document_title: Fan (machine)

question_text: who was it that developed the world s first electric ceiling fan

text: Fan (machine)

text: History[edit]

text: The punkah fan was used in India about 500 BCE. It was a handheld fan made from bamboo strips or other plant fibre, that could be rotated or fanned to move air. During British rule, the word came to be used by Anglo-Indians to mean a large swinging flat fan, fixed to the ceiling, and pulled by a servant, called the punkawallah.

text: For purposes of air conditioning, the Han Dynasty craftsman and engineer Ding Huan (fl. 180 CE) invented a manually operated rotary fan with seven wheels that measured 3 m (10 ft) in diameter; in the 8th century, during the Tang Dynasty (618–907), the Chinese applied hydraulic power to rotate the fan wheels for air conditioning, while the rotary fan became even more common during the Song Dynasty (960–1279).[2][3]

text: In the 17th century, the experiments of scientists including Otto von Guericke, Robert Hooke and Robert Boyle, established the basic principles of vacuum and airflow. The English architect Sir Christopher Wren applied an early ventilation system in the Houses of Parliament that used bellows to circulate air. Wren's design would be the catalyst for much later improvement and innovation. The first rotary fan used in Europe was for mine ventilation during the 16th century, as illustrated by Georg Agricola (1494–1555).[4]

text:
John Theophilus Desaguliers, a British engineer, demonstrated a successful use of a fan system to draw out stagnant air from coal mines in 1727 and soon afterwards he installed a similar apparatus in Parliament.[5]
Good ventilation was particularly important in coal mines to reduce casualties from asphyxiation. The civil engineer John Smeaton, and later John Buddle installed reciprocating air pumps in the mines in the North of England. However, this arrangement was not ideal as the machinery was liable to breaking down.

text: Steam[edit]

text: With the advent of practical steam power, fans could finally be used for ventilation. In 1837 William Fourness of England installed a steam-driven fan at Leeds.[6] In 1849 a 6 m radius steam driven fan, designed by William Brunton, was made operational in the Gelly Gaer Colliery of South Wales. The model was exhibited at the Great Exhibition of 1851. Also in 1851 David Boswell Reid, a Scottish doctor, installed four steam powered fans in the ceiling of St George's Hospital in Liverpool, so that the pressure produced by the fans would force the incoming air upward and through vents in the ceiling.[7][8] Improvements in the technology were made by James Nasmyth, Frenchman Theophile Guibal and J. R. Waddle.[9]

text: Electrical[edit]

text:
Between 1882 and 1886 Schuyler Wheeler invented a fan powered by electricity.[10] It was commercially marketed by the American firm Crocker & Curtis electric motor company. In 1882, Philip Diehl developed the world's first electric ceiling fan.  During this intense period of innovation, fans powered by alcohol, oil, or kerosene were common around the turn of the 20th century.
In 1909, KDK of Japan pioneered the invention of mass-produced electric fans for home use. In the 1920s, industrial advances allowed steel fans to be mass-produced in different shapes, bringing fan prices down and allowing more homeowners to afford them. In the 1930s, the first art deco fan (the "swan fan") was designed. By the 1940s, Crompton Greaves of India became the world's largest manufacturer of electric ceiling fans mainly for sale in India, Asia and the Middle East. By the 1950s, table and stand fans were manufactured in colors that were bright and eye catching.

text: Window and central air conditioning in the 1960s caused many companies to discontinue production of fans.[11] But in the mid 1970s, with an increasing awareness of the cost of electricity and the amount of energy used to heat and cool homes, turn-of-the-century styled ceiling fans became immensely popular again as both decorative and energy efficient units.

text: In 1998, Walter K. Boyd invented the HVLS ceiling fan. A lifelong inventor, Boyd was charged with developing a system to cool dairy cattle. Dairy cattle, when overheated, decrease milk production. Using the laws of physics and airflow, Boyd developed a slow moving fan that incorporated 10 aluminum blades and was 8-feet diameter. Unlike traditional ceiling fans that move quickly, this large fan moved slowly. Due to its diameter size, the fan moved a large column of air down and out 360 degrees and continuously mixed fresh air with the stale air inside the barn. They are used in many industrial and agricultural settings, because of their energy efficiency. It also cooled the inside of the barn without causing the dairy cattle undue stress or kicking up dust.

text: After much testing, Boyd discovered HVLS fan technology to be energy efficient as it costs less to run one HVLS fan than it did to run 50 small high-speed fans. Due to the skyrocketing costs of energy, HVLS commercial ceiling fans are used today to supplement HVAC systems in industrial and commercial settings, including warehouses, manufacturing facilities and malls, as HVLS fans help lower heating and cooling costs.[12]

text: Types[edit]

text: Mechanical revolving blade fans are made in a wide range of designs. They are used on the floor, table, desk, or hung from the ceiling (ceiling fan). They can also be built into a window, wall, roof, chimney, etc. Most electronic systems such as computers include fans to cool the circuits inside, and in appliances such as hair dryers and portable space heaters and mounted/installed wall heaters. They are also used for moving air in air-conditioning systems, and in automotive engines, where they are driven by belts or by direct motor. Fans used for comfort create a wind chill by increasing the heat transfer coefficient, but do not lower temperatures directly. Fans used to cool electrical equipment or in engines or other machines do cool the equipment directly by forcing hot air into the cooler environment outside of the machine.

text: There are three main types of fans used for moving air, axial, centrifugal (also called radial) and cross flow (also called tangential). The American Society of Mechanical Engineers Performance Testing Code 11 (PTC)[13] provides standard procedures for conducting and reporting tests on fans, including those of the centrifugal, axial, and mixed flows.

text: Axial-flow[edit]

text:
Axial-flow fans have blades that force air to move parallel to the shaft about which the blades rotate. This type of fan is used in a wide variety of applications, ranging from small cooling fans for electronics to the giant fans used in wind tunnels. Axial flow fans are applied in air conditioning and industrial process applications. Standard axial flow fans have diameters from 300–400 mm or 1800 to 2000 mm and work under pressures up to 800 Pa. Special types of fans are used as low pressure compressor stages in aircraft engines.
Examples of axial fans are:

text: Table fan: Basic elements of a typical table fan include the fan blade, base, armature and lead wires, motor, blade guard, motor housing, oscillator gearbox, and oscillator shaft. The oscillator is a mechanism that motions the fan from side to side. The armature axle shaft comes out on both ends of the motor, one end of the shaft is attached to the blade and the other is attached to the oscillator gearbox. The motor case joins to the gearbox to contain the rotor and stator. The oscillator shaft combines to the weighted base and the gearbox. A motor housing covers the oscillator mechanism. The blade guard joins to the motor case for safety.

text:
Domestic Extractor Fan: Wall or ceiling mounted, the domestic extractor fan is employed to remove moisture and stale air from domestic dwellings. Bathroom extractor fans typically utilize a four inch (100mm) impeller, whilst kitchen extractor fans typically use a six inch (150mm) impeller as the room itself is often bigger. Axial fans with 125mm impellers are also used in larger bathrooms though are much less common. Domestic axial extractor fans are not suitable for duct runs over 3m or 4m, depending on the number of bends in the run, as the increased air pressure in longer pipework inhibits the performance of the fan[14].
Electro-mechanical fans: Among collectors, are rated according to their condition, size, age, and number of blades. Four-blade designs are the most common. Five-blade or six-blade designs are rare. The materials from which the components are made, such as brass, are important factors in fan desirability.
Ceiling fan: A fan suspended from the ceiling of a room is a ceiling fan. Most ceiling fans rotate at relatively low speeds and do not have blade guards. Ceiling fans can be found in both residential and industrial/commercial settings.
In automobiles, a mechanical fan provides engine cooling and prevents the engine from overheating by blowing or drawing air through a coolant-filled radiator. The fan may be driven with a belt and pulley off the engine's crankshaft or an electric motor switched on or off by a thermostatic switch.
Computer cooling fan for cooling electrical components
Fans inside audio power amplifiers help to draw heat away from the electrical components.
variable-pitch fan: A variable-pitch fan is used where precise control of static pressure within supply ducts is required. The blades are arranged to rotate upon a control-pitch hub. The fan wheel will spin at a constant  speed. The blades follow the control pitch hub. As the hub moves toward the rotor, the blades increase their angle of attack and an increase in flow results.

text: Centrifugal[edit]

text: Often called a "squirrel cage" (because of its general similarity in appearance to exercise wheels for pet rodents) or "scroll fan", the centrifugal fan has a moving component (called an impeller) that consists of a central shaft about which a set of blades form a spiral, or ribs, are positioned. Centrifugal fans blow air at right angles to the intake of the fan, and spin the air outwards to the outlet (by deflection and centrifugal force). The impeller rotates, causing air to enter the fan near the shaft and move perpendicularly from the shaft to the opening in the scroll-shaped fan casing. A centrifugal fan produces more pressure for a given air volume, and is used where this is desirable such as in leaf blowers, blowdryers, air mattress inflators, inflatable structures, climate control, and various industrial purposes. They are typically quieter than comparable axial fans.

text: Cross-flow fan[edit]

text: The cross-flow or tangential fan, sometimes known as a tubular fan, was patented in 1893 by Paul Mortier,[15] and is used extensively in the HVAC industry. The fan is usually long in relation to the diameter, so the flow approximately remains two-dimensional away from the ends. The CFF uses an impeller with forward curved blades, placed in a housing consisting of a rear wall and vortex wall. Unlike radial machines, the main flow moves transversely across the impeller, passing the blading twice.

text: The flow within a cross-flow fan may be broken up into three distinct regions: a vortex region near the fan discharge, called an eccentric vortex, the through-flow region, and a paddling region directly opposite. Both the vortex and paddling regions are dissipative, and as a result, only a portion of the impeller imparts usable work on the flow. The cross-flow fan, or transverse fan, is thus a two-stage partial admission machine. The popularity of the crossflow fan in the HVAC industry comes from its compactness, shape, quiet operation, and ability to provide high pressure coefficient. Effectively a rectangular fan in terms of inlet and outlet geometry, the diameter readily scales to fit the available space, and the length is adjustable to meet flow rate requirements for the particular application.

text: Common household tower fans are also cross-flow fans. Much of the early work focused on developing the cross-flow fan for both high and low-flow-rate conditions, and resulted in numerous patents. Key contributions were made by Coester, Ilberg and Sadeh, Porter and Markland, and Eck. One interesting phenomenon particular to the cross-flow fan is that, as the blades rotate, the local air incidence angle changes. The result is that in certain positions the blades act as compressors (pressure increase), while at other azimuthal locations the blades act as turbines (pressure decrease).

text: Since the flow both enters and exits the impeller radially, the crossflow fan is well suited for aircraft applications. Due to the 2D nature of the flow, the fan readily integrates into a wing for use in both thrust production and boundary-layer control. A configuration that utilizes a crossflow fan is located at the wing leading edge is the fanwing. This design creates lift by deflecting the wake downward due to the rotational direction of the fan, causing large Magnus force, similar to a spinning leading-edge cylinder. Another configuration utilizing a crossflow fan for thrust and flow control is the propulsive wing. In this design, the crossflow fan is placed near the trailing edge of a thick wing, and draws the air off the wing's suction (top) surface. By doing this, the propulsive wing is nearly stall-free, even at extremely high angles of attack, producing very high lift. The external links section provides links to these concepts.

text: A cross flow fan, is a centrifugal fan in which the air flows through the fan, rather than through an inlet. The rotor of a cross flow fan is covered to create a pressure differential. When used in household fans, cross flow fans have smaller opening on one side and a larger opening on the other. Cross flow fans have openings of different sizes on the front and rear sides. The resultant pressure difference allows air to flow straight through the fan, even though the fan blades counter the flow of air on one side of the rotation. Cross flow fans give airflow along the entire width of the fan, however, they are noiser than ordinary centrifugal fans presumedly because the fan blades fight the flow of air on one side of the rotation unlike normal squirrel cage fans. Cross flow fans are often used in air conditioners, automobile ventilation systems, and for cooling in medium-sized equipment such as photocopiers.

text: The action of a fan or blower causes pressures slightly above atmospheric, which are called plenums.

text: Bladeless Indirect viscous-shear fan[edit]

text: This section may be too technical for most readers to understand. Please help improve it to make it understandable to non-experts, without removing the technical details.  (December 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: This is an indirect blower system which collects pressurized airflow from a standard blower device that can be of any type mentioned in this article, and directs the collected airflow through a hollow tube or toroid, blowing a thin high-velocity laminar airflow from holes or a continuous slot across the surface of the tube or toroid. These fans have a 3-dimensional mixed-flow impeller in a lower compartment. Air is drawn in and compressed, before being expelled  through an annulus, and accelerated over an airfoil lamp. Inducing and entraining ambient air through viscous shearing, the loop-shaped upper section multiplies the total airflow many times. The high velocity laminar airflow tends to drag ambient air along with it, due to viscous shear. Only around 7% of the total airflow actually passes through the fan itself.

text: Uncommon types of fans[edit]

text: Bellows[edit]

text: Bellows are also used to move air, although not generally considered fans. A hand-operated bellows is essentially a bag with a nozzle and handles, which can be filled with air by one movement, and the air expelled by another. Typically it would comprise two rigid flat surfaces hinged at one end, where a nozzle is fitted, and with handles at the other.

text: The sides of the surfaces are joined by a flexible and air-proof material such as leather; the surfaces and joining material comprise a bag sealed everywhere but at the nozzle. (The joining material typically has a characteristic pleated construction that is so common that similar expanding fabric arrangements not used for moving air, such as on a folding camera, are called bellows.) Separating the handles expands the bag, which fills with air; squeezing them together expels the air. A simple valve (e.g., a flap) may be fitted so that air enters without having to come from the nozzle, which may be close to a fire.

text: Bellows produce a directed pressurized stream of air; the airflow volume is typically low with moderate pressure. They are an older technology, used mainly to produce a strong and directed airflow unlike non-electric bladed mechanical fans, before the introduction of electricity.

text:
A single-acting bellows will only produce airflow during the exhaust stroke.
A double-acting bellows is a pair of bellows capable of blowing out air from one while inhaling air into the other, but airflow still temporarily ceases when the stroke direction is reversed.
Combining multiple bellows at third-cycle or quarter-cycle arrangements on a crank arm allows for nearly continuous airflow from several bellows at once; each is in a different phase of inhaling and exhausting during the cycle.

text: Coandă effect[edit]

text:
The Dyson Air Multiplier fans, and the Imperial C2000 series range hood fans, have no exposed fan blades or other visibly moving parts except their oscillating and tilting head. The airflow is generated using the Coandă effect; a small quantity of air from a high-pressure-bladed impeller fan, contained in the base rather than exposed, drives a large airmass via a low-pressure area created by the airfoil.[16][17][18]  The US Patent & Trademark Office initially ruled that Dyson's patent was not an improvement on the Toshiba patent on a nearly identical bladeless desktop fan granted in 1981.[16]
Air curtains and air doors also utilize this effect to help retain warm or cool air within an otherwise exposed area that lacks a cover or door. Air curtains are commonly used on open-face dairy, freezer, and vegetable displays to help retain chilled air within the cabinet using a laminar airflow circulated across the display opening. The airflow is typically generated by a mechanical fan of any type described in this article hidden in the base of the display cabinet.

text: Convective[edit]

text:
Differences in air temperature will affect the density of air and can be used to induce air circulation through the mere act of heating or cooling an air mass. This effect is so subtle and works at such low air pressures that it does not appear to fit the definition of a fan technology. However, prior to the development of electricity, convective airflow was the primary method of inducing airflow in living spaces.
Old fashioned oil and coal furnaces were not electric and operated simply on the principle of convection to move the warm air. Very large volume air ducts were sloped upwards away from the top of the furnace towards floor and wall registers above the furnace. Cool air was returned through similar large ducts leading to the bottom of the furnace.
Older houses from before electrification often had open duct grilles leading from the ceiling of a lower level to the floor of an upper level, to allow convective airflow to slowly rise up the building from one floor to the next.
Outhouses commonly rely on a simple enclosed air channel in a corner of the structure to exhaust offensive odors. Exposed to sunlight, the channel is warmed and a slow convective air current is vented out the top of the building, while fresh air enters the pit through the seat hole.

text: Electrostatic[edit]

text: An electrostatic fluid accelerator propels airflow by inducing motion in airborne charged particles.  A high voltage electric field (commonly 25,000 to 50,000 volts) formed between exposed charged anode and cathode surfaces is capable of inducing airflow through a principle referred to as ionic wind. The airflow pressure is typically very low but the air volume can be large. However, a sufficiently high voltage potential can also cause the formation of ozone and nitrogen oxides, which are reactive and irritating to mucous membranes.

text: Noise[edit]

text: Fans generate noise from the rapid flow of air around blades and obstacles, and sometimes from the motor. Fan noise has been found to be roughly proportional to the fifth power of fan speed; halving speed reduces noise by about 15 dB.[19]

text: Fan motor drive methods[edit]

text: Standalone fans are usually powered by an electric motors, often attached directly to the motor's output, with no gears or belts. The motor is either hidden in the fan's center hub or extends behind it. For big industrial fans, three-phase asynchronous motors are commonly used, placed near the fan and driving it through a belt and pulleys. Smaller fans are often powered by shaded pole AC motors, or brushed or brushless DC motors. AC-powered fans usually use mains voltage, while DC-powered fans use low voltage, typically 24.V, 12.V, or 5 V. Cooling fans for computer equipment always use brushless DC motors, which generate much less electromagnetic interference than other types.

text: In machines with a rotating part, the fan is often connected to it rather than being powered separately. This is commonly seen in motor vehicles with internal combustion engines, large cooling systems, locomotives, and winnowing machines, where the fan is connected to the drive shaft or through a belt and pulleys. Another common configuration is a dual-shaft motor, where one end of the shaft drives a mechanism, while the other has a fan mounted on it to cool the motor itself. Window air conditioners commonly use a dual-shaft fan to operate separate blowers for the interior and exterior parts of the device.

text: Where electrical power or rotating parts are not readily available, fans may be driven by other methods. High-pressure gases such as steam can be used to drive a small turbine, and high-pressure liquids can be used to drive a pelton wheel, either which can provide the rotational drive for a fan.

text: Large, slow-moving energy sources such as a flowing river can also power a fan using a water wheel and a series of step-down gears or pulleys to increase the rotational speed to that which is required for efficient fan operation.

text: Solar powered fan[edit]

text: Electric fans used for ventilation may be powered by solar panels instead of mains current. This is an attractive option because once the capital costs of the solar panel have been covered, the resulting electricity is free. In addition, electricity is always available when the sun is shining and the fan needs to run.

text: A typical example uses a detached 10 watt, 12x12 inch (30x30 cm) solar panel and is supplied with appropriate brackets, cables, and connectors. It can be used to ventilate up to 1250 square feet (100 m2) of area and can move air at up to 800 cubic feet per minute (400 L/s). Because of the wide availability of 12 V brushless DC electric motors and the convenience of wiring such a low voltage, such fans usually operate on 12 volts.

text: The detached solar panel is typically installed in the spot which gets most of the sun light and then connected to the fan mounted as far as 20 to 25 feet (6 to 7 m) away. Other permanently-mounted and small portable fans include an integrated (non-detachable) solar panel.


document_title: The Color Purple

question_text: where did celie live in the color purple

root

text: The Color Purple

text: Plot summary[edit]

text: Celie is a poor, uneducated, 14-year-old girl living in the American South in the early 1900s. She writes letters to God because her father, Alphonso, beats her harshly and rapes her continuously. Alphonso has already impregnated Celie once, a pregnancy that resulted in the birth of a boy she called Adam. Alphonso takes the baby away shortly after his birth. Celie has a second child, a girl she called Olivia whom Alphonso also abducts. Celie's ailing mother dies after cursing Celie on her deathbed.

tag: p

text: Celie and her younger sister, 12-year-old Nettie, learn that a man identified only as Mister wants to marry Nettie. Alphonso refuses to let Nettie marry, instead arranging for Mister to marry Celie. Mister, needing someone to care for his children and keep his house, eventually accepts the offer. Mister and his children, whose mother was murdered by a jealous lover, all treat Celie badly. However, she eventually gets Mister's squalid living conditions and incorrigible children under control.

text: Shortly thereafter, Nettie runs away from Alphonso and takes refuge at Celie's house, where Mister makes sexual advances toward her. Celie then advises Nettie to seek assistance from a well-dressed black woman that she had seen in the general store a while back; the woman had unknowingly adopted Celie's daughter and was the only black woman that Celie had ever seen with money of her own. Nettie is forced to leave after promising to write. Celie, however, never receives any letters and concludes that her sister is dead.

text: Time passes and Mister's children begin to grow up and leave home. Harpo, Mister's son, falls in love with an assertive girl named Sofia, who becomes pregnant with Harpo's baby and, despite initial resistance from Mister, marries Harpo. Harpo and Sofia have five more children in short order.

text: Celie is amazed by Sofia's defiant refusal to submit to Harpo's attempts to control her. Kinder and gentler than his father, Harpo feels emasculated due to his inability to get Sofia to "mind." Celie advises Harpo not to try to dominate Sofia; she also tells Harpo that Sofia loves him, admitting that she, Celie, only obeys Mister out of fear. Harpo temporarily follows Celie's advice but falls back under Mister's sway. A momentarily jealous Celie then advises Harpo to beat Sofia. Sofia fights back, however, inflicting serious injuries on Harpo.

text: After Sofia confronts her, Celie, who was already feeling guilty about what she had done, apologizes and confides in her about all the abuse she suffers at Mister's hands. She also begins to consider Sofia's advice about defending herself against further abuse from Mister.

text: Glamorous Shug Avery, a jazz and blues singer and Mister's long-time mistress, falls ill, and Mister takes her into his house. Celie, who had been fascinated by photos of Shug she found in Mister's belongings, is thrilled to have her there. Mister's father expresses disapproval of the arrangement, reminding Mister that Shug has three out-of-wedlock children. Mister proudly states that he knows for certain that all the children have the same father, indirectly admitting to being their father. Mister's father leaves in disgust after drinking a glass of water into which Celie spit. While Shug is initially rude to Celie, who has taken charge of nursing her, the two women become friends, and Celie soon finds herself infatuated with Shug.

text: Frustrated by Harpo's domineering behavior, Sofia moves out, taking her children with her. Several months later, Harpo opens a juke joint where a fully recovered Shug performs nightly. Shug decides to stay when she learns that Mister beats Celie when she is away. Shug and Celie's relationship grows more intimate.

text: Sofia returns for a visit and promptly gets into a fight with Harpo's new girlfriend, Squeak, knocking Squeak's teeth out. In town one day, while Sofia is enjoying a day out with her new beau, a prizefighter, and their respective children, the mayor's wife, Miss Millie, approaches the group. She begins to "finger" Sofia's children (physically examine them in a way reminiscent of slaves on an auction block) without bothering, at first, to speak to their mother or ask permission. At first, Sofia silently endures. Miss Millie then looks up and addresses Sofia, remarking on how clean the children are and bluntly asks Sofia if she would like to be her maid. Sofia, who does not work as a maid, straightforwardly refuses saying "Hell no." The mayor then pushes his wife aside, calling Sofia "girl" and daring her to repeat herself. When Sofia does so defiantly, the mayor slaps Sofia. Sofia responds by using her fist to knock the mayor, her assailant, onto the ground. The police quickly arrive at the scene and brutally beat Sofia as she pleads with the prizefighter not to intervene on her behalf and instead to take her children to safety. Sofia emerges from her ordeal with a cracked skull, broken ribs, her face rendered nearly unrecognizable, and blind in one eye. Sofia is subsequently sentenced to 12 years in jail.

text: Squeak, a mixed-race woman and Sheriff Hodges' illegitimate niece, attempts to blackmail the sheriff into releasing Sofia, resulting in her being raped by the sheriff. Squeak cares for Sofia's children while she is incarcerated, and the two women develop a friendship. Sofia is eventually released and begins working for Miss Millie, which she detests.

text: Despite being newly married to a person called Grady, Shug instigates a sexual relationship with Celie on her next visit. One night Shug asks Celie about her sister, and Shug helps Celie recover letters from Nettie that Mister has been hiding from her for decades.

text: The letters indicate that Nettie befriended a missionary couple, Samuel and Corrine, the well-dressed woman that Celie saw in the store, whom Nettie eventually accompanied to Africa to do missionary work. Samuel and Corrine have unwittingly adopted Celie's son and daughter (by Celie's father), Adam and Olivia. Corrine, noticing that her adopted children resemble Nettie, wonders if Samuel fathered the children with her. Increasingly suspicious, Corrine tries to limit Nettie's role in her family.

text: Through her letters, Nettie reveals that she has become disillusioned with her missionary work. Corrine becomes ill with a fever. Nettie asks Samuel to tell her how he adopted Olivia and Adam. Realizing that Adam and Olivia are Celie's children, Nettie then learns that Alphonso is her and Celie's stepfather. Their biological father was a store owner whom white men lynched because they resented his success. She also learns that their mother suffered a mental collapse after the death of her husband and that Alphonso exploited the situation in order to control their mother's considerable wealth.

text: Nettie confesses to Samuel and Corrine that she is in fact their children's biological aunt. The gravely ill Corrine refuses to believe her until Nettie reminds her of her previous encounter with Celie in the store. Later, Corrine dies, finally having accepted Nettie's story. Meanwhile, Celie visits Alphonso, who confirms Nettie's story. Celie begins to lose some of her faith in God, which she confides to Shug, who explains to Celie her own unique religious philosophy.

text: Celie, having had enough of her husband's abuse, decides to leave Mister along with Shug and Squeak, who is considering a singing career of her own. Celie puts a curse on Mister before leaving him for good.

text: Celie settles in Tennessee and supports herself as a seamstress. She learns that Mister, suffering from a considerable decline in fortunes after Celie left him, has changed dramatically; he gives Celie permission to call him by his first name, Albert. Albert proposes that they marry "in the spirit as well as in the flesh," but Celie declines.

text: Alphonso dies, Celie inherits his land, and moves back into her childhood home. Around this time, Shug falls in love with Germaine, a member of her band, and the news thereof crushes Celie. Shug travels with Germaine, all the while writing postcards to Celie. Celie pledges to love Shug even if Shug does not love her back.

text: Meanwhile, Nettie and Samuel marry and prepare to return to America. Before they leave, Adam marries Tashi, an African girl. Following an African tradition, Tashi undergoes the painful rituals of female circumcision and facial scarring. In solidarity, Adam undergoes the same facial scarring ritual.

text: Just after Celie realizes that she is content in her life without Shug, Shug returns, having ended things with Germaine. The end of the novel has Nettie, Samuel, Olivia, Adam, and Tashi arriving at Celie's house. Nettie and Celie embrace, having not seen each other for over 30 years. They introduce one another to their respective families as the novel ends.

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: The Color Purple won the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction in 1983, making Walker the first woman of color to win the prize.[5][6] Walker also won the National Book Award for Fiction in 1983.[7] Mel Watkins of the New York Times Book Review wrote that it is a "striking and consummately well-written novel," praising its powerful emotional impact and epistolary structure.[8]

text: While the novel has garnered critical acclaim, it has also been the subject of controversy. It is 17th on the American Library Association's list of most frequently challenged or banned books.[9] Commonly cited justications for banning the book include sexual explicitness, explicit language, violence, and homosexuality.[10] The book received greater scrutiny amidst controversy surrounding the release of the film adaptation in 1985.[11] The controversy centered around the depiction of black men, which some critics saw as feeding stereotypical narratives of black male violence, while others found the representation compelling and relatable.[12]

text: Character analysis[edit]

text: Celie[edit]

text: Celie is the main character of the novel. She is shown to have experienced abuse at the hands of men for most of her life: she is routinely beaten and raped by her supposed father, with whom she has two children during her adolescence and whom he gives away. He later gives her away to be married to Mister, who is in love with Shug Avery, a blues singer. When Shug comes to recover from an illness in Mister and Celie's home, it leads to an intimate relationship between Celie and Shug. Celie and Shug's relationship later develops a romantic and sexual dimension culminating in their sleeping together; this being Celie's first positive sexual experience. Shug has a significant influence on Celie, who begins to draw inspiration from Shug's independence, leading her ultimately to her own independent attitude. Shug not only influences the way that Celie allows Mister to treat her, but also shows Celie that actions deemed sinful by others may not truly be evil or transgressive and that they do not prevent one from believing in and living for God, thereby broadening Celie's views on religion and ethics. It is also Shug who frees Celie from Mister's bondage, first by loving her, then by helping her to start a custom sewing business. From Shug, Celie learns that Mister [now revealed as Albert] has been hiding letters written to her from Africa by her sister Nettie, a missionary. These letters, full of educated, firsthand observation of African life, form a moving counterpoint to Celie's life. They reveal that in Africa, just as in America, women are persistently oppressed by men.[13]

text: Nettie[edit]

text: Nettie is Celie's younger sister, whom Celie loves and saves from living the tragic life that she had to endure. Because Nettie is prettier than Celie, who has been deemed ugly, Mister is originally interested in Nettie as a wife, but settles for Celie. Nettie runs away from home to be with Celie, but is unable to stay with Celie as Mister tries to assault her sexually. As a result, Nettie leaves home and before leaving, promises to write to Celie and tells her that only death can keep them apart. Nettie is eventually taken in by Samuel and Corrine, a missionary couple, with whom she travels to Africa as a missionary. While in Africa, Nettie becomes the caregiver of Samuel and Corrine's children and faithfully writes to Celie for decades. Nettie marries Samuel after Corrine's death and moves back to America with what are revealed to be Celie's biological children. Through explaining her experiences to Celie, Nettie encourages Celie to be more enthusiastic and optimistic about life. Nettie finds that while there is not racial disparity in Africa, gender disparity exists. The women of the tribe are not treated as equals, and are not permitted to attend school.

text: Shug Avery[edit]

text: A sultry blues singer who first appears as Mister's mistress, Shug becomes Celie's friend and eventually her lover. Shug remains a gentle mentor who helps Celie evolve into an independent and assertive woman. At first, Shug doesn't appear to be the mothering and nurturing kind, yet she nurtures Celie physically, spiritually, and emotionally. Shug helps Celie discover the letters from her sister Nettie that Mister had been hiding for decades. In allowing Celie to view these letters, Shug supplies her with even more hope and inspiration, letting Celie see that in the end, everything works out for the best.

text: Albert (known as Mister)[edit]

text: Mister is the man to whom Celie is married. Originally, he seeks a relationship with Nettie but settles for Celie. Mister mistreats Celie just as her stepfather had, although Celie does not understand that she doesn't have to tolerate the abuse. Mister uses Celie to help raise his children, who give her a hard time because she is not their biological mother. When Shug Avery comes to town, Mister falls for her and makes her his mistress. Through Shug's seductive and manipulative influence, Albert begins to treat Celie better. In the end, Albert realizes that he has mistreated Celie and seeks a friendship with her.

text: Film, theatrical, and radio adaptations[edit]

text: The novel was adapted into a film of the same name in 1985. It was directed by Steven Spielberg and stars Whoopi Goldberg as Celie, Danny Glover as Albert, and Oprah Winfrey as Sofia. Though nominated for eleven Academy Awards, it won none. This perceived snubbing ignited controversy because many critics considered it the best picture that year,[14] including Roger Ebert.[15]

text: On December 1, 2005, a musical adaptation of the novel (based on the film) opened at The Broadway Theatre in New York City. The show was produced by Scott Sanders, Quincy Jones, Harvey Weinstein, and Oprah Winfrey, who was also an investor.[16] It garnered five 2006 Outer Critics Circle Award nominations, including Outstanding Broadway Musical and Outstanding New Score. That same year, the show was nominated for eleven Tony Awards, including Best Musical, Best Original Score Written for the Theater, and Best Leading Actress in a Musical (LaChanze). LaChanze did win the Tony Award, though the show itself won no other awards. LaChanze's win was attributed to the variety of roles for which she had garnered positive attention, as well as for a powerful backstory. In April 2007, Fantasia Barrino took over the role. The Broadway production ended its run on February 24, 2008.[17]

text: In 2008 BBC Radio 4 broadcast a radio adaptation of the novel in ten 15-minute episodes as a Woman's Hour serial, with Nadine Marshall as Celie. The script was by Patricia Cumper, and in 2009 the production received the Sony Radio Academy Awards Silver Drama Award.[18]

text: Boycotting Israel[edit]

text: As part of the Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions movement (BDS), the author declined publication of the book in Israel[19] in 2012. Walker, an ardent pro-Palestinian activist, said in a letter to Yediot Books that Israel practices "apartheid" and must change its policies before her works can be published there.[20][20] This decision was criticized by Harvard professor Alan Dershowitz, who argued that Walker "resorted to bigotry and censorship against Hebrew-speaking readers of her writings".[21]

text: Editions[edit]

text:
ISBN 0-606-00587-0 (prebound, 1985)
ISBN 0-671-61702-8 (mass market paperback, 1985)
ISBN 0-671-64745-8 (mass market paperback, 1987)
ISBN 0-671-66878-1 (paperback, 1988)
ISBN 0-15-119154-9 (hardcover, 1992, Anniversary Edition)
ISBN 1-56849-628-1 (library binding, 1995, reprint)
ISBN 0-671-01907-4 (paperback, 1998)
ISBN 0-7641-2064-6 (paperback, 2002)
ISBN 0-15-602835-2 (paperback, 2003)
ISBN 0-671-72779-6
ISBN 0-7043-3905-6
ISBN 978-0-7538-1892-3 (paperback, United Kingdom, 2004)
ISBN 9781453223970 (ebook, 2011)

tag: ul


document_title: Xbox 360 technical problems

question_text: what do the green lights on xbox 360 mean

text: Xbox 360 technical problems

text: "General Hardware Failure" errors[edit]

text: Three flashing red lights around the Xbox 360 power button instead of the one to four green lights indicating normal operation represent an internal problem that requires service.[9] This error was soon nicknamed the "Red Ring of Death", echoing Windows' Blue Screen of Death error. Warning signs may include freeze-ups, graphical problems in the middle of gameplay, such as checkerboard or pinstripe patterns on the screen, and sound errors; mostly consisting of extremely loud noises that can be affected by the volume control, and the console only responds to pressing the power button to turn it off.[10] These events may happen once or several times until the hardware failure occurs, or not at all. If the console freezes occasionally, the error will not necessarily follow. The technical problems seem to affect some generations of consoles more than others, e.g. Xenon or Zephyr. Those problems may also cause some freezing screens.

text: This error code is usually caused by failure of one or more hardware components, although it can indicate that the console is not receiving enough power from the power supply, which can either be due to a faulty power supply or if the power supply cable is not fully inserted into the console. The 3 flashing lights can also be caused by power surges; if the console is connected to an outlet that receives a power surge, it may have a failure and the 3 lights will appear as long as the console is plugged into the outlet. Turning off the console, unplugging all power cables and plugging them back in, and restarting the console may fix this issue in some cases.[11][12]

text: Distinct from the General Hardware Failure is a similar-looking, but much less serious, error warning where four red lights appear, in which case the console does not detect an AV cable is plugged in; however, this error code is not generated on models equipped with the HDMI connection.[13] The four lights can sometimes also be seen when power surges or very brief power outages occur while the console is running, in which the console needs to be unplugged and plugged back in again to reset the error. Two red lights appear when the system is overheated.

text: On the Xbox 360 S model, the power button utilizes a different design that does not incorporate the same style of lighting that past models used.[14] A flashing red light means that the console is overheating, similar to the two-light error code on the original model Xbox 360; however, an on-screen message also appears, telling the user that the console will automatically power off to protect itself from overheating. A solid red light is similar to the one-light error if an "E XX" error message is displayed and a three-light error code if the error message is absent.

text: Response to rate of failure[edit]

text: In the early months after the console's launching, Microsoft stated that the Xbox 360's failure rate was within the consumer electronics industry's typical 3% to 5%.[15][16][17][18] Nevertheless, Microsoft has not released its official statistics on the failure rate of the various versions of the console.[19]

text: On July 5, 2007, Peter Moore, the Vice President of Microsoft's Interactive Entertainment Business division published an open letter recognizing the console's problems, as well as announcing a three-year warranty from the original date of purchase for every Xbox 360 console that experiences the "general hardware failure" indicated by three flashing red LEDs on the console.[20] A source that has been identified as a team leader and key architect in the creation of the Xbox and Xbox 360 and a founding member of the Xbox team[21][22] provided insight as to the high rate of failures. The interviews suggest that Xbox 360 units that fail early in their life do so because of problems in the system design, parts supply, material reliability, and manufacturing issues as well as a system not tolerant to faults. These issues were alleged to be the end results of the decisions of management in Microsoft's Xbox team and inadequate testing resources prior to the console's release. A second source cited that, at one time, there was just a 32% yield of one of the test production runs. 68 of every 100 test units were found to be defective.[23]

text: Years after leaving Microsoft, Moore recalled preparing to tell then CEO of Microsoft, Steve Ballmer, of his planned response to the incident, "we've got to tell Steve, here's what we have to do: we need to FedEx an empty box to a customer who had a problem - they would call us up - with a FedEx return label to send your box, and then we would FedEx it back to them and fix it. ... I always remember $240m of that was FedEx. ... It was sickening. I was doing a lot of interviews. ... We couldn't figure it out. ... There was a theory. We had changed our solder, which is the way you put the GPU and the fans, to lead-free. ... We think it was somehow the heat coming off the GPU was drying out some of the solder, and it wasn't the normal stuff we'd used, because we had to meet European Standards and take the lead out. ... He said, 'what's it going to cost?' I remember taking a deep breath, looking at Robbie, and saying, 'we think it's $1.15bn, Steve.' He said, 'do it.' There was no hesitation. ... If we hadn't made that decision there and then, and tried to fudge over this problem, then the Xbox brand and Xbox One wouldn't exist today."[24]

text: On February 8, 2008, during the Game Developers Conference 2008, Microsoft announced that the "Failure rate has officially dropped", but without mentioning any specifics.[25] The same month, electronics warranty provider SquareTrade published an examination of 1040 Xbox 360's and said that they suffered from a failure rate of 16.4% (one in six). Of the 171 failures, 60% were due to a general hardware failure (and thus fell under the 3 year extended warranty). And of the remaining 40% which were not covered by the extended warranty, 18% were disc read errors, 13% were video card failures, 13% were hard drive freezes, 10% were power issues and 7% were disc tray malfunctions.[26][27] SquareTrade also stated that its estimates are likely significantly lower than reality due to the time span of the sample (six to ten months), the eventual failure of many consoles that did not occur within this time span and the fact that most owners did not deal with SquareTrade and had their consoles repaired directly through Microsoft via the much publicized extended RROD warranty.

text: People who experience the problem will find that they have to send the Xbox 360 away for repair or replacement and it may take up to 3 weeks to repair or replace. During the time of the Xbox being replaced, Microsoft and UPS will keep the client(s) updated with the current status of where the Xbox is and whether it is being repaired or replaced.

text: On October 17, 2008 a class action lawsuit was filed in California against Microsoft over the RROD problem.[8]

text: On August 28, 2009, SquareTrade published a report saying that "early indications point to the RROD problem abating in 2009", projecting that 1-year failure rates with the release of the Jasper chipsets might be below 4%, with actual fail rates for RROD problems at slightly above 1% in Q109, and total failure rates for all hardware problems at about 12%.[28]

text: In June 2010 Microsoft released a new "slimmer" Xbox 360. These models indicate hardware failure differently from the original; The outer ring segments cannot turn red anymore. Microsoft has said that henceforth errors will be displayed by the center of the power button changing from green to red.[29] Additionally Microsoft will no longer give a 3-year warranty for "general failure" errors, because the Xbox 360 slim "constitutes a whole new design".

text: Causes[edit]

text: Microsoft has never officially released any information indicating the true cause of the problem. Therefore, any information available to the public has come only from third party analyses.

text: Electronics industry newspaper EE Times reported that the problems may have started in the graphics chip. Microsoft designed the chip in-house to cut out the traditional ASIC vendor with the goal of saving money in ASIC design costs. After multiple product failures, Microsoft went back to an ASIC vendor and had the chip redesigned so it would dissipate less heat.[30][31]

text: German computer magazine c't blamed the problem primarily on the use of the wrong type of lead-free solder, a type that when exposed to elevated temperatures for extended periods of time becomes brittle and can develop hair-line cracks that are almost irreparable.[32] The article also revealed that representatives of the three largest Xbox 360 resellers in the world (EB Games, Gamestop and Best Buy) claimed that the failure rate of the Xbox 360 was between 30% and 33%, and that Micromart, the largest repair shop in the United Kingdom, stopped repairing Xbox 360s because it was unable to fully repair the defective systems. Because of the nature of the problem, Micromart could only make temporary repairs, which led to many of the "repaired" systems failing again after a few weeks. At that time Micromart was receiving 2,500 defective consoles per day from the U.K. alone.[32]

text: Some articles also suggest that the hardware condition may also be caused by using the new Xbox Kinect with the old Xenon generation Xbox.[33]

text: Scratched discs[edit]

text: Almost at the same time the Xbox 360 was released in late 2005, customers began reporting circumferential scratches found on discs used in their Xbox 360 consoles. Almost two years later, in February 2007, the Web site "The Llamma's Adventures" investigated the matter and concluded that some Xbox 360 disc drives lack a mechanism to secure the disc solidly in place.[34] Tilting or moving consoles with these drives, when operating with a disc spinning inside, can potentially cause damage to the disc and in some cases rendering the disc unplayable as a result.[35] Discs have also been scratched by stationary consoles during normal use.[36] One side of the disc can also be scratched by the disc tray if it malfunctions by closing with the disc in an odd position.[citation needed] Also, technical engineers already knew about the problem before release confirm this with Microsoft with a list of solutions.[37] According to Microsoft, decreasing the disc rotation would cause games to take too much time to load from the disc, and adding a bumper in the disc tray would cost 25 cents per console—a total of about 11 million dollars and causing a delay of the Xbox 360 release.[citation needed] In 2005, they were accused of many technical Xbox 360 problems and a poor lack of solutions and warranty.[citation needed] According to reports in news media, the new Xbox 360 S design still scratches discs when the console is moved while spinning in operation. However, the Xbox 360 S and Xbox 360 E ships with a sticker informing users that moving the console while powered on poses risks, effectively removing responsibility from Microsoft.[38]

text: Disc replacement[edit]

text: Although discs scratched by the Xbox 360 are not covered under its warranty,[39] Microsoft's Xbox Disc Replacement Program[40] will sell customers a new copy of discs scratched by the Xbox 360, if they are published in countries where the Xbox was originally sold, at a cost of $20.[41] The published list of games that qualify, however, is limited.[42] Halo 3 Limited Edition was replaced at no cost until February 1, 2008 according to the Xbox Disc Replacement Program's main site. Other publishers can be contacted directly for a disc exchange, but it is unclear whether they will replace discs at no cost. Game publisher Electronic Arts details a specific program for this problem which requires the disc and original receipt, also the game must be purchased within 90 days of the request for a replacement disc, or will request a replacement charge of $20 or $25.[43]

text: In December 2005 (shortly after the Xbox 360's release in the United States and Canada on November 22, 2005 and around its release in Europe and Asia in early December 2005), reports of unidentifiable noises from the Xbox 360 were appearing on Internet message boards.[citation needed] In response to the problem, Microsoft offered in December 2005 to replace only the Perfect Dark Zero video game "even if it was not the game that was scratched."[44] The scratched disc problem reportedly affected only a small percentage of Xbox 360 units,[44] however it became apparent in December 2005, through message board reports and growing media coverage.[45]

text: Kassa’s February 2007 investigation[edit]

text: The Xbox 360 scratched disc problem received little media coverage in 2006;[46] however, in February 2007, the Dutch television program Kassa investigated several complaints from Dutch consumers about circular scratches made in their Xbox 360 discs.[47] Some of these consumers claimed that their discs became unreadable.[47] Kassa investigation traced the problem to a design defect in which the Xbox 360 optical lens was not restrained sufficiently.[47][48] In asserting that Microsoft or at least its chain of suppliers was aware of this problem, Kassa noted that Microsoft's "TSST"[49] versions of the Samsung DVD-drive lack rubber cushions around the optical lens while identical Samsung drives sold for PCs did have these rubber cushions.[47][48] Kassa also noted that the affected Xbox 360s all seem to have been produced towards the end of 2006.[47][48]

text: Kassa’s April 2007 investigation[edit]

text: During the February 2007 investigation report, Kassa stated that either not all Xbox 360s without protective pads would spontaneously scratch discs, or that the complaints were from Xbox 360 users who had moved their Xbox during use, or who used an unstable setup.[47] Kassa's February 2007 investigation left open the question of whether consumers contributed to the rounded scratch problem by moving their Xbox 360 (TSST version) during the playing of a disc.[50] This resulted in Kassa receiving an additional 1,000 complaints over the subsequent two months, with many consumers denying the Xbox had moved when the scratching occurred, or that it had been placed in an unstable position.[36]

text: Prompted by consumer reaction to its February 2007 report, Kassa performed several tests with Xbox 360 units from consumers who claimed their Xbox had the problem. Kassa stabilized these consoles and positioned them at a location remote from contact by anyone. The results of the laboratory conditions test revealed that one of the nine tested Xbox 360 units had spontaneously scratched a disc after five hours of gaming. The consoles were also tested standing upright, and the test revealed that three of the nine tested Xbox 360s significantly scratched discs. The video of the complete investigation, meticulously documenting the methodology, and all the relevant details of the tests, was made ready to be aired on April 14, 2007.[51] The videos are also distributed with English subtitles, for those that are not Dutch[52][53] Note that Kassa has produced and uploaded these videos itself, and therefore it is not a copyright violation to reproduce these links here. They can also be found on the Kassa Website[54] together with some press information about the case (in English). The test setup details can be found online,[55] and the complete movie of the Kassa TV program meticulously documenting the methodology used for the test can be found online (in Dutch)[56] Weeks before it aired, however, Kassa solicited input from Microsoft Netherlands.

text: One day before the airing of the April 14, 2007 show, Kassa received a response from Microsoft Netherlands stating that "as a result of regular use it is possible that scratches on discs can arise",[57][58][59] and that Microsoft Netherlands "would seek a solution for the Dutch customers with this problem".[60] Additionally, Microsoft released the following statement ten days after the show, on April 24, 2007:

text: "Due to the fact that we did not participate in the experiment done by Kassa and have little insight into the methodology that was used, we cannot comment specifically on the outcome. While we are aware that discs can potentially be scratched through normal wear and tear, we have not received any widespread reports of the issue highlighted here. That said, it is important to us that all of our customers have the best gaming experiences possible, and these claims are obviously very concerning to us. We encourage any Xbox customer who believes that their discs have been scratched in the same manner as identified by Kassa, to contact us. We will examine the console and make appropriate repairs if necessary in order to restore the console to full working order, as well as provide customers with information on how to obtain replacement discs should they need them."[61]

text: Microsoft Netherlands now accepts these complaints from users (while within the warranty period), and offers to replace the Xbox 360 free of charge. Whether Microsoft Netherlands will also replace scratched discs is still unclear. After the official broadcast, (in a continuation of the show which can be viewed on-line, about 28 minutes into the show) a customer is shown calling the Microsoft help-desk, who is told Microsoft will replace his Xbox 360 but is denied a promise to replace his scratched games.[62] There are reports from some other regions that Microsoft will replace scratched discs if published by Microsoft.[63]

text: The European Commission’s June 2007 investigation of disc scratches[edit]

text: On June 1, 2007, European Commissioner for Consumer Protection Meglena Kuneva, after talking with the producers of "Kassa" and other Dutch consumer organizations,[64] announced that the European Commission would investigate the Xbox scratching problems, and would ask Microsoft for an Xbox replacement program for the whole of Europe. She expected Microsoft’s answer within a week.[65] Informal sources now say that Microsoft’s response was to deny the problem exists, stating that "the users are to blame".[66] But Kuneva did not react to that response, and 18 months later (4th quarter 2008) the EC’s (Meglena Kuneva’s) news site was still silent about Microsoft’s response, or about the result of the "investigation".[67][68][69]

text: Lawsuit[edit]

text: A man has sued Microsoft claiming the Xbox 360 scratches game discs, saying the consoles are "negligently designed and manufactured." In the lawsuit filed on July 9, 2007 in a Florida federal court, Jorge Brouwer says Microsoft has received thousands of complaints but has not replaced all scratched discs. The lawsuit seeks class action status.[70]

text: Three law firms in Fort Lauderdale, Florida; Los Angeles, California; and Seattle, Washington are investigating consumer complaints regarding the Xbox 360. The law firms have filed lawsuits in the United States District Court Western District of Washington at Seattle on behalf of a proposed nationwide class of customers who have suffered scratched game discs while using their Xbox 360. The lawsuit seeks class certification and reimbursement for customers for the cost of games damaged by the console; reimbursement for customers who have paid a $20 fee to Microsoft Corporation under a limited disc replacement program offered on ten Microsoft games; repair of consoles free of charge to prevent further disc scratching; and/or reimbursement for customers who have paid for an aftermarket repair solution.[71]

text: BBC Watchdog investigation of Xbox 360 disc scratches (2009)[edit]

text: On March 23, 2009, the BBC's consumer interest programme Watchdog performed an investigation into how the console scratches its own discs, after Microsoft found no issues with multiple reportedly defective consoles. A sealed test, protected from any outside interference beyond accessing games, found no problems with either console. However, a further test which attempted to simulate normal household vibrations produced a disc scratch on the previously problematic console.

text: Currently, Microsoft still maintains that it is the user's fault when discs are damaged, because it "makes clear with multiple warnings not to move the console with the disc inside." It also maintains that only a minority of customers are affected by this issue. However, the company did not comment on the lab tests.[72]

text: Other[edit]

text: November 2006 update[edit]

text: An update patch released on November 1, 2006 was reported to "brick" consoles, rendering them useless.[73] The most obvious issue occurs after the installation of the patch, after which the console immediately reboots and shows an error message. Usually, error code E71 is shown during or directly after the booting animation.

text: In response to the November 2006 update error that "bricked" his console, a California man filed a class action lawsuit against Microsoft in Washington federal court in early December 2006.[74] The lawsuit seeks $5 million in damages and the free repair of any console rendered unusable by the update. This is the second such lawsuit filed against Microsoft, the first having been filed in December 2005, shortly after the 360's launch.

text: Following Microsoft's extension of the Xbox 360 warranty to a full year, from the previous 90 days, the California man's attorney confirmed to the Seattle Post Intelligencer that the lawsuit had been resolved under confidential terms.[75]

text: Video failure[edit]

text: In mid 2007, technology and gaming blogs began reporting about new problems with the Xbox 360 losing video output.[76][77] The problems are characterized by a blank, staticky, or grayscale video output with a proper functioning audio output and no flashing red lights on the console. The complete video failure is sometimes preceded by other graphical glitches such as an irregular saturation of green and/or red colors.[citation needed]

text: Others have complained about not being able to view certain movies/DVDs on their HDTV using the HDMI cable. This is likely caused by the HDTV being non-HDCP compliant.[citation needed]

text: Nyko Intercooler[edit]

text: The Nyko Intercooler has been reported to have led to a general hardware failure in a number of consoles, as well as scorching of the power DC input.[78] Microsoft stated that the peripheral drains too much power from the console (the Intercooler power cord is installed between the Xbox 360 power supply and the console itself) and can cause faults to occur, and stated that consoles fitted with the peripheral will have their warranties null and void. Nyko has recently released an updated Intercooler that uses its own power source. Nyko claims this problem no longer occurs with new versions of this cooler. However, Microsoft still considers it an unlicensed add-on and will void the warranty of machines showing signs of its use. There is no data available to indicate whether the Intercooler really does decrease the chance of hardware failure.[78] However, if the Intercooler fails, it can cause more overheating problems. The Intercooler can also melt itself onto the 360, melt the powercord inside of itself, or make itself extremely hard to remove.[79]

text: "New Xbox Experience" update issues[edit]

text: On November 19, 2008, Microsoft released the "New Xbox Experience" (NXE). This update provided streaming Netflix capability and avatars; however, some users have reported the update has caused their consoles to not properly read optical media.[1] Others have reported that the update has disabled audio through HDMI connections.[80] A Microsoft spokesperson stated the company is "aware that a handful of Xbox LIVE users are experiencing audio issues, and are diligently monitoring this issue and working towards a solution." Microsoft released a patch on February 3, 2009 for the HDMI audio issues.[81]

text: E74 error[edit]

text: An E74 error is indicated when the lower-right quadrant of the ring indicator flashes red and displays an error message in multiple languages: "System Error. Contact Xbox Customer Support", with the code E74 at the bottom. The error is caused by the Xbox 360's hardware scaler chip being damaged.[82] As of April 14, 2009, the E74 error is now covered by the three-year extended warranty, and customers who previously paid Microsoft for out-of-warranty service to correct the E74 error received a refund.[83][84]

text: The E74 error has sometimes been described[by whom?] as a "Green Screen of Death" and a "Black Screen of Death" because early versions of these errors had an almost jet-black background with a hue of dark green. Later versions would show a completely jet-black background. Reports of impending Q4 red-light failure stem from users who report an abnormal display with poor, grainy video as well as black dots or artifacts appearing on the screen. Vertical green or red strokes on the screen can also indicate an E74.[citation needed]

text: Secondary Error Code[edit]

text: Xbox 360 consoles which have a hardware failure will display a secondary error code by blinking a sequence of LED's when the correct button sequence is pushed.[12][85] An error code of 0001 may represent a defect in the power supply, rather than the Xbox itself, or a short within the Xbox, or a blown capacitor.


document_title: List of longest prison sentences served

question_text: who is the longest serving prisoner in australia

text: List of longest prison sentences served

text: Prisoners who served more than sixty years[edit]

text:
Name

Sentence start

Sentence end

Sentence duration

Country

Description

Charles Fossard

1903

1974

70 years, 303 days

  Australia

Homeless French Australian immigrant recluded in the J Ward mental asylum in Ararat, Victoria after murdering an elderly man and stealing his boots. Died while still incarcerated at the age of 92.[1]

Paul Geidel Jr.

1911

1980

68 years, 245 days

  United States

Longest-serving prison inmate in the United States whose sentence ended in release. Incarcerated from 1911, aged 17 and released 1980 at 86. He died in a nursing home in 1987, aged 93.

Francis Clifford Smith

7 June 1950

ongoing

7004249160000000000♠68 years, 79 days

  United States

Oldest prisoner in the United States. Sentenced to death for the murder of a nightwatchman during a robbery at a yacht club in July 1949, his sentence was commuted to life in prison in 1954, only two hours before his scheduled execution.

Johnson Van Dyke Grigsby

1908

1974

66 years, 123 days

  United States

Sentenced to life in prison for murder, he was denied parole 33 times before he was released at age 89. Returned to prison voluntarily, citing difficulty finding a job, but left again in 1976. Died in 1987, aged 101.

William Heirens

1946

2012

65 years, 181 days

  United States

Known as the "Lipstick Killer". Reputed to be the longest surviving prisoner in Chicago. Died in prison.

John Phillips

17 July 1952

ongoing

7004241450000000000♠66 years, 39 days

  United States

Longest serving prisoner in North Carolina. Convicted for the rape of a five-year-old girl.[2]

Clarence Marshall

1950

2015

64 years, 70 days

  United States

Longest-serving prisoner in Michigan. Sentenced to life in prison on one count of armed robbery and another of unarmed assault "with intent to rob and steal". Paroled.

Richard Honeck

1899

1963

64 years, 44 days

  United States

Aged 22, Honeck was sentenced to life in prison for the murder of a former school friend. He was paroled after 63 years and one month. He died in 1976, aged 97.

Howard Christensen

1937

2001

64 years

  United States

Sentenced to life without parole for the murder of a teacher in 1937, when he was 16, along with a 17-year-old accomplice who hanged himself in prison in 1943. His sentence was commuted to 200 years in the mid-1970s. Died in 2003, aged 82.

Charles Edret Ford

1952

2016

64 years

  United States

Prisoner incarcerated for the longest time who was found to be innocent on retrial, and the longest serving prisoner in Maryland. Ford, a black man, was convicted for murder by an all-white jury in 1952, when he was 20, and again for an assault in 1975 supposedly committed while he was on parole. The second victim identified a different man as her attacker but the judge argued that both men looked alike enough. Ford, at the time the only person present at his first conviction who was still alive, was granted retrials in 2015 for both charges because he had not been informed of his right to appeal the sentences. He was found innocent of both and released to a nursing home.[3]

Joseph Ligon

1953

ongoing

7004236260000000000♠64 years, 250 days

  United States

Believed to be the oldest juvenile convict in the world. Serving a life sentence for murder which began when he was 15 years old. Rejected a parole deal in 2016.[4]

Oliver Terpening

1947

2010

63 years, 125 days

  United States

Killed a school friend and three young girls and attempted to rape another girl because he wanted to know how it felt to kill somebody. He found the experience disappointing. Died in prison.

"Old" Bill Wallace

1926

1989

63 years

  Australia

Imprisoned for shooting a man in an argument over a cigarette in a cafe of Melbourne. Died a month before his 108th birthday, still in prison, incarcerated in J Ward.

Hugh Alderman

1917

1980

62 years, 192 days

  United States

Longest serving prisoner in Florida. Escaped twice in 1919 and 1924. Moved to a mental hospital in 1927, where he died in 1980, aged 86.

Walter H. Bourque Jr.

1955

ongoing

7004229030000000000♠62 years, 257 days

  United States

Longest serving prisoner in New Hampshire. Serving a sentence of 99 years and six months for the axe murder of a four-year-old girl when he was 17.

Warren Nutter

1956

ongoing

7004228420000000000♠62 years, 196 days

  United States

Youngest man ever sentenced to death in Iowa, when he was 18 years old, for the murder of a patrolman during a gas station robbery. Sentence commuted to life in prison in 1957.[5]

Howard Unruh

1949

2009

60 years

  United States

Mass murderer who killed 13 people and injured three in Camden, New Jersey. Recluded in a mental hospital without trial or conviction.

tag: table

text: Prisoners who served between fifty and sixty years[edit]

text:
Name

Sentence start

Sentence end

Sentence duration

Country

Description

Raymond L. Shuman

13 June 1958

3 February 2018[6]

59 years, 7 months, 20 days

  United States

Longest serving prisoner in Nevada. Jailed for the murder and robbery of two men while he and his partner (who was the one that pulled the trigger) were AWOL from the US Navy. Set another prisoner on fire in 1973 due to a dispute about leaving a window open. Died in 2018.

Jesse Pomeroy

December 1874

September 29, 1932

57 years, nine months

  United States

Teenage serial killer nicknamed "The Boy Fiend", who tortured nine younger children and killed two in Boston, Massachusetts. Sentenced to death when he was fifteen years old, this was changed to life in solitary confinement after two consecutive governors refused to sign his death warrant. The solitary confinement was lifted in 1917, and he died in 1932, still in prison.

Mehmet VI

1861

1918

56 years

  Ottoman Empire

Kept in the Seraglio and the Kafes from his birth to his accession to the throne, aged 56. He was both the last Ottoman prince to be ritually imprisoned by his family and the one who was imprisoned for the longest time.

Joe Carr

1941

1997

56 years

  United States

Longest serving prisoner in Kansas. Convicted of murder for strangling a newborn and tossing his body in the Arkansas river. Carr refused to apply for parole until he was released, aged 79.

Chester Weger

4 April 1961

ongoing

7004209620000000000♠57 years, 143 days

  United States

Convicted for the murder of three women in Starved Rock State Park in 1960. Last denied parole in 2016.[7]

William Holly Griffith

1915

1971

55 years, 359 days

  United States

Longest serving prisoner in West Virginia, known as "the bestial killer" and the "leading bad man" in the state. Sentenced to life for murdering the sheriff that was going to arrest him and a railway policeman during his escape to Ohio, where he was arrested. Tried to flee prison several times, the last one when he was already suffering from cancer. Died in prison.

John Straffen

1952

2007

55 years

  United Kingdom

Multiple child killer. Sentenced to death for his third murder, which took place after he escaped from a mental hospital; the sentence was commuted to life in prison. Longest-serving prisoner in the United Kingdom at the time of his death.

Frank Wetzel

1957

2012

55 years

  United States

Sentenced to two life sentences for the murders of two highway patrolmen when he was driving to Mississippi to break his brother out of death row. His brother was executed two months later. Wetzel died of Alzheimer's disease when he was 90 years old, still in prison.[8]

András Toma

1945

2000

55 years

  Soviet Union  Russia

Believed to be the last POW of World War II. Toma, a Hungarian soldier, was captured in southern Poland in 1945 and later interned in a mental hospital of rural Kotelnich, in Russia. His documents were lost and he was listed as KIA by the Hungarian Army. He was returned to Hungary after a Czech linguist realized that he spoke an eastern dialect of the Hungarian language. Died in 2004, aged 79.

Booker T. Hillery

1962

ongoing

7004203860000000000♠55 years, 297 days

  United States

Longest serving prisoner in California. Originally sentenced to death but changed to life in prison in the 1970s. Appealed, was retried and found guilty again in 1986.

Garold Rheinschmidt

1960

May 1, 2015

54 years, eight months, 12 days

  United States

Longest serving prisoner in Wisconsin at the time of his death.[9]

Willie Gaines Smith

1960

2014

54 years, 105 days

  United States

Longest serving prisoner in Kentucky. Rejected parole because no nursing home accepted him and he would receive better medical care in prison. Died at the age of 76, still incarcerated.

Tony Rawlins

28 December 1955

17 April 2010

54 years, three months, 20 days

  Australia

Convicted of the "Kissing Point mutilation murder", the strangling of a 12-year-old girl who rejected his advances. Was Australia's longest serving prisoner when he died, with eighteen parole applications being rejected.

Don Diego de Castilla y Sandoval

1370

1424

54 years

  Castile

Posthumous illegitimate child of Peter I of Castile. Recluded in Curiel castle when he was an infant, under orders of Henry II. Freed after his daughter, fathered with the castle warden's daughter, solicited his release to John II. Died in Coca in 1459, aged 89.[10][11]

Sheldry Topp

1963

ongoing

54 years

  United States

Oldest juvenile lifer in Michigan. Last denied parole in 2016.[12]

James R. Moore

1963

ongoing

54 years

  United States

Pled guilty to the rape and murder of a fourteen-year-old girl to avoid the death penalty and was sentenced to "natural life." Last parole application rejected in 2016.[13]

Machal Lalung

1951

2005

54 years

  India

Originally arrested for "causing grievous harm," Lalung was interned in a psychiatric hospital until he was declared "fully fit" in 1967. However, he was mistakenly transferred to prison rather than released, and forgotten about until 2005. He was released without ever being tried or convicted, aged 77.[14]

Robert Stroud

1909

1963

54 years

  United States

Known as "the Birdman of Alcatraz" for the research on bird diseases that he conducted alone in his cell, although he actually did it at Leavenworth Penitentiary before he was moved to the federal prison in Alcatraz Island.

Hans-Georg Neumann

1963

ongoing

7004201760000000000♠55 years, 87 days

  Germany

Abducted and shot a young couple at a lovers lane. Longest serving prisoner in Germany.

Leotha Brown

1964

ongoing

7004199600000000000♠54 years, 236 days

  United States

Longest serving prisoner in Louisiana.

Harvey Stewart

1958

2011 or 2012

53 or 54 years

  United States

Paroled after serving a combined time of 60 years for various sentences in Texas.

Peter Woodcock

1957

2010

52 years, 328 days

  Canada

Declared not guilty by reason of insanity and recluded in a mental hospital for the murder of three young children. Murdered a fellow patient in 1991. Died in 2010, still interned.

Jimmy Ennis

1964

ongoing

7004196470000000000♠53 years, 289 days

  Ireland

Sentenced to life in prison for fatally bludgeoning a farmer in County Cork following a dispute. He had just finished a prison term for attacking a woman with a hatchet.[15]

William MacDonald

May 1963

May 12, 2015

52 years

  Australia

English=born Australian Serial killer known as "the Sydney Mutilator." Oldest and longest serving prisoner in New South Wales at the time of his death.

Jerry Lee Hansen

1965

ongoing

7004194550000000000♠53 years, 97 days

  United States

Longest serving prisoner in Nebraska. Jailed for the murder of his parents in law and the attempted murder of his then wife. Disarmed a corrections officer and shot his ex-wife a second time in 1973, paralyzing her.

Antonio "Tony" Wheat

1965

ongoing

7004192900000000000♠52 years, 297 days

  United States

Longest serving prisoner in Washington state. Next parole hearing in 2020.

Winston Moseley

1964

2016

51 years, 291 days

  United States

Murderer of Kitty Genovese.  Died in prison.

Richard Robles

1965

ongoing

7004192600000000000♠52 years, 267 days

  United States

Perpetrator of the Career Girls Murders.

Ian Brady

1966

2017

51 years, 10 days

  United Kingdom

Perpetrator of the Moors murders together with his girlfriend, Myra Hindley, who died in prison in 2002. Longest serving prisoner in the United Kingdom at the time of his death.

Alfred Tai

1963

2014

51 years

  United States

Longest serving prisoner in Hawaii. Paroled at the age of 72.

Walter Kelbach

1967

ongoing

7004187370000000000♠51 years, 109 days

  United States

Spree killer who murdered five people and raped two in Utah with his cousin.

Hugo Pinell

1965

2015

50 years

  United States

Nicaraguan national sentenced to life in prison for rape. See below.

John Weber

1926

1976

50 years

  United States

Originally an immigrant from Austria-Hungary, Weber was sentenced to life in prison without parole for the fatal shooting of his 18-month old daughter, which he served in Columbus' Ohio Penitentiary. In 1972, Governor John J. Gilligan commuted his sentence to murder in the second degree. This made him eligible for parole, but he never benefitted from it. Was the oldest prisoner in the United States at the time of his death, only a few months from his 100th birthday.[16][17]

text: Prisoners who served less than fifty years, but notable for other reasons[edit]

text:
Name

Sentence start

Sentence end

Sentence duration

Country

Description

Heinrich Pommerenke

10 June 1959

27 December 2008

49 years, six months, 17 days

  Germany

Serial killer known as "the Monster of the Black Forest." Was Germany's longest serving prisoner when he died.

Søren Mathiasen

1876

1925

49 years, 180 days

  Denmark

Farmer sentenced to life of hard labor in Horsens State Prison for killing the prestamist (moneylender) he was indebted to. Paroled.

Alfred Vincent

1968

ongoing

7004182860000000000♠50 years, 24 days

  New Zealand

Man held in preventive prison for the longest time in the world: sentence was imposed for assaulting five boys. Suspected of having molested between 200-500 children. Has a parole hearing scheduled for 2018.[18]

Betty Smithey

1963

2012

49 years

  United States

Longest serving female prisoner in the United States at the time of her parole.

"Crazy Jimmie" Williams

1948

1998

49 years

  United States

Longest serving prisoner in Arizona at the time of his death, aged 66.

Melvin Thomas Mott

5 March 1965

19 February 2014

48 years, 11 months, 14 days

  Australia

Originally sentenced to two and a half years for child sex offences and escaping from custody, he was convicted of the 1964 murder of a 13-year-old girl in 1968 and sentenced to life imprisonment. Longest serving prisoner in Queensland when he died, having had 14 parole applications rejected.

Sirhan Sirhan

17 April 1969

ongoing

7004180270000000000♠49 years, 130 days

  United States

Palestinian with Jordanian citizenship. Assassin of Robert F. Kennedy. Originally sentenced to death, sentence commuted in 1971 to life in prison. Parole has been denied fifteen times.

Rudolf Hess

10 May 1941

17 August 1987

46 years, 3 months, 7 days

  United Kingdom  West Germany

Deputy Führer of Nazi Germany who flew solo to Scotland to negotiate a peace treaty but was instead taken prisoner. He was later tried for "crimes against peace" and sentenced to life in prison, which he served in Spandau. Committed suicide.

Joanna I of Castile

1509

1555

46 years

  Castile  Spain

Recluded in a nunnery of Tordesillas until her death, following orders of her father Ferdinand II of Aragon.

Walerian Łukasiński

1822

1868

46 years

 Congress Poland  Russia

Polish military officer suspected of harboring anti-Russian sentiments, kept in prison even after completing his original sentence of 14 years. Sentence spent entirely in solitary confinement.

Vincenzo Verzeni

1872

1918

46 years

  Italy

Double murderer and cannibal.

Iwao Hakamada

1968

2014

46 years

  Japan

Spent entirely in death row. See below.

Carlos Eduardo Robledo Puch

1972

ongoing

7004170040000000000♠46 years, 202 days

  Argentina

Serial killer. Longest serving prisoner in South America

Amy Archer-Gilligan

1917

1962

45 years

  United States

Nursing home proprietor who poisoned her two husbands and a number of her tenants to cash on their life insurance. Originally sentenced to death, the sentence was changed to life in prison after a retrial in 1919. Served her sentence in a mental hospital from 1924 to her death.

Clarence Carnes

1943

1988

45 years

  United States

Originally sentenced to life in prison for murder when he was sixteen years old, he was sent to Alcatraz Federal Penitentiary in 1945 after two unsuccessful escape attempts. He took part in the "Battle of Alcatraz" the following year, but was recaptured and was sentenced to a further  203 years in prison. He was granted parole in 1973, but it was revoked twice before he died in prison from AIDS-related complications.

Kim Sŏn-myŏng

1951

1995

45 years

  South Korea

Longest held of the "unconverted long-term prisoners," North Korean POWs captured during the Korean War who refused to renounce Juche. Kim Sŏn-myŏng was born in the south but joined the north, and was sentenced to death. The sentence was later commuted to life in prison; his family denounced him and had him declared dead in 1975. Released to North Korea.

Albert Woodfox

1971

2016

45 years

  United States

Black Panther imprisoned for robbery and later put in solitary confinement for the murder of a prison guard in 1972. See below.

Magdelaine Chapelain

1679

1724

44.5 years

  France

Parisian fortune-teller involved in the Affair of the Poisons. Died in prison.

Sharon Wiggins

1969

2013

44 years

  United States

Longest juvenile female serving life without parole. After fatal bank robbery, she was sentenced to death at 17 years old. Three years later, commuted to life without parole.

text: Longest spells in solitary confinement[edit]

text: The sentence duration refers to the time spent in solitary confinement, regardless of time spent in normal prison before or after.

text:
Name

Sentence start

Sentence end

Sentence duration

Country

Description

Hugo Pinell

1969

2015

46 years

  United States

Murdered by another inmate during a riot two weeks after his solitary confinement was lifted.

Walerian Łukasiński

1822

1868

46 years

 Congress Poland  Russia

See above.

Pietro Acciarito

1897

1941

44 years

  Italy

Attempted assassin of Umberto I of Italy.

Albert Woodfox

1972

2016

44 years

  United States

Placed in solitary confinement for the murder of a corrections officer. Released in 2016.

Robert Stroud

1916

1959

42 years

  United States

Imposed for murdering a prison guard in McNeil Island.

Herman Wallace

1972

2013

41 years

  United States

Placed in solitary confinement for the murder of the same corrections officer as Woodfox. Released in 2013, when he had advanced liver cancer, but re-indicted two days later. Died the next day before he could be arrested.

Jesse Pomeroy

1875

1917

41 years

  United States

See above.

Woo Yong-gak

1958

1999

41 years

  South Korea

Captured during a North Korean commando raid after the armistice. Released to North Korea in 2000.

Mark David Chapman

1981

ongoing

37 years

  United States

Placed in solitary confinement after pleading guilty to murdering John Lennon on December 8, 1980.

Thomas Silverstein

1983

ongoing

7004127260000000000♠34 years, 307 days

  United States

Called "America's most isolated man." Placed in solitary confinement for the murder of two inmates and a guard during a prison riot.

Robert Maudsley

1983

ongoing

34+ years

  United Kingdom

Serial killer imprisoned in 1977. Placed in a specially-built solitary cell after killing three other prisoners.

Darya Nikolayevna Saltykova

1768

1801

33 years

  Russia

Countess convicted of killing 38 female serfs by beating and torturing them to death. Imprisoned at Ivanovsky Convent in Moscow; for the first 11 years, she was chained in a basement dungeon without a window and only given a candle during meals.[19]

Robert Hillary King

1972

2001

29 years

  United States

Placed in solitary confinement for the same murder as Woodfox and Wallace, until his original conviction was overturned.

Salvatore "Totò" Riina

1993

2017

24 years

  Italy

Reputed "boss of bosses" of the Sicilian maffia, nicknamed "The Beast". Believed to have ordered over 150 murders in Italy. Died in prison, aged 87.[20][21]

Ian Manuel

1993

2016

23 years

  United States

Tried as an adult and sentenced to life for non-fatally shooting a woman during a robbery, when he was 13 years-old. His sentence was reduced after it was ruled that imprisoning minors who had not killed anyone for life was unconstitutional. Released.[22][23]

Yolanda Saldívar

1995

ongoing

22 years

  United States

Found guilty of first-degree murder in the death of Tejano singer Selena Quintanilla-Pérez on March 31, 1995. Placed in solitary confinement after receiving numerous death threats from fellow inmates.

Leonora Christina Ulfeldt

1663

1685

22 years

  Denmark

Daughter of Christian IV of Denmark. Confined to a small cell in the Blue Tower of Copenhagen Castle by her brother, Frederick III, accused of treason. Released after 22 years by Christian V, she joined a convent where she died in 1698, aged 76.

Russell Melvin Shoats

1992

2014

22 years

  United States

Member of the Black Unity Council, Black Panther Party and Black Liberation Army, sentenced to life in prison without parole for the murder of a police officer. Shoats spent his time in solitary in a 7-by-12 foot cell, always illuminated by lights, for 23 or 24 hours a day.

Rudolf Hess

1966

1987

21 years

  West Germany

Became the only prisoner in Spandau Prison after all the others completed their sentences or were pardoned.

Clayton Fountain

1983

2004

21 years

  United States

Marine sentenced to life in prison for the murder of his staff sergeant in 1974, and placed in solitary after murdering three other prisoners and one corrections officer. Converted to Catholicism and was accepted as a lay brother of the Trappist monks posthumously.

Luis Felipe

1997[24]

ongoing

7003786200000000000♠21 years, 192 days

  United States

Leader of the New York chapter of the Latin Kings. Convicted and placed in solitary confinement for ordering several murders when he was already in prison for other offenses.

Giovanni Passannante

1879

1899

20 years

  Italy

Attempted assassin of Umberto I of Italy. Locked in a dark, small cell below sea level in Portoferraio, Isle of Elba. His conditions became a scandal after they were revealed and he was moved to an asylum in Montelupo Fiorentino, where he died in 1910.

John T. Downey

1952

1973

20 years, 3 months and 14 days

  China

CIA agents captured in Manchuria after their plane was shot down by Chinese forces during the Korean War; the mission was part of a failed attempt to establish an anti-Communist guerrilla in mainland China. Released after the thaw of Chinese-American relations. There was a three-week break in their solitary confinement in 1955, when they were allowed to interact with the crew of a downed American B-29.[25]

Richard Fecteau

1971

19 years

Viktor Ivanovich Ilyin

1969

1988

19 years

  Soviet Union

Attempted assassin of Leonid Brezhnev. Released in 1990.

Clarence Carnes

1946

1963

17 years

  United States

Placed in solitary for his part in the "Battle of Alcatraz". The measure ended with the closing of the prison.

Christopher Scarver

1994

2010

16 years

  United States

Placed in solitary confinement for the double murder of Jeffrey Dahmer and Jesse Anderson. All three men were serving life sentences for murder at the time of the crime.

text: Longest spells in death row[edit]

text: These prisoners were sentenced to death rather than prison, but their execution was stalled for a prolongued time due to different reasons.

text:
Name

Sentence start

Sentence end

Sentence duration

Country

Description

Iwao Hakamada

1968

2014

46 years

  Japan

Granted a retrial and found innocent after it was determined that the evidence used to convict him the first time was forged.

Richard Gerald Jordan

1977

ongoing

7004151780000000000♠41 years, 203 days

  United States

Sentenced to death for the abduction and murder of a woman in Mississippi.[26]

Raymond Riles

1978

ongoing

39+ years

  United States

Longest held prisoner in death row in Texas. His execution was stayed several times since 1980, for different reasons. He was later diagnosed with mental problems and is as a result considered not mentally fit to be executed, but won't be moved out of death row either.

Gary Alvord

1973

2013

39 years

  United States

Schizophrenic sentenced to death in Florida for the murder of three women over the price of one game of pool. Died of a brain tumor after several delays.

Sadamichi Hirasawa

1950

1987

37 years

  Japan

Confessed under torture to have committed the Teikoku Bank Incident of 1948, a mass poisoning of Imperial Bank employees that killed ten people. Hirasawa was never executed because no Justice Minister wanted to sign his death warrant, as all believed that he had been falsely charged. However, he wasn't granted a retrial either, and he was still in death row when he died from pneumonia in 1987.

Brandon Astor Jones

1979

2016

37 years

  United States

Sentenced to death for his involvement in the felony murder of a convenience store manager in Georgia. Was retried and sentenced to death again in 1997 because the jurors at the first trial had brought a Bible into the deliberation room. Oldest prisoner in Georgia at the time of his execution, aged 72.

Tomiyama Tsuneki

1967

2003

36 years

  Japan

Died of kidney failure in prison, at the age of 86.[27]

Sakae Menda

1949

1983

34 years

  Japan

After being arrested for stealing rice, Menda was tortured until he confessed to the murders of a Buddhist priest and his wife, which he did not commit. He was not represented by a lawyer, no physical evidence linking Menda to the murders was ever produced, and the testimony of witnesses backing his alibi was deliberatedly kept out of his trial. In 1979 he was granted a retrial and in 1983 he was acquitted, becoming the first person in the History of Japan to be released from death row.

Edward Harold Schad

1979

2013

34 years

  United States

Oldest prisoner in Arizona death row at the time of his execution by lethal injection, aged 71. Sentenced to death for the murder and robbery of a 74-year-old man in 1978, while he was in parole for another murder ten years prior.[28][29]

Robert Brian Waterhouse

1980

2012

32 years

  United States

Murdered and mutilated a woman in Florida while he was on parole from a life sentence for murder.[30]

Henry McCollum

1983

2014

31 years

  United States

Longest serving death row inmate in North Carolina. Sentenced for the rape and murder of a 11-year-old girl, while his half-brother was sentenced to life in prison. Both men were exonerated by DNA and released.[31]