championship – John Newcombe (Australia) defeats Wilhelm Bungert (West Germany) 6–3, 6–1, 6–1
Wimbledon Women's Singles Championship – Billie Jean King (USA) defeats Ann Haydon-Jones (Great Britain) 6–3, 6–4

text: France

text:
French Men's Singles Championship –
French Women's Singles Championship –

text: USA

text:
American Men's Singles Championship –
American Women's Singles Championship –

text: Davis Cup

text: 1967 Davis Cup –  Australia 4–1  Spain at Milton Courts (grass) Brisbane, Australia

text: Volleyball[edit]

text:
1967 Men's European Volleyball Championship won by the USSR
1967 Women's European Volleyball Championship won by the USSR
Volleyball at the 1967 Pan American Games won by USA (both men's and women's tournaments)

text: Water sports[edit]

text: January 4 – death of Donald Campbell (45), British land and water speed record holder, who was trying to extend the record on Coniston Water, Cumbria

text: Yacht racing[edit]

text: The New York Yacht Club retains the America's Cup as Intrepid defeats Australian challenger Dame Pattie, of the Royal Sydney Yacht Squadron, 4 races to 1

text: Multi-sport events[edit]

text:
Fifth Pan American Games held in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
Fifth Mediterranean Games held in Tunis, Tunisia
Fifth Summer Universiade held in Tokyo, Japan

text: Awards[edit]

text:
Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year – Carl Yastrzemski, Major League Baseball
Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year – Billie Jean King, Tennis


document_title: You're the Reason God Made Oklahoma

question_text: who sings your the reason god made oklahoma

text: You're the Reason God Made Oklahoma

text:
"You're the Reason God Made Oklahoma"Single by David Frizzell and Shelly Westfrom the album The Sound Track Music From Clint Eastwood's Any Which Way You CanB-side
"That's Where Lovers Go Wrong"Released
January 1981Format
7" singleGenre
CountryLength
3:24Label
Warner Bros. RecordsSongwriter(s)
Felice and Boudleaux BryantLarry CollinsSandy PinkardProducer(s)
Snuff GarrettSteve DorffDavid Frizzell and Shelly West singles chronology

"You're the Reason God Made Oklahoma" (1981)

"A Texas State of Mind" (1981)

"You're the Reason God Made Oklahoma"(1981)

"A Texas State of Mind"(1981)

text: "You're the Reason God Made Oklahoma" is a 1981 single from the film Any Which Way You Can, performed by David Frizzell and Shelly West. It was written by Larry Collins and Sandy Pinkard (of Pinkard & Bowden). The song was Shelly West's debut on the country chart and David Frizzell's second hit on the country chart. "You're the Reason God Made Oklahoma", was the most successful of seven country hits by the duo, staying number one on the country chart for one week and eleven weeks in the Top 40 country chart.[1]

text: Felice and Boudleaux Bryant, the writers of the song "Rocky Top", sued Collins and Pinkard for copyright infringement concerning this song, because the tune was similar to their song "Rocky Top."[2] They won the lawsuit and are now often credited as having co-written the song.

text: Charts[edit]

text:
Chart (1981)

Peakposition

U.S. Billboard Hot Country Singles

1

Canadian RPM Country Tracks

13