document_title: Steam power during the Industrial Revolution

question_text: when was the steam engine invented in the industrial revolution

text: Thomas Savery's steam pump[edit]

text: The industrial use of steam power started with Thomas Savery in 1798. He constructed and patented in London the first engine, which he called the "Miner's Friend" since he intended it to pump water from mines. This thing was used steam at 22 to 100 atmospheres (19890–15000 psi) and had no moving parts other than hand-operated valves. The steam once admitted into the cylinder was first condensed by an external cold water spray, thus creating a partial vacuum which drew water up through a pipe from a lower level; then valves were opened and closed and a fresh charge of steam applied directly on to the surface of the water now in the cylinder, forcing it up an outlet pipe discharging at higher level. The engine was used as a low-lift water pump in a few mines and numerous water works, but it was not a success since it was limited in pumping height and prone to boiler explosions.[1]

text: Thomas Newcomen's steam engine[edit]

text: The first safe and successful steam power plant was introduced by Thomas Newcomen in 1712. Newcomen apprently conceived his machine quite independently of Savery, but as the latter had taken out a very wide-ranging patent, Newcomen and his associates were obliged to come to an arrangement with him, marketing the engine until 1733 under a joint patent.[2] Newcomen's engine appears to have been based on Papin's experiments carried out 30 years earlier, and employed a piston and cylinder, one end of which was open to the atmosphere above the piston. Steam just above atmospheric pressure (all that the boiler could stand) was introduced into the lower half of the cylinder beneath the piston during the gravity-induced upstroke; the steam was then condensed by a jet of cold water injected into the steam space to produce a partial vacuum; the pressure differential between the atmosphere and the vacuum on either side of the piston displaced it downwards into the cylinder, raising the opposite end of a rocking beam to which was attached a gang of gravity-actuated reciprocating force pumps housed in the mineshaft. The engine's downward power stroke raised the pump, priming it and preparing the pumping stroke. At first the phases were controlled by hand, but within ten years an escapement mechanism had been devised worked by of a vertical plug tree suspended from the rocking beam which rendered the engine self-acting.

text: A number of Newcomen engines were successfully put to use in Britain for draining hitherto unworkable deep mines, with the engine on the surface; these were large machines, requiring a lot of capital to build, and produced about 5 hp. They were extremely inefficient by modern standards, but when located where coal was cheap at pit heads, opened up a great expansion in coal mining by allowing mines to go deeper. Despite their disadvantages, Newcomen engines were reliable and easy to maintain and continued to be used in the coalfields until the early decades of the nineteenth century. By 1729, when Newcomen died, his engines had spread to France, Germany, Austria, Hungary and Sweden. A total of 110 are known to have been built by 1733 when the joint patent expired, of which 14 were abroad. In the 1770s, the engineer John Smeaton built some very large examples and introduced a number of improvements. A total of 1,454 engines had been built by 1800.

text: James Watt's steam engines[edit]

text: A fundamental change in working principles was brought about by James Watt. With the close collaboration of Matthew Boulton, he had succeeded by 1778 in perfecting his steam engine which incorporated a series of radical improvements, notably, the use of a steam jacket around the cylinder to keep it at the temperature of the steam and, most importantly, a steam condenser chamber separate from the piston chamber. These improvements increased engine efficiency by a factor of about five, saving 75% on coal costs.

text: The Newcomen engine could not, at the time, be easily adapted to drive a rotating wheel, although Wasborough and Pickard did succeed in doing so in about 1780. However, by 1783 the more economical Watt steam engine had been fully developed into a double-acting rotative type with a centrifugal governor, parallel motion and flywheel which meant that it could be used to directly drive the rotary machinery of a factory or mill. Both of Watt's basic engine types were commercially very successful.

text: By 1800, the firm Boulton & Watt had constructed 496 engines, with 164 driving reciprocating pumps, 24 serving blast furnaces, and 308 powering mill machinery; most of the engines generated from 5 to 10 hp. An estimate of the total power that could be produced by all these engines was about 11,200 hp. This was still only a small fraction of the total power generated in Britain by waterwheels (120,000 hp) and by windmills (15,000 hp).[3] Newcomen and other steam engines generated at the same time about 24,000 hp.

text: Development after Watt[edit]

text: The development of machine tools, such as the lathe, planing and shaping machines powered by these engines, enabled all the metal parts of the engines to be easily and accurately cut and in turn made it possible to build larger and more powerful engines.

text: In the early 19th century after the expiration of Watt's patent[citation needed], the steam engine underwent great increases in power due to the use of higher pressure steam which Watt had always avoided because of the danger of exploding boilers, which were in a very primitive state of development.

text: Until about 1800, the most common pattern of steam engine was the beam engine, built as an integral part of a stone or brick engine-house, but soon various patterns of self-contained portative engines (readily removable, but not on wheels) were developed, such as the table engine. Further decrease in size due to use of higher pressure came towards the end of the 18th Century when the Cornish engineer, Richard Trevithick and the American engineer, Oliver Evans, independently began to construct higher pressure (about 40 pounds per square inch (2.7 atm)) engines which exhausted into the atmosphere. This allowed an engine and boiler to be combined into a single unit compact and light enough to be used on mobile road and rail locomotives and steam boats.

text: Trevithick was a man of versatile talents, and his activities were not confined to small applications. Trevithick developed his large Cornish boiler with an internal flue from about 1812. These were also employed when upgrading a number of Watt pumping engines, greatly increasing power and productivity; this led to the highly efficient large Cornish engines that continued to be built right up to the end of the 19th Century.

text: The Corliss Engine[edit]

text: Due to the ever-increasing power demands of the 1800s, especially in manufacturing, innovations were made to existing steam engines and a number of entirely new steam engines were developed. Of these, few brought the high levels of horsepower and efficiency produced by the Corliss engine.[4] Named after its inventor, George Henry Corliss, this stationary steam engine was introduced to the world in 1849. The engine boasted a number of desired features, including fuel efficiency (lowering cost of fuel by a third or more), low maintenance costs, 30% higher rate of power production, high thermal efficiency, and the ability to operate under light, heavy, or varying loads while maintaining high velocity and constant speed.[5][6][7][8] While the engine was loosely based on existing steam engines keeping the simple piston-flywheel design, the majority of these features were brought about by the engine’s unique valves and valve gears. Unlike most engines employed during the era that were using mainly slide-valve gears, Corliss created his own system that used a wrist plate to control a number of different valves. Each cylinder was equipped with four valves, with exhaust and inlet valves at both ends of the cylinder.[9] Through a precisely tuned series of events opening and closing these valves, steam is admitted and released at a precise rate allowing for linear piston motion. This provided the engine’s most notable feature, the automatic variable cut-off mechanism.[10] This mechanism is what allowed the engine to function under varying loads without losing efficiency, stalling, or being damaged. Using a series of cam gears, which could adjust valve timing (essentially acting as a throttle), the engine’s speed and horsepower was adjusted. This proved extremely useful for most of the engine’s applications. In the textile industry, it allowed for production at much higher speeds while lowering the likelihood that threads would break.[6][11] In metallurgy, the extreme and abrupt variations of load experienced in rolling mills were also countered by the technology. These examples demonstrate that the Corliss engine was able to lead to much higher rates of production, while preventing costly damages to machinery and materials. It was referred to as “the most perfect regulation of speed.” [12]

text: Corliss kept a detailed record of the production, collective horsepower, and sales of his engines up until the patent expired.[12] He did this for a number of reasons, including tracking those who infringed on the patent rights, maintenance and upgrade details, and especially as data used to extend the patent. With this data, a more clear understanding of the engine’s influence is provided. By 1869, nearly 1200 engines had been sold, totaling 118,500 horsepower. Another estimated 60,000 horsepower was being utilized by engines that were created by manufacturers infringing on Corliss’s patent, bringing the total horsepower to roughly 180,000.[6] This relatively small number of engines produced 15% of the United States’ total 1.2 million horsepower.[13] The mean horsepower for all Corliss engines in 1870 was 100, while the mean for all steam engines (including Corliss engines) was 30. Some very large engines even allowed for applications as large as 1,400 horsepower. Many were convinced of the Corliss engine’s benefits, but adoption was slow due to patent protection. When Corliss was denied a patent extension in 1870, it became a prevalent model for stationary engines in the industrial sector.[6] By the end of the 19th century, the engine was already having a major influence on the manufacturing sector, where it made up only 10% of the sector’s engines, but produced 46% of the horsepower.[13] The engine also became a model of efficiency outside of the textile industry as it was used for pumping the waterways of Pawtucket, Rhode Island in 1878 and by playing an essential role in the expansion of the railroad by allowing for very large-scale operations in rolling mills.[4][6] Many steam engines of the 19th century have been replaced, destroyed, or repurposed, but the longevity of the Corliss engine is apparent today in select distilleries where they are still used as a power source.[14]

text: Major Applications[edit]

text: Moving from Water to Steam Power[edit]

text: Water power, the world's preceding supply of power, continued to be an essential power source even during the height of steam engine popularity.[15] The steam engine, however, provided many benefits that couldn’t be realized by relying solely on water power, allowing it to quickly become industrialised nations' dominant power source (rising from 5% to 80% of the total power in the US from 1838-1860).[16] While many consider the potential for an increase in power generated to be the dominant benefit (with the average horsepower of steam powered mills producing four times the power of water powered mills), others favor the potential for agglomeration.[17][18] Steam engines made it possible to easily work, produce, market, specialize, viably expand westward without having to worry about the less abundant presence of waterways, and live in communities that weren’t geographically isolated in proximity to rivers and streams.[6] Cities and towns were now built around factories where steam engines served as the foundation for the livelihood of many of the citizens. By promoting the agglomeration of individuals, local markets were established and often met with impressive success, cities quickly grew and were eventually urbanized, the quality of living increased as infrastructure was put in place, finer goods could be produced as acquisition of materials became less difficult and expensive, direct local competition led to higher degrees of specialization, and labor and capital were in rich supply.[5] In some counties where the establishments utilized steam power, population growths were even seen to increase.[19] These steam powered towns encouraged growth locally and on the national scale, further validating the economic importance of the steam engine.

text: The Steamboat[edit]

text: This period of economic growth, which was ushered in by the introduction and adoption of the steamboat, was one of the greatest ever experienced in the United States. Around 1815, steamboats began to replace barges and flatboats in the transport of goods around the United States. Prior to the steamboat, rivers were generally only used in transporting goods from east to west, and from north to south as fighting the current was very difficult and often impossible.[20] Non-powered boats and rafts were assembled up-stream, would carry their cargo down stream, and would often be disassembled at the end of their journey; with their remains being used to construct homes and commercial buildings.

text: Following the advent of the steamboat, the United States saw an incredible growth in the transportation of goods and people, which was key in westward expansion. Prior to the steamboat, it could take between three and four months to make the passage from New Orleans to Louisville, averaging twenty miles a day.[20] With the steamboat this time was reduced drastically with trips ranging from twenty-five to thirty-five days. This was especially beneficial to farmers as their crops could now be transported elsewhere to be sold. The steamboat also allowed for increased specialization. Sugar and Cotton were shipped up north while goods like poultry, grain and pork were shipped south. Unfortunately, the steamboat also aided in the internal slave trade.[21]

text: With the steamboat came the need for an improved river system. The natural river system had features that either wasn't compatible with steamboat travel or was only available during certain months when rivers were higher. Some obstacles included rapids, sand bars, shallow waters and waterfalls. To overcome these natural obstacles, a network of canals, locks and dams were constructed. This increased demand for labor spurred tremendous job growth along the rivers.[22]

text: The economic benefits of the steamboat extended far beyond the construction of the ships themselves, and the goods they transported. These ships led directly to growth in the coal and insurance industries, along with creating demand for repair facilities along the rivers.[23] Additionally the demand for goods in general increased as the steamboat made transport to new destinations both wide reaching and efficient.

text: Steamboat and Water Transport[edit]

text: After the first steamboat was invented and achieved a number of successful trials, it was quickly adopted and led to an even quicker change in the way of water transport. In 1814, the city of New Orleans recorded 21 steamboat arrivals, but over the course of the following 20 years that number exploded to more than 1200. The steamboat’s role as a major transportation source was secured.[24] The transport sector saw enormous growth following the steam engine's application, leading to major innovations in canals, steamboats, and railroads. The steamboat and canal system revolutionized trade of the United States. As the steamboats gained popularity, enthusiasm grew for the building of canals. In 1816, the US had only 100 miles of canals. This needed to change, however, as the potential increase in traded goods from east to west convinced many that canals were a necessary connection between the Mississippi-Ohio waterways with the Great Lakes.

text: Railroad[edit]

text: The use of steam engines on railroads proved to be extraordinary in the fact that now you could have large amounts of goods and raw materials delivered to cities and factories alike. Trains could deliver these to places far away at a fraction of the cost traveling by wagon. Railroad tracks, which were already in use in mines and various other situations, became the new means of transportation after the first locomotive was invented.


document_title: Texture (music)

question_text: the texture of a melodic line with harmonic accompaniment is

root

text: Texture (music)

text: Common types[edit]

text: In musical terms, particularly in the fields of music history and music analysis, some common terms for different types of texture are:

tag: p

text:
Type

Description

Visual

Audio

Monophonic

Monophonic texture includes a single melodic line with no accompaniment. (Benward & Saker 2003, p. 136). PSMs often double or parallel the PM they support (Benward & Saker 2003, p. 137).

 "Pop Goes the Weasel" melody (Kliewer 1975, pp. 270–301).

Pop Goes the Weasel

Tune for Pop Goes the Weasel
Problems playing this file? See media help.

Biphonic

Two distinct lines, the lower sustaining a drone (constant pitch) while the other line creates a more elaborate melody above it. Pedal tones or ostinati would be an example of a SS (Benward & Saker 2003, p. 137).

 Pedal tone in Bach's Prelude no. 6 in D Minor, BWV 851, from The Well Tempered Clavier, Book I, mm. 1–2. All pedal tone notes are consonant except for the last three of the first measure (Benward & Saker 2003, p. 99).

Pedal tone Bach
File:Pedal tone Bach - BWV 851, m.1-2.mid
Pedal tone in Bach's Prelude no. 6 in D Minor, BWV 851, from The Well Tempered Clavier, Book I, mm. 1–2.
Problems playing this file? See media help.

Polyphonic or Counterpoint or Contrapuntal

Multiple melodic voices which are to a considerable extent independent from or in imitation with one another. Characteristic texture of the Renaissance music, also prevalent during the Baroque period (Benward & Saker 2003, pp. 1999,199,158,137, 136,129,110,90,59,35,11,9,0)[verification needed]). Polyphonic textures may contain several PMs (Benward & Saker 2003, p. 137).

 A bar from J.S. Bach's "Fugue No.17 in A flat", BWV 862, from Das Wohltemperirte Clavier (Part I), a famous example of contrapuntal polyphony.  Play (help·info)

Book 1 – Fugue No. 21 in B-flat major (BWV 866)

performed on a Flemish harpsichord by Martha Goldstein
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Homophonic

The most common texture in Western music: melody and accompaniment. Multiple voices of which one, the melody, stands out prominently and the others form a background of harmonic accompaniment. If all the parts have much the same rhythm, the homophonic texture can also be described as homorhythmic. Characteristic texture of the Classical period and continued to predominate in Romantic music while in the 20th century, "popular music is nearly all homophonic," and, "much of jazz is also" though, "the simultaneous improvisations of some jazz musicians creates a true polyphony" (Benward & Saker 2003, p. 136). Homophonic textures usually contain only one PM (Benward & Saker 2003, p. 137). HS and RS are often combined, thus labeled HRS (Benward & Saker 2003, p. 137).

 Homophony in Tallis' "If Ye Love Me", composed in 1549. The voices move together using the same rhythm, and the relationship between them creates chords: the excerpt begins and ends with an F major triad.

Tallis' "If ye love me"

Beginning of Tallis' "If ye love me," notated above.
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Homorhythmic

Multiple voices with similar rhythmic material in all parts. Also known as "chordal". May be considered a condition of homophony or distinguished from it.

see above

Heterophonic

Two or more voices simultaneously performing variations of the same melody.

tag: table

text: Many classical pieces feature different kinds of texture within a short space of time.  An example is the Scherzo from Schubert’s piano sonata in B major, D575.  The first four bars are monophonic, with both hands performing the same melody an octave apart:

text: Bars 5–10 are homophonic, with all voices coinciding rhythmically:

text: Bars 11–20 are polyphonic.  There are three parts, the top two moving in parallel (interval of a tenth). The lowest part imitates the rhythm of the upper two at the distance of three beats.  The passage climaxes abruptly with a bar’s silence:

text: After the silence, the polyphonic texture expands from three to four independent parts moving simultaneously in bars 21-4. The upper two parts are imitative, the lowest part consists of a repeated note (pedal point) and the remaining part weaves an independent melodic line:

text: The final four bars revert to homophony, bringing the section to a close;

text: A complete performance can be heard by following this link: Listen

text: Additional types[edit]

text: Although in music instruction certain styles or repertoires of music are often identified with one of these descriptions this is basically added music[clarification needed] (for example, Gregorian chant is described as monophonic, Bach Chorales are described as homophonic and fugues as polyphonic), many composers use more than one type of texture in the same piece of music.

text: A simultaneity is more than one complete musical texture occurring at the same time, rather than in succession.

text: A more recent type of texture first used by György Ligeti is micropolyphony. Other textures include polythematic, polyrhythmic, onomatopoeic, compound, and mixed or composite textures (Corozine 2002, p. 34).


document_title: Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (Nepal)

question_text: who is the present education minister of nepal

text:
Ministry of Education, Science and Technology
शिक्षा, विज्ञान तथा प्रविधि मन्त्रालय
Emblem of NepalAgency overviewFormed
1951Headquarters
Singha Durbar, Kathmandu, NepalMinister responsible
PRAKASH SUNUWAR, Minister of Education, Science and TechnologyWebsite
moestys.gov.np

text: The Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (Nepali: शिक्षा, विज्ञान तथा प्रविधि मन्त्रालय) is a governmental body of Nepal responsible for the overall development of education in Nepal. The ministry is responsible for formulating educational policies and plans and managing and implementing them across the country through the institutions under it.[1][2][3] In 2018, under the second Oli cabinet, the portfolio of the ministry was enlarged and the portfolios of Science and Technology were added to the then Ministry of Education, while the Ministry of Science and Technology was discontinued.[4] The current minister of Education, Science and Technology is Giriraj Mani Pokharel, who has already had this post in the first Oli cabinet in 2015.[5]

text: Former Ministers of Education[edit]

text: This is a list of all ministers of Education since the  Nepalese Constituent Assembly election in 2013:

text:
Name

Party

Assumed Office

Left Office

Portfolio

1

Chitra Lekha Yadav[6]
Nepali Congress
25 February 2014

Minister of Education

2

Giriraj Mani Pokharel[5]
Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist Centre)
19 October 2015

3

Dhaniram Paudel[7]
Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist Centre)
14 August 2016
31 May 2017

4

Gopal Man Shrestha[8]
Nepal Loktantrik Forum
7 June 2017
15 February 2018

5

Giriraj Mani Pokharel[9]
Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist Centre)
16 March 2018

Ministry of Education, Science and Technology


document_title: End of World War II in Europe

question_text: when was the peace treaty signed in ww2

question_tokens: when was the peace treaty signed in ww2

text: End of World War II in Europe

text: Timeline of surrenders and deaths[edit]

text: Allied forces begin to take large numbers of Axis prisoners: The total number of prisoners taken on the Western Front in April 1945 by the Western Allies was 1,500,000.[1] April also witnessed the capture of at least 120,000 German troops by the Western Allies in the last campaign of the war in Italy.[2] In the three or four months up to the end of April, over 800,000 German soldiers surrendered on the Eastern Front.[2] In early April, the first Allied-governed Rheinwiesenlagers were established in western Germany to hold hundreds of thousands of captured or surrendered Axis Forces personnel. Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF) reclassified all prisoners as Disarmed Enemy Forces, not POWs (prisoners of war). The legal fiction circumvented provisions under the Geneva Convention of 1929 on the treatment of former combatants.[3] By October, thousands had died in the camps from starvation, exposure and disease.[4]

text: Liberation of Nazi Concentration Camps and refugees: Allied forces began to discover the scale of The Holocaust. The advance into Germany uncovered numerous Nazi concentration camps and forced labor facilities. Up to 60,000 prisoners were at Bergen-Belsen when it was liberated on 15 April 1945, by the British 11th Armoured Division.[5] Four days later troops from the American 42nd (Rainbow) Infantry Division found Dachau.[6] Allied troops forced the remaining SS guards to gather up the corpses and place them in mass graves.[7] Due to the prisoners' poor physical condition, thousands continued to die after liberation.[8] Captured SS guards were subsequently tried at Allied war crimes tribunals where many were sentenced to death.[9] However, up to 10,000 Nazi war criminals eventually fled Europe using ratlines such as ODESSA.[10]

text: Germans leave Finland: On 25 April 1945, the last Germans were expelled by the Finnish Army from Finland and retreated into Norway.

text: Mussolini's death: On 25 April 1945, Italian partisans liberated Milan and Turin. On 27 April 1945, as Allied forces closed in on Milan, Italian dictator Benito Mussolini was captured by Italian partisans. It is disputed whether he was trying to flee from Italy to Switzerland (through the Splügen Pass), and was traveling with a German anti-aircraft battalion. On 28 April, Mussolini was executed in Giulino (a civil parish of Mezzegra); the other Fascists captured with him were taken to Dongo and executed there. The bodies were then taken to Milan and hung up on the Piazzale Loreto of the city. On 29 April, Rodolfo Graziani surrendered all Fascist Italian armed forces at Caserta. This included Army Group Liguria. Graziani was the Minister of Defence for Mussolini's Italian Social Republic.

text: Hitler's death: On 30 April, as the Battle of Nuremberg and the Battle of Hamburg ends with American and British occupation, in addition to the Battle of Berlin raging above him with the Soviets surrounding the city, along with his escape route cut off by the Americans, realizing that all was lost and not wishing to suffer Mussolini's fate, German dictator Adolf Hitler committed suicide in his Führerbunker along with Eva Braun, his long-term partner whom he had married less than 40 hours before their joint suicide.[11] In his will, Hitler dismissed Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring, his second-in-command and Interior minister Heinrich Himmler after each of them separately tried to seize control of the crumbling Third Reich. Hitler appointed his successors as follows; Großadmiral Karl Dönitz as the new Reichspräsident ("President of Germany") and Joseph Goebbels as the new Reichskanzler (Chancellor of Germany). However, Goebbels committed suicide the following day, leaving Dönitz as the sole leader of Germany.

text: German forces in Italy surrender: On 29 April, the day before Hitler died, Oberstleutnant Schweinitz and Sturmbannführer Wenner, plenipotentiaries for Generaloberst Heinrich von Vietinghoff and SS Obergruppenführer Karl Wolff, signed a surrender document at Caserta[12] after prolonged unauthorised secret negotiations with the Western Allies, which were viewed with great suspicion by the Soviet Union as trying to reach a separate peace. In the document, the Germans agreed to a ceasefire and surrender of all the forces under the command of Vietinghoff at 2pm on 2 May. Accordingly, after some bitter wrangling between Wolff and Albert Kesselring in the early hours of 2 May, nearly 1,000,000 men in Italy and Austria surrendered unconditionally to British Field Marshal Sir Harold Alexander at 2pm on 2 May.[13]

text: German forces in Berlin surrender: The Battle of Berlin ended on 2 May. On that date, General der Artillerie Helmuth Weidling, the commander of the Berlin Defense Area, unconditionally surrendered the city to General Vasily Chuikov of the Soviet army.[14] On the same day the officers commanding the two armies of Army Group Vistula north of Berlin, (General Kurt von Tippelskirch, commander of the German 21st Army and General Hasso von Manteuffel, commander of Third Panzer Army), surrendered to the Western Allies.[15] 2 May is also believed to have been the day when Hitler's deputy Martin Bormann died, from the account of Artur Axmann who saw Bormann's corpse in Berlin near the Lehrter Bahnhof railway station after encountering a Soviet Red Army patrol.[16] Lehrter Bahnhof is close to where the remains of Bormann, confirmed as his by a DNA test in 1998,[17] were unearthed on 7 December 1972.

text:
German forces in North West Germany, Denmark, and the Netherlands surrender: On 4 May 1945, the British Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery took the unconditional military surrender at Lüneburg from Generaladmiral Hans-Georg von Friedeburg, and General Eberhard Kinzel, of all German forces "in Holland [sic], in northwest Germany including the Frisian Islands and Heligoland and all other islands, in Schleswig-Holstein, and in Denmark… includ[ing] all naval ships in these areas",[18][19] at the Timeloberg on Lüneburg Heath; an area between the cities of Hamburg, Hanover and Bremen. The number of German land, sea and air forces involved in this surrender amounted to 1,000,000 men.[20] On 5 May, Großadmiral Dönitz ordered all U-boats to cease offensive operations and return to their bases.
At 16:00, General Johannes Blaskowitz, the German commander-in-chief in the Netherlands, surrendered to Canadian General Charles Foulkes in the Dutch town of Wageningen in the presence of Prince Bernhard (acting as commander-in-chief of the Dutch Interior Forces).[21][22]

text: German forces in Bavaria surrender: At 14:30 on 4 May 1945, General Hermann Foertsch surrendered all forces between the Bohemian mountains and the Upper Inn river to the American General Jacob L. Devers, commander of the American 6th Army Group.

text: Central Europe: On 5 May 1945, the Czech resistance started the Prague uprising. The following day, the Soviets launched the Prague Offensive. In Dresden, Gauleiter Martin Mutschmann let it be known that a large-scale German offensive on the Eastern Front was about to be launched. Within two days, Mutschmann abandoned the city, but was captured by Soviet troops while trying to escape.[23]

text: Hermann Göring's surrender: On 6 May, Reichsmarshall and Hitler's second-in-command, Hermann Göring, surrendered to General Carl Spaatz, who was the commander of the operational United States Air Forces in Europe, along with his wife and daughter at the Germany-Austria border. He was by this time the most powerful Nazi official still alive.

text: German forces in Breslau surrender: At 18:00 on 6 May, General Hermann Niehoff, the commandant of Breslau, a 'fortress' city surrounded and besieged for months, surrendered to the Soviets.[22]

text: Jodl and Keitel surrender all German armed forces unconditionally: Thirty minutes after the fall of "Festung Breslau" (Fortress Breslau), General Alfred Jodl arrived in Reims and, following Dönitz's instructions, offered to surrender all forces fighting the Western Allies. This was exactly the same negotiating position that von Friedeburg had initially made to Montgomery, and like Montgomery the Supreme Allied Commander, General Dwight D. Eisenhower, threatened to break off all negotiations unless the Germans agreed to a complete unconditional surrender to all the Allies on all fronts.[24] Eisenhower explicitly told Jodl that he would order western lines closed to German soldiers, thus forcing them to surrender to the Soviets.[24] Jodl sent a signal to Dönitz, who was in Flensburg, informing him of Eisenhower's declaration. Shortly after midnight, Dönitz, accepting the inevitable, sent a signal to Jodl authorizing the complete and total surrender of all German forces.[22][24]

text: At 02:41 on the morning of 7 May, at SHAEF headquarters in Reims, France, the Chief-of-Staff of the German Armed Forces High Command, General Alfred Jodl, signed an unconditional surrender documents for all German forces to the Allies; committing representatives of the German High Command to attend a definitive signing ceremony in Berlin. General Franz Böhme announced the unconditional surrender of German troops in Norway on 7 May. It included the phrase "All forces under German control to cease active operations at 2301 hours Central European Time on May 8, 1945."[18][25] The next day, Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel and other German OKW representatives travelled to Berlin, and shortly before midnight signed an amended and definitive document of unconditional surrender, explicitly surrendering to all the Allied forces in the presence of Marshal Georgi Zhukov and representatives of SHAEF.[26] The signing ceremony took place in a former German Army Engineering School in the Berlin district of Karlshorst; it now houses the German-Russian Museum Berlin-Karlshorst.

text: German forces on the Channel Islands surrender: At 10:00 on 8 May, the Channel Islanders were informed by the German authorities that the war was over. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill made a radio broadcast at 15:00 during which he announced: "Hostilities will end officially at one minute after midnight tonight, but in the interests of saving lives the 'Cease fire' began yesterday to be sounded all along the front, and our dear Channel Islands are also to be freed today."[27][25]

text: VE-Day: News of the imminent surrender broke in the West on 8 May, and celebrations erupted throughout Europe and parts of the British Empire. In the US, Americans awoke to the news and declared 8 May V-E Day. As the Soviet Union was to the east of Germany it was 9 May Moscow Time when the German military surrender became effective, which is why Russia and many other European countries east of Germany commemorate Victory Day on 9 May.

text: German units cease fire: Although the military commanders of most German forces obeyed the order to surrender issued by the (Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW)—the German Armed Forces High Command), not all commanders did so. The largest contingent were Army Group Centre under the command of Generalfeldmarschall Ferdinand Schörner who had been promoted to Commander-in-Chief of the Army on 30 April in Hitler's last will and testament. On 8 May, Schörner deserted his command and flew to Austria; the Soviet Army sent overwhelming force against Army Group Centre in the Prague Offensive, forcing German units in Army Group Centre to capitulate by 11 May. The other forces which did not surrender on 8 May surrendered piecemeal:

text:
The Second Army, under the command of General von Saucken, on the Heiligenbeil and Danzig beachheads, on the Hel Peninsula in the Vistula delta surrendered on 9 May, as did the forces on the Greek islands; and the garrisons of the last Atlantic pockets in France, in Saint-Nazaire, La Rochelle (after the Allied siege), and Lorient.
Battle of Slivice, the last battle in Czechoslovakia, on 12 May
On 13 May, the Red Army halted all offensives in Europe. Isolated pockets of resistance in Czechoslovakia were mopped up by this date.

People gathered in Whitehall to hear Winston Churchill's victory speech, 8 May 1945

The garrison on Alderney, one of the Channel Islands occupied by the Germans, surrendered on 16 May, one week after the garrisons on Guernsey and Jersey had surrendered on 9 May and those on Sark on 10 May.
The Georgian Uprising of Texel (5 April – 20 May) was Europe's last battlefield in World War II. It was fought between Georgian Nazi-collaborationist army units on Texel against the German occupiers of that Dutch island.
Another military engagement took place in Yugoslavia (today's Slovenia), on 14 and 15 May, known as the Battle of Poljana.
A small group of German soldiers deployed on Svalbard in Operation Haudegen to establish and man a weather station there lost radio contact in May 1945; they surrendered to some Norwegian seal hunters on 4 September, two days after the Surrender of Japan.

tag: ul

text: Dönitz government ordered dissolved by Eisenhower: Karl Dönitz continued to act as if he were the German head of state, but his Flensburg government (so-called because it was based at Flensburg in northern Germany and controlled only a small area around the town), was not recognized by the Allies. On 12 May an Allied liaison team arrived in Flensburg and took quarters aboard the passenger ship Patria. The liaison officers and the Supreme Allied Headquarters soon realized that they had no need to act through the Flensburg government and that its members should be arrested. On 23 May, acting on SHAEF's orders and with the approval of the Soviets, American Major General Rooks summoned Dönitz aboard the Patria and communicated to him that he and all the members of his Government were under arrest, and that their Government was dissolved. The Allies had a problem, because they realized that although the German armed forces had surrendered unconditionally, SHAEF had failed to use the document created by the "European Advisory Commission" (EAC) and so there had been no formal surrender by the civilian German government. This was considered a very important issue, because just as the civilian, but not military, surrender in 1918 had been used by Hitler to create the "stab in the back" argument, the Allies did not want to give any future hostile German regime a legal argument to resurrect an old quarrel.

text: Order JCS 1067 is signed into effect by President Harry S. Truman on 10 May 1945. This was part of the post-war economic plan that advocated how the Allied occupation would include measures to prevent Germany from waging further war by eliminating its armament industry, and the removal or destruction of other key industries required for military strength. This included the removal or destruction of all industrial plants and equipment in the Ruhr.[28] In 1947, JCS 1067 was replaced by JCS 1779 that aimed at restoring a "stable and productive Germany"; this led to the introduction of the Marshall Plan.[29]

text: Declaration Regarding the Defeat of Germany and the Assumption of Supreme Authority by Allied Powers was signed by the four Allies on 5 June. It included the following:

text: The Governments of the United States of America, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the United Kingdom and the Provisional Government of the French Republic, hereby assume supreme authority with respect to Germany, including all the powers possessed by the German Government, the High Command and any state, municipal, or local government or authority. The assumption, for the purposes stated above, of the said authority and powers does not effect[a] the annexation of Germany.

text: It is disputed whether this assumption of power constituted debellation—the end of a war caused by the complete destruction of a hostile state.[32][33][b]

text: Potsdam Agreement signed on 12 August 1945; in connection to this, the Allied leaders planned the new post-war German government, resettled war territory boundaries, de facto annexed a quarter of pre-war Germany situated east of the Oder-Neisse line, mandated and organized the expulsion of the millions of Germans who remained in the annexed territories and elsewhere in the east. They also ordered German demilitarization, denazification, industrial disarmament and settlements of war reparations.

text: Allied Control Council created to effect the Allies assumed supreme authority over Germany, specifically to implement their assumed joint authority over Germany. On 30 August, the Control Council constituted itself and issued its first proclamation, which informed the German people of the Council's existence and asserted that the commands and directives issued by the Commanders-in-Chief in their respective zones were not affected by the establishment of the Council. Cessation of hostilities between the United States and Germany was proclaimed on 13 December 1946 by US President Truman.[34]

text: Paris Peace Conference ended on 10 February 1947 with the signing of peace treaties by the wartime Allies with the minor European Axis powers (Italy, Romania, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Finland; although Italy by some was considered a major power).

text: The Federal Republic of Germany, that had been founded on 23 May 1949 (when its Basic Law was promulgated) had its first government formed on 20 September 1949 while the German Democratic Republic was formed on 7 October.

text: End of state of war with Germany was declared by many former Western Allies in 1950. In the Petersberg Agreement of 22 November 1949, it was noted that the West German government wanted an end to the state of war, but the request could not be granted. The US state of war with Germany was being maintained for legal reasons, and though it was softened somewhat it was not suspended since "the US wants to retain a legal basis for keeping a US force in Western Germany".[35] At a meeting for the Foreign Ministers of France, the UK, and the US in New York from 12 September – 19 December 1950, it was stated that among other measures to strengthen West Germany's position in the Cold War that the western allies would "end by legislation the state of war with Germany".[36] In 1951, many former Western Allies did end their state of war with Germany: Australia (9 July), Canada, Italy, New Zealand, the Netherlands (26 July), South Africa, the United Kingdom (9 July), and the United States (19 October).[37][38][39][40][41][42] The state of war between Germany and the Soviet Union was ended in early 1955.[43]

text: "The full authority of a sovereign state" was granted to the Federal Republic of Germany on 5 May 1955 under the terms of the Bonn–Paris conventions. The treaty ended the military occupation of West German territory, but the three occupying powers retained some special rights, e.g. vis-à-vis West Berlin.

text: Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany: Under the terms of this peace treaty, the Four Powers renounced all rights they formerly held in Germany, including Berlin. As a result, Germany became fully sovereign on 15 March 1991. Under the terms of the Treaty, the Allies were allowed to keep troops in Berlin until the end of 1994 (articles 4 and 5). In accordance with the Treaty, occupying troops were withdrawn by that deadline.


document_title: A Goofy Movie

question_text: who plays the voice of powerline in a goofy movie

text: A Goofy Movie

text: Plot[edit]

text: Goofy is the single father of teenager Max Goof, although the two have a tense relationship. On the last day of school before summer vacation, Max and his best friends P.J. and Robert "Bobby" Zimuruski hijack the auditorium stage in the middle of Principal Mazur's speech, creating a small concert where Max performs, while costumed as the pop singer Powerline. The performance succeeds in making Max a school celebrity and impressing his love interest, Roxanne, but he, P.J., and Bobby are sent to Mazur's office. While waiting outside of the office, Roxanne speaks with Max and agrees to go with him to a party where Powerline's concert will be viewed live on television. However, Mazur telephones Goofy and exaggerates Max's actions, forewarning him that Max's behavior may result in him facing capital punishment.

text: Oblivious to Max's plans with Roxanne, Goofy decides to take Max on a fishing trip to Lake Destiny, Idaho, following a cross-country map route he and his father took years ago. Before they leave town, Max manages to stop by Roxanne's house to call off their date, but when the heartbroken Roxanne mentions going with someone else, Max panics and instead fabricates a story about his father knowing Powerline, telling her he will be on stage at the concert.

text: Despite his son's objections, Goofy plans his own trip, with initially disastrous results. Max hurts his father's feelings after Goofy inadvertently humiliates Max at an opossum-based theme park. Later, Pete and P.J. happen to meet up with them while camping by a lake. While P.J. informs Max of how all their peers back home anticipate seeing him onstage at the Powerline concert, Pete advises Goofy to keep Max under control. Goofy takes his son fishing and shows him the Perfect Cast fishing technique, accidentally luring Bigfoot to their camp. Pete and P.J. flee, leaving Goofy and Max to spend the night with Bigfoot. At night, while Goofy sleeps, Max alters the map's route to Los Angeles, where the concert is taking place.

text: The next morning, Goofy decides to make Max the navigator of the trip. The two go to several locations that satisfy both of them. Eventually, they stop by a motel where they meet Pete and P.J. again. When Pete overhears a conversation between the boys, he tells Goofy that Max has tricked him into traveling to Los Angeles. The next day, Goofy and Max come to a junction: one leading to Idaho, the other to California. Max chooses the route to California, making Goofy stop the car at the Grand Canyon and storm off in anger. With the brake loose, the car drives off on its own; Goofy and Max chase after it and end up in a river. After a heated argument, Goofy solemnly declares that no matter how old Max gets he will always be his son, and the two finally reconcile with each other. After learning of Max's promise to Roxanne, Goofy decides to take him to the concert in Los Angeles. The two nearly plummet to their deaths down a waterfall, but Max saves Goofy using the Perfect Cast technique.

text: Goofy and Max make it to the concert, and while attempting to sneak backstage, they end up onstage and dance with Powerline, watched by Pete, P.J. and Roxanne on separate televisions. Goofy and Max later return to Roxanne's house in their damaged car. Max tells the truth to Roxanne, though she accepts it and admits she always had feelings for him, ever since the first time she ever heard him laugh, "Ah-hyuck!"; thus, a relationship starts between them. Goofy's car suddenly explodes because of damage it had sustained, ejecting Goofy in the process, who then falls through the porch roof of Roxanne's house, and Max proceeds to introduce him to Roxanne.

text: Voice cast[edit]

text:
Jason Marsden as Maximillan "Max" Goof, Goofy's insecure teenage son. Aaron Lohr makes a guest appearance as Max's singing voice.
Bill Farmer as Goofy, Max's father who works as a photographer at a photo studio in a mall department store.
Kellie Martin as Roxanne, Max's high school crush and love interest
Jim Cummings as Pete, Goofy's coworker who he and Max happen upon during their road trip.
Rob Paulsen as P.J., Pete's son and Max's best friend
Pauly Shore (uncredited) as Robert "Bobby" Zimuruski, Max and P.J.'s other best friend at school.
Jenna von Oÿ as Stacey, Roxanne's best friend.
Julie Brown as Lisa, a student in Max's high school who, along with some other students, makes fun of Max until his performance as Powerline made her and the students congratulate Max. She is Chad's girlfriend.
Joey Lawrence as Chad, a student in Max's high school who, along with some other students, makes fun of Max until his performance as Powerline made him and the students congratulate Max. He is Lisa's boyfriend.
Tevin Campbell as the singing voice of Powerline, a famous pop star celebrity who Max looks up to.
Wallace Shawn as Principal Mazur, the bad-tempered principal of Max's school.
Frank Welker as Bigfoot, a monster who lives in the forest.
Kevin Lima as Lester the Possum
Florence Stanley as a Waitress
Jo Anne Worley as Miss Maples
Wayne Allwine as Mickey Mouse, who is seen hitchhiking alongside Donald Duck during Max and Goofy's road trip.  He is also later seen in the audience at the Powerline Concert in L.A.
Pat Buttram as the Possum Park Emcee
Robyn Richards as Lesters Grinning Girl
Herschel Sparber as a Security guard
Brittney Alyse Smith as the Photo Studio Girl
Corey Burton as Wendell
Pat Carroll as a restaurant waiter.

text: Production[edit]

text: A Goofy Movie was the directorial debut for Disney crew member Kevin Lima, who went on to direct the Disney films Tarzan (1999), 102 Dalmatians (2000) and Enchanted (2007).[4] In 1995, Lima said that "Instead of just keeping Goofy one-dimensional as he's been in the past, we wanted to give an emotional side that would add to the emotional arc of the story. We wanted the audience to see his feelings instead of just his antics."[5]

text: Although based upon a Disney TV series, A Goofy Movie was jointly produced by Walt Disney Feature Animation, Walt Disney Television Animation, Disney MovieToons, Walt Disney Animation France. and Walt Disney Animation Australia. Pre-production was done at the main Feature Animation studio in Burbank, California, starting as early as mid-1993. The animation work was done at Walt Disney Animation France in Paris, France supervised by Paul and Gaëtan Brizzi, with additional scenes animated at Disney's studio in Sydney, Australia under the direction of Steve Moore, and clean-up work done at the main Burbank studio.[6][7] Additional clean-up/animation was done by Phoenix Animation Studios in Canada, and Digital ink and paint by the Pixibox studio in France.[8]

text: According to Bill Farmer, who provided the voice talent for Goofy, in a panel interview, producers had asked him to give Goofy a "normal dad voice" as opposed to the voice he traditionally gives the character, but Farmer refused to, stating that "no one wants to hear that."[9] The voice of Max was done by Jason Marsden, whereas his singing voice was done by Aaron Lohr.[9] The movie is dedicated to Pat Buttram, who voiced the emcee at possum park, as he passed away after finishing voice work for the film.[10]

text: Music[edit]

text: The score for A Goofy Movie was provided by Carter Burwell.[11] Burwell was the primary composer; after Burwell had recorded his score with Shirley Walker orchestrating and conducting, Davis was hired to rework his score rather than write a completely new one. Burwell later wrote: "My score had relied somewhat on unusual instrumentation – banjo, percussion and choir for example – and Disney wanted the sweeping scale and familiar affect of symphonic score".[12] Davis is credited with "additional music" on the movie and the soundtrack album.

text: The songs "I 2 I" and "Stand Out" were performed by R&B singer Tevin Campbell. The soundtrack album for A Goofy Movie was released by Walt Disney Records on March 18, 1995.[13] Mitchell Musso covered the song "Stand Out" for the DisneyMania 7 album, which was released on March 9, 2010.[14]

text: A Goofy Movie Original SoundtrackNo.TitleLength1."I 2 I" (Tevin Campbell and Rosie Gaines)4:372."After Today" (Aaron Lohr and Chorus)2:213."Stand Out" (Tevin Campbell)3:004."On the Open Road" (Bill Farmer, Aaron Lohr, and Chorus)3:015."Lester's Possum Park" (Kevin Quinn and Chorus)1:256."Nobody Else But You" (Bill Farmer and Aaron Lohr)2:357."Opening Fanfare / Max's Dream / Transformation"1:258."Deep Sludge"2:359."Bigfoot"1:5010."Hi Dad Soup"2:0411."Runaway Car"2:1412."Junction"1:3213."The Waterfall! / The Truth"2:17

text: Release[edit]

text: A Goofy Movie was originally scheduled for a November 1994 theatrical release,[15] but production setbacks resulted in a push-back to 1995, while The Lion King was reissued to fill in for the film's absence.[16] The film's world premiere took place on April 5, 1995, at the AMC Pleasure Island at Walt Disney World Resort in Lake Buena Vista, and was attended by director Kevin Lima and voice stars Bill Farmer and Jenna von Oÿ; two days later, it was released nationwide.[17] The film played a limited engagement at the El Capitan Theatre from August 25 through September 4, 2017.[18]

text: Home media[edit]

text: The film was first released on VHS by Walt Disney Home Video on September 6, 1995, and included a music video for the Parachute Express song Doctor Looney's Remedy on their video, Come Sing with Us. In the United Kingdom, it was released in theaters succeeding the Mickey Mouse short Runaway Brain on October 18, 1996, and on VHS in 1997. It was reissued on June 20, 2000, along with a DVD version, as part of the Walt Disney Gold Classic Collection.[19][20] This edition includes the Goof Troop episode, "Calling All Goofs", the episode "The Goofy Success Story" from the Disneyland television series, and a "Disney-fied" edit of "Mambo No. 5."[21] To date, this film and Doug's 1st Movie are the only two Disney animated films produced in widescreen that have pan and scan-only Region 1 DVD releases (not counting separate widescreen and pan and scan DVD releases of the two Disney/Pixar films The Incredibles and Cars). However, the film's PAL and NTSC (Japan) counterpart does have a non-anamorphic widescreen DVD, and the film is available in a letterbox presentation on LaserDisc and also in standard-definition widescreen on digital video retailers.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, A Goofy Movie holds an approval rating of 44% with an average rating of 5.6/10 based on 18 critics.[22]

text: Variety's Todd McCarthy criticized the film's score, calling the six featured songs "unmemorable". He also felt that the personality of Goofy's character, while agreeable enough in support, proved a bit over the top for a headliner, and that "by any reasonable reckoning, he's distinctly overbearing and selfish, and responds with a bland dismissal to any opinion offered up by his son". McCarthy praised the film's technical aspects, calling them "crisp and clean".[6] Louis Black of The Austin Chronicle summed up his review by saying the film was "bland, a barely television-length cartoon stretched out to fill a feature, and not much fun".[5]

text: Siskel and Ebert both approved of the movie, praising the color scheme and the "sweet" father-son plot, and gave it three stars.[23] Writing for Common Sense Media, Nell Minow gave the film 4 stars, saying that "even tweens will enjoy this road trip with Goofy."[24]

text: Box office[edit]

text: A Goofy Movie was considered a relative success for Disney, opening in 2,159 theaters at #2 on its opening weekend with $6,129,557 - held from the #1 spot only because of the Will Smith blockbuster Bad Boys that opened the same weekend, with $15,523,358 in box office returns.[25] It ultimately ended its run at the US box office grossing $35,348,597.[3]

text: Accolades[edit]

text: The film was nominated for "Best Animated Feature" in the production categories and "Best Production Design", "Best Storyboarding", "Best Music", and "Best Animation" in the individual categories at the 23rd Annie Awards.[26]

text: Legacy[edit]

text: A direct-to-video sequel to A Goofy Movie, titled An Extremely Goofy Movie, was released on DVD and VHS in 2000. The film centers Max's freshman year in college. Characters that returned for the sequel were Goofy, Max, P.J., Pete and Bobby, but Roxanne is absent from the sequel and is not referenced. Roxanne later appears in the television series House of Mouse in the episode titled "Max's Embarrassing Date", where she is voiced by Grey DeLisle instead of Kellie Martin.

text:
The film has gained that of a cult following, particularly among millennials who grew up with the movie.[27]
On August 14, 2015, a 20th anniversary reunion for the film was held at the D23 Expo at Anaheim Convention Center in Anaheim, California.[28] Those in attendance included Bill Farmer, Jason Marsden, Jim Cummings, Rob Paulsen, Jenna von Oÿ and producer Don Hahn. Wallace Shawn, Pauly Shore and director Kevin Lima also sent video messages.[28] The panel also included musical performances from Farmer, Marsden, and Tevin Campbell.[28][29] Around 1,000 fans attended the reunion.[30]

text: In 2016, Campbell uploaded a video of him partaking in a jam session with the band Enfield, in which he performed both "I2I" and "Stand Out".[31] In June 2018, a one-week event titled "Disney FanDaze" was opened in Disneyland Paris, featuring several dedicated performances paying tribute to Disney franchises. Among these was "Max Live! Gettin' Goofy With It", which featured Max Goof performing songs from A Goofy Movie.[32]


document_title: Black Shawl

question_text: when did they are afraid of her die

question_tokens: when did they are afraid of her die

text: Black Shawl

text:
Black Shawl
Tasina Sapewin
Oglala Lakota leader
Personal detailsBorn
United StatesDied
1927United SraresSpouse(s)
Crazy HorseRelations
Spotted Tail, sister, Red FeatherChildren
They Are Afraid of Her

text: Black Shawl or Tasina Sapewin was the wife of Crazy Horse, whom she married in 1871. She was a member of the Oglala Lakota and relative of Spotted Tail. Her brother was Red Feather. The elders sent her to heal Crazy Horse after his altercation with No Water.[1] She had a daughter the same year, whose name was They Are Afraid of Her. They Are Afraid of Her died at age three, likely of cholera. Black Shawl also suffered the same disease, and was treated by Dr. Valentine McGillycuddy.

text: Black Shawl died during a seasonal influenza outbreak in 1927.


document_title: William Edward Hickson

question_text: if at first you don't succeed quote author

question_tokens: if at first you do n 't succeed quote author

text: William Edward Hickson

text: Life[edit]

text: Hickson was the son of William Hickson, a boot and shoe manufacturer of Smithfield, London. Having studied schools in The Netherlands and Germany, he retired from the family business in 1840 to concentrate on philanthropic pursuits: particularly the cause of elementary education.[1] He became editor and proprietor of The Westminster Review which was notable for its commitment to legislative reform and popular education.

text: Hickson died at Fairseat, Stansted, Kent, where he was buried.

text: Legacy[edit]

text: Hickson is credited with popularizing the proverb:

text: The proverb can be traced back to the writings of Thomas H. Palmer in his Teacher's Manual, and The Children of the New Forest by Frederick Marryat.[3]

text: Works[edit]

text:
The Singing donkey (1836)
Dutch and German Schools (1840)
Part Singing (1842)
Time and faith — 2 vols. (1857)


document_title: Married at First Sight (U.S. TV series)

question_text: cast of first season of married at first sight

text: Married at First Sight (U.S. TV series)

text: Synopsis[edit]

text: Over the first six seasons of MAFS, 18 couples were chosen for the experiment. Out of these 18, twelve chose to stay married after the six week time period. As of May 2018, however, only 5 couples are still married, making for an overall 27.78% success rate of the experiment.

text: Season 1[edit]

text: The couples were:

text:
#
Couple
Age
Occupation
Final Decision
Current status

1
Jamie Otis-Hehner
27
Nurse
Yes
Married

Doug Hehner
31
Software salesman

2
Cortney Hendrix-Carrion
26
Make-up artist
Yes
Married

Jason Carrion
27
Fireman

3
Monet Bell
33
Product development manager
No
Divorced

Vaughn Copeland
30
Field service technician

text: Monet and Vaughn got a divorce. Vaughn has since welcomed a son, Zaire William Copeland on September 3, 2016, with his girlfriend, Jenny Faber. In the 6 months later special, it was revealed that both Jason and Courtney and Doug and Jamie are still together. Both couples were featured in a spin-off series, "Married at First Sight: The First Year" alongside with Dr. Pepper Schwartz, which showed the development of their married lives.

text: On July 5, 2016, Doug and Jamie announced they were expecting their first child.[3] They lost the baby at 17 weeks.[4] Jamie shared a photo on Instagram of her and Doug in the hospital with the baby, who they named Johnathan Edward, to raise awareness of the stigma surrounding miscarriage.[5] On January 31, 2017, Jamie and Doug announced that they were again expecting a child,[6] later revealed to be a girl, Henley Grace, who was born on August 22, 2017.[7]

text: Season 2[edit]

text: The couples were:

text:
#
Couple
Age
Occupation
Final Decision
Current status

1
Jaclyn Methuen
30
Vodka saleswoman
Yes
Divorced

Ryan Ranellone
28
Real estate agent

2
Davina Kullar (now Davis)
34
Pharmaceutical saleswoman
No
Divorced

Sean Varricchio
35
Trauma nurse

3
Jessica Castro
30
Receptionist
Yes
Divorced

Ryan DeNino/Oehl
29
Businessman

text: All three were divorced. After the show was over, Davina and Sean got a divorce. Davina has since remarried.[8] In the 6 months later special, it was revealed that both Jessica and Ryan D., as well as Jaclyn and Ryan R., are divorced. Shortly after filming the reunion special, Jessica filed for a restraining order against Ryan.[9] Although Jaclyn and Ryan decided to try to make their marriage work after the experiment ended, they split not long after. She wrote on Instagram, "Let's hope I catch one that is strong, smart, and appreciates my big personality! ..."[10]

text: Season 3[edit]

text: The third season took place in Atlanta, Georgia. The couples were:

text:
#
Couple
Age
Occupation
Final Decision
Current status

1
Vanessa Nelson
26
Event manager
Yes
Divorced

Tres Russell
27
Luxury car salesman

2
Ashley Doherty
30
Nursing student
No
Divorced

David Norton
29
Software account executive

3
Samantha Role
30
Bank manager
No
Divorced

Neil Bowlus
31
Compliance specialist

text: All three were divorced: David Norton and Ashley Doherty got a divorce because Ashley felt the social media incident during their marriage was too unbearable. She felt betrayed and that David broke her trust. David felt hurt and angry, realizing that Ashley made no real effort to make their marriage work and that he "had [his] head in the clouds... chasing someone who didn't want to be caught.".[11]

text: Neil Bowlus and Samantha Role decided to get a divorce. Samantha wanted to remain married, but Neil felt dissatisfied with the overall experience and believed that the best thing for both their happiness was to divorce.[11] In the six month later special, it was said that Neil and Samantha have remained friends.

text: Tres Russell and Vanessa Nelson stayed married. In the six month later special, it was said that the two had separated and divorced after that.

text: Married at First Sight: Second Chances[edit]

text: Both Vanessa Nelson and David Norton took part in the first season of "Married At First Sight: Second Chances". The show's premise is that both David and Vanessa selected from a group of men (for Nelson) and women (for Norton) to date in a Bachelor/Bachelorette-style fashion, ultimately ending with each of them choosing someone to marry. The groups were narrowed down from 100 (in a speed dating-like situation) to 25, to 10. After Vanessa and David each picked their top ten, they eliminated one person each episode (with the exception of one week's double elimination) until they find 'the one'. The first season premiered on April 27, 2017. The season concluded on July 6, 2017 with Vanessa becoming engaged to Andre, however they ended their relationship and David choosing to marry no one.

text: Season 4[edit]

text: The fourth season of the Married at First Sight TV show on Fyi premiered on Tuesday, July 26, 2016 at 9:00pm Et/Pt. The setting was South Florida (particularly Miami) and in this season, two new specialists joined sociologist Dr. Pepper Schwartz: communication and relationship expert, Rachel DeAlto, and marriage counselor, Pastor Calvin Roberson. Dr.'s Joseph Cilona and Logan Levkoff exited the series after season three. The couples were:

text:
#
Couple
Age
Occupation
Final Decision
Status

1
Sonia Granados
33
Social worker
Yes
Divorced

Nick Pendergrast
32
Vacation rental manager

2
Heather Seidel
32
Flight attendant
No
Divorced

Derek Schwartz
35
Account executive

3
Lillian Vilchez
24
Realtor
Yes
Divorced

Tom Wilson
29
Boat interior designer

text: All three were divorced. After fourteen months of marriage, Lillian and Tom announced on May 31, 2017 that they have filed for divorce but still remain close friends and a part of each other's lives.

text: Season 5[edit]

text: The fifth season of Married at First Sight was renewed on October 25, 2016. For this season, the show moved to the Lifetime channel. The episodes aired in 2017 and featured couples in Chicago.[12] The couples were:

text:
#
Couple
Age
Occupation
Final Decision
Status

1
Danielle DeGroot
30
Dietician
Yes
Divorced

Cody Knapek
26
Trainer / gym owner

2
Sheila Downs
31
School district facility director
Yes
Divorced

Nate Duhon
26
Branch manager of a car rental company

3
Ashley Petta
30
Manager of family-owned bar & grill
Yes
Married

Anthony D'Amico
33
Sale account executive

text: Danielle and Cody announced their divorce on August 22, 2017.[13]

text: On November 19th, Nate posted a status update on Facebook that he and Sheila filed for divorce.

text: Ashley and Anthony are still married.

text: Season 6[edit]

text: The sixth season of Married at First Sight was renewed on the Lifetime channel. The first of the episodes aired on January 2, 2018 and featured couples in Boston.[14] The couples were:

text:
#
Couple
Age
Occupation
Final Decision
Status

1
Shawniece Jackson
29
Cosmetologist
Yes
Married

Jephte Pierre
26
2nd grade school teacher

2
Molly Duff
25
Commercial insurance adjuster
No
Divorced

Jonathan Francetic
28
Financial associate

3
Jaclyn Schwartzberg
29
Technical sales representative
Yes
Married

Ryan Buckley
29
Firefighter

text: It was announced that Shawniece and Jephte are pregnant with their first child.

text: Season 7[edit]

text: The seventh season of Married at First Sight has been renewed on the Lifetime channel, and will feature couples from Dallas.

text: Season 8[edit]

text: The eighth season of Married at First Sight has been renewed on the Lifetime channel, and will feature couples from Philadelphia.


document_title: Coral bleaching

question_text: where is coral bleaching most likely to occur

text: Coral bleaching

text: Causes[edit]

text: The corals that form the great reef ecosystems of tropical seas depend upon a symbiotic relationship with algae-like single-celled flagellate protozoa called zooxanthellae that live within their tissues and give the coral its coloration. The zooxanthellae provide the coral with nutrients through photosynthesis, a crucial factor in the clear and nutrient-poor tropical waters. In exchange, the coral provide the zooxanthellae with the carbon dioxide and ammonium needed for photosynthesis. Negative environmental conditions thwart the coral's ability to provide for the zooxanthellae's needs. To ensure short-term survival, the coral-polyp then expels the zooxanthellae. This leads to a lighter or completely white appearance, hence the term "bleached".[9] As the zooxanthellae provide up to 90% of the coral's energy needs through products of photosynthesis, after expelling, the coral may begin to starve.

text: Coral can survive short-term disturbances, but if the conditions that lead to the expulsion of the zooxanthellae persist, the coral's chances of survival diminish. In order to recover from bleaching, the zooxanthellae have to re-enter the tissues of the coral polyps and restart photosynthesis to sustain the coral as a whole and the ecosystem that depends on it.[10] If the coral polyps die of starvation after bleaching, they will decay. The hard coral species will then leave behind their calcium carbonate skeletons, which will be taken over by algae, effectively blocking coral re-growth. Eventually, the coral skeletons will erode, causing the reef structure to collapse.

text: Triggers[edit]

text: Coral bleaching may be caused by a number of factors. While localized triggers lead to localized bleaching, the large scale coral bleaching events of the recent years have been triggered by increased sea surface temperatures.[11] Coral reefs located in warm, shallow water with low water flow have been more affected than reefs located in areas with higher water flow.[12]

text: List of triggers[edit]

text:
increased water temperature (most commonly due to global warming), or reduced water temperatures[13][14][15][16]
oxygen starvation caused by an increase in zooplankton levels as a result of overfishing[17][unreliable source?]
increased solar irradiance (photosynthetically active radiation and ultraviolet light)[18]
increased sedimentation (due to silt runoff)[19]
bacterial infections[20]
changes in salinity[21]
herbicides[22]
extreme low tide and exposure[23]
cyanide fishing[24]
elevated sea levels due to global warming (Watson)[clarification needed]
mineral dust from African dust storms caused by drought[25]
pollutants such as oxybenzone, butylparaben, octyl methoxycinnamate, or enzacamene: four common sunscreen ingredients that are nonbiodegradable and can wash off of skin[26][27][28][29][30]
ocean acidification due to elevated levels of CO2 caused by air pollution[31]
being exposed to Oil or other chemical spills [32]

text: Mass bleaching events[edit]

text: Elevated sea water temperatures are the main cause of mass bleaching events.[33] Sixty major episodes of coral bleaching have occurred between 1979 and 1990,[34][35] with the associated coral mortality affecting reefs in every part of the world. In 2016, the longest coral bleaching event was recorded.[36] The longest and most destructive coral bleaching event was because of the El Niño that occurred from 2014-2017.[37] During this time, over 70% of the coral reefs around the world have become damaged.[37]

text: Factors that influence the outcome of a bleaching event include stress-resistance which reduces bleaching, tolerance to the absence of zooxanthellae, and how quickly new coral grows to replace the dead. Due to the patchy nature of bleaching, local climatic conditions such as shade or a stream of cooler water can reduce bleaching incidence.[38] Coral and zooxanthellae health and genetics also influence bleaching.[38]

text: Large coral colonies such as Porites are able to withstand extreme temperature shocks, while fragile branching corals such Acropora are far more susceptible to stress following a temperature change.[39] Corals consistently exposed to low stress levels may be more resistant to bleaching.[40][41]

text: Scientists believe that the oldest known bleaching was that of the Late Devonian (Frasnian/Famennian), also triggered by the rise of sea surface temperatures. It resulted in the demise of the largest coral reefs in the Earth's history.[42]

text: Impact[edit]

text: In the 2012–2040 period, coral reefs are expected to experience more frequent bleaching events. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) sees this as the greatest threat to the world's reef systems.[43][44][45][46] Coral reefs worldwide were lost by 19%, and 60% of the remaining reefs are at immediate risk of being lost. There are a few ways to tell the impacts of coral bleaching on reefs. First by the coral cover, the more coral that is covering the ground the less of an impact bleaching had. Second, coral abundance, which is the number of different living species on the coral reef. (Shidqi et al. 2017)

text: Pacific Ocean[edit]

text: Great Barrier Reef[edit]

text: The Great Barrier Reef along the coast of Australia experienced bleaching events in 1980, 1982, 1992, 1994, 1998, 2002, 2006, 2016 and 2017.[46][47] Some locations suffered severe damage, with up to 90% mortality.[48] The most widespread and intense events occurred in the summers of 1998 and 2002, with 42% and 54% respectively of reefs bleached to some extent, and 18% strongly bleached.[49][50] However coral losses on the reef between 1995 and 2009 were largely offset by growth of new corals.[51] An overall analysis of coral loss found that coral populations on the Great Barrier Reef had declined by 50.7% from 1985 to 2012, but with only about 10% of that decline attributable to bleaching, and the remaining 90% caused about equally by tropical cyclones and by predation by crown-of-thorns starfishes.[52] A global mass coral bleaching has been occurring since 2014 because of the highest recorded temperatures plaguing oceans. These temperatures have caused the most severe and widespread coral bleaching ever recorded in the Great Barrier reef. The most severe bleaching in 2016 occurred near Port Douglas. In late November 2016 surveys of 62 reefs showed that long term heat stress from climate change caused a 29% loss of shallow water coral. The highest coral death and reef habitat loss was inshore and mid-self reefs around Cape Grenville and Princess Charlotte Bay.[53] The IPCC's moderate warming scenarios (B1 to A1T, 2 °C by 2100, IPCC, 2007, Table SPM.3, p. 13[54]) forecast that corals on the Great Barrier Reef are very likely to regularly experience summer temperatures high enough to induce bleaching.[49]

text: Hawaii[edit]

text: Major bleaching occurred in Hawaiian coral reefs in 1996 and in 2002.[55] In 2014, biologists from the University of Queensland observed the first mass bleaching event, and attributed it to The Blob.[56] In 2014 and 2015, a survey in Hanauma Bay Nature Preserve on Oahu found 47% of the corals suffering from coral bleaching and close to 10% of the corals dying.[57]

text: Japan[edit]

text: According to a 2017 Japanese government report, almost 75% of Japan's largest coral reef in Okinawa has died from bleaching.[58]

text: Indian Ocean[edit]

text: Coral reef provinces have been permanently damaged by warm sea temperatures, most severely in the Indian Ocean. Up to 90% of coral cover has been lost in the Maldives, Sri Lanka, Kenya and Tanzania and in the Seychelles during the massive 1997-98 bleaching event.[59]

text: Maldives[edit]

text: More than 60% of the coral in the Maldives has suffered from bleaching in 2016.[60]

text: Thailand[edit]

text: Thailand experienced a severe mass bleaching in 2010 which affected 70% of the coral in the Andaman Sea. Between 30% and 95% of the bleached coral died.[61]

text: Indonesia[edit]

text: In 2017 there was a study done on two islands in Indonesia to see how their coral cover was. One of the places was Melinjo Islands and the other was Saktu Islands. In Saktu Island the lifeform conditions were categorized as bad, with an average coral cover of 22.3%. In Melinjo Islands the lifeform conditions were categorized as bad, with an average coral cover of 22.2%. (Shidqi et al. 2017)

text: Atlantic Ocean[edit]

text: United States[edit]

text: In South Florida, a 2016 survey of large corals from Key Biscayne to Fort Lauderdale found that about 66% of the corals were dead or reduced to less than half of their live tissue.[62]

text: Belize[edit]

text: The first recorded mass bleaching event that took place in the Belize Barrier Reef was in 1998, where sea level temperatures reached up to 31.5 °C (88.7 °F) from 10 August to 14 October.[63] For a few days, Hurricane Mitch brought in stormy weather on October 27 but only reduced temperatures by 1 degree or less. During this time period, mass bleaching in the fore-reef and lagoon occurred. While some fore reef colonies suffered some damage, coral mortality in the lagoon was catastrophic.[63]

text: The most prevalent coral in the reefs of Belize in 1998 was the lettuce coral, Agaricia tenuifolia. On 22 and 23 October, surveys were conducted at two sites and the findings were devastating. Virtually all the living coral was bleached white and their skeletons indicated that they had died recently. At the lagoon floor, complete bleaching was evident among Agaricia tenuifolia. Furthermore, surveys done in 1999 and 2000 showed a near total mortality of Agaricia tenuifolia at all depths. Similar patterns occurred in other coral species as well. Measurements on water turbidity suggest that these mortalities were attributed to rising water temperatures rather than solar radiation.[63]

text: Caribbean[edit]

text: Hard coral cover on reefs in the Caribbean have declined by an estimated 80%, from an average of 50% cover in the 1970s to only about 10% cover in the early 2000s.[64] A 2013 study to follow up on a mass bleaching event in Tobago from 2010 showed that after only 1 year, the majority of the dominant species declined by about 62% while coral abundance declined by about 50%. However, between 2011 and 2013, coral cover increased for 10 of the 26 dominant species but declined for 5 other populations.[65]

text: Other areas[edit]

text: Coral in the south Red Sea does not bleach despite summer water temperatures up to 34 °C (93 °F).[40][66] Coral bleaching in the Red Sea is more common in the northern section of the reefs, the southern part of the reef has been plagued by coral eating starfish, dynamite fishing and human impacts on the environment. In 1988 there was a massive bleaching event that affected the reefs in Saudi Arabia and in Sudan, the southern reefs were more resilient and affected them very little. Previously it was thought that the North suffers more from coral bleaching but they show a fast turnover of coral and the southern reef was thought to not suffer from bleaching as harshly, they show more consistency. However, new research shows where the south reef should be bigger and healthier than the north it was not. This is believed to be because of major disturbances in recent history from bleaching events, and coral eating starfish.[67] In 2010, coral bleaching occurred in Saudi Arabia and Sudan, where the temperature rose 10 to 11 degrees. Certain taxa experienced 80% to 100% of their colonies bleaching, while some showed on average 20% of that taxa bleaching.[68]

text: Economic and political impact[edit]

text: According to Brian Skoloff of The Christian Science Monitor, "If the reefs vanished, experts say, hunger, poverty and political instability could ensue."[69] Since countless sea life depend on the reefs for shelter and protection from predators, the extinction of the reefs would ultimately create a domino effect that would trickle down to the many human societies that depend on those fish for food and livelihood. There has been a 44% decline over the last 20 years in the Florida Keys, and up to 80% in the Caribbean alone.[70]

text: Coral reefs provide various ecosystem services, one of which is being a natural fishery, as many frequently consumed commercial fish spawn or live out their juvenile lives in coral reefs around the tropics.[71][72][73] Thus, reefs are a popular fishing site and are an important source of income for fishers, especially small, local fisheries.[73] As coral reef habitat decreases due to bleaching, reef associated fish populations also decrease, which affects fishing opportunities.[71] A model from one study by Speers et al. calculated direct losses to fisheries from decreased coral cover to be around $49 – $69 billion, if human societies continue to emit high levels of greenhouse gases.[71] But, these losses could be reduced for a consumer surplus benefit of about $14 – $20 billion, if societies chose to emit a lower level of greenhouse gases instead.[71] These economic losses also have important political implications, as they fall disproportionately on developing countries where the reefs are located, namely in Southeast Asia and around the Indian Ocean.[71][73][74] It would cost more for countries in these areas to respond to coral reef loss as they would need to turn to different sources of income and food, in addition to losing other ecosystem services such as ecotourism.[72][74] A study completed by Chen et al. suggested that the commercial value of reefs decreases by almost 4% every time coral cover decreases by 1% because of losses in ecotourism and other potential outdoor recreational activities.[72]

text: Coral reefs also act as a protective barrier for coastlines by reducing wave impact, which lowers the damage from storms, erosions, and flooding. Countries that lose this natural protection will lose more money because of the increased susceptibility of storms. This indirect cost, combined with the lost revenue in tourism, will result in enormous economic effects.[9]

text: Monitoring reef sea surface temperature[edit]

text: The US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) monitors for bleaching "hot spots", areas where sea surface temperature rises 1 °C or more above the long-term monthly average. The "hot spots" are the location in which thermal stress is measured and with the development of Degree Heating Week (DHW), the coral reef's thermal stress is monitored.[75][76] Global coral bleaching is being detected earlier due to the satellite remote sensing the rise of sea temperatures.[75][77] It is necessary to monitor the high temperatures because coral bleaching events are affecting coral reef reproduction and normal growth capacity, as well as it weakening corals, eventually leading to their mortality.[77] This system detected the worldwide 1998 bleaching event,[78][79] that corresponded to the 1997–98 El Niño event.[80] Currently, 190 reef sites around the globe are monitored by the NOAA, and send alerts to research scientists and reef managers via NOAA Coral Reef Watch (CRW) website.[81] By monitoring the warming of sea temperatures, the early warnings of coral bleaching, alerts reef managers to prepare and draw awareness to future bleaching events.[81] The first mass global bleaching events were recorded in 1998 and 2010, which was when the El Niño caused the oceans temperatures to rise and worsened the corals living conditions.[37] The 2014-2017 El Niño was recorded to be the longest and most damaging to the corals, which harmed over 70% of our coral reefs.[37] Over two thirds of the Great Barrier Reef have been reported to be bleached or dead.[37]

text: Changes in ocean chemistry[edit]

text: Increasing ocean acidification due to rises in carbon dioxide levels exacerbates the bleaching effects of thermal stress. Acidification affects the corals' ability to create calcareous skeletons, essential to their survival.[82] This is because ocean acidification decreases the amount of carbonate ion in the water, making it more difficult for corals to absorb the calcium carbonate they need for the skeleton. As a result, the resilience of reefs goes down, while it becomes easier for them to erode and dissolve.[83] In addition, the increase in CO2 allows herbivore overfishing and nutrification to change coral-dominated ecosystems to algal-dominated ecosystems.[84] A recent study from the Atkinson Center for a Sustainable Future found that with the combination of acidification and temperature rises, the levels of CO2 could become too high for coral to survive in as little as 50 years.[82]

text: Infectious disease[edit]

text: Infectious bacteria of the species Vibrio shiloi are the bleaching agent of Oculina patagonica in the Mediterranean Sea, causing this effect by attacking the zooxanthellae.[85][86][87] V. shiloi is infectious only during warm periods. Elevated temperature increases the virulence of V. shiloi, which then become able to adhere to a beta-galactoside-containing receptor in the surface mucus of the host coral.[86][88] V. shiloi then penetrates the coral's epidermis, multiplies, and produces both heat-stable and heat-sensitive toxins, which affect zooxanthellae by inhibiting photosynthesis and causing lysis.

text: During the summer of 2003, coral reefs in the Mediterranean Sea appeared to gain resistance to the pathogen, and further infection was not observed.[89] The main hypothesis for the emerged resistance is the presence of symbiotic communities of protective bacteria living in the corals. The bacterial species capable of lysing V. shiloi had not been identified as of 2011.

text: Coral adaptation[edit]

text: In 2010, researchers at Penn State discovered corals that were thriving while using an unusual species of symbiotic algae in the warm waters of the Andaman Sea in the Indian Ocean. Normal zooxanthellae cannot withstand temperatures as high as was there, so this finding was unexpected. This gives researchers hope that with rising temperatures due to global warming, coral reefs will develop tolerance for different species of symbiotic algae that are resistant to high temperature, and can live within the reefs.[90][91] In 2010, researchers from Stanford University also found corals around the Samoan Islands that experience a drastic temperature increase for about four hours a day during low tide. The corals do not bleach or die regardless of the high heat increase. Studies showed that the corals off the coast of Ofu Island near America Samoa have become trained to withstand the high temperatures. Researchers are now asking a new question: can we condition corals, that are not from this area, in this manner and slowly introduce them to higher temperatures for short periods of time and make them more resilient against rising ocean temperatures.[92]

text: Recovery and macroalgal regime shifts[edit]

text: After corals experience a bleaching event to increased temperature stress some reefs are able to return to their original, pre-bleaching state.[93][94] Reefs either recover from bleaching, where they are recolonized by zooxanthellae, or they experience a regime shift, where previously flourishing coral reefs are taken over by thick layers of macroalgae.[95] This inhibits further coral growth because the algae produces antifouling compounds to deter settlement and competes with corals for space and light. As a result, macroalgae forms stable communities that make it difficult for corals to grow again. Reefs will then be more susceptible to other issues, such as declining water quality and removal of herbivore fish, because coral growth is weaker.[11] Discovering what causes reefs to be resilient or recover from bleaching events is of primary importance because it helps inform conservation efforts and protect coral more effectively.

text: Corals have shown to be resilient to short-term disturbances. Recovery has been shown in after storm disturbance and crown of thorns starfish invasions.[93] Fish species tend to fare better following reef disturbance than coral species as corals show limited recovery and reef fish assemblages have shown little change as a result of short-term disturbances.[93] In contrast, fish assemblages in reefs that experience bleaching exhibit potentially damaging changes. One study by Bellwood et al. notes that while species richness, diversity, and abundance did not change, fish assemblages contained more generalist species and less coral dependent species.[93] Responses to coral bleaching are diverse between reef fish species, based on what resources are affected.[96] Rising sea temperature and coral bleaching do not directly impact adult fish mortality, but there are many indirect consequences of both.[96] Coral-associated fish populations tend to be in decline due to habitat loss; however, some herbivorous fish populations have seen a drastic increase due to the increase of algae colonization on dead coral.[96] Studies note that better methods are needed to measure the effects of disturbance on the resilience of corals.[93][97]

text: Until recently, the factors mediating the recovery of coral reefs from bleaching were not well studied. Research by Graham et al. (2005) studied 21 reefs around Seychelles in the Indo-Pacific in order to document the long-term effects of coral bleaching.[94] After the loss of more than 90% of corals due to bleaching in 1998 around 50% of the reefs recovered and roughly 40% of the reefs experienced regime shifts to macroalgae dominated compositions.[94] After an assessment of factors influencing the probability of recovery, the study identified five major factors: density of juvenile corals, initial structural complexity, water depth, biomass of herbivorous fishes, and nutrient conditions on the reef.[94] Overall, resilience was seen most in coral reef systems that were structurally complex and in deeper water.[94]

text: The ecological roles and functional groups of species also play a role in the recovery of regime shifting potential in reef systems. Coral reefs are affected by bioeroding, scraping, and grazing fish species. Bioeroding species remove dead corals, scraping species remove algae and sediment to further future growth, grazing species remove algae.[99] The presence of each type of species can influence the ability for normal levels of coral recruitment which is an important part of coral recovery.[99] Lowered numbers of grazing species after coral bleaching in the Caribbean has been likened to sea-urchin-dominated systems which do not undergo regime shifts to fleshy macroalgae dominated conditions.[95]

text: There is always the possibility of unobservable changes, or cryptic losses or resilience, in a coral community's ability to perform ecological processes.[93][99] These cryptic losses can result in unforeseen regime changes or ecological flips.[93] More detailed methods for determining the health of coral reefs that take into account long-term changes to the coral ecosystems and better-informed conservation policies are necessary to protect coral reefs in the years to come.[93][94][97][99]

text: Rebuilding coral reefs[edit]

text: Research is being done to help slow down the mortality rate of corals. Worldwide Projects are being completed to help replenish and restore our coral reefs. The population of corals is rapidly declining, so scientists are doing experiments in coral growth and research tanks to help replenish the population of corals.[37] These research tanks mimic the coral reefs natural environment in the ocean.[37]They are growing corals in these tanks to use for their experiments, so no more corals are being harmed or taken from the ocean.[37] They are also transplanting the successfully grown corals from the research tanks and putting them into the areas of the ocean where the reefs are dying out.[37] An experiment is being done in some coral growth and research tanks by Ruth Gates and Madelaine Van Oppen.[37]They are trying to make "super corals" that can withstand some of the environmental factors that the corals are currently dying from.[37] Van Oppen is also working on developing a type of algae that will have a symbiotic relationship with corals and can withstand water temperature fluctuations for long periods of time.[37] This project may be helping to replenish our reefs, but the growing process of corals in research tanks is very time consuming.[37] It can take at least 10 years for the corals to fully grow and mature enough to where they will be able to breed.[37]

text: Economic value of coral reefs[edit]

text: Coral reefs provide goods and services to an estimated quarter of all ocean species. [100] Experts estimate that coral reef services are worth up to $1.2 million per hectare which translates to an average of $172 billion per year.[101] The benefits of coral reefs include providing physical structures such as coastal shoreline protection, biotic services within and between ecosystems, biogeochemical services such as maintaining nitrogen levels in the ocean, climate records, and recreational and commercial (tourism) services.[102] Coral reefs are one of the best marine ecosystems to use to as a food source.[32] The coral reefs are also the perfect habitat for rare and economically important species of tropical fish, as they provide the perfect area for fish to breed and create nurseries in.[32] If the populations of the fish and corals in the reef are high, then we can use the area as a place to gather food and things with medicinal properties, which also helps create jobs for people who can collect these specimens.[32] The reefs also have some cultural importance in specific regions around the world.[32]

text: Cost benefit analysis of reducing loss of coral reefs[edit]

text: In 2010, the Convention on Biological Diversity's (CBD) Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 created twenty distinct targets for sustainable development for post-2015. Target 10 indicates the goal of minimizing "anthropogenic pressures on coral reefs".[103] Two programs were looked at, one that reduces coral reef loss by 50% that has a capital cost of $684 million and a recurrent cost of $81 million. The other program reduces coral reef loss by 80% and has a capital cost of $1,036 million with recurring costs of $130 million. CBD acknowledges that they may be underestimating the costs and resources needed to achieve this target due to lack of relevant data but nonetheless, the cost-benefit analysis shows that the benefits outweigh the costs by a great enough amount for both programs (Benefit Cost Ratio of 95.3 and 98.5) that "there is ample scope to increase outlays on coral protection and still achieve a benefit to cost ratio that is well over one".[103]