document_title: Hollywood Walk of Fame

question_text: pay for star on hollywood walk of fame

question_tokens: pay for star on hollywood walk of fame

text: Hollywood Walk of Fame

text: Description[edit]

text: The Walk of Fame runs 1.3 miles (2.1 km) east to west on Hollywood Boulevard from Gower Street to La Brea Avenue, plus a short segment of Marshfield Way that runs diagonally between Hollywood and La Brea; and 0.4 miles (0.64 km) north to south on Vine Street between Yucca Street and Sunset Boulevard. According to a 2003 report by the market research firm NPO Plog Research, the Walk attracts about 10 million visitors annually—more than Sunset Strip, TCL Chinese Theatre (formerly Grauman's), the Queen Mary, and the Los Angeles County Museum of Art—and has played an important role in making tourism the largest industry in Los Angeles County.[3]

tag: p

text: Categorization[edit]

text: As of  2018[update], the Walk of Fame comprises over 2,600 stars,[1] spaced at 6-foot (1.8 m) intervals. The monuments are coral-pink terrazzo five-point stars rimmed with brass (not bronze, an oft-repeated inaccuracy[4]) inlaid into a charcoal-colored terrazzo background. In the upper portion of each star field the name of the honoree is inlaid in brass block letters. Below the inscription, in the lower half of the star field, a round inlaid brass emblem indicates the category of the honoree's contributions. The emblems symbolize five categories within the entertainment industry:

text:
Classic film camera representing motion pictures
 Television receiver representing broadcast television
 Phonograph record representing audio recording or music
 Radio microphone representing broadcast radio
 Comedy/tragedy masks representing theatre/live performance (added in 1984)

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text: Of all the stars on the Walk to date, 47% have been awarded in the motion pictures category, 24% in television, 17% in audio recording, 10% in radio, and fewer than 2% in the live performance category. Approximately 20 new stars are added to the Walk each year.[4]

text: Special stars[edit]

text: Special category stars recognize various contributions by corporate entities, service organizations, and special honorees, and display emblems unique to those honorees.[5]  For example, former Los Angeles mayor Tom Bradley's star displays the Seal of the City of Los Angeles;[6][7] the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) star emblem is a replica of a Hollywood Division badge;[8] and stars representing corporations, such as Victoria's Secret and the Los Angeles Dodgers, display the honoree's corporate logo.[5][9] The "Friends of the Walk of Fame" monuments are charcoal terrazzo squares rimmed by miniature pink terrazzo stars displaying the five standard category emblems, along with the sponsor's corporate logo, with the sponsor's name and contribution in inlaid brass block lettering.[10][11]  Special stars and Friends monuments are granted by the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce or the Hollywood Historic Trust, but are not part of the Walk of Fame proper and are located nearby on private property.[10][12]

text: The monuments for the Apollo 11 mission to the Moon are uniquely shaped: Four identical circular moons, bearing the names of the three astronauts (Neil A. Armstrong, Edwin E. Aldrin Jr., Michael Collins) the date of the first Moon landing ("7/20/69"), and the words "Apollo XI", are set on each of the four corners of the intersection of Hollywood and Vine. The moons are silver and grey terrazzo circles rimmed in brass on a square pink terrazzo background, with the television emblem inlaid at the top of each circle.[13]

text: History[edit]

text: Origin[edit]

text: The Hollywood Chamber of Commerce credits E.M. Stuart, its volunteer president in 1953, with the original idea for creating a Walk of Fame. Stuart reportedly proposed the Walk as a means to "maintain the glory of a community whose name means glamour and excitement in the four corners of the world."[14]  Harry Sugarman, another Chamber member and president of the Hollywood Improvement Association, receives credit in an independent account.[15] A committee was formed to flesh out the idea, and an architectural firm was retained to develop specific proposals. By 1955 the basic concept and general design had been agreed upon, and plans were submitted to the Los Angeles City Council.

text: Multiple accounts exist for the origin of the star concept. According to one, the historic Hollywood Hotel—which stood for more than 50 years on Hollywood Boulevard at the site now occupied by the Hollywood and Highland complex and the Dolby (formerly Kodak) Theatre[16]—displayed stars on its dining room ceiling above the tables favored by its most famous celebrity patrons, and that may have served as an early inspiration.[17] By another account, the stars were "inspired ... by Sugarman's [Tropics Restaurant] drinks menu, which featured celebrity photos framed in gold stars."[15][18]

text: In February 1956 a prototype was unveiled featuring a caricature of an example honoree (John Wayne, by some accounts[19]) inside a blue star on a brown background.[14] However, caricatures proved too expensive and difficult to execute in brass with the technology available at the time; and the brown and blue motif was vetoed by Charles E. Toberman, the legendary real estate developer known as "Mr. Hollywood", because the colors clashed with a new building he was erecting on Hollywood Boulevard.[14][20]

text: Selection and construction[edit]

text: By March 1956 the final design and coral-and-charcoal color scheme had been approved, and between the spring of 1956 and the fall of 1957, 1,558 honorees were selected by committees representing the four major branches of the entertainment industry at that time: motion pictures, television, audio recording, and radio. The committees met at the Brown Derby restaurant,[21] and included such prominent names as Cecil B. DeMille, Samuel Goldwyn, Jesse L. Lasky, Walt Disney, Hal Roach, Mack Sennett, and Walter Lantz.[14]

text: A requirement stipulated by the original audio recording committee (and later rescinded) specified minimum sales of one million records or 250,000 albums for all music category nominees. The committee soon realized that many important recording artists would be excluded from the Walk by that requirement. As a result, the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences was formed for the purpose of creating a separate award system for the music business. The first Grammy Awards were presented in Beverly Hills in 1959.[22]

text: Construction of the Walk began in 1958 but two lawsuits delayed completion. The first was filed by local property owners challenging the legality of the $1.25 million tax assessment levied upon them to pay for the Walk, along with new street lighting and trees. In October 1959 the assessment was ruled legal.[14] The second lawsuit, filed by Charles Chaplin, Jr., sought damages for the exclusion of his father, whose nomination had been withdrawn due to pressure from multiple quarters (see Controversial additions). Chaplin's suit was dismissed in 1960, paving the way for completion of the project.[14][23][24]

text: While Joanne Woodward is often singled out as the first to receive a star on the Walk of Fame,[25] in fact there was no "first" recipient; the original stars were installed as a continuous project, with no individual ceremonies. Woodward's name was one of eight drawn at random from the original 1,558 and inscribed on eight prototype stars that were built while litigation was still holding up permanent construction.[26][27][28]  The eight prototypes were installed temporarily on the northwest corner of Hollywood Boulevard and Highland Avenue in August 1958 to generate publicity and to demonstrate how the Walk would eventually look.[14] The other seven names were Olive Borden, Ronald Colman, Louise Fazenda, Preston Foster, Burt Lancaster, Edward Sedgwick, and Ernest Torrence.[14][29] Official groundbreaking took place on February 8, 1960.[17] On March 28, 1960, the first permanent star, director Stanley Kramer's, was completed on the easternmost end of the new Walk near the intersection of Hollywood and Gower.[14][30] The Joanne Woodward legend may have originated, according to one source, because she was the first to pose with her star for photographers.[25]

text: Stagnation and revitalization[edit]

text:
Though the Walk was originally conceived in part to encourage redevelopment of Hollywood Boulevard, the 1960s and 1970s were periods of protracted urban decay in the Hollywood area as residents moved to suburbs.[31][32]
After the initial installation of approximately 1,500 stars in 1960 and 1961, eight years passed without the addition of a new star. In 1962 the Los Angeles City Council passed an ordinance naming the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce "the agent to advise the City" about adding names to the Walk, and the Chamber, over the following six years, devised rules, procedures, and financing methods to do so.[14]
In December 1968, Richard D. Zanuck was awarded the first star in eight years in a presentation ceremony hosted by Danny Thomas.[14][21][33]  In July 1978 the City of Los Angeles designated the Hollywood Walk of Fame a Los Angeles Historic-Cultural Monument.[34]

text: Radio personality, television producer and Chamber member Johnny Grant is generally credited with implementing the changes that resuscitated the Walk and established it as a significant tourist attraction.[21][35]  Beginning in 1968, he stimulated publicity and encouraged international press coverage by requiring that each recipient personally attend his or her star's unveiling ceremony.[21] Grant later recalled that "it was tough to get people to come accept a star" until the neighborhood finally began its recovery in the 1980s.[32] In 1980 he instituted a fee of $2,500, payable by the person or entity nominating the recipient, to fund the Walk of Fame's upkeep and minimize further taxpayer burden.[21] The fee has increased incrementally over time; by 2002 it had reached $15,000,[36] and stood at $30,000 in 2012.[4]  The current (2017) fee is $40,000.[37]

text: Grant was awarded a star in 1980 for his television work.[14]  In 2002, he received a second star in the "special" category to acknowledge his pivotal role in improving and popularizing the Walk.[38] He was also named chairman of the Selection Committee and Honorary Mayor of Hollywood (a ceremonial position previously held by Art Linkletter and Monty Hall,[39][40] among others).[14][38] He remained in both offices from 1980 until his death in 2008 and hosted the great majority of unveiling ceremonies during that period. His unique special-category star, with its emblem depicting a stylized "Great Seal of the City of Hollywood",[41] is located at the entrance to the Dolby Theatre adjacent to Johnny Grant Way.[42]

text: Expansion[edit]

text: In 1984 a fifth category, Live Theatre, was added to permit acknowledgment of contributions from the live performance branch of the entertainment industry, and a second row of stars was created on each sidewalk to alternate with the existing stars.[14]

text: In 1994 the Walk of Fame was extended one block to the west on Hollywood Boulevard, from Sycamore Avenue to North LaBrea Avenue (plus the short segment of Marshfield Way that connects Hollywood and La Brea), where it now ends at the silver "Four Ladies of Hollywood" gazebo and the special "Walk of Fame" star.[43] At the same time, Sophia Loren was honored with the 2,000th star on the Walk.[14]

text: During construction of tunnels for the Los Angeles subway system in 1996, the Metropolitan Transportation Authority removed and stored more than 300 stars.[44]  Controversy arose when the MTA proposed a money-saving measure of jackhammering the 3-by-3-foot terrazzo pads, preserving only the brass lettering, surrounds, and medallions, then pouring new terrazzo after the tunnels were completed;[45] but the Cultural Heritage Commission ruled that the star pads were to be removed intact.[46]

text: Restoration[edit]

text: In 2008 a long-term restoration project began with an evaluation of all 2,365 stars on the Walk at the time, each receiving a letter grade of A, B, C, D, or F. Honorees whose stars received F grades, indicating the most severe damage, were Joan Collins, Peter Frampton, Dick Van Patten, Paul Douglas, Andrew L. Stone, Willard Waterman, Richard Boleslavsky, Ellen Drew, Frank Crumit, and Bobby Sherwood. Fifty celebrities' stars received "D" grades. The damage ranged from minor cosmetic flaws caused by normal weathering to holes and fissures severe enough to constitute a walking hazard. At least 778 stars will eventually be repaired or replaced during the ongoing project at an estimated cost of $4 million to $4.2 million.[47]

text: The restoration is a collaboration among the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce and various Los Angeles city and county governmental offices, along with the MTA, which operates the Metro Red Line that runs beneath the Walk, since earth movement due to the presence of the subway line is thought to be partly responsible for the damage.[48]

text: To encourage supplemental funding for the project by corporate sponsors, the "Friends of Walk of Fame" program was inaugurated.[47] Absolut Vodka became the first Friend with a donation of $1 million,[49][50] followed by L'Oréal.[51] Friends are recognized with honorary plaques adjacent to the Walk of Fame in front of the Dolby Theatre.[10]  The program received some criticism. Alana Semuels of the Los Angeles Times described it as "just the latest corporate attempt to buy some good buzz," and, quoting an area brand strategist, "I think Johnny Grant would roll over in his grave."[10] Karen Fondu, President of L'Oréal Paris, countered that the association was "a natural affinity."[50]

text: The Walk of Fame today[edit]

text: Multiple stars[edit]

text: The original selection committees chose to recognize some entertainers' contributions in multiple categories with multiple stars. Gene Autry is the only honoree with stars in all five categories.[52][53] Bob Hope, Mickey Rooney, Roy Rogers, and Tony Martin each have stars in four categories—Rooney has three of his own and a fourth with his eighth and final wife, Jan,[54][55] while Rogers also has three of his own, and a fourth with his band, Sons of the Pioneers.[56][57] Thirty-three people, including Bing Crosby, Frank Sinatra, Jo Stafford, Dean Martin, Dinah Shore, Gale Storm, Danny Kaye, Douglas Fairbanks Jr., and Jack Benny, have stars in three categories.[52]

text: Seven recording artists have two stars in the same category for distinct achievements: Michael Jackson, as a soloist and as a member of The Jackson 5; Diana Ross, as a member of The Supremes and for her solo work; Smokey Robinson, as a solo artist and as a member of The Miracles; and John Lennon, Ringo Starr, George Harrison, and Paul McCartney as individuals and as members of The Beatles.[58] Cher forfeited her opportunity by declining to schedule the mandatory personal appearance when she was selected in 1983.[59] She did attend the unveiling of the Sonny & Cher star in 1998 as a tribute to her recently deceased ex-husband,  Sonny Bono.[60]

text: George Eastman is the only honoree with two stars in the same category for the same achievement, the invention of roll film.[61]

text: In 1977, country singer Loretta Lynn was the first of her genre to receive a star on the Walk of Fame.

text: Controversial additions[edit]

text: Charlie Chaplin is the only honoree to be selected twice for the same star on the Walk. He was unanimously voted into the initial group of 500 in 1956 but the Selection Committee ultimately excluded him, ostensibly due to questions regarding his morals (he had been charged with violating the Mann Act—and exonerated—during the White Slavery hysteria of the 1940s[62]), but more likely due to his left-leaning political views.[63] The rebuke prompted an unsuccessful lawsuit by his son, Charles Chaplin Jr. His star was finally added to the Walk in 1972, the same year he received his Academy Award;[24] but even then, 16 years later, the Chamber of Commerce received angry letters from across the country protesting its decision to include him.[64]

text: The committee's Chaplin difficulties reportedly contributed to its decision in 1978 against awarding a star to Paul Robeson, a controversial opera singer, actor, athlete, writer, lawyer, and social activist.[65] The resulting outcry from the entertainment industry, civic circles, local and national politicians, and many other quarters was so intense that the decision was reversed and Robeson was awarded a star in 1979.[66][67][68]

text: Following sexual assault allegations involving comedian Bill Cosby, actor Kevin Spacey, reality television host Donald Trump, and producer-director Brett Ratner, the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce released a statement regarding inquiries as to the removal of stars:[69]

text: The Hollywood Chamber of Commerce has received inquiries asking whether we are planning to remove the stars of Walk of Famers because of alleged misconduct. The answer is no...The Hollywood Walk of Fame is a registered historic landmark. Once a star has been added to the Walk, it is considered a part of the historic fabric of the Hollywood Walk of Fame. Because of this, we have never removed a star from the Walk.[69]

text: As of 2018, this has been the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce's only statement regarding the removal of stars.

text: On August 6, 2018, the West Hollywood City Council passed a resolution asking for the removal of the star for Donald Trump, after repeated vandalism to the site. The Mayor of West Hollywood, John Duran, stated that "the council unanimously passes the resolution to remove his star"; however, the West Hollywood City Council has no jurisdiction over the Walk of Fame.[70]

text: Stars with the same name[edit]

text: Two pairs of stars share identical names representing different people. There are two Harrison Ford stars, honoring the silent film actor (at 6665 Hollywood Boulevard), and the present-day actor (in front of the Dolby Theatre at 6801 Hollywood Boulevard). Two Michael Jackson stars represent the singer/dancer/songwriter (at 6927 Hollywood Boulevard), and the radio personality (at 1597 Vine Street). When the recording artist Jackson died in 2009, fans mistakenly began leaving flowers, candles, and other tributes at the Vine Street star.[71]  Upon learning of this, the radio host wrote on his website, "I am willingly loan[ing] it to him and, if it would bring him back, he can have it."[72]

text: The most common surname, with sixteen stars, is Williams: Andy Williams, Bill Williams, Billy Dee Williams, Cindy Williams, Earle Williams, Esther Williams, Guy Williams, Hank Williams, Joe Williams, Kathlyn Williams, Paul Williams, Pharrell Williams, Robin Williams, Roger Williams, Tex Williams and Vanessa Williams.[73] There are fourteen stars with the surname Moore, twelve with Jones, and seven with Smith.

text: The largest collection of stars honoring one group of blood relatives is the widely scattered set of seven representing the Barrymore family: John Barrymore, his brother Lionel (who has two), and sister Ethel, their uncle Sidney Drew, John's son John Drew Barrymore, and John Drew's daughter Drew Barrymore.

text: Bending the rules[edit]

text: Walk of Fame rules prohibit consideration of nominees whose contributions fall outside the five major entertainment categories, but the selection committee has been known to conjure some interesting rule interpretations to justify a selection. The Walk's four round Moon landing monuments at the corners of Hollywood and Vine, for example, officially recognize the Apollo 11 astronauts for "contributions to the television industry". Johnny Grant acknowledged, in 2005, that classifying the first Moon landing as a television entertainment event was "a bit of a stretch". Magic Johnson's considerable basketball skills had no direct connection to movies, music, TV, radio, or theater, but the committee added him to the motion picture category, based on his ownership of the Magic Johnson Theatre chain, citing as precedent Sid Grauman, builder of Grauman's (now TCL) Chinese Theatre.  "[Now] people want Orville Redenbacher," Grant quipped in the 2005 interview, "because his popcorn is in all the theaters."[25]

text: Muhammad Ali's star was granted after the committee decided that boxing could be considered a form of "live performance". Its placement, on a wall of the Dolby Theatre, makes it the only star mounted on a vertical surface, acceding to Ali's request that his name not be walked upon.[74][75]

text: All living honorees have been required since 1968 to personally attend their star's unveiling, and approximately 40 have declined the honor due to this condition.[25] The only recipient to date who failed to appear after agreeing to do so was Barbra Streisand, in 1976. Her star was unveiled anyway, near the intersection of Hollywood and Highland.[76] Streisand did attend when her husband, James Brolin, unveiled his star in 1998 two blocks to the east.[77]

text: Unique and unusual[edit]

text: Fifteen stars are identified with a one-word stage name: Cantinflas, Houdini, Liberace, Mako, Meiklejohn, Paderewski, Parkyakarkus, Roseanne, RuPaul, Sabu, Shakira, Slash, Sting, Thalía, and Usher.

text: The largest group of individuals represented by a single star is the estimated 122 adults and 12 children[78] collectively known as the Munchkins, from the landmark 1939 film The Wizard of Oz.

text: Clayton Moore is so inextricably linked with his Lone Ranger character, even though he played other roles during his career, that he is one of only two actors to have his character's name alongside his own on his star. The other is Tommy Riggs, whose star reads, "Tommy Riggs & Betty Lou."[79]

text: For more than 40 years, singer Jimmy Boyd was the youngest star recipient at age 20, but he lost that distinction in 2004 to 18-year-old twins Mary-Kate and Ashley Olsen. Their joint star (the only one shared by twins) is outside the Dolby Theatre, near the Hollywood and Highland Center.

text: The Westmores received the first star honoring contributions in theatrical make-up. Other make-up artists on the walk are Max Factor, John Chambers and Rick Baker. Three stars recognize experts in special effects: Ray Harryhausen, Dennis Muren, and Stan Winston. Only one costume designer has received a star, eight-time Academy Award winner Edith Head.

text: Sidney Sheldon is one of two novelists with a star, which he earned for writing screenplays such as The Bachelor and the Bobby-Soxer before turning to novels.[80] The other is Ray Bradbury, whose books and stories have formed the basis of dozens of movies and television programs over a nearly 60-year period.[81]

text: Ten inventors have stars on the Walk: George Eastman (as mentioned); Thomas Edison, inventor of the first true film projector and holder of numerous patents related to motion-picture technology; Lee de Forest, inventor of the vacuum tube, which made radio and TV possible, and Phonofilm, which made sound movies possible; Merian C. Cooper, co-inventor of the Cinerama process; Herbert Kalmus, inventor of Technicolor; Auguste and Louis Lumière, inventors of important components of the motion picture camera; Mark Serrurier, inventor of the technology used for film editing; Hedy Lamarr, co-inventor of a frequency-hopping radio guidance system that was a precursor to Wi-Fi networks and cellular telephone systems;[82] and Ray Dolby, co-developer of the video tape recorder and inventor of the Dolby noise reduction system.

text: A few star recipients moved on after their entertainment careers to political notability. Two Presidents of the United States, Ronald Reagan (40th President) and Donald Trump (45th President) have stars on the Walk. Reagan is also one of two Governors of California with a star; the other is Arnold Schwarzenegger.[83]  One U.S. senator (George Murphy) and two members of the U.S. House of Representatives (Helen Gahagan and Sonny Bono) have stars.  Ignacy Paderewski, who served as Prime Minister of Poland between the World Wars, is the only European head of government represented. Film and stage actor Albert Dekker served one term in the California State Assembly during the 1940s,[84] which was notable for his outspoken public criticism of Senator Joseph McCarthy's anti-communism demagoguery, leading to his blacklisting.[85]

text: On its 50th anniversary in 2005, Disneyland received a star adjacent to the Walk of Fame near Disney's Soda Fountain on Hollywood Boulevard. While not technically part of the Hollywood Walk of Fame (a city ordinance prohibits putting corporate names on sidewalks), the star was installed adjacent to the Walk of Fame, and was thought of by Johnny Grant, the proverbial "Mayor of Hollywood." Roger Ebert said of the star "If you stop to think about what Disneyland has achieved and what a revolutionary idea it was to begin with, of course it deserve[s] a star." In lieu of the traditional icon indicating the specific achievement(s) of the honoree, Disneyland's star has an icon of Sleeping Beauty Castle, and a plaque beneath the star reading: "Award of Excellence Special achievement for 50 years of magical entertainment Hollywood Historic Trust July 14, 2005. Johnny Grant, Chairman."[86]

text: Fictional characters and their creators[edit]

text: In 1978, in honor of his 50th anniversary, Mickey Mouse became the first animated character to receive a star. Other animated recipients are Bugs Bunny, Donald Duck, Minnie Mouse, Woody Woodpecker, Snow White, Tinker Bell, Winnie the Pooh, Shrek, The Simpsons, the Rugrats, and Snoopy. The star inscribed Charlie Tuna honors not the animated advertising mascot, but Art Ferguson, the long-time radio personality and game show announcer.

text: Other fictional characters on the Walk include the Munchkins (as mentioned), two individual Muppets (Kermit the Frog and Big Bird) and the Muppets as a group, one monster (Godzilla), and three non-animated canine characters (Strongheart, Lassie, and Rin Tin Tin).

text: Ten stars recognize cartoonists and animators: Walt Disney, Chuck Jones, Friz Freleng, Walter Lantz, Hanna–Barbera, Charles M. Schulz, Jay Ward, Dr. Seuss, Matt Groening and John Lasseter.[87] Two puppeteers have stars: Jim Henson and Shari Lewis, as does Fran Allison, who appeared with Burr Tillstrom's puppets on the TV show Kukla, Fran and Ollie.

text: Star locations[edit]

text: Locations of individual stars are not necessarily random or arbitrary. Stars of most legendary and world-famous celebrities—the so-called "show business royalty"—are found in front of TCL (formerly Grauman's) Chinese Theatre. Oscar-winners' stars are usually placed near the Dolby Theatre, site of the annual Academy Awards presentations. Decisions are occasionally made with a dollop of whimsy: Mike Myers's star, for example, lies in front of an adult store called the International Love Boutique, an association with his Austin Powers roles; Roger Moore's star is located at 7007 Hollywood Boulevard in recognition of his seven James Bond 007 films; Ed O'Neill's star is located outside a shoe store in reference to his character's occupation on the TV show Married... with Children;[88] and the last star, at the very end of the westernmost portion of the Walk, belongs to The Dead End Kids.

text: Honorees may request a specific location for their star, although final decisions remain with the Chamber.[25] Jay Leno, for example, requested a spot near the corner of Hollywood Blvd. and Highland Ave. because he was twice picked up at that location by police for vagrancy (though never actually charged) shortly after his arrival in Hollywood.[89]  George Carlin chose to have his star placed in front of the KDAY radio station near the corner of Sunset Blvd. and Vine St., where he first gained national recognition.[90] Carol Burnett explained her choice in her 1986 memoir: While working as an usherette at the historic Warner Brothers Theatre (now the Hollywood Pacific Theatre) during the 1951 run of Alfred Hitchcock's film Strangers on a Train, she took it upon herself to advise a couple arriving during the final few minutes of a showing to wait for the next showing, to avoid seeing (and spoiling) the ending. The theater manager fired her on the spot for "insubordination" and humiliated her by stripping the epaulets from her uniform in the theater lobby. Twenty-six years later, at her request, Burnett's star was placed at the corner of Hollywood and Wilcox—in front of the theater.[91]

text: Errors and mysteries[edit]

text: In 2010, Julia Louis-Dreyfus's star was constructed with the name "Julia Luis Dreyfus".[92] The actress was reportedly amused, and the error was corrected.[93] A similar mistake was made on Dick Van Dyke's star in 1993 ("Vandyke"), and rectified.[94]

text: Film and television actor Don Haggerty's star originally displayed the first name "Dan". The mistake was fixed, but years later the television actor Dan Haggerty (of Grizzly Adams fame, no relation to Don) also received a star. The confusion eventually sprouted an urban legend that Dan Haggerty was the only honoree to have a star removed from the Walk of Fame.[95][96]

text: For 28 years, the star intended to honor Mauritz Stiller, the Helsinki-born pioneer of Swedish film who brought Greta Garbo to the United States, read "Maurice Diller", possibly due to mistranscription of verbal dictation. The star was finally remade with the correct name in 1988.[97][98]

text: Three stars remain misspelled: opera diva Lotte Lehmann's first name is spelled "Lottie";[99] Cinerama co-inventor and King Kong creator, director, and producer Merian C. Cooper's first name is spelled "Meriam";[100][101] and cinematography pioneer Auguste Lumière's first name is listed as "August".[102]

text: Monty Woolley, the veteran film and stage actor best known for The Man Who Came to Dinner (1942) and the classic line "Time flies when you're having fun", is officially listed in the motion picture category,[103] but his star on the Walk of Fame bears the television emblem.[104] Woolley did appear on the small screen late in his career, but his TV contributions were eclipsed by his extensive stage, film, and radio work.[105][106][107]  Similarly, the star of film actress Carmen Miranda bears the TV emblem,[108] although her official category is motion pictures.[109]  Radio and television talk show host Larry King is officially a television honoree,[110] but his star displays a film camera.[111]

text: The Los Angeles Times, which documented and photographed the Walk as part of its Hollywood Star Walk project, reported that it could not find two stars, honoring Richard Crooks and the film career of Geraldine Farrar.[112][113][114] (Farrar's music star is located on the 1700 block of Vine Street.)

text: Theft and vandalism[edit]

text: Acts of vandalism occur on the Walk on a regular basis, ranging from profanity and political statements written on stars with markers to attempted removal of brass emblems with chisels.[115] Closed circuit surveillance cameras have been installed on the stretch of Hollywood Boulevard between La Brea Avenue and Vine Street in an effort to discourage mischievous activities.[116]

text: Four of the stars, which weigh about 300 pounds (140 kg) each, have been stolen from the Walk of Fame. In 2000, James Stewart's and Kirk Douglas's stars disappeared from their locations near the intersection of Hollywood and Vine, where they had been temporarily removed for a construction project. Police recovered them in the suburban community of South Gate when they arrested a man involved in an incident there and searched his house. The suspect was a construction worker employed on the Hollywood and Vine project. The stars had been badly damaged, and had to be remade. One of Gene Autry's five stars (it is not clear which one) was also stolen from a construction area. Johnny Grant later received an anonymous phone tip that the missing star was in Iowa, but it was never found. "Someday, it will end up on eBay," Grant once joked. The most brazen and ambitious theft occurred in 2005 when thieves used a concrete saw to remove  Gregory Peck's star from its Hollywood Boulevard site at the intersection of North El Centro Avenue, near North Gower. The star was replaced almost immediately, but the original was never recovered and the perpetrators never caught.[117]

text: In late 2009, rumors circulated widely on media outlets and the Internet that John Lennon's star had been stolen, but it was merely being relocated farther south on Vine Street to an area near the circular Capitol Records Building, adjacent to the stars of bandmates George Harrison and Ringo Starr.[118] Paul McCartney's star was installed in the same location in 2012.[119]

text: Donald Trump's star—received as host of The Apprentice television series—was repeatedly defaced during the 2016 presidential campaign.[120][121][122] In late October, near the end of the race, a man named Jamie Otis (who claimed to be an heir to the Otis Elevator fortune) used a sledge hammer and a pickaxe to destroy all of the star's brass inlays. He readily admitted to the vandalism, which he described as "civil disobedience" and "freedom of expression", and told reporters that he originally planned to remove the entire star and auction it to raise money for the women who accused Trump of sexually assaulting them.[123]  Otis was arrested three weeks after the incident, charged with one count of felony vandalism,[124] and sentenced to three years' probation plus $3,400 in restitution payments.[125]  The star itself was repaired, serving as the site of pro-Trump demonstrations[126] until it was destroyed a second time in July 2018 by a man named Austin Clay.[127] Clay later surrendered himself to the police and was bailed out by Jamie Otis.[128][129]

text: Four Ladies of Hollywood[edit]

text: The Four Ladies of Hollywood gazebo[130]—known officially as the Hollywood and La Brea Gateway[131]—stands upon a small triangular island formed by the confluence of Hollywood Boulevard, Marshfield Way, and North La Brea Avenue at the westernmost extension of the Walk of Fame. It was commissioned in 1993 by the Los Angeles Community Redevelopment Agency Art Program and created by the architect, production designer, and film director Catherine Hardwicke as a tribute to the multi-ethnic women of Hollywood.[131] The gazebo is a stainless steel stylized Art Deco lattice structure. The roof is an arched square supporting a circular dome, which is topped by a central obelisk with descending neon block letters spelling "Hollywood" on each of its four sides. Atop the obelisk is a small gilded weathervane-style sculpture of Marilyn Monroe in her iconic billowing skirt pose from The Seven Year Itch.[132] The domed structure is held aloft by four caryatids sculpted by Harl West[131] to represent the African-American actress Dorothy Dandridge, Asian-American actress Anna May Wong, Mexican actress Dolores del Río, and the multi-ethnic, Brooklyn-born actress Mae West.[130]

text: The gazebo was dedicated on February 1, 1994, to a mixed reception. Los Angeles Times art critic Christopher Knight called it "the most depressingly awful work of public art in recent years", representing the opposite of Hardwicke's intended tribute to women. "Sex, as a woman's historic gateway to Hollywood", he wrote, "couldn't be more explicitly described".[133] Independent writer and film producer Gail Choice called it a fitting tribute to a group of pioneering and courageous women who "carried a tremendous burden on their feminine shoulders. Never in my wildest dreams did I believe I'd ever see women of color immortalized in such a creative and wonderful fashion."[134] Hardwicke contended that critics had missed the "humor and symbolism" of the structure, which "embraces and pokes fun at the glamour, the polished metallic male form of the Oscar, and the pastiche of styles and dreams that pervades Tinseltown."[135]

text: Nomination process[edit]

text: Each year an average of 200 nominations are submitted to the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce Walk of Fame selection committee. Anyone, including fans, can nominate anyone active in the field of entertainment as long as the nominee or his or her management approves the nomination (a letter of agreement from the nominated celebrity or representative must accompany the application). Nominees must have a minimum of five years' experience in the category for which they are nominated and a history of "charitable contributions."[74] Posthumous nominees must have been deceased at least five years. At a meeting each June, the committee selects approximately 20 to 24 celebrities to receive stars on the Walk of Fame. One posthumous award is given each year as well. The nominations of those not selected are rolled over to the following year for reconsideration; those not selected two years in a row are dropped, and must be renominated to receive further consideration. Living recipients must agree to personally attend a presentation ceremony within two years of selection. If the ceremony is not scheduled within two years, a new application must be submitted. A relative of deceased recipients must attend posthumous presentations. Presentation ceremonies are open to the public.[4]

text: A fee of $40,000 (as of  2018[update]),[37] payable at time of selection, is collected to pay for the creation and installation of the star, as well as general maintenance of the Walk of Fame. The fee is usually paid by the nominating organization, which may be a fan club, or a film studio, record company, broadcaster, or other sponsor involved with the prospective honoree.[21][136] The Starz cable network, for example, paid for Dennis Hopper's star as part of the promotion for its series Crash. The star was unveiled in March 2010 shortly before Hopper's death.[21][137]

text: Numerous major entertainment figures and legendary show business acts are not included on the Walk of Fame for a variety of reasons. Some, such as Julia Roberts[25][138] and Clint Eastwood,[138] have declined to participate; nominations cannot proceed without the nominee's consent. Others, such as George Clooney and John Denver,[139] were nominated, but would not agree to the mandatory personal appearance at the unveiling ceremony; however, Denver received a posthumous star in late 2014.[140] Others have simply never been nominated, or do not have a nominator willing or able to pay the selection fee, or have less than the required five years' minimum involvement in their designated field. Probability also plays a role as only about 10% of nominees are selected each year.

text: Traditionally, the identities of selection committee members, other than its chairman, have not been made public in order to minimize conflicts of interest and to discourage lobbying by celebrities and their representatives (a significant problem during the original selections in the late 1950s). However, in 1999, in response to intensifying charges of secrecy in the selection process, the chamber disclosed the members' names: Johnny Grant, the longtime chair and representative of the television category; Earl Lestz, president of Paramount Studio Group (motion pictures); Stan Spero, retired manager with broadcast stations KMPC and KABC (radio); Kate Nelson, owner of the Palace Theatre (live performance); and Mary Lou Dudas, vice president of A&M Records (recording industry).[141] Since that 1999 announcement the chamber has revealed only that Lestz (who received his own star in 2004) became chairman after Grant died in 2008. Their current official position is that "each of the five categories is represented by someone with expertise in that field."[4]

text: In 2010, Lestz was replaced as chairman by John Pavlik, former Director of Communications for the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.[142] While no public announcement was made to that effect, he was identified as chairman in the chamber's press release announcing the 2011 star recipients.[143]  The current chair, according to the chamber's 2016 selection announcement, is film producer Maureen Schultz.[144]

text: Homage[edit]

text: Some fans show respect for star recipients both living and dead by laying flowers or other symbolic tributes at their stars.[145] Others show their support in other ways; the star awarded to Julio Iglesias, for example, is kept in "pristine condition [by] a devoted band of elderly women [who] scrub and polish it once a month".[145]

text: The Hollywood Chamber of Commerce has adopted the tradition of placing flower wreaths at the stars of newly deceased awardees; for example Bette Davis in 1989,[146] Katharine Hepburn in 2003, and Jackie Cooper in 2011.[147] The stars of other deceased celebrities, such as Michael Jackson, Elizabeth Taylor,[148] Richard Pryor,[149] Ricardo Montalbán, James Doohan, Frank Sinatra,[150][151] Robin Williams,[152] Joan Rivers, George Harrison[153], and Aretha Franklin have become impromptu memorial and vigil sites as well, and some continue to receive anniversary remembrances.


document_title: List of circumnavigations

question_text: who was the first person to sail around the earth

root

text: List of circumnavigations

text: Global circumnavigations[edit]

text: Seacraft[edit]

text: 16th century[edit]

text:
The 18 survivors, led by Juan Sebastián Elcano, of Ferdinand Magellan's Castilian ('Spanish') expedition (which began with 5 ships and 270 men); 1519–1522; westward from Spain; in Victoria. After Magellan was killed by people of the Philippines Lapu-Lapu on 27 April 1521, the circumnavigation was completed under the command of the Basque Spanish seafarer Juan Sebastián Elcano who returned to Sanlúcar de Barrameda, Spain, on 6 September 1522, after a journey of 3 years and 1 month.[1] These men were the first to circumnavigate the globe in a single expedition.
The survivors of García Jofre de Loaísa's Spanish expedition 1525–1536 including Andrés de Urdaneta; westward from Spain. None of Loaísa's seven ships completed the voyage, but Santa María de la Victoria reached the Moluccas before being wrecked in a Portuguese attack. Successive chiefs of the expedition (Loaísa, Elcano, Salazar, Iñiguez, De la Torre) died during the voyages. Andrés de Urdaneta and other fellow men survived, reaching the Spice Islands in 1526, to be taken prisoner by the Portuguese. Urdaneta and a few of his men returned to Spain in 1536 aboard Portuguese ships via India, the Cape of Good Hope and Portugal, and completed the second world circumnavigation in history.
Francis Drake; 1577–1580; westward from England; in Golden Hind; discovered the Drake Passage but entered the Pacific via the Strait of Magellan; first English circumnavigation and the second carried out in a single expedition. Drake was the first to complete a circumnavigation as captain while leading the expedition throughout the entire circumnavigation.
Martín Ignacio de Loyola; 1580–1584; westward from Spain.
Thomas Cavendish; 1586–1588; westward from England; in Desire.
Martín Ignacio de Loyola; 1585–1589; eastward from Spain (via Macau, China, and Acapulco, Mexico); First person to circumnavigate the world twice, first one to circumnavigate eastwards and both westwards and eastwards (1580–1584 westward and 1585–1589 eastward), and first to use overland routes in his circumnavigation.
João da Gama; 1584 (or 1585)–1590; eastward from Portugal; from Lisbon to India, Malacca, Macau (China) and Japan. Gama crossed the Pacific at a higher northern latitude; was taken prisoner in Mexico and carried in Spanish ships to the Iberian Peninsula. One of the first to do eastwards, mostly by sea.

text: 17th century[edit]

text:
The survivors of the expedition of Jacques Mahu; 1598–1601; westward from Holland; Of Mahu's five ships only two returned.
The survivors of the expedition of Olivier van Noort; 1598–1601; westward from Holland; Of Van Noort's four ships only two returned.
Francesco Carletti; Florentine merchant; 1594–1602; westward from Italy; travelled across the American continent overland, through Panama. All Carletti's other travel was by sea until he ended in the Netherlands; he travelled from there overland back to Italy. Carletti was perhaps the first to travel all legs as a passenger, not as a ship's officer or a crew member. Carletti described his journey in his autobiography, "My Voyage Around the World", translated into various languages.
Joris van Spilbergen; 1614–1617; westward from Holland.
Willem Schouten and Jacob Le Maire; 1615–1617; westward from Holland; in Eendraght; Discovered Cape Horn and the first expedition to enter the Pacific via the Drake Passage.
Jacques l'Hermite and John Hugo Schapenham; 1623–1626; westward from Holland.
Pedro Cubero; 1670–1679; eastward from Spain; the first maritime circumnavigation including significant travel overland.
William Dampier (English); 1679–1691; westward from England.
Giovanni Francesco Gemelli Careri; 1693–1698; eastward from Naples; the first tourist to circumnavigate the globe, paying his own way on multiple voyages, crossing Mexico on land.

text: 18th century[edit]

text:
William Funnell (English); 1703–1706.[2]
William Dampier (English); 1703–1706.[2]
Woodes Rogers (English); 1708–1711; with the Duke and the Duchess; He rescued Alexander Selkirk on Juan Fernandez on 31 January 1709. Selkirk had been stranded there for four years.
William Dampier (English); 1708–1711; First person to circumnavigate the world three times (1679–1691, 1703–1707 and 1708–1711).
George Anson, 1st Baron Anson; 1740–1744; in HMS Centurion.
John Byron; 1764–1766; in HMS Dolphin.
Samuel Wallis and Philip Carteret; 1766–1768; in HMS Dolphin and HMS Swallow; Carteret had served on Byron's expedition. Dolphin was the first ship to survive two circumnavigations.
Louis de Bougainville; 1766–1769; On board was Jeanne Baré, disguised as a man, the first woman to circumnavigate the globe; first French circumnavigation.
James Cook; 1768–1771; in HMS Endeavour; The first circumnavigation to lose no personnel to scurvy.
Tobias Furneaux; 1772–1774; in HMS Adventure (Furneaux was a veteran of Byron's expedition.).
James Cook; 1772–1775; in HMS Resolution.
Alessandro Malaspina; 1776–1778.
George Dixon and Nathaniel Portlock; 1785–1788; in Queen Charlotte and King George respectively; early pioneers of the Maritime Fur Trade between the Pacific Northwest and China.
Robert Gray; 1787–1790; first American circumnavigation.

text: 19th century[edit]

text:
Ignacio Maria de Alava; 1795–1803; in Montañés, flagship of a Spanish Navy squadron.
Adam Johann von Krusenstern and Yuri Lisyansky; 1803–1806; the first Russian circumnavigation.
Hipolito Bouchard; 1817–1819; in La Argentina (Corsair Ship, Frigate); from Buenos Aires (Argentina, South America) via Cape of Good Hope, Madagascar, Java, Philippines, Hawaii, California, El Salvador, Valparaiso (Chile). The first Argentine to circumnavigate the world.
Faddey Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev; 1819–1821; the first circumnavigation mostly between 60° and 70° S, discovered Antarctica and the first islands south of the Antarctic Circle.
HMS Warspite; 1826–1828; as part of her assuming the role of the flagship of the South American station squadron, from England via Cape of Good Hope, Burma, Australia and Brazil, returning to England via the Caribbean.
USS Vincennes, 3 September 1826 – 8 June 1830; from New York by way of Cape Horn, visiting the Hawaiian islands in 1829 and Macau in 1830. Her return voyage was made by way of China, the Philippines, the Indian Ocean, and the Cape of Good Hope. After nearly four years, Vincennes arrived back in New York under Commander William B. Finch.[3] Two days later the ship was decommissioned.
USS Potomac; 19 August 1831 – 23 May 1834; Commodore John Downes commanding, departed New York for the first Sumatran Expedition via the Cape of Good Hope, and returned via Cape Horn to Boston.
Robert Fitzroy; 1831–1836; in HMS Beagle; with Charles Darwin.
Sir George Simpson; 1841–1842; made the first "land circumnavigation" by crossing Canada and Siberia.
USS Constitution; May 1844 - September 1845; commanded by Captain John "Mad Jack" Percival.
The paddle sloop HMS Driver; 1845-1847; first steamship circumnavigation.
The first Galathea expedition; 1845–1847; first Danish circumnavigation.
HMS Herald; 1845-1851; Discovered Herald Island in the Bering Straits while searching for the Sir John Franklin Expedition.
The screw frigate Amazonas; 1856–1858; first Peruvian circumnavigation.
SMS Novara; 1857–1859; first Austrian circumnavigation.
CSS Shenandoah; 1864–65; only Confederate ship to circumnavigate. Capt. James Iredell Waddell.
Casto Méndez Núñez; 1865–1868; aboard Numancia; first ironclad warship circumnavigation; "Enloricata navis que primo terram circuivit".
Fernando Villaamil; 1892–1894; aboard Nautilus; first training ship circumnavigation.
Joshua Slocum; 1895–1898; first single-handed circumnavigation.

text: 20th century[edit]

text:
The Great White Fleet; 1907–1909; first fleet to circumnavigate the world.
Harry Pidgeon; 1921–1925; second single-handed circumnavigation.
HMS Hood, HMS Repulse, and the rest of the Special Service Squadron; 1923–24; in the Empire Cruise, a tour of the British Empire after World War I.
Harry Pidgeon; 1932–1937; third single-handed circumnavigation, first person to circumnavigate solo twice (1921–1925 and 1932–1937).
Electa and Irving Johnson; 1934–1958; sail training pioneers, circumnavigated the world 7 times with amateur crews.
Vito Dumas; 1942; single handed circumnavigation of the southern oceans, including the first single handed passage of all three great capes.
Operation Sandblast; 1960; USS Triton; first underwater circumnavigation.
Operation Sea Orbit; 1964; USS Enterprise, USS Long Beach, and USS Bainbridge; first circumnavigation by an all-nuclear naval task force.
1966 Soviet submarine global circumnavigation.
Sir Francis Chichester; 1966–1967; first single-handed circumnavigation with just one port of call.
Sir Alec Rose; 1967-1968; single-handed circumnavigation with two stops (in Australia and New Zealand).
Leonid Teliga; 1967–1969; single-handed circumnavigation aboard SY Opty.
Robin Knox-Johnston; 1968–1969; first single-handed non-stop circumnavigation.[4]
Robin Lee Graham; 1965–1970; then youngest (at ages 16–21) solo circumnavigation aboard 24-foot sailboat Dove.
Chay Blyth; 1971; first westwards single-handed non-stop circumnavigation.
Edward Allcard; 1957–1973; circumnavigation via the three great capes aboard his 36-foot wooden ketch Sea Wanderer.
Jon Sanders; 1970-2017; completed ten circumnavigations.[5].

1970 First solo circumnavigation trip east to west mostly sailing through tropics.
1981-82 Double nonstop solo circumnavigation west to east via Southern Ocean.
1986-88 Triple non-stop solo circumnavigation: 657 days 21 hours and 18 minutes at sea. The Guinness World Book of Records cites this as the longest distance sailed non-stop by any vessel (71,023 nautical miles)[6][7]
2016-17 Completed 10th circumnavigation at the age of 78, mostly singlehanded.[5]

USS Inchon; ETR-3 crew SEP-1972-SEP-1973 Circumnavigation via Panama Canal Norfolk VA. East to West.
Krystyna Chojnowska-Liskiewicz; 1976–1978; first woman to perform a single-handed circumnavigation.
Naomi James; 1977–1978; first woman to perform a single-handed circumnavigation via Cape Horn.
Mark Schrader; 1982; completed two solo circumnavigations. In 1982–1983 became the first American to complete a solo circumnavigation via the five southernmost capes.[8][9]
Marvin Creamer (USA); 21 December 1982 – 17 May 1984; only known person to circumnavigate the globe by boat with no nautical aids, not even a compass or watch [1].
Bertie Reed - 1982 - the first South African to complete three singlehanded circumnavigations.[10]
David Scott Cowper; 1985; first single-handed circumnavigation by motor boat.
Dodge Morgan; 12 November 1985 - 11 April 1986; Aboard sailboat American Promise, became first American to sail solo around the world, non-stop.
Trishna; 28 September 1985 - 10 January 1987; First Indian circumnavigation by an Indian Army Corps of Engineers crew. Also had the first handicapped sailor to sail around the globe.[citation needed]
Teddy Seymour; 1987; aboard sailboat Love Song; the first African-American to complete solo single-handed circumnavigation.
Mike Plant; 1987–1991; completed three circumnavigations.[11]

1986–87: Won the BOC Challenge (Class II - Open 50) with a time of 157 days aboard Airco Distributor, an Open 50 sloop built by Plant and designed by Roger Martin.[12][13]
1989: Competed in the first Vendée Globe on Duracell, an Open 60 sloop built by Plant and designed by Roger Martin. Although eliminated from the race after receiving help with a rudder repair in New Zealand, Plant still set a record for the fastest American to sail single-handed around the world with a time of 135 days.[11][14]
1990/91: Finished 4th overall in the BOC Challenge, setting the highest mark in a solo-sailing event for an American with a time of 132 days.[11]

The Thurston Family; 1984–1987; First Australian family to complete a circumnavigation.[15]
Tania Aebi; 1985–1987; American woman who completed a solo circumnavigation by the age of 21, one 80-nautical-mile (150 km) stretch with crew disqualified her from an official record.
Kay Cottee; 1988; first woman to perform a solo non-stop circumnavigation.
David Scott Cowper; 1990; first single-handed circumnavigation via the North West Passage.
Brian Caldwell; 1995-1996; '1st-Under-Age-21' to complete solo circumnavigation with stops, completed by age 20.
David Dicks; 1996; youngest recognized assisted circumnavigation, completed aged 18 years 41 days.
Henk de Velde; 1997; sailed a catamaran eastbound around the world in 119 days, non-stop. He is still the only person in the world to perform this feat single-handed with a catamaran,[citation needed] although others have made faster single-handed circumnavigations in trimarans (Ellen MacArthur, 2005, and Francis Joyon, 2008).
1998 Ocean 7 Adventurer; July 1998 in 74 days, 20 hours, 58 minutes, traveling more than 22,600 nautical miles (41,855 km). This achievement set a new Guinness World Record for a powered vessel.
Robert E. Case; 1998–2001; American who was the first solo amputee to sail around the world.[16]
Jesse Martin; 1999; youngest recognized unassisted circumnavigation, completed aged 18 years 66 days.
Azhar Mansor; 1999; first Malaysian to sail solo around the world.
Alex Thomson; 1999; youngest skipper ever to win a round the world race (Clipper 1998-1999).
Daniel D. Moreland; 1997-1998; first circumnavigation of sail training vessel Picton Castle.
Vinny Lauwers; 1999–2000; 233d 13h 43m 8s; 21760 nm; Vision Quest; first single-handed circumnavigation by a disabled sailor (paraplegic).[17]

text: 21st century[edit]

text:
Wilfried Erdmann; 2000-08-14 - 2001-07-23 in 343 days; monohull Kathena Nui; solo westward non-stop circumnavigation.
Ellen MacArthur; 2001; monohull; circumnavigated singlehandedly as the then fastest woman.
Mike Golding; 2001; First person to circumnavigate non-stop in both eastward and westward directions. 1993 World record for a westward circumnavigation, 161 days, Group 4. 2001 Vendee Globe Race 7th position.
INS Tarangini (Indian Navy); 2003-04; first Indian sail naval ship to circumnavigate the globe with the theme of "building bridges of friendship across the oceans".
Bruno Peyron and crew; 2005; aboard maxi catamaran Orange II; set the then current windpowered circumnavigation record, 50 days, 16 hours, 20 minute.[4]
Ellen MacArthur; 2005; trimaran B&Q/Castorama; then the fastest singlehanded circumnavigation (71 days), is still the fastest woman in 2010. See also 2001.[4]
Dee Caffari; 2005-2006; first woman to perform a solo westward non-stop circumnavigation, in 178 days.[18]
Spanish frigate Álvaro de Bazán (F101); 2007; First circumnavigation of the globe by a Spanish warship in 142 years.
RMS Queen Mary 2; 2007 world cruise; at 148,528 gross ton, the world's largest passenger ship to circumnavigate the globe.
Earthrace; 2008; wave-piercing trimaran, with two 540 horsepower multi-fuelled engines; current world record holder for a motorized vessel (disputed with USS Triton, 1960), in 60 days 23 hours and 49 minutes.
Francis Joyon; 2008; 95 ft (29 m) IDEC 2; current fastest singlehanded multihull circumnavigation, in 57 days 13 hours 34 minutes 06 seconds.[4]
Michael Perham; 2009; then youngest person (aged 16–17 years) to perform a singlehanded circumnavigation (with stops, through Panama Canal).
Franck Cammas and a crew of 10; 2010; French trimaran Groupama 3; set the fastest maritime circumnavigation at the time, in a time of 48 days, 7 hours 44 minutes and 52 seconds.[4]
Cdr Dilip Donde (Indian Navy); 2009-2010; First Indian to carry out a solo circumnavigation; stopped in four ports - Fremantle, Lyttelton, Port Stanley and Cape Town.[19]
Jessica Watson; 2009-2010; youngest person (aged 16) to perform a solo non-stop southern hemisphere circumnavigation (past Cape Horn).
Reid Stowe; 2007-2010; eastbound circumnavigation, 1152 days; longest time spent at sea without resupply or touching land.
Minoru Saito; 2008-2011; oldest person (aged 77) to perform a singlehanded circumnavigation (westbound, past Cape Horn, with stops). He has made eight singlehanded circumnavigations; after the seventh (which was non-stop) at age 71 he was already the oldest.
PlanetSolar; 2010-2012; first solar vehicle to circumnavigate the globe.
Laura Dekker; 2011–2012; youngest person (aged 14–16 years) to perform a singlehanded circumnavigation (with stops, through Panama Canal).
British sailor Jeanne Socrates; 2012-2013; oldest woman (aged 70) to single-handedly sail around the world, non-stop without outside assistance,[20] also making her first woman to make solo non-stop unassisted circumnavigation from west coast of North America (Victoria BC, Canada). Oldest, in 2010-2011 (aged 68), to sail single-handedly around the world, with stops. Both were eastbound via Cape Horn.[21]
Abhilash Tomy (Indian Navy); 2012-2013; First Indian to sail solo, nonstop around the world without outside assistance. Sailed south of the five southernmost capes.
Gerry Hughes; 2012-2013; First deaf yachtsman to sail single-handed around the world to pass the five great capes. On 1 September 2012, Hughes left Troon, Scotland to start his eight-month journey across the world. Hughes travel around the world solo, sailed 32,000 miles and became the first deaf yachtsman to passed all five southernmost capes - Cape Agulhas, Cape Leeuwin, South East Cape, South West Cape and Cape Horn.
INSV Tarini (Indian Navy); 2017-2018; six female naval officers sailed south of the five southernmost capes during their Navika Sagar Parikrama expedition; they stopped in Fremantle, Lyttelton, Port Stanley and Cape Town.

text: Fastest nautical circumnavigations of the globe[edit]

text: (Ordered by ascending date of completion of voyage)

text:
Operation Sandblast; 1960; USS Triton; first underwater circumnavigation, and fastest mechanically powered circumnavigation (disputed with Earthrace, 2008), in 60 days 21 hours.
Jon Sanders; 1986–1988; holds the world record for completing a single-handed, non-stop, triple circumnavigation, in 657 days 21 hours and 18 minutes.
Jean-Luc Van Den Heede (French); 2004; fastest westward single-handed circumnavigation, 122 days 14 hours 3 minutes 49 seconds.
Adrienne Cahalan (Australian); February–March 2004; fastest woman to complete a circumnavigation (crew of "Cheyenne") 58 days 9 hours 32 minutes 45 seconds.
Earthrace; 2008; wave-piercing trimaran, with two 540 horsepower multi-fuelled engines; current world record holder for a motorized vessel (disputed with USS Triton, 1960), in 60 days 23 hours and 49 minutes.
François Gabart (French); Nov 2017–Dec 2017; current fastest single-handed circumnavigation, in 42 days, 16 hours, 40 minutes, 35 seconds.
Francis Joyon and crew of five sailors; Dec 2016–Jan 2017; the Maxi trimaran IDEC SPORT; current absolute (wind or mechanically powered) fastest maritime circumnavigation, in 40 days 23 hours 30 minutes 30 seconds of sailing. Average speed of 26.85 knots (30.71 MPH), covering a total distance of 26,412 nautical miles (48,915 km; 30,394 mi).

text: Aircraft[edit]

text:
United States Army Air Service, 1924, first aerial circumnavigation, 175 days, covering 44,360 kilometres (27,560 mi).
Friedrich Karl von Koenig-Warthausen, in a Klemm L.20, circumnavigated the globe solo, between August 1928 and November 1929 (oceanic legs via ship).
LZ-127 Graf Zeppelin, 1929, piloted by Hugo Eckener set a record for the fastest aerial circumnavigation, 21 days, which was also the first circumnavigation in an airship.
On 1 July 1931, pilot Wiley Post and navigator Harold Gatty completed their circumnavigation of the world in a Lockheed Vega aeroplane, Winnie Mae, in 8 days, 15 hours and 51 minutes; the record for fastest circumnavigation was once again held by an aeroplane.
In 1932, Wolfgang von Gronau flew around the world in a twin-engine Dornier seaplane, Gronland-Wal D-2053, in nearly four months, making 44 stops en route. He was accompanied by co-pilot Gerth von Roth, mechanic Franzl Hack, and radio operator Fritz Albrecht.[22]
In 1933, Wiley Post repeated his circumnavigation by aeroplane, but this time solo, using an autopilot and radio direction finder. He made the first solo aerial circumnavigation in a time one day faster than his previous record: 7 days, 19 hours, 49 minutes, in which he covered 25,110 kilometres (15,600 mi).
Richarda Morrow-Tait became the first and still-youngest woman pilot to fly around the world, accompanied by navigator Michael Townsend, in a year and a day, from 18 August 1948 to 19 August 1949.
In 1949, the United States Air Force B-50 Superfortress Lucky Lady II made the first non-stop aerial circumnavigation in 94 hours and 1 minute. Four in-air refuelings were required for the flight, which covered 37,743 kilometres (23,452 mi).
Geraldine Mock, 1964, first woman to complete a solo aerial circumnavigation.
Don Taylor, 1976, first general aviation circumnavigation by homebuilt aircraft.
Dick Smith, 1982–1983, first solo circumnavigation by helicopter.
Dick Rutan and Jeana Yeager, 1986, Voyager, first non-stop non-refueled circumnavigation in an airplane, 9 days, 3 minutes and 44 seconds.
In 1992 an Air France Concorde achieved the fastest non-orbital circumnavigation in 32 hours 49 minutes and 3 seconds.
Brian Milton, 1998, first microlight circumnavigation. He used an open-cockpit single engine Pegasus Quantum 912. No support aircraft escorted the flight. Keith Reynolds was copilot from Webridge, Surrey, to Yuzhno Sakhalinsk, Siberia. Then, as required by the Russian authorities, navigator Petr Petrov accompanied Milton to Nome, Alaska. Milton completed the rest of the 120-day-voyage solo (71 flying days).[23][24][25][26]
Bertrand Piccard and Brian Jones, 1999, first non-stop balloon circumnavigation in Breitling Orbiter 3, 19 days, 1 hour and 49 minutes, covering 42,810 kilometres (26,600 mi).
Colin Bodill, 2000, first solo circumnavigation by a microlight (Mainair Blade) in 99 days. Also held fastest circumnavigation by microlight until broken. Bodill was part of an entourage of 4 aircraft, one of which carried supplies and support.[27]
Polly Vacher, 2001, in the smallest aircraft flown in a solo circumnavigation by a woman, via Australia and the Pacific.
Steve Fossett, 2 July 2002, first solo balloon circumnavigation.
Steve Fossett, 3 March 2005, GlobalFlyer, first non-stop, non-refueled solo circumnavigation in an airplane, 67 hours, covering 37,000 kilometres (23,000 mi).
Steve Fossett, 11 February 2006, GlobalFlyer, longest non-stop, non-refueled solo flight (with circumnavigation) in an airplane, covering 42,469.5 kilometres (26,389.3 mi), in 76 hours and 45 minutes.[28][29]
Barrington Irving, 27 June 2007, Inspiration, youngest solo circumnavigation in an airplane, at that time, 23 years, 228 days; first solo circumnavigation in an airplane by a black pilot and first Jamaican. Left Miami, Florida, March 23, 2007, first stop, Cleveland, Ohio.
Rahul Monga and Anil Kumar, 2007, fastest circumnavigation in a microlight, 79 days. Team from the Indian Air Force to commemorate the 75 Anniversary of the founding of the Indian Air Force. Aircraft used was a Flight Design CTSW. They covered 40,529 kilometres (25,184 mi) in a total flight time of 247 hours and 27 minutes.[30][31]
Jack Wiegand, 2013, then youngest pilot to circumnavigate the globe, solo (21).[32]
Amelia Rose Earhart joined by co-pilot Shane Jordon, completed a global circumnavigation flight on 11 July 2014.
Australian pilot Ryan Campbell completed a global circumnavigation flight on 7 September 2013 making him the then youngest person (19 year, 7 months, 25 days) to fly around the world.
Matt Guthmiller completed a global circumnavigation flight on 14 July 2014 making him the youngest person (19 years, 7 months, 15 days) to ever fly around the world.
Swiss pilots Bertrand Piccard and André Borschberg took off from Abu Dhabi aboard the solar-powered airplane Solar Impulse 2 on 9 March 2015, and were originally scheduled to complete their circumnavigation of the Northern Hemisphere in five months.[33] Due to battery damage, continuation of the flight has been postponed until April 2016.[34] This circumnavigation was completed on 26 July 2016.
Robert DeLaurentis completed a global circumnavigation flight on 19 August 2015[35] - Single plane, single engine, single pilot,[36] across the Atlantic,[37] Pacific and Indian Oceans.[38]
Fyodor Konyukhov, 23 July 2016, broke the record for the fastest circumnavigation of the world in a hot air balloon. He took "just over 11 days", breaking Steve Fossetts 2002 record of 13 and a half days.[39]
Wang Zheng on September 19, 2016, completed a solo global circumnavigation in a single piston-engine aircraft and became the first Asian woman to fly around the world, the first Chinese person to fly solo around-the-world and the first Chinese female pilot to fly around the world.[40]

text: Spacecraft[edit]

text:
On 12 April 1961 Yuri Gagarin made the first human flight in space, and completed the first orbit of the Earth, in Vostok 1, in 108 minutes.
The second and third orbital circumnavigations, the first two to have multiple orbits, were made by Gherman Titov (17.5 orbits, a little over a day, for the Soviet Union) and John Glenn, in Friendship 7 (3 orbits, almost five hours, for the USA, first American orbital flight), respectively.
The first woman to circumnavigate the Earth in orbit, and to also do so multiple times, was Valentina Tereshkova, who made forty-eight orbits between 16 and 19 June 1963, aboard Vostok 6.
Frank F. Borman II, James A. Lovell Jr., and William A. Anders, 21–27 December 1968, first human circumnavigation of the Earth-Moon system, 10 orbits around the moon in about 20 hours, aboard Apollo 8; total trip to the moon and back was more than 6 Earth days.
Sally K. Ride, 18–24 June 1983, the first American woman to circumnavigate the Earth in orbit, the youngest American to date to do so (aged 32 years, 23 days), and the first American woman to do so multiple times; she flew 97 orbits during STS-7 aboard Space Shuttle Challenger.

text: Human powered[edit]

text: Motorized transportation is permitted over water and where otherwise needed, but the human powered distance must be a minimum of 18,000 miles (29,000 km) to qualify for a world record according to Guinness rules since 2013.[citation needed]

text: (listed in ascending order by completion dates)

text:
Thomas Stevens was the first person to circle the globe by bicycle. The feat was accomplished between 1884 and 1886. While impressive at the time, a good portion of the trip was by steamer due to technical and political reasons.
Dumitru Dan was the first person to have walked around the world, in 1910–1923 (he kept walking even on the boats' decks).
Dave Kunst walked around the world between 20 June 1970 and 10 October 1974.
Rick Hansen, a world-class paraplegic athlete, became the first person to travel around the world in a wheelchair from 21 March 1985 to 22 May 1987, covering over 25,000 mi (40,000 km) through 34 countries on four continents.[41]
Robert Garside is credited by Guinness World Records as the first person to run around the world from 20 October 1997 to 13 June 2003, taking 2,062 days to cover 30,000 mi (48,000 km) across 29 countries and 6 continents.[42]
Steve Strange completed the first true cycling circumnavigation, riding for 276 days in 2004–2005, following updated Guinness World Record rules for a proper circumnavigation.[43] Nick Sanders had set the record for cycling around the Northern Hemisphere in 1984, which was considered a circumnavigation by earlier Guinness rules.[44]
Jesper Olsen travelled 16,000 mi (26,000 km) from 1 January 2004 to 23 October 2005 during a circumnavigation solely on foot except for ocean crossings.
Colin Angus circumnavigated the Northern Hemisphere solely by human power in 2006 but did not qualify under the Guinness guidelines as a human powered circumnavigation. His attempt, however, was recognized by National Geographic.[45]
Jason Lewis completed the first true human-powered circumnavigation (without sails or any motorized transport) from 12 July 1994 to 6 October 2007, covering 46,505 mi (74,843 km) in both the southern and northern hemispheres and reaching two antipodal points, gaining accreditation from Guinness World Records[46] and Adventurestats by Explorersweb.[47]
Rosie Swale-Pope travelled 20,000 mi (32,000 km) from 2 October 2003 to 25 August 2008 during a circumnavigation solely on foot except for ocean crossings.
Erden Eruç completed the first solo human-powered circumnavigation (without sails or any motorized transport) traveling by rowboat, sea kayak, foot and bicycle from 10 July 2007 to 21 July 2012.[48][47] Erden crossed the equator two times, passed over 12 pairs of antipodal points, and logged 41,196 mi (66,299 km) while setting 13 Guinness records for ocean rowing.[49][50]
Juliana Buhring completed the first cycling circumnavigation by a solo female in 2012 following updated Guinness World Record rules for a cycling circumnavigation. She began in July and finished in December 2012 after 152 days of riding over 18,063 mi (29,070 km), averaging about 119 mi (192 km) a day.[51]
Paola Gianotti set the current record for the fastest cycling circumnavigation by a female in 2014. She began her attempt on 8 March and finished on 30 November 2014—including four months of recovery after an accident that broke a vertebra—riding for 144 days over 18,389 mi (29,594 km), averaging about 128 mi (206 km) a day.[52]
Mark Beaumont set the current record for the fastest cycling circumnavigation in 2017.[53] He began his attempt on 2 July and finished on 18 September 2017, after 78 days, 14 hours, and 40 minutes,[54] averaging about 230 mi (370 km) a day on an 18,039-mile (29,031 km) ride across Europe, Asia, Australia, New Zealand, and North America.[55] Beaumont had also broken the same record in 2008.[56]

text: Miscellaneous[edit]

text:
Heinz Stücke has been cycling around the world since 1962.
Arthur Blessitt has been walking around the world carrying a 45 lb (20 kg) wooden cross since 1968, covering 42,279 miles (68,041 km) through 324 countries. 2018 is the 50th year of his journey.
King Kalākaua traveled around the world, over land and sea, thus becoming the first reigning monarch to complete such a journey in 1881.
Nellie Bly traveled around the world with public steamboats and trains in 72 days (from November 14, 1889 to January 25, 1890), a world record, resembling the Around the World in Eighty Days novel.
Sir Ranulph Fiennes, Charles Burton, et al; 1979–1982; first circumnavigation via the North and South Poles on the Transglobe Expedition.
Clärenore Stinnes and Carl-Axel Söderström were the first persons to drive around the world in a car between 25 May 1927 and 24 June 1929.
Beginning in Montreal, Ben Carlin circumnavigated the world in a modified Ford GPA Jeep between 1950 and 1958, becoming the first person to circumnavigate the world by amphibious vehicle.
Garry Sowerby holds four world records for circumnavigation in an automobile.[57][58][59]
Vladimir Lysenko circumnavigated the globe from west to east, deviating no more than two degrees of latitude from the Equator. Starting in Libreville (Gabon), Vladimir crossed (in a car, a motor boat, a yacht, a ship, a kayak, a bicycle, and by foot) Africa, Indian Ocean, Indonesia, Pacific Ocean, South America and Atlantic Ocean, finishing in Libreville in 2012.[60][61]
Kane Avellano became the youngest person to circumnavigate the globe by motorcycle on a trip completed just one day before his 24th birthday. The circumnavigation began on the 31st of May 2016 and ended on the 19th of January 2017, with a total duration of 233 days. Avellano covered more than 28,000 miles (45,062 km), passing through 36 countries and 6 continents.[62][63]

text: Significant non-global circumnavigations[edit]

text: Seacraft[edit]

text:
Phoenician expedition sent by Pharaoh Necho II; c. 600 BC; possibly circumnavigating Africa.
Roman Governor Gnaeus Julius Agricola; c. 80; first circumnavigation of Britain.
Jacques Cartier; 1534–1535; first circumnavigation of Newfoundland.
García de Nodal; 1619; first circumnavigation of Tierra del Fuego.
Abel Tasman; 1642-1643; first circumnavigation of the Australian continent (including New Guinea and Tasmania).
James Cook; 1769–1770; first circumnavigation of New Zealand.
James Cook; 1772-1775; first circumnavigation of Antarctica (including New Zealand's South Island).
George Bass and Matthew Flinders; 1798; first circumnavigation of Tasmania (without Australia).
Matthew Flinders; 1801–1803; first circumnavigation of Australia (without Tasmania).
Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen; 1820-1821; first circumnavigation of Antarctica (without New Zealand).
Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld; 1878–1879; first circumnavigation of Eurasia, via the Northeast Passage and the Suez Canal, during the Vega expedition.
RCMP St Roch; 1940–1942 and 1950; first vessel to circumnavigate North America. 1940–1942 Vancouver to Halifax, Nova Scotia, via the Northwest Passage. 1950, Halifax to Vancouver, via the Panama Canal.
HMCS Labrador (AW 50); 1954; first vessel to circumnavigate North America in a single voyage, via the Panama Canal. Halifax west through Northwest Passage. South to Panama canal and return to Halifax.
USS Belmont; 1967; circumnavigated South America via the Panama Canal.
CCGS Hudson; 1970; first circumnavigation of North and South America.[64]
Miles Clark; 1992; circumnavigation of Europe, going from the White Sea to the Black Sea through several Russian waterways.[65][66]
Phoenicia (a replica of a Phoenician ship); 2009–2010; remade the possible circumnavigation of Africa, but completed the modern trip by going from Syria to the Red Sea via the Suez Canal.[67]
Børge Ousland in the yacht Northern Passage July–October 2010[68] and Daniel Gavrilov in the yacht Peter I; June–November 2010; first circumnavigation of the Arctic in a single season.[69][70] Ousland claims to have crossed his wake north of Bergen on 14 October; it's unclear when Gavrilov crossed his wake.
Matt Rutherford; June 2011-April 2012; first single-handed, non-stop 27,000 mi (43,000 km) sailing circumnavigation of the Americas, leaving from the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay, through the Northwest Passage, around Cape Horn, and back to the Chesapeake Bay.[71] The Scott Polar Research Institute officially recognized Rutherford's 27 ft (8.2 m) sailboat as the smallest vessel to ever transit the Northwest Passage.[72]

text: Fictional circumnavigations[edit]

text: Jules Verne's 1872 adventure novel, Around the World in Eighty Days describes a fictional circumnavigation. Upper class Englishman Phileas Fogg and his servant Passepartout use a variety of transportation means and ingenuity to accomplish the adventurous feat. The book is a tribute to the new transportation possibilities of the early Industrial Revolution, with the coming of steamships, railways, etc., before which a year was a more probable time for a circumnavigation. British actor Michael Palin attempted in 1988 to follow the route as closely as possible in his television series Around the World in 80 Days.


document_title: Cotton gin

question_text: how much of the world's supply of cotton came from the south

question_tokens: how much of the world 's supply of cotton came from the south

text: Cotton gin

text: History

text: The Ajanta caves of India yield evidence of a single-roller cotton gin in use by the 5th century. This cotton gin was used in India until innovations were made in the form of foot powered gins. The cotton gin was invented in India as a mechanical device known as a charkhi, more technically the "wooden-worm-worked roller".[citation needed]

text: Purpose

text: Cotton fibers are produced in the seed pods ("bolls") of the cotton plant where the fibers ("lint") in the bolls are tightly interwoven with seeds. To make the fibers usable, the seeds and fibers must first be separated, a task which had been previously performed manually, with production of cotton requiring hours of labor for the separation. Many simple seed-removing devices had been invented, but until the innovation of the cotton gin, most required significant operator attention and worked only on a small scale.[7]

text: Early cotton gins

text: The earliest versions of the cotton gin, which were the size of a small printer, consisted of a single roller made of iron or wood and a flat piece of stone or wood. Evidence for this type of gin has been found in Africa, Asia, and North America. The first documentation of the cotton gin by contemporary scholars is found in the fifth century AD, in the form of Buddhist paintings depicting a single-roller gin in the Ajanta Caves in western India.[2] These early gins were difficult to use and required a great deal of skill. A narrow single roller was necessary to expel the seeds from the cotton without crushing the seeds. The design was similar to that of a mealing stone, which was used to grind grain. The early history of the cotton gin is ambiguous, because archeologists likely mistook the cotton gin's parts for other tools.[2]

text: Between the 12th and 14th centuries, dual-roller gins appeared in India and China. The Indian version of the dual-roller gin was prevalent throughout the Mediterranean cotton trade by the 16th century. This mechanical device was, in some areas, driven by water power.[8]

text: Mughal India

text: The worm gear roller gin, which was invented in the Indian subcontinent during the early Delhi Sultanate era of the 13th–14th centuries, came into use in the Mughal Empire some time around the 16th century,[9] and is still used in the Indian subcontinent through to the present day.[2] Another innovation, the incorporation of the crank handle in the cotton gin, first appeared some time during the late Delhi Sultanate or the early Mughal Empire.[10] The incorporation of the worm gear and crank handle into the roller cotton gin led to greatly expanded Indian cotton textile production during the Mughal era.[11]

text: It was reported that, with an Indian cotton gin, which is half machine and half tool, one man and one woman could clean 28 pounds of cotton per day. With a modified Forbes version, one man and a boy could produce 250 pounds per day. If oxen were used to power 16 of these machines, and a few people's labour was used to feed them, they could produce as much work as 750 people did formerly.[12]

text: United States

text: The Indian roller cotton gin, known as the churka or charkha, was introduced to the United States in the mid-18th century, when it was adopted in the southern United States. The device was adopted for cleaning long-staple cotton, but was not suitable for the short-staple cotton that was more common in certain states such as Georgia. Several modifications were made to the Indian roller gin by Mr. Krebs in 1772 and Joseph Eve in 1788, but their uses remained limited to the long-staple variety, up until Eli Whitney's development of a short-staple cotton gin in 1793.[13]

text: Eli Whitney's patent

text: Eli Whitney (1765–1825) applied for a patent of his cotton gin on October 28, 1793; the patent was granted on March 14, 1794, but was not validated until 1807. Whitney's patent was assigned patent number 72X.[14] There is slight controversy over whether the idea of the modern cotton gin and its constituent elements are correctly attributed to Eli Whitney. The popular image of Whitney inventing the cotton gin is attributed to an article on the subject written in the early 1870s and later reprinted in 1910 in The Library of Southern Literature. In this article, the author claimed Catharine Littlefield Greene suggested to Whitney the use of a brush-like component instrumental in separating out the seeds and cotton. To date, Greene's role in the invention of the gin has not been verified independently.[15]

text: Whitney's cotton gin model was capable of cleaning 50 pounds (23 kg) of lint per day. The model consisted of a wooden cylinder surrounded by rows of slender spikes, which pulled the lint through the bars of a comb-like grid.[16] The grids were closely spaced, preventing the seeds from passing through. Loose cotton was brushed off, preventing the mechanism from jamming.

text: Many contemporary inventors attempted to develop a design that would process short staple cotton, and Hodgen Holmes, Robert Watkins, William Longstreet, and John Murray had all been issued patents for improvements to the cotton gin by 1796.[17] However, the evidence indicates Whitney did invent the saw gin, for which he is famous. Although he spent many years in court attempting to enforce his patent against planters who made unauthorized copies, a change in patent law ultimately made his claim legally enforceable – too late for him to make much money from the device in the single year remaining before the patent expired.[18]

text: McCarthy's gin

text: While Whitney's gin facilitated the cleaning of seeds from short-staple cotton, it damaged the fibers of (extra-long staple) cotton (Gossypium barbadense). In 1840 Fones McCarthy received a patent for a "Smooth Cylinder Cotton-gin", a roller gin. McCarthy's gin was marketed for use with both short-staple and extra-long staple cotton, but was particularly useful for processing long-staple cotton. After McCarthy's patent expired in 1861, McCarthy type gins were manufactured in Britain and sold around the world.[19] McCarthy's gin was adopted for cleaning the Sea Island variety of extra-long staple cotton grown in Florida, Georgia and South Carolina. It cleaned cotton several times faster than the older gins, and, when powered by one horse, produced 150 to 200 pounds of lint a day.[20] The McCarthy gin used a reciprocating knife to detach seed from the lint. Vibration caused by the reciprocating motion limited the speed at which the gin could operate. In the middle of the 20th Century gins using a rotating blade replaced ones using a reciprocating blade. These descendants of the McCarthy gin are the only gins now used for extra-long staple cotton in the United States.[21]

text: Effects in the United States

text: Prior to the introduction of the mechanical cotton gin, cotton had required considerable labor to clean and separate the fibers from the seeds.[22] With Eli Whitney’s gin, cotton became a tremendously profitable business, creating many fortunes in the Antebellum South. Cities such as New Orleans, Louisiana; Mobile, Alabama; Charleston, South Carolina; and Galveston, Texas became major shipping ports, deriving substantial economic benefit from cotton raised throughout the South. Additionally, the greatly expanded supply of cotton created strong demand for textile machinery and improved machine designs that replaced wooden parts with metal. This led to the invention of many machine tools in the early 19th century.[1]

text: The invention of the cotton gin caused massive growth in the production of cotton in the United States, concentrated mostly in the South. Cotton production expanded from 750,000 bales in 1830 to 2.85 million bales in 1850. As a result, the region became even more dependent on plantations and slavery, with plantation agriculture becoming the largest sector of its economy.[23] While it took a single slave about ten hours to separate a single pound of fiber from the seeds, a team of two or three slaves using a cotton gin could produce around fifty pounds of cotton in just one day.[24] The number of slaves rose in concert with the increase in cotton production, increasing from around 700,000 in 1790 to around 3.2 million in 1850.[25] By 1860, black slave labor from the American South was providing two-thirds of the world’s supply of cotton, and up to 80% of the crucial British market.[26] The cotton gin thus “transformed cotton as a crop and the American South into the globe's first agricultural powerhouse".[27]

text: Because of its inadvertent effect on American slavery, and on its ensuring that the South's economy developed in the direction of plantation-based agriculture (while encouraging the growth of the textile industry elsewhere, such as in the North), the invention of the cotton gin is frequently cited as one of the indirect causes of the American Civil War.[4][28][29]

text: Modern cotton gins

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: In modern cotton production, cotton arrives at industrial cotton gins either in trailers, in compressed rectangular "modules" weighing up to 10 metric tons each or in polyethylene wrapped round modules similar to a bale of hay produced during the picking process by the most recent generation of cotton pickers. Cotton arriving at the gin is sucked in via a pipe, approximately 16 inches (41 cm) in diameter, that is swung over the cotton. This pipe is usually manually operated, but is increasingly automated in modern cotton plants. The need for trailers to haul the product to the gin has been drastically reduced since the introduction of modules. If the cotton is shipped in modules, the module feeder breaks the modules apart using spiked rollers and extracts the largest pieces of foreign material from the cotton. The module feeder's loose cotton is then sucked into the same starting point as the trailer cotton.

text: The cotton then enters a dryer, which removes excess moisture.The cylinder cleaner uses six or seven rotating, spiked cylinders to break up large clumps of cotton. Finer foreign material, such as soil and leaves, passes through rods or screens for removal. The stick machine uses centrifugal force to remove larger foreign matter, such as sticks and burrs, while the cotton is held by rapidly rotating saw cylinders.

text: The gin stand uses the teeth of rotating saws to pull the cotton through a series of "ginning ribs", which pull the fibers from the seeds which are too large to pass through the ribs. The cleaned seed is then removed from the gin via an auger conveyor system. The seed is reused for planting or is sent to an oil mill to be further processed into cottonseed oil and cottonseed meal. The lint cleaners again use saws and grid bars, this time to separate immature seeds and any remaining foreign matter from the fibers. The bale press then compresses the cotton into bales for storage and shipping. Modern gins can process up to 15 tonnes (33,000 lb) of cotton per hour.

text: Modern cotton gins create a substantial amount of cotton gin residue (CGR) consisting of sticks, leaves, dirt, immature bolls, and cottonseed. Research is currently under way to investigate the use of this waste in producing ethanol. Due to fluctuations in the chemical composition in processing, there is difficulty in creating a consistent ethanol process, but there is potential to further maximize the utilization of waste in the cotton production.[30][5]


document_title: Skip-Bo

question_text: how many cards in a skip bo deck

question_tokens: how many cards in a skip bo deck

text: Skip-Bo

text: Card and deck styles[edit]

text: The deck consists of 162 cards, twelve each of the numbers 1 through 12 and eighteen "SKIP-BO" wild cards which may be played as any number. Alternatively, the 162 cards could be three regular decks of playing cards, including the jokers, with ace to queen corresponding to 1 to 12 and the kings and jokers corresponding to the SKIP-BO cards. Before 1980, the commercial game consisted of four decks of regular playing cards with eight SKIP-BO cards replacing the standard two jokers in each deck. In addition, the aces, twos and threes in the fourth deck were marked SKIP-BO. The remainder of the fourth deck was discarded.

text: Game play[edit]

text: Two to four people can play at a time as individuals, or, six or more players in teams (no more than three partnerships). The object of the game is to be the first player or team to play out their entire stock pile(s). The player with the middle age goes first. Each player is dealt 30 cards for their pile with only the top card visible, and a hand of five cards, and the remaining cards are placed face down to create a common draw pile. The shared play area allows up to four build piles, which must be started using either a "1" card or a Skip-Bo, and each player also has up to four personal discard piles. Each turn the active player draws until they have five cards in hand, though there are cases of not drawing more cards to equal five cards, instead doing a draw of a certain number of cards. They must play either the next card in sequential order or a wild Skip-Bo card, using either cards in hand, the top card of their stock pile, or the top card of any of their four discard piles. If the player can play all five cards from their hand, they draw five more and continue playing. When no more plays are available, the player discards one card to either an empty discard pile or on top of an existing one and play passes to the next player. When a build pile reaches 12, it is removed from the board and that space becomes empty for another pile to be started; play continues until one player has played their final start card.

text: Scoring[edit]

text: For single rounds, whoever goes out first is the winner.

text: If multiple games are going to be played, either track the number of wins for each player or a point system may be used.

text: For the points scoring, the winning player receives 25 points for winning plus 5 points for each card in his/her opponents' stock piles. The first player to reach 500 points wins.

text: Partnerships[edit]

text: Another option for game play is to pair up players as partners. Game play remains the same except:

text:
Each partnership has two stock piles and two sets of four discard piles (eight discard piles total) regardless of the number of individuals per partnership
The active player can use their partner's stock and discard piles in addition to their own stock and discard piles
The active player's partner(s) must remain silent[1]

text: Mobile version[edit]

text: Skip-Bo was released in the iTunes App Store on September 7, 2013 and later released for Android. The game was developed by Magmic and licensed through Mattel.[citation needed] Various electronic handheld versions of Skip-Bo have been released over the years.[2]

text: Other versions[edit]

text: William Henry Storey designed a card game "Starturn" which was published by Chad Valley in 1935.[citation needed] Two packs, 44 black and 52 red, are used in a game primarily for two players although there were versions for three or four players. Black cards are divided equally between the players, placed face down with only the top card visible, as the Stack. Five red cards are dealt to each player, made up to five on each pass, and the rest placed as the draw Pack. The aim is to make up to four Build piles starting at 1 through to 15, using cards from the player's Stack where possible. Each player must discard one card at the end of each pass (except when all cards in the hand have been used on Build piles) on to one of four discard piles in front of each player, from which cards may be used (strictly, top card first) in forming Build piles. Completed Build piles are shuffled into the Pack as soon as completed. The first player to use up all his/her Stack cards is the winner. Although the cards are of different design, the rules of Skip-bo are almost exactly the same.[citation needed]