document_title: Atomic theory

question_text: who combined the idea of elements with earlier theories of the atom

text: Atomic theory

text: History

text: Philosophical atomism

text: The idea that matter is made up of discrete units is a very old one, appearing in many ancient cultures such as Greece and India. However, these ideas were founded in philosophical and theological reasoning rather than evidence and experimentation. Because of this, they could not convince everybody, so atomism was but one of a number of competing theories on the nature of matter. It was not until the 19th century that the idea was embraced and refined by scientists, as the blossoming science of chemistry produced discoveries that could easily be explained using the concept of atoms.

text: John Dalton

text: Near the end of the 18th century, two laws about chemical reactions emerged without referring to the notion of an atomic theory. The first was the law of conservation of mass, formulated by Antoine Lavoisier in 1789, which states that the total mass in a chemical reaction remains constant (that is, the reactants have the same mass as the products).[2] The second was the law of definite proportions. First proven by the French chemist Joseph Louis Proust in 1799,[3] this law states that if a compound is broken down into its constituent elements, then the masses of the constituents will always have the same proportions, regardless of the quantity or source of the original substance.

text: John Dalton studied and expanded upon this previous work and developed the law of multiple proportions: if two elements can be combined to form a number of possible compounds, then the ratios of the masses of the second element which combine with a fixed mass of the first element will be ratios of small whole numbers. For example: Proust had studied tin oxides and found that their masses were either 88.1% tin and 11.9% oxygen or 78.7% tin and 21.3% oxygen (these were tin(II) oxide and tin dioxide respectively). Dalton noted from these percentages that 100g of tin will combine either with 13.5g or 27g of oxygen; 13.5 and 27 form a ratio of 1:2. Dalton found that an atomic theory of matter could elegantly explain this common pattern in chemistry. In the case of Proust's tin oxides, one tin atom will combine with either one or two oxygen atoms.[4]

text: Dalton believed atomic theory could explain why water absorbed different gases in different proportions - for example, he found that water absorbed carbon dioxide far better than it absorbed nitrogen.[5] Dalton hypothesized this was due to the differences in mass and complexity of the gases' respective particles. Indeed, carbon dioxide molecules (CO2) are heavier and larger than nitrogen molecules (N2).

text: Dalton proposed that each chemical element is composed of atoms of a single, unique type, and though they cannot be altered or destroyed by chemical means, they can combine to form more complex structures (chemical compounds). This marked the first truly scientific theory of the atom, since Dalton reached his conclusions by experimentation and examination of the results in an empirical fashion.

text: In 1803 Dalton orally presented his first list of relative atomic weights for a number of substances. This paper was published in 1805, but he did not discuss there exactly how he obtained these figures.[5] The method was first revealed in 1807 by his acquaintance Thomas Thomson, in the third edition of Thomson's textbook, A System of Chemistry. Finally, Dalton published a full account in his own textbook, A New System of Chemical Philosophy, 1808 and 1810.

text: Dalton estimated the atomic weights according to the mass ratios in which they combined, with the hydrogen atom taken as unity. However, Dalton did not conceive that with some elements atoms exist in molecules—e.g. pure oxygen exists as O2. He also mistakenly believed that the simplest compound between any two elements is always one atom of each (so he thought water was HO, not H2O).[6] This, in addition to the crudity of his equipment, flawed his results. For instance, in 1803 he believed that oxygen atoms were 5.5 times heavier than hydrogen atoms, because in water he measured 5.5 grams of oxygen for every 1 gram of hydrogen and believed the formula for water was HO. Adopting better data, in 1806 he concluded that the atomic weight of oxygen must actually be 7 rather than 5.5, and he retained this weight for the rest of his life. Others at this time had already concluded that the oxygen atom must weigh 8 relative to hydrogen equals 1, if one assumes Dalton's formula for the water molecule (HO), or 16 if one assumes the modern water formula (H2O).[7]

text: Avogadro

text: The flaw in Dalton's theory was corrected in principle in 1811 by Amedeo Avogadro. Avogadro had proposed that equal volumes of any two gases, at equal temperature and pressure, contain equal numbers of molecules (in other words, the mass of a gas's particles does not affect the volume that it occupies).[8] Avogadro's law allowed him to deduce the diatomic nature of numerous gases by studying the volumes at which they reacted. For instance: since two liters of hydrogen will react with just one liter of oxygen to produce two liters of water vapor (at constant pressure and temperature), it meant a single oxygen molecule splits in two in order to form two particles of water. Thus, Avogadro was able to offer more accurate estimates of the atomic mass of oxygen and various other elements, and made a clear distinction between molecules and atoms.

text: Brownian Motion

text: In 1827, the British botanist Robert Brown observed that dust particles inside pollen grains floating in water constantly jiggled about for no apparent reason. In 1905, Albert Einstein theorized that this Brownian motion was caused by the water molecules continuously knocking the grains about, and developed a hypothetical mathematical model to describe it.[9] This model was validated experimentally in 1908 by French physicist Jean Perrin, thus providing additional validation for particle theory (and by extension atomic theory).

text: Discovery of subatomic particles

text: Atoms were thought to be the smallest possible division of matter until 1897 when J.J. Thomson discovered the electron through his work on cathode rays.[10]

text: A Crookes tube is a sealed glass container in which two electrodes are separated by a vacuum. When a voltage is applied across the electrodes, cathode rays are generated, creating a glowing patch where they strike the glass at the opposite end of the tube. Through experimentation, Thomson discovered that the rays could be deflected by an electric field (in addition to magnetic fields, which was already known). He concluded that these rays, rather than being a form of light, were composed of very light negatively charged particles he called "corpuscles" (they would later be renamed electrons by other scientists). He measured the mass-to-charge ratio and discovered it was 1800 times smaller than that of hydrogen, the smallest atom. These corpuscles were a particle unlike any other previously known.

text: Thomson suggested that atoms were divisible, and that the corpuscles were their building blocks.[11] To explain the overall neutral charge of the atom, he proposed that the corpuscles were distributed in a uniform sea of positive charge; this was the plum pudding model[12] as the electrons were embedded in the positive charge like plums in a plum pudding (although in Thomson's model they were not stationary).

text: Discovery of the nucleus

text: Thomson's plum pudding model was disproved in 1909 by one of his former students, Ernest Rutherford, who discovered that most of the mass and positive charge of an atom is concentrated in a very small fraction of its volume, which he assumed to be at the very center.

text: In the Geiger–Marsden experiment, Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden (colleagues of Rutherford working at his behest) shot alpha particles at thin sheets of metal and measured their deflection through the use of a fluorescent screen.[13] Given the very small mass of the electrons, the high momentum of the alpha particles, and the low concentration of the positive charge of the plum pudding model, the experimenters expected all the alpha particles to pass through the metal foil without significant deflection. To their astonishment, a small fraction of the alpha particles experienced heavy deflection. Rutherford concluded that the positive charge of the atom must be concentrated in a very tiny volume to produce an electric field sufficiently intense to deflect the alpha particles so strongly.

text: This led Rutherford to propose a planetary model in which a cloud of electrons surrounded a small, compact nucleus of positive charge. Only such a concentration of charge could produce the electric field strong enough to cause the heavy deflection.[14]

text: First steps toward a quantum physical model of the atom

text: The planetary model of the atom had two significant shortcomings. The first is that, unlike planets orbiting a sun, electrons are charged particles. An accelerating electric charge is known to emit electromagnetic waves according to the Larmor formula in classical electromagnetism. An orbiting charge should steadily lose energy and spiral toward the nucleus, colliding with it in a small fraction of a second. The second problem was that the planetary model could not explain the highly peaked emission and absorption spectra of atoms that were observed.

text: Quantum theory revolutionized physics at the beginning of the 20th century, when Max Planck and Albert Einstein postulated that light energy is emitted or absorbed in discrete amounts known as quanta (singular, quantum). In 1913, Niels Bohr incorporated this idea into his Bohr model of the atom, in which an electron could only orbit the nucleus in particular circular orbits with fixed angular momentum and energy, its distance from the nucleus (i.e., their radii) being proportional to its energy.[15] Under this model an electron could not spiral into the nucleus because it could not lose energy in a continuous manner; instead, it could only make instantaneous "quantum leaps" between the fixed energy levels.[15] When this occurred, light was emitted or absorbed at a frequency proportional to the change in energy (hence the absorption and emission of light in discrete spectra).[15]

text: Bohr's model was not perfect. It could only predict the spectral lines of hydrogen; it couldn't predict those of multielectron atoms. Worse still, as spectrographic technology improved, additional spectral lines in hydrogen were observed which Bohr's model couldn't explain. In 1916, Arnold Sommerfeld added elliptical orbits to the Bohr model to explain the extra emission lines, but this made the model very difficult to use, and it still couldn't explain more complex atoms.

text: Discovery of isotopes

text: While experimenting with the products of radioactive decay, in 1913 radiochemist Frederick Soddy discovered that there appeared to be more than one element at each position on the periodic table.[16] The term isotope was coined by Margaret Todd as a suitable name for these elements.

text: That same year, J.J. Thomson conducted an experiment in which he channeled a stream of neon ions through magnetic and electric fields, striking a photographic plate at the other end. He observed two glowing patches on the plate, which suggested two different deflection trajectories. Thomson concluded this was because some of the neon ions had a different mass.[17] The nature of this differing mass would later be explained by the discovery of neutrons in 1932.

text: Discovery of nuclear particles

text: In 1917 Rutherford bombarded nitrogen gas with alpha particles and observed hydrogen nuclei being emitted from the gas (Rutherford recognized these, because he had previously obtained them bombarding hydrogen with alpha particles, and observing hydrogen nuclei in the products). Rutherford concluded that the hydrogen nuclei emerged from the nuclei of the nitrogen atoms themselves (in effect, he had split a nitrogen).[18]

text: From his own work and the work of his students Bohr and Henry Moseley, Rutherford knew that the positive charge of any atom could always be equated to that of an integer number of hydrogen nuclei. This, coupled with the atomic mass of many elements being roughly equivalent to an integer number of hydrogen atoms - then assumed to be the lightest particles - led him to conclude that hydrogen nuclei were singular particles and a basic constituent of all atomic nuclei. He named such particles protons. Further experimentation by Rutherford found that the nuclear mass of most atoms exceeded that of the protons it possessed; he speculated that this surplus mass was composed of previously-unknown neutrally charged particles, which were tentatively dubbed "neutrons".

text: In 1928, Walter Bothe observed that beryllium emitted a highly penetrating, electrically neutral radiation when bombarded with alpha particles. It was later discovered that this radiation could knock hydrogen atoms out of paraffin wax. Initially it was thought to be high-energy gamma radiation, since gamma radiation had a similar effect on electrons in metals, but James Chadwick found that the ionization effect was too strong for it to be due to electromagnetic radiation, so long as energy and momentum were conserved in the interaction. In 1932, Chadwick exposed various elements, such as hydrogen and nitrogen, to the mysterious "beryllium radiation", and by measuring the energies of the recoiling charged particles, he deduced that the radiation was actually composed of electrically neutral particles which could not be massless like the gamma ray, but instead were required to have a mass similar to that of a proton. Chadwick now claimed these particles as Rutherford's neutrons.[19] For his discovery of the neutron, Chadwick received the Nobel Prize in 1935.

text: Quantum physical models of the atom

text: In 1924, Louis de Broglie proposed that all moving particles—particularly subatomic particles such as electrons—exhibit a degree of wave-like behavior. Erwin Schrödinger, fascinated by this idea, explored whether or not the movement of an electron in an atom could be better explained as a wave rather than as a particle. Schrödinger's equation, published in 1926,[20] describes an electron as a wavefunction instead of as a point particle. This approach elegantly predicted many of the spectral phenomena that Bohr's model failed to explain. Although this concept was mathematically convenient, it was difficult to visualize, and faced opposition.[21] One of its critics, Max Born, proposed instead that Schrödinger's wavefunction described not the electron but rather all its possible states, and thus could be used to calculate the probability of finding an electron at any given location around the nucleus.[22] This reconciled the two opposing theories of particle versus wave electrons and the idea of wave–particle duality was introduced. This theory stated that the electron may exhibit the properties of both a wave and a particle. For example, it can be refracted like a wave, and has mass like a particle.[23]

text: A consequence of describing electrons as waveforms is that it is mathematically impossible to simultaneously derive the position and momentum of an electron. This became known as the Heisenberg uncertainty principle after the theoretical physicist Werner Heisenberg, who first described it and published it in 1927.[24] This invalidated Bohr's model, with its neat, clearly defined circular orbits. The modern model of the atom describes the positions of electrons in an atom in terms of probabilities. An electron can potentially be found at any distance from the nucleus, but, depending on its energy level, exists more frequently in certain regions around the nucleus than others; this pattern is referred to as its atomic orbital. The orbitals come in a variety of shapes-sphere, dumbbell, torus, etc.-with the nucleus in the middle.[25]


document_title: Nick Fallon

question_text: who played nick on days of our lives

question_tokens: who played nick on days of our lives

root

text: Nick Fallon

text:
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tag: table

text:
Nick Fallon

Days of Our Lives character

Portrayed by
Blake Berris

Duration
2006–09, 2012–14

First appearance
November 7, 2006

Last appearance
May 12, 2014

Created by
Hogan Sheffer
Meg Kelly

Introduced by
Ken Corday
Stephen Wyman

Classification
Former, regular

Profile

Occupation
Researcher for Mad World Cosmetics (2014)
Freelance consultant for Mad World Cosmetics (2014)
Associate for Mad World Cosmetics (2013)
Dishwasher at the Brady Pub (2012)
Associate Professor at Salem University
Salem Hospital Lab Technician
Worker for the Horton Foundation at Salem University Hospital

[show]Family

Family
Horton

Parents
Joshua Fallon
Jessica Blake

Spouse
Cassandra Arvin (2007)
Gabi Hernandez (2013)

Grandparents
John Talbot
Sunny Chisholm
Alex Marshall
Marie Horton

Aunts and uncles
Tod Chandler

text: Nick Fallon is a fictional character on the American soap opera Days of Our Lives. The role was played by Blake Berris from November 7, 2006, to January 15, 2009. In May 2012, it was announced that Berris would return to the series.[1] He returned on August 27, 2012. His final air date was May 12, 2014, when the character was killed in a whodunit murder mystery.

tag: p

text: Storylines[edit]

text: This article's plot summary may be too long or excessively detailed. Please help improve it by removing unnecessary details and making it more concise. (May 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Nick, the son of Joshua Fallon and Jessica Blake (the daughter of Marie Horton and the granddaughter of Alice Horton), came to Salem to get to know his Horton relatives. His medical knowledge and intelligence were put to the test when he was asked to help save Kayla Brady, who was suffering from a rare ailment. He succeeded in saving Kayla, and found himself intrigued by Chelsea Brady. Nick created an online identity to chat with Chelsea in an attempt to get her to fall for him, and provided a picture of a handsome colleague of his when she pushes to know what he looks like.

text: Later, Nick helped Chelsea get money to Shawn and Belle who were on the run with their daughter Claire in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Nick's clever and brave actions on this mission caused Chelsea to take interest in Nick as more than a friend. However, shortly after returning from Canada, Chelsea discovered that Nick was her online love. She was devastated and saw Nick's actions as a malicious trick, thinking that Nick used the online lover to secretly mock her while she revealed her inner thoughts and feelings for the first time. She tearfully told Nick that she never wanted to see him again. Hurt, Nick had an affair with Chelsea's mother Billie Reed, who, under the influence of alcohol seduced him. Billie and he both regretted it, and swore never to tell anyone.

text: When Nick saved Chelsea from getting raped by Dr. Reibert, whom she had been dating to spite Nick, she forgave him. Nick began tutoring her in math and this led to them dating. Unfortunately, Chelsea soon discovered Nick and Billie's one-night stand and their relationship was again in turmoil. Then, when Willow Stark accidentally set Bo and Hope's house on fire, she panicked and attempted to frame Chelsea by planting her hairbrush at the crime scene. At Chelsea's cry of innocence, Nick risked his medical career by stealing the hairbrush out of the forensics lab. Chelsea was so grateful, she was able to forgive Nick for his indiscretion with Billie, and they soon rekindled their romance.

text: Later, Willow emerged as a threat to Nick and Chelsea's happiness. When Nick stole the hairbrush, it left Willow as the only suspect for the fire. Nick felt sorry for Willow and lent her money. Willow asked for more money, and Nick leased an apartment for her and gave her his credit card to use for her and her baby. Willow used Nick's credit card excessively, then she called Nick and blackmailed him into giving her more money, credit cards, and all kinds of stuff.

text: Nick later went to the beach to meet Willow and they got in an argument and a struggle that lead to Willow falling, and hitting her head on a log. Nick tried to revive her but Willow died. He found the hairbrush in Willow's possession and buried it in the sand on the beach before calling for help. While Nick was investigated by detective Roman Brady, he convinced Chelsea to go to the beach and destroy the hairbrush. Roman eventually learned the truth, and gave both Chelsea and Nick a pass by closing the investigation.

text: Nick was also blackmailed by Kate Roberts into making Sami's amniocentesis say that EJ was the father of Sami's twins.

text: Nick saved Sami Brady and Lucas Roberts from a bomb that Dr. Rolf planted, sustaining head injuries in the process. While suffering from a concussion, Nick went to Las Vegas and married a woman named Cassandra Arvin, who was using the alias "China Lee". Arvin was eventually persuaded to sign annulment papers. Then she was arrested and went to jail for soliciting, leaving Nick with custody of her two sons, Artemis and Demarquette. Nick deduced that Artemis and Demarquette were not really China Lee's children, which she confirmed upon her release from jail. She had been hired to protect the boys, but refused to retake custody of them. A man named Umar Maboud came to Nick's home and claimed that he worked for the boys' parents and had been sent to bring them home. Nick did not trust Maboud, and Jeremy Horton (who was staying with Nick at the time) successfully fought him off. Weeks later, Chelsea was abducted and was permitted to use her cell phone only to contact Nick, who was directed to come to a designated location, alone. When he did, the kidnapper offered a hostage exchange: Artemis and Demarquette for Chelsea. Unbeknownst to the man, the boys had followed Nick to the warehouse, but were able to escape. While Nick worked to avert the detonation of what turned out to be a fake bomb, Artemis and Demarquette were rescued by Umar Maboud. Maboud really was in the employ of the boys' parents, who were wealthy foreigners with many enemies. Having secured political asylum, they wanted to be reunited with their sons; Chelsea's abduction had been a ploy by the family's enemies. Nick agreed to let Artemis and Demarquette go.

text: Nick and Chelsea got back together. He helped Chelsea find proof that Ford Decker was the campus rapist by breaking into Ford's room in order to take photographs of his drugs and journal. After the campus rapist situation was resolved, Chelsea and Nick grew apart because of her attraction to Dr. Daniel Jonas, and the two eventually broke up. Nick then began working on a research project involving alternative fuel sources and began a relationship with Max Brady's half sister, Melanie Layton. Nick ultimately began stalking her and was then revealed to be the killer of Trent Robbins, Max and Melanie's father.

text: On January 14, 2009, Nick was tried for the murder of Trent Robbins. Maggie and Melanie gave testimony as to why Nick should not be put in jail for the rest of his life. The judge agreed and gave Nick the sentence of 2 to 5 years in a facility and 18 months for good behavior. Nick was thankful to Melanie for her testimony as Melanie told Nick that she forgave him because deep down he was a good person.

text: On January 15, 2009, Chelsea comes from the hospital to the courthouse. Nick tells Chelsea he's sorry for everything and tells her to move on with her life. Chelsea tearfully tells Nick that he will always have a piece of her heart and that he can focus on getting better.

text: On August 27, 2012, Nick returned to Salem and, still in jail, had a parole hearing. Having been recently kidnapped, Melanie did not know how she felt. Against the advice of her family, Melanie decided that Nick really had changed, but wanted him to stay away from her. Nick was released and threatened by Chad to stay away. Caroline forgave Nick and gave him a job at the Brady Pub. Chad beat Nick up after believing that he had Melanie, since he had her scarf. Later, Nick met Melanie's former friend Gabi, and they started dating. On November 14, Gabi found out she was pregnant with her gay ex-boyfriend Will Horton's baby. Nick agreed with Gabi and Will that he would raise the child, and that he and Gabi would get married. Nick and Gabi had a church wedding, but before they could be pronounced husband and wife, Chad objected, saying that Nick was not the father of Gabi's baby, and it finally came out that Will was the father.

text: At a later date, Nick blackmailed Will to give up his parental rights to Gabi's baby, by threatening to tell that Will was the one who shot EJ. With several other people around, including Sami, Lucas, EJ, Sonny, and an attorney Nick brought, Will signed the agreement. Nick and Gabi married in a private ceremony. Only later did Gabi learn that Will gave up rights to the baby, but she did not learn about the blackmail, though Will tells her he did not want to do it.

text: Nick had memories of something terrible that happened in jail, possibly involving another inmate, Vargas, who was recently released and getting help from the church to adjust to regular life. The terrible thing is later revealed to be repeated prison rape by another inmate named Jensen.

text: Nick was kidnapped, along with Gabi, and held hostage by Jensen. Will and Sonny saved them, with Will getting shot in the process. Nick then tried to make things right, considering that Will almost died to save him, and agreed to have Will's name on Arianna's birth certificate. Nick told Gabi the truth about his rape and about blackmailing Will.

text: Nick was fired by Kate in June 2013. In August 2013, when his parole was up, he was told to vacate the Kiriakis mansion immediately by Victor Kiriakis. Nick became obsessed with Gabi and got her a modeling job in New York, where he would be as well, hoping that they could be together. After Gabi yelled at him for interfering in her life, he followed her to the park where he tried to rape her. Gabi hit him in the head with a rock and Sami and Kate helped her drag Nick's body to the river where he briefly awoke before apparently drowning on November 27.

text: On January 24, 2014, Nick arrived at Gabi and Will's daughter's baptism revealing that he had not drowned. He appeared reformed but soon blackmailed Kate into hiring him. Nick also manipulated Gabi into giving him another chance, and she felt that she must do so or risk going to jail for trying to murder Nick. Nick later manipulated EJ and Sami into giving Gabi a modeling contract with Countess Wilhelmina. Later, Nick got involved in a custody agreement of Will and Gabi's daughter Ari, pushing Gabi to only let Will see his daughter at times she allowed it. Will and Sonny felt that Nick would manipulate Gabi until he had Gabi and Ari to himself. In the meantime, EJ DiMera found out that someone had pictures of him and Abigail Deveraux kissing sent to his house. EJ and Abigail later found out that Nick was behind it. On May 9, 2014, Nick was shot three times, once in the back and twice in the chest, and he died on May 12 with an open investigation into who was responsible. On May 30, 2014, It was revealed that it was Gabi Hernandez who shot Nick.


document_title: Eagle

question_text: what is another name for an eagles nest

question_tokens: what is another name for an eagles nest

text: Eagle

text: Description

text: Eagles are large, powerfully built birds of prey, with heavy heads and beaks. Even the smallest eagles, such as the booted eagle (Aquila pennata), which is comparable in size to a common buzzard (Buteo buteo) or red-tailed hawk (B. jamaicensis), have relatively longer and more evenly broad wings, and more direct, faster flight – despite the reduced size of aerodynamic feathers. Most eagles are larger than any other raptors apart from some vultures. The smallest species of eagle is the South Nicobar serpent eagle (Spilornis klossi), at 450 g (0.99 lb) and 40 cm (16 in). The largest species are discussed below. Like all birds of prey, eagles have very large, hooked beaks for ripping flesh from their prey, strong, muscular legs, and powerful talons. The beak is typically heavier than that of most other birds of prey. Eagles' eyes are extremely powerful, having up to 3.6 times human acuity for the martial eagle, which enables them to spot potential prey from a very long distance.[2] This keen eyesight is primarily attributed to their extremely large pupils which ensure minimal diffraction (scattering) of the incoming light. The female of all known species of eagles is larger than the male.[3][4]

text: Eagles normally build their nests, called eyries, in tall trees or on high cliffs. Many species lay two eggs, but the older, larger chick frequently kills its younger sibling once it has hatched. The dominant chick tends to be a female, as they are bigger than the male. The parents take no action to stop the killing.[5][6]

text: Due to the size and power of many eagle species, they are ranked at the top of the food chain as apex predators in the avian world. The type of prey varies by genus. The Haliaeetus and Ichthyophaga eagles prefer to capture fish, though the species in the former often capture various animals, especially other water birds, and are powerful kleptoparasites of other birds. The snake and serpent eagles of the genera Circaetus, Terathopius, and Spilornis predominantly prey on the great diversity of snakes found in the tropics of Africa and Asia. The eagles of the genus Aquila are often the top birds of prey in open habitats, taking almost any medium-sized vertebrate they can catch. Where Aquila eagles are absent, other eagles, such as the buteonine black-chested buzzard-eagle of South America, may assume the position of top raptorial predator in open areas. Many other eagles, including the species-rich Spizaetus genus, live predominantly in woodlands and forest. These eagles often target various arboreal or ground-dwelling mammals and birds, which are often unsuspectingly ambushed in such dense, knotty environments. Hunting techniques differ among the species and genera, with some individual eagles having engaged in quite varied techniques based their environment and prey at any given time. Most eagles grab prey without landing and take flight with it, so the prey can be carried to a perch and torn apart.[7]

text: The bald eagle is noted for having flown with the heaviest load verified to be carried by any flying bird, since one eagle flew with a 6.8 kg (15 lb) mule deer fawn.[8] However, a few eagles may target prey considerably heavier than themselves; such prey is too heavy to fly with, thus it is either eaten at the site of the kill or taken in pieces back to a perch or nest. Golden and crowned eagles have killed ungulates weighing up to 30 kg (66 lb) and a martial eagle even killed a 37 kg (82 lb) duiker, 7–8 times heavier than the preying eagle.[7][9] Authors on birds David Allen Sibley, Pete Dunne, and Clay Sutton described the behavioral difference between hunting eagles and other birds of prey thus (in this case the bald and golden eagles as compared to other North American raptors):[10]

text: They have at least one singular characteristic. It has been observed that most birds of prey look back over their shoulders before striking prey (or shortly thereafter); predation is after all a two-edged sword. All hawks seem to have this habit, from the smallest kestrel to the largest Ferruginous – but not the Eagles.

text: Among the eagles are some of the largest birds of prey: only the condors and some of the Old World vultures are markedly larger. It is regularly debated which should be considered the largest species of eagle. They could be measured variously in total length, body mass, or wingspan. Different lifestyle needs among various eagles result in variable measurements from species to species. For example, many forest-dwelling eagles, including the very large Harpy eagle, have relatively short wingspans, a feature necessary for being able to maneuver in quick, short bursts through densely forested habitats.[7] Eagles in the genus Aquila, though found almost strictly in open country, are superlative soarers, and have relatively long wings for their size.[7]

text: These lists of the top five eagles are based on weight, length, and wingspan, respectively. Unless otherwise noted by reference, the figures listed are the median reported for each measurement in the guide Raptors of the World[11] in which only measurements that could be personally verified by the authors were listed.[7]

text:
Rank
Common name
Scientific name
Body mass

1
Steller's sea eagle
Haliaeetus pelagicus
6.7 kilograms (15 lb)

2
Philippine eagle
Pithecophaga jefferyi
6.35 kg (14.0 lb)

3
Harpy eagle
Harpia harpyja
5.95 kg (13.1 lb)

4
White-tailed eagle
Haliaeetus albicilla
4.8 kg (11 lb)[12]

5
Martial eagle
Polemaetus bellicosus
4.6 kg (10 lb)[12]

text:
Rank
Common name
Scientific name
Total length

1
Philippine eagle
Pithecophaga jefferyi
100 cm (3 ft 3 in)[13]

2
Harpy eagle
Harpia harpyja
98.5 cm (3 ft 3 in)

3
Wedge-tailed eagle
Aquila audax
95.5 cm (3 ft 2 in)

4
Steller's sea eagle
Haliaeetus pelagicus
95 cm (3 ft 1 in)

5
Crowned eagle
Stephanoaetus coronatus
87.5 cm (2 ft 10 in)

text:
Rank
Common name
Scientific name
Median wingspan

1
Philippine eagle
Pithecophaga jefferyi
220 cm (7 ft 3 in)

2
White-tailed eagle
Haliaeetus albicilla
218.5 cm (7 ft 2 in)

3
Steller's sea eagle
Haliaeetus pelagicus
212.5 cm (7 ft 0 in)

4
Wedge-tailed eagle
Aquila audax
210 cm (6 ft 11 in)[14][15]

5
Golden eagle
Aquila chrysaetos
207 cm (6 ft 9 in)

6
Martial eagle
Polemaetus bellicosus
206.5 cm (6 ft 9 in)

text: Distribution

text:
Australasian

Australia: wedge-tailed eagle (range extends into southern New Guinea), white-bellied sea-eagle (range extends into Asia), little eagle.
New Guinea: Papuan eagle, white-bellied sea-eagle, pygmy eagle.

Nearctic (USA and Canada): golden eagle (also found in Palearctic), bald eagle.
Neotropical (Central and South America): Spizaetus (four species), solitary eagles (two spp.), harpy eagle, crested eagle, black-chested buzzard-eagle.
Palearctic

Eurasia: Golden eagle,[16] White-tailed eagle.

tag: ul

text: Groups

text: Eagles are often informally divided into four groups.[note 1][18]

text: The snake eagles are placed in the subfamily Circaetinae. The fish eagles, booted eagles, and harpy eagles have traditionally been placed in the subfamily Buteoninae together with the buzzard-hawks (buteonine hawks) and harriers. Some authors may treat these groups as tribes of the Buteoninae; Lerner & Mindell[19] proposed separating the eagle groups into their own subfamilies of Accipitridae.

text: Fish eagles

text: Sea eagles or fish eagles take fish as a large part of their diets, either fresh or as carrion.

text: Proposed subfamily Haliaeetinae. Genera: Haliaeetus, Ichthyophaga.

text: Some authors include Gypohierax angolensis, the "vulturine fish eagle" (also called the palm-nut vulture) in this group.[18] However, genetic analyses indicate it is related to a grouping of Neophron–Gypaetus–Eutriorchis (Egyptian vulture, bearded vulture (lammergeier), and Madagascan serpent eagle).[20]

text: The fish eagles have a close genetic relationship with Haliastur and Milvus; the whole group is only distantly related to the Buteo group.[20]

text: Booted eagles

text: Booted eagles or "true eagles"[18][21] have feathered tarsi (lower legs).

text: Tribe Aquililae or proposed subfamily Aquilinae. Genera: Aquila, Hieraaetus; Spizaetus, Oroaetus, Spizastur; Nisaetus;[20] Ictinaetus, Lophoaetus; Polemaetus; and Stephanoaetus.[18][21]

text: See comments under eagle species for changes to the composition of these genera.

text: Snake eagles

text: Snake or serpent eagles are, as the name suggests, adapted to hunting reptiles.

text:
Subfamily Circaetinae. Genera: Circaetus, Spilornis, Dryotriorchis, Terathopius.[18]
Eutriorchis (subfamily Gypaetinae or Circaetinae).

text: Despite filling the niche of a snake eagle, genetic studies suggest that the Madagascan serpent eagle Eutriorchis is not related.[20]

text: Harpy eagles

text: Harpy eagles[18] or "giant forest eagles"[17] are large eagles that inhabit tropical forests. The group contains two to six species, depending on the author. Although these birds occupy similar niches, and have traditionally been grouped together, they are not all related: the solitary eagles are related to the black-hawks, and the Philippine eagle to the snake eagles.

text:
Harpy eagles (proposed subfamily Harpiinae)

Harpia harpyja, harpy eagle ― Central and South America.
Morphnus guianensis, crested eagle ― Central and South America.
Harpyopsis novaeguineae, Papuan eagle ― New Guinea.

Philippine eagle

Pithecophaga jefferyi, Philippine eagle ― Philippines.

Solitary eagles

Chaco eagle or crowned solitary eagle, Buteogallus (formerly Harpyhaliaetus) coronatus ― South America.
Solitary eagle or montane solitary eagle, Buteogallus (formerly Harpyhaliaetus) solitarius ― South America.

text: Species

text: Major new research into eagle taxonomy suggests that the important genera Aquila and Hieraaetus are not composed of nearest relatives, and it is likely that a reclassification of these genera will soon take place, with some species being moved to Lophaetus or Ictinaetus.[19]

text:
Bonelli's eagle and the African hawk-eagle have been moved from Hieraaetus to Aquila.
Either the greater spotted eagle and lesser spotted eagle should move from Aquila to join the long-crested eagle in Lophaetus, or, perhaps better, all three of these species should move to Ictinaetus with the black eagle.
The steppe eagle and tawny eagle, once thought to be conspecific, are not even each other's nearest relatives.

text: Family Accipitridae

text:
Subfamily Buteoninae – hawks (buzzards), true eagles and seaeagles

Genus Geranoaetus

Black-chested buzzard-eagle, Geranoaetus melanoleucus

Genus Harpyhaliaetus

Chaco eagle, Harpyhaliaetus coronatus
Solitary eagle, H. solitarius

Genus Morphnus

Crested eagle, Morphnus guianensis

Genus Harpia

Harpy eagle, Harpia harpyja

Genus Pithecophaga

Philippine eagle, Pithecophaga jefferyi

Genus Harpyopsis

Papuan eagle, Harpyopsis novaeguineae

Genus Spizaetus

Black hawk-eagle, S. tyrannus
Ornate hawk-eagle, S. ornatus
Black-and-white hawk-eagle, S. melanoleucus – formerly Spizastur
Black-and-chestnut eagle, S. isidori – formerly Oroaetus

Genus Nisaetus – previously included in Spizaetus

Changeable or crested hawk-eagle, N. cirrhatus

Flores hawk-eagle N. floris – earlier a subspecies, S. c. floris

Sulawesi hawk-eagle, N. lanceolatus
Mountain hawk-eagle, N. nipalensis

Legge's hawk-eagle, Nisaetus kelaarti – previously a race of S. nipalensis

Blyth's hawk-eagle, N. alboniger
Javan hawk-eagle, N. bartelsi
(Northern) Philippine hawk-eagle, N. philippensis

Pinsker's hawk-eagle (Southern Philippine hawk-eagle), Nisaetus pinskeri – earlier S. philippensis pinskeri

Wallace's hawk-eagle, N. nanus

Genus Lophaetus

Long-crested eagle, Lophaetus occipitalis – possibly belongs in Ictinaetus

Genus Stephanoaetus

Crowned eagle, Stephanoaetus coronatus
Malagasy crowned eagle, Stephanoaetus mahery (extinct)

Genus Polemaetus

Martial eagle, Polemaetus bellicosus

Genus Hieraaetus

Ayres's hawk-eagle, H. ayresii
Little eagle, H. morphnoides
Pygmy eagle, H. weiskei – previously subspecies H. m. weiskei
Booted eagle, H. pennatus

Genus Harpagornis (extinct)

Haast's eagle, †Harpagornis moorei – possibly belongs in either Hieraaetus or Aquila[22]

Genus Lophotriorchis

Rufous-bellied eagle, L. kienerii

A steppe eagle in Lahore Zoo, Pakistan

Genus Aquila

Bonelli's eagle, Aquila fasciata – formerly Hieraaetus fasciatus
African hawk-eagle, A. spilogaster – formerly in Hieraaetus
Cassin's hawk-eagle, A. africana – formerly in Hieraaetus or Spizaetus genera
Golden eagle, A. chrysaetos
Eastern imperial eagle, A. heliaca
Spanish imperial eagle A. adalberti
Steppe eagle, A. nipalensis
Tawny eagle, A. rapax
Greater spotted eagle, A. clanga – to be moved to Lophaetus or Ictinaetus
Lesser spotted eagle, A. pomarina – to be moved to Lophaetus or Ictinaetus
Indian spotted eagle, A. hastata – to be moved to Lophaetus or Ictinaetus
Verreaux's eagle, A. verreauxii
Gurney's eagle, A. gurneyi
Wahlberg's eagle, A. wahlbergi – to be moved to Hieraaetus
Wedge-tailed eagle, A. audax

Genus Ictinaetus

Black eagle, Ictinaetus malayensis

Genus Haliaeetus

White-tailed eagle, Haliaeetus albicilla
Bald eagle, H. leucocephalus
Steller's sea eagle, H. pelagicus
African fish eagle, H. vocifer
White-bellied sea eagle, H. leucogaster
Sanford's sea eagle, H. sanfordi
Madagascar fish eagle, H. vociferoides
Pallas' sea eagle, H. leucoryphus

Genus Ichthyophaga

Lesser fish eagle, Ichthyophaga humilis
Grey-headed fish eagle, I. ichthyaetus

text:
Subfamily Circaetinae: snake-eagles

Genus Terathopius

Bateleur, Terathopius ecaudatus

Genus Circaetus

Short-toed snake eagle, Circaetus gallicus
Black-chested snake eagle, C. pectoralis
Brown snake eagle, C. cinereus
Fasciated snake eagle, C. fasciolatus
Western banded snake eagle, C. cinerascens

Genus Dryotriorchis

Congo serpent eagle, D. spectabilis

Genus Spilornis

Crested serpent eagle, Spilornis cheela

Central Nicobar serpent eagle, S. minimus (subspecies or species)

Great Nicobar serpent eagle, S. klossi
Mountain serpent eagle, S. kinabaluensis
Sulawesi serpent eagle, S. rufipectus
Philippine serpent eagle, S. holospilus
Andaman serpent eagle, S. elgini

Genus Eutriorchis

Madagascar serpent eagle, Eutriorchis astur

text: Eagles in culture

text: Etymology

text: The modern English term for the bird is derived from Latin: aquila by way of French: aigle. The origin of aquila is unknown, but it is believed to possibly derive from either aquilus (meaning dark-colored, swarthy, or blackish) as a reference to the plumage of eagles or from aquilo (meaning north wind).

text: Old English used the term earn, related to Scandinavia's ørn/örn. It is similar to other Indo-European terms for "bird" or "eagle", including Greek: ὄρνις (ornís), Russian: орёл (orël), and Welsh: eryr.

text: In Britain before 1678, eagle referred specifically to the golden eagle, with the other native species, the white-tailed eagle, being known as erne. The modern name "golden eagle" for aquila chrysaetos was introduced by the naturalist John Ray.[citation needed]

text: Religion and folklore

text: In ancient Sumerian mythology, the mythical king Etana was said to have been carried into heaven by an eagle.[23] Classical writers such as Lucan and Pliny the Elder claimed that the eagle was able to look directly at the sun, and that they forced their fledglings to do the same. Those that blinked would be cast from the nest. This belief persisted until the Medieval era.[24]

text: The eagle is the patron animal of the ancient Greek god Zeus. In particular, Zeus was said to have taken the form of an eagle in order to abduct Ganymede, and there are numerous artistic depictions of the eagle Zeus bearing Ganymede aloft, from Classical times up to the present (see illustrations in the Ganymede (mythology) page.)[25]

text: Psalm 103 mentions renewing one's youth "as the eagle". Augustine of Hippo gives a curious explanation of this in his commentary on the Psalms.[26] Moses, who spoke on Gods behalf, also expressed that an Eagle is unclean for consumption in Leviticus 11:13.

text: The eagle is a common form in the Anglican tradition, often used to support the Bible because of the symbolism of spreading the gospel over the world. Additional symbolic meanings for "eagle" include the pronouncements to the Israelites in Exodus 19:4; Psalms 103:5 and Isaiah 40:31. The United States eagle feather law stipulates that only individuals of certifiable Native American ancestry enrolled in a federally recognized tribe are legally authorized to obtain eagle feathers for religious or spiritual reasons.[27] In Canada, the poaching of eagle feathers for the booming U.S. market has sometimes resulted in the arrests of First Nations person for the crime.[28]

text: The Moche people of ancient Peru worshiped the eagle and often depicted eagles in their art.[29]

text: Heraldry

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Eagles are an exceptionally common symbol in heraldry, being considered the "King of Birds" in contrast to the lion, the "King of Beasts". They are particularly popular in Germanic countries such as Austria, due to their association with the Holy Roman Empire. The eagle of the Holy Roman Empire was two-headed, supposedly representing the two divisions, East and West, of the old Roman Empire.

text: Heraldic eagles are most often found displayed, i.e. with their wings and legs extended. They can also occur close, i.e. with their wings folded, or rising, i.e. about to take flight. The heads, wings, and legs of eagles can also be found independently.

text: Notes

text: Jump up ^ "There are four major groups of eagles: fish eagles, booted eagles, snake eagles and giant forest eagles."[17]

tag: ol


document_title: The Wind in the Willows

question_text: who are the main characters in the wind in the willows

text: The Wind in the Willows

text: Background[edit]

text: Kenneth Grahame was born on 8 March 1859 in Edinburgh. When he was 5, his mother died from puerperal fever, and his father, who had a drinking problem, gave the care of his four children over to their grandmother, who lived in Cookham Dean in Berkshire. There they lived in a spacious but dilapidated home, "The Mount", in extensive grounds by the River Thames, and were introduced to the riverside and boating by their uncle, David Ingles, curate at Cookham Dean church.[2] At Christmas 1865 the chimney of the house collapsed and the children moved to Fern Hill Cottage in Cranbourne, Berkshire. In 1866, their father tried to overcome his drinking problem and took the children back to live with him in Argyll, Scotland, but after a year they returned to their grandmother's house in Cranbourne, where Kenneth lived until he entered St Edward's School, Oxford in 1868.[3] During his early years at St. Edwards the boys had freedom to explore the old city with its quaint shops, historic buildings, and cobbled streets, St Giles' Fair, the idyllic upper reaches of the River Thames, and the nearby countryside.[4]

text: Grahame married Elspeth Thomson in 1899; they had only one child, a boy named Alastair (whose nickname was "Mouse") born blind in one eye and plagued by health problems throughout his life.[5] When Alastair was about four years old, Grahame would tell him bedtime stories, some of which were about a toad, and when he holidayed alone he would write further tales of Toad, Mole, Ratty and Badger in letters to Alastair.[3]

text: In 1908 Grahame took early retirement from his job at the Bank of England and moved with his wife and son to an old farmhouse in Blewbury, where he used the bedtime stories he had told Alastair as a basis for the manuscript of The Wind in the Willows.[3]

text: Plot summary[edit]

text: Mole meets Rat[edit]

text: With the arrival of spring and fine weather outside, the good-natured Mole loses patience with spring cleaning. He flees his underground home, emerging to take in the air and ends up at the river, which he has never seen before. Here he meets Rat (a water vole), who at this time of year spends all his days in, on and close by the river. Rat takes Mole for a ride in his rowing boat. They get along well and spend many more days boating, with Rat teaching Mole the ways of the river.

text: Toad[edit]

text: One summer day, Rat and Mole disembark near the grand Toad Hall and pay a visit to Toad. Toad is rich, jovial, friendly and kind-hearted, but aimless and conceited; he regularly becomes obsessed with current fads, only to abandon them abruptly. Having recently given up boating, Toad's current craze is his horse-drawn caravan. He persuades the reluctant Rat and willing Mole to join him on a trip. Toad soon tires of the realities of camp life, and sleeps in the following day to avoid chores. Later that day, a passing motorcar scares the horse, causing the caravan to overturn into a ditch. Rat threatens to have the law on the car driver, while Mole calms the horse, but Toad's craze for caravan travel is immediately replaced by an obsession with motorcars.

text: Badger[edit]

text: Mole wants to meet the respected but elusive Badger, who lives deep in the Wild Wood, but Rat—knowing that Badger does not appreciate visits—tells Mole to be patient and wait for Badger to pay them a visit himself. Nevertheless, on a snowy winter's day, while the seasonally somnolent Rat dozes, Mole impulsively goes to the Wild Wood to explore, hoping to meet Badger. He gets lost in the woods, sees many "evil faces" among the wood's less-welcoming denizens, succumbs to fright and panic and hides, trying to stay warm, among the sheltering roots of a tree. Rat, finding Mole gone, guesses his mission from the direction of Mole's tracks and, equipping himself with two pistols and a stout cudgel, goes in search, finding him as snow begins to fall in earnest. Attempting to find their way home, Rat and Mole quite literally stumble across Badger's home—Mole barks his shin on the boot scraper on Badger's doorstep. Badger—en route to bed in his dressing-gown and slippers—nonetheless warmly welcomes Rat and Mole to his large and cosy underground home, providing them with hot food, dry clothes and reassuring conversation: "It takes all sorts to make a world".

text: Toad and motorcars[edit]

text: Badger learns from his visitors that Toad has crashed seven cars, has been in hospital three times, and has spent a fortune on fines. Though nothing can be done at the moment (it being winter), they resolve that when the time is right they will make a plan to protect Toad from himself; they are, after all, his friends, and are worried about his well-being.

text: With the arrival of spring, Badger visits Mole and Rat to take action over Toad's self-destructive obsession. The three of them go to Toad Hall, and Badger tries talking Toad out of his behaviour, to no avail. They put Toad under house arrest, with themselves as the guards, until Toad changes his mind. Feigning illness, Toad bamboozles the Water Rat (who is on guard duty at the time) and escapes.

text: Badger and Mole are cross with Rat for his gullibility, but draw comfort because they need no longer waste their summer guarding Toad. However, Badger and Mole continue to live in Toad Hall in the hope that Toad may return. Meanwhile, Toad orders lunch at The Red Lion Inn, and then sees a motorcar pull into the courtyard. Taking the car, he drives it recklessly and is caught by the police. He is sent to prison for 20 years.

text: Toad escapes from prison[edit]

text: In prison, Toad gains the sympathy of the gaoler's daughter, who helps him to escape disguised as a washerwoman. Though free again, Toad is without money or possessions other than the clothes upon his back. He manages to board a railway engine manned by a sympathetic driver, which is then pursued by a special train loaded with policemen, detectives and prison warders. Toad jumps from the train and, still disguised as a washerwoman, comes across a horse-drawn barge. The barge's female owner offers him a lift in exchange for Toad's services as a washerwoman. After botching the wash, Toad gets into a fight with the barge-woman, who tosses him into the canal. In revenge, Toad makes off with the barge horse, which he then sells to a gypsy. Toad subsequently flags down a passing car, which happens to be the very one he stole earlier. The car owners, not recognising Toad in his disguise, permit him to drive their car. Once behind the wheel, he is repossessed by his former passion and drives furiously, declaring his true identity to the passengers who try to seize him. This leads to the car landing in a horse-pond, after which Toad flees once more. Pursued by police, he runs accidentally into a river, which carries him by sheer chance to the house of Rat.

text: Recapture of Toad Hall[edit]

text: Toad now hears from Rat that Toad Hall has been taken over by weasels and stoats from the Wild Wood, who have driven out Mole and Badger. Although upset at the loss of his house, Toad realises what good friends he has and how badly he has behaved. Badger then arrives and announces that he knows of a secret tunnel into Toad Hall through which the enemies may be attacked. Armed to the teeth, Badger, Rat, Mole and Toad enter via the tunnel and pounce upon the unsuspecting Wild Wooders who are holding a celebratory party. Having driven away the intruders, Toad holds a banquet to mark his return, during which (for a change) he behaves both quietly and humbly. He makes up for his earlier excesses by seeking out and compensating those he has wronged, and the four friends live out their lives happily ever after.

text: Short stories[edit]

text: In addition to the main narrative, the book contains several independent short stories featuring Rat and Mole. These appear for the most part between the chapters chronicling Toad's adventures, and are often omitted from abridgements and dramatisations. The chapter "Dulce Domum" describes Mole's return to his home, accompanied by Rat, in which, despite finding it in a terrible mess after his abortive spring clean, he rediscovers, with Rat's help, a familiar comfort. "The Piper at the Gates of Dawn" tells how Mole and Rat search for Otter's missing son Portly, whom they find in the care of the god Pan. (Pan removes their memories of this meeting "lest the awful remembrance should remain and grow, and overshadow mirth and pleasure".) Finally, in "Wayfarers All", Ratty shows a restless side to his character when he is sorely tempted to join a Sea Rat on his travelling adventures.

text: Main characters[edit]

text:
Mole: Known as "Moly" to his friends. An altruistic, humble, loyal, polite, home-loving animal, and the first character introduced in the story. Fed up with spring cleaning in his secluded home, he ventures into the outside world. Initially overawed by the hustle and bustle of the riverbank, he eventually adapts. He proves intelligent as shown with his trickery on stoat then tries to prevent them from reinforcing the weasels during the fight with Toad Hall.
Rat: Known as "Ratty" to his friends (though actually a water vole), he is cultured, relaxed and friendly, and enjoys a life of leisure; when not spending time on the river, he composes doggerel. Ratty loves the river and takes charge of Mole. He can be stubborn when it comes to doing things outside his riverside lifestyle, but can do which must be done as shown when he risks his safety to help Mole in the Wild Wood and to help free Toad Hall from the weasels.
Mr. Toad: Known as "Toady" to his friends, The wealthy scion of Toad Hall who inherited his wealth from his late father. Although good-hearted and optimistic, he is also arrogant, conceited, and impulsive. He is prone to obsessions and crazes (such as punting, houseboats, and horse-drawn caravans). He gets bored with each of these in turn, and drops them. His motoring craze eventually sees him imprisoned for theft, dangerous driving, and gross impertinence to the police. Several chapters of the book chronicle his daring escape from prison.
Mr. Badger: A gruff but benevolent soul, Badger embodies the "wise hermit" figure. A friend of Toad's deceased father, he is uncompromising with the irresponsible Toad, yet hopes that his good qualities will prevail. He lives in a vast underground sett, part of which incorporates the remains of a buried Roman settlement. A brave and a skilled fighter, Badger helps clear the Wild Wooders from Toad Hall with his large stick.

text: Supporting characters[edit]

text:
Otter and Portly: A friend of Ratty with a stereotypical "Cockney costermonger" character, the extrovert Otter is tough and self-sufficient. Portly is his young son.
The Weasels, Ferrets and the Stoats: The story's main antagonists. They plot to take over Toad Hall.
Pan: A benevolent and wise god of the wild who makes a single, anomalous appearance in Chapter 7, "The Piper at the Gates of Dawn" when he helps Portly and looks after him until Ratty and Mole come.
The Gaoler's Daughter: The only major human character; a "good, kind, clever girl", she helps Toad escape from prison.
The Wayfarer: A vagabond seafaring rat, who also makes a single appearance. Ratty briefly considers following his example, before Mole persuades him otherwise.
Squirrels and rabbits, who are generally good (although rabbits are described as "a mixed lot").
Inhabitants of the Wild Wood: Weasels, Stoats and Foxes who are described by Ratty thus: "all right in a way but well, you can't really trust them".

text: Editions[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The book was originally published as plain text with a frontispiece illustrated by Graham Robertson, but many illustrated, comic and annotated versions have been published over the years. Notable illustrators include Paul Bransom (1913), Wyndham Payne (1927), Ernest H. Shepard (1931), Arthur Rackham (1940), Tasha Tudor (1966), Michael Hague (1980), Scott McKowen (2005), and Robert Ingpen (2007).

text: The most popular illustrations are probably by E. H. Shepard, originally published in 1931, and believed to be authorised as Grahame was pleased with the initial sketches, though he did not live to see the completed work.[6]

text: The Wind in the Willows was the last work illustrated by Arthur Rackham. The book with his illustrations was issued posthumously in a limited edition by the Folio Society with 16 colour plates in 1940 in the US. It was not issued with the Rackham illustrations in the UK until 1950.

text: The Folio Society 2006 edition featured 85 illustrations, 35 in colour, by Charles van Sandwyk. A fancier centenary edition was produced two years later.

text: Michel Plessix created a Wind in the Willows watercolour comic album series, which helped to introduce the stories to France. They have been translated into English by Cinebook Ltd.

text: Patrick Benson re-illustrated the story in 1994 and HarperCollins published it in 1994 together with the William Horwood sequels The Willows in Winter, Toad Triumphant and The Willows and Beyond. It was published in the US in 1995 by St Martin's Press.

text: Inga Moore's abridged edition features text and illustrations paced so that a line of text, such as "oh my oh my", also serves as a caption.

text: Barnes & Noble Classics featured an introduction by Gardner McFall in 2007. New York, ISBN 978-1-59308-265-9

text: Egmont Press produced a 100th Anniversary paperback edition, with Shepard's illustrations, in 2008. ISBN 978-1-4052-3730-7

text: Belknap Press, of Harvard University Press, published Seth Lerer's annotated edition in 2009.[7]

text: W. W. Norton published Annie Gauger and Brian Jacques's annotated edition in 2009.[8]

text: Jamie Hendry Productions published a special edition of the novel in 2015 and donated it to schools in Plymouth and Salford to celebrate the World Premiere of the musical version of The Wind in the Willows by Julian Fellowes, George Stiles and Anthony Drewe.[9]

text: IDW Publishing published an illustrated edition of the novel in 2016.[10] The hardcover novel features illustrations from Eisner Award-winning artist David Petersen, who is best known for creating and drawing the comic series Mouse Guard.

text: Reception[edit]

text: A number of publishers rejected the manuscript. It was published in the UK by Methuen and Co., and later in the US by Scribner. The critics, who were hoping for a third volume in the style of Graham's earlier works; The Golden Age and Dream Days, generally gave negative reviews.[3] The public loved it, however, and within a few years it sold in such numbers that many reprints were required. In 1909, then sitting US President Theodore Roosevelt wrote to Grahame to tell him that he had "read it and reread it, and have come to accept the characters as old friends".[11]

text: In The Enchanted Places, Christopher Robin Milne wrote of The Wind in the Willows:

text: A book that we all greatly loved and admired and read aloud or alone, over and over and over: The Wind in the Willows. This book is, in a way, two separate books put into one. There are, on the one hand, those chapters concerned with the adventures of Toad; and on the other hand there are those chapters that explore human emotions—the emotions of fear, nostalgia, awe, wanderlust. My mother was drawn to the second group, of which "The Piper at the Gates of Dawn" was her favourite, read to me again and again with always, towards the end, the catch in the voice and the long pause to find her handkerchief and blow her nose. My father, on his side, was so captivated by the first group that he turned these chapters into the children's play, Toad of Toad Hall. In this play one emotion only is allowed to creep in: nostalgia.

text: Adaptations[edit]

text: Stage[edit]

text:
Toad of Toad Hall by A. A. Milne, produced in 1929
Wind in the Willows, a 1985 Tony-nominated Broadway musical with book by Jane Iredale, lyrics by Roger McGough and music by William P. Perry, starring Nathan Lane
The Wind in the Willows by Alan Bennett (who also appeared as Mole) in 1991
Mr. Toad's Mad Adventures by Vera Morris
Wind in the Willows (UK National Tour) by Ian Billings
The Wind in the Willows,[12] two stage adaptations—a full musical adaptation and a small-scale, shorter, stage play version—by David Gooderson.
The Wind in the Willows,[13] a musical theatre adaption by Scot Copeland and Paul Carrol Binkley.
The Wind in the Willows[14] by George Stiles, Anthony Drewe and Julian Fellowes which opened at Theatre Royal Plymouth in October 2016 before playing at The Lowry, Salford and then the West End.

text: Film and television[edit]

text:
Toad of Toad Hall, the first live action film of the novel. Adapted by Michael Barry for BBC Television and transmitted live in 1946. The film featured (in alphabetical order) Julia Braddock as Marigold, Kenneth More as Mr. Badger, Jack Newmark as Mole, Andrew Osborn as Water Rat, Jon Pertwee as the Judge, Alan Reid as Mr. Toad, John Thomas and Victor Woolf as Alfred the Horse, Madoline Thomas as Mother, and an uncredited Pat Pleasanse as various Rats, Weasels and Mice.
The Adventures of Ichabod and Mr. Toad, a 1949 animated adaptation produced by Walt Disney Productions for RKO Radio Pictures, narrated by Basil Rathbone. One half of the animated feature was based on the unrelated short story, The Legend of Sleepy Hollow.
The Wind in the Willows, a 1969 adaptation of the story produced by Anglia Television, told by still illustrations by artist John Worsley. The story was adapted, produced and narrated by Paul Honeyman and directed by John Salway.
The Reluctant Dragon and Mr. Toad Show, a 1970–1971 TV series produced by Rankin/Bass Productions and animated overseas by Mushi Production in Tokyo, Japan, based on both The Reluctant Dragon and The Wind in the Willows.
The Wind in the Willows, a 1983 animated film version with stop-motion puppets, produced by Cosgrove Hall Films.

The Wind in the Willows, a 1984–1990 TV series following the 1983 film, using the same sets and characters in mostly original stories but also including some chapters from the book that were omitted in the film, notably "The Piper at the Gates of Dawn". The cast included David Jason, Sir Michael Hordern, Peter Sallis, Richard Pearson and Ian Carmichael.

The Wind in the Willows, a 1985/1987 animated musical film version for television, produced by Rankin/Bass Productions with animation by Wang Film Productions (also known as Cuckoo's Nest Studios) in Taiwan. This version was very faithful to the book and featured a number of original songs, including the title, "Wind in the Willows", performed by folk singer Judy Collins. Voice actors included Eddie Bracken as Mole, Jose Ferrer as Badger, Roddy McDowell as Ratty, and Charles Nelson Reilly as Toad.[15]
Wind in the Willows, a 1988 animated made-for-TV film by Burbank Films Australia and adapted by Leonard Lee.
The Adventures of Mole, a 1995 animated made-for-TV film with a cast including Hugh Laurie as Toad, Richard Briers and Peter Davison as Ratty and Mole respectively and Paul Eddington as Badger. Was followed by The Adventures of Toad.
The Wind in the Willows, a 1995 animated film adaptation narrated by Vanessa Redgrave (in the live action scenes) with a cast led by Michael Palin and Alan Bennett as Ratty and Mole, Rik Mayall as Toad and Michael Gambon as Badger; followed by an adaptation of The Willows in Winter produced by the now defunct TVC (Television Cartoons) in London.[16]
The Wind in the Willows, a 1996 live-action film written and directed by Terry Jones starring Steve Coogan as Mole, Eric Idle as Rat, and Terry Jones as Mr. Toad.
The Wind in the Willows, another live-action film in 2006 with Lee Ingleby as Mole, Mark Gatiss as Ratty, Matt Lucas as Toad, Bob Hoskins as Badger, and also featuring Imelda Staunton, Anna Maxwell Martin, Mary Walsh and Michael Murphy
In 2003, Guillermo del Toro was working on an adaptation for Disney. It was to mix live action with CG animation, and the director explained why he had to leave the helm. "It was a beautiful book, and then I went to meet with the executives and they said, 'Could you give Toad a skateboard and make him say, 'radical dude' things,' and that's when I said, 'It's been a pleasure...'"[17]
In 2014, Classic Alice took the titular character on a 6 episode reimagining of The Wind in the Willows. Reid Cox played Toad, Kate Hackett and Tony Noto served as loose Badger/Ratty/Mole characters.

text: Radio[edit]

text: The BBC has broadcast a number of radio productions of the story.

text: Dramatisations include:

text:
Eight episodes from 4 to 14 April 1955, BBC Home Service. With Richard Goolden, Frank Duncan, Olaf Pooley and Mary O'Farrell.
episodes from 27 September to 15 November 1965, BBC Home Service. With Leonard Maguire, David Steuart and Douglas Murchie.
Single 90-minute play, dramatised by A.A. Milne under the name Toad of Toad Hall, on 21 April 1973, BBC Radio 4. With Derek Smith, Bernard Cribbins, Richard Goolden and Cyril Luckham.
Six episodes from 28 April to 9 June 1983, BBC Schools Radio, Living Language series. With Paul Darrow as Badger.
Six episodes, dramatised by John Scotney, from 13 February to 20 March 1994, BBC Radio 5. With Martin Jarvis, Timothy Bateson, Willie Rushton, George Baker and Dinsdale Landen.
Single two-hour play, dramatised by Alan Bennett, on 27 August 1994, BBC Radio 4.

text: Abridged readings include:

text:
Ten-part reading by Alan Bennett from 31 July to 11 August 1989, BBC Radio 4.
Twelve-part reading by Bernard Cribbins from 22 December 1983 to 6 January 1984, BBC channel unknown.
Three-hour reading by June Whitfield, Nigel Anthony, James Saxon, and Nigel Lambert; Puffin audiobook, 1996.

text: Kenneth Williams also did a version of the book for radio.

text: In 2002 Paul Oakenfold produced a Trance Soundtrack for the story, aired on the Galaxy FM show Urban Soundtracks. These mixes blended classic stories with a mixture of dance and contemporary music.

text: Sequels and alternative versions[edit]

text: In 1983 Dixon Scott published A Fresh Wind in the Willows, which not only predates Horwood's sequels (see below) by several years but also includes some of the same incidents, including a climax in which Toad steals a Bleriot monoplane.

text: William Horwood created several sequels to The Wind in the Willows: The Willows in Winter, Toad Triumphant, The Willows and Beyond, and The Willows at Christmas.

text: Jacqueline Kelly's sequel Return to the Willows was published in 2012.

text: Jan Needle's Wild Wood was published in 1981 with illustrations by William Rushton (ISBN 0-233-97346-X). It is a re-telling of the story of The Wind in the Willows from the point of view of the working-class inhabitants of the Wild Wood. For them, money is short and employment hard to find. They have a very different perspective on the wealthy, easy, careless lifestyle of Toad and his friends.

text: Kij Johnson published The River Bank in 2017. If Wild Wood reimagined Grahame's work through a shift of class, Johnson's work may be said to do the same thing through shift of gender.

text: Awards[edit]

text: Mr. Toad was voted Number 38 among the 100 Best Characters in Fiction Since 1900 by Book magazine in their March/April 2002 issue.[18]

text: Inspiration[edit]

text: Mapledurham House in Oxfordshire was an inspiration for Toad Hall,[19] although Hardwick House and Fawley Court also make this claim.[20]

text: The village of Lerryn, Cornwall claims to be the setting for the book.[21]

text: Simon Winchester suggested that the character of Ratty was based on Frederick Furnivall, a keen oarsman and acquaintance of Kenneth Grahame.[22] However, Grahame himself said that this character was inspired by his good friend, the writer Sir Arthur Quiller-Couch. Grahame mentions this in a signed copy he gave to Quiller-Couch's daughter, Foy Felicia.[23]

text: The Scotsman[24] and Oban Times[25] suggested The Wind in the Willows  was inspired by the Crinan Canal because Grahame spent some of his childhood in Ardrishaig.

text: There is a theory that the idea for the story arose when its author saw a water vole beside the River Pang in Berkshire, southern England. A 29 hectare extension to the nature reserve at Moor Copse, near Tidmarsh Berkshire, was acquired in January 2007 by the Berks, Bucks and Oxon Wildlife Trust.[26]

text: In popular culture[edit]

text:
Mr. Toad's Wild Ride is the name of a ride at Disneyland in Anaheim, California and a former attraction at Disney's Magic Kingdom in Orlando, Florida, inspired by Toad's motorcar adventure. It is the only ride with an alternate Latin title, given as the inscription on Toad's Hall: Toadi Acceleratio Semper Absurda ("Toad's Ever-Absurd Acceleration").
The first album by psychedelic rock group Pink Floyd, The Piper at the Gates of Dawn (1967), was named by former member Syd Barrett after chapter 7 of The Wind in the Willows. However, the songs on the album are not directly related to the contents of the book. The same chapter was the basis for the name and lyrics of "Piper at the Gates of Dawn", a song by Irish singer-songwriter Van Morrison from his 1997 album The Healing Game. The song "The Wicker Man" by British heavy metal band Iron Maiden also includes the phrase. British extreme metal band Cradle of Filth released a special edition of their album Thornography, called Harder, Darker, Faster: Thornography Deluxe; on the song "Snake-Eyed and the Venomous", a pun is made in the lyrics "... all vipers at the gates of dawn" referring to Chapter 7 of the book. The song "Power Flower" on Stevie Wonder's 1979 album Stevie Wonder's Journey Through "The Secret Life of Plants", co-written with Michael Sembello, mentions "the piper at the gates of dawning".
Wind in the Willows is a fantasy for flute, oboe, clarinet and bassoon, narrated by John Frith (2007).
Dutch composer Johan de Meij wrote a music piece for concert band in four movements, named after and based on The Wind in the Willows.
The Edinburgh-based record label Song, by Toad Records takes its name from a passage in The Wind in the Willows.
In 2016, a historian, who owned a rare first edition, was tortured and murdered in his home by a thief intent on finding the book's location hidden somewhere in the house.[27]
In 2018, English professor emeritus Peter Hunt makes the claim that The Wind in the Willows is about Grahame's alleged homosexuality[28]