document_title: OPEC

question_text: when did nigeria become a member of opec

text: OPEC

text: Membership[edit]

text: Current member countries[edit]

text: As of May 2017, OPEC has 14 member countries: six in the Middle East (Western Asia), six in Africa, and two in South America. According to the US Energy Information Administration, OPEC's combined rate of oil production (including gas condensate) represented 44 percent of the world's total in 2016,[6] and OPEC accounted for 73 percent of the world's "proven" oil reserves, including 48 percent from just the six Middle Eastern members:[7]

text: Approval of a new member country requires agreement by three-quarters of OPEC's existing members, including all five of the founders.[8] In October 2015, Sudan formally submitted an application to join,[9] but it is not yet a member.

text:
Country
Region
Membership Years[2][3]
Population
(2016 est.)[10]
Area
(km2)[11]
Oil Production
(bbl/day, 2016)[A][6]
Proven Reserves
(bbl, 2016)[A][7]

 Algeria
North Africa
1969–
40,606,052
2,381,740
1,348,361
12,200,000,000

 Angola
Southern Africa
2007–
28,813,463
1,246,700
1,769,615
8,423,000,000

 Ecuador
Americas
1973–1992, 2007–
16,385,068
283,560
548,421
8,273,000,000

 Equatorial Guinea
Western Africa
2017–
1,221,490
28,051
227,000
1,100,000,000

 Gabon
Western Africa
1975–1995, 2016–
1,979,786
267,667
210,820
2,000,000,000

 Iran
Middle East
1960[B]–
80,277,428
1,648,000
3,990,956
157,530,000,000

 Iraq
Middle East
1960[B]–
37,202,572
437,072
4,451,516
143,069,000,000

 Kuwait
Middle East
1960[B]–
4,052,584
17,820
2,923,825
101,500,000,000

 Libya
North Africa
1962–
6,293,253
1,759,540
384,686
48,363,000,000

 Nigeria
Western Africa
1971–
185,989,640
923,768
1,999,885
37,070,000,000

 Qatar
Middle East
1961–
2,569,804
11,437
1,522,902
25,244,000,000

 Saudi Arabia
Middle East
1960[B]–
32,275,687
2,149,690
10,460,710
266,578,000,000

 United Arab Emirates
Middle East
1967[C]–
9,269,612
83,600
3,106,077
97,800,000,000

 Venezuela
Americas
1960[B]–
31,568,179
912,050
2,276,967
299,953,000,000

OPEC Total
478,498,000
12,150,695
35,221,740
1,209,103,000,000

World Total
7,588,065,000
510,072,000
80,622,287
1,650,585,000,000

OPEC Percent
6%
2%
44%
73%

tag: table

text:
^ Jump up to: a b One petroleum barrel (bbl) is approximately 42 US gallons, or 159 liters, or 0.159 m3, varying slightly with temperature. To put the production numbers in context, a supertanker typically holds 2,000,000 barrels (320,000 m3),[12] and the world's current production rate would take approximately 56 years to exhaust the world's current proven reserves.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e The five founding members attended the first OPEC conference in September 1960.
Jump up ^ The UAE was founded in December 1971. Its OPEC membership originated with the Emirate of Abu Dhabi.

text: Lapsed members[edit]

text:
Country
Region
Membership Years[2]
Population
(2016 est.)[10]
Area
(km2)[11]
Oil Production
(bbl/day, 2016)[6]
Proven Reserves
(bbl, 2016)[7]

 Indonesia
Southeast Asia
1962–2008, Rejoined 2014-2016
261,115,456
1,904,569
833,667
3,692,500,000

text: For countries that export petroleum at relatively low volume, their limited negotiating power as OPEC members would not necessarily justify the burdens imposed by OPEC production quotas and membership costs. Ecuador withdrew from OPEC in December 1992, because it was unwilling to pay the annual US$2 million membership fee and felt that it needed to produce more oil than it was allowed under its OPEC quota at the time,[13] although it rejoined in October 2007. Similar concerns prompted Gabon to suspend membership in January 1995;[14] it rejoined in July 2016. In May 2008, Indonesia announced that it would leave OPEC when its membership expired at the end of that year, having become a net importer of oil and being unable to meet its production quota.[15] It rejoined the organization in January 2016,[2] but announced another "temporary suspension" of its membership at year-end when OPEC requested a 5 percent production cut.[16]

text: Some commentators consider that the United States was a de facto member of OPEC during its formal occupation of Iraq, due to its leadership of the Coalition Provisional Authority in 2003–2004.[17][18] But this is not borne out by the minutes of OPEC meetings, as no US representative attended in an official capacity.[19][20]

text: Observers[edit]

text: Since the 1980s, representatives from Egypt, Mexico, Norway, Oman, Russia, and other oil-exporting nations have attended many OPEC meetings as observers. This arrangement serves as an informal mechanism for coordinating policies.[21]

text: Leadership and decision-making[edit]

text: The OPEC Conference is the supreme authority of the organization, and consists of delegations normally headed by the oil ministers of member countries. The chief executive of the organization is the OPEC Secretary General. The Conference ordinarily meets at the Vienna headquarters, at least twice a year and in additional extraordinary sessions when necessary. It generally operates on the principles of unanimity and "one member, one vote", with each country paying an equal membership fee into the annual budget.[8] However, since Saudi Arabia is by far the largest and most-profitable oil exporter in the world, with enough capacity to function as the traditional swing producer to balance the global market, it serves as "OPEC's de facto leader".[22]

text: International cartel[edit]

text: At various times, OPEC members have displayed apparent anti-competitive cartel behavior through the organization's agreements about oil production and price levels.[23] In fact, economists often cite OPEC as a textbook example of a cartel that cooperates to reduce market competition, as in this definition from OECD's Glossary of Industrial Organisation Economics and Competition Law:[1]

text: International commodity agreements covering products such as coffee, sugar, tin and more recently oil (OPEC: Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) are examples of international cartels which have publicly entailed agreements between different national governments.

text: OPEC members strongly prefer to describe their organization as a modest force for market stabilization, rather than a powerful anti-competitive cartel. In its defense, the organization was founded as a counterweight against the previous "Seven Sisters" cartel of multinational oil companies, and non-OPEC energy suppliers have maintained enough market share for a substantial degree of worldwide competition.[24] Moreover, because of an economic "prisoner's dilemma" that encourages each member nation individually to discount its price and exceed its production quota,[25] widespread cheating within OPEC often erodes its ability to influence global oil prices through collective action.[26][27]

text: OPEC has not been involved in any disputes related to the competition rules of the World Trade Organization, even though the objectives, actions, and principles of the two organizations diverge considerably.[28] A key US District Court decision held that OPEC consultations are protected as "governmental" acts of state by the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act, and are therefore beyond the legal reach of US competition law governing "commercial" acts.[29][30] Despite popular sentiment against OPEC, legislative proposals to limit the organization's sovereign immunity, such as the NOPEC Act, have so far been unsuccessful.[31]

text: Conflicts[edit]

text: OPEC often has difficulty agreeing on policy decisions because its member countries differ widely in their oil export capacities, production costs, reserves, geological features, population, economic development, budgetary situations, and political circumstances.[32][33] Indeed, over the course of market cycles, oil reserves can themselves become a source of serious conflict, instability and imbalances, in what economists call the "natural resource curse".[34][35] A further complication is that religion-linked conflicts in the Middle East are recurring features of the geopolitical landscape for this oil-rich region.[36][37] Internationally important conflicts in OPEC's history have included the Six-Day War (1967), Yom Kippur War (1973), a hostage siege directed by Palestinian militants (1975), the Iranian Revolution (1979), Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988), Iraqi occupation of Kuwait (1990–1991), September 11 attacks by mostly Saudi hijackers (2001), American occupation of Iraq (2003–2011), Conflict in the Niger Delta (2004–present), Arab Spring (2010–2012), Libyan Crisis (2011–present), and international Embargo against Iran (2012–2016). Although events such as these can temporarily disrupt oil supplies and elevate prices, the frequent disputes and instabilities tend to limit OPEC's long-term cohesion and effectiveness.[38]

text: Market information[edit]

text: As one area in which OPEC members have been able to cooperate productively over the decades, the organization has significantly improved the quality and quantity of information available about the international oil market. This is especially helpful for a natural-resource industry whose smooth functioning requires months and years of careful planning.

text: Publications and research[edit]

text: In April 2001, OPEC collaborated with five other international organizations (APEC, Eurostat, IEA, OLADE (es), UNSD) to improve the availability and reliability of oil data. They launched the Joint Oil Data Exercise, which in 2005 was joined by IEF and renamed the Joint Organisations Data Initiative (JODI), covering more than 90 percent of the global oil market. GECF joined as an eighth partner in 2014, enabling JODI also to cover nearly 90 percent of the global market for natural gas.[39]

text: Since 2007, OPEC has published the "World Oil Outlook" (WOO) annually, in which it presents a comprehensive analysis of the global oil industry including medium- and long-term projections for supply and demand.[40] OPEC also produces an "Annual Statistical Bulletin" (ASB),[41] and publishes more-frequent updates in its "Monthly Oil Market Report" (MOMR)[42] and "OPEC Bulletin".[43]

text: Crude oil benchmarks[edit]

text: A "crude oil benchmark" is a standardized petroleum product that serves as a convenient reference price for buyers and sellers of crude oil, including standardized contracts in major futures markets since 1983. Benchmarks are used because oil prices differ (usually by a few dollars per barrel) based on variety, grade, delivery date and location, and other legal requirements.[44][45]

text: The OPEC Reference Basket of Crudes has been an important benchmark for oil prices since 2000. It is calculated as a weighted average of prices for petroleum blends from the OPEC member countries: Saharan Blend (Algeria), Girassol (Angola), Oriente (Ecuador), Rabi Light (Gabon), Iran Heavy (Islamic Republic of Iran), Basra Light (Iraq), Kuwait Export (Kuwait), Es Sider (Libya), Bonny Light (Nigeria), Qatar Marine (Qatar), Arab Light (Saudi Arabia), Murban (UAE), and Merey (Venezuela).[46]

text: North Sea Brent Crude Oil is the leading benchmark for Atlantic basin crude oils, and is used to price approximately two-thirds of the world's traded crude oil. Other well-known benchmarks are West Texas Intermediate (WTI), Dubai Crude, Oman Crude, and Urals oil.[47]

text: Spare capacity[edit]

text: The US Energy Information Administration, the statistical arm of the US Department of Energy, defines spare capacity for crude oil market management "as the volume of production that can be brought on within 30 days and sustained for at least 90 days... OPEC spare capacity provides an indicator of the world oil market's ability to respond to potential crises that reduce oil supplies."[48]

text: In November 2014, the International Energy Agency (IEA) estimated that OPEC's "effective" spare capacity, adjusted for ongoing disruptions in countries like Libya and Nigeria, was 3.5 million barrels per day (560,000 m3/d) and that this number would increase to a peak in 2017 of 4.6 million barrels per day (730,000 m3/d).[49] By November 2015, the IEA changed its assessment "with OPEC's spare production buffer stretched thin, as Saudi Arabia – which holds the lion's share of excess capacity – and its [Persian] Gulf neighbours pump at near-record rates."[50]

text: History and impact[edit]

text: Post-WWII situation[edit]

text: In 1949, Venezuela and Iran took the earliest steps in the direction of OPEC, by inviting Iraq, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia to improve communication among petroleum-exporting nations as the world recovered from World War II.[51] At the time, some of the world's largest oil fields were just entering production in the Middle East. The United States had established the Interstate Oil Compact Commission to join the Texas Railroad Commission in limiting overproduction. The US was simultaneously the world's largest producer and consumer of oil; and the world market was dominated by a group of multinational companies known as the "Seven Sisters", five of which were headquartered in the US following the breakup of John D. Rockefeller's original Standard Oil monopoly. Oil-exporting countries were eventually motivated to form OPEC as a counterweight to this concentration of political and economic power.[52]

text: 1959–1960 anger from exporting countries[edit]

text: In February 1959, as new supplies were becoming available, the multinational oil companies (MOCs) unilaterally reduced their posted prices for Venezuelan and Middle Eastern crude oil by 10 percent. Weeks later, the Arab League's first Arab Petroleum Congress convened in Cairo, Egypt, where the influential journalist Wanda Jablonski introduced Saudi Arabia's Abdullah Tariki to Venezuela's observer Juan Pablo Pérez Alfonzo, representing the two then-largest oil-producing nations outside the United States and the Soviet Union. Both oil ministers were angered by the price cuts, and the two led their fellow delegates to establish the Maadi Pact or Gentlemen's Agreement, calling for an "Oil Consultation Commission" of exporting countries, to which MOCs should present price-change plans. Jablonski reported a marked hostility toward the West and a growing outcry against "absentee landlordism" of the MOCs, which at the time controlled all oil operations within the exporting countries and wielded enormous political influence. In August 1960, ignoring the warnings, and with the US favoring Canadian and Mexican oil for strategic reasons, the MOCs again unilaterally announced significant cuts in their posted prices for Middle Eastern crude oil.[51][52][53][54]

text: 1960–1975 founding and expansion[edit]

text: The following month, during 10–14 September 1960, the Baghdad Conference was held at the initiative of Tariki, Pérez Alfonzo, and Iraqi prime minister Abd al-Karim Qasim, whose country had skipped the 1959 congress.[55] Government representatives from Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela met in Baghdad to discuss ways to increase the price of crude oil produced by their countries, and ways to respond to unilateral actions by the MOCs. Despite strong US opposition: "Together with Arab and non-Arab producers, Saudi Arabia formed the Organization of Petroleum Export Countries (OPEC) to secure the best price available from the major oil corporations."[56] The Middle Eastern members originally called for OPEC headquarters to be in Baghdad or Beirut, but Venezuela argued for a neutral location, and so the organization chose Geneva, Switzerland. On 1 September 1965, OPEC moved to Vienna, Austria, after Switzerland declined to extend diplomatic privileges.[57]

text: During 1961–1975, the five founding nations were joined by Qatar (1961), Indonesia (1962–2008, rejoined 2014-2016), Libya (1962), United Arab Emirates (originally just the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, 1967), Algeria (1969), Nigeria (1971), Ecuador (1973–1992, rejoined 2007), and Gabon (1975–1994, rejoined 2016).[2] By the early 1970s, OPEC's membership accounted for more than half of worldwide oil production.[58] Indicating that OPEC is not averse to further expansion, Mohammed Barkindo, OPEC's Acting Secretary General in 2006, urged his African neighbors Angola and Sudan to join,[59] and Angola did in 2007, followed by Equatorial Guinea in 2017.[3] Since the 1980s, representatives from Egypt, Mexico, Norway, Oman, Russia, and other oil-exporting nations have attended many OPEC meetings as observers, as an informal mechanism for coordinating policies.[21]

text: 1973–1974 oil embargo[edit]

text: In October 1973, the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC, consisting of the Arab majority of OPEC plus Egypt and Syria) declared significant production cuts and an oil embargo against the United States and other industrialized nations that supported Israel in the Yom Kippur War.[60][61] A previous embargo attempt was largely ineffective in response to the Six-Day War in 1967.[62] However, in 1973, the result was a sharp rise in oil prices and OPEC revenues, from US$3/bbl to US$12/bbl, and an emergency period of energy rationing, intensified by panic reactions, a declining trend in US oil production, currency devaluations,[61] and a lengthy UK coal-miners dispute. For a time, the UK imposed an emergency three-day workweek.[63] Seven European nations banned non-essential Sunday driving.[64] US gas stations limited the amount of gasoline that could be dispensed, closed on Sundays, and restricted the days when gasoline could be purchased, based on license plate numbers.[65][66] Even after the embargo ended in March 1974 following intense diplomatic activity, prices continued to rise. The world experienced a global economic recession, with unemployment and inflation surging simultaneously, steep declines in stock and bond prices, major shifts in trade balances and petrodollar flows, and a dramatic end to the post-WWII economic boom.[67][68]

text: The 1973–1974 oil embargo had lasting effects on the United States and other industrialized nations, which established the International Energy Agency in response, as well as national emergency stockpiles designed to withstand months of future supply disruptions. Oil conservation efforts included lower speed limits on highways, smaller and more energy-efficient cars and appliances, year-round daylight saving time, reduced usage of heating and air-conditioning, better insulation, increased support of mass transit, and greater emphasis on coal, natural gas, ethanol, nuclear and other alternative energy sources. These long-term efforts became effective enough that US oil consumption would rise only 11 percent during 1980–2014, while real GDP rose 150 percent. But in the 1970s, OPEC nations demonstrated convincingly that their oil could be used as both a political and economic weapon against other nations, at least in the short term.[61][69][70][71][72]

text: 1975–1980 Special Fund, now OFID[edit]

text: OPEC's international aid activities date from well before the 1973–1974 oil price surge. For example, the Kuwait Fund for Arab Economic Development has operated since 1961.[73]

text: In the years after 1973, as an example of so-called "checkbook diplomacy", certain Arab nations have been among the world's largest providers of foreign aid,[74][75] and OPEC added to its goals the selling of oil for the socio-economic growth of poorer nations. The OPEC Special Fund was conceived in Algiers, Algeria, in March 1975, and was formally established the following January. "A Solemn Declaration 'reaffirmed the natural solidarity which unites OPEC countries with other developing countries in their struggle to overcome underdevelopment,' and called for measures to strengthen cooperation between these countries... [The OPEC Special Fund's] resources are additional to those already made available by OPEC states through a number of bilateral and multilateral channels."[76] The Fund became an official international development agency in May 1980 and was renamed the OPEC Fund for International Development (OFID),[77] with Permanent Observer status at the United Nations.[78]

text: 1975 hostage siege[edit]

text: On 21 December 1975, Saudi Arabia's Ahmed Zaki Yamani, Iran's Jamshid Amuzegar, and the other OPEC oil ministers were taken hostage at their semi-annual conference in Vienna, Austria. The attack, which killed three non-ministers, was orchestrated by a six-person team led by Venezuelan terrorist "Carlos the Jackal", and which included Gabriele Kröcher-Tiedemann and Hans-Joachim Klein. The self-named "Arm of the Arab Revolution" group declared its goal to be the liberation of Palestine. Carlos planned to take over the conference by force and hold for ransom all eleven attending oil ministers, except for Yamani and Amuzegar who were to be executed.[79]

text: Carlos arranged bus and plane travel for his team and 42 of the original 63 hostages, with stops in Algiers and Tripoli, planning to fly eventually to Baghdad, where Yamani and Amuzegar were to be killed. All 30 non-Arab hostages were released in Algiers, excluding Amuzegar. Additional hostages were released at another stop in Tripoli before returning to Algiers. With only 10 hostages remaining, Carlos held a phone conversation with Algerian President Houari Boumédienne, who informed Carlos that the oil ministers' deaths would result in an attack on the plane. Boumédienne must also have offered Carlos asylum at this time and possibly financial compensation for failing to complete his assignment. Carlos expressed his regret at not being able to murder Yamani and Amuzegar, then he and his comrades left the plane. All the hostages and terrorists walked away from the situation, two days after it began.[79]

text: Some time after the attack, Carlos's accomplices revealed that the operation was commanded by Wadie Haddad, a founder of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine. They also claimed that the idea and funding came from an Arab president, widely thought to be Muammar al-Gaddafi of Libya, itself an OPEC member. Fellow militants Bassam Abu Sharif and Klein claimed that Carlos received and kept a ransom between US$20 million and US$50 million from "an Arab president". Carlos claimed that Saudi Arabia paid ransom on behalf of Iran, but that the money was "diverted en route and lost by the Revolution".[79][80] He was finally captured in 1994 and is serving life sentences for at least 16 other murders.[81]

text: 1979–1980 oil crisis and 1980s oil glut[edit]

text: In response to a wave of oil nationalizations and the high prices of the 1970s, industrial nations took steps to reduce their dependence on OPEC oil, especially after prices reached new peaks approaching US$40/bbl in 1979–1980[84][85] when the Iranian Revolution and Iran–Iraq War disrupted regional stability and oil supplies. Electric utilities worldwide switched from oil to coal, natural gas, or nuclear power;[86] national governments initiated multibillion-dollar research programs to develop alternatives to oil;[87][88] and commercial exploration developed major non-OPEC oilfields in Siberia, Alaska, the North Sea, and the Gulf of Mexico.[89] By 1986, daily worldwide demand for oil dropped by 5 million barrels, non-OPEC production rose by an even-larger amount,[90] and OPEC's market share sank from approximately 50 percent in 1979 to less than 30 percent in 1985.[58] Illustrating the volatile multi-year timeframes of typical market cycles for natural resources, the result was a six-year decline in the price of oil, which culminated by plunging more than half in 1986 alone.[91] As one oil analyst summarized succinctly: "When the price of something as essential as oil spikes, humanity does two things: finds more of it and finds ways to use less of it."[58]

text: To combat falling revenue from oil sales, in 1982 Saudi Arabia pressed OPEC for audited national production quotas in an attempt to limit output and boost prices. When other OPEC nations failed to comply, Saudi Arabia first slashed its own production from 10 million barrels daily in 1979–1981 to just one-third of that level in 1985. When even this proved ineffective, Saudi Arabia reversed course and flooded the market with cheap oil, causing prices to fall below US$10/bbl and higher-cost producers to become unprofitable.[90] Faced with increasing economic hardship (which ultimately contributed to the collapse of the Soviet bloc in 1989),[92][93] the "free-riding" oil exporters that had previously failed to comply with OPEC agreements finally began to limit production to shore up prices, based on painstakingly negotiated national quotas that sought to balance oil-related and economic criteria since 1986.[90][94] (Within their sovereign-controlled territories, the national governments of OPEC members are able to impose production limits on both government-owned and private oil companies.)[95] Generally when OPEC production targets are reduced, oil prices increase.[48]

text: 1990–2003 ample supply and modest disruptions[edit]

text: Leading up to his August 1990 Invasion of Kuwait, Iraqi President Saddam Hussein was pushing OPEC to end overproduction and to send oil prices higher, in order to help OPEC members financially and to accelerate rebuilding from the 1980–1988 Iran–Iraq War.[98] But these two Iraqi wars against fellow OPEC founders marked a low point in the cohesion of the organization, and oil prices subsided quickly after the short-term supply disruptions. The September 2001 Al Qaeda attacks on the US and the March 2003 US invasion of Iraq had even milder short-term impacts on oil prices, as Saudi Arabia and other exporters again cooperated to keep the world adequately supplied.[97]

text: In the 1990s, OPEC lost its two newest members, who had joined in the mid-1970s. Ecuador withdrew in December 1992, because it was unwilling to pay the annual US$2 million membership fee and felt that it needed to produce more oil than it was allowed under the OPEC quota,[13] although it rejoined in October 2007. Similar concerns prompted Gabon to suspend membership in January 1995;[14] it rejoined in July 2016.[2] Iraq has remained a member of OPEC since the organization's founding, but Iraqi production was not a part of OPEC quota agreements from 1998 to 2016, due to the country's daunting political difficulties.[41][99]

text: Lower demand triggered by the 1997–1998 Asian financial crisis saw the price of oil fall back to 1986 levels. After oil slumped to around US$10/bbl, joint diplomacy achieved a gradual slowing of oil production by OPEC, Mexico and Norway.[100]

text: In June 2003, the International Energy Agency (IEA) and OPEC held their first joint workshop on energy issues. They have continued to meet regularly since then, "to collectively better understand trends, analysis and viewpoints and advance market transparency and predictability."[101]

text: 2003–2011 volatility[edit]

text: Widespread insurgency and sabotage occurred during the 2003–2008 height of the American occupation of Iraq, coinciding with rapidly increasing oil demand from China and commodity-hungry investors, recurring violence against the Nigerian oil industry, and dwindling spare capacity as a cushion against potential shortages. This combination of forces prompted a sharp rise in oil prices to levels far higher than those previously targeted by OPEC.[102][103][104] Price volatility reached an extreme in 2008, as WTI crude oil surged to a record US$147/bbl in July and then plunged back to US$32/bbl in December, during the worst global recession since World War II.[105] OPEC's annual oil export revenue also set a new record in 2008, estimated around US$1 trillion, and reached similar annual rates in 2011–2014 (along with extensive petrodollar recycling activity) before plunging again.[83] By the time of the 2011 Libyan Civil War and Arab Spring, OPEC started issuing explicit statements to counter "excessive speculation" in oil futures markets, blaming financial speculators for increasing volatility beyond market fundamentals.[106]

text: In May 2008, Indonesia announced that it would leave OPEC when its membership expired at the end of that year, having become a net importer of oil and being unable to meet its production quota.[15] A statement released by OPEC on 10 September 2008 confirmed Indonesia's withdrawal, noting that OPEC "regretfully accepted the wish of Indonesia to suspend its full membership in the organization, and recorded its hope that the country would be in a position to rejoin the organization in the not-too-distant future."[107]

text: 2008 production dispute[edit]

text: The differing economic needs of OPEC member states often affect the internal debates behind OPEC production quotas. Poorer members have pushed for production cuts from fellow members, to increase the price of oil and thus their own revenues.[108] These proposals conflict with Saudi Arabia's stated long-term strategy of being a partner with the world's economic powers to ensure a steady flow of oil that would support economic expansion.[109] Part of the basis for this policy is the Saudi concern that overly expensive oil or unreliable supply will drive industrial nations to conserve energy and develop alternative fuels, curtailing the worldwide demand for oil and eventually leaving unneeded barrels in the ground.[110] To this point, Saudi Oil Minister Yamani famously remarked in 1973: "The Stone Age didn't end because we ran out of stones."[111]

text: On 10 September 2008, with oil prices still near US$100/bbl, a production dispute occurred when the Saudis reportedly walked out of a negotiating session where rival members voted to reduce OPEC output. Although Saudi delegates officially endorsed the new quotas, they stated anonymously that they would not observe them. The New York Times quoted one such delegate as saying: "Saudi Arabia will meet the market's demand. We will see what the market requires and we will not leave a customer without oil. The policy has not changed."[33] Over the next few months, oil prices plummeted into the $30s, and did not return to $100 until the Libyan Civil War in 2011.[112]

text: 2014–2017 oil glut[edit]

text: During 2014–2015, OPEC members consistently exceeded their production ceiling, and China experienced a slowdown in economic growth. At the same time, US oil production nearly doubled from 2008 levels and approached the world-leading "swing producer" volumes of Saudi Arabia and Russia, due to the substantial long-term improvement and spread of shale "fracking" technology in response to the years of record oil prices. These developments led in turn to a plunge in US oil import requirements (moving closer to energy independence), a record volume of worldwide oil inventories, and a collapse in oil prices that continued into early 2016.[112][114][115]

text: In spite of global oversupply, on 27 November 2014 in Vienna, Saudi Oil Minister Ali Al-Naimi blocked appeals from poorer OPEC members for production cuts to support prices. Naimi argued that the oil market should be left to rebalance itself competitively at lower price levels, strategically rebuilding OPEC's long-term market share by ending the profitability of high-cost US shale oil production.[116] As he explained in an interview:[32]

text: Is it reasonable for a highly efficient producer to reduce output, while the producer of poor efficiency continues to produce? That is crooked logic. If I reduce, what happens to my market share? The price will go up and the Russians, the Brazilians, US shale oil producers will take my share... We want to tell the world that high-efficiency producing countries are the ones that deserve market share. That is the operative principle in all capitalist countries... One thing is for sure: Current prices [roughly US$60/bbl] do not support all producers.

text: A year later, when OPEC met in Vienna on 4 December 2015, the organization had exceeded its production ceiling for 18 consecutive months, US oil production had declined only slightly from its peak, world markets appeared to be oversupplied by at least 2 million barrels per day despite war-torn Libya pumping 1 million barrels below capacity, oil producers were making major adjustments to withstand prices as low as the $40s, Indonesia was rejoining the export organization, Iraqi production had surged after years of disorder, Iranian output was poised to rebound with the lifting of international sanctions, hundreds of world leaders at the Paris Climate Agreement were committing to limit carbon emissions from fossil fuels, and solar technologies were becoming steadily more competitive and prevalent. In light of all these market pressures, OPEC decided to set aside its ineffective production ceiling until the next ministerial conference in June 2016.[22][115][117][118][119][120] By 20 January 2016, the OPEC Reference Basket was down to US$22.48/bbl – less than one-fourth of its high from June 2014 ($110.48), less than one-sixth of its record from July 2008 ($140.73), and back below the April 2003 starting point ($23.27) of its historic run-up.[112]

text: As 2016 continued, the oil glut was partially trimmed with significant production offline in the US, Canada, Libya, Nigeria and China, and the basket price gradually rose back into the $40s. OPEC regained a modest percentage of market share, saw the cancellation of many competing drilling projects, maintained the status quo at its June conference, and endorsed "prices at levels that are suitable for both producers and consumers", although many producers were still experiencing serious economic difficulties.[121][122][123][124]

text: Then, as OPEC members grew weary of a multi-year supply contest with diminishing returns and shrinking financial reserves, the organization finally attempted its first production cut since 2008. Despite many political obstacles, a September 2016 decision to trim approximately 1 million barrels per day was codified by a new quota agreement at the November 2016 OPEC conference. The agreement (which exempted disruption-ridden members Libya and Nigeria) covered the first half of 2017 – alongside promised reductions from Russia and ten other non-members, offset by expected increases in the US shale sector, Libya, Nigeria, spare capacity, and surging late-2016 OPEC production before the cuts took effect. Indonesia announced another "temporary suspension" of its OPEC membership, rather than accepting the organization's requested 5 percent production cut. Prices fluctuated around US$50/bbl, and OPEC in May 2017 decided to extend the new quotas through March 2018, with the world waiting to see if and how the oil inventory glut might be fully siphoned-off by then.[16][125][126][127][128][129][3] Longtime oil analyst Daniel Yergin "described the relationship between OPEC and shale as 'mutual coexistence', with both sides learning to live with prices that are lower than they would like."[130]


document_title: The Crown (TV series)

question_text: number of episodes in the crown season 1

root

text: The Crown (TV series)

text: Premise[edit]

text: The Crown traces the life of Queen Elizabeth II from her wedding in 1947 to the present day.[5] The first season, which sees Claire Foy portraying the Queen in the early part of her reign, depicts events up to 1955, with Winston Churchill resigning as Prime Minister and the Queen's sister Princess Margaret deciding not to marry Peter Townsend.[6] The second season covers from the Suez Crisis in 1956 through the retirement of the Queen's third Prime Minister, Harold Macmillan, in 1963 following the Profumo affair political scandal and the birth of Prince Edward in 1964.[7][8][9]

tag: p

text: The third season will see Olivia Colman portraying the Queen,[10] and will cover the two terms of Harold Wilson as the Queen's Prime Minister, starting in 1964 with his first, until 1976 at the end of his second.[11] It will also include Princess Margaret's five-year affair with baronet and gardening expert Roddy Llewellyn,[7] and see the introduction of Camilla Parker Bowles and Diana Spencer. Spencer will be more of a focus in the fourth season, which also sees Margaret Thatcher's premiership.[11]

text: Cast[edit]

text: Main[edit]

text:
Claire Foy as Princess Elizabeth and later Queen Elizabeth II.[5]
Matt Smith as Philip, Duke of Edinburgh and later Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, Elizabeth's husband[5]
Vanessa Kirby as Princess Margaret, Elizabeth's younger sister.[5]
Eileen Atkins as Queen Mary, Elizabeth's grandmother[12] (season 1)
Jeremy Northam as Anthony Eden, Churchill's Foreign Secretary, who succeeds him as Prime Minister[13]
Victoria Hamilton as Queen Elizabeth, George VI's wife and Elizabeth's mother, known as Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother during her daughter's reign[5]
Ben Miles as Group Captain Peter Townsend, George VI's equerry, who hopes to marry Princess Margaret[14]
Greg Wise as Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma, Philip's ambitious uncle and great-grandson of Queen Victoria
Jared Harris as King George VI, Elizabeth's father, known to his family as Bertie[5]
John Lithgow as Winston Churchill, the Queen's first Prime Minister[5]
Alex Jennings as Edward, Duke of Windsor, formerly King Edward VIII, who had abdicated in favour of his younger brother Bertie to marry Wallis Simpson; known to his family as David[15]
Lia Williams as Wallis, Duchess of Windsor, Edward's American wife[15]
Anton Lesser as Harold Macmillan, who follows Anthony Eden as Prime Minister[16] (season 2)
Matthew Goode as Antony Armstrong-Jones, known as Tony, a society photographer who marries Princess Margaret[7] (season 2)

tag: ul

text: Featured[edit]

text: The below actors are credited in the opening titles of single episodes in which they play a significant role.

text:
Stephen Dillane as Graham Sutherland, a noted artist who paints a portrait of the aging Churchill (season 1)
Gemma Whelan as Patricia Campbell, a secretary whom Altrincham works with and types up his editorial (season 2)
John Heffernan as Lord Altrincham, a writer who penned a scathing criticism of the Queen (season 2)
Paul Sparks as Billy Graham, a prominent American minister with whom Elizabeth consults (season 2)[15]
Michael C. Hall as John F. Kennedy, the 35th President of the United States who visits the Queen (season 2)
Jodi Balfour as Jacqueline Kennedy, the First Lady of the United States (season 2)
Burghart Klaussner as Dr. Kurt Hahn, the founder of Gordonstoun, where Philip and Charles went to school (season 2)
Finn Elliot as school-aged Prince Philip (season 2)[15]
Julian Baring as school-aged Prince Charles (season 2)[15]

text: Recurring[edit]

text:
Billy Jenkins as young Prince Charles
Clive Francis as Lord Salisbury
Pip Torrens as Tommy Lascelles
Harry Hadden-Paton as Martin Charteris
Daniel Ings as Mike Parker
Lizzy McInnerny as Margaret "Bobo" MacDonald
Michael Bertenshaw as the Master of the Household
Patrick Ryecart as the Duke of Norfolk
Will Keen as Michael Adeane
James Laurenson as Doctor Weir
Mark Tandy as Cecil Beaton
Michael Culkin as Rab Butler
George Asprey as Walter Monckton
James Hillier as Equerry
Anna Madeley as Clarissa Eden
Nick Hendrix (season 1) and Tom Durant-Pritchard (season 2) as Billy Wallace
Josh Taylor as Johnny Dalkeith
David Shields (season 1) and Pip Carter (season 2) as Colin Tennant[17]
Julius D'Silva as Baron Nahum
Jo Herbert as Mary Charteris
Richard Clifford as Norman Hartnell
Joseph Kloska as Porchey
Amir Boutrous as Gamal Abdel Nasser
Abigail Parmenter as Judy Montagu

text: Season one[edit]

text:
Harriet Walter as Clementine Churchill[13]
Nicholas Rowe as Jock Colville[12]
Simon Chandler as Clement Attlee
Kate Phillips as Venetia Scott
Ronald Pickup as the Archbishop of Canterbury
Nigel Cooke as Harry Crookshank
Patrick Drury as the Lord Chamberlain
John Woodvine as the Archbishop of York
Rosalind Knight as Princess Andrew of Greece and Denmark
Andy Sanderson as Prince Henry[12]
Verity Russell as young Princess Elizabeth
Beau Gadsdon as young Princess Margaret
Jo Stone-Fewings as Collins
Tony Guilfoyle as the Bishop of Durham
Paul Thornley as Bill Mattheson

text: Season two[edit]

text:
Chloe Pirrie as Eileen Parker
Nicholas Burns as Anthony Nutting
Lucy Russell as Lady Mountbatten
Richard Elfyn as Selwyn Lloyd
Adrian Lukis as Vice-Admiral Sir Conolly Abel Smith
Sophie Leigh Stone as Princess Alice of Battenberg
Guy Williams as Prince Andrew of Greece and Denmark
Leonie Benesch as Princess Cecilie of Greece and Denmark
Simon Paisley Day as Meryn Lewis
Sylvestra Le Touzel as Dorothy Macmillan
Catherine Bailey as Elizabeth Cavendish
Paul Clayton as Bob Boothby
Yolanda Kettle as Camilla Fry
Ed Cooper Clarke as Jeremy Fry
Ryan Sampson as Dudley Moore
Tim Steed as John Profumo
Lyla Barrett-Rye as young Princess Anne
Robert Irons as Freddie Bishop
Patrick Warner as Peter Cook
Oliver Maltman as Jim Orr
David Annen as Alec Douglas-Home

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Season 1 (2016)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original release date

1
1
"Wolferton Splash"
Stephen Daldry
Peter Morgan
November 4, 2016 (2016-11-04)

In November 1947, Prince Philip of Greece and Denmark renounces his royal titles in order to marry Princess Elizabeth, King George VI's elder daughter and heiress presumptive. The newlyweds move to Malta, where Philip returns to the Royal Navy and Elizabeth gives birth to her son Charles and her daughter Anne. In 1951, the couple returns to London when King George undergoes surgery for lung cancer. After being told that he has months to live, the King counsels Philip on how to further assist Elizabeth when she becomes the new sovereign. Meanwhile, former Conservative Prime Minister Winston Churchill and his wife Clementine return to Downing Street following six years of a Labour Party government.

2
2
"Hyde Park Corner"
Stephen Daldry
Peter Morgan
November 4, 2016 (2016-11-04)

In 1952, with King George still in ill health, Elizabeth and Philip tour the Commonwealth in his place. While the couple is on safari in Kenya, the King is found dead in his bed. His wife Queen Elizabeth, younger daughter Margaret, and widowed mother Queen Mary mourn as news of George's sudden passing spreads via radio to the rest of the world. Philip breaks the news to Elizabeth, who returns to the United Kingdom as Queen and reunites with her family in their grief.

3
3
"Windsor"
Philip Martin
Peter Morgan
November 4, 2016 (2016-11-04)

In February 1952, as the Royal Family prepares for King George's funeral, Elizabeth's uncle Edward, Duke of Windsor, who has been living in Paris with Wallis Simpson since his abdication in 1936, arrives in the United Kingdom, causing the Queen Mother and Queen Mary to reopen old wounds surrounding his choice of wife. Elizabeth meets with Churchill to discuss Philip's requests that his family keep the name Mountbatten and live at Clarence House rather than move into Buckingham Palace. The Prime Minister displays a reluctance to bend to either request, but Elizabeth later drops them after receiving counsel from Edward. Churchill later informs Elizabeth the date for her coronation has been set for the following year, which she recognizes as an attempt to secure his position against his own party, who are eager for Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden to replace him.

4
4
"Act of God"
Julian Jarrold
Peter Morgan
November 4, 2016 (2016-11-04)

In December 1952, as a great smog affects London and kills thousands, Elizabeth's advisors pressure her to ask Churchill, who referred to the event as an "act of God," to step down. While initially reluctant to do so, the Queen summons him for a private audience after he comes under fire from the Opposition and refuses to discuss the smog at a Cabinet meeting. Before the meeting, Churchill's eyes are finally opened to the smog's effects when his beloved secretary, Venetia Scott, is killed by a double-decker bus. He makes an impassioned speech outside the hospital where Venetia's body is being held, promising a longer-term approach to preventing future smog. His speech prompts Elizabeth to change her mind when the smog clears moments before their audience takes place. Philip begins flying lessons from Royal Air Force Group Captain Peter Townsend, who is having a clandestine relationship with Margaret.

5
5
"Smoke and Mirrors"
Philip Martin
Peter Morgan
November 4, 2016 (2016-11-04)

Following Queen Mary's death in March 1953, the visiting Duke of Windsor clashes with Elizabeth's Private Secretary Tommy Lascelles after being asked not to attend Elizabeth's coronation and learning that Wallis will not be receiving an invitation. Elizabeth places Philip in charge of coronation preparations only to regret her decision when he upsets her with a request that he forego kneeling to pay homage when she is being crowned and antagonizes the committee with his insistence that the event should be televised. On June 2, Elizabeth is crowned at Westminster Abbey while Edward and Wallis view the coronation from their villa in Paris and spitefully mock the new Queen.

6
6
"Gelignite"
Julian Jarrold
Peter Morgan
November 4, 2016 (2016-11-04)

When Margaret and Townsend ask for Elizabeth's permission to marry, the Queen promises to give her support while Lascelles and the Queen Mother advise against it. As a local newspaper publishes an article about the relationship, Elizabeth changes her mind after learning that the Royal Marriages Act of 1772 prohibits Margaret from marrying without permission until she turns twenty-five. Elizabeth and Philip take Townsend, who is set to be posted to Brussels, with them on a trip to Northern Ireland, but his popularity causes Lascelles to recommend that he be posted to Brussels sooner than promised, causing a lasting rift between the two sisters.

7
7
"Scientia Potentia Est"
Benjamin Caron
Peter Morgan
November 4, 2016 (2016-11-04)

In August 1953, Churchill urges an international summit with American President Dwight D. Eisenhower in response to the Soviet Union testing their first thermonuclear weapon. At the last minute, Churchill falls victim to a stroke which inhibits his ability to govern, prompting conservative Lord Salisbury to try and keep his ailment secret. Meanwhile, Elizabeth contemplates whether to replace the retiring Lascelles with senior deputy Michael Adeane or with her preferred choice Martin Charteris. She later engages a private tutor to improve her knowledge of science and related subjects, which helps her gain enough courage to dress down Churchill and Salisbury for lying to her.

8
8
"Pride & Joy"
Philip Martin
Peter Morgan
November 4, 2016 (2016-11-04)

With Elizabeth and Philip on a stressful tour of the Commonwealth, Margaret takes on more royal engagements while the Queen Mother goes to Scotland to reflect on her new position and buys a castle. Philip, meanwhile, grows frustrated over Elizabeth using him as a prop and the couple have a heated argument that is recorded by photographers. While Elizabeth convinces the photographers to hand over the recording, she and Phillip remain unable to resolve the argument and realize they must pretend to have a stable relationship for the public's sake. Churchill visits Margaret and, after explaining that the general public does not want someone with passion or personality, tells her she will no longer be taking on royal engagements.

9
9
"Assassins"
Benjamin Caron
Peter Morgan
November 4, 2016 (2016-11-04)

Philip begins spending more time out of the house while Elizabeth begins spending more time with her horse racing manager and friend Lord "Porchey" Porchester. The tension escalates after Elizabeth has a direct line put in for Porchey to call Buckingham Palace and culminates in a heated confrontation. Elizabeth later tells Philip that, to the disappointment of many, he is the only man she has ever loved. He, in turn, silently mouths an apology after she makes a moving speech at Churchill's eightieth birthday dinner. Meanwhile, Graham Sutherland paints a portrait of Churchill as a birthday gift from Parliament. The Prime Minister, however, hates its accuracy and, after a heated confrontation with Sutherland, admits his pain at what aging has done to him. The portrait is later destroyed on secret instructions from Clementine.

10
10
"Gloriana"
Philip Martin
Peter Morgan
November 4, 2016 (2016-11-04)

In 1956, Elizabeth finds herself torn when the public approves and officials from both Parliament and the Church of England disapprove of Margaret's relationship with Townsend. As Elizabeth tries to persuade Margaret against the relationship, the Queen Mother starts complaining about Philip's domineering attitude towards Charles. At the suggestion of both Lascelles and the Queen Mother, Elizabeth asks Philip to open the Summer Olympics in Melbourne so he can adjust to life in her shadow. A five-month royal tour onboard the newly commissioned HMY Britannia is later added to Philip's itinerary, to which Elizabeth responds by suggesting that he be thankful everyone is helping him find a public role. Meanwhile, Eden replaces Churchill as Prime Minister and becomes trapped in a escalating dispute with Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser over rights to the Suez Canal.

text: Season 2 (2017)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original release date

11
1
"Misadventure"
Philip Martin
Peter Morgan
December 8, 2017 (2017-12-08)

In February 1957, Elizabeth and Philip discuss the state of their marriage while onboard the Britannia in Lisbon, ultimately recognising that divorce is not an option. Five months earlier, as Philip prepares to embark on his royal tour, Elizabeth becomes convinced he is having an affair after finding a photograph of Russian ballerina Galina Ulanova in his briefcase. Chancellor of the Exchequer Harold Macmillan challenges Prime Minister Anthony Eden's solution to Egypt nationalising the Suez Canal, but later agrees that the best course of action is military intervention. Philip's uncle Louis Mountbatten overhears the plan and warns Elizabeth, who confronts Eden after hearing reports that Israel has invaded the Sinai Peninsula. Eden explains that the invasion was part of a secret plan spearheaded by Israel, France, and the United Kingdom to reclaim the canal and overthrow Egyptian President Nasser without support from Parliament or the United Nations. Elizabeth gives her support and allows British forces to begin launching air raids on Egypt before going to see Ulanova perform.

12
2
"A Company of Men"
Philip Martin
Peter Morgan
December 8, 2017 (2017-12-08)

In December 1956, Eden withdraws British forces from Egypt following international political pressure before going on a vacation to Jamaica on the grounds of ill health. Philip, meanwhile, continues his royal tour, with his adventures punctuated by a newspaper interview that ends when the reporter presses him for information about his family's past and a shipwrecked fisherman briefly joining the tour after being rescued. On Christmas, Philip gives a speech on the radio, prompting Elizabeth to let him know his family is waiting for him while giving the Royal Christmas Message. Meanwhile, Eileen Parker, the wife of Philip's private secretary Michael, initiates divorce proceedings after finding proof that her husband has been engaging in an affair. Elizabeth's assistant private secretary Martin Charteris warns Adeane about Eileen, noting that her filing for divorce could cause the press to question the state of Elizabeth and Philip's marriage.

13
3
"Lisbon"
Philip Martin
Peter Morgan
December 8, 2017 (2017-12-08)

Eden returns from Jamaica only to find himself forced out of Downing Street by his cabinet and the Conservative Party, who blame him for the repercussions of the Suez Crisis. As Macmillan settles into the role of Prime Minister, Adeane enlists a retired Lascelles to make Eileen change her mind about the divorce proceedings. When his plan fails and Elizabeth, Philip, and Parker learn about the decision, Elizabeth attempts to convince her to hold off the announcement only to be rebuffed. The story later goes public, prompting Philip to force Parker to resign. Elizabeth arranges for Philip's return before meeting the Britannia in Lisbon, where Philip tells her that he resents that his son outranks him and he needs respect from the "mustaches". On February 22, 1957, Philip is given the title of Prince and styled "His Royal Highness the Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh".

14
4
"Beryl"
Benjamin Caron
Amy Jenkins and Peter Morgan
December 8, 2017 (2017-12-08)

Shortly before her birthday, Margaret accepts a marriage proposal from her friend Billy Wallace only to break off the engagement when she finds him drunk and recovering from a duel on the night of the announcement, which was set to take place during a gala celebrating Elizabeth and Philip's tenth wedding anniversary. Sometime later, she meets photographer Antony Armstrong-Jones at a dinner party and becomes infatuated with him. He later invites her to his studio for a sitting. Bored with her traditional birthday picture, she gives one of the photographs, which suggest she is nude, to the newspapers. The following day, the picture is published, shocking Elizabeth and the rest of the Royal Family. Macmillan's wife Dorothy decides to end her longtime affair, only for Macmillan to overhear her talking to her lover on the telephone.

15
5
"Marionettes"
Philippa Lowthorpe
Peter Morgan
December 8, 2017 (2017-12-08)

Lord Altrincham, a minor peer and magazine editor, sparks a constitutional crisis after writing an article that contains personal criticism of Elizabeth. The piece was written after Altrincham had listened to a radio broadcast of a particularly tone-deaf speech of hers, written by her aides and members of the court, to the workers of a car factory. While both the local newspapers and the general public are initially against him, they side with him after he appears on ITV and states that the monarchy needs to adapt to the current post-war and post-Suez British society. Macmillan reminds Elizabeth about the trend of nations abolishing monarchies, prompting her to meet with Altrincham in secret. She later implements two of his suggestions, specifically that the 1957 Royal Christmas Message be televised and that the Debutante Ball be opened to select citizens. Six months later, the Queen Mother expresses her embarrassment over the monarchy slowly losing its authority while hosting a garden party with middle-class citizens in attendance.

16
6
"Vergangenheit"
Philippa Lowthorpe
Peter Morgan
December 8, 2017 (2017-12-08)

In 1945 Germany, a German officer leads American soldiers to a box containing top-secret diplomatic papers. Sometime later, after discovering that the translated files contain information about "Windsor", Winston Churchill informs King George about the situation and is tasked with ensuring that the files are never published. In 1958, shortly before meeting with American evangelist Billy Graham, Elizabeth receives a letter from Edward asking for permission to re-enter the United Kingdom and try to find employment. She grants the request and he immediately starts convincing former sycophants to support his return. When a group of historians previously tasked with publishing German war files unearths the papers, which have been reorganised into a series of volumes entitled the Marburg Files, Macmillan brings the issue to Elizabeth. He and the Queen Mother proceed to explain that one volume, which the United States wants to be published, concerns Edward's clandestine relationship with Nazi High Command. After a confrontation with Edward does not go as planned, Elizabeth asks Lascelles for advice only to learn the extent of the relationship. Elizabeth then seeks spiritual counsel from Reverend Graham before exiling Edward for betraying his country and allowing the volume to be published.

17
7
"Matrimonium"
Benjamin Caron
Peter Morgan
December 8, 2017 (2017-12-08)

After learning that Peter Townsend is engaged to a much younger woman, Margaret retaliates by pressing Armstrong-Jones into proposing marriage. Because Elizabeth is pregnant, royal protocol prevents her from announcing the engagement. Adeane and Lascelles inform Elizabeth that Armstrong-Jones is currently engaged in sexual relationships with several other women, as well as with his best male friend and his wife, who is pregnant with what might be Armstrong-Jones's child. On February 19, 1960, Elizabeth gives birth to her son Andrew. She decides against telling Margaret about Armstrong-Jones's sexual activity. Three months later, on May 6, 1960, Margaret and Armstrong-Jones are married at Westminster Abbey.

18
8
"Dear Mrs. Kennedy"
Stephen Daldry
Peter Morgan
December 8, 2017 (2017-12-08)

In June 1961, Elizabeth invites newly-inaugurated American President John F. Kennedy and his wife Jackie to Buckingham Palace for dinner. The Queen finds common ground with the First Lady only to become annoyed the following day after learning that Jackie insulted both her and Buckingham Palace at a party. Feeling challenged, she travels to Ghana to meet with President Kwame Nkrumah, whose relationship with the Soviet Union is worrying Macmillan. Elizabeth successfully convinces him to cut all ties with the Soviet Union and realign Ghana's interests with the United Kingdom in exchange for agreeing to dance the foxtrot with her. Shortly afterward, Jackie makes an unexpected visit to the United Kingdom and sits down with Elizabeth at Windsor Castle, where she apologizes for insulting her behind her back and explains that she was under the influence of "substances" at the time. Elizabeth later confides in Philip, asking him if she should have responded in a more personal way. Two years later, after watching the news coverage of President Kennedy's assassination, Elizabeth arranges for a week of mourning to take place throughout the United Kingdom before writing a personal letter of sympathy to Jackie.

19
9
"Paterfamilias"
Stephen Daldry
Tom Edge and Peter Morgan
December 8, 2017 (2017-12-08)

In May 1962, Charles attends Gordonstoun School in Scotland on Philip's insistence. Elizabeth and Louis, both of whom are against the idea, recommend Eton College only for Philip to use his deal with Elizabeth to force her to agree with him. As he personally escorts Charles to Scotland, Philip recalls his time at the school, in which he was punished for fighting a fellow student by being forced to construct the school's front gate during the winter break, and the death of his favourite sister Cecile and her family in a plane crash, for which his father Andrew blamed him. Charles, meanwhile, starts having difficulties in keeping up with Gordonstoun's rigorous curriculum and, when he disappears during the Gordonstoun challenge, is found crying by his security detail. While flying back to England, Philip admonishes Charles for being "bloody weak".

20
10
"Mystery Man"
Benjamin Caron
Peter Morgan
December 8, 2017 (2017-12-08)

In April 1963, the government erupts into chaos after an affair between Secretary of State for War John Profumo and model Christine Keeler becomes public knowledge. When the media begins to speculate about a "mystery man" seen in a photograph of a party hosted by London osteopath Stephen Ward, who is charged with a series of immorality offences, Margaret and Tony notice similarities between Philip and the mystery man. Sometime later, Ward commits suicide and the police find a hand-drawn portrait of Philip among his belongings. An embarrassed Macmillan resigns and is succeeded by Alec Douglas-Home, whose appointment sparks controversy due to his relationship with the Royal Family. Elizabeth later asks Philip if he is the mystery man, and confronts him with the photograph of Ulanova. Philip admits to knowing Ward in a minor capacity, having visited his clinic the previous year after injuring his neck, but denies attending any of Ward's weekend parties before reaffirming his love and support for Elizabeth. On March 10, 1964, Elizabeth gives birth to Prince Edward, her fourth child.

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: Peter Morgan, who wrote the 2006 film The Queen and the 2013 stage play The Audience, is the main scriptwriter for The Crown.[18] The directors of the television series who were also involved in the stage production are Stephen Daldry, Philip Martin, Julian Jarrold, and Benjamin Caron.[19] The first 10-part season was the most expensive drama produced by Netflix and Left Bank Pictures to date, costing at least £100 million.[20][21][22][23] A second season was commissioned,[24][25] with the series intended to span 60 episodes over six seasons.[5] By October 2017, "early production" had begun on an anticipated third and fourth season,[10] and by the following January, Netflix confirmed the series had been renewed for a third and fourth season.[11]

text: Casting[edit]

text: By November 2014, Claire Foy had entered negotiations to portray Queen Elizabeth II in the series.[26] The following May, Vanessa Kirby was in negotiations to portray Princess Margaret.[27] In June 2015, John Lithgow was cast as Winston Churchill, and Matt Smith was cast as Prince Phillip; Foy was confirmed to be portraying Queen Elizabeth II.[28] Also starring in the first season include Victoria Hamilton, Jared Harris, and Eileen Atkins.[29]

text: The series producers will recast some roles with older actors every two seasons, as the series timeline moves forward and the characters age.[30] In October 2017, Olivia Colman was cast as Queen Elizabeth II for the third and fourth seasons.[10] By January 2018, Helena Bonham Carter and Paul Bettany were in negotiations to portray Princess Margaret and Prince Philip, respectively, for the third and fourth seasons.[31][9]

text: Filming[edit]

text: An estimated 25% of the first season was filmed at Elstree Studios in Borehamwood, Hertfordshire, with the remainder filmed on location, with the season filmed over 152 days. Sets for private quarters, the interior of a private jet, the cabinet room, and the exterior of 10 Downing Street were built at Elstree Studios,[25][32] while Lancaster House, Wrotham Park and Wilton House were used for scenes to double as Buckingham Palace. Ely Cathedral stood in for Westminster Abbey, while filming in South Africa doubled as Kenya.[25] Additional filming locations in the United Kingdom included Eltham Palace, the Royal Naval College,[33] Goldsmiths' Hall, Shoreham Airport, New Slains Castle,[34] Balmoral Castle, Cruden Bay, Lyceum Theatre, Loseley Park, Hatfield House,[32] The Historic Dockyard Chatham,[35] Southwark Cathedral, Ardverikie House, Englefield House, and Glenfeshie Estate.[36] Filming on the second season began in early October 2016.[30]

text: Historical accuracy[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The show has been interpreted as perpetuating the idea that the Queen and Prime Minister Sir Winston Churchill forced Princess Margaret to give up her plan of marrying Group Captain Peter Townsend. Evidence is clear that efforts were under way to prevent any further delay of the marriage. In contradiction to the TV dramatization this plan would have allowed Princess Margaret to keep her royal title and her civil list allowance, stay in the country and even continue with her public duties. In the dramatization, the Queen is seen telling her sister that if she marries Townsend she will no longer be a member of the family because of the Royal Marriages Act 1772.[37]

text: The re-enactment of the King's surgery, originally performed by Sir Clement Price Thomas, to remove a lung tumour, was researched and planned by Pankaj Chandak, specialist registrar in transplant surgery, Guy's and St Thomas' Hospital, London. Mr Chandak and his surgical team then became part of the real scene.[38] The production team donated the surgical model of King George VI to the Gordon Museum of Pathology to be used as teaching aid.[39]

text: Peggy Noonan of The Wall Street Journal was critical of the historical accuracy of the series.[40]

text: Release[edit]

text: The series' first two episodes were released theatrically in the United Kingdom on November 1, 2016.[41] The first season was released worldwide in its entirety on November 4, 2016.[42][43] The second season was released on December 8, 2017.[44]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: Season 1[edit]

text: The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 90% approval rating for the first season based on 51 reviews, with an average rating of 8.7/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Powerful performances and lavish cinematography make The Crown a top-notch production worthy of its grand subject."[45] On Metacritic, the series holds a score of 81 out of 100, based on 29 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".[46]

text: The Guardian's TV critic Lucy Mangan praised the series and wrote that "Netflix can rest assured that its £100m gamble has paid off. This first series, about good old British phlegm from first to last, is the service's crowning achievement so far."[47] Writing for The Daily Telegraph, Ben Lawrence said, "The Crown is a PR triumph for the Windsors, a compassionate piece of work that humanises them in a way that has never been seen before. It is a portrait of an extraordinary family, an intelligent comment on the effects of the constitution on their personal lives and a fascinating account of postwar Britain all rolled into one."[48] Chief television critic Jaci Stephen of The Mail on Sunday lauded the series and said, "Faultless is the only word for The Crown with its exquisite writing and magnificent acting."[49] Writing for The Boston Globe, Matthew Gilbert lauded the series saying, "The show, created and written by Peter Morgan of The Queen and Frost/Nixon is thoroughly engaging, gorgeously shot, beautifully acted, rich in the historical events of postwar England, and designed with a sharp eye to psychological nuance."[50] Vicki Hyman of The Star-Ledger said, "A sumptuous, stately but never dull look inside the life of Queen Elizabeth (Claire Foy)."[51] The A.V. Club's Gwen Ihnat said, "The Crown easily rises far above, adding a cinematic quality to a complex and intricate time for an intimate family. The performers and creators are seemingly up for the task."[52]

text: The Wall Street Journal critic Dorothy Rabinowitz said, "We're clearly meant to see the duke [of Windsor] as a wastrel with heart. It doesn't quite come off—Mr. Jennings is far too convincing as an empty-hearted scoundrel—but it's a minor flaw in this superbly sustained work."[53] Television critic Robert Lloyd writing for Los Angeles Times said, "As television it's excellent—beautifully mounted, movingly played and only mildly melodramatic."[54] Hank Stuever of The Washington Post also reviewed the series positively: "Pieces of The Crown are more brilliant on their own than they are as a series, taken in as shorter, intently focused films like The Queen and another Morgan achievement, the play and film versions of Frost/Nixon."[55] Neil Genzlinger of The New York Times said, "This is a thoughtful series that lingers over death rather than using it for shock value; one that finds its story lines in small power struggles rather than gruesome palace coups.".[56] The Hollywood Reporter's Daniel Fienberg reviewed the series positively and said, "The first chapter of Peter Morgan's chronicle of the rule of Queen Elizabeth II remains gripping across the entirety of the 10 episodes made available to critics, finding both emotional heft in Elizabeth's youthful ascension and unexpected suspense in matters of courtly protocol and etiquette."[57] Other publications such as USA Today,[58] Indiewire,[59] The Atlantic,[60] CNN[61] and Variety[62] all reviewed the series positively.

text: Some were more critical towards the show. In a less enthusiastic review for Time magazine, Daniel D'Addario wrote, "The show will be compared to Downton Abbey, but that late soap opera was able to invent ahistorical or at least unexpected notes, [Claire] Foy struggles mightily, but she's given little: Avoiding her children, her husband, and her subjects in favor of meetings at which she either acquiesces to her advisors or puts off acquiescing until fifteen minutes later, The Crown's Elizabeth is more than unknowable. She's a bore".[63] Vulture's Matt Zoller Seitz quipped, "The Crown never entirely figures out how to make the political and domestic drama genuinely dramatic, much less bestow complexity on characters outside England's innermost circle."[64] Verne Gay of Newsday said, "Sumptuously produced but glacially told, The Crown is the TV equivalent of a long drive through the English countryside. The scenery keeps changing, but remains the same."[65] Slate magazine's Willa Paskin, expressed "It will scratch your period drama itch—and leave you itchy for action."[66] Writing for The Mail on Sunday, Hugo Vickers, an English biographer of the Royal Family, was of the opinion that "while [The Crown] certainly holds the attention, it is marred by a series of sensationalist errors and some quite remarkable lapses into vulgarity."[67]

text: Season 2[edit]

text: Rotten Tomatoes reported a 93% approval rating for the second season based on 69 reviews, with an average rating of 8.45 /10. The websites critical consensus read "The Crown continues its reign with a self-assured sophomore season that indulges in high drama and sumptuous costumes."[68] On Metacritic, the second season holds a score of 87 out of 100, based on 27 critics, retaining the first season's indication of "universal acclaim".[69]

text: Claire Foy and Matt Smith both respectively earned significant praise from critics in their reprisal of their roles. Chancellor Agard of Entertainment Weekly wrote "As always, Claire Foy turns in an amazingly restrained performance."[70] Gabriel Tate of The Daily Telegraph wrote "Matt Smith, too, has seldom been better. If the scripts do them justice, we could be in for another memorable series."[71] Hugo Rifkind of The Times said "While ardent monarchists might bristle at the way this is going, for the rest of us it's getting better and better."[72]

text: Alison Keene of Collider said "Like its first season, each new episode makes its mark and tells its own complete story, all while staying linked to Elizabeth's journey as a monarch, mother, and wife. It's another exceptionally strong season of television, full of compelling drama and sweeping grandeur."[73] Krutika Malikarjuna of TV Guide wrote "Season 2 is centered on why the public-at-large (especially those outside of Britain) still engage with the royals at all: celebrity and star power. The brilliance of this framing becomes clear as the show evolves into The Real Housewives of Buckingham."[74] Sophie Gilbert wrote for The Atlantic "This personal, complex portrayal of a monarch who by her own admission in the show would rather be living any other life is riveting enough. But The Crown is also a history lesson, as my colleague David Sims has put it, albeit a selective one. It's gorgeously shot, with flawless re-creations of everything from the Throne Room in Buckingham Palace to a 1950s hospital ward. And it's surprisingly funny."[75]

text: The Wall Street Journal critic John Anderson said "The Crown attains genuine sexiness without sex. Margaret, à la Ms. Kirby's interpretation, smolders, as does Elizabeth, at least on occasion."[76] Meghan O'Keefe of Decider wrote "Season Two of The Crown continues to romanticize the British royal family, but the romance comes from how they're normal, not divine."[77]

text: Lesser praising reviews saw the series criticised for what some regarded as failing to meet the emotional intensity of the first season. John Doyle wrote for Globe and Mail "Yes, it is still so lavishly made that it is breathtaking. But The Crown now leans toward a three-hanky weeper about marriage. It is less than it was, like the monarchy itself, and of interest to monarchy fans only."[78] Alan Sepinwall of Uproxx added "Many of the season's wounds are self-inflicted in particular Morgan's mystifying fascination with Prince Philip, who despite Matt Smith's best efforts still comes across as a whiny man child."[79] Critic Phil Owen of The Wrap criticized Jeremy Northam's reprisal of Prime Minister Anthony Eden, saying "I'm assuming that creator Peter Morgan meant for it to be comedy. There's really no other explanation for why Jeremy Northam played Prime Minister Anthony Eden like he's having a nervous breakdown in every scene."[80]

text: The Royal family[edit]

text: Adam Helliker from the Daily Express reported in May 2017 that Queen Elizabeth II and her third son Prince Edward and his wife Sophie had watched the first season together. Other royal family members who were fans of the first season included the queen's granddaughters Princess Eugenie, Zara Tindall and her husband Mike Tindall. While the Queen was reported to have enjoyed the series, she found some depictions of events to be over-dramatised.[81]

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
Year
Award
Category
Nominee(s)
Result
Ref.

2016
American Film Institute Awards
Top 10 TV Programs of the Year
The Crown
Won
[82]

Critics' Choice Television Awards
Best Drama Series
Nominated
[83]

Best Supporting Actor in a Drama Series
John Lithgow
Won

Best Guest Performer in a Drama Series
Jared Harris
Nominated

Hollywood Music in Media Awards
Best Main Title – TV Show/Digital Streaming Series
Hans Zimmer
Nominated
[84]

2017
Golden Globe Awards
Best Television Series – Drama
The Crown
Won
[85]

Best Actress – Television Series Drama
Claire Foy
Won

Best Supporting Actor – Series, Miniseries or Television Film
John Lithgow
Nominated

Screen Actors Guild Awards
Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series
The Crown
Nominated
[86]

Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Drama Series
John Lithgow
Won

Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Drama Series
Claire Foy
Won

Art Directors Guild Awards
One-Hour Period or Fantasy Single-Camera Television Series
Martin Childs
Nominated
[87]

American Cinema Editors Awards
Best Edited One Hour Series for Non-Commercial Television
Yan Miles (for "Assassins")
Nominated
[88]

Satellite Awards
Best Television Series – Drama
The Crown
Won
[89]

Best Supporting Actor – Series, Miniseries or Television Film
Jared Harris
Nominated

Costume Designers Guild Awards
Outstanding Period Television Series
Michele Clapton
Won
[90]

Dorian Awards
TV Drama of the Year
The Crown
Nominated

TV Performance of the Year – Actress
Claire Foy
Nominated

Broadcasting Press Guild Awards
Best Online First/Streaming
The Crown
Won
[91]
[92]

Best Actor
Matt Smith
Nominated

Best Actress
Claire Foy
Nominated

Best Writer
Peter Morgan
Nominated

Irish Film and Television Awards
Best Editing
Úna Ní Dhonghaíle
Nominated
[93]

Location Managers Guild Awards
Outstanding Locations in Period Television
Pat Karam, Robert Bentley
Won
[94]

BAFTA Television Craft Awards
Best Costume Design
Michele Clapton
Won
[95]
[96]

Best Director: Fiction
Stephen Daldry
Nominated

Best Photography and Lightning: Fiction
Adriano Goldman
Nominated

Best Production Design
Martin Childs
Nominated

Best Special, Visual and Graphic Effects
Úna Ní Dhonghaíle, Molinare
Won

Best Title and Graphic Identity
Patrick Clair, Raoul Marks
Nominated

Best Writer: Drama
Peter Morgan
Nominated

BAFTA Television Awards
Best Drama Series
The Crown
Nominated
[97]

Best Actress
Claire Foy
Nominated

Best Supporting Actor
John Lithgow
Nominated

Jared Harris
Nominated

Best Supporting Actress
Vanessa Kirby
Nominated

Glamour Awards
Best UK TV Actress
Won
[98]

TCA Awards
Outstanding Achievement in Drama
The Crown
Nominated
[99]

Outstanding New Program
Nominated

Individual Achievement in Drama
Claire Foy
Nominated

Primetime Emmy Awards
Outstanding Drama Series
The Crown
Nominated
[100]

Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series
Claire Foy
Nominated

Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series
John Lithgow
Won

Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series
Stephen Daldry
Nominated

Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series
Peter Morgan
Nominated

Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards
Outstanding Casting for a Drama Series
Nina Gold, Robert Sterne
Nominated

Outstanding Cinematography for a Single-Camera Series (One Hour)
Adriano Goldman
Nominated

Outstanding Costumes for a Period/Fantasy Series, Limited Series, or Movie

Nominees[show]

Michele Clapton, Alex Fordham, Emma O'Loughlin and Kate O'Farrell

Won

Outstanding Hairstyling for a Single-Camera Series
Ivana Primorac, Amy Riley
Nominated

Outstanding Main Title Design

Nominees[show]

Patrick Clair, Raoul Marks, Javier Leon Carrillo and Jeff Han

Nominated

Outstanding Music Composition for a Series
Rupert Gregson-Williams
Nominated

Outstanding Production Design for a Narrative Period Program (One Hour or More)

Nominees[show]

Martin Childs, Mark Raggett and Celia Bobak

Won

Outstanding Special Visual Effects in a Supporting Role

Nominees[show]

Ben Turner, Tom Debenham, Standish Millennas, Kim Phelan, Oliver Cubbage, Lionel Heath, Charlie Bennet, Stephen Smith and Carmine Agnone

Nominated

Hollywood Music in Media Awards
Original Score – TV Show/Limited Series
Rupert Gregson-Williams
Nominated
[101]

American Film Institute Awards
Top 10 TV Programs of the Year
The Crown
Won
[102]

2018
Golden Globe Awards
Best Television Series – Drama
The Crown
Nominated
[103]

Best Actress – Television Series Drama
Claire Foy
Nominated

Critics' Choice Television Awards
Best Drama Series
The Crown
Nominated
[104]

Best Actress in a Drama Series
Claire Foy
Nominated

Producers Guild of America Awards
Norman Felton Award for Outstanding Producer of Episodic Television, Drama
The Crown
Nominated
[105]

Screen Actors Guild Awards
Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series
The Crown
Nominated

Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Drama Series
Claire Foy
Won

Cinema Audio Society Awards
Outstanding Achievement in Sound Mixing for Television Series – One Hour

Nominees[show]

Chris Ashworth, Lee Walpole, Stuart Hilliker, Martin Jensen, Rory de Carteret, Philip Clements (for "Misadventure")

Pending
[106]

Art Directors Guild Awards
One-Hour Period or Fantasy Single-Camera Television Series

Nominees[show]

Martin Childs (for "A Company of Men", "Beryl", "Dear Mrs. Kennedy")

Nominated
[107]

ASC Awards
Outstanding Achievement in Cinematography in Regular Series for Non-Commercial Television
Adriano Goldman (for "Smoke and Mirrors")
Won
[108]

Costume Designers Guild Awards
Excellence in Period Television Series
Jane Petrie
Pending
[109]


document_title: List of FIFA World Cup finals goalscorers

question_text: who has scored in two world cup finals

question_tokens: who has scored in two world cup finals

text: Finals goalscorers[edit]

text:
Year
Player
Team
Score
Minute
Result
Report
Ref

1930
Pablo Dorado
Uruguay
1–0
12'
4–2
Report

Carlos Peucelle
Argentina
1–1
20'

Guillermo Stábile
Argentina
2–1
37'

Pedro Cea
Uruguay
2–2
57'

Santos Iriarte
Uruguay
3–2
68'

Héctor Castro
Uruguay
4–2
89'

1934
Antonín Puč
Czechoslovakia
1–0
71'
2–1
Report

Raimundo Orsi
Italy
1–1
81'

Angelo Schiavio
Italy
2–1
95'

1938
Gino Colaussi
Italy
1–0
6'
4–2
Report

Pál Titkos
Hungary
1–1
8'

Silvio Piola
Italy
2–1
16'

Gino Colaussi (2)
Italy
3–1
35'

György Sárosi
Hungary
2–3
70'

Silvio Piola (2)
Italy
4–2
82'

1950[n 1]
Friaça
Brazil
1–0
47'
2–1
Report

Juan Alberto Schiaffino
Uruguay
1–1
66'

Alcides Ghiggia
Uruguay
2–1
79'

1954
Ferenc Puskás
Hungary
1–0
6'
3–2
Report

Zoltán Czibor
Hungary
2–0
8'

Max Morlock
West Germany
1–2
10'

Helmut Rahn
West Germany
2–2
18'

Helmut Rahn (2)
West Germany
3–2
84'

1958
Nils Liedholm
Sweden
1–0
4'
5–2
Report

Vavá
Brazil
1–1
9'

Vavá (2)
Brazil
2–1
32'

Pelé
Brazil
3–1
55'

Zagallo
Brazil
4–1
68'

Agne Simonsson
Sweden
2–4
80'

Pelé (2)
Brazil
5–2
90'

1962
Josef Masopust
Czechoslovakia
1–0
15'
3–1
Report

Amarildo Tavares da Silveira
Brazil
1–1
17'

Zito
Brazil
2–1
69'

Vavá (3)
Brazil
3–1
78'

1966
Helmut Haller
West Germany
1–0
12'
4–2
Report

Geoff Hurst
England
1–1
18'

Martin Peters
England
2–1
78'

Wolfgang Weber
West Germany
2–2
89'

Geoff Hurst (2)
England
3–2
101'

Geoff Hurst (3)
England
4–2
120'

1970
Pelé (3)
Brazil
1–0
18'
4-1
Report

Roberto Boninsegna
Italy
1–1
37'

Gérson
Brazil
2–1
66'

Jairzinho
Brazil
3–1
71'

Carlos Alberto
Brazil
4–1
86'

1974
Johan Neeskens
Netherlands
1–0
2' (p)
2–1
Report

Paul Breitner
West Germany
1–1
25' (p)

Gerd Müller
West Germany
2–1
43'

1978
Mario Kempes
Argentina
1–0
38'
3–1
Report

Dick Nanninga
Netherlands
1–1
82'

Mario Kempes (2)
Argentina
2–1
105'

Daniel Bertoni
Argentina
3–1
115'

1982
Paolo Rossi
Italy
1–0
57'
3–1
Report

Marco Tardelli
Italy
2–0
69'

Alessandro Altobelli
Italy
3–0
81'

Paul Breitner (2)
West Germany
3–1
83'

1986
José Luis Brown
Argentina
1–0
23'
3–2
Report

Jorge Valdano
Argentina
2–0
56'

Karl-Heinz Rummenigge
West Germany
1–2
74'

Rudi Völler
West Germany
2–2
81'

Jorge Burruchaga
Argentina
3–2
84'

1990
Andreas Brehme
West Germany
1–0
85' (p)
1–0
Report

1994
No goals scored.  Game decided in penalty shoot-out.
Report

1998
Zinedine Zidane
France
1–0
27'
3–0
Report

Zinedine Zidane (2)
France
2–0
45+1'

Emmanuel Petit
France
3–0
90+3'

2002
Ronaldo
Brazil
1–0
67'
2–0
Report

Ronaldo (2)
Brazil
2–0
79'

2006
Zinedine Zidane (3)
France
1–0
7' (p)
1–1
Report

Marco Materazzi
Italy
1–1
19'

Game decided in penalty shoot-out.

2010
Andrés Iniesta
Spain
1–0
116'
1–0
Report

2014
Mario Götze
Germany
1–0
113'
1–0
Report

2018
Mario Mandžukić
France
1–0
18' (o.g.)
4–2
Report

Ivan Perišić
Croatia
1–1
28'

Antoine Griezmann
France
2–1
38' (p)

Paul Pogba
France
3–1
59'

Kylian Mbappe
France
4–1
65'

Mario Mandžukić
Croatia
2–4
69'

text: Players with most goals in the Finals[edit]

text:
Players with multiple goals in FIFA World Cup Finals

Player

Team

Goals scored

Finals played

Final(s)

Geoff Hurst

 England

3

1

1966

Vavá

 Brazil

3

2

1958, 1962

Pelé

 Brazil

3

2

1958, 1970

Zinedine Zidane

 France

3

2

1998, 2006

Gino Colaussi

 Italy

2

1

1938

Silvio Piola

 Italy

2

1

1938

Helmut Rahn

 West Germany

2

1

1954

Mario Kempes

 Argentina

2

1

1978

Paul Breitner

 West Germany

2

2

1974, 1982

Ronaldo

 Brazil

2

2

1998, 2002

text: Footnotes[edit]

text: Jump up ^ Not the final but the decisive match of the final group stage.

tag: ol


document_title: La Vie en rose

question_text: when did louis armstrong sing la vie en rose

text: La Vie en rose

text: Édith Piaf version[edit]

text: Background and release[edit]

text: The song's title can be translated as "Life in Rosy Hues" or "Life Through Rose-Tinted Glasses"; its literal meaning is "Life in Pink".[6]

text: The lyrics and melody of the song were written by Édith Piaf herself, but the melody was said officially to have been composed and registered by Louiguy only, since at the time, due to the stringent registration requirements of SACEM, Piaf did not have the necessary qualifications to be able to copyright her work with SACEM.[7] Piaf offered the song to Marianne Michel, who slightly modified the lyrics, changing "les choses" ("things") for "la vie" ("life"). In 1943, Piaf had performed at a nightclub/bordello called "La Vie en Rose".[8] Initially, Piaf's peers and songwriting team did not think the song would be successful, finding it weaker than the rest of her repertoire. Heeding their advice, the singer put the song aside, only to change her mind the next year. The song was performed live in concert for the first time in 1946. It became a favorite with audiences.[7] "La Vie en rose" was the song that made Piaf internationally famous, with its lyrics telling about the joy of finding true love and appealing to those who had survived the difficult wartime.[9]

text: "La Vie en rose" was released on a 10" single in 1947 by Columbia Records, a division of EMI, with "Un refrain courait dans la rue" making the B-side. It met with a warm reception and sold a million copies in the US.[10] It was the biggest-selling single of 1948 in Italy, and the ninth biggest-selling single in Brazil in 1949.[11] Piaf performed the song in the 1948 French movie Neuf garçons, un cœur. The first of her albums to include "La Vie en rose" was the 10" Chansons parisiennes, released in 1950. The song appeared on most of Piaf's subsequent albums, and on numerous greatest hits compilations. It went on to become her signature song and her trademark hit, sitting with "Milord" and "Non, je ne regrette rien" among her best-known and most recognizable tunes. Encouraged by its success, Piaf wrote 80 more songs in her career.[7]

text: English lyrics were written by Mack David and numerous versions were recorded in the US in 1950. Those that charted were by Tony Martin (reached the No. 9 position in the Billboard charts), Paul Weston (No. 12 position), Bing Crosby (No. 13 position), Edith Piaf (No. 23 position), Ralph Flanagan (No. 27 position) and Victor Young (No. 27 position). Louis Armstrong recorded C'est si bon and La Vie en rose in New York City with Sy Oliver and his Orchestra on June 26, 1950[12] and this reached the No. 28 position in the Billboard charts.[13] Bing Crosby also recorded the song in French in 1953 for his album Le Bing: Song Hits of Paris.

text: The song received a Grammy Hall of Fame Award in 1998.[14]

text: Track listings[edit]

text: 10" Single (1947)

text: Chart performance[edit]

text:
Chart
Peak
position[11]

United States
23

text: References in popular culture[edit]

text: Two films about Piaf named after the song's title have been produced. The first one, a 1998 documentary, used archive footage and interviews with Raquel Bitton, and was narrated by Bebe Neuwirth. The 2007 biographical feature film La Vie en Rose won Marion Cotillard an Academy Award for Best Actress for portraying Piaf in the film from childhood until her death at 47.[15]

text: As music in films[edit]

text:
Stage Fright (1950)
Operation: Rabbit (1952) – instrumental only (uncredited)
Duck! Rabbit, Duck! (1953) – hummed by a mischievous Daffy Duck
By the Light of the Silvery Moon (1953) – instrumental only
Sabrina (1954) – as Sabrina Fairchild's song
Noches de Casablanca (1963) – sung by Sara Montiel
The Cheap Detective (1978) – however, Eileen Brennan's character, Betty DeBoop, doesn't sing the words, and just sings "La la la la la la la en rose"
Bull Durham (1988)
A Foreign Field (1993)
Natural Born Killers (1994)
Prêt-à-Porter (1994) Grace Jones' version
French Kiss (1995)
Sabrina (1995)
Chloé (1996)
A Soldier's Daughter Never Cries (1998)
Summer of Sam (1999)
View from the Top (2003)
Saving Private Ryan
Love Me If You Dare (2003)
Something's Gotta Give Deleted Scene (2003)
Piaf starring Raquel Bitton Lionsgate film (2003)
Modigliani (2004)
A World Without Thieves (2004)
Valiant (2005)
Lord of War (2005)
The Yacoubian Building (2006)
La Vie en rose (2007)
Mister Lonely (2007)
Jellyfish (2007)
Fred Claus (2007)
The Bucket List (2007)
The Wackness (2008)
WALL-E (2008)
Map of the Sounds of Tokyo (2009)
X-Men: First Class (2011)
Monte Carlo (2011)
Madagascar 3: Europe's Most Wanted (2012)
The Hundred-Foot Journey (2014)
The Other Woman (2014)

text: As music in other media[edit]

text:
In the 2006 Egyptian film The Yacoubian Building, chanteuse Christine (Yousra) includes "La Vie en rose" in her repertoire, singing it on at least one occasion for Zaki el Dessouki (Adel Emam).
In the 1954 movie Sabrina this song is mentioned and played many times throughout the movie, including a partial rendition by Audrey Hepburn.
In the season 4 I Love Lucy episode "Hollywood Anniversary", the song is played by a band in the final scene.
Steampunk chanteuse Veronique Chevalier does a parody version – which turns out to be about a battle with slugs.
In the 2003 romantic comedy Something's Gotta Give, the song is played several times during scenes of Paris, and actor Jack Nicholson (Harry Sanborn) sings it during the closing credit roll.
Cristin Milioti performed the song in "How Your Mother Met Me", an episode of How I Met Your Mother.[16][17]
It is used prominently multiple times in BioShock Infinite's DLC BioShock Infinite: Burial at Sea.
Korean drama A Rosy Life's main title song is a Korean version aptly titled "장밋빛 인생" (Revised Romanization jangmitbit insaeng, translated as "rose-colored life"), which is also the original Korean title of the drama.

text: Other mentions[edit]

text:
Raquel Bitton sings Edith Piaf(CD) (2000)
Ian Fleming references the song in his first James Bond novel Casino Royale, when Bond is eating with Vesper Lynd, and again in his fourth novel Diamonds Are Forever, when Bond chooses to skip it on the record player as it has "painful memories".
The Avengers TV series used this song as an episode title. It was played repeatedly in a house in which Emma Peel was held against her will by an enemy agent she had seduced and betrayed by utilizing the song.
Lyrics from the song are quoted in Albert Cohen's 1968 novel Belle du Seigneur (chapter LVI).
La Vie en Rose was the name of a spaceship in Mobile Suit Zeta Gundam and Mobile Suit Gundam ZZ, as well as an episode title of Mobile Suit Gundam 0083: Stardust Memory.
In the 1990s anime Di Gi Charat, the name Rabi~en~Rose is based in "La Vie en rose".
La Vie en rose is mentioned in John Boyne's 2006 novel The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas.
Scottish singer/songwriter KT Tunstall recorded a cover, included as a digital bonus track of her second studio album Drastic Fantastic.
Canadian singer/songwriter Avril Lavigne has a tattoo reading 'La Vie en rose'.
American singer/songwriter Lady Gaga performed 'La Vie en Rose' during her Cheek to Cheek Tour with Tony Bennett in 2015.
American singer/songwriter Madonna performed 'La Vie en Rose' during her Rebel Heart Tour in 2015-2016. The live recording of the performance was released on the album Rebel Heart Tour.
Marina Prior and Mark Vincent covered the song on their album Together in 2016.
Dean Martin covered this song on his album French Style recorded in 1962.
Vov Dylan and Enzo Toppano did an instrumental cover of this song for their 2016 album "Cafe Classics"[18]
French singer Anne Pigalle has sang La Vie En Rose live since the beginning of her career and all over the world, including Ronnie Scott's and the Café de Paris in London, Silencio club in Paris, Japan, Mexico, Chateau Marmont in LA, Danceteria in NY and a fundraiser for Tin Pan Alley, the film

text: Grace Jones version[edit]

text:
"La Vie en rose"

Single by Grace Jones

from the album Portfolio

B-side

"I Need a Man"
"Tomorrow"
"Send in the Clowns"

Released
October 1977

Format

7"
12"

Genre
Bossa nova

Length
7:27 (album version)
3:35 (single version)

Label
Island

Songwriter(s)

Édith Piaf
Louiguy
Mack David

Producer(s)
Tom Moulton

Grace Jones singles chronology

"Sorry"
(1976)
"La Vie en rose"
(1977)
"Do or Die"
(1978)

"Sorry"
(1976)
"La Vie en rose"
(1977)
"Do or Die"
(1978)

text: Background and release[edit]

text: Jamaican singer Grace Jones covered "La Vie en rose" in 1977 for her debut studio album Portfolio. It was the third and the last single off that album, and at the same time, her first single release on Island Records after having signed with the label.

text: The single version was heavily edited from its original album version being more than seven minutes long to a 3.5-minute track. Jones' fairly radical bossa nova interpretation of Édith Piaf's signature tune became her first international hit single and a staple of her repertoire. It was later performed as part of her 1981 A One Man Show, then the only track from her disco era to be included in the show. In Spain and Mexico the track was billed as "La Vida en rosa" on the 7" single release, although it was not a Spanish version of the song. Jones' recording of "La Vie en rose" was later re-released a number of times in the early 1980s and finally reached #12 in the UK charts when re-released as a double A-side with "Pull Up to the Bumper" in 1985. The single was certified Gold in France and Italy.[19]

text: Grace Jones about the song: "That's a very special song to me. Oh God, I cry every time I sing it. I had quite a few French lovers, so every time I sing it I think about them."[20]

text: Music video[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The music video for the song was made using the chroma key technique. It presents Grace dancing and singing the song with the famous 1978 montage picture of herself in the background, which was later used for the cover of her 1985 Island Life compilation. The video begins with Grace wearing a rose-patterned coat. Having removed it, the singer dances in a scant gold dress which reveals her right nipple as well as black underwear.

text: Track listings[edit]

text: 7" single (1977)

text: 7" Italian single (1977)

text: 7" promotional single (1977)

text: 12" Mexican single (1984)

text: Chart performance[edit]

text:
Chart
Peak
position

Canada[21]
87

Canada (Dance/Urban)[22]
28

France[23]
2

Italy[24]
3

Netherlands[25]
4

Spain[26]
20

text: Donna Summer version[edit]

text:
"La Vie en rose"

Single by Donna Summer

from the album Tribute to Edith Piaf

Released
1993

Format
12", CD

Recorded
1993

Genre
R&B

Length
4:58

Label
AB Disques

Songwriter(s)
Édith Piaf, Louigny, Mack David

Producer(s)
Jacques Arnoul

Donna Summer singles chronology

"Carry On"
(1992)
"La Vie en rose"
(1993)
"Melody of Love (Wanna Be Loved)"
(1994)

"Carry On"
(1992)
"La Vie en rose"
(1993)
"Melody of Love (Wanna Be Loved)"
(1994)

text: Background and release[edit]

text: American singer Donna Summer covered "La Vie en rose" in 1993 for the tribute album called Tribute to Edith Piaf or Edith Piaf Tribute, on which several contemporary stars recorded interpretations of some of Piaf's best known songs. Released on both vinyl and CD, the American release of the album and single contain a different mix of Summer's synth-driven performance than the French release. These releases are among the most sought after of Summer's collectables.[citation needed] The U.S. single features a variety of remixes by DJ Chris Cox.

text: Track listings[edit]

text: 12" Single

text: 12" Maxi-Single

text: 12" Promotional Single

text: CD Single

text:
"La Vie en rose" (US Radio Mix) – 3:43
"La Vie en rose" (Full Bass Mix) – 4:25
"La Vie en rose" (Extended Soul Mix) – 7:40
"La Vie en rose" (Stringapella Mix) – 5:43