document_title: RuPaul's Drag Race (season 10)

question_text: who went home on rupaul's drag race season 10 episode 12

question_tokens: who went home on rupaul 's drag race season 10 episode 12

text: RuPaul's Drag Race (season 10)

text: Contestants[edit]

text: (Ages and names stated are at time of contest)

text:
Contestant
Name
Age
Hometown
Outcome

Aquaria

Giovanni Palandrani[6]

21

Brooklyn, New York

Winner

Eureka[a]

David Huggard[7]

27

Johnson City, Tennessee

Runner-up

Kameron Michaels

Dane Young[8]

31

Nashville, Tennessee

Asia O'Hara[b]

Antwan Lee[9]

35

Dallas, Texas

4th Place

Miz Cracker

Maxwell Heller[10]

33

Harlem, New York

5th Place

Monét X Change

Kevin Bertin[11]

27

The Bronx, New York

6th Place

The Vixen

Anthony Taylor[12][13]

26

Chicago, Illinois

7th Place

Monique Heart

Kevin Richardson[14]

31

Kansas City, Missouri

8th Place

Blair St. Clair

Andrew Bryson[15]

22

Indianapolis, Indiana

9th Place

Mayhem Miller

Dequan Johnson[16]

35

Riverside, California

10th Place

Dusty Ray Bottoms

Dustin Rayburn[17]

29

New York, New York

11th Place

Yuhua Hamasaki

Yuhua Ou[18]

27

New York, New York

12th Place

Kalorie Karbdashian Williams

Daniel Hernandez[19]

27

Albuquerque, New Mexico

13th Place

Vanessa Vanjie Mateo

Jose Cancel[20]

25

Tampa, Florida

14th Place

text:
Jump up ^ Eureka O'Hara is simply known as Eureka on the show.

Jump up ^ Asia T. O'Hara is simply known as Asia O’Hara on the show.

tag: ol

text: Contestant progress[edit]

text:
Contestant

1[21]

2[22]

3[23]

4[24]

5[25]

6[26]

7[27]

8[28]

9[29]

10[30]

11[31]

12
13
14

Aquaria

SAFE

SAFE

SAFE

WIN

SAFE

SAFE

WIN

LOW

HIGH

LOW

WIN

SAFE

Guest

Winner

Eureka

SAFE

BTM2

HIGH

SAFE

WIN

WIN

HIGH

SAFE

BTM2

HIGH

HIGH

SAFE

Guest

Runner-up

Kameron Michaels

SAFE

HIGH

LOW

HIGH

SAFE

HIGH

SAFE

WIN

BTM2

BTM2

BTM2

SAFE

Guest

Runner-up

Asia O'Hara

SAFE

SAFE

WIN

LOW

SAFE

SAFE

LOW

BTM2

WIN

HIGH

HIGH

SAFE

Guest

Eliminated

Miz Cracker

HIGH

HIGH

SAFE

HIGH

HIGH

LOW

SAFE

SAFE

LOW

WIN

ELIM

Guest

Guest

Monét X Change

SAFE

HIGH

SAFE

BTM2

BTM2

HIGH

HIGH

HIGH

HIGH

ELIM

Guest

Miss C

The Vixen

SAFE

WIN

SAFE

SAFE

LOW

BTM2

BTM2

ELIM

Guest

Guest

Monique Heart

SAFE

LOW

SAFE

SAFE

HIGH

SAFE

ELIM

Guest

Guest

Blair St. Clair

HIGH

HIGH

HIGH

SAFE

SAFE

ELIM

Guest

Guest

Mayhem Miller

WIN

HIGH

BTM2

SAFE

ELIM

Guest

Guest

Dusty Ray Bottoms

LOW

SAFE

SAFE

ELIM

Guest

Guest

Yuhua Hamasaki

HIGH

SAFE

ELIM

Guest

Guest

Kalorie Karbdashian Williams

BTM2

ELIM

Guest

Guest

Vanessa Vanjie Mateo

ELIM

Guest

Guest

text: Lip syncs[edit]

text:
Episode

Contestants

Song

Eliminated

1

Kalorie Karbdashian Williams

vs.

Vanessa Vanjie Mateo

“Ain't No Other Man” (Christina Aguilera)

Vanessa Vanjie Mateo

2

Eureka

vs.

Kalorie Karbdashian Williams

"Best of My Love"(The Emotions)

Kalorie Karbdashian Williams

3

Mayhem Miller

vs.

Yuhua Hamasaki

"Celebrity Skin"(Hole)

Yuhua Hamasaki

4

Dusty Ray Bottoms

vs.

Monét X Change

"Pound the Alarm"(Nicki Minaj)

Dusty Ray Bottoms

5

Mayhem Miller

vs.

Monét X Change

"Man! I Feel Like a Woman!"(Shania Twain)

Mayhem Miller

6

Blair St. Clair

vs.

The Vixen

"I'm Coming Out"(Diana Ross)

Blair St. Clair

7

Monique Heart

vs.

The Vixen

"Cut to the Feeling" (Carly Rae Jepsen)

Monique Heart

8

Asia O'Hara

vs.

The Vixen

"Groove Is in the Heart" (Deee-Lite)

The Vixen

9

Eureka

vs.

Kameron Michaels

"New Attitude" (Patti Labelle)

None

10

Kameron Michaels

vs.

Monét X Change

"Good as Hell" (Lizzo)

Monét X Change

11

Kameron Michaels

vs.

Miz Cracker

"Nasty Girl" (Vanity 6)

Miz Cracker

12

Aquaria vs. Asia O’Hara vs. Eureka vs. Kameron Michaels

"Call Me Mother" (RuPaul)

None

14

Asia O’Hara

vs.

Kameron Michaels

"Nasty" (Janet Jackson)

Asia O’Hara

Aquaria

vs.

Eureka

"If" (Janet Jackson)

None

Aquaria vs. Eureka vs. Kameron Michaels

"Bang Bang" (Jessie J, Ariana Grande & Nicki Minaj)

EurekaKameron Michaels

text: Guest judges[edit]

text: Listed in chronological order:[32]

text:
Christina Aguilera, singer, songwriter, actress
Halsey, singer, songwriter
Padma Lakshmi, actress, model
Courtney Love, singer, songwriter, actress
Nico Tortorella, actor, model
Logan Browning, actress
Tisha Campbell-Martin, actress, singer
Carrie Preston, actress, producer, singer
Shania Twain, singer, songwriter
Emily V. Gordon, writer, producer
Kumail Nanjiani, comedian, actor, writer
Audra McDonald, actress, singer
Kate Upton, model, actress
Andrew Rannells, actor, singer
Billy Eichner, comedian, actor, writer
Abbi Jacobson, comedian, writer, actress
Ilana Glazer, comedian, writer, actress
Miles Heizer, actor, musician
Lizzo, rapper, singer
Lena Dunham, actress, writer, director
Ashanti, singer, songwriter, actress
Todrick Hall, singer, director, choreographer

tag: ul

text: Special guests[edit]

text: Guests who appeared in episodes, but did not judge on the main stage.[33][34]

text: Episode 1

text:
Adore Delano, runner-up of season six and contestant on All Stars season two
Bob the Drag Queen, winner of season eight
Chad Michaels, runner-up of season four and winner of All Stars season one
Darienne Lake, contestant on season six
Delta Work, contestant on season three
Derrick Barry, contestant on season eight
Detox, contestant on season five and runner-up of All Stars season two
Jaymes Mansfield, contestant on season nine
Jessica Wild, contestant on season two
Jiggly Caliente, contestant on season four
Jinkx Monsoon, winner of season five
Jujubee, contestant on season two and All Stars season one
Katya, contestant on season seven and runner-up of All Stars season two
Kim Chi, runner-up of season eight
Laganja Estranja, contestant on season six
Manila Luzon, runner-up of season three and contestant on All Stars season one
Mariah Balenciaga, contestant on season three
Morgan McMichaels, contestant on season two and All Stars season three
Mrs. Kasha Davis, contestant on season seven
Ongina, contestant on season one
Pandora Boxx, contestant on season two and All Stars season one
Peppermint, runner-up of season nine
Raven, runner-up of season two and All Stars season one
Tempest DuJour, contestant on season seven
Trixie Mattel, contestant on season seven and winner of All Stars season three
Victoria "Porkchop" Parker, contestant on season one
Yara Sofia, contestant on season three and All Stars season one

text: Episode 2

text:
Andy Cohen, television personality[35]
Alyssa Edwards, contestant on season five and All Stars season two

text: Episode 4

text: Shawn Morales, Pit Crew member from seasons three to six

text: Episode 5

text: Ross Mathews

text: Episode 7

text:
Bianca Del Rio, winner of season six
Alex Trebek, game show host[36]

text: Episode 8

text:
Chad Michaels, runner-up of season four and winner of All Stars season one
Todrick Hall, singer, director, and choerographer

text: Episode 9

text:
Stephen Colbert, television host[35]
Randy Rainbow, comedian

text: Episode 10

text:
Anthony Padilla, actor, comedian, and YouTube personality
Chester See, singer, actor, and YouTube personality
Frankie Grande, dancer, actor, singer, and YouTube personality
Kingsley, comedian, blogger, and YouTube personality
Raymond Braun, actor, and YouTube personality
Tyler Oakley, author, and YouTube personality

text: Episode 11

text: Cheyenne Jackson, actor, singer[35]

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleOriginal air date1181"10s Across the Board[37]"March 22, 2018 (2018-03-22)[1]
The 14 queens enter the work room for the first time. RuPaul announces the first mini-challenge, the contestants must work the runway and stand out among previous contestants and winners; Monét X Change wins the mini-challenge.[21] For the maxi-challenge, RuPaul tasks the contestants to create a runway outfit from miscellaneous items found at a variety store; inspired by the first challenge on season one.[21] On stage, Aquaria, Asia O'Hara, Eureka, Kameron Michaels, Monét X Change, Monique Heart, and The Vixen are declared safe. Blair St. Clair, Mayhem Miller, Miz Cracker, and Yuhua Hamasaki all receive positive remarks, but Mayhem is declared the winner. Dusty Ray Bottoms, Kalorie Karbdashian Williams, and Vanessa Vanjie Mateo all received negative commentary for their runway looks.[21] Bottoms was declared safe, while Williams and Mateo lip-synced to Christina Aguilera's "Ain't No Other Man"; Williams won the lip-sync and Mateo was eliminated from the competition.[21]

Guest Judge: Christina Aguilera
Alternating Judges: Carson Kressley & Ross Mathews
Mini-Challenge: Stand out on the runway among a sea of legendary queens from past seasons.
Mini-Challenge Winner: Monét X Change
Mini-Challenge Prize: $2,000 gift card to FierceQueen.com
Maxi Challenge: Construct a runway outfit from miscellaneous items found at a variety store
Challenge Winner: Mayhem Miller
Maxi Challenge Prize: A luxury Hawaiian getaway to Hale Mohalu Guesthouse and Retreat
Bottom Two: Kalorie Karbdashian Williams & Vanessa Vanjie Mateo
Lip Sync Song: "Ain't No Other Man" by Christina Aguilera
Eliminated: Vanessa Vanjie Mateo
Farewell message: "Ladies I ❤ U The Vanjie way! xoxo Vanessa ❤!"

1192"PharmaRusical[37]"March 29, 2018 (2018-03-29)[38]
The 13 remaining queens were asked by RuPaul to perform a dance in 20 minute country quick drag for the mini-challenge, with special guest Andy Cohen judging their performances; Asia O'Hara and The Vixen are declared the winners and were made team captains for a live stage musical titled "PharmaRusical".[22] Team Asia O'Hara consisted of Aquaria, Dusty Ray Bottoms, Eureka, Kalorie Karbdashian Williams, Monique Heart, and Yuhua Hamasaki, with Team Vixen consisting of Blair St. Clair, Kameron Michaels, Mayhem Miller, Miz Cracker, and Monét X Change. The runway theme was "Very Best Drag." On the main stage, The Vixen's team is declared the winners with Vixen being the standout and winning the overall challange.[22] Asia O'Hara's team is declared the losers and are critiqued by the judges.[22] Heart, Eureka, and Williams are said to be the weakest of their team, Heart is announced as safe leaving Eureka and Williams to lip-sync to The Emotions' "Best of My Love"; Eureka is declared the winner of the lip-sync and Williams is subsequently eliminated from the competition.[22]

Guest Judges: Halsey & Padma Lakshmi
Alternating Judge: Ross Mathews
Mini-Challenge: Participate in the Hay Girl Hay hoedown
Mini-Challenge Winners: Asia O'Hara & The Vixen
Maxi Challenge: Perform in PharmaRusical
Runway Theme: Very Best Drag
Challenge Winner: The Vixen
Maxi Challenge Prize: Jewelry from Fierce Drag Jewels and a $2,000 gift card to Nailed by Cristy
Bottom Two: Eureka & Kalorie Karbdashian Williams
Lip Sync Song: "Best of My Love" by The Emotions
Eliminated: Kalorie Karbdashian Williams
Farewell message: "Thank you Sisters. I'm So Blessed to have met you all. Keep it Kute! KKW"

1203"Tap That App[37]"April 5, 2018 (2018-04-05)[38]
The 12 remaining queens were tasked by RuPaul to perform a skit to promote his self-titled chocolate bar. Blair St. Clair, Monét X Change, and Monique Heart are deemed the winners, and are selected as team leaders for the acting challenge "Tap That App", inspired by dating apps.[23] They are split into three teams: Team Blair consists of Eureka, Miz Cracker, and The Vixen; Team Monét are Aquaria, Asia O'Hara, and Yuhua Hamasaki; Team Monique are Dusty Ray Bottoms, Kameron Michaels, and Mayhem Miller. Subsequently, the runway theme for the episode was a look constructed with feathers.[23] On the main stage, Aquaria, Dusty Ray Bottoms, Miz Cracker, Monét X Change, Monique Heart and the Vixen are declared safe. Asia O'Hara, Blair St. Clair and Eureka are praised for their runway looks and performances, with Asia declared the winner of the main challenge. Conversely, Kameron Michaels, Mayhem Miller and Yuhua Hamasaki are criticized for their performances, though Kameron received rave reviews for her runway look.[23] Kameron was declared safe, while Mayhem and Yuhua lip-synced to Hole's "Celebrity Skin"; Mayhem won the lip-sync and Yuhua was eliminated from the competition.[23]

Guest Judges: Courtney Love & Nico Tortorella
Alternating Judge: Carson Kressley
Mini-Challenge: Perform in screen tests for Ru's provocative new RuPaul's Chocolate Bar campaign.
Mini-Challenge Winners: Blair St. Clair, Monét X Change, and Monique Heart
Maxi Challenge: Film ads for new dating apps
Runway Theme: Feathers
Challenge Winner: Asia O'Hara
Maxi Challenge Prize: $2,000 gift card to Casper Sleep and a $3,000 gift card to Catherine D'Lish
Bottom Two: Mayhem Miller & Yuhua Hamasaki
Lip Sync Song: "Celebrity Skin" by Hole
Eliminated: Yuhua Hamasaki
Farewell message: "我爱 you (I love you all! Season 10 is going to be amazing! - Yuhua Hamasaki)"

1214"The Last Ball on Earth[37]"April 12, 2018 (2018-04-12)[38]
The 11 remaining queens were asked by RuPaul to be part of a satire photo-bombing photo shoot featuring infamous celebrity photos; Aquaria won the mini-challenge. For the maxi-challenge, RuPaul tasked the contestants to design three looks for "The Last Ball on Earth". The three categories are: Alaskan Winter Realness, Miami Summer Realness, and Martian Eleganza Extravaganza. On the main stage, Blair St. Clair, Eureka, Mayhem Miller, Monique Heart, and The Vixen were declared safe. Aquaria, Kameron Michaels, and Miz Cracker were all praised for their runway looks, and Aquaria won the main challenge. Asia O'Hara, Dusty Ray Bottoms, and Monét X Change were criticized for their runway looks, though all three were praised for their Miami Summer Realness costume. Asia was declared safe, while Dusty and Monet lip-synced to Nicki Minaj's "Pound the Alarm"; Monét won the lip-sync and Dusty was eliminated from the competition.

Guest Judges: Logan Browning & Tisha Campbell Martin
Alternating Judge: Ross Matthews
Mini-Challenge: Photobomb iconic celebrity pictures
Mini-Challenge Winner: Aquaria
Mini-Challenge Prize: $1,000 credit to Postmates
Maxi Challenge: Create three looks based on climate change; Alaskan Winter Realness, Miami Summer Realness, and Martian Eleganza Extravaganza
Challenge Winner: Aquaria
Maxi Challenge Prize: $2,000 gift card to D Bleu Dazzled and wigs courtesy of RockStar Wigs
Bottom Two: Dusty Ray Bottoms & Monét X Change
Lip Sync Song: "Pound the Alarm" by Nicki Minaj
Eliminated: Dusty Ray Bottoms
Farewell message: "NEVA LAVD YA! ❤ Dusty"

1225"The Bossy Rossy Show[37]"April 19, 2018 (2018-04-19)[38]
The 10 remaining queens were tasked by RuPaul to get into quick drag and create an outfit inspired by the military; The Vixen wins the mini-challenge and pairs each contestant for the maxi-challenge.[39] In The Bossy Rossy Show, the queens must improvise through a storyline; Asia & The Vixen starred in a copycat storyline, Miz Cracker & Mayhem in a pickle phobia scene, Eureka & Aquaria in an adult baby scene, Blair & Monique in I Married a Cactus, and Kameron & Monét in a My Strange Addiction-style storyline.[39] The runway theme for the episode is denim and diamonds. On the main stage, Asia, Aquaria, Blair, and Kameron were declared safe. Miz Cracker and Monique Heart received praise on their performances and runway looks, however Eureka is declared the winner. Mayhem Miller, Monét X Change, and The Vixen were criticised for their performances, though The Vixen received positive remarks for her runway look. The Vixen is declared safe, while Mayhem and Monet lip-synced to "Man! I Feel Like a Woman!" by Shania Twain. Monét wins the lip sync and Mayhem is eliminated from the competition.[39]

Guest Judges: Carrie Preston & Shania Twain
Alternating Judge: Carson Kressley
Mini-Challenge: Create a military inspired outfit to enlist in the Drag Army
Mini-Challenge Winner: The Vixen
Maxi Challenge: Working in pairs, improvise in the new day-time talk show "Bossy Rossy"
Runway Theme: Denim & Diamonds
Challenge Winner: Eureka
Maxi Challenge Prize: 2 VIP tickets to Cirque du Soleil: Zumanity in Las Vegas, including flights and accommodation.
Bottom Two: Mayhem Miller & Monét X Change
Lip Sync Song: "Man! I Feel Like a Woman!" by Shania Twain
Eliminated: Mayhem Miller
Farewell message: "I ❤ to PARTY xoxo May"

1236"Drag Con Panel Extravaganza[37]"April 26, 2018 (2018-04-26)[38]
The 9 remaining queens were asked by RuPaul to participate in a game of Sittin' on a Secret, where contestants sit on an object while blind-folded; Asia O'Hara wins the challenge by guessing the most objects. For the maxi challenge, RuPaul tasks the queens to take part in a special rendition of RuPaul's DragCon.[26] The queens get to choose their own teams: Blair St. Clair, The Vixen, & Miz Cracker as Team Hair, Eureka, Kameron, & Monét X Change as Team Body, and Asia O'Hara, Aquaria, & Monique Heart as Team Face. Additionally, RuPaul announces that their performances will be in front of a live audience, and each contestant will be ranked in a poll.[26] The runway theme for this episode is Hats Incredible. On the main stage, Aquaria, Asia, and Monique are declared safe. Eureka, Kameron, and Monét are selected as the top team of the week, with Eureka winning the and receiving the highest public vote. Blair, Miz Cracker, and The Vixen are deemed the bottom team for their performances. Miz Cracker is declared safe, while Blair and The Vixen lip-synced to "I'm Coming Out" by Diana Ross. The Vixen wins the lip sync and Blair is eliminated from the competition.[26]

Guest Judges: Kumail Nanjiani & Emily V. Gordon
Alternating Judge: Ross Mathews
Mini-Challenge: Identify objects only by sitting on them
Mini-Challenge Winner: Asia O'Hara
Mini-Challenge Prize: $2,000 hair care package from Art Lab Salon
Maxi Challenge: In teams, create and produce RuPaul's DragCon panels on hair, face, and body in front of a live audience.
Runway Theme: Hats Incredible
Challenge Winner: Eureka
Maxi Challenge Prize: Four-night stay and spa treatments for 2 at Saguaro in Palm Springs
Bottom Two: Blair St. Clair & The Vixen
Lip Sync Song: "I'm Coming Out" by Diana Ross
Eliminated: Blair St. Clair
Farewell message: "Let me be your STAR! xoxo Blair St. Clair"

1247"Snatch Game[37]"May 3, 2018 (2018-05-03)[38]
The eight remaining queens were asked by RuPaul to participate in the mini-challenge roast "Reading is Fundamental", with Eureka winning. RuPaul tasks the contestants to participate in the series Snatch Game, where each queen impersonates a celebrity; Aquaria plays as Melania Trump, Asia O'Hara as Beyonce, Eureka as Alana Thompson, Kameron Michaels as Chyna, Miz Cracker as Dorothy Parker, Monét x Change as Maya Angelou, Monique Heart as Maxine Waters, and The Vixen as Blue Ivy Carter. Additionally, the runway theme was inspired by mermaids.[27] On the main stage, Kameron and Miz Cracker were deemed safe. Eureka and Monét x Change received positive reviews for their performances, but received mixed commentary for their runway looks. Aquaria won her second challenge, based on her performance and runway look. Asia, Monique and The Vixen were all criticized for their impersonations and runway looks. Asia is declared safe, while Monique and The Vixen lip-synced to "Cut to the Feeling" by Carly Rae Jepsen. During the lip-sync, Monique did not know the words to the song, which ultimately made The Vixen win and Monique being eliminated from the competition.[27]

Guest Judges: Audra McDonald & Kate Upton
Alternating Judge: Carson Kressley
Mini-Challenge: Reading Is Fundamental
Mini-Challenge Winner: Eureka
Mini-Challenge Prize: $2,000 gift card to l.a.Eyeworks
Maxi Challenge: Impersonate celebrities in the annual comedy challenge of Snatch Game
Runway Theme: Mermaid Fantasy
Challenge Winner: Aquaria
Maxi Challenge Prize: 6-night stay at Grove Hotel on Fire Island
Bottom Two: Monique Heart & The Vixen
Lip Sync Song: "Cut to the Feeling" by Carly Rae Jepsen
Eliminated: Monique Heart
Farewell message: "Always abide in love & learn your words! Facts are facts"

1258"The Unauthorized Rusical[37]"May 10, 2018 (2018-05-10)[38]
The seven remaining queens were asked by RuPaul to participate in an improv mini-challenge that pastiches a similar scene from the finale of season two. Each queen has to try and make RuPaul slap them, with Asia O'Hara winning the mini-challenge.[28] For the main challenge, the contestants were tasked by RuPaul to perform and sing in a live tribute act to American singer and actress Cher, titled "Cher: The Unauthorized Rusical". The contestants portray Cher from different phases of her career: Aquaria as Disco Cher, Asia O'Hara as Movie Star Cher, Eureka as Rock Star Cher, Kameron Michaels as '60s Cher, Miz Cracker as Comeback Cher, and Monét x Change and The Vixen as Variety Show Cher. Subsequently, the runway theme for this episode is Glitterific.[28]
On the main stage, Monét received positive comments for her performance and mixed reviews for her runway look, conversely for both Eureka and Miz Cracker with their runway and performance; all three contestants were deemed safe. Kameron was praised for both her runway look and Cher performance, winning the main challenge. Aquaria, Asia and The Vixen were complimented for their runway looks, but their performances placed them in the bottom three. Aquaria is declared safe, while Asia and The Vixen lip-synced to Groove Is In the Heart by Deee-Lite. Asia wins the lip sync and The Vixen is eliminated from the competition.[28]

Guest Judges: Billy Eichner & Andrew Rannells
Alternating Judge: Carson Kressley
Mini-Challenge: Attempt to make RuPaul slap them in a game called Slap Out of It
Mini-Challenge Winner: Asia O'Hara
Mini-Challenge Prize: $2,000 gift card to Sparkles Rhinestones
Maxi Challenge: Sing live in Cher: The Unauthorized Rusical
Runway Theme: Glitterific
Challenge Winner: Kameron Michaels
Maxi Challenge Prize: A luxury VIP getaway to Sofitel Hotel in Los Angeles
Bottom Two: Asia O'Hara & The Vixen
Lip Sync Song: "Groove Is In the Heart" by Deee-Lite
Eliminated: The Vixen
Farewell message: "EVIL Triumps when good queens do nothing! Buy My Album The Vixen"

1269"Breastworld[37]"May 17, 2018 (2018-05-17)[38]
The six remaining queens were asked by RuPaul to participate in a guessing game which involves each queen trying to match the most underwear worn by the Pit Crew; Aquaria wins the mini-challenge.[29] For the maxi challenge, RuPaul tasks the queens to act in a show titled Breastworld, loosely inspired by the American television show Westworld. Since Aquaria won the mini-challenge, she got to assign the characters: Aquaria as Dyslexa, Asia O'Hara as Para Salin, Eureka as Rosie, Kameron Michaels as Muffy, Miz Cracker as Julie, and Monét X Change as Viv. Subsequently, the runway theme was Silver Foxy, where the queens have to dress as aged-versions of themselves.[29]
On the main stage, Aquaria's performance and runway look received warm reviews from the judges, but was ultimately declared safe. Asia and Monét were praised for their performances, though both their runway looks received mixed opinions; eventually, Asia was declared the winner of the main challenge. Eureka, Kameron and Miz Cracker were placed in the bottom three for their performances, though Eureka received negative reviews for her runway look. Miz Cracker is declared safe, while Eureka and Kameron lip-synced to "New Attitude" by Patti LaBelle; and both Eureka and Kameron won the lip-sync.[29]

Guest Judges: Abbi Jacobson & Ilana Glazer
Alternating Judge: Ross Mathews
Mini-Challenge: Find matching pairs of Pit Crew underwear in a game called Pants Down Bottoms Up
Mini-Challenge Winner: Aquaria
Maxi Challenge: The queens must act in the new hit series, "Breastworld"
Runway Theme: Silver Foxy
Challenge Winner: Asia O'Hara
Maxi Challenge Prize: 4-night stay at Frog Meadow Farm in Vermont
Bottom Two: Eureka & Kameron Michaels
Lip Sync Song: "New Attitude" by Patti LaBelle
Eliminated: None

12710"Social Media Kings Into Queens[37]"May 24, 2018 (2018-05-24)[40]
The six remaining queens were asked by RuPaul to appear in a commercial that promotes RuPaul's perfume for men, titled Trade. Each queen is to dress as butch men and deliver comedic improvisations for the mini-challenge, and Eureka wins.[30] Eureka is tasked by RuPaul to pair each contestant with six special guests for the make-over challenge: Aquaria gets paired with Kingsley, Asia O'Hara and Raymond Braun, Eureka and Frankie Grande, Kameron Michaels and Anthony Padilla, Miz Cracker and Chester See, and Monét X Change with Tyler Oakley. Subsequently, each pair took part in a home-made music video to RuPaul's song "Charisma Uniqueness Nerve and Talent".[30]
On the main stage, Asia and Eureka, alongside their drag daughters America O'Hara and Eufreaka, received postiive reviews for their performances and make-overs, but were declared safe. Miz Cracker and her drag daughter Miz Cookie were commended for their performances, make-over, and chemistry, and were deemed the winners of the challenge. The bottom queens of the week were Aquaria, Kameron and Monet, who were criticized for not having a make-over resemblance to their drag daughters Capricia Corn, Kelly Michaels, and Short Change. Aquaria is declared safe, while Kameron and Monet lip-synced to "Good as Hell" by Lizzo; Kameron wins the lip-sync and Monet is eliminated from the competition.[30]

Guest Judges: Miles Heizer & Lizzo
Alternating Judge: Ross Mathews
Mini-Challenge: Participate in a manly photoshoot advertising a new body spray, Trade
Mini-Challenge Winner: Eureka
Mini-Challenge Prize: $2,000 gift card to MuLondon
Maxi Challenge: Give drag makeovers to social media superstars
Challenge Winner: Miz Cracker
Maxi Challenge Prize: $2,000 gift card to Jane Doe Latex for the queen and a $2,000 gift card to Klein, Epstein, & Parker for their partner
Bottom Two: Kameron Michaels & Monét X Change
Lip Sync Song: "Good as Hell" by Lizzo
Eliminated: Monét X Change
Farewell message: "Long Live the Sponge!!! MXC"

12811"Evil Twins[37]"June 7, 2018 (2018-06-07)[40]

Guest Judges: Lena Dunham & Ashanti
Alternating Judge: Carson Kressley
Mini-Challenge: Decorate a pancake in edible drag
Mini-Challenge Winner: Asia O'Hara
Mini-Challenge Prize: $2,000 gift card to The Spa on Rodeo
Maxi Challenge: Present two characters on the runway: best self and evil twin
Challenge Winner: Aquaria
Maxi Challenge Prize: A trip for 2 to The Grand Resort and Spa in Fort Lauderdale and two luggage sets from Radden Luggage
Bottom two: Kameron Michaels & Miz Cracker
Lip Sync Song: "Nasty Girl" by Vanity 6
Eliminated: Miz Cracker
Farewell message: "KNOW YOURSELF M"

12912"American[37]"June 14, 2018 (2018-06-14)[40]

Guest Judge: Todrick Hall
Alternating Judges: Carson Kressley & Ross Mathews
Maxi Challenge: Write, record, and perform their own verse to RuPaul's song "American" and guest star on the "What's the Tee?" podcast with Michelle Visage
Lip Sync Song: "Call Me Mother" by RuPaul

13013"Queens Reunited[37]"June 21, 2018 (2018-06-21)[40]
The queens reunite to discuss the season's highlights and drama
13114"Grand Finale[37]"June 28, 2018 (2018-06-28)[40]
"America's Next Drag Superstar" and "Miss Congeniality" are crowned

Miss Congeniality: Monét X Change
Eliminated: Asia O'Hara
Runners-up: Eureka & Kameron Michaels
Winner of RuPaul's Drag Race Season Ten: Aquaria

text: Ratings[edit]

text:
No.

Title

Air date
Rating/share(18–49)
Viewers(millions)

1

"10's Across the Board"

March 22, 2018
0.39[41]
0.785[41]

2

"PharmaRusical"

March 29, 2018
0.29[42]
0.581[42]

3

"Tap That App"

April 5, 2018
0.42[43]
0.766[43]

4

"The Last Ball on Earth"

April 12, 2018
0.36[44]
0.694[44]

5

"The Bossy Rossy Show"

April 19, 2018
0.39[45]
0.692[45]

6

"Drag Con Panel Extravaganza"

April 26, 2018
0.41[46]
0.771[46]

7

"Snatch Game"

May 3, 2018
0.45[47]
0.840[47]

8

"The Unauthorized Rusical"

May 10, 2018
0.37[48]
0.723[48]

9

"Breastworld"

May 17, 2018
0.33[49]
0.698[49]

10

"Social Media Kings Into Queens"

May 24, 2018
0.35[50]
0.715[50]

11

"Evil Twins"

June 7, 2018
0.31[51]
0.631[51]

12

"American"

June 14, 2018
0.35[52]
0.761[52]

13

"Queens Reunited"

June 21, 2018
0.27[53]
0.632[53]

14

"Grand Finale"

June 28, 2018
0.41[54]
0.838[54]


document_title: Polyamide

question_text: what type of reaction leads to the production of polymers

root

text: Polyamide

text: Classification[edit]

text: Polymers of amino acids are known as polypeptides or proteins.

tag: p

text: According to the composition of their main chain, synthetic polyamides are classified as follows:

text:
Polyamide family
Main chain
Examples of polyamides
Examples of commercial products

Aliphatic polyamides
Aliphatic
Nylon PA 6 and PA 66
Zytel from DuPont, Technyl from Solvay, Rilsan and Rilsamid from Arkema, Radipol from Radici Group

Polyphthalamides
Semi-aromatic
PA 6T = hexamethylenediamine + terephthalic acid
Trogamid T from Evonik Industries, Amodel from Solvay

Aramids = aromatic polyamides
Aromatic
Paraphenylenediamine + terephthalic acid
Kevlar and Nomex from DuPont, Teijinconex, Twaron and Technora from Teijin, Kermel from Kermel.

tag: table

text: All polyamides are made by the formation of an amide function to link two molecules of monomer together. The monomers can be amides themselves (usually in the form of a cyclic lactam such as caprolactam), α,ω-amino acids or a stoichiometric mixture of a diamine and a diacid. Both these kinds of precursors give a homopolymer. Polyamides are easily copolymerized, and thus many mixtures of monomers are possible which can in turn lead to many copolymers. Additionally many nylon polymers are miscible with one another allowing the creation of blends.

text: Polymerization chemistry[edit]

text: Production of polymers requires the repeated joining of two groups to form an amide linkage. In this case this specifically involves amide bonds, and the two groups involved are an amine group, and a terminal carbonyl component of a functional group. These react to produce a carbon-nitrogen bond, creating a singular amide linkage. This process involves the elimination of other atoms previously part of the functional groups. The carbonyl-component may be part of either a carboxylic acid group or the more reactive acyl halide derivative. The amine group and the carboxylic acid group can be on the same monomer, or the polymer can be constituted of two different bifunctional monomers, one with two amine groups, the other with two carboxylic acid or acid chloride groups.

text: The condensation reaction is used to synthetically produce nylon polymers in industry. Nylons must specifically include an straight chain (aliphatic) monomer. The amide link is produced from an amine group (alternatively known as an amino group), and a carboxylic acid group. The hydroxyl from the carboxylic acid combines with a hydrogen from the amine, and gives rise to water, the elimination byproduct that is the namesake of the reaction.

text: As an example of condensation reactions, consider that in living organisms, Amino acids are condensed with one another by an enzyme to form amide linkages (known as peptides). The resulting polyamides are known as proteins or polypeptides. In the diagram below, consider the amino-acids as single aliphatic monomers reacting with identical molecules to form a polyamide, focusing on solely the amine and acid groups. Ignore the substituent R groups – under the assumption the difference between the R groups are negligible:

text: For fully aromatic polyamides or 'aramids' e.g. Kevlar, the more reactive acyl chloride is used as a monomer. The polymerization reaction with the amine group eliminates hydrogen chloride. The acid chloride route can be used as a laboratory synthesis to avoid heating and obtain an almost instantaneous reaction.[3] The aromatic moiety itself does not participate in elimination reaction, but it does increase the rigidity and strength of the resulting material which leads to Kevlar's renowned strength.

text: In the diagram below, Aramid is made from two different monomers which continuously alternate to form the polymer. Aramid is an aromatic polyamide:

text: Polyamides can also be synthesized from dinitriles using acid catalysis via an application of the Ritter reaction. This method is applicable for preparation of nylon 1,6 from adiponitrile, formaldehyde and water.[4] Additionally, polyamides can be synthesized from glycols and dinitriles using this method as well.[5]


document_title: The Scarlet Letter (1995 film)

question_text: who plays pearl in the scarlet letter movie

text: The Scarlet Letter (1995 film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: This article needs an improved plot summary. (November 2015)

text: It is 1667 in the Massachusetts Bay Colony, and an uneasy truce exists between local Puritans and their neighbors, the Algonquian. Chief Metacomet (Eric Schweig) succeeds his father Massasoit as head of the latter just as a new colonist, Hester Prynne (Demi Moore) arrives overseas from England. As Hester waits for her husband - who is due to follow shortly after - she falls for a young minister, Arthur Dimmesdale (Gary Oldman). When it emerges that Roger Prynne has likely been killed by Native Americans, they become inseparable lovers.

text: Finding herself pregnant with Dimmesdale's child, Hester is imprisoned for her indiscretion. The minister intends to declare his sin and face execution, but Hester convinces him otherwise. Sentenced to wear a scarlet "A" for adultery, Prynne is ostracized by the public, and a drummer boy charged to follow her whenever she comes to town. Meanwhile, Hester's husband (Robert Duvall) resurfaces, having spent his absence in captivity as a prisoner of war. Learning of the scandal, he adopts the fictitious guise of "Dr. Roger Chillingworth" and begins seeking out her paramour.

text: The physician eventually murders a male settler leaving Hester's home and scalps him in an effort to implicate Algonquian warriors. Infuriated by this atrocity, the colonists declare war on the Indians and Roger, distraught by the severe consequences of his action, promptly commits suicide. Hester is nearly hanged with other undesirables in the ensuing outrage, but Dimmesdale saves her neck by confessing that he is the father of her child. As he takes her place on the gallows, the Algonquian attack Massachusetts Bay; both sides sustain heavy casualties. The Puritans are more concerned with concealing the conflict from England than harassing Hester any further; she finally abandons her scarlet letter and departs with Dimmesdale for Carolina.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Demi Moore as Hester Prynne
Gary Oldman as Rev. Arthur Dimmesdale
Robert Duvall as Roger Prynne/ Roger Chillingworth
Edward Hardwicke as John Bellingham
Lisa Joliffe-Andoh as Mituba
Robert Prosky as Horace Stonehall
Roy Dotrice as Rev. Thomas Cheever
Joan Plowright as Harriet Hibbons
Larissa Laskin as Goody Mortimer
Amy Wright as Goody Gotwick
George Aguilar as Johnny Sassamon
Tim Woodward as Brewster Stonehall
Dana Ivey as Meredith Stonehall
Sheldon Peters Wolfchild as Moskeegee
Eric Schweig as Metacomet
Kristin Fairlie as Faith Stonehall
Sarah Campbell as Prudence Stonehall
Kennetch Charlette as Tarratine Chief
Jodhi May as Voice of Pearl

Tallulah Belle Willis as Pearl (infant)
Scout LaRue Willis as Toddler Pearl

text: Production[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The film was shot in British Columbia on Vancouver Island, in and around Campbell River (Beaverlodge Lands—now Rockland Road and North Island College/Timberline Secondary, Lupin Falls and Myra Falls in Strathcona Provincial Park, Little Oyster River, and White River), and in the Nova Scotia towns of Yarmouth, Shelburne, and in the small village of Saint Alphonse in Clare in 1994. In Shelburne, the waterfront area was substantially altered to resemble a Puritan New England town in the mid-17th century. Some of the buildings on Dock Street retain the grey-tone paint finishes used for the film.

text: Score[edit]

text: Three original scores were written for this film. The first score was composed by Ennio Morricone and was quickly rejected. A second score was composed by Elmer Bernstein, but his music was set aside in lieu of the final score, composed by John Barry. Reportedly, star Demi Moore wanted a score by Barry from the start, so Morricone's and Bernstein's music were not going to be accepted, regardless of quality.

text: Barry's score was released on CD by Sony Records upon the film's release in 1995. A CD of Bernstein's rejected score was released by Varèse Sarabande in 2008. No recordings of Morricone's score have been released to the public.

text: Reception[edit]

text: The film drew negative reviews from critics. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a 13% approval rating, based on 38 reviews.[3] It won the Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Remake or Sequel and was nominated for Worst Actress for Demi Moore (lost to Elizabeth Berkley for Showgirls), Worst Director for Roland Joffe (lost to Paul Verhoeven for Showgirls), Worst Picture (also lost to Showgirls), Worst Screen Couple for Moore and either Robert Duvall or Gary Oldman (also lost to Showgirls), Worst Screenplay (also lost to Showgirls) and Worst Supporting Actor for Duvall (lost to Dennis Hopper for Waterworld). It grossed $10.3 million against a production budget of $46 million.[4]

text: In response to the negative criticism, and to the new ending, Demi Moore said that the story the filmmakers were trying to tell differed out of necessity with that of the book, which she said was "very dense and not cinematic". She noted the original story might be better suited to a miniseries on television, and that the story presented in this film needed a different ending, one that did not lose "the ultimate message of Hester Prynne" that its makers were trying to convey.[5]


document_title: U.S. Probation and Pretrial Services System

question_text: when did the federal government establish a probation system for u.s. district courts

text: History[edit]

text: The first legislation for Federal Probation Law was introduced in 1908, one of which was prepared by the New York State Probation Commission and the National Probation Association (later known as the National Council on Crime and Delinquency) and introduced before Congress by United States Senator Robert L. Owen of Oklahoma. The bill provided for a suspension of a sentence, in U.S. District Court, and a sentence of probation. The bill also provided for compensation of $5 per diem for Federal Probation Officers. This first attempt did not pass and through 1909 to 1925 there were 34 bills introduced to establish federal probation law.

text: In 1925, the Federal Probation Act was introduced by Senator Copeland as S.1042 and Representative Graham as H.R. 5195. The U.S. Senate passed in unanimously but the House passed the law by a vote of 170 in favor and 49 opposed. On March 4, 1925, President Calvin Coolidge, a former Governor of Massachusetts and very familiar with the benefits of a functioning probation system, signed the bill in law. This Act gave the U.S. Courts the power to appoint Federal Probation Officers and authority to sentence defendants to probation instead of a prison sentence. It later gave U.S. Probation Officers the responsibility of supervising offenders granted parole by the United States Parole Commission, military offenders and pretrial supervision. The responsibility of the United States Probation Service was first under the United States Department of Justice, under the supervising authority of the Federal Bureau of Prisons, however, in 1940 the Administrative Office of the U.S. Courts was established and assumed the responsibility.

text: U.S. Pretrial Services came along more than 50 years later, in 1982, with the Pretrial Services Act of 1982. It was developed as a means to reduce both crimes committed by persons released into the community pending trial and unnecessary pretrial detention. Twenty three districts have both separate U.S. Probation and Pretrial Services Offices. In the remaining 71 districts, the probation office provides pretrial services to the court.

text: United States Probation Officers, also referred to as Federal Probation Officers, are the only cadre of Federal Law Enforcement Officers in the Federal Judiciary. Despite their law enforcement status and authority within the federal government, their investigators are referred to as Officers, not Special Agents. The Federal Probation Office emphasizes their unique role as law enforcement officers and social case workers. They hold the responsibility to investigate and supervise persons charged with and convicted of crimes against the United States. They have statutory authority to carry firearms, make warrantless arrests of those under their supervision and have jurisdiction over felons convicted in federal courts.

text: Most districts require that all new officers attend the Probation and Pretrial Services National Training Academy at the Federal Law Enforcement Training Center soon after coming on board. Officers are eligible for a 20-year retirement and must be appointed prior to their 37th birthday because the mandatory separation age is 57. Almost all districts require prior experience in a similar field, a background suitability investigation, drug test, and medical examination as a pre-requisite for hiring.

text: Federal Probation is unique to other federal law enforcement agencies in that they are regionally aligned to their judicial districts, rather than a single headquarters element. All officers within a district report to their Chief Probation Officer or Chief Pretrial Services Officer, who in turn serves the Chief District Judge. The national element is the Administrative Office of the United States Courts, Washington, DC, which provides administrative support to the courts, including staffing and other resources, and enforces policies promulgated by the Judicial Conference of the United States,the policy-making body of the Federal Judiciary.

text: Many districts have split their Probation Officers into Pre-Sentence Investigation Units and Supervision Units. Pre-Sentence Investigators conduct comprehensive investigations into the background of defendants convicted of federal crimes. Upon completion of their investigation, they are required to employ the sentencing guidelines and submit a sentencing recommendation to the presiding judge. Often, they are also asked to confer privately with judges regarding their recommendation. Officers assigned to Supervision Units supervise felons convicted of federal crimes who are released into society on either Supervised Release or Probation. Supervision Officers must enforce court ordered conditions and are mandated to use their discretion and skills to mitigate the offenders risk to society. Both Supervision Officers and Pre-Sentence Investigators deal with a wide range of offenders, many of whom have extensive criminal histories. Federal Probation Officers also represent the United States Department of Justice in the performance of duties connected with federal parole.

text: Fallen Officers[edit]

text: U.S. Probation Officer Joseph Matison (Matt) DeLozier (Oklahoma Northern)

text: On Monday, September 9, 1935, U.S. Probation Officer Matt DeLozier was traveling to Tulsa, Oklahoma, on official business for U.S. District Judge Franklin E. Kennamer. While at a gas station in Supulpa, Oklahoma, he exited the vehicle to refuel his car, when his gun fell to the pavement and discharged. The bullet hit him in the thigh and severed an artery. Officer DeLozier died at 3 p.m. that day. At the time of his death, he was survived by his wife, three daughters, and one son. Mr. DeLozier became a United States probation officer in March 1935, just six months before his death.

text: U.S. Probation Clerk Marie Christopher Curtis (West Virginia Northern)

text: Marie Christopher Curtis was born on January 31, 1917, in Hopwood, Pennsylvania. She married John J. Curtis, owner and operator of Deluxe Cleaners in Grant Town, West Virginia. They had one son, John Jay Curtis Jr., and one daughter, Delores (Johnson).

text: On Tuesday, December 27, 1966, at approximately 10:30 a.m., parolee Gladys Garnet Turner, age 48, bypassed the federal building’s elevator in Fairmont, West Virginia, walked up to the third floor, and entered the federal probation office. There she shot Marie Curtis, age 49, five times before turning the gun on herself.

text: Turner was sentenced in 1962 for the offense of Interstate Transportation of Altered Money Orders. She served approximately four years in custody at the Federal Reformatory for Women in Alderson, West Virginia, and was paroled on March 9, 1966.

text: On March 22, U.S. Probation Officer L. O. Bickel sent Turner to the Union Rescue Mission, where she lived for two to three weeks. Authorities at the mission reported that Turner was a “very tough woman” who repeatedly talked about her disgust with the parole system.

text: Officer Bickel was out of the office at the time of the shooting, visiting his son in Washington, DC. He rushed to the hospital as soon as he was notified of the shooting. Marie Curtis served as Officer Bickel’s secretary for nine years, and they were the only staff working in the probation office.

text: After hearing gunshots, Deputy U.S. District Court Clerk Gertrude Lucas, who worked on the same floor, ran to the probation office, where she found Turner and Curtis. FBI Agent Eugene Jones and Chief Deputy U.S. Marshal Walter M. Garrison Jr., who worked on the second floor, drew their guns and rushed upstairs.

text: Turner was first rushed to Fairmont General Hospital and later died on the way to West Virginia University Medical Center in Morgantown, West Virginia. Authorities found the following items in her possession:

text: A Greyhound bus ticket stub for a one-way trip from Parkersburg to Fairmont, West Virginia. A bag containing a piece of paper with her name on it. A men’s magazine. Several books, including one titled Cop Hater. 43 unspent bullets.

text: Curtis was immediately taken to Fairmont General Hospital, where she received emergency treatment. While there, she briefly regained consciousness before lapsing into a coma. She was then rushed to West Virginia University Medical Center and was taken to surgery at 4:30 p.m. One bullet passed through her body, and surgeons removed the other four bullets. Curtis died at approximately 3:10 a.m. on Saturday, December 31, 1966.

text: U.S. Probation Officer Charles Gleason Venz (California Southern)

text: Charles Gleason Venz became a United States probation officer in the Southern District of California on July 27, 1970. He died on Tuesday, October 2, 1979, in a car accident while conducting fieldwork.

text: U.S. Probation Officer Thomas Eric Gahl (Indiana Southern)

text: Tom Gahl was born in Valparaiso, Indiana, on December 14, 1947. He became a United States probation officer on March 14, 1975.

text: Tom served in the U.S. Marine Corps as a 1st Lieutenant and later worked at the Indiana State Penitentiary in Michigan City, Indiana, and the U.S. Penitentiary in Terre Haute, Indiana. He received a bachelor's degree from Augustana College in Rock Island, Illinois, and a master's degree from Indiana State University in Terre Haute, Indiana.

text: The morning of Monday, September 22, 1986, Tom, then an 11-year veteran of the United States probation and pretrial services system, began his day preparing to visit parolee Mike Wayne Jackson, age 41, at Jackson’s home to take a urine test. Tom had met Jackson for the first time a week earlier in his office. The prior weekend, he had taken home Jackson’s nearly 1,000-page file but never got the chance to read it. He knew that Jackson had a long history of mental illness and violent tendencies.

text: A Violent Act provides a detailed account of Tom Gahl’s death as well as Jackson’s subsequent crime spree and eventual suicide. In his book, author Alec Wilkinson provides a vivid description of Jackson:

text: “He was forty years old. He lived without running water, electric light, or cooking gas in a house in Indianapolis that had stood empty for years before he moved himself into it one month earlier. He slept on straw in an upstairs room, or in the back of his pickup truck parked in the yard. He did not bathe. . . . He was perhaps six feet tall and weighed about two hundred pounds. He often wore farmer’s overalls. He had a small paunch. His shoulders tended to stoop. He had long black hair with strands of gray in it, and a long black beard that covered nearly all of his face. There was some question of his sanity.”

text: As Tom got ready for work, his wife Nancy, worried that Jackson might be dangerous, suggested that Jackson visit Tom at the office in lieu of a home visit. With a reassuring but hesitant tone, Tom replied, “Please don’t worry. Things will be all right.” After all, he had never heard of a federal probation or pretrial services officer ever being killed. Besides, if Tom ever thought an offender was dangerous, he would take a United States marshal along with him on a home visit. He had no plans to do so this time.

text: Tom left the house at approximately 7:45 a.m., and by 8:05 a.m., he had been shot and killed.

text: Two of Jackson’s neighbors gave eyewitness accounts of Tom’s visit to Jackson’s home and Tom’s subsequent murder. One neighbor heard Tom knocking on Jackson’s door. Knowing that Jackson never had visitors, she stepped outside to see who it was.

text: When Jackson didn’t answer the door, Tom walked back to his car and briefly sat inside with the door open. Within minutes he exited his car and began walking toward Jackson’s house. Suddenly, Jackson came out of his house and charged at Tom with a shotgun. When Tom turned to run, Jackson fired the first shot into the back of his left arm, below the shoulder, breaking his elbow. The force of the shot spun Tom around to face Jackson.

text: After hearing the first shot, the second neighbor stepped out of her house to see Jackson “backing Tom Gahl up at the point of his shotgun.” Because she couldn’t see Tom’s face, she thought that Jackson had just shot her husband.

text: Tom and Jackson were now on the street, and Tom’s back faced the neighbor. As Tom backed up onto the sidewalk toward her, he held his left arm at his side. Raising his right hand toward Jackson, he said, “Please don’t shoot. Don’t shoot me. It’s not going to do you any good.” But Jackson continued toward him.

text: Tom turned his head to one side and said, “Oh, God.” Jackson fired the second shot into the side of Tom’s head, knocking him to his knees, then to the ground.

text: A man driving his son to school quickly stopped his car near Tom. He and the boy watched Jackson lean over and place the barrel of the rifle close to Tom’s head, firing the third shot.

text: As Jackson stood there, the neighbor recalled that his face was “empty of any emotion or feeling or spark of life.” She watched him walk back into his house, come back outside wearing different clothes, and driving away.

text: Following is an account of Jackson’s violent spree through Indiana, Illinois, and Missouri over the next 10 days:

text: Eighteen minutes after the shooting, Jackson drove to J. B. Market and shot and killed owner James B. Hall after attempting to rob the store. He then ordered a bread deliveryman, who was inside the store, to drive him to the airport in the man’s delivery truck. After ordering the man to stop at the business end of the airport, Jackson got out, walked up to a man who was getting into a jeep, pointed his shotgun at him, demanded his keys, and drove off.

text: After stopping the jeep in front of a house, Jackson abducted a young woman who was unloading her car. They drove for approximately 45 minutes, until the woman jumped out of the car in Frankfort, Indiana. Jackson drove away.

text: Driving through Frankfort, Jackson traveled to a trailer park, got out of the car, and approached a trailer where a woman and her three-year-old son lived. Once inside, Jackson abducted the two and drove off in the woman’s car. He traveled for approximately ten minutes and stopped the car on a country road. After stealing the woman’s money and rings she was wearing, he drove off.

text: At approximately 6 p.m. that evening, Jackson drove to a shopping mall in Clayton, Missouri. He walked up to a woman, who was securing her son in the car, and demanded that she give him her purse. After ordering her and her son to lie on the ground, he drove off.

text: Jackson committed his third and final murder at approximately 6:45 p.m. as he drove along Interstate 70 through St. Peters, Missouri. There he saw Earl Dallas Finn driving a Ford LTD (a model commonly used by police departments). Jackson drove alongside of Finn, pointed the barrel of his shotgun at Finn from four feet away, and fired. Finn’s car swerved off the highway before crashing into a light pole.

text: Next, Jackson drove approximately 10 miles west to O’Fallon, Missouri. At approximately 6:55 p.m., he approached a woman outside of an IGA and ordered her to get into her car. When the woman fought him, refusing to get inside, Jackson took her keys and drove away.

text: Jackson then drove through O’Fallon for five minutes until he came upon a house, where an elderly man was planting a tree. After escorting the man inside the house, Jackson ordered the man’s daughter to give him the keys to one of three cars that were parked in the driveway. As he drove her Buick Regal down the street, the woman’s husband passed the car and began to follow it, trailing close behind. Jackson turned around and fired his shotgun, blowing out the back window of the man’s car.

text: Soon after, Jackson abandoned the Buick in O’Fallon and abducted a young man who was polishing a Cadillac. Somewhere between O’Fallon and Wright City, Missouri, Jackson put the young man in the trunk. After driving past two police officers in a patrol car in Wright City, Jackson shot at them, injuring one officer. As he sped away, both officers fired shots at the car. One of them hit Jackson, who plowed the car through a fence, over several ditches, and back onto the roadway, damaging the radiator and transmission. He then abandoned the car a distance away.

text: From there Jackson fled into the woods, eventually making his way to an abandoned barn near Wright City. On October 2, 1986, after a 10-day search, the FBI and other law enforcement surrounded the barn where Jackson was hiding out. When a tracker and three FBI agents entered the barn, Jackson committed suicide in the loft with the same shotgun he had used to kill his victims.


document_title: Heart development

question_text: when does the heart form in a fetus

question_tokens: when does the heart form in a fetus

text: Heart development

text: Early development[edit]

text: The heart derives from embryonic mesodermal germ-layer cells that differentiate after gastrulation into mesothelium, endothelium, and myocardium. Mesothelial pericardium forms the outer lining of the heart. The inner lining of the heart, lymphatic and blood vessels, develop from endothelium.[4]

text: Endocardial tubes[edit]

text: In the splanchnopleuric mesenchyme on either side of the neural plate, a horseshoe-shaped area develops as the cardiogenic region. This has formed from cardiac myoblasts and blood islands as forerunners of blood cells and vessels.[5] By day 19, an endocardial tube begins to develop in each side of this region. These two tubes grow and by the third week have converged towards each other to merge, using programmed cell death to form a single tube, the tubular heart.[6]

text: From splanchnopleuric mesenchyme, the cardiogenic region develops cranially and laterally to the neural plate. In this area, two separate angiogenic cell clusters form on either side and coalesce to form the endocardial tubes. As embryonic folding continues, the two endocardial tubes are pushed into the thoracic cavity, where they begin to fuse together, and this is completed at about 22 days.[7]

text: At around 18 to 19 days after fertilisation, the heart begins to form. This early development is critical for subsequent embryonic and prenatal development. The heart is the first functional organ to develop and starts to beat and pump blood at around day 21 or 22.[1] The heart begins to develop near the head of the embryo in the cardiogenic area.[1] Following cell signalling, two strands or cords begin to form in the cardiogenic region[1] As these form, a lumen develops within them, at which point, they are referred to as endocardial tubes.[1] At the same time that the tubes are forming other major heart components are also being formed.[8] The two tubes migrate together and fuse to form a single primitive heart tube, the tubular heart which quickly forms five distinct regions.[1] From head to tail, these are the truncus arteriosus, bulbus cordis, primitive ventricle, primitive atrium, and the sinus venosus.[1] Initially, all venous blood flows into the sinus venosus, and contractions propel the blood from tail to head, or from the sinus venosus to the truncus arteriosus.[1] The truncus arteriosus will divide to form the aorta and pulmonary artery; the bulbus cordis will develop into the right ventricle; the primitive ventricle will form the left ventricle; the primitive atrium will become the front parts of the left and right atria and their appendages, and the sinus venous will develop into the posterior part of the right atrium, the sinoatrial node and the coronary sinus.[1]

text: Heart tube position[edit]

text: The central part of cardiogenic area is in front of the oropharyngeal membrane and the neural plate. The growth of the brain and the cephalic folds push the oropharyngeal membrane forward, while the heart and the pericardial cavity move first to the cervical region and then into the chest. The curved portion of the horseshoe-shaped area expands to form the future ventricular infundibulum and the ventricular regions, as the heart tube continues to expand. The tube starts receiving venous drainage in its caudal pole and will pump blood out of the first aortic arch and into the dorsal aorta through its polar head. Initially the tube remains attached to the dorsal part of the pericardial cavity by a mesodermal tissue fold called the dorsal mesoderm. This mesoderm disappears to form the two pericardial sinuses the transverse and the oblique pericardial sinuses, which connect both sides of the pericardial cavity.[5]

text: The myocardium thickens and secretes a thick layer of rich extracellular matrix containing hyaluronic acid which separates the endothelium. Then mesothelial cells form the pericardium and migrate to form most of the epicardium. Then the heart tube is formed by the endocardium, which is the inner endothelial lining of the heart, and the myocardial muscle wall which is the epicardium that covers the outside of the tube.[5]

text: Heart folding[edit]

text: The heart tube continues stretching and by day 23, in a process called morphogenesis, cardiac looping begins. The cephalic portion curves in a frontal clockwise direction. The atrial portion starts moving in a cephalic ally and then moves to the left from its original position. This curved shape approaches the heart and finishes its growth on day 28. The conduit forms the atrial and ventricular junctions which connect the common atrium and the common ventricle in the early embryo. The arterial bulb forms the trabecular portion of the right ventricle. A cone will form the infundibula blood of both ventricles. The arterial trunk and the roots will form the proximal portion of the aorta and the pulmonary artery. The junction between the ventricle and the arterial bulb will be called the primary intra-ventricular hole. The tube is divided into cardiac regions along its craniocaudal axis: the primitive ventricle, called primitive left ventricle, and the trabecular proximal arterial bulb, called the primitive right ventricle.[9]

text: Heart chambers[edit]

text: Sinus venosus[edit]

text: In the middle of the fourth week, the sinus receives venous blood from the poles of right and left sinus. Each pole receives blood from three major veins: the vitelline vein, the umbilical vein and the common cardinal vein. The sinus opening moves clockwise. This movement is caused mainly by the left to right shunt of blood, which occurs in the venous system during the fourth and fifth week of development.[10]

text: When the left common cardinal vein disappears in the tenth week, with only the oblique vein of the left atrium and the coronary sinus remaining. The right pole joins the right atrium to form the wall portion of the right atrium. The right and left venous valves fuse and form a peak known as the septum spurium. At the beginning, these valves are large but the left venous valve and the septum spurium fuse with the developing atrial septum. The upper right venous valve disappearing. The bottom evolves into: the inferior valve of the vena cava and the coronary sinus valve.[10]

text: Heart wall[edit]

text: The main walls of the heart are formed between day 27 and 37 of the development of the early embryo. The growth consists of two tissue masses actively growing that approach one another until they merge and split light into two separate conduits. Tissue masses called endocardial cushions develop into atrioventricular and conotroncal regions. In these places, the cushions will help in the formation of auricular septum, ventricular conduits, atrio-ventricular valves and aortic and pulmonary channels.[11]

text: Atria[edit]

text: At the end of the fourth week, a crest grows that leaves the cephalic part. This crest is the first part of the septum primum. The two ends of the septum extend into the interior of the endocardial cushions in the atrioventricular canal. The opening between the bottom edge of the septum primum and endocardial cushions is the ostium primum (first opening). The extensions of the upper and lower endocardial pads grow along the margin of the septum primum and close the ostium primum. Coalescence of these perforations will form the ostium secundum (second opening), which allows blood to flow freely from the right atrium to the left.

text: When the right of the atrium expands due to the incorporation of the pole of the sinus, a new fold appears, called the septum secundum. At its right side it is fused with the left venous valve and the septum spurium. A free opening will then appear, called the foramen ovale. The remains of the upper septum primum, will become the valves of the foramen ovale. The passage between the two atrial chambers consists of a long oblique slit through which blood flows from the right atrium to the left.[11]

text: Ventricles[edit]

text: Initially, a single pulmonary vein develops in the form of a bulge in the back wall of the left atrium. This vein will connect with the veins of the developing lung buds. As development proceeds the pulmonary vein and its branches are incorporated into the left atrium and they both form the smooth wall of the atrium. The embryonic left atrium remains as the trabecular left atrial appendage, and the embryonic right atrium remains as the right atrial appendage.[12]

text: Septum formation of the atrioventricular canal[edit]

text: At the end of the fourth week, two atrioventricular endocardial cushions appear. Initially the atrioventricular canal gives access to the primitive left ventricle, and is separated from arterial bulb by the edge of the ventricular bulb. In the fifth week, the posterior end terminates in the center part of the upper endocardial cushion. Because of this, blood can access both the left primitive ventricle and the right primitive ventricle. As the anterior and posterior pads project inwardly, they merge to form a right and left atrioventricular orifice.[13]

text: Atrioventricular valves[edit]

text: When forming intra-atrial septa, atrio-ventricular valves will begin to grow. An intra-muscular ventricular septum begins to grow from the common ventricle to the atrio-ventricular endocardial cushions. The division begins in the common ventricle where a furrow in the outer surface of the heart will appear the interventricular foramen eventually disappears. This closure is achieved by further growth muscular interventricular septum, a contribution of trunk crest-conal tissue and a membranous component.[14]

text: Valves and outflow tracts[edit]

text: Truncus septum formation and arterial cone[edit]

text: The arterial cone is closed by the infundibular cushions. The trunk cones are closed by the forming of an infundibulotroncal septum, which is made from a straight proximal portion and distal spiral portion. Then, the narrowest portion of the aorta is in the left and dorsal portion. The distal portion of the aorta is pushed forward to the right. The proximal pulmonary artery is right and ventral, and the distal portion of the pulmonary artery is in the left dorsal portion.[11]

text: Pacemaker and conduction system[edit]

text: The rhythmic electrical depolarization waves that trigger myocardial contraction is myogenic, which means that they begin in the heart muscle spontaneously and are then responsible for transmitting signals from cell to cell. Myocytes that were obtained in the primitive heart tube, start beating as they connect together by their walls in a syncytium. Myocytes initiate rhythmic electrical activity, before the fusion of the endocardial tubes. The heartbeat begins in the region of the pacemaker which has a spontaneous depolarization time faster than the rest of myocardium.[15]

text: The primitive ventricle acts as initial pacemaker. But this pacemaker activity is actually made by a group of cells that derive from the sinoatrial right venous sinus. These cells form an ovoid sinoatrial node (SAN), on the left venous valve. After the development of the SAN, the superior endocardial cushions begin to form a pacemaker as known as the atrioventricular node. With the development of the SAN, a band of specialized conducting cells start to form creating the bundle of His that sends a branch to the right ventricle and one to the left ventricle. Most conduction pathways originate from the cardiogenic mesoderm but the sinus node may be derived from the neural crest.[15]

text: The human embryonic heart begins beating approximately 21 days after fertilization, or five weeks after the last normal menstrual period (LMP), which is the date normally used to date pregnancy in the medical community. The electrical depolarizations that trigger cardiac myocytes to contract arise spontaneously within the myocyte itself. The heartbeat is initiated in the pacemaker regions and spreads to the rest of the heart through a conduction pathway. Pacemaker cells develop in the primitive atrium and the sinus venosus to form the sinoatrial node and the atrioventricular node respectively. Conductive cells develop the bundle of His and carry the depolarization into the lower heart. Cardiac activity is visible beginning at approximately 5 weeks of pregnancy.

text: The human heart begins beating at a rate near the mother’s, about 75-80 beats per minute (BPM). The embryonic heart rate (EHR) then accelerates linearly for the first month of beating, peaking at 165-185 BPM during the early 7th week, (early 9th week after the LMP). This acceleration is approximately 3.3 BPM per day, or about 10 BPM every three days, an increase of 100 BPM in the first month.[16]

text: After peaking at about 9.2 weeks after the LMP, it decelerates to about 150 BPM (+/-25 BPM) during the 15th week after the LMP. After the 15th week the deceleration slows reaching an average rate of about 145 (+/-25 BPM) BPM at term.


document_title: Steamship

question_text: when did the first steamship crossed the atlantic

text: Steamship

text: History[edit]

text: The steamship was preceded by smaller vessels designed for insular transportation, called steamboats. Once the technology of steam was mastered at this level, steam engines were mounted on larger, and eventually, ocean-going vessels. Becoming reliable, and propelled by screw rather than paddlewheels, the technology changed the design of ships for faster, more economic propulsion.

text: Paddlewheels as the main motive source became standard on these early vessels (see Paddle steamer). It was an effective means of propulsion under ideal conditions but otherwise had serious drawbacks. The paddle-wheel performed best when it operated at a certain depth, however when the depth of the ship changed from added weight it further submerged the paddle wheel causing a substantial decrease in performance.[3]

text: Within a few decades of the development of the river and canal steamboat, the first steamships began to cross the Atlantic Ocean. The first sea-going steamboat was Richard Wright's first steamboat Experiment, an ex-French lugger; she steamed from Leeds to Yarmouth in July 1813.[4][5]

text: The first iron steamship to go to sea was the 116-ton Aaron Manby, built in 1821 by Aaron Manby at the Horseley Ironworks, and became the first iron-built vessel to put to sea when she crossed the English Channel in 1822, arriving in Paris on 22 June.[6] She carried passengers and freight to Paris in 1822 at an average speed of 8 knots (9 mph, 14 km/h).

text: The American ship SS Savannah first crossed the Atlantic Ocean, although most of the voyage was actually made under sail. The first ship to make the transatlantic trip substantially under steam power may have been the British-built Dutch-owned Curaçao, a wooden 438 ton vessel built in Dover and powered by two 50 hp engines, which crossed from Hellevoetsluis, near Rotterdam on 26 April 1827 to Paramaribo, Surinam on 24 May, spending 11 days under steam on the way out and more on the return. Another claimant is the Canadian ship SS Royal William in 1833.[7]

text: The first steamship purpose-built for regularly scheduled trans-Atlantic crossings was the British side-wheel paddle steamer SS Great Western built by  Isambard Kingdom Brunel in 1838, which inaugurated the era of the trans-Atlantic ocean liner.

text: The SS Archimedes, built in Britain in 1839 by  Francis Pettit Smith, was the world's first screw propeller-driven steamship[notes 1] for open water seagoing. It had considerable influence on ship development, encouraging the adoption of screw propulsion by the Royal Navy, in addition to her influence on commercial vessels. The first screw-driven propeller steamship  introduced in America was on a ship built by Thomas Clyde in 1844 and many more ships and routes followed.

text: Screw-propeller steamers[edit]

text: The key innovation that made ocean-going steamers viable was the change from the paddle-wheel to the screw-propeller as the mechanism of propulsion. These steamships quickly became more popular, because the propeller's efficiency was consistent regardless of the depth at which it operated. Being smaller in size and mass and being completely submerged, it was also far less prone to damage.

text: James Watt of Scotland is widely given credit for applying the first screw propeller to an engine at his Birmingham works, an early steam engine, beginning the use of an hydrodynamic screw for propulsion.

text: The development of screw propulsion relied on the following technological innovations.

text: Steam engines had to be designed with the power delivered at the bottom of the machinery, to give direct drive to the propeller shaft. A paddle steamer's engines drive a shaft that is positioned above the waterline, with the cylinders positioned below the shaft. SS Great Britain used chain drive to transmit power from a paddler's engine to the propeller shaft - the result of a late design change to propeller propulsion.

text: An effective stern tube and associated bearings were required. The stern tube contains the propeller shaft where it passes through the hull structure. It should provide an unrestricted delivery of power by the propeller shaft. The combination of hull and stern tube must avoid any flexing that will bend the shaft or cause uneven wear. The inboard end has a stuffing box that prevents water from entering the hull along the tube. Some early stern tubes were made of brass and operated as a water lubricated bearing along the entire length. In other instances a long bush of soft metal was fitted in the after end of the stern tube. The Great Eastern had this arrangement fail on her first transatlantic voyage, with very large amounts of uneven wear. The problem was solved with a lignum vitae water-lubricated bearing, patented in 1858. This became standard practice and is in use today.

text: Since the motive power of screw propulsion is delivered along the shaft, a thrust bearing is needed to transfer that load to the hull without excessive friction. SS Great Britain had a 2 ft diameter gunmetal plate on the forward end of the shaft which bore against a steel plate attached to the engine beds. Water at 200 psi was injected between these two surfaces to lubricate and separate them. This arrangement was not sufficient for higher engine powers and oil lubricated "collar" thrust bearings became standard from the early 1850s. This was superseded at the beginning of the 20th century by floating pad bearing which automatically built up wedges of oil which could withstand bearing pressures of 500 psi or more.[8]

text: Name prefix[edit]

text: Steam-powered ships were named with a prefix designating their propeller configuration i.e. single, twin, triple-screw. Single-screw Steamship SS, Twin-Screw Steamship TSS, Triple-Screw Steamship TrSS. Steam turbine-driven ships had the prefix TS. In the UK the prefix RMS for Royal Mail Steamship overruled the screw configuration prefix. See Ship prefix[9]

text: First ocean-going steamships[edit]

text: The first steamship credited with crossing the Atlantic Ocean between North America and Europe was the American ship SS Savannah, though she was actually a hybrid between a steamship and a sailing ship, with the first half of the journey making use of the steam engine. Savannah left the port of Savannah, Georgia, on 22 May 1819, arriving in Liverpool, England, on 20 June 1819; her steam engine having been in use for part of the time on 18 days (estimates vary from 8 to 80 hours).[10] A claimant to the title of the first ship to make the transatlantic trip substantially under steam power is the British-built Dutch-owned Curaçao, a wooden 438 ton vessel built in Dover and powered by two 50 hp engines, which crossed from Hellevoetsluis, near Rotterdam on 26 April 1827 to Paramaribo, Surinam on 24 May, spending 11 days under steam on the way out and more on the return. Another claimant is the Canadian ship SS Royal William in 1833.[11]

text: The British side-wheel paddle steamer SS Great Western was the first steamship purpose-built for regularly scheduled trans-Atlantic crossings, starting in 1838. In 1836 Isambard Kingdom Brunel and a group of Bristol investors formed the Great Western Steamship Company to build a line of steamships for the Bristol-New York route.[12] The idea of regular scheduled transatlantic service was under discussion by several groups and the rival British and American Steam Navigation Company was established at the same time.[13] Great Western's design sparked controversy from critics that contended that she was too big.[12] The principle that Brunel understood was that the carrying capacity of a hull increases as the cube of its dimensions, while water resistance only increases as the square of its dimensions. This meant that large ships were more fuel efficient, something very important for long voyages across the Atlantic.[14]

text: Great Western was an iron-strapped, wooden, side-wheel paddle steamer, with four masts to hoist the auxiliary sails. The sails were not just to provide auxiliary propulsion, but also were used in rough seas to keep the ship on an even keel and ensure that both paddle wheels remained in the water, driving the ship in a straight line. The hull was built of oak by traditional methods. She was the largest steamship for one year, until the British and American's British Queen went into service. Built at the shipyard of Patterson & Mercer in Bristol, Great Western was launched on 19 July 1837 and then sailed to London, where she was fitted with two side-lever steam engines from the firm of Maudslay, Sons & Field, producing 750 indicated horsepower between them.[12] The ship proved satisfactory in service and initiated the transatlantic route, acting as a model for all following Atlantic paddle-steamers.

text: The Cunard Line's RMS Britannia began her first regular passenger and cargo service by a steamship in 1840, sailing from Liverpool to Boston.[15]

text: In 1847 the revolutionary SS Great Britain, also built by Brunel, became the first iron-hulled screw-driven ship to cross the Atlantic.[16] The SS Great Britain was the first ship to combine these two innovations. After the initial success of its first liner, SS Great Western of 1838, the Great Western Steamship Company assembled the same engineering team that had collaborated so successfully before. This time however, Brunel, whose reputation was at its height, came to assert overall control over design of the ship—a state of affairs that would have far-reaching consequences for the company. Construction was carried out in a specially adapted dry dock in Bristol, England.[17]

text: Brunel was given a chance to inspect John Laird's 213-foot (65 m) (English) channel packet ship Rainbow—the largest iron-hulled ship then in service— in 1838, and was soon converted to iron-hulled technology. He scrapped his plans to build a wooden ship and persuaded the company directors to build an iron-hulled ship.[18] Iron's advantages included being much cheaper than wood, not being subject to dry rot or woodworm, and its much greater structural strength. The practical limit on the length of a wooden-hulled ship is about 300 feet, after which hogging—the flexing of the hull as waves pass beneath it—become too great. Iron hulls are far less subject to hogging, so that the potential size of an iron-hulled ship is much greater.[19]

text: In the spring of 1840 Brunel also had the opportunity to inspect the SS Archimedes, the first screw-propelled steamship, completed only a few months before by F. P. Smith's Propeller Steamship Company. Brunel had been looking into methods of improving the performance of Great Britain's paddlewheels, and took an immediate interest in the new technology, and Smith, sensing a prestigious new customer for his own company, agreed to lend Archimedes to Brunel for extended tests.[18] Over several months, Smith and Brunel tested a number of different propellers on Archimedes in order to find the most efficient design, a four-bladed model submitted by Smith.[18] When launched in 1843, Great Britain was by far the largest vessel afloat.

text: Brunel's last major project, the SS Great Eastern, was built in 1854–57 with the intent of linking Great Britain with India, via the Cape of Good Hope, without any coaling stops. This ship was arguably more revolutionary than her predecessors. She was one of the first ships to be built with a double hull with watertight compartments and was the first liner to have four funnels. She was the biggest liner throughout the rest of the 19th century with a gross tonnage of almost 20,000 tons and had a passenger-carrying capacity of thousands. The ship was ahead of her time and went through a turbulent history, never being put to her intended use. The first transatlantic steamer built of steel was SS Buenos Ayrean, built by Allan Line Royal Mail Steamers and entering service in 1879.[citation needed]

text: The first regular steamship service from the East Coast to the West Coast of the United States began on 28 February 1849, with the arrival of the SS California in San Francisco Bay. The California left New York Harbor on 6  October 1848, rounded Cape Horn at the tip of South America, and arrived at San Francisco, California, after a four-month and 21-day journey. The first steamship to operate on the Pacific Ocean was the paddle steamer Beaver, launched in 1836 to service Hudson's Bay Company trading posts between Puget Sound Washington and Alaska.[20]

text: Long-distance commercial steamships[edit]

text: The most testing route for steam was from Britain or the East Coast of the USA to the Far East. The distance from either is roughly the same, between 14,000 to 15,000 nautical miles (26,000 to 28,000 km; 16,000 to 17,000 mi), traveling down the Atlantic, round the southern tip of Africa and across the Indian Ocean.[21] Before 1866, no steamship could carry enough coal to make this voyage and have enough space left to carry a commercial cargo.

text: A partial solution to this problem was adopted by the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company (P&O), using an overland section between Alexandria and Suez, with connecting steamship routes along the Mediterranean and then through the Red Sea. While this worked for passengers and some high value cargo, sail was still the only solution for virtually all trade between China and Western Europe or East Coast America. Most notable of these cargoes was tea, typically carried in clippers.[22]

text: Another partial solution was the Steam Auxiliary Ship - a vessel with a steam engine, but also rigged as a sailing vessel. The steam engine would only be used when conditions were unsuitable for sailing - in light or contrary winds. Some of this type (for instance Erl King) were built with propellers that could be lifted clear of the water to reduce drag when under sail power alone. These ships struggled to be successful on the route to China, as the standing rigging required when sailing was a handicap when steaming into a head wind, most notably against the southwest monsoon when returning with a cargo of new tea.[23]  Though the auxiliary steamers persisted in competing in far eastern trade for a few years (and it was Erl King that carried the first cargo of tea through the Suez Canal), they soon moved on to other routes.

text: What was needed was a big improvement in fuel efficiency. While the boilers for steam engines on land were allowed to run at high pressures, the Board of Trade (under the authority of the Merchant Shipping Act 1854) would not allow ships to exceed 20 or 25 pounds per square inch (140 or 170 kPa). Compound engines were a known source of improved efficiency – but generally not used at sea due to the low pressures available. Carnatic (1863), a P&O ship, had a compound engine - and achieved better efficiency than other ships of the time. Her boilers ran at 26 pounds per square inch (180 kPa) but relied on a substantial amount of superheat.[22]

text: Alfred Holt, who had entered marine engineering and ship management after an apprenticeship in railway engineering, experimented with boiler pressures of 60 pounds per square inch (410 kPa) in Cleator. Holt was able to persuade the Board of Trade to allow these boiler pressures and, in partnership with his brother Phillip launched Agamemnon in 1865. Holt had designed a particularly compact compound engine and taken great care with the hull design, producing a light, strong, easily driven hull.[22]

text: The efficiency of Holt's package of boiler pressure, compound engine and hull design gave a ship that could steam at 10 knots on 20 long tons of coal a day. This fuel consumption was a saving from between 23 and 14 long tons a day, compared to other contemporary steamers. Not only did less coal need to be carried to travel a given distance, but fewer firemen were needed to fuel the boilers, so crew costs and their accommodation space were reduced. Agamemnon was able to sail from London to China with a coaling stop at Mauritius on the outward and return journey, with a time on passage substantially less than the competing sailing vessels. Holt had already ordered two sister ships to Agamemnon by the time she had returned from her first trip to China in 1866, operating these ships in the newly formed Blue Funnel Line. His competitors rapidly copied his ideas for their own new ships.[22]

text: The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 gave a distance saving of 3,300 nautical miles (6,100 km; 3,800 mi) on the route from China to London.[24]  The canal was not a practical option for sailing vessels, as using a tug was difficult and expensive – so this distance saving was not available to them.[22] Steamships immediately made use of this new waterway and found themselves in high demand in China for the start of the 1870 tea season. The steamships were able to obtain a much higher rate of freight than sailing ships and the insurance premium for the cargo was less. So successful were the steamers using the Suez Canal that, in 1871, 45 were built in Clyde shipyards alone for Far Eastern trade.[21]

text: Era of the ocean liner[edit]

text: By 1870 a number of inventions such as the screw propeller, the compound engine,[25] and the triple-expansion engine made trans-oceanic shipping on a large scale economically viable. In 1870 the White Star Line’s RMS Oceanic set a new standard for ocean travel by having its first-class cabins amidships, with the added amenity of large portholes, electricity and running water.[26] The size of ocean liners increased from 1880 to meet the needs of the human migration to the United States and Australia.

text: RMS Umbria[27] and her sister ship RMS Etruria were the last two Cunard liners of the period to be fitted with auxiliary sails. Both ships were built by John Elder & Co. of Glasgow, Scotland, in 1884. They were record breakers by the standards of the time, and were the largest liners then in service, plying the Liverpool to New York route.

text: RMS Titanic was the largest steamship in the world when she sank in 1912; a subsequent major sinking of a steamer was that of the RMS Lusitania, as an act of World War I.

text: Launched in 1938, RMS Queen Elizabeth was the largest passenger steamship ever built. Launched in 1969, RMS Queen Elizabeth 2 (QE2) was the last passenger steamship to cross the Atlantic Ocean on a scheduled liner voyage before she was converted to diesels in 1986. The last major passenger ship built with steam turbines was the Fairsky, launched in 1984,[citation needed] later Atlantic Star, reportedly sold to Turkish shipbreakers in 2013.

text: Most luxury yachts at the end of the 19th and early 20th centuries were steam driven (see luxury yacht; also Cox & King yachts). Thomas Assheton Smith was an English aristocrat who forwarded the design of the steam yacht in conjunction with the Scottish marine engineer Robert Napier.[28]

text: Decline of the steamship[edit]

text: The decline of the steamship began after World War II. Many had been lost in the war, and marine diesel engines had finally matured as an economical and viable alternative to steam power. The diesel engine had far better thermal efficiency than the reciprocating steam engine, and was far easier to control. Diesel engines also required far less supervision and maintenance than steam engines, and as an internal combustion engine it did not need boilers or a water supply, therefore was more space efficient.

text: The Liberty ships were the last major steamship class equipped with reciprocating engines. The last Victory ships had already been equipped with marine diesels, and diesel engines superseded both steamers and windjammers soon after World War Two. Most steamers were used up to their maximum economical life span, and no commercial ocean-going steamers with reciprocating engines have been built since the 1960s.

text: 1970–present day[edit]

text: Most steamships today are powered by steam turbines. After the demonstration by British engineer Charles Parsons of his steam turbine-driven yacht, Turbinia, in 1897, the use of steam turbines for propulsion quickly spread. The Cunard RMS Mauretania, built in 1906 was one of the first ocean liners to use the steam turbine (with a late design change shortly before her keel was laid down) and was soon followed by all subsequent liners.[29]

text:
Most capital ships of the major navies were propelled by steam turbines burning bunker fuel in both World Wars. Large naval vessels and submarines continue to be operated with steam turbines, using nuclear reactors to boil the water.
NS Savannah, was the first nuclear-powered cargo-passenger ship, and was built in the late 1950s as a demonstration project for the potential use of nuclear energy.[30]

text: Thousands of Liberty Ships (powered by steam piston engines) and Victory Ships (powered by steam turbine engines) were built in World War II. A few of these survive as floating museums and sail occasionally: SS Jeremiah O'Brien, SS John W. Brown, SS American Victory, SS Lane Victory, and SS Red Oak Victory.

text: A steam turbine ship can be either direct propulsion (the turbines, equipped with a reduction gear, rotate directly the propellers), or turboelectric (the turbines rotate electric generators, which in turn feed electric motors operating the propellers).

text: While steam turbine-driven merchant ships such as the Algol-class cargo ships (1972–1973), ALP Pacesetter-class container ships (1973–1974)[31][32] and very large crude carriers were built until the 1970s, the use of steam for marine propulsion in the commercial market has declined dramatically due to the development of more efficient diesel engines. One notable exception are LNG carriers which use boil-off gas from the cargo tanks as fuel. However, even there the development of dual-fuel engines has pushed steam turbines into a niche market with about 10% market share in newbuildings in 2013. Lately, there has been some development in hybrid power plants where the steam turbine is used together with gas engines.[33]  As of August 2017 the newest class of Steam Turbine ships are the Seri Camellia-class LNG carriers built by Hyundai Heavy Industries (HHI) starting in 2016 and comprising five units.[34]

text: Nuclear powered ships are basically steam turbine vessels. The boiler is heated, not by heat of combustion, but by the heat generated by nuclear reactor. Most atomic-powered ships today are either aircraft carriers or submarines.


document_title: Hooterville Cannonball

question_text: where is the train used in petticoat junction

text: Hooterville Cannonball

text: Petticoat Junction[edit]

text: The most unusual "character" in the Petticoat Junction cast is the Hooterville Cannonball, an 1890s abbreviated train with a steam locomotive and single combination car (with a baggage and passenger section). The train is operated more like a taxi service by retired engineer Charley Pratt (Smiley Burnette) and retired conductor Floyd Smoot (Rufe Davis). It operates on a long forgotten spur between Hooterville and Pixley that was disconnected from the railway's main line after the collapse of a trestle twenty years before the start of the series. It is not uncommon for the Cannonball to make an unscheduled stop in order to go fishing or to pick fruit for Kate Bradley's menu at the Shady Rest Hotel. Occasionally, Betty Jo Bradley can be found with her hand on the Cannonball's throttle, as running the train home from trips into town is one of her favorite pastimes.

text: J. Homer Bedloe (played by Charles Lane) is vice president of the C&FW Railroad, the owner of the Cannonball. Bedloe is a mean-spirited executive, and he periodically visits the Shady Rest Hotel and attempts to end the train service of the Hooterville Cannonball (and never succeeds).

text: In Episode 31 of Season 1, "Charley Abandons The Cannonball," engineer Charley Pratt picks up his guitar and sings an ode to the train. The lyrics are sung roughly to the tune of "Wabash Cannonball".

text: Production[edit]

text: Two Hooterville Cannonball trains used were for filming. The working model was the Sierra No. 3 locomotive, and it was used to film all the exterior "long shots", including the show's opening and closing credits. This locomotive is still operational at Railtown 1897 State Historic Park in California, after a complete restoration that was finished in 2010.[1] Clint Eastwood was part of a fundraiser for the restoration. He was familiar with the Sierra No. 3 from his days on the western television show Rawhide, and he used it in his films Pale Rider and Unforgiven.

text: A full-scale prop locomotive was used for studio sound stage scenes. It was built in 1950 by 20th Century Fox for a movie called A Ticket to Tomahawk, starring Dan Dailey, Walter Brennan, Rory Calhoun and Marilyn Monroe. Built of wood, fiberglass and metal, it was a replica of a locomotive called the Emma Sweeny, and it was pulled by a team of mules for its scenes in the film. The original 1950 cost of the elaborate studio mock-up was $40,000. Later in the 1950s, Fox sold the locomotive replica to Harvey Dick, who used it for the décor of the Barbary Coast Lounge in the lobby of his Hoyt Hotel, an 1890s style gas-light hotel in Portland, Oregon.[2] Harvey Dick loaned the replica to the producers of Petticoat Junction in exchange for the prominent screen credit seen at the end of each episode, "Train furnished by Barbary Coast, Hoyt Hotel, Portland, Oregon". It was also used in the show The Wild Wild West for scenes of the engine and tender.

text: In the 1970s, the locomotive replica was purchased by Sacramento restaurateur/collector Sam Gordon. Gordon displayed it in the parking lot of his Sam's Stage Coach Inn (Sam's Town) along Highway 50 in Cameron Park, California, about 30 miles east of Sacramento. The replica fell into disrepair. In 1979, it was purchased by John Queirolo and Rick Stevenson, who later gave it to the Amador County Museum in Jackson, California, where it was restored and displayed. In August 2011, the Amador County museum sold the locomotive replica to the Durango Railroad Historical Society in Durango, Colorado, which planned to restore it to its original state as the Emma Sweeny.[3]

text: Popular culture[edit]

text: In 1966 Tyco Toys manufactured a tie-in electric train set.