document_title: American green tree frog

question_text: where do tree frogs go in the daytime

question_tokens: where do tree frogs go in the daytime

text: American green tree frog

text: Description[edit]

text: The frog is green, medium-sized, and up to 6 cm (2.5 in) long. Their bodies are usually green in shades ranging from bright yellowish-olive to lime green. The color can change depending on lighting or temperature. Small patches of gold or white may occur on the skin, and they may also have a white, pale yellow, or cream-colored lines running from their jaws or upper lips to their groins. They have smooth skin and large toe pads. Their abdomens are pale yellow to white. Males have wrinkled throats (indicating the vocal pouch) and are slightly smaller than females.

text: Distribution and habitat[edit]

text: These frogs are found in the central and southeastern United States, with a geographic range from the Eastern Shore of Virginia to southeast Florida, with populations as far west as central Texas, and as far north as Maryland and Delaware.[1] The frogs are considered monotypic, but clinal variation has been observed from Florida north along the Atlantic coastal plain. This possibly may be attributed "to the result of strong selection and/or drift."[1]

text: Green tree frogs "prefer habitats with plentiful floating vegetation, grasses, and cattails" and are often found in "small ponds, large lakes, marshes, and streams also can be found at night in a backyard swimming pool.

text: Behavior[edit]

text: Because these frogs are small and easily frightened, they often do not do well with frequent handling. Some specimens do seem to tolerate occasional handling, however, so handling frequency should be determined on an individual basis. The little frogs tend to be nocturnal, and in captivity they will be the most active once the lights are off. Males frequently call most of the year, especially after being misted in the tank.[2]

text: Breeding[edit]

text: Most American green tree frog females breed once per year, but some have multiple clutches in a single mating season.[1] In a Florida population, "advertisement calls of males were documented between March and September and pairs in amplexus were observed between April and August." In the Florida population, the average number of offspring in a single clutch was observed to be about 400 eggs.[1] Eggs take between four and 14 days to hatch, with an average of five days.[1] According to the Animal Diversity Web at the University of Michigan Museum of Zoology, "Female size was positively correlated with clutch size, but after the initial clutch, the number of eggs nearly always decreased."[1]

text: Breeding is known to be strongly influenced by day length, temperature, and precipitation."[1] While "the relative influence of these factors is not well understood," it is known as the frogs generally breed following rainfall, and males call more frequently as temperature and day length increase.[1] Some evidence demonstrates the length of the breeding season length is correlated with latitude, with season length decreasing as latitude increases due to temperature limitations.[1]

text: Males use a distinct advertisement call, "noticeably different than [sic] release or warning calls," to attract mates.[1] Once a mate has been attracted, the pair begins amplexus, in which "the male tightly grasps onto the female to bring their cloacal openings close together for fertilization."[1] Males are polygynous, generally seeking to mate with as many females as they can attract.[1]

text: In southern Florida, the Cuban tree frog (Osteopilus septentrionalis) is an invasive species that has a similar call to the green tree frog in regards to timing and pitch. A study found that their calls compete acoustically with each other due to their similarity which limits communication space. In order to compete with the Cuban tree frog, green tree frogs modified their call to be shorter, louder, and more frequent so that potential mates have better chances of detecting the call.[3][4]

text: American green tree frogs show no parental investment except for mating and egg-laying.[1]

text: Feeding[edit]

text: American green tree frogs are insectivores, usually consuming flies, mosquitoes, and other small insects such as crickets.[1] One study suggested the frog selects prey not by its size, but according to its activity level, with the most active prey being the most frequently eaten.[1] The same study showed "nearly 90% of Hyla cinerea prey were actively pursued," with the other 10% being "insects walking or close enough to be snatched up by the frog's tongue."[1]

text: As pets[edit]

text: The frogs are popular pets because of their small size, appearance, and the undemanding conditions needed to take care of them. Unlike many amphibians, they do not require artificial heating. They need a large (at least ten-gallon) terrarium and do best with a substrate that will hold some humidity, such as commercial shredded bark or coconut husk bedding, or untreated topsoil on the floor of their terrarium. Tree frogs are arboreal, so the height on the tank is more important than the length. A variety of things for climbing, such as plants or branches, should be in the habitat. A shallow water dish should be included.[5] Captive frogs should not be handled any more than necessary; when necessary, clean gloves should be worn.


document_title: 1936 Summer Olympics medal table

question_text: who won the most gold medals in the 1936 olympics

root

text: 1936 Summer Olympics medal table

text:
Part of a series on

1936 Summer Olympics[show]

Venues
Opening ceremony (torch relay)
Medal table (medallists, German Olympic Decoration)
Organisation (Ernest Lee Jahncke, Avery Brundage, Hans von Tschammer und Osten, Carl Diem)
Concerns and controversies
In culture: Berlin 36, Charlie Chan at the Olympics, March Violets, Olympia, Olympische Hymne

IOC
NSRL

v
t
e

tag: table

text: The 1936 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XI Olympiad, was an international multi-sport event held in Berlin, Germany, from 1 August to 16 August. Berlin had previously been chosen to host the 1916 Summer Olympics, which were subsequently cancelled due to the First World War.[1] The 1936 Games had 3,963 athletes from 49 National Olympic Committees (NOCs) participating in a total of 129 events in 19 sports. This was the highest number of nations represented at any Games to date.[2] Athletes from 32 NOCs won medals, of which 21 secured at least one gold medal. As a result, 17 NOCs were left without any medal. The host NOC, Germany, received a total of 89 medals, a record for a united German team, although East Germany broke that record in 1976, 1980 and 1988.[3]

tag: p

text: While a boycott by the United States was suggested due to Germany's National Socialist regime, it was not implemented as the President of the United States Olympic Committee, Avery Brundage, felt that politics should be kept separate from sport.[1] The other NOCs which threatened to boycott the Games for the same reason were the United Kingdom, France, Sweden, Czechoslovakia and the Netherlands.[2] An alternative People's Olympiad was planned to take place in Barcelona, Spain, but was cancelled at the last moment following the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War after the athletes had already begun to arrive.[2] The civil war also meant that Spain's NOC did not compete at the 1936 Games.[1] While no NOCs ended up boycotting the Games on anti-Nazi grounds, a multinational Jewish-led boycott of the Games took place, with individual athletes refusing to take part.[4] Also, the IAAFs' refusal to allow athletes from Northern Ireland to compete for the Irish Olympic Council in athletics events led the Irish Free State to boycott.[5][6]

text: Marjorie Gestring became the youngest Olympic champion ever at the age of 13,[nb 1] winning a gold medal in the women's 3 meter springboard.[1] As Korea was under Japanese rule, Korean athletes who hoped to compete in the Games were required to qualify for the Japanese team. Sohn Kee-chung, competing as Kitei Son, won gold in the marathon, which made him Japan's first gold medalist at these Games and the first Korean ever to win a medal.[9] His fellow countryman Nam Sung-yong won the bronze medal in the same event.[10] For the first time since the 1908 Games, the United States did not lead the medal table, finishing second.[1]

text: Medal table[edit]

text: The ranking in this table is based on information provided by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and is consistent with IOC convention in its published medal tables. By default, the table is ordered by the number of gold medals the athletes from a National Olympic Committee have won (a nation is represented at a Games by the associated National Olympic Committee). The number of silver medals is taken into consideration next and then the number of bronze medals. If NOCs are still tied, equal ranking is given and they are listed alphabetically by IOC country code.

text: A dead heat in the lightweight section of the weightlifting competition resulted in gold medals being awarded to both Austria's Robert Fein and Egypt's Anwar Mesbah, and resulted in a silver medal not being awarded for that event. A dead heat for third place in the floor competition of the gymnastic events resulted in bronze medals going to both Germany's Konrad Frey and Eugen Mack of Switzerland. This resulted in 130 gold and bronze medals being awarded, but only 128 silver medals.[11]

text: Host nation (Germany)

text:
Rank
Nation
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total

1
 Germany (GER)
33
26
30
89

2
 United States (USA)
24
20
12
56

3
 Hungary (HUN)
10
1
5
16

4
 Italy (ITA)
8
9
5
22

5
 Finland (FIN)
7
6
6
19

 France (FRA)
7
6
6
19

7
 Sweden (SWE)
6
5
9
20

8
 Japan (JPN)[12]
6
4
8
18

9
 Netherlands (NED)
6
4
7
17

10
 Great Britain (GBR)
4
7
3
14

11
 Austria (AUT)
4
6
3
13

12
 Czechoslovakia (TCH)
3
5
0
8

13
 Argentina (ARG)
2
2
3
7

 Estonia (EST)
2
2
3
7

15
 Egypt (EGY)
2
1
2
5

16
 Switzerland (SUI)
1
9
5
15

17
 Canada (CAN)
1
3
5
9

18
 Norway (NOR)
1
3
2
6

19
 Turkey (TUR)
1
0
1
2

20
 India (IND)
1
0
0
1

 New Zealand (NZL)
1
0
0
1

22
 Poland (POL)
0
3
3
6

23
 Denmark (DEN)
0
2
3
5

24
 Latvia (LAT)
0
1
1
2

25
 Romania (ROU)
0
1
0
1

 South Africa (RSA)
0
1
0
1

 Yugoslavia (YUG)
0
1
0
1

28
 Mexico (MEX)
0
0
3
3

29
 Belgium (BEL)
0
0
2
2

30
 Australia (AUS)
0
0
1
1

 Philippines (PHI)
0
0
1
1

 Portugal (POR)
0
0
1
1

Total (32 NOCs)
130
128
130
388

text: Footnotes[edit]

text: Jump up ^ In the 1900 men's coxed pair rowing, an unidentified boy aged 12 or less coxed the winning pair in the final; however, only semifinal cox Hermanus Brockmann is listed by the IOC.[7] Winners received silver medals at the 1900 games.[8]

tag: ol


document_title: Watch Dogs 2

question_text: who do you play as in watch dogs 2

question_tokens: who do you play as in watch dogs 2

text: Watch Dogs 2

text: Gameplay[edit]

text: Similar to its predecessor, Watch Dogs 2 is an action-adventure game with stealth elements[1] and played from a third-person perspective as protagonist Marcus Holloway, a young hacker, the game features an open world environment set in a fictionalized version of the San Francisco Bay Area,[2][3] an area more than twice as large as the Chicago setting from Watch Dogs.[4] The Bay Area consists of four different areas: San Francisco, Oakland, Marin, and Silicon Valley, all of which have different characteristics and aesthetics.[5] Players can navigate the game's world on-foot or by the various vehicles featured in the game, such as cars, trucks, buses, cable cars, motorcycles, quad bikes and boats.[6] The driving mechanic was overhauled and designed to be more accessible.[7] The players can shoot their weapons while driving.[8] Marcus also has improved acrobatic skills, and the ability to parkour around the city.[9] Players can use different methods to approach the game's missions, choosing between the aggressive approach, in which they defeat enemies with guns which are made with a 3D printer; explosives, like mines; or Marcus' own melee weapon, a billiard ball attached to a bungee cord. Alternatively, players can use the stealth approach, in which they can evade enemies or paralyze them temporarily with Marcus' taser.[3][9] Players can also complete the game through hacking alone.[10] When players commit too many crimes, the police officers will become alerted and will attempt to arrest the player.[11] The game upgrades system is a returning feature, with items being divided into three categories: Ghost, Aggressor, and Trickster. Players can choose their upgrades in accordance with their own playstyle.[8]

text: Marcus can hack into various electronic devices connected to the ctOS system with his in-game smartphone.[3] For example, Marcus can modify the personal information of non-player characters to have them arrested,[4] hack and manipulate every mobile phone featured in the game, disrupt traffic by hacking cars and traffic lights, hack into monitoring cameras, and carry out "mass hacking", which hacks the electrical equipment of a large group of people.[12] Players also gain multiple options while hacking the same object. For instance, if the player attempts to hack a car, they can gain direct control over them, or have the car lose control and crash in a random direction. If the player hacks a junction box, they can choose whether they should deactivate it or turn it into a proximity mine.[13] Unlike Aiden, the protagonist of the first game, Marcus has an arsenal of advanced equipment, including a quadcopter and a remote-controlled car, both of which can be used for remote hacking and scouting.[6] Marcus' apparel can be customized with over 700 articles of clothing, available for purchase in stores that maintain fashion styles unique to what is worn by the denizens in each area.[14] The game features several main story missions, and side-missions known as "operations". Once completed, Marcus' follower count will increase, which is an important part of the narrative.[15]

text: Multiplayer[edit]

text: Multiplayer returns in Watch Dogs 2. The game introduces a seamless cooperative multiplayer mode, in which players can meet and interact with other random players. They can explore the open world and complete missions together, which will also help players to gain followers. The game features an emote system, which allows players' characters to communicate with each other through basic gestures. The game can be played completely online or offline.[3] It also features three competitive multiplayer modes:

text:
Hacking Invasion: A one-versus-one competitive multiplayer mode, originally featured in the first game, in which a player covertly joins another player's single-player session and steals virtual data from them. The invading player must stay hidden while stealing the data, and escape once successful, while the defending player must identify and kill the invading player.[16]
Bounty Hunter: A new mode introduced in the game. If an online player creates too much chaos in the world, the mode will be initiated. Police, alongside one to three other players, will join the player's game with the hope of killing the hunted and claiming the bounty, which gives them experience points. The hunted could either strike back at the hunters by killing them, which gives them greater rewards, or escape from them until the bounty expires.[3][17] The hunted, meanwhile, also can be assisted by another player if that player chooses to join the hunted. Players can manually place a bounty on themselves using the in-game smartphone.[18]
Showdown: A mode added in a later update. In this mode, 2 teams of 2 players battle each other in short missions. Missions vary from the first team to steal 3 hard drives to the offensive team having to hack the servers the defensive team is protecting in a limited amount of time.[3]

tag: ul

text: Plot[edit]

text: Following the events of Chicago, San Francisco becomes the next city to install the ctOS (central Operating System), which connects everyone with everything. Hacker Marcus Holloway (Ruffin Prentiss) is punished for a crime he did not commit by the upgraded ctOS – ctOS 2.0 – which categorizes him as the suspect. Realizing the system covertly brings harm to the innocent citizens of San Francisco, he decides to work with the hacking group DedSec to take down the ctOS 2.0, and Blume, the company behind it. Marcus joins DedSec and works with fellow hackers Sitara (Tasya Teles), Wrench (Shawn Baichoo), Horatio (Michael Xavier) and Josh (Jonathan Dubsky), and they begin using their skills to expose corrupt organizations and corporations that are secretly using stolen personal ctOS data for their own ends. The game begins with Marcus – known also by his hacker alias Retr0 – having an initiation test: deleting his own ctOS profile. Accepted into DedSec, he is alerted to a Church called New Dawn that serves as a criminal organization, after which, Marcus mainly serves to bring about awareness of the hackers' goals through both social media and hacks to help get enough computers to bring down Blume, the 'figurehead' of ctOS. Eventually, they stumble upon the existence of a subliminal message and Bellwether, a data manipulation program being fed ctOS data by Dušan Nemec (Christopher Jacot), Blume's CTO, to manipulate world finance and politics. DedSec later manages to recruit the assistance of Raymond "T-Bone" Kenney (John Tench), who is determined to battle Blume three years after attacking the ctOS in Chicago.

text: With his assistance, DedSec manages to expose the corruption of the FBI and numerous Silicon Valley corporations through the hacking of their data facilities. Learning that Blume is planning to install a satellite network designed to bypass undersea data cables, which would effectively give Blume a monopoly on the entire world's electronic data and stock exchanges, they infiltrate the launch area of one of the satellites to install a backdoor. In order to bring down Blume and Dušan for good, Marcus breaks into all of Blume's international headquarters and lastly their San Francisco headquarters and hacks their servers, exposing the existence of Bellwether and Dušan's corruption. Dušan is arrested for fraud and Blume is put under investigation, though DedSec resolve to continue their fight against Blume. In an extended ending scene added in a post-release patch, two unidentified individuals note that more DedSec cells and hacktivist groups have been emerging worldwide in response to the San Francisco Blume scandal, and that it is time to put their own plans into motion.

text: Development[edit]

text: At E3 2014, Ubisoft executive Tony Key claimed that they were very satisfied with the sales of the first game, and that the brand would be turned into a long-running franchise.[19] According to creative director Jonathan Morin, the first game's main goal was to establish the Watch Dogs brand. It was intended that they take risks with the sequel, instead of creating a more polished version of the previous game.[20] To improve the game, Morin and his team read the reviews of the first game, and visited NeoGAF and various forums to study player feedback. Their priorities included creating a "believable" environment, giving players more freedom, and introducing a new leading character, whose personality would be completely different from that of the protagonist of the first game, Aiden Pearce.[15] The primary developer Ubisoft Montreal worked with other subsidiaries Ubisoft Toronto, Ubisoft Paris, Ubisoft Bucharest, Ubisoft Kiev and Ubisoft Reflections to aid in the production.[21] The driving mechanic was completely overhauled to make it more accessible to players, and was developed by Ubisoft Reflections, the developer of Ubisoft's own Driver series.[22] In light of complaints about a graphical downgrade in Watch Dogs from what was seen at E3 2012, Ubisoft assured that Watch Dogs 2 would not suffer the same outcome because, unlike the first installment, it was developed for the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One from the start.[23] Another improvement from the first game was a more prominent thematic connection to the narrative.[24] Main operations are structured like story arcs that last up to ninety minutes each, advancing the plot with each completion.[25]

text: The developer worked with consultant hackers who would validate their scripts, including the use of jargon, and gameplay mechanics in order to ensure the authenticity of the subject matter. The propaganda used by the game's hacker group DedSec was influenced by animated GIF culture, glitch art and comic books from the late 1940s.[26] David Maynor served as a hacking advisor.[27] Content director Thomas Geffroyd, who had twenty years of experience with the hacking community, was tasked to accumulate information from hacktivists – such as author Violet Blue – and then relay it to the team. The game also features references to real life; Project Chanology was fictionalized in the mission "The False Prophets".[28]

text: Ubisoft Montreal made frequent scouting trips to California to research the setting, and attempted to put most of the local landmarks in that region in the game. For regions that they could not put in the game, the team redesigned these locations and put them back into the game. According to producer Dominic Guay, having realistic and accurate locations featured in the game was essential for the game as they encourage players to explore the open world. Unlike many of Ubisoft's previous open world games, players do not need to climb towers in order to discover locations and missions. Instead, the game is opened up from the start, allowing players to explore the city freely. The game's new progression system, which tasks players to gain followers instead of completing main missions, was another way Ubisoft Montreal hoped to encourage exploration and make the city feel more "free".[29][30] Watch Dogs 2 had around sixty programmers devoted to its development.[31]

text: The soundtrack was composed by Hudson Mohawke. Ingrained with a combination of electronic music and hip hop, it was approached from the palette of cult science fiction music.[32] Ubisoft teamed up with Dutch music producer Oliver Heldens to influence the video for his track "Good Life" in the vein of DedSec.[33] For acquiring licensed songs, an agreement was made with Amoeba Music.[31] Mohawke's soundtrack was released separately as Ded Sec – Watch Dogs 2 (Original Game Soundtrack) via Warp Records.[34]

text: A sequel to Watch Dogs was rumored since its release but first officialized by publisher Ubisoft through financial reports in February[35] and May 2016,[36] before it was confirmed as a part of the 2016 E3 lineup. A twenty-minute online reveal was hosted a couple of days later.[37] On 27 October 2016, Watch Dogs 2 was announced to have been released to manufacturing.[38]

text: Release[edit]

text: On 8 June 2016, Ubisoft revealed the game would be released on 15 November of that year for the Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One platforms in six separate editions.[39] In September 2016, it was announced that Watch Dogs 2 would have enhancements on PlayStation 4 Pro.[40] In October 2016, Ubisoft announced that the Windows version was delayed to 29 November 2016 to ensure that the game was well-optimized.[41] It was featured on the front cover of Edge in August.[42] Two weeks from release, Ubisoft and Samsung partnered to bundle a free digital download of Watch Dogs 2 with the purchase of their solid-state disks or curved gaming monitors.[43] Amazon Prime copies were subject to an early release, which revealed issues with the seamless multiplayer. Ubisoft vowed to repair the feature on schedule[44] but on the day of release, the company said it was broken – citing persistent lagging and crashing.[45] Cooperative multiplayer was enabled a week after the game's release.[46] A free trial lasting three hours was released for PlayStation 4 on 17 January 2017; the Xbox One version was downloadable on 24 January.[47]

text: Pre-ordering The Gold Edition Collector's Edition included additional content such as weapon skins, vehicles and drones; the Deluxe Collector's Edition contains the same, but excluded the season pass. Each of these, as well as the generic Collector's Edition, contained a physical robot called "Wrench Junior", which is controlled by using a mobile app on a smartphone or tablet computer. The Gold Edition came with the aforementioned items and season pass, and although the Deluxe Edition omitted the inclusion of the season pass, it comprised all other additions.[48] The mission "Zodiac Killer" was also exclusive to pre-order purchases. It involves the protagonist Marcus Holloway in chasing a copycat killer emulating the same modus operandi as the Zodiac Killer.[49] Amazon and Twitch Prime members were privy to free content like XP boosts and skin packs.[50] "ScoutXpedition", a PlayStation 4 pre-order bonus mission, became free to download in January 2017.[51]

text:
List of Watch Dogs 2 editions[show]

Features
Standard Edition
Deluxe Edition
San Francisco Edition
Gold Edition
Wrench Jr Robot Collector's Pack
The Return of DedSec Collector's Case

Software

Watch Dogs 2

Deluxe Pack

Season Pass[b]

Zodiac Killer mission[c]

Physical

Exclusive packaging

 (sleeve)
 (collector's box)

 (collector's case)

Lithographies

Map of San Francisco

DedSec-themed laptop stickers

Marcus figurine (24 cm)

DedSec art Marcus figurine (27 cm)

Marcus' cap and scarf replica

Exclusive 64-page artbook

Wrench Junior Robot (20 cm)

text: Downloadable content[edit]

text: Five downloadable content (DLC) packs have been released: the T-Bone Content Bundle, Human Conditions, No Compromise, Root Access Bundle, and Psychedelic Pack.[52][53] As per an exclusivity agreement with Sony Interactive Entertainment, all DLC for Watch Dogs 2 were timed exclusives for PlayStation 4.[54]

text:
The T-Bone Content Bundle was released for PlayStation 4 on 22 December 2016,[55] and includes a new co-op difficulty setting, Mayhem, plus the clothes and truck of the original Watch Dogs character Raymond "T-Bone" Kenney.[52][53]
Human Conditions was released on 21 February 2017 for the PlayStation 4 and on 23 March for the Xbox One and PC,[56] and includes three new stories set in San Francisco's science and medicine industries. The pack also includes new co-op missions featuring a new enemy class called "the Jammer", a technologically savvy enemy capable of jamming all of a player's hacker equipment, making them vulnerable to head-on attacks.[52][53]
No Compromise was released on 18 April 2017 for PlayStation 4 and was launched on 18 May for Xbox One and Microsoft Windows, featuring a new story mission as well as more outfits and weapons.[57]
Root Access Bundle (available in December 2016)[58] and Psychedelic Pack (available on launch day) feature a Zodiac Killer mission as well as new outfits, cars, skins and weapons.[52][53]

text: Reception[edit]

text:
Reception

Aggregate score

Aggregator
Score

Metacritic
(PC) 75/100[59]
(PS4) 82/100[60]
(XONE) 81/100[61]

Review scores

Publication
Score

Destructoid
8.5/10[62]

EGM
8/10[63]

Game Informer
7.75/10[64]

Game Revolution
[65]

IGN
8.5/10[66]

Polygon
8/10[67]

VideoGamer.com
8/10[68]

text: Watch Dogs 2 received "generally favorable" reviews, according to review aggregator Metacritic.[59][60][61] Technical issues on consoles were fixed with the Update 1.04 patch.[69]

text: In his review, Destructoid's Zack Furniss praised the sequel's tonal shift to a lack of seriousness and stated that its protagonist Marcus Holloway boasted a similar charm and wit. He thought well of the hacking component as it was suggestible to multiple fields of use, and enjoyed its nature of compatibility with a non-lethal approach; in fact, Furniss felt that for this reason firearms could have been excluded entirely. The driving was lauded as an improvement from the first game, yet technical issues like glitches and low frame rates were cited as shortcomings.[62] To Matt Buchholtz, writing for EGM, the game signified "less a hacktivist tale and more a beautiful immersion into the San Francisco Bay". The setting, characters and story were cited as considerable refinements from its predecessor. Buchholtz discerned that the tasks demanded to gain followers were successful in encouraging world exploration. He noted however that – in context of the main character – murder made little sense, which led to increased usage of stealth.[63] Elise Favis at Game Informer both disparaged and praised elements in comparison to those of Watch Dogs. She enjoyed that hacking was prioritized in the gameplay and the new "smoother" driving mechanic, but saw inconsistencies in the protagonist's actions versus his personality and thought supporting characters "too obnoxious and petty to be meaningful companions". Favis also experienced low frame rate capabilities on PlayStation 4.[64] Aron Garst of Game Revolution stated that Watch Dogs 2 had redressed "nearly every negative aspect of the original", and as such, marked a favorable change in the franchise.[65]

text: IGN's Dan Stapleton liked Marcus Holloway more than Aiden Pearce of the first game, and similarly appreciated the supporting characters of DedSec. Marcus' penchant for moral integrity was a noticeable contradiction for Stapleton, though, in light of the prospect to have him kill innocent people if one so chooses. Therefore, the character's personality was observed as the only preclusion to violence and an axiomatic push toward the stealth approach, which Stapleton insisted was the most accommodating of available tools.[70] Writing for Polygon, Philip Kollar saw that Watch Dogs 2 could appeal to those able to connect with "being young, angry at the system and certain that you know what's best for the world". Its tongue-in-cheek demeanor was said to naturally coincide with the hacker culture and open world genre. San Francisco – the spaces of which were described as "cleverly designed" – never felt overwhelming in size to Kollar but inspired joy as he took advantage of the immediate ability to explore it entirely. His complaints concerned firearms; their use was considered "a complete failure of imagination" and unbelievable from the members of DedSec—"an Anonymous-esque group of peaceful hacktivists".[67] Alice Bell of VideoGamer.com wrote in her verdict, "Watch Dogs 2 is missing a bit of refinement ... but joining DedSec is still a riot and a half. It's high energy fun with engaging characters, and you can make an entire city your playground".[68]

text: Sales[edit]

text: In November 2016, Ubisoft revealed that the game's pre-orders were disappointing for the company. Due to this, Ubisoft took a more conservative approach and reduced the sales projection for the second half of its fiscal year 2017. However, CEO Yves Guillemot was confident that the game would not be a commercial failure, and compared the game to Far Cry 3, a commercially successful game with low pre-order sales. He believed that reviews would have a great impact to the game sales due to consumers' "wait-and-see" approach.[71][72]

text: Watch Dogs 2 was the second best-selling retail video game in the United Kingdom in its week of release, according to Chart-Track, an eighty percent decrease from the sales of the original.[73][74] In the United States, the game ranked number eight in sales in January 2017.[75] The PlayStation 4 version sold 68,796 copies in Japan. [76]

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Additional work by Ubisoft Toronto, Ubisoft Paris, Ubisoft Bucharest, Ubisoft Kiev and Ubisoft Reflections
Jump up ^ Can be purchased separately
Jump up ^ Included in all editions when pre-ordered


document_title: Windsor Court Hotel

question_text: who owns the windsor court hotel in new orleans

text: Windsor Court Hotel

text:
Windsor Court Hotel

General information

Type
Hotel

Location
300 Gravier Street,
New Orleans, Louisiana
United States

Completed
1984

Opening
1984

Owner
The Berger Company & Crow Holdings

Height

Roof
253 ft (77 m)

Technical details

Floor count
23

Design and construction

Architect
Morris Architects

Developer
Orient-Express Hotels

text: The Windsor Court Hotel is a luxury hotel in the Central Business District of New Orleans, Louisiana. The building rises 253 feet (77 m). It contains 23 floors, and was completed in 1984. In 2011, Travel + Leisure magazine ranked the Windsor Court the 6th Best Large City Hotel in the United States and Canada. Windsor Court Hotel currently stands as the 35th-tallest building in the city, and the 10th-tallest hotel. The architectural firm who designed the building was Morris Architects. The building is an example of modern architecture.[1][2] In 2009 an investment team purchased the hotel, led by The Berger Company and Crow Holdings.[3]

text: The building houses a 4-star hotel with 324 guest rooms.[4]


document_title: Pop music

question_text: what links does blues music have to the pop music we listen to today

text: Pop music

text: Definitions and etymology[edit]

text: David Hatch and Stephen Millward define pop music as "a body of music which is distinguishable from popular, jazz, and folk musics".[5] According to Pete Seeger, pop music is "professional music which draws upon both folk music and fine arts music".[3] Although pop music is seen as just the singles charts, it is not the sum of all chart music. The music charts contain songs from a variety of sources, including classical, jazz, rock, and novelty songs. Pop music, as a genre, is seen as existing and developing separately.[6] Thus "pop music" may be used to describe a distinct genre, designed to appeal to all, often characterized as "instant singles-based music aimed at teenagers" in contrast to rock music as "album-based music for adults".[4][8]

text: Pop music continuously evolves along with the term's definition. According to The New Grove Dictionary Of Music and Musicians, popular music is defined as "the music since industrialization in the 1800s that is most in line with the tastes and interests of the urban middle class."[9] The term "pop song" was first recorded as being used in 1926, in the sense of a piece of music "having popular appeal".[10] Hatch and Millward indicate that many events in the history of recording in the 1920s can be seen as the birth of the modern pop music industry, including in country, blues and hillbilly music.[11]

text: According to the website of The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, called Grove Music Online, the term "pop music" "originated in Britain in the mid-1950s as a description for rock and roll and the new youth music styles that it influenced".[2] The Oxford Dictionary of Music states that while pop's "earlier meaning meant concerts appealing to a wide audience ... since the late 1950s, however, pop has had the special meaning of non-classical mus[ic], usually in the form of songs, performed by such artists as the Beatles, the Rolling Stones, ABBA, etc".[12] Grove Music Online also states that "... in the early 1960s, [the term] 'pop music' competed terminologically with beat music [in England], while in the USA its coverage overlapped (as it still does) with that of 'rock and roll'".[2]

text: From about 1967, the term was increasingly used in opposition to the term rock music, a division that gave generic significance to both terms.[13] Whereas rock aspired to authenticity and an expansion of the possibilities of popular music,[13] pop was more commercial, ephemeral and accessible.[14] According to British musicologist Simon Frith, pop music is produced "as a matter of enterprise not art", is "designed to appeal to everyone" and "doesn't come from any particular place or mark off any particular taste". It is "not driven by any significant ambition except profit and commercial reward ... and, in musical terms, it is essentially conservative". It is, "provided from on high (by record companies, radio programmers, and concert promoters) rather than being made from below ... Pop is not a do-it-yourself music but is professionally produced and packaged".[4]

text: Characteristics[edit]

text:
The Righteous Brothers – "You've Lost That Lovin' Feelin'" (1965)

As of 2011[update], "You've Lost That Lovin' Feelin'" ranks as the most frequently played song in US radio history,[15] described by music writers Nick Logan and Bob Woffinden as "the ultimate pop record".[16]

Problems playing this file? See media help.

text: According to Frith, characteristics of pop music include an aim of appealing to a general audience, rather than to a particular sub-culture or ideology, and an emphasis on craftsmanship rather than formal "artistic" qualities.[4] Music scholar Timothy Warner said it typically has an emphasis on recording, production, and technology, rather than live performance; a tendency to reflect existing trends rather than progressive developments; and aims to encourage dancing or uses dance-oriented rhythms.[14]

text: The main medium of pop music is the song, often between two and a half and three and a half minutes in length, generally marked by a consistent and noticeable rhythmic element, a mainstream style and a simple traditional structure.[17] Common variants include the verse-chorus form and the thirty-two-bar form, with a focus on melodies and catchy hooks, and a chorus that contrasts melodically, rhythmically and harmonically with the verse.[18] The beat and the melodies tend to be simple, with limited harmonic accompaniment.[19] The lyrics of modern pop songs typically focus on simple themes – often love and romantic relationships – although there are notable exceptions.[4]

text: Harmony and chord progressions in pop music are often "that of classical European tonality, only more simple-minded."[20] Clichés include the barbershop quartet-style harmony (i.e. ii – V – I) and blues scale-influenced harmony.[21] There was a lessening of the influence of traditional views of the circle of fifths between the mid-1950s and the late 1970s, including less predominance for the dominant function.[22]

text: Development and influence[edit]

text: Stylistic evolution[edit]

text: This section is missing information about the 1980s–2000s. Please expand the section to include this information. Further details may exist on the talk page. (October 2017)

text: Throughout its development, pop music has absorbed influences from other genres of popular music. Early pop music drew on the sentimental ballad for its form, gained its use of vocal harmonies from gospel and soul music, instrumentation from jazz and rock music, orchestration from classical music, tempo from dance music, backing from electronic music, rhythmic elements from hip-hop music, and spoken passages from rap.[4][verification needed]

text: In the 1960s, the majority of mainstream pop music fell in two categories: guitar, drum and bass groups or singers backed by a traditional orchestra.[23] Since early in the decade, it was common for pop producers, songwriters, and engineers to freely experiment with musical form, orchestration, unnatural reverb, and other sound effects. Some of the best known examples are Phil Spector's Wall of Sound and Joe Meek's use of homemade electronic sound effects for acts like the Tornados.[24] At the same time, pop music on radio and in both American and British film moved away from refined Tin Pan Alley to more eccentric songwriting and incorporated reverb-drenched rock guitar, symphonic strings, and horns played by groups of properly arranged and rehearsed studio musicians.[25]

text: During the mid-1960s, pop music made repeated forays into new sounds, styles, and techniques that inspired public discourse among its listeners. The word "progressive" was frequently used, and it was thought that every song and single was to be a "progression" from the last.[26] Music critic Simon Reynolds writes that beginning with 1967, a divide would exist between "progressive" pop and "mass/chart" pop, a separation which was "also, broadly, one between boys and girls, middle-class and working-class."[27] Before the progressive pop of the late 1960s, performers were typically unable to decide on the artistic content of their music.[28] Assisted by the mid-1960s economic boom, record labels began investing in artists, giving them freedom to experiment, and offering them limited control over their content and marketing.[29] This situation fell in disuse after the late 1970s and would not reemerge until the rise of Internet stars.[29] Indie pop, which developed in the late 1970s, marked another departure from the glamour of contemporary pop music, with guitar bands formed on the then-novel premise that one could record and release their own music without having to procure a record contract from a major label.[30] In 2014, pop music worldwide was permeated by electronic dance music.[31]

text: A Scientific Reports study that examined over 464,000 recordings of popular music recorded between 1955 and 2010 found less variety in pitch progressions, growing average loudness levels,[32] less diverse instrumentation and recording techniques, and less timbral variety, which declined after reaching a peak in the 1960s.[33] Scientific American's John Matson reported that this "seems to support the popular anecdotal observation that pop music of yore was "better", or at least more varied, than today’s top-40 stuff."[33]

text: Technology and media[edit]

text: In the 1940s improved microphone design allowed a more intimate singing style[35] and ten or twenty years later, inexpensive and more durable 45 r.p.m. records for singles "revolutionized the manner in which pop has been disseminated". This helped to move pop music to 'a record/radio/film star system'.[35] Another technological change was the widespread availability of television in the 1950s; with televised performances, "pop stars had to have a visual presence".[35] In the 1960s, the introduction of inexpensive, portable transistor radios meant that First World teenagers could listen to music outside of the home.[35] Multi-track recording (from the 1960s); and digital sampling (from the 1980s) have also been utilized as methods for the creation and elaboration of pop music.[4] By the early 1980s, the promotion of pop music had been greatly affected by the rise of music television channels like MTV, which "favoured those artists such as Michael Jackson and Madonna who had a strong visual appeal".[35]

text: Legitimacy in music criticism[edit]

text: The latter half of the 20th-century included a large-scale trend in American culture in which the boundaries between art and pop music were increasingly blurred.[36] Between 1950 and 1970, there was a debate of pop versus art.[37] Since then, certain music publications have embraced its legitimacy. According to Popmatters' Robert Loss: "There’s a strong argument for the 'rockist' mode in music criticism—that it exists, and that it’s harmful—and poptimism has positioned itself as a corrective, an antidote. ... In general, the Old Guard of rock critics and journalists is depicted as a bunch of bricklayers for the foundations of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. True in part, which is to say, false. Like film studies, rock criticism of the late ‘60s and the ‘70s was an attempt to make popular music worthy of study; it was poptimism before its day."[37]

text: International spread[edit]

text:
The story of pop music is largely the story of the intertwining pop culture of the United States and the United Kingdom in the postwar era.
“
”

 — Bob Stanley[31]

tag: div

text: Pop music has been dominated by the American and (from the mid-1960s) British music industries, whose influence has made pop music something of an international monoculture, but most regions and countries have their own form of pop music, sometimes producing local versions of wider trends, and lending them local characteristics.[38] Some of these trends (for example Europop) have had a significant impact of the development of the genre.[39]

text: According to Grove Music Online, "Western-derived pop styles, whether coexisting with or marginalizing distinctively local genres, have spread throughout the world and have come to constitute stylistic common denominators in global commercial music cultures".[40] Some non-Western countries, such as Japan, have developed a thriving pop music industry, most of which is devoted to Western-style pop. Japan has for several years produced a greater quantity of music than everywhere except the USA.[clarification needed][40] The spread of Western-style pop music has been interpreted variously as representing processes of Americanization, homogenization, modernization, creative appropriation, cultural imperialism, or a more general process of globalization.[40]

text: In Korea, pop music's influence has led to the birth of boy bands and girl groups which have gained overseas renown through both their music and aesthetics.[41] Korean co-ed groups (mixed gender groups) have not been as successful.[42]


document_title: Extended ASCII

question_text: what is the most common extended ascii set

text: Extended ASCII

text: Motive[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: ASCII was designed in the 1960s for teleprinters and telegraphy, and some computing. Early teleprinters were electromechanical, having no microprocessor and just enough electromechanical memory to function. They fully processed one character at a time, returning to an idle state immediately afterward. They were typewriter-derived impact printers, and could only print a fixed set of glyphs, which were cast into a metal type element or elements. Seven-bit ASCII improved over prior five- and six-bit codes: it added the lowercase letters of the English alphabet and more symbols, for a total of 95 printing characters; it encoded the letters in alphabetical order rather than keyboard position; and it used the extra bits to address all characters rather than use control characters to select banks of characters.

text: ASCII encodes only 95 carefully selected printable characters (94 glyphs and one space), which include the English alphabet (uppercase and lowercase), digits, and 31 punctuation marks and symbols: all of the symbols on a standard US typewriter plus a few; enough to communicate English-language text information. The number of printable characters was deliberately kept small, to keep teleprinters and line printers inexpensive. Some popular peripherals only implemented a 64-printing-character subset: Teletype Model 33 could not transmit "a" through "z" or five less-common symbols (` { | } and ~). and when they received such characters they instead printed "A" through "Z" (forced all caps) and five other mostly-similar symbols (@ [ \ ] and ^).

text: The ASCII character set is barely large enough for general use, and far too small for universal use. Many more letters and symbols are desirable, useful, or required to directly represent letters of alphabets other than English, more kinds of punctuation and spacing, more mathematical operators and symbols (× ÷ · ≠ ≥ ≈ π etc.), some unique symbols used by some programming languages, ideograms, logograms, box-drawing characters, etc.

text: The biggest problem for computer users around the world was other alphabets. ASCII's English alphabet almost accommodates European languages, if accented letters are replaced by non-accented letters or two-character approximations. Languages with dissimilar basic alphabets could use transliteration. Users were not comfortable with such compromises.

text: Modified variants of 7-bit ASCII appeared promptly, trading some lesser-used symbols for highly-desired symbols or letters, such as replacing "#" with "£" on UK Teletypes, "\" with "¥" in Japan or "₩" in Korea, etc. At least 29 variant sets resulted. 12 code points were modified by at least one modified set, leaving only 82 "invariant" codes.

text: There was always temptation to make a larger character set (preferably by extending a standard character set), but there was no easy path forward. There was no way to define a universal extension. There was no hardware to print or display an extended set. For years, applications were designed around the 64-character set and/or the 95-character set, so several characters acquired new uses. (For example, ASCII lacks "÷", so most programming languages use "/" (and sometimes "\") to indicate division, and most still do not recognize "÷". C interprets the two-character sequences "<%" and "%>" as equivalent to "{" and "}" because "{" and "}" are not available on all keyboards.)

text: The English alphabet was generally useful on computers around the world, for programming, operation, and international communication, so extended character sets that added to the original ASCII set were a good idea.

text: Seven-bit ASCII encodes only 128 characters (including control characters). When computers and peripherals standardized on eight-bit bytes, it became obvious that computers and software could handle text that uses 256-character sets at almost no additional cost in programming, and no additional cost for storage. (Assuming that the unused 8th bit of each byte was not reused in some way, such as error checking, Boolean fields, or packing 8 characters into 7 bytes.) An eight-bit character set (using one byte per character) encodes 256 characters, so it can include ASCII plus 128 more characters. (Variable multi-byte schemes based on ASCII can add many more additional characters. Unmodified code will provide valid results searching for sequences of ASCII and extended characters. But software must be more sophisticated, only accepting or creating valid multi-byte characters, and always treating multi-byte characters as one character whenever counting, copying, comparing, inserting, or deleting characters.)

text: Many manufacturers devised 8-bit character sets consisting of ASCII plus up to 128 of the unused codes, with varying degrees of cooperation or coordination by national and international standards bodies.

text: 128 additional characters is not enough to cover all purposes, all languages, or even all European languages, so the emergence of many proprietary and national ASCII-derived 8-bit character sets was inevitable.

text: Drawbacks of multiple 8-bit character sets are that conversion of text data from one character encoding to another (transcoding) is complex, and almost always has the possibility of changing non-ASCII characters in the text. Conversion requires a custom map from one character set to the other, or a description of both character sets from which the map can be generated. If any characters in the text are not defined in the destination character set, those characters cannot be converted. Even one unconvertible character can mean failure of conversion, or the converter can substitute a similar character (or characters) or a warning character (typically "?"), and may issue a warning when done. When characters are substituted, a human should inspect and possibly modify the output text, possibly examining the input text.

text: Proprietary extensions[edit]

text: Various proprietary modifications and extensions of ASCII appeared on non-EBCDIC mainframe computers and minicomputers, especially in universities.

text: Hewlett-Packard started to add European characters to their extended 7-bit / 8-bit ASCII character set HP Roman Extension around 1978/1979 for use with their workstations, terminals and printers. This later evolved into the widely used regular 8-bit character sets HP Roman-8 and HP Roman-9 (as well as a number of variants).

text: Atari and Commodore home computers added many graphic symbols to their non-standard ASCII (Respectively, ATASCII and PETSCII, based on the original ASCII standard of 1963).

text: The TRS-80 home computer additions included 64 semigraphics characters (0x80 through 0xAF) that implemented low-resolution block graphics. (Each block-graphic character displayed as a 2x3 grid of pixels, with each block pixel effectively controlled by one of the lower 6 bits.)

text: IBM introduced eight-bit extended ASCII codes on the original IBM PC and later produced variations for different languages and cultures. IBM called such character sets code pages and assigned numbers to both those they themselves invented as well as many invented and used by other manufacturers. Accordingly, character sets are very often indicated by their IBM code page number. In ASCII-compatible code pages, the lower 128 characters maintained their standard US-ASCII values, and different pages (or sets of characters) could be made available in the upper 128 characters. DOS computers built for the North American market, for example, used code page 437, which included accented characters needed for French, German, and a few other European languages, as well as some graphical line-drawing characters. The larger character set made it possible to create documents in a combination of languages such as English and French (though French computers usually use code page 850), but not, for example, in English and Greek (which required code page 737).

text: Apple Computer introduced their own eight-bit extended ASCII codes in Mac OS, such as Mac OS Roman.

text: Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) developed the Multinational Character Set, which had fewer characters but more letter and diacritic combinations. It was supported by the VT220 and later DEC computer terminals. This later became the basis for other character sets such as the Lotus International Character Set (LICS), ECMA-94 and ISO 8859-1.

text: ISO 8859 and proprietary adaptations[edit]

text: Eventually, ISO released this standard as ISO 8859 describing its own set of eight-bit ASCII extensions. The most popular is ISO 8859-1, also called ISO Latin 1, which contained characters sufficient for the most common Western European languages. Variations were standardized for other languages as well: ISO 8859-2 for Eastern European languages and ISO 8859-5 for Cyrillic languages, for example.

text: One notable way in which ISO character sets differ from code pages is that the character positions 128 to 159, corresponding to ASCII control characters with the high-order bit set, are specifically unused and undefined in the ISO standards, though they had often been used for printable characters in proprietary code pages, a breaking of ISO standards that was almost universal.

text: Microsoft later created code page 1252, a compatible superset of ISO 8859-1 with extra characters in the ISO unused range. Code page 1252 is the standard character encoding of western European language versions of Microsoft Windows, including English versions. ISO 8859-1 is the common 8-bit character encoding used by the X Window System, and most Internet standards used it before Unicode.

text: Character set confusion[edit]

text: The meaning of each extended code point can be different in every encoding. In order to correctly interpret and display text data (sequences of characters) that includes extended codes, hardware and software that reads or receives the text must use the specific extended ASCII encoding that applies to it. Applying the wrong encoding causes irrational substitution of many or all extended characters in the text.

text: Software can use a fixed encoding selection, or it can select from a palette of encodings by defaulting, checking the computer's nation and language settings, reading a declaration in the text, analyzing the text, asking the user, letting the user select or override, and/or defaulting to last selection. When text is transferred between computers that use different operating systems, software, and encodings, applying the wrong encoding can be commonplace.

text: Because the full English alphabet and the most-used characters in English are included in the seven-bit code points of ASCII, which are common to all encodings (even most proprietary encodings), English-language text is less damaged by interpreting it with the wrong encoding, but text in other languages can display as mojibake (complete nonsense). Because many Internet standards use ISO 8859-1, and because Microsoft Windows (using the code page 1252 superset of ISO 8859-1) is the dominant operating system for personal computers today, unannounced use of ISO 8859-1 is quite commonplace, and may generally be assumed unless there are indications otherwise.

text: Many communications protocols, most importantly SMTP and HTTP, require the character encoding of content to be tagged with IANA-assigned character set identifiers.

text: Multi-byte character encodings[edit]

text: Some multi-byte character encodings (character encodings that can handle more than 256 different characters) are also true extended ASCII. That means all ASCII characters are encoded with a single byte with the value that is used in ASCII to encode that character. They can be used in file formats where only ASCII bytes are used for keywords and file format syntax, while bytes 0x80-0xFF might be used for free text, including most programming languages, where language keywords, variable names, and function names must be in ASCII, but string constants and comments can use non-ASCII characters. This makes it much easier to introduce a multi-byte character set into existing systems that use extended ASCII.

text: UTF-8 is true extended ASCII, as are some Extended Unix Code encodings.

text: ISO/IEC 6937 is not extended ASCII because its code point 0x24 corresponds to the general currency sign (¤) rather than to the dollar sign ($), but it is an extended version of the International Reference Version of ISO 646.

text: Shift JIS is not true extended ASCII, because although ASCII characters are encoded the same as in ASCII (except for the backslash; its position is used for the yen character), multi-byte characters can also include ASCII bytes (0x00-0x7F). Shift JIS can directly be used in programming languages and languages such as HTML (if accepting that backslash looks like ¥), because the bytes used for free text delimiters are not used as part of non-ASCII characters. UTF-16 is even less extended ASCII because ASCII characters are stored as two bytes with one byte equal to 0x00. Porting an existing system to support character sets as Shift JIS or UTF-16 is complicated and bug prone.

text: Usage in computer-readable languages[edit]

text: For programming languages and document languages such as C and HTML, the principle of Extended ASCII is important, since it enables many different encodings and therefore many human languages to be supported with little extra programming effort in the software that interprets the computer-readable language files.

text: The principle of Extended ASCII means that:

text:
all ASCII bytes (0x00 to 0x7F) have the same meaning in all variants of extended ASCII,
bytes that are not ASCII bytes are used only for free text and not for tags, keywords, or other features that have special meaning to the interpreting software.


document_title: X-ray tube

question_text: who invented the hot cathode x ray tube

question_tokens: who invented the hot cathode x ray tube

text: X-ray tube

text: Types[edit]

text: Rotating anode tube[edit]

text:
A: Anode
C: cathode
T: Anode target
W: X-ray window

text: The anode is supported on vacuum bearings and can be rotated by electromagnetic induction from a series of stator windings outside the evacuated tube. Typically, eddy currents are induced in a rotatable metal cylinder, the rotor. The superimposition of external magnetic induction and induction from the eddy currents, which changes direction with time, creates a driving mechanical momentum in the rotor.[clarification needed]

text: Because the entire anode assembly has to be contained within the evacuated tube, heat removal is a serious problem, further exacerbated by the higher power rating available. Due to the high heat generation, a matched thermal expansion of glass and the anode material is necessary. For this, high-borate borosilicate glass pioneered by Otto Schott is often used. Direct cooling by conduction or convection, as in the Coolidge tube, is difficult. In most tubes, the anode is suspended on ball bearings with silver powder lubrication which provides almost negligible cooling by conduction.

text: A recent development has been liquid gallium lubricated fluid dynamic bearings which can withstand very high temperatures without contaminating the tube vacuum. The large bearing contact surface and metal lubricant provide an effective method for conduction of heat from the anode.

text: The anode must be constructed of high temperature materials. The focal spot temperature can reach 2,500 °C (4,530 °F) during an exposure, and the anode assembly can reach 1,000 °C (1,830 °F) following a series of large exposures. Typical materials are a tungsten-rhenium target on a molybdenum core, backed with graphite. The rhenium makes the tungsten more ductile and resistant to wear from the impact of the electron beams. The molybdenum conducts heat from the target. The graphite provides thermal storage for the anode, and minimizes the rotating mass of the anode.

text: Increasing demand for high-performance Computed tomography (CT) scanning and angiography systems has driven development of very high performance medical X-ray tubes. Contemporary CT tubes have power ratings of up to 100 kW and anode heat capacity of 6 MJ, yet retain an effective focal spot area of less than 1 mm2.

text: Microfocus X-ray tube[edit]

text: Some X-ray examinations (such as, e.g., non-destructive testing and 3-D microtomography) need very high-resolution images and therefore require X-ray tubes that can generate very small focal spot sizes, typically below 50 µm in diameter. These tubes are called microfocus X-ray tubes.

text: There are two basic types of microfocus X-ray tubes: solid-anode tubes and metal-jet-anode tubes.

text: Solid-anode microfocus X-ray tubes are in principle very similar to the Coolidge tube, but with the important distinction that care has been taken to be able to focus the electron beam into a very small spot on the anode. Many microfocus X-ray sources operate with focus spots in the range 5-20 µm, but in the extreme cases spots smaller than 1 µm may be produced.

text: The major drawback of solid-anode microfocus X-ray tubes is the very low power they operate at. In order to avoid melting of the anode the electron-beam power density must be below a maximum value. This value is somewhere in the range 0.4-0.8 W/µm depending on the anode material.[2] This means that a solid-anode microfocus source with a 10 µm electron-beam focus can operate at a power in the range 4-8 W.

text: In metal-jet-anode microfocus X-ray tubes the solid metal anode is replaced with a jet of liquid metal, which acts as the electron-beam target. The advantage of the metal-jet anode is that the maximum electron-beam power density is significantly increased. Values in the range 3-6 W/µm have been reported for different anode materials (gallium and tin).[3][4] In the case with a 10 µm electron-beam focus a metal-jet-anode microfocus X-ray source may operate at 30-60 W.

text: The major benefit of the increased power density level for the metal-jet X-ray tube is the possibility to operate with a smaller focal spot, say 5 µm, to increase image resolution and at the same time acquire the image faster, since the power is higher (15-30 W) than for solid-anode tubes with 10 µm focal spots.

text: Physics[edit]

text: As with any vacuum tube, there is a cathode, which emits electrons into the vacuum and an anode to collect the electrons, thus establishing a flow of electrical current, known as the beam, through the tube. A high voltage power source, for example 30 to 150 kilovolts (kV), called the tube voltage, is connected across cathode and anode to accelerate the electrons. The X-ray spectrum depends on the anode material and the accelerating voltage.[5]

text: In many applications, the current flow (typically in the range 1 mA to 1 A) is able to be pulsed on for between about 1 ms to 1 s. This enables consistent doses of X-rays, and taking snapshots of motion. Until the late 1980s, X-ray generators were merely high-voltage, AC to DC variable power supplies. In the late 1980s a different method of control was emerging, called high speed switching. This followed the electronics technology of switching power supplies (aka switch mode power supply), and allowed for more accurate control of the X-ray unit, higher quality results, and reduced X-ray exposures.

text: Electrons from the cathode collide with the anode material, usually tungsten, molybdenum or copper, and accelerate other electrons, ions and nuclei within the anode material. About 1% of the energy generated is emitted/radiated, usually perpendicular to the path of the electron beam, as X-rays. The rest of the energy is released as heat. Over time, tungsten will be deposited from the target onto the interior surface of the tube, including the glass surface. This will slowly darken the tube and was thought to degrade the quality of the X-ray beam. Vaporized tungsten condenses on the inside of the envelope over the "window" and thus acts as an additional filter and decreases the tubes ability to radiate heat.[6] Eventually, the tungsten deposit may become sufficiently conductive that at high enough voltages, arcing occurs. The arc will jump from the cathode to the tungsten deposit, and then to the anode. This arcing causes an effect called "crazing" on the interior glass of the X-ray window. As time goes on, the tube becomes unstable even at lower voltages, and must be replaced. At this point, the tube assembly (also called the "tube head") is removed from the X-ray system, and replaced with a new tube assembly. The old tube assembly is shipped to a company that reloads it with a new X-ray tube.

text: The X-ray photon-generating effect is generally called the bremsstrahlung effect, a contraction of the German bremsen for braking, and strahlung for radiation.

text: The range of photonic energies emitted by the system can be adjusted by changing the applied voltage, and installing aluminum filters of varying thicknesses. Aluminum filters are installed in the path of the X-ray beam to remove "soft" (non-penetrating) radiation. The number of emitted X-ray photons, or dose, are adjusted by controlling the current flow and exposure time.

text: The tube current and exposure time affect the dose and therefore the contrast of the image.

text: Heat unit[edit]

text: Since the introduction of scattered electron traps, directly cooled liquid metal anode bearings, rotating frame tubes and other modern technology the term has become misleading when used for the objective comparison of the performance of medical rotating anode X-ray tubes. Accordingly, the IEC 60613 standard has been revised in 2010. Anode heat storage capacity and implicitly "Heat Units" were abandoned and replaced by terms of practical relevance, e.g. NOMINAL CT ANODE INPUT POWER. Historically, heat units were referring to the amount of heat stored in a solely radiation cooled anode inside an electron reflecting glass envelope. In radiography, in particular in radiology, a heat unit was a usual unit derived from the Joule and measuring the quantity of heat in a device, in particular the thermal energy that an X-ray tube must be able to support and dissipate during and after an exam.

text: Historically, this unit comes from the need to express a quantity of energy whatever the waveform of the electrical source power (direct or pulsating). The heat produced in these devices is (in Joule) :

text:
In radiography voltage is usually expressed in

k

V

p

{\displaystyle \mathrm {kV_{p}} }

 (thousands of volts peak), the effective current in mA and the time in seconds:

text:
w being the waveform ratio. With a full-wave rectification of a sine wave it equals

1

2

≈
0.707

{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{\sqrt {2}}}\approx 0.707}

, thus the practical unit:

text: History[edit]

text: Crookes tube[edit]

text: Historically, X-rays were discovered radiating from experimental discharge tubes called Crookes tubes invented by British physicist William Crookes and others. As the medical and other uses of X-rays became apparent, workshops began to manufacture specialized Crookes tubes to produce X-rays. These were the first X-ray tubes. These first generation cold cathode or Crookes X-ray tubes were used until the 1920s.

text: Crookes tubes generated the electrons needed to create X-rays by ionization of the residual air in the tube, instead of a heated filament, so they were partially but not completely evacuated. They consisted of a glass bulb with around 10−6 to 5×10−8 atmospheric pressure of air (0.1 to 0.005 Pa). An aluminum cathode plate at one end of the tube created a beam of electrons, which struck a platinum anode (for economy, made from nickel or copper with a thin platinum face)[8] target at the center generating X-rays. The anode surface was angled so that the X-rays would radiate through the side of the tube. The cathode was concave so that the electrons were focused on a small (~1 mm) spot on the anode, approximating a point source of X-rays, which resulted in sharper images. The tube had a third electrode, an anticathode connected to the anode. It improved the X-ray output, but the method by which it achieved this is not understood. A more common arrangement used a copper plate anticathode (similar in construction to the cathode) in line with the anode such that the anode was between the cathode and the anticathode.

text: To operate, a DC voltage of a few kilovolts to as much as 100 kV was applied between the anodes and the cathode, usually generated by an induction coil, or for larger tubes, an electrostatic machine. This created and then accelerated a small number of ions from the low pressure gas in the tube. These struck further gas atoms, knocking electrons off them, creating more positive ions in a chain reaction. All the positive ions were attracted to the cathode. When they struck it, they knocked electrons out of the metal, which were accelerated along with the electrons knocked from the gas atoms toward the anode target. When these high speed electrons struck the atoms of the anode, they created X-rays by one of two processes, either Bremsstrahlung or X-ray fluorescence.

text: Crookes tubes were unreliable. As time passed, the residual air would be absorbed by the walls of the tube, reducing the pressure. This increased the voltage across the tube, generating 'harder' X-rays, until eventually the tube stopped working. To prevent this, 'softener' devices were used (see picture). A small tube attached to the side of the main tube contained a mica sleeve or chemical that released a small amount of gas when heated, restoring the correct pressure.

text: The glass envelope of the tube would blacken in use due to the X-rays affecting its structure.

text: Coolidge tube[edit]

text:
C: filament/cathode (-)
A: anode (+)
Win and Wout: water inlet and outlet of the cooling device

text: The Crookes tube was improved by William Coolidge in 1913.[9] The Coolidge tube, also called hot cathode tube, is the most widely used. It works with a very good quality vacuum (about 10−4 Pa, or 10−6 Torr).

text: In the Coolidge tube, the electrons are produced by thermionic effect from a tungsten filament heated by an electric current. The filament is the cathode of the tube. The high voltage potential is between the cathode and the anode, the electrons are thus accelerated, and then hit the anode.

text: There are two designs: end-window tubes and side-window tubes. End window tubes usually have "transmission target" which is thin enough to allow X-rays to pass through the target (X-rays are emitted in the same direction as the electrons are moving.) In one common type of end-window tube, the filament is around the anode ("annular" or ring-shaped), the electrons have a curved path (half of a toroid).

text: What is special about side-window tubes is an electrostatic lens is used to focus the beam onto a very small spot on the anode. The anode is specially designed to dissipate the heat and wear resulting from this intense focused barrage of electrons. Some anodes are mechanically spun to increase the area heated by the beam (e.g. edical "rotating anode") or cooled by circulating coolant (indirectly on most rotating anodes). The anode is precisely angled at 1-20 degrees off perpendicular to the electron current so as to allow the escape of some of the X-ray photons which are emitted perpendicular to the direction of the electron current. The anode is usually made out of tungsten or molybdenum. The tube has a window designed for escape of the generated X-ray photons.

text: The power of a Coolidge tube usually ranges from 0.1 to 18 kW.

text: Hazards of X-ray production from vacuum tubes[edit]

text: Any vacuum tube operating at several thousand volts or more can produce X-rays as an unwanted byproduct, raising safety issues.[10][11] The higher the voltage, the more penetrating the resulting radiation and the more the hazard. CRT displays, once common in color televisions and computer displays, operate at 3-40 kilovolts,[12] making them the main concern among household appliances. Historically, concern has focused less on the cathode ray tube, since its thick glass envelope is impregnated with several pounds of lead for shielding, than on high voltage (HV) rectifier and voltage regulator tubes inside. In the late 1960s it was found that a failure in the HV supply circuit of some General Electric TVs could leave excessive voltages on the regulator tube, causing it to emit X-rays.[citation needed] The models were recalled and the ensuing scandal caused the US agency responsible for regulating this hazard, the Center for Devices and Radiological Health of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), to require that all TVs include circuits to prevent excessive voltages in the event of failure.[citation needed] The hazard associated with excessive voltages was eliminated with the advent of all solid state TVs, which have no tubes beside the CRT. Since 1969 the FDA has limited TV X-ray emission to 0.5 mR (milliroentgen) per hour. The flat screens used today do not have any vacuum tubes capable of emitting X-rays.


document_title: Letter frequency

question_text: letters of the alphabet in order of usage

text: Letter frequency

text: Introduction[edit]

text: Letter frequencies, like word frequencies, tend to vary, both by writer and by subject. One cannot write an essay about x-rays without using frequent Xs, and the essay will have an idiosyncratic letter frequency if the essay is about the frequent use of x-rays to treat zebras in Qatar. Different authors have habits which can be reflected in their use of letters. Hemingway's writing style, for example, is visibly different from Faulkner's. Letter, bigram, trigram, word frequencies, word length, and sentence length can be calculated for specific authors, and used to prove or disprove authorship of texts, even for authors whose styles are not so divergent.

text: Accurate average letter frequencies can only be gleaned by analyzing a large amount of representative text. With the availability of modern computing and collections of large text corpora, such calculations are easily made. Examples can be drawn from a variety of sources (press reporting, religious texts, scientific texts and general fiction) and there are differences especially for general fiction with the position of 'h' and 'i', with H becoming more common.

text: Herbert S. Zim, in his classic introductory cryptography text "Codes and Secret Writing", gives the English letter frequency sequence as "ETAON RISHD LFCMU GYPWB VKJXQ Z", the most common letter pairs as "TH HE AN RE ER IN ON AT ND ST ES EN OF TE ED OR TI HI AS TO", and the most common doubled letters as "LL EE SS OO TT FF RR NN PP CC".[2]

text: Also, to note that different dialects of a language will also affect a letter's frequency. For example, an author in the United States would produce something in which the letter 'z' is more common than an author in the United Kingdom writing on the same topic: words like "analyze", "apologize", and "recognize" contain the letter in American English, whereas the same words are spelled "analyse", "apologise", and "recognise" in British English. This would highly affect the frequency of the letter 'z' as it is a rarely used letter elsewhere in the English language.[3]

text: The "top twelve" letters constitute about 80% of the total usage. The "top eight" letters constitute about 65% of the total usage. Letter frequency as a function of rank can be fitted well by several rank functions, with the two-parameter Cocho/Beta rank function being the best.[4] Another rank function with no adjustable free parameter also fits the letter frequency distribution reasonably well[5] (the same function has been used to fit the amino acid frequency in protein sequences.[6]) A spy using the VIC cipher or some other cipher based on a straddling checkerboard typically uses a mnemonic such as "a sin to err" (dropping the second "r")[7][8] or "at one sir"[9] to remember the top eight characters.

text: The use of letter frequencies and frequency analysis plays a fundamental role in cryptograms and several word puzzle games, including Hangman, Scrabble and the television game show Wheel of Fortune. One of the earliest descriptions in classical literature of applying the knowledge of English letter frequency to solving a cryptogram is found in E.A. Poe's famous story The Gold-Bug, where the method is successfully applied to decipher a message instructing on the whereabouts of a treasure hidden by Captain Kidd.[10]

text: Letter frequencies had a strong effect on the design of some keyboard layouts. The most frequent letters are on the bottom row of the Blickensderfer typewriter, and the home row of the Dvorak Simplified Keyboard.

text: Relative frequencies of letters in the English language[edit]

text: There are three ways to count letter frequency that result in very different charts for common letters. The first method, used in the chart below, is to count letter frequency in root words of a dictionary. The second is to include all word variants when counting, such as "abstracts", "abstracted" and "abstracting" and not just the root word of "abstract". This system results in letters like "s" appearing much more frequently, such as when counting letters from lists of the most used English words on the Internet. A final variant is to count letters based on their frequency of use in actual texts, resulting in certain letter combinations like "th" becoming more common due to the frequent use of common words like "the". Absolute usage frequency measures like this are used when creating keyboard layouts or letter frequencies in old fashioned printing presses.

text: An analysis of entries in the Concise Oxford dictionary, ignoring frequency of word use, gives an order of "EARIOTNSLCUDPMHGBFYWKVXZJQ".[11]

text: The letter-frequency table below is taken from Pavel Mička's website, which cites Robert Lewand's Cryptological Mathematics.[12]

text:
Letter
Relative frequency in the English language

a
8.167%
8.167

b
1.492%
1.492

c
2.782%
2.782

d
4.253%
4.253

e
12.702%
12.702

f
2.228%
2.228

g
2.015%
2.015

h
6.094%
6.094

i
6.966%
6.966

j
0.153%
0.153

k
0.772%
0.772

l
4.025%
4.025

m
2.406%
2.406

n
6.749%
6.749

o
7.507%
7.507

p
1.929%
1.929

q
0.095%
0.095

r
5.987%
5.987

s
6.327%
6.327

t
9.056%
9.056

u
2.758%
2.758

v
0.978%
0.978

w
2.360%
2.36

x
0.150%
0.15

y
1.974%
1.974

z
0.074%
0.074

text: According to Lewand, arranged from most to least common in appearance, the letters are: etaoinshrdlcumwfgypbvkjxqz Lewand's ordering differs slightly from others, such as Cornell University Math Explorer's Project, which produced a table after measuring 40,000 words.[13]

text: In English, the space is slightly more frequent than the top letter (e)[14] and the non-alphabetic characters (digits, punctuation, etc.) collectively occupy the fourth position (having already included the space) between t and a.[15]

text: Relative frequencies of the first letters of a word in the English language[edit]

text: The frequency of the first letters of words or names is helpful in pre-assigning space in physical files and indexes.[16] Given 26 filing cabinet drawers, rather than a 1:1 assignment of one drawer to one letter of the alphabet, it is often useful to use a more equal-frequency-letter code by assigning several low-frequency letters to the same drawer (often one drawer is labeled VWXYZ), and to split up the most-frequent initial letters — S, A, and C - into several drawers (often 6 drawers Aa-An, Ao-Az, Ca-Cj, Ck-Cz, Sa-Si, Sj-Sz). The same system is used in some multi-volume works such as some encyclopedias. Cutter numbers, another mapping of names to a more equal-frequency code, are used in some libraries.

text: Both the overall letter distribution and the word-initial letter distribution approximately match the Zipf distribution and even more closely match the Yule distribution.[17]

text: Often the frequency distribution of the first digit in each datum is significantly different from the overall frequency of all the digits in a set of numeric data—see Benford's law for details.

text: An analysis by Peter Norvig on Google Books data determined, among other things, the frequency of first letters of English words:[18]

text:
Letter
Relative frequency as the first letter of an English word

a
11.682%
11.682

b
4.434%
4.434

c
5.238%
5.238

d
3.174%
3.174

e
2.799%
2.799

f
4.027%
4.027

g
1.642%
1.642

h
4.200%
4.2

i
7.294%
7.294

j
0.511%
0.511

k
0.456%
0.456

l
2.415%
2.415

m
3.826%
3.826

n
2.284%
2.284

o
7.631%
7.631

p
4.319%
4.319

q
0.222%
0.222

r
2.826%
2.826

s
6.686%
6.686

t
15.978%
15.978

u
1.183%
1.183

v
0.824%
0.824

w
5.497%
5.497

x
0.045%
0.045

y
0.763%
0.763

z
0.045%
0.045

text: Relative frequencies of letters in other languages[edit]

text: This article possibly contains inappropriate or misinterpreted citations that do not verify the text. Please help improve this article by checking for citation inaccuracies. (July 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
Letter
English
French [19]
German [20]
Spanish [21]
Portuguese [22]
Esperanto [23]
Italian [24]
Turkish [25]
Swedish [26]
Polish [27]
Dutch [28]
Danish [29]
Icelandic [30]
Finnish [31]
Czech

a
8.167%
7.636%
6.516%
11.525%
14.634%
12.117%
11.745%
12.920%
9.383%
10.503%
7.486%
6.025%
10.110%
12.217%
8.421%

b
1.492%
0.901%
1.886%
2.215%
1.043%
0.980%
0.927%
2.844%
1.535%
1.740%
1.584%
2.000%
1.043%
0.281%
0.822%

c
2.782%
3.260%
2.732%
4.019%
3.882%
0.776%
4.501%
1.463%
1.486%
3.895%
1.242%
0.565%
0
0.281%
0.740%

d
4.253%
3.669%
5.076%
5.010%
4.992%
3.044%
3.736%
5.206%
4.702%
3.725%
5.933%
5.858%
1.575%
1.043%
3.475%

e
12.702%
14.715%
16.396%
12.181%
12.570%
8.995%
11.792%
9.912%
10.149%
7.352%
18.91%
15.453%
6.418%
7.968%
7.562%

f
2.228%
1.066%
1.656%
0.692%
1.023%
1.037%
1.153%
0.461%
2.027%
0.143%
0.805%
2.406%
3.013%
0.194%
0.084%

g
2.015%
0.866%
3.009%
1.768%
1.303%
1.171%
1.644%
1.253%
2.862%
1.731%
3.403%
4.077%
4.241%
0.392%
0.092%

h
6.094%
0.737%
4.577%
0.703%
0.781%
0.384%
0.636%
1.212%
2.090%
1.015%
2.380%
1.621%
1.871%
1.851%
1.356%

i
6.966%
7.529%
6.550%
6.247%
6.186%
10.012%
10.143%
9.600%*
5.817%
8.328%
6.499%
6.000%
7.578%
10.817%
6.073%

j
0.153%
0.613%
0.268%
0.493%
0.397%
3.501%
0.011%
0.034%
0.614%
1.836%
1.46%
0.730%
1.144%
2.042%
1.433%

k
0.772%
0.049%
1.417%
0.011%
0.015%
4.163%
0.009%
5.683%
3.140%
2.753%
2.248%
3.395%
3.314%
4.973%
2.894%

l
4.025%
5.456%
3.437%
4.967%
2.779%
6.104%
6.510%
5.922%
5.275%
2.564%
3.568%
5.229%
4.532%
5.761%
3.802%

m
2.406%
2.968%
2.534%
3.157%
4.738%
2.994%
2.512%
3.752%
3.471%
2.515%
2.213%
3.237%
4.041%
3.202%
2.446%

n
6.749%
7.095%
9.776%
6.712%
4.446%
7.955%
6.883%
7.987%
8.542%
6.237%
10.032%
7.240%
7.711%
8.826%
6.468%

o
7.507%
5.796%
2.594%
8.683%
9.735%
8.779%
9.832%
2.976%
4.482%
6.667%
6.063%
4.636%
2.166%
5.614%
6.695%

p
1.929%
2.521%
0.670%
2.510%
2.523%
2.755%
3.056%
0.886%
1.839%
2.445%
1.57%
1.756%
0.789%
1.842%
1.906%

q
0.095%
1.362%
0.018%
0.877%
1.204%
0
0.505%
0
0.020%
0
0.009%
0.007%
0
0.013%
0.001%

r
5.987%
6.693%
7.003%
6.871%
6.530%
5.914%
6.367%
7.722%
8.431%
5.243%
6.411%
8.956%
8.581%
2.872%
4.799%

s
6.327%
7.948%
7.270%
7.977%
6.805%
6.092%
4.981%
3.014%
6.590%
5.224%
3.73%
5.805%
5.630%
7.862%
5.212%

t
9.056%
7.244%
6.154%
4.632%
4.336%
5.276%
5.623%
3.314%
7.691%
2.475%
6.79%
6.862%
4.953%
8.750%
5.727%

u
2.758%
6.311%
4.166%
2.927%
3.639%
3.183%
3.011%
3.235%
1.919%
2.062%
1.99%
1.979%
4.562%
5.008%
2.160%

v
0.978%
1.838%
0.846%
1.138%
1.575%
1.904%
2.097%
0.959%
2.415%
0.012%
2.85%
2.332%
2.437%
2.250%
5.344%

w
2.360%
0.074%
1.921%
0.017%
0.037%
0
0.033%
0
0.142%
5.813%
1.52%
0.069%
0
0.094%
0.016%

x
0.150%
0.427%
0.034%
0.215%
0.253%
0
0.003%
0
0.159%
0.004%
0.036%
0.028%
0.046%
0.031%
0.027%

y
1.974%
0.128%
0.039%
1.008%
0.006%
0
0.020%
3.336%
0.708%
3.206%
0.035%
0.698%
0.900%
1.745%
1.043%

z
0.074%
0.326%
1.134%
0.467%
0.470%
0.494%
1.181%
1.500%
0.070%
4.852%
1.39%
0.034%
0
0.051%
1.503%

à
0
0.486%
0
0
0.072%
0
0.635%
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

â
0
0.051%
0
0
0.562%
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

á
0
0
0
0.502%
0.118%
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1.799%
0
0.867%

å
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1.338%
0
0
1.190%
0
0.003%
0

ä
0
0
0.578%
0
0
0
0
0
1.797%
0
0
0
0
3.577%
0

ã
0
0
0
0
0.733%
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

ą
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.699%
0
0
0
0
0

æ
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.872%
0.867%
0
0

œ
0
0.018%
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

ç
0
0.085%
0
0
0.530%
0
0
1.156%
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

ĉ
0
0
0
0
0
0.657%
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

ć
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.743%
0
0
0
0
0

č
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.462%

ď
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.015%

ð
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4.393%
0
0

è
0
0.271%
0
0
0
0
0.263%
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

é
0
1.504%
0
0.433%
0.337%
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.647%
0
0.633%

ê
0
0.218%
0
0
0.450%
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

ë
0
0.008%
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

ę
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1.035%
0
0
0
0
0

ě
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1.222%

ĝ
0
0
0
0
0
0.691%
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

ğ
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1.125%
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

ĥ
0
0
0
0
0
0.022%
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

î
0
0.045%
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

ì
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.030%
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

í
0
0
0
0.725%
0.132%
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1.570%
0
1.643%

ï
0
0.005%
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

ı
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5.114%*
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

ĵ
0
0
0
0
0
0.055%
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

ł
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2.109%
0
0
0
0
0

ñ
0
0
0
0.311%
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

ń
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.362%
0
0
0
0
0

ň
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.007%

ò
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.002%
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

ö
0
0
0.443%
0
0
0
0
0.777%
1.305%
0
0
0
0.777%
0.444%
0

ô
0
0.023%
0
0
0.635%
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

ó
0
0
0
0.827%
0.296%
0
0
0
0
1.141%
0
0
0.994%
0
0.024%

õ
0
0
0
0
0.040%
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

ø
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.939%
0
0
0

ř
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.380%

ŝ
0
0
0
0
0
0.385%
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

ş
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1.780%
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

ś
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.814%
0
0
0
0
0

š
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.688%

ß
0
0
0.307%
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

ť
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.006%

þ
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1.455%
0
0

ù
0
0.058%
0
0
0
0
0.166%
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

ú
0
0
0
0.168%
0.207%
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.613%
0
0.045%

û
0
0.060%
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

ŭ
0
0
0
0
0
0.520%
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

ü
0
0
0.995%
0.012%
0.026%
0
0
1.854%
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

ů
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.204%

ý
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.228%
0
0.995%

ź
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.078%
0
0
0
0
0

ż
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.706%
0
0
0
0
0

ž
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.721%

text: *See Dotted and dotless I.

text: The figure below illustrates the frequency distributions of the 26 most common Latin letters across some languages. All of these languages use a similar 25+ character alphabet.

text: Based on these tables, the 'etaoin shrdlu'-equivalent results for each language is as follows:

text:
French: 'esait nruol'; (Indo-European: Romance; traditionally, 'esartinulop' is used, in part for its ease of pronunciation[32])
Spanish: 'eaosr nidlt'; (Indo-European: Romance)
Portuguese: 'aeosr idmnt' (Indo-European: Romance)
Italian: 'eaion lrtsc'; (Indo-European: Romance)
Esperanto: 'aieon lsrtk' (artificial language – influenced by Indo-European languages, Romance, Germanic mostly)
German: 'enisr atdhu'; (Indo-European: Germanic)
Swedish: 'eanrt sildo'; (Indo-European: Germanic)
Turkish: 'aeinr lkdım'; (Turkic)
Dutch: 'enati rodsl'; (Indo-European: Germanic)[28]
Polish: 'aieon wrszc'; (Indo-European: Slavic)
Danish: 'ernta idslo'; (Indo-European: Germanic)
Icelandic: 'arnie stulð'; (Indo-European: Germanic)
Finnish: 'ainte slouk'; (Uralic: Finnic)
Czech: 'aeoni tvsrl'; (Indo-European: Slavic)


document_title: Mayors in England

question_text: what do you call a female mayors husband

text: Mayors in England

text: Election[edit]

text: In England, where a borough or a city is a local government district or a civil parish, the mayor is elected annually by the council from their number and chairs meetings of the council with a casting vote. Where the mayoralty used to be associated with a local government district but that district has been abolished, Charter Trustees may be set up to provide continuity until a parish council may be set up. Where a parish council (whether the successor of a former borough or not) has resolved to style itself a Town Council, then its chairman is entitled to the designation Town Mayor, though in practice, the word Town is often dropped.

text: Direct election[edit]

text: In 2000 the Labour government led by Tony Blair passed a local government reform which changed this system somewhat. Several districts in England now have directly elected mayors with real powers and an advisory cabinet to assist them.

text: Also since 2000, the area of Greater London has had a Greater London Authority headed by the Mayor of London. This is a separate post to the historic and honorific Lord Mayor of London and may be characterised as a strategic, regional, role rather than as anything analogous to previous local government in England.

text: Lord Mayors[edit]

text: The right to appoint a Lord Mayor is a rare honour, even less frequently bestowed than city status.

text: Currently, 23 cities in England have Lord Mayors:

text: Birmingham, Bradford, Bristol, Canterbury, Chester, Coventry, Exeter, Kingston upon Hull, Leeds, Leicester, Liverpool, London, Manchester, Newcastle upon Tyne, Norwich, Nottingham, Oxford, Plymouth, Portsmouth, Sheffield, Stoke-on-Trent, the City of Westminster and York.

text: Honorifics[edit]

text: The Lord Mayors of London and York are styled The Right Honourable, Bristol also uses the honorific although without official sanction.1 All other Lord Mayors, as well as the Mayors of cities and the original Cinque Ports (Sandwich, Hythe, Dover, Romney and Hastings, are styled The Right Worshipful. All other Mayors are styled The Worshipful, though this is in practice seldom used for a Town Mayor. These honorific styles are used only before the Mayoral title and not before the name, and are not retained after the term of office.

text: A mayor usually appoints a consort, usually a spouse, other family member or fellow councillor. The designated female consort of a mayor is called the mayoress and accompanies the mayor to civic functions. A female mayor is also called mayor, not, as sometime erroneously called, "Lady Mayoress". A mayoress or Lady Mayoress is a female consort of a mayor or Lord Mayor; a male consort of a mayor or Lord Mayor is a Mayor's Consort or Lord Mayor's Consort.

text: ^1 The Lord Mayor of Bristol uses the prefix without official sanction.[1][2]


document_title: Thermocline

question_text: what is the term for the colder denser water below the thermocline in a fresh water lake

text: Thermocline

text: Oceans[edit]

text: Most of the heat energy of sunlight is absorbed in the first few centimeters at the ocean's surface, which heats during the day and cools at night as heat energy is lost to space by radiation. Waves mix the water near the surface layer and distribute heat to deeper water such that the temperature may be relatively uniform in the upper 100 m (300 ft), depending on wave strength and the existence of surface turbulence caused by currents. Below this mixed layer, the temperature remains relatively stable over day/night cycles. The temperature of the deep ocean drops gradually with depth. As saline water does not freeze until it reaches −2.3 °C (colder as depth and pressure increase) the temperature well below the surface is usually not far from zero degrees.[1]

text: The thermocline varies in depth. It is semi-permanent in the tropics, variable in temperate regions (often deepest during the summer) and shallow to nonexistent in the polar regions, where the water column is cold from the surface to the bottom. A layer of sea ice will act as an insulation blanket.

text: In the open ocean, the thermocline is characterized by a negative sound speed gradient, making the thermocline important in submarine warfare because it can reflect active sonar and other acoustic signals. This stems from a discontinuity in the acoustic impedance of water created by the sudden change in density.

text: When scuba diving, a thermocline where water drops in temperature by a few degrees Celsius quite suddenly can sometimes be observed between two bodies of water, for example where colder upwelling water runs into a surface layer of warmer water. It gives the water an appearance of wrinkled glass that is often used to obscure bathroom windows and is caused by the altered refractive index of the cold or warm water column. These same schlieren can be observed when hot air rises off the tarmac at airports or desert roads and is the cause of mirages.

text: Other water bodies[edit]

text: Thermoclines can also be observed in lakes. In colder climates, this leads to a phenomenon called stratification. During the summer, warm water, which is less dense, will sit on top of colder, denser, deeper water with a thermocline separating them. The warm layer is called the epilimnion and the cold layer is called the hypolimnion. Because the warm water is exposed to the sun during the day, a stable system exists and very little mixing of warm water and cold water occurs, particularly in calm weather.

text: One result of this stability is that as the summer wears on, there is less and less oxygen below the thermocline as the water below the thermocline never circulates to the surface and organisms in the water deplete the available oxygen. As winter approaches, the temperature of the surface water will drop as nighttime cooling dominates heat transfer. A point is reached where the density of the cooling surface water becomes greater than the density of the deep water and overturning begins as the dense surface water moves down under the influence of gravity. This process is aided by wind or any other process (currents for example) that agitates the water. This effect also occurs in Arctic and Antarctic waters, bringing water to the surface which, although low in oxygen, is higher in nutrients than the original surface water. This enriching of surface nutrients may produce blooms of phytoplankton, making these areas productive.

text: As the temperature continues to drop, the water on the surface may get cold enough to freeze and the lake/ocean begins to ice over. A new thermocline develops where the densest water (4 °C) sinks to the bottom, and the less dense water (water that is approaching the freezing point) rises to the top. Once this new stratification establishes itself, it lasts until the water warms enough for the 'spring turnover,' which occurs after the ice melts and the surface water temperature rises to 4 °C. During this transition, a thermal bar may develop.

text: Waves can occur on the thermocline, causing the depth of the thermocline as measured at a single location to oscillate (usually as a form of seiche). Alternately, the waves may be induced by flow over a raised bottom, producing a thermocline wave which does not change with time, but varies in depth as one moves into or against the flow.

text: Atmosphere[edit]

text: The lower atmosphere also typically contains a boundary between two distinct regions (the troposphere and stratosphere), but that boundary (the tropopause) displays quite different behavior. However, atmospheric thermoclines, or inversions, can occur, e.g. as nighttime cooling of the Earth's surface produces cold, dense, often calm air adjacent to the ground. The coldest air is next to the ground, with air temperature increasing with height. At the top of this nighttime boundary layer (which may be only a hundred meters) the normal adiabatic temperature profile of the troposphere (i.e. temperature decreasing with altitude) is again observed. The thermocline or inversion layer occurs where the temperature profile changes from positive to negative with increasing height. The stability of the night time inversion is usually destroyed soon after sunrise as the sun's energy warms the ground, which warms the air in the inversion layer. The warmer, less dense air then rises, destroying the stability that characterizes the nightly inversion.

text: This phenomenon was first applied to the field of noise pollution study in the 1960s, contributing to the design of urban highways and noise barriers.[2]


document_title: Huilgol Narayana Rao

question_text: who has written the poem udayavagali cheluva kannada nadu

text: Huilgol Narayana Rao

text:
Huilgol Narayana Rao

Born
(1884-10-04)4 October 1884
Huilgol, Gadag district, Karnataka

Died
(1971-07-00)July , 1971

Occupation
Playwright, Poet, Lawyer

Nationality
India

text: Huilgol Narayana Rao (Kannada: ಹುಯಿಲಗೋಳ ನಾರಾಯಣರಾಯ) (October 4, 1884 - July 1971) was a popular playwright in the modern Kannada literature and a freedom fighter. Narayana Rao is best known as the poet who composed the then national anthem of the Karnataka State Udayavagali namma cheluva kannada nadu which heralded the birth of Karnataka .[1] The popular song was sung by Huilgol Narayan Rao at Karnataka Unification Conference held in 1924, which was also the venue which hosted Belgaum Congress meeting

text: Jump up ^ Amaresh Datta (2006). The Encyclopaedia Of Indian Literature (Volume Two) (Devraj To Jyoti) (Volume 2 ed.). Sahitya Akademi, New Delhi. p. 914. ISBN 81-260-1194-7.

text: Indian male dramatists and playwrights1884 birthsPeople from Gadag district1971 deaths20th-century Indian dramatists and playwrightsWriters from Karnataka

text: Articles containing Kannada-language text