document_title: All the Money in the World

question_text: who played john paul getty in all the money in the world

text: All the Money in the World

text: Plot[edit]

text: In 1973, 16-year-old John Paul Getty III (Charlie Plummer) (AKA Paul), grandson of oil tycoon J. Paul Getty (Christopher Plummer) who was at that time the world's richest private citizen, is kidnapped in Rome by an organized crime ring. The kidnappers demand a ransom of $17 million. Flashbacks show that Paul's parents, Gail Harris (Michelle Williams) and John Paul Getty Jr. (Andrew Buchan), were divorced in 1971 due to Getty Jr.'s drug addiction and that Gail rejected any alimony in exchange for full custody of her children in the divorce settlement; therefore she does not have the means to pay the ransom. She travels to Getty's estate to beseech him to pay the ransom but he refuses, stating that it would encourage further kidnappings on his family members. The media picks up on the story, with many believing Gail to be rich herself and blaming her for the refusal to pay the ransom. Meanwhile, Getty asks Fletcher Chace (Mark Wahlberg), a Getty Oil negotiator and former CIA operative, to investigate the case and secure Paul's release.

text: Paul is kept hostage in a remote location in Italy. Initially his captors, particularly Cinquanta (Romain Duris), are tolerant with him because his quiet and submissive demeanor causes them few problems. However, things grow increasingly tense as weeks go by without the ransom being paid, far longer than the captors anticipated. Arguments arise over whether to move Paul to a new location as winter is approaching and their hideout is not suitable for cold conditions. Things get worse when one of the kidnappers accidentally shows his face to Paul, prompting one of the others to kill the man for his foolish mistake. His burned and disfigured body is recovered in the river; investigators erroneously identify the body as Paul's, but Gail examines the body and refutes this.

text: Using the new lead of the body, Chace is able to pinpoint the hideout where Paul is being held. A raid is conducted with several kidnappers being killed, but Paul is no longer there; he had been sold on to a new crime organization. The new captors are much less patient with Paul and negotiate more aggressively with the Getty family to receive their payment. The kidnappers cut off one of Paul's ears and mail it to a major newspaper, claiming that they will continue mutilating him until the ransom is paid.

text: After repeated negotiations with Gail and Chace, and frustration from the captors at how long the process was taking, they lower the asking price to $4 million. Getty finally decides to contribute to the ransom, but only $1 million – this being the maximum amount that he can claim as tax deductible. Moreover, he also will only do so if Gail signs a legal document waiving her parental access rights to Paul and her other children, giving them to Getty's son, her ex-husband. She reluctantly signs them. Berated by an exasperated Chace, Getty finally relents and agrees to pay the full ransom, also voiding the parental agreement with Gail. Gail and Chace take the money to Italy and follow specific instructions from the captors, leaving the money in a remote location and receiving orders to pick up Paul from a construction site. However, a frightened Paul runs away from the site towards the nearest town, miles away. Meanwhile the captors realize that Chace has broken his word and led the police to them; angry, they decide to find and kill Paul. Chace, Gail, and the captors arrive at the town to look for Paul. One of the kidnappers finds Paul first, but Cinquanta attacks the man in order to allow Paul to escape. Chace and Gail find Paul and smuggle him out of the country to safety.

text: Getty dies of unrelated causes, and Gail is tasked with managing her children's inherited wealth until they are of age. The company was set up as a charitable trust, which meant that Getty's income was tax-free but also not spendable. He had invested much of it in paintings, sculptures and other artifacts, most of them now reside in the J. Paul Getty Museum in Los Angeles.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Michelle Williams as Gail Harris, Getty III's mother.
Christopher Plummer as J. Paul Getty, Getty III's grandfather.
Mark Wahlberg as Fletcher Chace, Gail and Getty's adviser and former CIA operative.
Romain Duris as Cinquanta, one of Getty lll's abductors.
Timothy Hutton as Oswald Hinge, Getty's attorney.
Charlie Plummer as John Paul Getty III, John Paul's grandson.
Charlie Shotwell as Young John Paul Getty III
Andrew Buchan as John Paul Getty Jr., Getty's son.
Marco Leonardi as Mammoliti, one of Getty III's abductors and Cinquanta's boss.
Giuseppe Bonifati as Giovanni Iacovoni, Gail's attorney.
Nicolas Vaporidis as Il Tamia "Chipmunk", Getty III's abductor.
Ghassan Massoud as an Arab Sheikh.
Stacy Martin as J. Paul Getty's secretary.[10]
Kit Cranston as Young Mark Getty - Age 4
Maya Kelly as Young Aileen Getty - Age 6
Clive Wood as Bullimore

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: On March 13, 2017, it was reported that Ridley Scott was finalizing plans to direct the David Scarpa-scripted All the Money in the World, a film about the kidnapping of John Paul Getty III. Scott stated that he was attracted to the project because of Scarpa's script, adding "I just consumed it [...] I knew about the kidnapping, but this story was very, very provocative... Gail Getty was an exceptional character, and there are many facets of the man Getty that make him a really great study. There's this great dynamic. It was like a play, and not a movie."[11]

text: Casting[edit]

text: Natalie Portman was initially pursued for the role of Gail Harris.[12] On March 31, 2017, it was reported that Michelle Williams and Kevin Spacey were circling the roles of Harris and J. Paul Getty, respectively, while Mark Wahlberg was in talks for an unspecified role.[13] On casting Spacey, Scott stated, "When I read the script, I started thinking, 'Who was Paul Getty?' In my mind, I saw Kevin Spacey. Kevin's a brilliant actor, but I've never worked with him, and I always knew I would have to have him portray Getty in this film [...] He was so obsessed with what he was doing [...] He wasn't giving people a second thought." In regards to Williams, Scott stated that while she was not his first choice, "Michelle is very special as an actress, and I've never done anything with her before [...] The family was very private and there was very little footage of [Gail], but around the kidnapping, there was one particular interview she did that Michelle jumped at, and it shows Gail Getty being very assertive, very smart," both qualities Williams possessed.[11] On May 2, Charlie Plummer joined the cast as John Paul Getty III.[14] Timothy Hutton was added to the cast on June 16.[15]

text: Initial filming[edit]

text: On May 31, 2017, it was reported that All the Money in the World had begun principal photography.[16] Filming continued at Elveden Hall in west Suffolk for a week at the end of July. The aristocratic Grade II-listed stately home was used to represent a Moroccan palace in the filming of a series of flashback scenes.[17] Kevin Spacey worked for just ten days on the film.[18] The original production reportedly concluded in August.[19]

text: Recasting of J. Paul Getty[edit]

text: In late October, numerous sexual harassment and sexual assault allegations were made against Spacey, who played J. Paul Getty in the film. The film's premiere at the AFI Fest on November 16 was cancelled,[20][18] and its Academy Awards campaign – which focused on Spacey's supporting role – was reworked.[21]

text: On November 8, it was announced that although the film was otherwise ready for release, reshoots had been commissioned to replace Spacey with Christopher Plummer in the role of Getty.[6][22][23] Despite his earlier statements to the contrary, Scott claimed that Plummer had been his original choice for the role, and that studio executives had persuaded him to cast the "bigger name" Spacey.[24][25] Spacey still appears in one wide shot that would have been too expensive or complex to reshoot within the release deadline; the scene features Getty disembarking from a train in the desert, and Spacey's face is not visible.[26]

text: Reshoots with Plummer began on November 20 and ended on the 29th, with the first footage of him in the role released in a new trailer the same day.[27][28][29] The decision cost millions of dollars in rush fees, among other costs, to meet the film's late-December release.[30] The reshoots ended up costing $10 million, making the final production cost of the film $50 million.[31]

text: While it was initially reported that the actors filmed the reshoots for free,[32] it was later revealed that Wahlberg was paid $1.5 million while Williams only received $80 in per diems, as she was contractually obligated to appear in reshoots, while Wahlberg was not.[33][31] Wahlberg's fee for the original shooting is alleged by The Hollywood Reporter[34] to have been $5 million, while Michelle Williams is reported to have been paid $625,000. The New York Times has reported that Wahlberg was paid 80% less than his usual fee. The $1.5 million Wahlberg received for reshoots was in addition to this. Wahlberg's contract allowed him to approve co-stars, and he reportedly refused to approve Plummer as Spacey's replacement unless he was paid extra.[35] In response to the backlash brought on by the difference in the actors' pay, Wahlberg announced he would donate the $1.5 million to the Time's Up movement in Williams' name.[36]

text: Release[edit]

text: The film premiered at the Samuel Goldwyn Theater in Beverly Hills, California on December 18, 2017. In the United States, the film was originally slated for a release on December 22, 2017, but two weeks before its debut, it was pushed to December 25, to avoid competition with Star Wars: The Last Jedi.[37]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: All the Money in the World grossed $25.1 million in the United States and Canada and $31.8 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $56.9 million, against a production budget of $50 million.[4]

text: On Christmas Day, the film's opening day, it grossed $2.6 million from 2,068 theaters.[38] In its first full weekend the film made $5.4 million from 2,074 theaters, finishing 7th at the box office.[39] In its second weekend the film made $3.6 million, dropping 36% and finishing 10th.[40]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 77% based on 207 reviews, with an average rating of 6.9/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "All the Money in the World offers an absorbing portrayal of a true story, brought compellingly to life by a powerful performance from Christopher Plummer."[41] On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 72 out of 100, based on 47 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[42] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale.[38]

text: Writing for The Hollywood Reporter, Todd McCarthy said, "[Scott and Plummer] show what they're made of in All the Money in the World, a terrifically dexterous and detailed thriller about the Italian mob's 1973 kidnapping for ransom of the grandson of the world's richest man, John Paul Getty [sic]."[43][44] Matt Zoller Seitz of RogerEbert.com gave the film three out of four stars, commending it as a whole despite criticizing the middle section as repetitive, and the character of J. Paul Getty being "repugnant" without proper context. He stated that "The film is also a testament to the awesome work ethic of its 80-year old but still apparently tireless director, who fired Kevin Spacey.... they're worth noting because the end product is much better than anyone could have expected, considering the challenges faced and met by all involved."[45]

text: Writing for New York magazine, David Edelstein gave a strong review for the performance of Michelle Williams in the film, stating: "My guess is that there was one overriding factor in Scott's decision to rebuild sets and summon back his actors (after the Spacey controversy): The fear that Spacey's presence would distract the world (which includes Oscar voters) from the marvelous performance of Michelle Williams as Gail. It's a real transformation. I've never heard this diction from her before — sharp, with a hint of North Shore (i.e., old money) Long Island and perhaps a Kennedy or two. (The real Gail grew up in San Francisco but was well acquainted with the cadences of the East Coast rich.) Through the tension in her body and intensity of her voice, Williams conveys not just the terror of losing a son but the tragic absurdity of bearing the illustrious name Getty when family ties confer zero power."[46]

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
Award

Date of ceremony

Category

Recipient(s) and nominee(s)

Result

Ref(s)

AARP's Movies for Grownups Awards

February 5, 2018

Best Supporting Actor

Christopher Plummer

Nominated

[47]

Best Director

Ridley Scott

Nominated

Academy Awards

March 4, 2018

Best Supporting Actor

Christopher Plummer

Nominated

[48]

British Academy Film Awards

February 18, 2018

Best Actor in a Supporting Role

Christopher Plummer

Nominated

[49]

Golden Globe Awards

January 7, 2018

Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama

Michelle Williams

Nominated

[50]

Best Director – Motion Picture

Ridley Scott

Nominated

Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture

Christopher Plummer

Nominated

Location Managers Guild Awards

April 7, 2018

Outstanding Locations in Period Film

Steve Mortimore, Enrico Latella

Nominated

[51]


document_title: Committee of Public Safety

question_text: who led the committee of public safety apex

root

text: Committee of Public Safety

text: Origins and evolution[edit]

text: Committee of discussion[edit]

text: On 5 April 1793, the French military commander and former minister of war General Charles François Dumouriez defected to Austria, following the publication of an incendiary letter in which he threatened to march his army on the city of Paris if the National Convention did not accede to his leadership. News of his defection caused alarm in Paris, where imminent defeat by the Austrians and their allies was feared. A widespread belief held that revolutionary France was in immediate peril, threatened not only by foreign armies and by recent anti-revolutionary revolts in the Vendée, but also by foreign agents who plotted the destruction of the nation from within.[1]

tag: p

text: The betrayal of the revolutionary government by Dumouriez lent greater credence to this belief. In light of this threat, the Girondin leader Maximin Isnard proposed the creation of a nine-member Committee of Public Safety. Isnard was supported in this effort by Georges Danton, who declared, "This Committee is precisely what we want, a hand to grasp the weapon of the Revolutionary Tribunal."[1]

text: The Committee was formally created on 6 April 1793. Closely associated with the leadership of Danton, it was initially known as "the Danton Committee".[2] Danton steered the Committee through the 31 May and 2 June 1793 journées that resulted in the fall of the Girondins, and through the intensifying war in the Vendée. However, when the Committee was recomposed on 10 July, Danton was not included. Nevertheless, he continued to support the centralization of power by the Committee.[3]

text: On 27 July 1793, Maximilien Robespierre was elected to the Committee. At this time, the Committee was entering a more powerful and active phase, which would see it become a de facto dictatorship alongside its powerful partner, the Committee of General Security. The role of the Committee of Public Safety included the governance of the war (including the appointment of generals), the appointing of judges and juries for the Revolutionary Tribunal,[4] the provisioning of the armies and the public, the maintenance of public order, and oversight of the state bureaucracy.[5]

text: The Committee was also responsible for interpreting and applying the decrees of the National Convention, and thus for implementing some of the most stringent policies of the Terror—for instance, the levée en masse, passed on 23 August 1793, the Law of Suspects, passed on 17 September 1793, and the Law of the Maximum, passed on 29 September 1793. The broad and centralized powers of the Committee were codified by the Law of 14 Frimaire (also known as the Law of Revolutionary Government) on 4 December 1793.

text: Execution of the Hébertists and Dantonists[edit]

text: On 5 December 1793, journalist Camille Desmoulins began publishing Le Vieux Cordelier, a newspaper initially aimed—with the approval of Robespierre and the Committee of Public Safety[6]—at the ultra-revolutionary Hébertist faction, whose extremist demands, anti-religious fervor, and propensity for sudden insurrections were problematic for the Committee. However, Desmoulins quickly turned his pen against the Committee of Public Safety and the Committee of General Security, comparing their reign to that of the Roman tyrants chronicled by Tacitus, and expounding the "indulgent" views of the Dantonist faction.

text: Consequently, though the Hébertists were arrested and executed in March 1794, the Committee of Public Safety and the Committee of General Security ensured that Desmoulins and Danton were also arrested. Hérault de Séchelles—a friend and ally of Danton—was expelled from the Committee of Public Safety, arrested, and tried alongside them. On 5 April 1794, the Dantonists went to the guillotine.

text: Committee of rule[edit]

text: The elimination of the Hébertists and the Dantonists made evident the strength of the committees, as had their ability to control and silence opposition. The creation, in March 1794, of a "General Police Bureau"—reporting nominally to the Committee of Public Safety, but more often directly to Robespierre and his closest ally, Louis Antoine de Saint-Just—served to increase the power of the Committee of Public Safety, and of Robespierre himself.

text: The Law of 22 Prairial, proposed by the Committee of Public Safety and enacted on 10 June 1794, went further in establishing the iron control of the Revolutionary Tribunal and, above it, the Committees of Public Safety and General Security. The law enumerated various forms of public enemies, made mandatory their denunciation, and severely limited the legal recourse available to those accused. The punishment for all crimes under the Law of 22 Prairal was death. From the initiation of this law to the fall of Robespierre on 27 July, more people were condemned to death than in the entire previous history of the Revolutionary Tribunal.[7]

text: However, even as the Terror reached its height, and with it the Committee's political power, discord was growing within the revolutionary government. Members of the Committee of General Security resented the autocratic behavior of the Committee of Public Safety, and particularly the encroachment of the General Police Bureau upon their own brief.[8] Arguments within the Committee of Public Safety itself had grown so violent that it relocated its meetings to a more private room to preserve the illusion of agreement.[9] Robespierre, a fervent supporter of the theistic Cult of the Supreme Being, found himself frequently in conflict with anti-religious Committee members Collot d'Herbois and Billaud-Varenne. Moreover, Robespierre's increasingly extensive absences from the Committee due to illness (he all but ceased to attend meetings in June 1794) created the impression that he was isolated and out of touch.

text: Fall of the Committee, and aftermath[edit]

text: When it became evident, in mid-July 1794, that Robespierre and Saint-Just were planning to strike against their political opponents Joseph Fouché, Jean-Lambert Tallien, and Marc-Guillaume Alexis Vadier (the latter two of whom were members of the Committee of General Security), the fragile truce within the government was dissolved. Saint-Just and his fellow Committee of Public Safety member Barère attempted to keep the peace between the Committees of Public Safety and General Security; however, on 26 July, Robespierre delivered a speech to the National Convention in which he emphasized the need to "purify" the Committees and "crush all factions."[10] In a speech to the Jacobin Club that night, he attacked Collot d'Herbois and Billaud-Varenne, who had refused to allow the printing and distribution of his speech to the Convention.

text: On the following day, 27 July 1794 (or 9 Thermidor according to the Revolutionary calendar), Saint-Just began to deliver a speech to the Convention in which he had planned to denounce Collot d'Herbois, Billaud-Varenne, and other members of the Committee of Public Safety. However, he was almost immediately interrupted by Tallien and by Billaud-Varenne, who accused Saint-Just of intending to "murder the Convention."[11] Barère, Vadier, and Stanislas Fréron joined the accusations against Saint-Just and Robespierre. The arrest of Robespierre, his brother Augustin, and Saint-Just was ordered, along with that of their supporters, Philippe Le Bas and Georges Couthon.

text: A period of intense civil unrest ensued, during which the members of the Committees of Public Safety and General Security were forced to seek refuge in the Convention. The Robespierre brothers, Saint-Just, Le Bas, and Couthon ensconced themselves in the Hôtel de Ville, attempting to incite an insurrection. Ultimately, faced with defeat and arrest, Le Bas committed suicide. Saint-Just, Couthon, and Maximilien and Augustin Robespierre were arrested and guillotined on 28 July.

text: The ensuing period of upheaval, dubbed the Thermidorian Reaction, saw the repeal of many of the Terror's most unpopular laws and the reduction in power of the Committees of General Security and Public Safety. The Committees ceased to exist under the Constitution of the Year III (1795), which marked the beginning of the Directory.

text: Composition[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: The Committee was initially composed of nine members, all selected by the National Convention for one month at a time, without term limits. Its first members, instated on 6 April 1793, were as follows, in order of election.

text: After Robespierre's election to the Committee on 27 July 1793, the Committee increased its membership to twelve. The list below represents the Committee's membership.

text: April 1793 – July 1793:

text:
Name (Birth-Death)
Department
Party

Bertrand Barère (1755–1841)
Hautes-Pyrénées
Maraisard

Jean-François Delmas (1751–1798)
Haute-Garonne
Montagnard

Jean-Jacques Bréard (1751–1840)
Charente-Inférieure
Montagnard

Pierre-Joseph Cambon (1756–1820)
Hérault
Montagnard

Georges Danton (1759–1794)
Seine
Montagnard

Jean Debry (1760–1834)
Aisne
Montagnard

Jean-François Delacroix (1753–1794)
Eure-et-Loir
Maraisard

Louis-Bernard Guyton-Morveau (1737–1816)
Côte-d'Or
Girondin

Jean Baptiste Treilhard (1742–1810)
Seine-et-Oise
Girondin

text: July 1793 – July 1794:

text:
Name (Birth-Death)
Department
Party

Bertrand Barère (1755–1841)
Hautes-Pyrénées
Maraisard

Jacques Nicolas Billaud-Varenne (1756–1819)
Seine
Montagnard

Lazare Carnot (1753–1823)
Pas-de-Calais
Maraisard

Georges Couthon (1755–1794)
Puy-de-Dôme
Montagnard

Claude-Antoine Prieur-Duvernois (1763–1832)
Côte-d'Or
Montagnard

Jean-Marie Collot d'Herbois (1749–1796)
Seine
Montagnard

Robert Lindet (1746–1825)
Eure
Montagnard

Pierre Louis Prieur (1756–1827)
Marne
Montagnard

Maximilien Robespierre (1758–1794)
Seine
Montagnard

Jeanbon Saint-André (1749–1813)
Lot
Montagnard

Louis Antoine de Saint-Just (1767–1794)
Aisne
Montagnard

Marie-Jean Hérault de Séchelles (1759–1794)
Seine-et-Oise
Montagnard


document_title: Ricky Ricardo, Jr.

question_text: who played the baby in i love lucy

question_tokens: who played the baby in i love lucy

text: Ricky Ricardo, Jr.

text:
Enrique Alberto Ricardo IV

First appearance
"Lucy Goes to the Hospital"

Last appearance
"Lucy meets The Mustache"

Portrayed by
James John Ganzer, Richard Lee Simons, Ronald Lee Simons, Michael Mayer, Joseph Mayer, Keith Thibodeaux

Information

Nickname(s)
Little Ricky

Gender
Male

Occupation
Student, son, drummer

Family
Lucy Ricardo (mother), Ricky Ricardo (father), Mrs. MacGillicuddy (Grandmother)

Nationality
Mixed Heritage Cuban and American of Scottish descent

text: Enrique Alberto Ricardo IV, "Little Ricky," is a fictional character from the American television series I Love Lucy (1951–57, with Ricky Jr. becoming a part of the show as of his birth in 1953) and The Lucy-Desi Comedy Hour (1957–60). Little Ricky was played by a number of actors, including James John Ganzer, twins Richard and Ronald Lee Simmons, twins Michael and Joseph Mayer[1] and, most notably, Keith Thibodeaux, billed as Little Ricky. Although the I Love Lucy announcer and the opening credits of The Lucy-Desi Comedy Hour gave his stage name as "Little Ricky", in his post-Lucy acting career, particularly his four-year irregular stint on The Andy Griffith Show, he was billed as Richard Keith.[2]

text: In the show, Little Ricky is the son of Lucy Ricardo and Ricky Ricardo. Little Ricky lives with his parents in a New York Brownstone apartment building, which is owned and run by his godparents; the family later moves to a large suburban house in Westport, Connecticut.[3]

text: Fictional Character Biography[edit]

text: Lucy finds out she was expecting Little Ricky on the Season 2 episode "Lucy is Enceinte." The episode in which he is born, "Lucy goes to the Hospital," was aired on the same day as the birth of Lucille Ball's real son, Desi Arnaz, Jr. — Monday, January 19, 1953.

text:
Mother: Lucy Ricardo, played by Lucille Ball.
Father: Ricky Ricardo, played by Desi Arnaz.
Maternal Grandmother: Mrs. MacGillicuddy, played by Kathryn Card.
Godfather: Fred Mertz played by William Frawley.
Godmother: Ethel Mertz played by Vivian Vance.
Babysitter: Mrs. Matilda Trumble played by Elizabeth Patterson.
Classmates: Stevie Appleby and Bruce Ramsey.[4]

tag: ul

text: Little Ricky's father buys him a set of drums in the season 6 episode "Little Ricky Learns to play the Drums," after he shows he can carry a beat while tapping his spoon on a glass during a family breakfast. His parents enroll him in a music school where he is the only drummer, where he forms a band named "Ricky Ricardo and the Dixieland Band." Little Ricky experiences stage fright before his first music school recital but seems to overcome stage fright as he performs comfortably in many other episodes, such as "The Ricardos Visit Cuba," where he plays the conga drum alongside his father; "Little Ricky's School Pageant," where he plays the lead; and "Ragtime Band," where Little Ricky plays the drums alongside his mother and godparents.

text: Episode Appearances[edit]

text:
Season and Episode Number
Episode Title
Actor portraying Little Ricky
Little Ricky's Involvement in Episode[5]

2.16
"Lucy Goes to the Hospital"
James John Ganzer
There is only one scene in which Little Ricky appears, when the baby is brought to the maternity ward window for Ricky and the Mertz's to see him for the first time.

2.22
"No Children Allowed"
Richard and Ronald Lee Simmons
When Little Ricky cries throughout the night, neighbors complain and the clause in their lease "No Children Allowed" comes into play.

2.24
"The Indian Show"
Richard and Ronald Lee Simmons
Lucy appears as a dancer in Ricky's "Waters of the Minnetonka" number with Little Ricky strapped on her back.

3.5
"Baby Pictures"
Joseph and Michael Mayer
Lucy and Ricky promise not to show off pictures of Little Ricky like other parents do.

3.9
"Too Many Crooks"
Joseph and Michael Mayer
Lucy escapes with Little Ricky when she believes a crook named Madame X is outside on her fire escape.

3.14
"Ricky Minds the Baby"
Joseph and Michael Mayer
Little Ricky spends quality time with his father when Ricky has a week off of work.

3.20
"Home Movies"
Joseph and Michael Mayer
Ricky makes home movies about Little Ricky with his new movie camera and projector.

4.21
"The Hedda Hopper Story"
Joseph and Michael Mayer
Mrs. MacGillicuddy and Little Ricky arrive in California to join the Ricardos and the Mertzes.

5.2
"Lucy and John Wayne"
Joseph and Michael Mayer
After John Wayne signs his name in cement for the second time, Little Ricky is seen playing in the wet cement.

5.5
"The Great Train Robbery"
Joseph and Michael Mayer
When Mrs. MacGillicuddy and Little Ricky get moved to a different room on the train ride back to New York from California, Lucy first thinks they've been kidnapped.

5.6
"Homecoming"
Joseph and Michael Mayer
The Ricardos, Mertzes and Little Ricky arrive back in New York.

5.9
"Nursery School"
Joseph and Michael Mayer
Little Ricky gets sick after Ricky insists that Lucy enroll him in nursery school.

5.13
"Bon Voyage"
Joseph and Michael Mayer
Lucy misses the ship to Europe when she gets off to kiss Little Ricky goodbye one more time.

5.22
"Lucy Gets Homesick in Italy"
Joseph and Michael Mayer
Lucy gets homesick on Little Ricky's birthday.

6.2
"Little Ricky Learns to Play the Drums"
Little Ricky
Little Ricky's incessant playing causes trouble between the Ricardos and the Mertzes.

6.4
"Little Ricky gets Stage Fright"
Little Ricky
Little Ricky panics before his first music school recital.

6.7
"Deep Sea Fishing"
Little Ricky
The group goes fishing and there's a bet between the men, including Little Ricky, and the women about who can catch the bigger fish.

6.8
"Desert Island"
Little Ricky
The group, including Little Ricky, get stranded at sea when Lucy gets only half a tank of gas for the boat.

6.9
"The Ricardos Visit Cuba"
Little Ricky
Little Ricky plays the Conga drums alongside his father in a night club performance in Cuba.

6.10
"Little Ricky's School Pageant"
Little Ricky
Little Ricky lands the lead in his school play, "The Enchanted Forest."

6.13
"Lucy and Superman"
Little Ricky
Lucy gets Superman, guest star George Reeves, to appear at Little Ricky's fifth birthday party.

6.14
"Little Ricky gets a Dog"
Little Ricky
Little Ricky's new dog causes problems with the new neighbor.

6.16
"Lucy Hates to Leave"
Little Ricky
The Ricardos, including Little Ricky, make their move from New York City to the country in Connecticut.

6.19
"Lucy Raises Chickens"
Little Ricky
Little Ricky accidentally lets five hundred baby chicks escape and the house is soon overrun.

6.20
"Lucy Does the Tango"
Little Ricky
Little Ricky and his friend, Bruce Ramsey, hide 250 chickens when his father decides that he's going to sell them.

6.21
"Ragtime Band"
Little Ricky
When Ricky refuses to play for a local benefit, Lucy forms a band which includes Little Ricky.

6.24
"Building a BBQ"
Little Ricky
When Little Ricky's kite flies away, there's a chance Lucy's wedding ring went with it.

6.26
"Lucy Raises Tulips"
Little Ricky
Little Ricky's dog, Fred, causes problems for Lucy who's growing tulips for a neighborhood contest.

6.27
"The Ricardos Dedicate a Statue"
Little Ricky
When Little Ricky's dog, Fred, runs away, it causes problems for the entire neighborhood and especially the Westport Historical Society.


question_text: kensington and chelsea council are they labour or conservative

text: History[edit]

text: There have previously been a number of local authorities responsible for the Kensington and Chelsea area. The current local authority was first elected in 1964, a year before formally coming into its powers and prior to the creation of the London Borough of Kensington and Chelsea on 1 April 1965. Kensington and Chelsea London Borough Council replaced Kensington Metropolitan Borough Council and Chelsea Metropolitan Borough Council. Both were created in 1900 and replaced the Vestry of the Parish of Kensington and the Vestry of the Parish of Chelsea.

text: It was envisaged through the London Government Act 1963 that Kensington and Chelsea as a London local authority would share power with the Greater London Council. The split of powers and functions meant that the Greater London Council was responsible for "wide area" services such as fire, ambulance, flood prevention, and refuse disposal; with the local authorities responsible for "personal" services such as social care, libraries, cemeteries and refuse collection. This arrangement lasted until 1986 when Kensington and Chelsea London Borough Council gained responsibility for some services that had been provided by the Greater London Council, such as waste disposal. Kensington and Chelsea became an education authority in 1990. Since 2000 the Greater London Authority has taken some responsibility for highways and planning control from the council, but within the English local government system the council remains a "most purpose" authority in terms of the available range of powers and functions.

text: Summary results of elections[edit]

text: The council has been controlled by the Conservative Party since it was first elected in 1964.

text: After new boundaries were set by the Boundary Commission, the Conservatives lost the Earl's Court Ward By-election in September 2010 to the Liberal Democrats and narrowly won the Cremorne Ward By-election by only 19 votes.[2] Many commentors blamed the Tory Councillors led by Merrick Cockell for these poor results, stating that the Council did not take adequately into account residents' views on projects such as the proposed Thames Tideway Tunnel and the Earl's Court building works.[3][4] The Conservatives in the Cremorne Ward ran on the promise to Save Cremorne Gardens yet these gardens are still under threat.[citation needed]

text: Grenfell Tower fire[edit]

text: On 14 June 2017 a major fire destroyed the council-owned, 24-storey Grenfell Tower providing public housing in a mainly working-class area north of White City, London (sometimes called North Kensington), causing at least 79 deaths.[5] The tower block was home to a diverse population of many nationalities, ethnicities and faiths,[6] and was managed on behalf (but independently) of the council by Kensington and Chelsea Tenant Management Organisation (KCTMO), the largest tenant management organisation (TMO) in England, which is responsible for the management of nearly 10,000 properties in the borough.[7]

text: On 18 June, the government relieved Kensington and Chelsea London Borough Council of responsibility for supporting the survivors, after a perceived inadequate response. Responsibility was handed over to a Grenfell fire-response team led by a group of chief executives from councils across London. Resources available to them included central government, the British Red Cross, the Metropolitan Police, the London Fire Brigade and local government across London. Neighbouring councils sent in staff to improve the rehousing response.[8][9]

text: On 21 June, the Council chief executive Nicholas Holgate resigned amid criticism over the borough's response to the fire.[10] The Prime Minister Theresa May commented that the council "couldn't cope" in the response to the fire, and that it "was right" that the chief executive had resigned.[11] The Conservative leader of the council, Nicholas Paget-Brown resisted calls to resign,[8] but he announced on 30 June that he would step down[12] and was replaced as leader by Conservative Elizabeth Campbell on 19 July 2017.[13]


document_title: Easter Island

question_text: where did the stones on easter island come from

question_tokens: where did the stones on easter island come from

text: Easter Island

text: Name[edit]

text: The name "Easter Island" was given by the island's first recorded European visitor, the Dutch explorer Jacob Roggeveen, who encountered it on Easter Sunday (5 April) in 1722, while searching for Davis or David's island. Roggeveen named it Paasch-Eyland (18th-century Dutch for "Easter Island").[9][10] The island's official Spanish name, Isla de Pascua, also means "Easter Island".

text: The current Polynesian name of the island, Rapa Nui ("Big Rapa"), was coined after the slave raids of the early 1860s, and refers to the island's topographic resemblance to the island of Rapa in the Bass Islands of the Austral Islands group.[11] However, Norwegian ethnographer Thor Heyerdahl argued that Rapa was the original name of Easter Island and that Rapa Iti was named by refugees from there.[12]

text: The phrase Te pito o te henua has been said to be the original name of the island since French ethnologist Alphonse Pinart gave it the romantic translation "the Navel of the World" in his Voyage à l'Île de Pâques, published in 1877.[13] William Churchill (1912) inquired about the phrase and was told that there were three te pito o te henua, these being the three capes (land's ends) of the island. The phrase appears to have been used in the same sense as the designation of "Land's End" at the tip of Cornwall. He was unable to elicit a Polynesian name for the island itself, and concluded that there may not have been one.[14]

text: According to Barthel (1974), oral tradition has it that the island was first named Te pito o te kainga a Hau Maka, "The little piece of land of Hau Maka".[15] However, there are two words pronounced pito in Rapa Nui, one meaning 'end' and one 'navel', and the phrase can thus also mean "the Navel of the World". Another name, Mata ki te rangi, means "Eyes looking to the sky".[16]

text: Islanders are referred to in Spanish as pascuense; however it is common to refer to members of the indigenous community as Rapa Nui.

text: History[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
Easter Island

UNESCO World Heritage Site

Official name
Rapa Nui National Park

Location
Chile, Easter Island Province, Easter Island Commune, Chile

Coordinates
27°07′10″S 109°21′17″W / 27.1194°S 109.3547°W / -27.1194; -109.3547

Area
164 km2 (1.77×109 sq ft)

Criteria
Cultural: i, iii, v

Reference
715

Inscription
1995 (19th Session)

Website
www.municipalidaddeisladepascua.cl

[edit on Wikidata]

text: Estimated dates of initial settlement of Easter Island have ranged from 300 to 1200 AD, approximately coinciding with the arrival of the first settlers in Hawaii. Rectifications in radiocarbon dating have changed almost all of the previously posited early settlement dates in Polynesia. Rapa Nui is now considered to have been settled in the narrower range of 700 to 1100 AD. Ongoing archaeological studies suggest a still-later date: "Radiocarbon dates for the earliest stratigraphic layers at Anakena, Easter Island, and analysis of previous radiocarbon dates imply that the island was colonized late, about 1200 AD. Significant ecological impacts and major cultural investments in monumental architecture and statuary thus began soon after initial settlement."[17][18]

text: According to oral tradition, the first settlement was at Anakena. Researchers have noted that the Caleta Anakena landing point provides the island's best shelter from prevailing swells as well as a sandy beach for canoe landings and launchings so it appeals as a likely early place of settlement. However, this conclusion contradicts radiocarbon dating, according to which other sites preceded Anakena by many years, especially the Tahai, whose radiocarbon dates precede Anakena's by several centuries.

text: The island was most likely populated by Polynesians who navigated in canoes or catamarans from the Gambier Islands (Mangareva, 2,600 km (1,600 mi) away) or the Marquesas Islands, 3,200 km (2,000 mi) away. According to some theories, such as the Polynesian Diaspora Theory, there is a possibility that early Polynesian settlers arrived from South America due to their remarkable sea-navigation abilities. Theorists have supported this through the agricultural evidence of the sweet potato. The sweet potato was a favoured crop found among Polynesian society for generations. However, the origins of the sweet potato trace back to South America, proving evidence of interaction at some point in time between these two geographic areas.[19] When James Cook visited the island, one of his crew members, a Polynesian from Bora Bora, Hitihiti, was able to communicate with the Rapa Nui.[20]:296–297 The language most similar to Rapa Nui is Mangarevan, with an estimated 80 percent similarity in vocabulary. In 1999, a voyage with reconstructed Polynesian boats was able to reach Easter Island from Mangareva in 19 days.[21]

text: According to oral traditions recorded by missionaries in the 1860s, the island originally had a strong class system, with an ariki, or high chief, wielding great power over nine other clans and their respective chiefs. The high chief was the eldest descendent through first-born lines of the island's legendary founder, Hotu Matu'a. The most visible element in the culture was the production of massive statues called moai that some believe represented deified ancestors. According to National Geographic, "Most scholars suspect that the moai were created to honor ancestors, chiefs, or other important personages, However, no written and little oral history exists on the island, so it’s impossible to be certain."[23]

text: It was believed that the living had a symbiotic relationship with the dead in which the dead provided everything that the living needed (health, fertility of land and animals, fortune etc.) and the living, through offerings, provided the dead with a better place in the spirit world. Most settlements were located on the coast and most moai were erected along the coastline, watching over their descendants in the settlements before them, with their backs toward the spirit world in the sea.

text: Jared Diamond suggested that cannibalism took place on Easter Island after the construction of the moai contributed to environmental degradation when extreme deforestation destabilized an already precarious ecosystem.[24] Archeological record shows that at the time of the initial settlement the island was home to many species of trees, including at least three species which grew up to 15 metres (49 ft) or more: Paschalococos – possibly the largest palm trees in the world at the time, Alphitonia zizyphoides, and Elaeocarpus rarotongensis, as well as at least six species of native land birds. A major factor that contributed to the extinction of multiple plant species was the introduction of the Polynesian rat. Studies by paleobotanists have shown rats can dramatically affect the reproduction of vegetation in an ecosystem. In the case of Rapa Nui, recovered plant shell seeds showed markings of being gnawed on by rats.[4] Barbara A. West wrote, "Sometime before the arrival of Europeans on Easter Island, the Rapanui experienced a tremendous upheaval in their social system brought about by a change in their island's ecology... By the time of European arrival in 1722, the island's population had dropped to 2,000–3,000 from a high of approximately 15,000 just a century earlier."[25]

text: By that time, 21 species of trees and all species of land birds became extinct through some combination of overharvesting/overhunting, rat predation, and climate change. The island was largely deforested, and it did not have any trees more than 3 metres (10 feet) tall. Loss of large trees meant that residents were no longer able to build seaworthy vessels, significantly diminishing their fishing abilities. One theory regarding the deforestation that caused such ecological and social damage was that the trees were used as rollers to move the statues to their place of erection from the quarry at Rano Raraku.[26] Deforestation also affected agricultural production on Rapa Nui. At first, the native tropical forests provided ideal shade cover for soil. But with many of the native forest being destroyed, the topsoil became eroded causing a sharp decline in agricultural production.[4] This was further exacerbated by the loss of land birds and the collapse in seabird populations as a potential source of food. By the 18th century, residents of the island were largely sustained by farming, with domestic chickens as the primary source of protein.[27]

text: As the island became overpopulated and resources diminished, warriors known as matatoa gained more power and the Ancestor Cult ended, making way for the Bird Man Cult. Beverly Haun wrote, "The concept of mana (power) invested in hereditary leaders was recast into the person of the birdman, apparently beginning circa 1540, and coinciding with the final vestiges of the moai period."[28] This cult maintained that, although the ancestors still provided for their descendants, the medium through which the living could contact the dead was no longer statues, but human beings chosen through a competition. The god responsible for creating humans, Makemake, played an important role in this process. Katherine Routledge, who systematically collected the island's traditions in her 1919 expedition,[29] showed that the competitions for Bird Man (Rapanui: tangata manu) started around 1760, after the arrival of the first Europeans, and ended in 1878, with the construction of the first church by Roman Catholic missionaries who formally arrived in 1864. Petroglyphs representing Bird Men on Easter Island are exactly the same as some in Hawaii, indicating that this concept was probably brought by the original settlers; only the competition itself was unique to Easter Island.

text: According to Diamond and Heyerdahl's version of the island's history, the huri mo'ai—"statue-toppling"—continued into the 1830s as a part of fierce internal wars. By 1838 the only standing moai were on the slopes of Rano Raraku, in Hoa Hakananai'a in Orongo, and Ariki Paro in Ahu Te Pito Kura. A study headed by Douglas Owsley published in 1994 asserted that there is little archaeological evidence of pre-European societal collapse. Bone pathology and osteometric data from islanders of that period clearly suggest few fatalities can be attributed directly to violence.[30]

text: The first-recorded European contact with the island was on 5 April (Easter Sunday), 1722, when Dutch navigator Jacob Roggeveen[20] visited the island for a week and estimated a population of 2,000 to 3,000 inhabitants. The number may have been greater, since some may have been frightened into hiding by a misunderstanding that led Roggeveen's men to fire on the natives, killing more than a dozen and wounding several more.

text: The next foreign visitors (on 15 November 1770) were two Spanish ships, San Lorenzo and Santa Rosalia, under the command of Captain Don Felipe Gonzalez.[20]:238,504 The Spanish reported the island as largely uncultivated, whose seashore was lined with stone statues.

text: Four years later, in 1774, British explorer James Cook visited Easter Island; he reported that some statues had been toppled. Through the interpretation of Hitihiti, Cook learned the statues commemorated their former high chiefs, including their names and ranks.[20]:296–297 The British ship HMS Blossom arrived in 1825 and reported seeing no standing statues. Easter Island was approached many times during the 19th century, but by then the islanders had become openly hostile to any attempt to land, and very little new information was reported before the 1860s.

text: 19th century[edit]

text: A series of devastating events killed or removed most of the population in the 1860s. In December 1862, Peruvian slave raiders struck. Violent abductions continued for several months, eventually capturing around 1,500 men and women, half of the island's population.[31] Among those captured were the island's paramount chief, his heir, and those who knew how to read and write the rongorongo script, the only Polynesian script to have been found to date. (Although serious debate exists about whether this is proto-writing or true writing.)

text: When the slave raiders were forced to repatriate the people they had kidnapped, carriers of smallpox disembarked together with a few survivors on each of the islands.[32] This created devastating epidemics from Easter Island to the Marquesas islands.[citation needed] Easter Island's population was reduced to the point where some of the dead were not even buried.[citation needed]

text: Tuberculosis, introduced by whalers in the mid-19th century, had already killed several islanders when the first Christian missionary, Eugène Eyraud, died from this disease in 1867. About a quarter of the island's population succumbed along with him. In the following years, the managers of the sheep ranch and the missionaries started buying the newly available lands of the deceased, and this led to great confrontations between natives and settlers.

text: Jean-Baptiste Dutrou-Bornier bought up all of the island apart from the missionaries' area around Hanga Roa and moved a few hundred Rapanui to Tahiti to work for his backers. In 1871 the missionaries, having fallen out with Dutrou-Bornier, evacuated all but 171 Rapanui to the Gambier islands.[33] Those who remained were mostly older men. Six years later, only 111 people lived on Easter Island, and only 36 of them had any offspring.[34] From that point on the island's population slowly recovered. But with over 97% of the population dead or gone in less than a decade, much of the island's cultural knowledge had been lost.

text: Alexander Salmon, Jr., a son of an English Jewish merchant and a Pōmare Dynasty princess, eventually worked to repatriate workers from his inherited copra plantation. He eventually bought up all lands on the island with the exception of the mission, and was its sole employer. He worked to develop tourism on the island, and was the principal informant for the British and German archaeological expeditions for the island. He sent several pieces of genuine Rongorongo to his niece's husband, the German consul in Valparaíso, Chile. Salmon sold the Brander Easter Island holdings to the Chilean government in 1888 January 2 and signed as a witness to the cession of the island. He returned to Tahiti in December of that year. He effectively ruled the island from 1878 until his cession to Chile in 1888.

text: Easter Island was annexed by Chile on 9 September 1888 by Policarpo Toro by means of the "Treaty of Annexation of the Island" (Tratado de Anexión de la isla). Toro, then representing the government of Chile, signed with Atamu Tekena, designated "King" by the Roman Catholic missionaries after the paramount chief and his heir had died. The validity of this treaty is still contested by some Rapanui. Officially, Chile purchased the nearly all encompassing Mason-Brander sheep ranch, comprised from lands purchased from the descendants of Rapanui who died during the epidemics, and then claimed sovereignty over the island.

text: 20th century[edit]

text: Until the 1960s the surviving Rapanui were confined to Hanga Roa. The rest of the island was rented to the Williamson-Balfour Company as a sheep farm until 1953.[35] The island was then managed by the Chilean Navy until 1966, at which point the island was reopened in its entirety. In 1966 the Rapanui were given Chilean citizenship.[36]

text: Following the 1973 Chilean coup d'état that brought Augusto Pinochet to power, Easter Island was placed under martial law. Tourism slowed down and private property was restored. During his time in power, Pinochet visited Easter Island on three occasions. The military built a number of new military facilities and a new city hall.[37]

text: After an agreement in 1985 between Chile and United States, the runway at Mataveri International Airport was enlarged and was inaugurated in 1987. The runway was expanded 423 metres (1,388 ft) reaching 3,353 metres (11,001 ft). Pinochet is reported to have refused to attend the inauguration in protest of pressures from the United States to attend human rights cases.[38]

text: 21st century[edit]

text: Fishers of Rapa Nui have shown their concern of illegal fishing on the island. “Since the year 2000 we started to lose tuna, which is the basis of the fishing on the island, so then we began to take the fish from the shore to feed our families, but in less than two years we depleted all of it,” Pakarati said.[39] On 30 July 2007, a constitutional reform gave Easter Island and the Juan Fernández Islands (also known as Robinson Crusoe Island) the status of "special territories" of Chile. Pending the enactment of a special charter, the island continued to be governed as a province of the V Region of Valparaíso.[40]

text: A total solar eclipse visible from Easter Island occurred for the first time in over 1,300 years on 11 July 2010, at 18:15:15.[41]

text: Species of fish were collected in Easter Island for one month in different habitats including shallow lava pools, depths of 43 meters, and deep waters. Within these habitats, two holotypes and paratypes, Antennarius randalli and Antennarius moai, were discovered. These are considered frog-fish because of their characteristics: "12 dorsal rays, last two or three branched; bony part of first dorsal spine slightly shorter than second dorsal spine; body without bold zebra-like markings; caudal peduncle short, but distinct; last pelvic ray divided; pectoral rays 11 or 12".[42]

text: Indigenous rights movement[edit]

text: Starting in August 2010, members of the indigenous Hitorangi clan occupied the Hangaroa Eco Village and Spa.[43][44] The occupiers allege that the hotel was bought from the Pinochet government, in violation of a Chilean agreement with the indigenous Rapa Nui, in the 1990s.[45] The occupiers say their ancestors had been cheated into giving up the land.[46] According to a BBC report, on 3 December 2010, at least 25 people were injured when Chilean police using pellet guns attempted to evict from these buildings a group of Rapa Nui who had claimed that the land the buildings stood on had been illegally taken from their ancestors.[47]

text: In January 2011, the UN's Special Rapporteur on Indigenous People, James Anaya, expressed concern about the treatment of the indigenous Rapa Nui by the Chilean government, urging Chile to "make every effort to conduct a dialogue in good faith with representatives of the Rapa Nui people to solve, as soon as possible the real underlying problems that explain the current situation".[43]

text: The incident ended in February 2011, when up to 50 armed police broke into the hotel to remove the final five occupiers. They were arrested by the government and no injuries were reported.[43]

text: Geography[edit]

text: Easter Island is one of the world's most isolated inhabited islands. Its closest inhabited neighbour is Pitcairn Island, 2,075 km (1,289 mi) to the west, with fewer than 100 inhabitants. The nearest continental point lies in central Chile near Concepción, at 3,512 kilometres (2,182 mi). Easter Island's latitude is similar to that of Caldera, Chile, and it lies 3,510 km (2,180 mi) west of continental Chile at its nearest point (between Lota and Lebu in the Biobío Region). Isla Salas y Gómez, 415 km (258 mi) to the east, is closer but is uninhabited. Archipelago Tristan da Cunha in the southern Atlantic competes for the title of the most remote island, lying 2,430 kilometres (1,510 mi) from Saint Helena island and 2,816 kilometres (1,750 mi) from the South African coast.

text: The island is about 24.6 km (15.3 mi) long by 12.3 km (7.6 mi) at its widest point; its overall shape is triangular. It has an area of 163.6 square kilometres (63.2 sq mi), and a maximum altitude of 507 metres (1,663 ft). There are three Rano (freshwater crater lakes), at Rano Kau, Rano Raraku and Rano Aroi, near the summit of Terevaka, but no permanent streams or rivers.

text: Geology[edit]

text: Easter Island is a volcanic high island, consisting mainly of three extinct coalesced volcanoes: Terevaka (altitude 507 metres) forms the bulk of the island, while two other volcanoes, Poike and Rano Kau, form the eastern and southern headlands and give the island its roughly triangular shape. Lesser cones and other volcanic features include the crater Rano Raraku, the cinder cone Puna Pau and many volcanic caves including lava tubes.[48] Poike used to be a separate island until volcanic material from Terevaka united it to the larger whole. The island is dominated by hawaiite and basalt flows which are rich in iron and show affinity with igneous rocks found in the Galápagos Islands.[49]

text: Easter Island and surrounding islets, such as Motu Nui and Motu Iti, form the summit of a large volcanic mountain rising over 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) from the sea bed. The mountain is part of the Sala y Gómez Ridge, a (mostly submarine) mountain range with dozens of seamounts, formed by the Easter hotspot. The range begins with Pukao and next Moai, two seamounts to the west of Easter Island, and extends 2,700 km (1,700 mi) east to the Nazca Ridge. The ridge was formed by the Nazca Plate moving over the Easter hotspot.[50]

text: Located about 350 km east of the East Pacific Rise, Easter Island lies within the Nazca Plate, bordering the Easter Microplate. The Nazca-Pacific relative plate movement due to the seafloor spreading, amounts to about 150 mm per year. This movement over the Easter hotspot has resulted in the Easter Seamount Chain, which merges into the Nazca Ridge further to the east. Easter Island and Sala y Gómez are surface representations of that chain. The chain has progressively younger ages to the west. The current hotspot location is speculated to be west of Easter Island, amidst the Ahu, Umu and Tupa submarine volcanic fields and the Pukao and Moai seamounts.[51]

text: Easter Island lies atop the Rano Kau Ridge, and consists of three shield volcanoes with parallel geologic histories. Poike and Rano Kau exist on the east and south slopes of Terevaka, respectively. Rano Kau developed between 0.78 and 0.46 Ma from tholeiitic to alkalic basalts. This volcano possesses a clearly defined summit caldera. Benmoreitic lavas extruded about the rim from 0.35 to 0.34 Ma. Finally, between 0.24 and 0.11 Ma, a 6.5 km fissure developed along a NE-SW trend, forming monogenetic vents and rhyolitic intrusions. These include the cryptodome islets of Motu Nui and Motu Iti, the islet of Motu Kao Kao, the sheet intrusion of Te Kari Kari, the perlitic obsidian Te Manavai dome and the Maunga Orito dome.[51]

text: Poike formed from tholeiitic to alkali basalts from 0.78 to 0.41 Ma. Its summit collapsed into a caldera which was subsequently filled by the Puakatiki lava cone pahoehoe flows at 0.36 Ma. Finally, the trachytic lava domes of Maunga Vai a Heva, Maunga Tea Tea, and Maunga Parehe formed along a NE-SW trending fissure.[51]

text: Terevaka formed around 0.77 Ma of tholeiitic to alkali basalts, followed by the collapse of its summit into a caldera. Then at about 0.3Ma, cinder cones formed along a NNE-SSW trend on the western rim, while porphyritic benmoreitic lava filled the caldera, and pahoehoe flowed towards the northern coast, forming lava tubes, and to the southeast. Lava domes and a vent complex formed in the Maunga Puka area, while breccias formed along the vents on the western portion of Rano Aroi crater. This volcano's southern and southeastern flanks are composed of younger flows consisting of basalt, alkali basalt, hawaiite, mugearite, and benmoreite from eruptive fissures starting at 0.24 Ma. The youngest lava flow, Roiho, is dated at 0.11 Ma. The Hanga O Teo embayment is interpreted to be a 200 m high landslide scarp.[51]

text: Rano Raraku and Maunga Toa Toa are isolated tuff cones of about 0.21 Ma. The crater of Rano Raraku contains a freshwater lake. The stratified tuff is composed of sideromelane, slightly altered to palagonite, and somewhat lithified. The tuff contains lithic fragments of older lava flows. The northwest sector of Rano Raraku contains reddish ash.[51] According to Bandy, "...all of the great images of Easter Island are carved from" the light and porous tuff from Rano Raraku. A carving was abandoned when a large, dense and hard lithic fragment was encountered. However, these lithics became the basis for stone hammers and chisels. The Puna Pau crater contains an extremely porous pumice, from which was carved the Pukao "hats". The Maunga Orito obsidian was used to make the "mataa" spearheads.[52]

text: In the first half of the 20th century, steam reportedly came out of the Rano Kau crater wall. This was photographed by the island's manager, Mr. Edmunds.[53]

text: Climate[edit]

text: Under the Köppen climate classification, the climate of Easter Island is classified as a tropical rainforest climate (Af) that borders on a humid subtropical climate. The lowest temperatures are recorded in July and August (minimum 15 °C or 59 °F) and the highest in February (maximum temperature 28 °C or 82 °F[54]), the summer season in the southern hemisphere. Winters are relatively mild. The rainiest month is May, though the island experiences year-round rainfall.[55] Easter Island's isolated location exposes it to winds which help to keep the temperature fairly cool. Precipitation averages 1,118 millimetres or 44 inches per year. Occasionally, heavy rainfall and rainstorms strike the island. These occur mostly in the winter months (June–August). Since it is close to the South Pacific High and outside the range of the intertropical convergence zone, cyclones and hurricanes do not occur around Easter island.[56] There is significant temperature moderation due to its isolated position in the middle of the ocean.

text:
[hide]Climate data for Easter Island (1961–1990, extremes 1912–1990)

Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year

Record high °C (°F)
32.0
(89.6)
31.0
(87.8)
32.0
(89.6)
31.0
(87.8)
30.0
(86)
29.0
(84.2)
31.0
(87.8)
28.3
(82.9)
30.0
(86)
29.0
(84.2)
33.0
(91.4)
34.0
(93.2)
34.0
(93.2)

Average high °C (°F)
27.0
(80.6)
27.3
(81.1)
26.9
(80.4)
25.4
(77.7)
23.4
(74.1)
22.0
(71.6)
21.3
(70.3)
21.2
(70.2)
21.7
(71.1)
22.5
(72.5)
23.9
(75)
25.4
(77.7)
24.0
(75.2)

Daily mean °C (°F)
23.3
(73.9)
23.6
(74.5)
23.1
(73.6)
21.8
(71.2)
20.2
(68.4)
18.8
(65.8)
18.2
(64.8)
18.0
(64.4)
18.3
(64.9)
19.1
(66.4)
20.4
(68.7)
21.8
(71.2)
20.6
(69.1)

Average low °C (°F)
19.8
(67.6)
20.2
(68.4)
19.9
(67.8)
18.9
(66)
17.7
(63.9)
16.5
(61.7)
15.7
(60.3)
15.4
(59.7)
15.5
(59.9)
16.0
(60.8)
17.3
(63.1)
18.4
(65.1)
17.6
(63.7)

Record low °C (°F)
12.0
(53.6)
14.0
(57.2)
11.0
(51.8)
12.7
(54.9)
10.0
(50)
7.0
(44.6)
9.4
(48.9)
7.0
(44.6)
8.0
(46.4)
8.0
(46.4)
8.0
(46.4)
12.0
(53.6)
7.0
(44.6)

Average precipitation mm (inches)
72.8
(2.866)
84.8
(3.339)
95.6
(3.764)
120.7
(4.752)
152.9
(6.02)
106.3
(4.185)
105.1
(4.138)
93.8
(3.693)
86.8
(3.417)
68.0
(2.677)
74.0
(2.913)
86.4
(3.402)
1,147.2
(45.165)

Average relative humidity (%)
77
79
79
81
81
81
80
80
79
77
77
78
79

Mean monthly sunshine hours
291.4
245.8
238.7
195.0
176.7
155.0
151.9
173.6
183.0
220.1
219.0
263.5
2,513.7

Mean daily sunshine hours
9.4
8.7
7.7
6.5
5.7
5.0
4.9
5.6
6.1
7.1
7.3
8.5
6.88

Source #1: Universidad de Chile (normals and sunshine hours)[57][58]

Source #2: Deutscher Wetterdienst (extremes and humidity)[59]

text: Ecology[edit]

text: Easter Island, together with its closest neighbour, the tiny island of Isla Sala y Gómez 415 kilometres (258 mi) farther east, is recognized by ecologists as a distinct ecoregion, the Rapa Nui subtropical broadleaf forests. The original subtropical moist broadleaf forests are now gone, but paleobotanical studies of fossil pollen, tree moulds left by lava flows, and root casts found in local soils indicate that the island was formerly forested, with a range of trees, shrubs, ferns, and grasses. A large extinct palm, Paschalococos disperta, related to the Chilean wine palm (Jubaea chilensis), was one of the dominant trees as attested by fossil evidence. Like its Chilean counterpart it probably took close to 100 years to reach adult height. The Polynesian rat, which the original settlers brought with them, played a very important role in the disappearance of the Rapanui palm. Although some may believe that rats played a major role in the degradation of the forest, less than 10% of palm nuts show teeth marks from rats. The remains of palm stumps in different places indicate that humans caused the trees to fall because in large areas, the stumps were cut efficiently.[60]

text: The clearance of the palms to make the settlements led to their extinction almost 350 years ago.[61] The toromiro tree (Sophora toromiro) was prehistorically present on Easter Island, but is now extinct in the wild. However the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and the Göteborg Botanical Garden are jointly leading a scientific program to reintroduce the toromiro to Easter Island. With the palm and the toromiro virtually gone, there was considerably less rainfall as a result of less condensation. After the island was used to feed thousands of sheep for almost a century, by the mid-1900s the island was mostly covered in grassland with nga'atu or bulrush (Schoenoplectus californicus tatora) in the crater lakes of Rano Raraku and Rano Kau. The presence of these reeds, which are called totora in the Andes, was used to support the argument of a South American origin of the statue builders, but pollen analysis of lake sediments shows these reeds have grown on the island for over 30,000 years.[citation needed] Before the arrival of humans, Easter Island had vast seabird colonies containing probably over 30 resident species, perhaps the world's richest.[62] Such colonies are no longer found on the main island. Fossil evidence indicates five species of landbirds (two rails, two parrots and a heron), all of which have become extinct.[63] Five introduced species of landbird are known to have breeding populations (see List of birds of Easter Island).

text: Lacks of studies resulting in poor understandings of oceanic fauna of Easter Island and waters in vicinity, however possibilities of undiscovered breeding grounds for humpback, southern blue and pygmy blue whales including Easter Island and Isla Salas y Gómez have been considered.[64] Potential breeding area for fin whales have been detected off northeast of the island as well.[65]

text:
Vegetation on the island

View of Easter Island from space, 2001. The Poike peninsula is on the right.

Digital recreation of its ancient landscape, with tropical forest and palm trees

View toward the interior of the island

View of Rano Kau and Pacific Ocean

text: The immunosuppressant drug sirolimus was first discovered in the bacterium Streptomyces hygroscopicus in a soil sample from Easter Island. The drug is also known as rapamycin, after Rapa Nui.[66] It is now being studied for extending longevity in mice.[67]

text: Trees are sparse, rarely forming natural groves, and it has been argued whether native Easter Islanders deforested the island in the process of erecting their statues,[68] and in providing sustenance for an overpopulated island.[citation needed] Experimental archaeology demonstrated that some statues certainly could have been placed on "Y" shaped wooden frames called miro manga erua and then pulled to their final destinations on ceremonial sites.[68] Other theories involve the use of "ladders" (parallel wooden rails) over which the statues could have been dragged.[69] Rapanui traditions metaphorically refer to spiritual power (mana) as the means by which the moai were "walked" from the quarry. Recent experimental recreations have proven that it is fully possible that the moai were literally walked from their quarries to their final positions by use of ropes, casting doubt on the role that their existence plays in the environmental collapse of the island.[70]

text: Given the island's southern latitude, the climatic effects of the Little Ice Age (about 1650 to 1850) may have exacerbated deforestation, although this remains speculative.[68] Many researchers[71] point to the climatic downtrend caused by the Little Ice Age as a contributing factor to resource stress and to the palm tree's disappearance. Experts, however, do not agree on when exactly the island's palms became extinct.

text: Jared Diamond dismisses past climate change as a dominant cause of the island's deforestation in his book Collapse which assesses the collapse of the ancient Easter Islanders.[72] Influenced by Heyerdahl's romantic interpretation of Easter's history (as he acknowledges in chapter 2 of Collapse), Diamond insists that the disappearance of the island's trees seems to coincide with a decline of its civilization around the 17th and 18th centuries. He notes that they stopped making statues at that time and started destroying the ahu. But the link is weakened because the Bird Man cult continued to thrive and survived the great impact caused by the arrival of explorers, whalers, sandalwood traders, and slave raiders.

text: Midden contents show that the main source of protein was tuna and dolphin. With the loss of the trees, there was a sudden drop in the quantities of fish bones found in middens as the islanders lost the means to construct fishing vessels, coinciding with a large increase in bird bones. This was followed by a decrease in the number of bird bones as birds lost their nesting sites or became extinct. A new style of art from this period shows people with exposed ribs and distended bellies, indicative of malnutrition, and it is around this time that many islanders moved to living in fortified caves and the first signs of warfare and cannibalism appear.

text: Soil erosion because of lack of trees is apparent in some places. Sediment samples document that up to half of the native plants had become extinct and that the vegetation of the island drastically altered. Polynesians were primarily farmers, not fishermen, and their diet consisted mainly of cultivated staples such as taro root, sweet potato, yams, cassava, and bananas. With no trees to protect them, sea spray led to crop failures exacerbated by a sudden reduction in fresh water flows. There is evidence that the islanders took to planting crops in caves beneath collapsed ceilings and covered the soil with rocks to reduce evaporation. Cannibalism occurred on many Polynesian islands, sometimes in times of plenty as well as famine. Its presence on Easter Island (based on human remains associated with cooking sites, especially in caves) is supported by oral histories.[citation needed]

text: Benny Peiser[5] noted evidence of self-sufficiency when Europeans first arrived. The island still had smaller trees, mainly toromiro, which became extinct in the wild in the 20th century probably because of slow growth and changes in the island's ecosystem. Cornelis Bouman, Jakob Roggeveen's captain, stated in his logbook, "... of yams, bananas and small coconut palms we saw little and no other trees or crops." According to Carl Friedrich Behrens, Roggeveen's officer, "The natives presented palm branches as peace offerings." According to ethnographer Alfred Mètraux, the most common type of house was called "hare paenga" (and is known today as "boat house") because the roof resembled an overturned boat. The foundations of the houses were made of buried basalt slabs with holes for wooden beams to connect with each other throughout the width of the house. These were then covered with a layer of totora reed, followed by a layer of woven sugarcane leaves, and lastly a layer of woven grass. There were reports by European visitors who said they had seen "boles of large palm trees".[citation needed]

text: Peiser claims that these reports indicate that large trees existed at that time, which is perhaps contradicted by the Bouman quote above. Plantations were often located farther inland, next to foothills, inside open-ceiling lava tubes, and in other places protected from the strong salt winds and salt spray affecting areas closer to the coast. It is possible many of the Europeans did not venture inland. The statue quarry, only one kilometre (0.62 miles) from the coast with an impressive cliff 100 m (330 ft) high, was not explored by Europeans until well into the 19th century.

text: Easter Island has suffered from heavy soil erosion in recent centuries, perhaps aggravated by agriculture and massive deforestation. This process seems to have been gradual and may have been aggravated by sheep farming throughout most of the 20th century. Jakob Roggeveen reported that Easter Island was exceptionally fertile. "Fowls are the only animals they keep. They cultivate bananas, sugar cane, and above all sweet potatoes." In 1786 Jean-François de La Pérouse visited Easter Island and his gardener declared that "three days' work a year" would be enough to support the population.

text: Rollin, a major in the Pérouse expedition, wrote, "Instead of meeting with men exhausted by famine... I found, on the contrary, a considerable population, with more beauty and grace than I afterwards met in any other island; and a soil, which, with very little labor, furnished excellent provisions, and in an abundance more than sufficient for the consumption of the inhabitants."[74]

text: According to Diamond, the oral traditions (the veracity of which has been questioned by Routledge, Lavachery, Mètraux, Peiser and others) of the current islanders seem obsessed with cannibalism, which he offers as evidence supporting a rapid collapse. For example, he states, to severely insult an enemy one would say, "The flesh of your mother sticks between my teeth." This, Diamond asserts, means the food supply of the people ultimately ran out.[75] Cannibalism, however, was widespread across Polynesian cultures.[76] Human bones have not been found in earth ovens other than those behind the religious platforms, indicating that cannibalism in Easter Island was a ritualistic practice. Contemporary ethnographic research has proven there is scarcely any tangible evidence for widespread cannibalism anywhere and at any time on the Island.[77] The first scientific exploration of Easter Island (1914) recorded that the indigenous population strongly rejected allegations that they or their ancestors had been cannibals.[29]

text: Culture[edit]

text: Mythology[edit]

text: The most important myths are:

text:
Tangata manu, the Birdman cult which was practised until the 1860s.
Makemake, an important god.
Aku-aku, the guardians of the sacred family caves.
Moai-kava-kava a ghost man of the Hanau epe (long-ears.)
Hekai ite umu pare haonga takapu Hanau epe kai noruego, the sacred chant to appease the aku-aku before entering a family cave.

text: Stone work[edit]

text: The Rapa Nui people had a Stone Age culture and made extensive use of local stone:

text:
Basalt, a hard, dense stone used for toki and at least one of the moai.
Obsidian, a volcanic glass with sharp edges used for sharp-edged implements such as Mataa and for the black pupils of the eyes of the moai.
Red scoria from Puna Pau, a very light red stone used for the pukao and a few moai.
Tuff from Rano Raraku, a much more easily worked rock than basalt that was used for most of the moai.

text: Statues[edit]

text: The large stone statues, or moai, for which Easter Island is famous, were carved in the period 1100–1680 CE (rectified radio-carbon dates).[16] A total of 887 monolithic stone statues have been inventoried on the island and in museum collections.[78] Although often identified as "Easter Island heads", the statues have torsos, most of them ending at the top of the thighs, although a small number are complete figures that kneel on bent knees with their hands over their stomachs.[79][80] Some upright moai have become buried up to their necks by shifting soils.

text: Almost all (95%)[citation needed] moai were carved from compressed, easily worked solidified volcanic ash or tuff found at a single site on the side of the extinct volcano Rano Raraku. The native islanders who carved them used only stone hand chisels, mainly basalt toki, which lie in place all over the quarry. The stone chisels were sharpened by chipping off a new edge when dulled. While sculpting was going on, the volcanic stone was splashed with water to soften it. While many teams worked on different statues at the same time, a single moai took a team of five or six men approximately a year to complete. Each statue represented the deceased head of a lineage.

text: Only a quarter of the statues were installed. Nearly half remained in the quarry at Rano Raraku, and the rest sat elsewhere, presumably on their way to intended locations. The largest moai raised on a platform is known as "Paro". It weighs 82 tonnes (90.4 short tons), and is 9.89 m (32.4 ft) long.[81][82] Several other statues of similar weight were transported to ahu on the north and south coasts.

text: Possible means by which the statues were moved include employment of a miro manga erua, a Y-shaped sledge with cross pieces, pulled with ropes made from the tough bark of the hau tree[83] and tied around the statue's neck. Anywhere from 180 to 250 men were required for pulling, depending on the size of the moai. Some 50 of the statues were re-erected in modern times. One of the first was on Ahu Ature Huke in Anakena beach in 1956.[84] It was raised using traditional methods during a Heyerdahl expedition.

text: Another method that might have been used would be to attach ropes to the statue and rock it, tugging it forward as it rocked. This would fit the legend of the Mo'ai 'walking' to their final locations.[85][86][87] This might have been managed by as few as 15 people, supported by the following evidence:

text:
The heads of the moai in the quarry are sloped forward whereas the ones moved to final locations are not. This would serve to provide a better centre of gravity for transport.
The statues found along the transport roads have wider bases than statues installed on ahu; this would facilitate more stable transport. Studies have shown fractures along the bases of the statues in transport; these could have arisen from rocking the statue back and forth and placing great pressures on the edges. The statues found mounted on ahu do not have wide bases and stone chips found at the sites suggest they were further modified on placement.
The abandoned and fallen statues near the old roads are found (more often than would be expected from chance) face down on ascending grades and on their backs when headed uphill. Some were documented standing upright along the old roads, e.g., by a party from Captain Cook's voyage that rested in the shade of a standing statue. This would be consistent with upright transport.

text: There is debate around the moai regarding the effects of the monument creation process on the environment. Some believe that the process of creating the moai caused widespread deforestation and ultimately a civil war over scarce resources.[88]

text: In 2011, a large moai statue was excavated from the ground.[89] During the same excavation program, some larger moai were found to have complex dorsal petroglyphs, revealed by deep excavation of the torso.[90]

text:
Moais

Tukuturi, an unusual bearded kneeling moai

All fifteen standing moai at Ahu Tongariki, excavated and restored in the 1990s

Ahu Akivi, one of the few inland ahu, with the only moai facing the ocean

text: Stone platforms[edit]

text: Ahu are stone platforms. Varying greatly in layout, many were reworked during or after the huri mo'ai or statue-toppling era; many became ossuaries; one was dynamited open; and Ahu Tongariki was swept inland by a tsunami. Of the 313 known ahu, 125 carried moai—usually just one, probably because of the shortness of the moai period and transportation difficulties. Ahu Tongariki, one kilometre (0.62 miles) from Rano Raraku, had the most and tallest moai, 15 in total.[91] Other notable ahu with moai are Ahu Akivi, restored in 1960 by William Mulloy, Nau Nau at Anakena and Tahai. Some moai may have been made from wood and were lost.

text: The classic elements of ahu design are:

text:
A retaining rear wall several feet high, usually facing the sea
A front wall made of rectangular basalt slabs called paenga
A fascia made of red scoria that went over the front wall (platforms built after 1300)
A sloping ramp in the inland part of the platform, extending outward like wings
A pavement of even-sized, round water-worn stones called poro
An alignment of stones before the ramp
A paved plaza before the ahu. This was called marae
Inside the ahu was a fill of rubble.

text: On top of many ahu would have been:

text:
Moai on squareish "pedestals" looking inland, the ramp with the poro before them.
Pukao or Hau Hiti Rau on the moai heads (platforms built after 1300).
When a ceremony took place, "eyes" were placed on the statues. The whites of the eyes were made of coral, the iris was made of obsidian or red scoria.

text: Ahu evolved from the traditional Polynesian marae. In this context ahu referred to a small structure sometimes covered with a thatched roof where sacred objects, including statues, were stored. The ahu were usually adjacent to the marae or main central court where ceremonies took place, though on Easter Island ahu and moai evolved to much greater size. There the marae is the unpaved plaza before the ahu. The biggest ahu is 220 metres (720 ft) and holds 15 statues, some of which are 9 metres (30 ft) high. The filling of an ahu was sourced locally (apart from broken, old moai, fragments of which have been used in the fill).[73] Individual stones are mostly far smaller than the moai, so less work was needed to transport the raw material, but artificially levelling the terrain for the plaza and filling the ahu was laborious.

text: Ahu are found mostly on the coast, where they are distributed fairly evenly except on the western slopes of Mount Terevaka and the Rano Kau and Poike[92] headlands. These are the three areas with the least low-lying coastal land, and apart from Poike the furthest areas from Rano Raraku. One ahu with several moai was recorded on the cliffs at Rano Kau in the 1880s but had fallen to the beach before the Routledge expedition.[29]

text: Stone walls[edit]

text: One of the highest-quality examples of Easter Island stone masonry is the rear wall of the ahu at Vinapu. Made without mortar by shaping hard basalt rocks of up to 7 tonnes to match each other exactly, it has a superficial similarity to some Inca stone walls in South America.[93]

text: Stone houses[edit]

text: Two types of houses are known from the past: hare paenga, a house with an elliptical foundation, made with basalt slabs and covered with a thatched roof that resembled an overturned boat, and hare oka, a round stone structure. Related stone structures called Tupa look very similar to the hare oka, except that the Tupa were inhabited by astronomer-priests and located near the coast, where the movements of the stars could be easily observed. Settlements also contain hare moa ("chicken house"), oblong stone structures that housed chickens. The houses at the ceremonial village of Orongo are unique in that they are shaped like hare paenga but are made entirely of flat basalt slabs found inside Rano Kao crater. The entrances to all the houses are very low, and entry requires crawling.

text: In early times the people of Rapa Nui reportedly sent the dead out to sea in small funerary canoes, as did their Polynesian counterparts on other islands. They later started burying people in secret caves to save the bones from desecration by enemies. During the turmoil of the late 18th century, the islanders seem to have started to bury their dead in the space between the belly of a fallen moai and the front wall of the structure. During the time of the epidemics they made mass graves that were semi-pyramidal stone structures.

text: Petroglyphs[edit]

text: Petroglyphs are pictures carved into rock, and Easter Island has one of the richest collections in all Polynesia. Around 1,000 sites with more than 4,000 petroglyphs are catalogued. Designs and images were carved out of rock for a variety of reasons: to create totems, to mark territory, or to memorialize a person or event. There are distinct variations around the island in the frequency of themes among petroglyphs, with a concentration of Birdmen at Orongo. Other subjects include sea turtles, Komari (vulvas) and Makemake, the chief god of the Tangata manu or Birdman cult.[94]

text:
Petroglyphs

Makemake with two birdmen, carved from red scoria

Fish petroglyph found near Ahu Tongariki

text: Caves[edit]

text: The island and neighbouring Motu Nui are riddled with caves, many of which show signs of past human use for planting and as fortifications, including narrowed entrances and crawl spaces with ambush points. Many caves feature in the myths and legends of the Rapa Nui.

text: Rongorongo[edit]

text: Easter Island once had an apparent script called rongorongo. Glyphs include pictographic and geometric shapes; the texts were incised in wood in reverse boustrophedon direction. It was first reported by a French missionary, Eugène Eyraud, in 1864. At that time, several islanders said they could understand the writing, but according to tradition, only ruling families and priests were ever literate, and none survived the slave raids and subsequent epidemics. Despite numerous attempts, the surviving texts have not been deciphered, and without decipherment it is not certain that they are actually writing. Part of the problem is the small amount that has survived: only two dozen texts, none of which remain on the island. There are also only a couple of similarities with the petroglyphs on the island.[95]

text: Wood carving[edit]

text:
Skeletal statuette
Atypical tubby statuette

text: Wood was scarce on Easter Island during the 18th and 19th centuries, but a number of highly detailed and distinctive carvings have found their way to the world's museums. Particular forms include:[96]

text:
Reimiro, a gorget or breast ornament of crescent shape with a head at one or both tips.[97] The same design appears on the flag of Rapa Nui. Two Rei Miru at the British Museum are inscribed with Rongorongo.
Moko Miro, a man with a lizard head. The Moko Miro was used as a club because of the legs, which formed a handle shape. If it wasn't held by hand, dancers wore it around their necks during feasts. The Moko Miro would also be placed at the doorway to protect the household from harm. It would be hanging from the roof or set in the ground. The original form had eyes made from white shells, and the pupils were made of obsidian.[98]
Moai kavakava are male carvings and the Moai Paepae are female carvings.[99] These grotesque and highly detailed human figures carved from Toromiro pine, represent ancestors. Sometimes these statues were used for fertility rites. Usually, they are used for harvest celebrations; "the first picking of fruits was heaped around them as offerings". When the statues were not used, they would be wrapped in bark cloth and kept at home. There were a few times that are reported when the islanders would pick up the figures like dolls and dance with them.[99] The earlier figures are rare and generally depict a male figure with an emaciated body and a goatee. The figures' ribs and vertebrae are exposed and many examples show carved glyphs on various parts of the body but more specifically, on the top of the head. The female figures, rarer than the males, depict the body as flat and often with the female's hand lying across the body. The figures, although some were quite large, were worn as ornamental pieces around a tribesman's neck. The more figures worn, the more important the man. The figures have a shiny patina developed from constant handling and contact with human skin.[citation needed]
Ao, a large dancing paddle

text: 21st-century culture[edit]

text: The Rapanui sponsor an annual festival, the Tapati, held since 1975 around the beginning of February to celebrate Rapanui culture. The islanders also maintain a national football team and three discos in the town of Hanga Roa. Other cultural activities include a musical tradition that combines South American and Polynesian influences and woodcarving.

text: Sports[edit]

text: The Chilean leg of the Red Bull Cliff Diving World Series takes place on the Island of Rapa Nui.

text: Demographics[edit]

text: 2012 census[edit]

text: Population at the 2012 census was 5,761 (increased from 3,791 in 2002).[100] In 2002, 60% were persons of indigenous Rapa Nui origin, 39% were mainland Chileans (or their Easter Island-born descendants) of European or mestizo (mixed European and indigenous Chilean Amerindian) origin, and the remaining 1% were indigenous mainland Chilean Amerindians (or their Easter Island-born descendants).[101] Population density on Easter Island in 2012 is only 35 inhabitants per square kilometre (91/sq mi).

text:
Real life in Rapa Nui

Polynesian dancing with feather costumes is on the tourist itinerary.

Hanga Roa town hall

Fishing boats

Front view of the Catholic Church, Hanga Roa

Catholic Church, Hanga Roa

Interior view of the Catholic Church in Hanga Roa

text: Demographic history[edit]

text: The 1982 population was 1,936. The increase in population in the last census was partly caused by the arrival of people of European or mixed European and Native American descent from the Chilean mainland. However, most married a Rapanui spouse. Around 70% of the population were natives. Estimates of the pre-European population range from 7–17,000. Easter Island's all-time low of 111 inhabitants was reported in 1877. Out of these 111 Rapanui, only 36 had descendants, but all of today's Rapanui claim descent from those 36.

text: Administration and legal status[edit]

text: Easter Island shares with Juan Fernández Islands the constitutional status of "special territory" of Chile, granted in 2007. As of 2011[update] a special charter for the island was under discussion in the Chilean Congress.

text: Administratively, the island is a province of the Valparaíso Region and contains a single commune (comuna). Both the province and the commune are called Isla de Pascua and encompass the whole island and its surrounding islets and rocks, plus Isla Salas y Gómez, some 380 km (236 mi) to the east. The provincial governor is appointed by the President of the Republic.[102] The municipal administration is located in Hanga Roa, led by a mayor and a six-member municipal council, all directly elected for a four-year mandate.

text: Notable people[edit]

text:
Kings of Easter Island
Hotu Matuʻa – island founder
Nga'ara – one of the last ‘ariki
Atamu Tekena – missionary installed king
Riro Kāinga – last person to hold title of king
Angata – native catechist and prophetess who led a 1914 rebellion
Juan Tepano – indigenous leader and cultural informant
Thor Heyerdahl – ethnographer
Eugène Eyraud – missionary
Hippolyte Roussel – missionary
Sebastian Englert—missionary and ethnologist
Katherine Routledge – archaeologist and anthropologist
William Mulloy – archaeologist
Pedro Pablo Edmunds Paoa – Mayor and former Governor
Melania Carolina Hotu Hey – Governor (2006–2010 and incumbent since 2015)
Juan Edmunds Rapahango – former Mayor

text: Transportation[edit]

text: Easter Island is served by Mataveri International Airport, with jet service (currently Boeing 767s and Boeing 787s) from LAN Airlines and, seasonally, subsidiaries such as LAN Peru.


document_title: I'm Already There

question_text: who wrote i'm already there by lonestar

question_tokens: who wrote i 'm already there by lonestar

text: I'm Already There

text: Track listing[edit]

text:
"Out Go the Lights" (Brett Beavers, Steve Bogard, Richie McDonald) – 3:56
"Unusually Unusual" (Mark McGuinn) – 3:36
"Not a Day Goes By" (Maribeth Derry, Steve Diamond) – 4:08
"I Want to Be the One" (Chuck Cannon, Gary Nicholson, Lari White) – 3:56
"With Me" (Brett James, Troy Verges) – 3:53
"Without You" (Anthony Smith, Bobby Terry) – 4:13
"I'm Already There" (Gary Baker, Frank J. Myers, McDonald) – 4:13
"Let's Bring It Back" (Annie Roboff, Jeffrey Steele) – 3:09
"Must Be Love" (Greg Barnhill, Jon McElroy) – 3:14
"Softly" (Holly Lamar, Roboff) – 4:06
"Every Little Thing She Does" (Al Anderson, Bob DiPiero, Steele) – 3:13
"Like a Good Cowboy" (Barnhill, Lamar) – 3:55
"No Greater Love" (Cannon, Stephen Allen Davis) – 3:40A

tag: ol

text: ABonus track, available only on Australian releases of album.

text: Personnel[edit]

text: Lonestar[edit]

text:
Michael Britt - electric guitar, acoustic guitar, background vocals
Richie McDonald - lead vocals, acoustic guitar, keyboards
Keech Rainwater - banjo, drums, percussion
Dean Sams - background vocals, acoustic guitar, keyboards, harmonica

text: Additional musicians[edit]

text:
Tim Akers - accordion, keyboards
Mike Brignardello - bass guitar
Robbie Cheuvront - background vocals
Eric Darken - percussion
Larry Franklin - fiddle
Paul Franklin - steel guitar, dobro
Aubrey Haynie - fiddle
Dann Huff - electric guitar
Wayne Killius - drum programming
Paul Leim - drums
B. James Lowry - acoustic guitar
Chris McHugh - drums
Jerry McPherson - electric guitar
Matt Rollings - B3 organ, piano, keyboards
Biff Watson - acoustic guitar
Jonathan Yudkin - fiddle, cello, mandolin
Strings arranged and conducted by Ronn Huff. Strings performed by the Nashville String Machine.

text: Chart performance[edit]

text:
Chart (2001)
Peak
position

U.S. Billboard Top Country Albums
1

U.S. Billboard 200
9