document_title: Occupation of the Ruhr

question_text: why did german workers go on strike in 1923

text: Occupation of the Ruhr

text: Background[edit]

text: The Ruhr region had been occupied by Allied troops in the immediate aftermath of the First World War, during the Allied occupation of the Rhineland (1918–1919). Under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles (1919), which formally ended the war, Germany accepted responsibility for the damages caused in the war and was obliged to pay war reparations to the various Allies, principally France. The total sum of reparations demanded from Germany—around 226 billion gold marks (US $859 billion in 2017)—was decided by an Inter-Allied Reparations Commission. In 1921, the amount was reduced to 132 billion (at that time, $31.4 billion (US $442 billion in 2017), or £6.6 billion (UK £284 billion in 2017)).[1] Even with the reduction, the debt was huge. As some of the payments were in industrial raw materials, German factories were unable to function, and the German economy suffered, further damaging the country's ability to pay.[2]

text: By late 1922, the German defaults on payments had grown so regular that a crisis engulfed the Reparations Commission; the French and Belgian delegates urged occupying the Ruhr as a way of forcing Germany to pay more, while the British delegate urged a lowering of the payments.[3] As a consequence of a German default on timber deliveries in December 1922, the Reparations Commission declared Germany in default, which led to the Franco-Belgian occupation of the Ruhr in January 1923.[4] Particularly galling to the French was that the timber quota the Germans defaulted on was based on an assessment of their capacity the Germans made themselves and subsequently lowered.[5] The Allies believed that the government of Chancellor Wilhelm Cuno had defaulted on the timber deliveries deliberately as a way of testing the will of the Allies to enforce the treaty.[5] The entire conflict was further exacerbated by a German default on coal deliveries in early January 1923, which was the thirty-fourth coal default in the previous thirty-six months.[6] The French Premier Raymond Poincaré was deeply reluctant to order the Ruhr occupation and took this step only after the British had rejected his proposals for non-military sanctions against Germany.[7] Frustrated at Germany not paying reparations, Poincaré hoped for joint Anglo-French economic sanctions against Germany in 1922 and opposed military action. However, by December 1922 he was faced with Anglo-American-German opposition and saw coal for French steel production and payments in money as laid out in the Treaty of Versailles draining away. Poincaré was exasperated with British opposition, and wrote to the French ambassador in London:

text: Judging others by themselves, the English, who are blinded by their loyalty, have always thought that the Germans did not abide by their pledges inscribed in the Versailles Treaty because they had not frankly agreed to them. ... We, on the contrary, believe that if Germany, far from making the slightest effort to carry out the treaty of peace, has always tried to escape her obligations, it is because until now she has not been convinced of her defeat. ... We are also certain that Germany, as a nation, resigns herself to keep her pledged word only under the impact of necessity.[8]

text: Poincaré decided to occupy the Ruhr on 11 January 1923 to extract the reparations himself. The real issue during the Ruhrkampf (Ruhr struggle), as the Germans labelled the battle against the French occupation, was not the German defaults on coal and timber deliveries but the sanctity of the Versailles Treaty.[9] Poincaré often argued to the British that letting the Germans defy Versailles in regards to the reparations would create a precedent that would lead to the Germans dismantling the rest of the Versailles treaty.[10] Finally, Poincaré argued that once the chains that had bound Germany in Versailles were destroyed, it was inevitable that Germany would plunge the world into another world war.[10]

text: Initiated by French Prime Minister Raymond Poincaré, the invasion took place on 11 January 1923. General Alphonse Caron’s 32nd infantry corps under the supervision of General Jean-Marie Degoutte carried out the operation.[11] Some theories state that the French aimed to occupy the centre of German coal, iron, and steel production in the Ruhr area valley simply to get the money. Some others state that France did it to ensure that the reparations were paid in goods, because the Mark was practically worthless because of hyperinflation that already existed at the end of 1922. France had the iron ore and Germany had the coal. Each state wanted free access to the resource it was short of, as together these resources had far more value than separately. (Eventually this problem was resolved in the post-World War II European Coal and Steel community.)

text: Following France's decision to invade the Ruhr,[12] the Inter-Allied Mission for Control of Factories and Mines (MICUM)[13] was set up as a means of ensuring coal repayments from Germany.[14]

text: Passive resistance[edit]

text: The occupation was greeted by a campaign of passive resistance. Approximately 130 German civilians were killed by the French occupation army during the events, including during civil disobedience protests, e.g. against dismissal of German officials.[15][16] Some theories assert that to pay for passive resistance in the Ruhr, the German government began the hyperinflation that destroyed the German economy in 1923.[9] Others state that the road to hyperinflation was well established before with the reparation payments that started on November 1921,[17] see 1920s German inflation. In the face of economic collapse, with high unemployment and hyperinflation, the strikes were eventually called off in September 1923 by the new Gustav Stresemann coalition government, which was followed by a state of emergency. Despite this, civil unrest grew into riots and coup attempts targeted at the government of the Weimar Republic, including the Beer Hall Putsch. The Rhenish Republic was proclaimed at Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle) in October 1923.

text: Though the French did succeed in making their occupation of the Ruhr pay, the Germans through their passive resistance in the Ruhr and the hyperinflation that wrecked their economy, won the world's sympathy, and under heavy Anglo-American financial pressure (the simultaneous decline in the value of the franc made the French very open to pressure from Wall Street and the City), the French were forced to agree to the Dawes Plan of April 1924, which substantially lowered German reparations payments.[18] Under the Dawes Plan, Germany paid only 1 billion marks in 1924, and then increasing amounts for the next three years, until the total rose to 2.25 billion marks by 1927.

text: Sympathy for Germany[edit]

text: Internationally the French invasion of Germany did much to boost sympathy for the German Republic although no action was taken in the League of Nations since it was technically legal under the Treaty of Versailles.[19] The French, with their own economic problems, eventually accepted the Dawes Plan and withdrew from the occupied areas in July and August 1925. The last French troops evacuated Düsseldorf and Duisburg along with the city's important harbour in Duisburg-Ruhrort, ending French occupation of the Ruhr region on 25 August 1925. According to Sally Marks, the occupation of the Ruhr "was profitable and caused neither the German hyperinflation, which began in 1922 and ballooned because of German responses to the Ruhr occupation, nor the franc's 1924 collapse, which arose from French financial practices and the evaporation of reparations".[20] Marks suggests the profits, after Ruhr-Rhineland occupation costs, were nearly 900 million gold marks.[21]

text: Poincaré[edit]

text: Despite his disagreements with Britain, Poincaré desired to preserve the Anglo-French entente and thus moderated his aims to a degree. His major goal was the winning of the extraction of reparations payments from Germany. His inflexible methods and authoritarian personality led to the failure of his diplomacy.[22]

text: British perspective[edit]

text: When on 12 July 1922, Germany demanded a moratorium on reparation payments, tension developed between the French government of Raymond Poincaré and the Coalition government of David Lloyd George. The British Labour Party demanded peace and denounced Lloyd George as a troublemaker. It saw Germany as the martyr of the postwar period and France as vengeful and the principal threat to peace in Europe. The tension between France and Britain peaked during a conference in Paris in early 1923, by which time the coalition led by Lloyd George had been replaced by the Conservatives. The Labour Party opposed the occupation of the Ruhr throughout 1923, which it rejected as French imperialism. The British Labour Party believed it had won when Poincaré accepted the Dawes Plan in 1924.[23]

text: Aftermath[edit]

text: Dawes Plan[edit]

text: To deal with the implementation of the Dawes Plan, a conference took place in London in July–August 1924.[24] The British Labour Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald, who viewed reparations as impossible to pay, successfully pressured the French Premier Édouard Herriot into a whole series of concessions to Germany.[24] The British diplomat Sir Eric Phipps commented that “The London Conference was for the French 'man in the street' one long Calvary as he saw M. Herriot abandoning one by one the cherished possessions of French preponderance on the Reparations Commission, the right of sanctions in the event of German default, the economic occupation of the Ruhr, the French-Belgian railroad Régie, and finally, the military occupation of the Ruhr within a year”.[25] The Dawes Plan was significant in European history as it marked the first time that Germany had succeeded in defying Versailles, and revised an aspect of the treaty in its favour.

text: The Saar region remained under French control until 1935.

text: German politics[edit]

text: In German politics, the French occupation of the Rhineland accelerated the formation of right-wing parties. Disoriented by the defeat in the war, conservatives in 1922 founded a consortium of nationalist associations, the "Vereinigten Vaterländischen Verbände Deutschlands" (VVVD, United Patriotic Associations of Germany). The goal was to forge a united front of the right. In the climate of national resistance against the French Ruhr invasion, the VVVD reached its peak strength. It advocated policies of uncompromising monarchism, corporatism and opposition to the Versailles settlement. However, it lacked internal unity and money and so it never managed to unite the right before it had faded away by the late 1920s, as the Nazis emerged.[26]


document_title: M. Butterfly

question_text: who played the leading man role in m. butterfly's 1988 broadway production

question_tokens: who played the leading man role in m. butterfly 's 1988 broadway production

root

text: M. Butterfly

text: Productions[edit]

text: M. Butterfly premiered at the National Theatre, Washington, D.C., on February 10, 1988.[1]

tag: p

text: The play opened on Broadway at the Eugene O'Neill Theatre on March 20, 1988, closing after 777 performances on January 27, 1990.[2] It was produced by Stuart Ostrow and directed by John Dexter and starred John Lithgow as Gallimard and BD Wong as Song Liling. David Dukes, Anthony Hopkins, Tony Randall, and John Rubinstein played Gallimard at various times during the original run.[3] A highly unusual staging featuring Puccini's music and the Kazakh countertenor Erik Kurmangaliev in the title role was undertaken by Roman Viktyuk in Russia in 1990.[4]

text: The play was a 1989 finalist for the Pulitzer Prize for Drama.[5]

text: It is published by Plume and in an acting edition by Dramatists Play Service.[6] An audio recording of the play was produced by L. A. Theatre Works, with Lithgow and Wong reprising their Broadway roles along with Margaret Cho.[7]

text: A Broadway revival opened on October 26, 2017, at the Cort Theatre, with previews beginning on October 7. Starring Clive Owen, the production was directed by Julie Taymor.[8][9] David Henry Hwang made changes to the original text for the revival, mostly centering around the issue of intersectional identities, but also for clarifications.[10]

text: Plot[edit]

text: The first act introduces the main character, Rene Gallimard, who is a civil servant attached to the French embassy in China. He falls in love with a beautiful Chinese opera diva, Song Liling, who is actually a man masquerading as a woman. In traditional Beijing opera, females were banned from the stage; all female roles (dan) were played by males. The first act ends with Gallimard returning to France in shame and living alone after his wife, Helga, finds out about his affair with Song and leaves him.

text: Act two begins with Song coming to France and resuming the affair with Gallimard. They stay together for 20 years until the truth is revealed, and Gallimard is convicted of treason and imprisoned. Unable to face the fact that his "perfect woman" is actually a man, that has been posing as a woman for 20 years to be able to spy, he retreats deep within himself and his memories. The action of the play is depicted as his disordered, distorted recollection of the events surrounding their affair.

text: The third act portrays Gallimard performing seppuku (also known as harakiri, ritual Japanese suicide through self-disembowelment) while Song watches and smokes a cigarette.

text: Film adaptation[edit]

text: Hwang adapted the play for a 1993 film directed by David Cronenberg with Jeremy Irons and John Lone in the leading roles.[11]

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text: Original Broadway production[edit]

text:
Year
Award ceremony
Category
Nominee
Result

1988
Tony Award
Best Play
David Henry Hwang
Won

Best Performance by a Leading Actor in a Play
John Lithgow
Nominated

Best Performance by a Featured Actor in a Play
B.D. Wong
Won

Best Direction of a Play
John Dexter
Won

Best Scenic Design
Eiko Ishioka
Nominated

Best Costume Design
Nominated

Best Lighting Design
Andy Phillips
Nominated

Drama Desk Award
Outstanding New Play
David Henry Hwang
Won

Outstanding Actor in a Play
John Lithgow
Nominated

Outstanding Featured Actor in a Play
B.D. Wong
Won

Outstanding Director of a Play
John Dexter
Won

Outstanding Set Design
Eiko Ishioka
Nominated

Outstanding Costume Design
Nominated

Outer Critics Circle Award
Outstanding New Broadway Play
Won

Outstanding Debut Performance
B.D. Wong
Won

John Gassner Award
David Henry Hwang
Won

New York Drama Critics' Circle
Best Play
David Henry Hwang
Nominated

Theatre World Award
B.D. Wong
Won

Clarence Derwent Awards
Most Promising Male Performer
B.D. Wong
Won

tag: table


document_title: Know your customer

question_text: know your customer (kyc) guidelines are as per the provisions of

question_tokens: know your customer ( kyc ) guidelines are as per the provisions of

text: Know your customer

text: Standards[edit]

text: The objectives of KYC guidelines is to prevent banks from being used, intentionally or unintentionally, by criminal elements for money laundering activities. Related procedures also enable banks to better understand their customers and their financial dealings. This helps them manage their risks prudently. Banks usually frame their KYC policies incorporating the following four key elements:

text:
Customer Acceptance Policy;
Customer Identification Procedures;
Monitoring of Transactions; and
Risk management.

tag: ul

text: For the purposes of a KYC policy, a Customer/user may be defined as:

text:
a person or entity that maintains an account and/or has a business relationship with the bank;
one on whose behalf the account is maintained (i.e. the beneficial owner);
beneficiaries of transactions conducted by professional intermediaries such as stockbrokers, Chartered Accountants, or solicitors, as permitted under the law; or
any person or entity connected with a financial transaction which can pose significant reputational or other risks to the bank, for example, a wire transfer or issue of a high-value demand draft as a single transaction

text: Typical controls[edit]

text: KYC controls typically include the following:

text:
Collection and analysis of basic identity information such as Identity documents (referred to in US regulations and practice as a "Customer Identification Program" or CIP)
Name matching against lists of known parties (such as "politically exposed person" or PEP)
Determination of the customer's risk in terms of propensity to commit money laundering, terrorist finance, or identity theft
Creation of an expectation of a customer's transactional behavior
Monitoring of a customer's transactions against expected behavior and recorded profile as well as that of the customer's peers

text: Laws by country[edit]

text:
Australia: The Anti-Money Laundering and Counter-Terrorism Financing Act 2006 (AML/CTF Act) gives effect to KYC laws.[2] The Anti-Money Laundering and Counter-Terrorism Financing Rules Instrument 2007 provides guidance for applying the powers and requirements of the Act.[3] Compliance is governed by the Australian Government agency, Australian Transaction Reports and Analysis Centre, established in 1989, known as AUSTRAC.[4]
Canada: The Financial Transactions Reports Analysis Centre of Canada, also known as FINTRAC, was created in 2000 as Canada’s financial intelligence unit. FINTRAC updated its regulations in June 2016 regarding acceptable methods to determine the identity of individual clients to ensure compliance with AML and KYC regulations.
India: The Reserve Bank of India introduced KYC guidelines[5] for all banks in 2002. In 2004, RBI directed all banks to ensure that they are fully compliant with the KYC provisions before December 31, 2005.[6]
Italy: the country's Central Bank (Banca d'Italia), which also exercises regulation power for the financial industry, has enacted in 2007 the KYC requirements and rules that financial institutions have to comply with on the italian territory.[7]
Namibia: Financial Intelligence Act, 2012 (Act No. 13 of 2012) published as Government Notice 299 in Gazette 5096 of 14 December 2012.[8]
New Zealand: Updated KYC laws were enacted in late 2009 and entered into force in 2010. KYC is mandatory for all registered banks and financial institutions (the latter has an extremely wide meaning).[9]
South Africa: The Financial Intelligence Centre Act 38 of 2001 (FICA)
United Kingdom: The Money Laundering Regulations 2007 are the underlying rules that govern KYC in the UK. Many UK businesses use the guidance provided by the European Joint Money Laundering Steering Group as a guide to compliance.
United States: Pursuant to the USA Patriot Act of 2001, the Secretary of the Treasury was required to finalize regulations before October 26, 2002 making KYC mandatory for all US banks. The related processes are required to conform to a customer identification program (CIP)
Luxembourg: KYC is governed in the Anti-Money Laundering (AML) laws and regulations, which became effective in 1993 and were amended for the last time in 2015.

text: Enhanced due diligence[edit]

text: Enhanced due diligence (EDD) is a more detailed standard required for larger customers and transactions. The USA PATRIOT Act dictates that institutions "shall establish appropriate, specific, and, where necessary, enhanced, due diligence policies, procedures, and controls that are reasonably designed to detect and report instances of money laundering through those accounts."[10] US regulations require that EDD measures are applied to account types such as Private banking, Correspondent account, and Offshore banking institutions. Because regulatory definitions are neither globally consistent nor prescriptive, financial institutions are at risk of being held to differing standards dependent upon their jurisdiction and regulatory environment. An article published by Peter Warrack in the July 2006 edition of ACAMS Today (Association of Certified Anti-Money Laundering Specialists) suggests the following: "A rigorous and robust process of investigation over and above (KYC) procedures, that seeks with reasonable assurance to verify and validate the customer’s identity; understand and test the customer’s profile, business and account activity; identify relevant adverse information and risk; assess the potential for money laundering and / or terrorist financing to support actionable decisions to mitigate against financial, regulatory and reputational risk and ensure regulatory compliance."

text: Characteristics of EDD[edit]

text: Rigorous and robust[edit]

text: Generally this means consistent, thorough and accurate. The process must be documented and available for inspection by regulators. The process must be SMART (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant and Timebound),[11] scalable and proportionate to the risk and resources.

text: Over and above KYC procedures[edit]

text: EDD files rely upon initial client screening. EDD processes should use a tiered approach dependent upon the risk. Crucial to the integrity of any EDD process is the reliability of information and information sources, the type and quality of information sources used, properly trained analysts who know where to look for information, how to look and how to corroborate, interpret and decide the results. Commercial intelligence companies aggregate this information and compile it daily into a comprehensive database. Many of these commercial intelligence companies are serviced by in-country providers with researchers on the ground who can obtain information that is not otherwise easily accessible.

text: Reasonable assurance[edit]

text: What is reasonable depends upon factors including jurisdiction, risk, resources, and technology state of the art. For sanction matches it depends upon information provided by regulators. In all cases the suggested standard is to the civil standard of proof i.e. on the balance of probability.

text: Relevant adverse information[edit]

text: Information obtained from any source, including the Internet, free and subscription databases and the media, which is directly or indirectly indicative of involvement in money laundering, terrorist financing or predicate offenses. Examples include fraud and other dishonesty, drug trafficking, smuggling or other proscribed offenses, references to money laundering, or conducting business, residing in or frequenting countries deemed by the Financial Action Task Force and/or (institution) as being countries under sanction or countries with which (institution) does not do business; to official sanctions or watch lists; and to investigations, convictions or disciplinary findings by authorized regulatory bodies.


document_title: Climate of the United Kingdom

question_text: what is the hottest place in the british isles

question_tokens: what is the hottest place in the british isles

text: Climate of the United Kingdom

text: England[edit]

text: England generally has higher maximum & minimum temperatures than the other areas of the UK, though Wales has higher minima from November to February, and Northern Ireland has higher maxima from December to February. England is also sunnier throughout the year, but unlike Wales, Northern Ireland & Scotland, the sunniest month is July, totalling 193.5 hours. It rains on fewer days in every month throughout the year than the rest of the UK, and rainfall totals are less in every month, with the driest month, May, averaging 58.4 mm (2.30 in).[2] The climate of south-west England displays a seasonal temperature variation, although it is less extreme than most of the United Kingdom. Gales are less common in England compared to Scotland; however on some occasions there can be strong winds, and rarely, the remains of Atlantic hurricanes and tropical storms. Some events such as the Great Storm of 1987 occurred near to the UK and caused damage in England. The prevailing wind direction for England is from the south-west.

text:
[hide]England weather averages

Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year

Average maximum temperature
°C (°F)
6.9
(44.4)
7.2
(45.0)
9.8
(49.6)
12.4
(54.3)
15.8
(60.4)
18.6
(65.5)
20.9
(69.6)
20.7
(69.3)
17.9
(64.2)
13.9
(57.0)
9.9
(49.8)
7.2
(45.0)
13.5
(56.3)

Average minimum temperature
°C (°F)
1.3
(34.4)
1.1
(34.0)
2.6
(36.7)
3.9
(39.0)
6.7
(44.1)
9.5
(49.1)
11.7
(53,1)
11.5
(52.7)
9.6
(49.3)
6.9
(44.4)
3.8
(38.8)
1.6
(34.9)
5.9
(42.6)

Sunshine
hours
54.2
74.3
107.6
155.2
190.6
182.6
193.5
182.5
137.2
103.1
64.5
47.3
1492.7

Rainfall
mm (inches)
82.9
(3.3)
60.3
(2.4)
64.0
(2.5)
58.7
(2.3)
58.4
(2.3)
61.8
(2.4)
62.6
(2.5)
69.3
(2.7)
69.7
(2.7)
91.7
(3.6)
88.2
(3.5)
87.2
(3.4)
854.8
(33.7)

Rainfall ≥ 1 mm
days
13.2
10.4
11.5
10.4
9.9
9.6
9.5
9.9
9.9
12.6
13.1
12.7
132.8

Source: Met Office[2] (1981–2010 averages)

text:
[hide]Climate data for England

Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year

Record high °C (°F)
17.6
(63.7)
19.7
(67.5)
25.6
(78.1)
29.4
(84.9)
32.8
(91)
35.6
(96.1)
36.7
(98.1)
38.5
(101.3)
35.6
(96.1)
29.9
(85.8)
21.1
(70)
17.7
(63.9)
38.5
(101.3)

Record low °C (°F)
−26.1
(−15)
−20.6
(−5.1)
−21.1
(−6)
−15.0
(5)
−9.4
(15.1)
−5.6
(21.9)
−1.7
(28.9)
−2.0
(28.4)
−5.6
(21.9)
−10.6
(12.9)
−15.5
(4.1)
−25.2
(−13.4)
−26.1
(−15)

Source: The Met Office[3]

text:
[hide]Climate data for Sheffield

Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year

Average high °C (°F)
6.4
(43.5)
6.7
(44.1)
9.3
(48.7)
11.8
(53.2)
15.7
(60.3)
18.3
(64.9)
20.8
(69.4)
20.6
(69.1)
17.3
(63.1)
13.3
(55.9)
9.2
(48.6)
7.2
(45)
13.1
(55.6)

Average low °C (°F)
1.6
(34.9)
1.6
(34.9)
3.1
(37.6)
4.4
(39.9)
7.0
(44.6)
10.0
(50)
12.4
(54.3)
12.1
(53.8)
10.0
(50)
7.2
(45)
4.2
(39.6)
2.6
(36.7)
6.4
(43.5)

Average precipitation mm (inches)
86.5
(3.406)
63.4
(2.496)
67.9
(2.673)
62.5
(2.461)
55.5
(2.185)
66.7
(2.626)
51.0
(2.008)
63.5
(2.5)
64.3
(2.531)
73.9
(2.909)
77.7
(3.059)
91.9
(3.618)
824.7
(32.469)

Source: The Met Office[3]

text:
[hide]Climate data for Birmingham Elmdon, 99m asl, 1971–2000, extremes 1901– (sunshine 1961–1990)

Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year

Record high °C (°F)
15.0
(59)
18.1
(64.6)
23.7
(74.7)
26.0
(78.8)
30.0
(86)
31.6
(88.9)
32.9
(91.2)
34.9
(94.8)
29.8
(85.6)
26.8
(80.2)
18.7
(65.7)
15.7
(60.3)
34.9
(94.8)

Average high °C (°F)
6.7
(44.1)
7.1
(44.8)
9.8
(49.6)
12.7
(54.9)
16.0
(60.8)
19.0
(66.2)
21.3
(70.3)
20.8
(69.4)
17.8
(64)
13.6
(56.5)
9.5
(49.1)
6.9
(44.4)
13.4
(56.1)

Average low °C (°F)
1.4
(34.5)
1.1
(34)
2.9
(37.2)
4.2
(39.6)
7.1
(44.8)
10.0
(50)
12.1
(53.8)
11.8
(53.2)
9.7
(49.5)
6.8
(44.2)
3.8
(38.8)
1.6
(34.9)
6.0
(42.8)

Record low °C (°F)
−20.8
(−5.4)
−13.7
(7.3)
−11.6
(11.1)
−6.6
(20.1)
−3.8
(25.2)
−0.8
(30.6)
1.2
(34.2)
2.2
(36)
−1.8
(28.8)
−6.8
(19.8)
−8.9
(16)
−18.5
(−1.3)
−20.8
(−5.4)

Average precipitation mm (inches)
73.2
(2.882)
51.4
(2.024)
55.8
(2.197)
61.9
(2.437)
61.3
(2.413)
65.6
(2.583)
63.8
(2.512)
66.7
(2.626)
68.1
(2.681)
82.7
(3.256)
74.8
(2.945)
79.7
(3.138)
805
(31.69)

Mean monthly sunshine hours
49.7
60.0
101.5
129.2
178.0
186.2
181.0
166.8
134.3
97.2
64.2
46.9
1,395

Source #1: Royal Dutch Meteorological Institute[4]

Source #2: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration[5]

text:
[hide]Climate data for Manchester (MAN), elevation: 69 m or 226 ft, 1981-2010 normals, extremes 1958-2004

Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year

Record high °C (°F)
14.3
(57.7)
16.5
(61.7)
21.7
(71.1)
25.1
(77.2)
26.7
(80.1)
31.3
(88.3)
32.2
(90)
33.7
(92.7)
28.4
(83.1)
25.6
(78.1)
17.7
(63.9)
15.1
(59.2)
33.7
(92.7)

Mean maximum °C (°F)
12.4
(54.3)
12.6
(54.7)
15.6
(60.1)
19.1
(66.4)
23.1
(73.6)
25.5
(77.9)
26.9
(80.4)
27.0
(80.6)
23.1
(73.6)
18.9
(66)
15.4
(59.7)
13.2
(55.8)
28.7
(83.7)

Average high °C (°F)
7.3
(45.1)
7.6
(45.7)
10.0
(50)
12.6
(54.7)
16.1
(61)
18.6
(65.5)
20.6
(69.1)
20.3
(68.5)
17.6
(63.7)
13.9
(57)
10.0
(50)
7.4
(45.3)
13.5
(56.3)

Daily mean °C (°F)
4.5
(40.1)
4.6
(40.3)
6.7
(44.1)
8.8
(47.8)
11.9
(53.4)
14.6
(58.3)
16.6
(61.9)
16.4
(61.5)
14.0
(57.2)
10.7
(51.3)
7.1
(44.8)
4.6
(40.3)
10.0
(50)

Average low °C (°F)
1.7
(35.1)
1.6
(34.9)
3.3
(37.9)
4.9
(40.8)
7.7
(45.9)
10.5
(50.9)
12.6
(54.7)
12.4
(54.3)
10.3
(50.5)
7.4
(45.3)
4.2
(39.6)
1.8
(35.2)
6.6
(43.9)

Mean minimum °C (°F)
−4.8
(23.4)
−4.2
(24.4)
−2.4
(27.7)
−0.9
(30.4)
2.3
(36.1)
5.2
(41.4)
8.0
(46.4)
7.2
(45)
4.6
(40.3)
0.5
(32.9)
−2.4
(27.7)
−5.7
(21.7)
−7.4
(18.7)

Record low °C (°F)
−12.0
(10.4)
−13.1
(8.4)
−9.7
(14.5)
−4.9
(23.2)
−1.7
(28.9)
0.8
(33.4)
5.4
(41.7)
3.6
(38.5)
0.8
(33.4)
−4.7
(23.5)
−7.5
(18.5)
−13.5
(7.7)
−13.5
(7.7)

Average precipitation mm (inches)
72.3
(2.846)
51.4
(2.024)
61.2
(2.409)
54.0
(2.126)
56.8
(2.236)
66.1
(2.602)
63.9
(2.516)
77.0
(3.031)
71.5
(2.815)
92.5
(3.642)
81.5
(3.209)
80.7
(3.177)
828.8
(32.63)

Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm)
13.1
9.7
12.3
11.2
10.4
11.1
10.9
12.0
11.1
13.6
14.1
13.5
142.9

Average snowy days
6
5
3
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
3
20

Average relative humidity (%)
87
86
85
85
85
87
88
89
89
89
88
87
88

Mean monthly sunshine hours
52.5
73.9
99.0
146.9
188.3
172.5
179.7
166.3
131.2
99.3
59.5
47.1
1,416.2

Source #1: Met Office[3] NOAA (relative humidity and snow days 1961-1990)[6]

Source #2: KNMI[7][8]

text:
[hide]Climate data for Shanklin, Isle of Wight 1981–2010

Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year

Average high °C (°F)
8.1
(46.6)
7.9
(46.2)
10.0
(50)
12.3
(54.1)
15.6
(60.1)
18.2
(64.8)
20.4
(68.7)
20.5
(68.9)
18.3
(64.9)
15.0
(59)
11.3
(52.3)
8.8
(47.8)
13.87
(56.95)

Average low °C (°F)
3.5
(38.3)
2.9
(37.2)
4.3
(39.7)
5.4
(41.7)
8.4
(47.1)
11.1
(52)
13.4
(56.1)
13.8
(56.8)
11.8
(53.2)
9.5
(49.1)
6.2
(43.2)
4.0
(39.2)
7.86
(46.13)

Average precipitation mm (inches)
90.8
(3.575)
65.5
(2.579)
66.0
(2.598)
53.4
(2.102)
52.1
(2.051)
46.3
(1.823)
47.1
(1.854)
54.6
(2.15)
70.5
(2.776)
115.0
(4.528)
108.6
(4.276)
101.0
(3.976)
870.9
(34.288)

Average precipitation days
13.1
9.8
10.4
9.1
8.2
7.6
6.9
7.4
8.9
12.7
12.7
12.9
119.7

Mean monthly sunshine hours
68.2
89.8
132.9
201.4
241.1
247.7
262.3
240.9
173.1
122.3
82.6
60.7
1,923

Source: Met Office[9]

text:
[hide]Climate data for Bognor Regis 7m asl, 1981-2010, extremes 1960-

Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year

Average high °C (°F)
7.8
(46)
7.9
(46.2)
10.2
(50.4)
12.8
(55)
16.0
(60.8)
18.6
(65.5)
20.9
(69.6)
21.0
(69.8)
18.8
(65.8)
15.3
(59.5)
11.3
(52.3)
8.6
(47.5)
14.1
(57.37)

Average low °C (°F)
3.1
(37.6)
2.7
(36.9)
4.3
(39.7)
5.8
(42.4)
9.0
(48.2)
11.7
(53.1)
14.0
(57.2)
13.9
(57)
11.9
(53.4)
9.3
(48.7)
5.8
(42.4)
3.6
(38.5)
7.93
(46.26)

Average precipitation mm (inches)
76.2
(3)
49.6
(1.953)
56.1
(2.209)
46.8
(1.843)
44.4
(1.748)
44.0
(1.732)
44.9
(1.768)
51.3
(2.02)
58.9
(2.319)
91.9
(3.618)
83.4
(3.283)
81.8
(3.22)
729.3
(28.713)

Average rainy days
12.5
9.0
9.7
8.8
7.6
7.3
6.5
7.3
8.3
11.2
11.6
11.7
111.5

Mean monthly sunshine hours
75.4
94.6
130.9
198.6
233.0
237.9
252.5
236.7
174.1
131.9
88.5
66.7
1,920.8

Source: Met Office [1]

text:
[hide]Climate data for Bournemouth Hurn 10m asl, 1981–2010,[Note 1] Extremes 1960–

Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year

Average high °C (°F)
8.4
(47.1)
8.5
(47.3)
11.0
(51.8)
13.5
(56.3)
17.0
(62.6)
19.8
(67.6)
22.1
(71.8)
22.0
(71.6)
19.3
(66.7)
15.3
(59.5)
11.5
(52.7)
8.7
(47.7)
14.76
(58.56)

Average low °C (°F)
1.5
(34.7)
1.2
(34.2)
2.7
(36.9)
3.8
(38.8)
7.2
(45)
9.8
(49.6)
11.9
(53.4)
11.6
(52.9)
9.4
(48.9)
7.1
(44.8)
3.7
(38.7)
1.6
(34.9)
5.96
(42.73)

Average rainfall mm (inches)
86.9
(3.421)
62.5
(2.461)
64.7
(2.547)
53.9
(2.122)
49.5
(1.949)
51.6
(2.031)
47.8
(1.882)
51.8
(2.039)
65.3
(2.571)
100.7
(3.965)
100.5
(3.957)
100.0
(3.937)
835.2
(32.882)

Average rainy days
12.8
9.6
10.8
9.1
8.8
7.7
7.9
7.3
9.0
12.6
12.5
12.3
120.4

Mean monthly sunshine hours
66.5
84.5
121.4
185.1
218.5
229.5
232.0
214.6
159.1
115.2
80.1
60.3
1,766.8

Source: Met Office[10]

text: Northern Ireland[edit]

text: Northern Ireland is warmer than Scotland throughout the year. Maximum temperatures are milder than in Wales from December to April, and milder than in England from December to February, but Northern Ireland is cooler during the rest of the year. Sunshine totals in every month are more than those of Scotland, but less than those of the rest of Great Britain. Northern Ireland is drier and has fewer rainy days than Scotland throughout the year, except in May, when it rains on more days. Northern Ireland is also drier than Wales in every month, yet it rains on more days. The rainiest month is January, when 17.8 days have more than 1 mm (0.04 in) of rain on average.[11]

text:
[hide]Northern Ireland weather averages

Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year

Average maximum temperature °C (°F)
6.7
(44.1)
7.1
(44.8)
8.9
(48.0)
11.1
(52.0)
14.2
(57.6)
16.5
(61.7)
18.4
(65.1)
18.1
(64.6)
15.7
(60.3)
12.5
(54.5)
9.2
(48.6)
7.5
(45.5)
12.2
(54.0)

Average minimum temperature °C (°F)
1.2
(34.2)
1.2
(34.2)
2.3
(36.1)
3.3
(37.9)
5.6
(42.1)
8.3
(46.9)
10.6
(51.1)
10.2
(50.4)
8.3
(46.9)
6.1
(43.0)
3.1
(37.6)
2.0
(35.6)
5.2
(41.4)

Sunshine
hours
41.0
60.1
90.0
140.8
175.9
150.9
139.6
138.0
113.1
85.5
52.8
31.9
1219.7

Rainfall
mm (inches)
119.1
(4.7)
86.5
(3.4)
93.4
(3.7)
70.6
(2.8)
68.1
(2.7)
72.1
(2.8)
73.2
(2.9)
90.8
(3.6)
94.4
(3.7)
114.5
(4.5)
110.5
(4.4)
118.5
(4.7)
1111.6
(43.8)

Rainfall ≥ 1 mm
days
17.8
14.1
16.4
12.4
12.6
12.4
13.1
13.9
14.4
16.4
16.7
16.9
177.0

Source: Met Office[11] (1971–2000 averages)

text:
[hide]Climate data for Northern Ireland

Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year

Record high °C (°F)
16.4
(61.5)
17.8
(64)
21.7
(71.1)
24.5
(76.1)
28.0
(82.4)
30.8
(87.4)
30.8
(87.4)
30.6
(87.1)
27.8
(82)
24.1
(75.4)
18.5
(65.3)
16.0
(60.8)
30.8
(87.4)

Record low °C (°F)
−17.5
(0.5)
−15.0
(5)
−14.8
(5.4)
−8.5
(16.7)
−6.5
(20.3)
−2.4
(27.7)
−1.1
(30)
−1.9
(28.6)
−3.2
(26.2)
−7.2
(19)
−12.2
(10)
−18.7
(−1.7)
−18.7
(−1.7)

Source: The Met Office[3]

text: Scotland[edit]

text: Scotland has the coolest weather of any country in the United Kingdom throughout the year (with the climate at altitude varying into Cfc), with average minimum temperatures in January of −0.2 °C (31.6 °F).[12] Scotland is also the wettest country in every month, apart from May, June and December, when Wales is wetter. The wettest month is January, with 170.5 mm (6.71 in) on average.[12] Scotland is also the cloudiest country throughout the year, apart from June and July, when Northern Ireland is.

text:
Scotland 1971-2000[12]

Climate chart (explanation)

J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D

171

5
0

123

5
0

139

7
1

86

9
2

79

13
5

85

15
7

92

17
9

107

17
9

140

14
7

163

11
5

166

7
2

170

6
1

Average max. and min. temperatures in °C

Precipitation totals in mm

[show]Imperial conversion

J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D

6.7

41
32

4.9

41
32

5.5

44
34

3.4

49
36

3.1

55
40

3.4

59
45

3.6

62
49

4.2

62
49

5.5

57
45

6.4

51
41

6.5

45
36

6.7

42
33

Average max. and min. temperatures in °F

Precipitation totals in inches

text:
[hide]Scotland weather averages

Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year

Average maximum temperature °C (°F)
5.0
(41.0)
5.2
(41.4)
6.9
(44.4)
9.3
(48.7)
12.8
(55.0)
14.9
(58.8)
16.9
(62.4)
16.6
(61.9)
13.9
(57.0)
10.8
(51.4)
7.4
(45.3)
5.7
(42.3)
10.5
(50.9)

Average minimum temperature °C (°F)
-0.2
(31.6)
-0.1
(31.8)
0.9
(33.6)
2.1
(35.8)
4.5
(40.1)
7.2
(45.0)
9.3
(48.7)
9.2
(48.6)
7.2
(45.0)
4.9
(40.8)
2.0
(35.6)
0.5
(32.9)
4.0
(39.2)

Sunshine
hours
30.8
58.1
87.6
128.2
173.2
153.2
145.0
137.5
104.4
74.5
43.2
24.7
1160.4

Rainfall
mm (inches)
170.5
(6.7)
123.4
(4.9)
138.5
(5.5)
86.2
(3.4)
79.0
(3.1)
85.1
(3.4)
92.1
(3.6)
107.4
(4.2)
139.7
(5.5)
162.6
(6.4)
165.9
(6.5)
169.6
(6.7)
1520.1
(59.8)

Rainfall ≥ 1 mm
days
18.6
14.8
17.3
13.0
12.2
12.7
13.3
14.1
15.9
17.7
17.9
18.2
185.8

Source: Met Office[12] (1971–2000 averages)

text:
[hide]Climate data for Scotland

Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year

Record high °C (°F)
18.3
(64.9)
17.9
(64.2)
23.6
(74.5)
27.2
(81)
30.9
(87.6)
32.2
(90)
32.8
(91)
32.9
(91.2)
32.2
(90)
27.4
(81.3)
20.6
(69.1)
18.3
(64.9)
32.9
(91.2)

Record low °C (°F)
−27.2
(−17)
−27.2
(−17)
−22.8
(−9)
−13.3
(8.1)
−7.7
(18.1)
−5.6
(21.9)
−2.5
(27.5)
−4.5
(23.9)
−6.7
(19.9)
−11.7
(10.9)
−23.3
(−9.9)
−27.2
(−17)
−27.2
(−17)

Source: The Met Office[3]

text:
Aberdeen

Climate chart (explanation)

J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D

75

6
0

54

6
0

61

8
1

59

10
3

55

13
5

56

16
8

59

18
10

62

18
10

73

15
8

84

12
5

84

8
2

79

6
1

Average max. and min. temperatures in °C

Precipitation totals in mm

Source: Meteo France [13]

[show]Imperial conversion

J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D

3

43
32

2.1

43
32

2.4

46
34

2.3

50
37

2.2

55
41

2.2

61
46

2.3

64
50

2.4

64
50

2.9

59
46

3.3

54
41

3.3

46
36

3.1

43
34

Average max. and min. temperatures in °F

Precipitation totals in inches

text:
Edinburgh

Climate chart (explanation)

J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D

67

7
1

47

7
1

51

9
2

40

11
4

48

14
6

61

17
9

65

19
11

60

19
11

63

16
9

75

13
6

62

9
3

60

7
1

Average max. and min. temperatures in °C

Precipitation totals in mm

Source: Met Office [14]

[show]Imperial conversion

J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D

2.6

45
34

1.9

45
34

2

48
36

1.6

52
39

1.9

57
43

2.4

63
48

2.6

66
52

2.4

66
52

2.5

61
48

3

55
43

2.4

48
37

2.4

45
34

Average max. and min. temperatures in °F

Precipitation totals in inches

text:
Glasgow

Climate chart (explanation)

J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D

148

7
1

104

7
1

112

9
3

63

11
4

67

14
7

66

16
10

73

19
12

92

19
11

112

16
9

143

12
6

126

9
4

135

7
1

Average max. and min. temperatures in °C

Precipitation totals in mm

Source: Met Office [15]

[show]Imperial conversion

J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D

5.8

45
34

4.1

45
34

4.4

48
37

2.5

52
39

2.6

57
45

2.6

61
50

2.9

66
54

3.6

66
52

4.4

61
48

5.6

54
43

5

48
39

5.3

45
34

Average max. and min. temperatures in °F

Precipitation totals in inches

text:
Lerwick

Climate chart (explanation)

J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D

142

5
1

120

5
1

124

6
2

70

8
3

53

10
5

58

12
7

66

14
10

83

14
10

106

12
8

141

10
6

146

7
4

142

6
2

Average max. and min. temperatures in °C

Precipitation totals in mm

Source: Met Office [16]

[show]Imperial conversion

J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D

5.6

41
34

4.7

41
34

4.9

43
36

2.8

46
37

2.1

50
41

2.3

54
45

2.6

57
50

3.3

57
50

4.2

54
46

5.6

50
43

5.7

45
39

5.6

43
36

Average max. and min. temperatures in °F

Precipitation totals in inches

text: Wales[edit]

text: Wales has warmer temperatures throughout the year than Scotland, and has milder winter minima than England, but cooler winter maxima than Northern Ireland. Wales is wetter throughout the year than Northern Ireland and England, but has fewer rainy days than Northern Ireland; meaning that rainfall tends to be more intense. Wales is also drier than Scotland in every month apart from May, June and December, and there are fewer days with rain than in Scotland. Sunshine totals throughout the year are more than that of Scotland and Northern Ireland, but less than that of neighbouring England. May is the sunniest month, averaging 186.8 hours.[17]

text:
Wales 1971-2000[17]

Climate chart (explanation)

J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D

158

7
1

114

7
1

119

9
2

86

11
3

81

15
6

86

17
9

78

19
11

106

19
11

124

16
9

153

13
7

157

9
4

173

7
2

Average max. and min. temperatures in °C

Precipitation totals in mm

[show]Imperial conversion

J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D

6.2

44
34

4.5

44
34

4.7

47
36

3.4

52
38

3.2

58
43

3.4

62
47

3.1

66
52

4.2

66
51

4.9

61
48

6

55
44

6.2

49
39

6.8

45
36

Average max. and min. temperatures in °F

Precipitation totals in inches

text:
[hide]Wales weather averages

Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year

Average maximum temperature °C (°F)
6.5
(43.7)
6.6
(43.9)
8.6
(47.5)
11.0
(51.8)
14.5
(58.1)
16.8
(62.2)
19.1
(66.4)
18.8
(65.8)
16.2
(61.2)
12.8
(55.0)
9.3
(48.7)
7.4
(45.3)
12.3
(54.1)

Average minimum temperature °C (°F)
1.3
(34.3)
1.1
(34.0)
2.4
(36.3)
3.4
(38.1)
6.0
(42.8)
8.6
(47.5)
10.9
(51.6)
10.7
(51.3)
8.8
(47.8)
6.5
(43.7)
3.7
(38.7)
2.2
(36.0)
5.5
(41.9)

Sunshine
hours
42.8
63.4
94.2
148.0
186.8
167.0
181.8
168.7
125.8
90.4
54.9
35.4
1359.3

Rainfall
mm (inches)
158.4
(6.2)
113.8
(4.5)
118.5
(4.7)
85.7
(3.4)
80.6
(3.2)
86.0
(3.4)
78.3
(3.1)
105.8
(4.2)
123.8
(4.9)
152.9
(6.0)
156.6
(6.2)
173.1
(6.8)
1433.5
(56.4)

Rainfall ≥ 1 mm
days
17.4
13.4
15.1
11.7
11.5
11.4
10.3
12.2
13.0
15.8
16.7
17.1
165.5

Source: Met Office[17] (1971–2000 averages)

text:
[hide]Climate data for Wales

Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year

Record high °C (°F)
18.3
(64.9)
18.7
(65.7)
23.9
(75)
26.2
(79.2)
29.2
(84.6)
33.7
(92.7)
34.6
(94.3)
35.2
(95.4)
31.1
(88)
28.2
(82.8)
22.4
(72.3)
18.0
(64.4)
35.2
(95.4)

Record low °C (°F)
−23.3
(−9.9)
−20.0
(−4)
−21.7
(−7.1)
−11.2
(11.8)
−6.1
(21)
−4.0
(24.8)
−1.5
(29.3)
−2.8
(27)
−5.5
(22.1)
−9.4
(15.1)
−18.0
(−0.4)
−22.7
(−8.9)
−23.3
(−9.9)

Source: The Met Office[3]

text: Seasons[edit]

text: Spring[edit]

text: Spring is the period from March to May. Spring is generally a calm, cool season, particularly because the Atlantic has lost much of its heat throughout the autumn and winter. As the sun rises higher in the sky and the days get longer, temperatures slowly rise, but the solar effect is mitigated somewhat by the effect of the cool ocean waters and westerly winds that blow across them.

text: There is a fair chance of snow earlier in the season when temperatures are colder - often in March. Some of the country's heaviest snowfalls of recent years have happened in the first half of March, and snow showers can occur infrequently until mid-April. They have been known to develop as late as mid-May over some areas of the country, such as in 2013 when snow was recorded on 14 May over parts of Staffordshire, Herefordshire and Wales. Snow was also recorded at lower levels in early June 1975. More recently, there was a disruptive snow event between 26 and 29 April 2016 across much of Northern England and Scotland, which was unusually the only significant snow event of the winter 2015/16. Snow, frost and ice can be disruptive and damaging to flowering plants, particularly later in the spring.

text: Early spring can be quite cold, and occasionally the lowest temperatures of the year can occur in March, as it did at Heathrow Airport on 5 March 2001, 4 March 2006 and 8 March 2011. Temperatures below freezing are not unusual in March, even in the south of the UK. On the other hand, high temperatures above 30 °C are generally rare but can occur on occasion; most recently on 25 May 2012. It was even hotter on 27 May 2005, when 31.9 °C was recorded in London. Rarely, the hottest day of the year can be in spring. As stated below, 27 May was the hottest day of the year in 2012 in most parts of the UK. In Aberdaron, the hottest day of 2011 was very early on in the year on 21 April. Temperatures in March seldom reach 20 °C, as they did in 1990, 1993, 2012 and 2017, and this temperature is usually reached for the first time in April or May. Throughout spring, there can be very dramatic temperature swings between day night. On 9 April 2017, night-time temperatures fell to just 3 °C at Northolt, but 25 °C was reached in the afternoon. Warmth in Spring depends almost entirely on the strength of the sun, and can trigger thunderstorms and downpours.

text: Mean temperatures in Spring are markedly influenced by latitude. Most of Scotland and the mountains of Wales and northern England are the coolest areas of the UK, with average temperatures ranging from −0.6 to 5.8 °C (30.9 to 42.4 °F).[18] The southern half of England experiences the warmest spring temperatures of between 8.8 and 10.3 °C (47.8 and 50.5 °F).[18]

text: Summer[edit]

text: Summer lasts from June to August and is the warmest and usually the sunniest season. Rainfall totals can have a wide local variation due to localised thundershowers. These thundershowers mainly occur in southern, eastern, and central England and are less frequent and severe in the north and west.[19] Climatic differences at this time of year are more influenced by latitude and proximity to the ocean. Temperatures are the highest in southern and central areas and lowest in the north. Hot weather above 27 °C in most places and in most years occurs on multiple days per year, but more frequently in London and south-east England and less so in parts of Scotland.[20] The record maximum is 38.5 °C (101.3 °F) recorded in Faversham, Kent on 10 August 2003.[21]

text: Autumn[edit]

text: Autumn in the United Kingdom lasts from September to November.[22] The season is notorious for being unsettled—as cool polar air moves southwards following the sun, it meets the warm air of the tropics and produces an area of great disturbance along which the country lies. This combined with the warm ocean due to heating throughout the spring and summer, produces the unsettled weather of autumn. In addition, when the air is particularly cold temperatures on land may be colder than the ocean, resulting in significant amounts of condensation and clouds which bring rain to the country.

text: Atlantic depressions during this time can become intense and winds of hurricane force (greater than 119 km/h or 74 mph) can be recorded. Western areas, being closest to the Atlantic, experience these severe conditions to a significantly greater extent than eastern areas. As such, autumn, particularly the latter part, is often the stormiest time of the year. One particularly intense depression was the Great Storm of 1987. A very severe storm affected the UK on 27 October 2002 which, at Mumbles head near Swansea, recorded maximum sustained wind speeds of over 123 km/h, equivalent to a category 1 hurricane.[23] The autumn of 2013 was also littered with severe storms, including the St. Jude's Storm on 28 October 2013.

text: Autumn can also be a cold season at times - in recent years, very low temperatures and heavy snowfall have been recorded during November 1985, November 1993 & November 2010, which set a new record low of -18.0 °C in Wales on 28 November 2010. At Northolt, the coldest temperature of the year 2016 was set on 30 November. Snow also fell rather widely across the UK on 28 & 29 October 2008, causing traffic problems where it settled on the M4. Even further south, low temperatures can be recorded, with temperatures well below freezing as far south as Heathrow Airport between 29 & 31 October 1997 - for context, the low of 30 October 1997 recorded was lower than any recorded at this station in March, November or December 1997 and even the following January, 1998 - only the low temperatures on 2 & 4 February 1998 prevented it from being the lowest temperature of the winter at this station. The first frosts of the winter are usually recorded between October & December, but they are quite unusual in September except on high ground when the surrounding ocean is at or near its warmest. It is not particularly unusual for September to be warmer than June, as it was in 1999.[24]

text: However, the United Kingdom sometimes experiences an 'Indian Summer', where temperatures particularly by night can be very mild and rarely fall below 10 °C (50 °F). Such events are aided by the surrounding Atlantic Ocean and seas being at their warmest, keeping the country in warm air, despite the relatively weak sun. Examples of this were in 1985, 1999, 2005, 2006, 2011[25] and 2016 where September saw above average temperatures which felt more like a continuation of summer than autumn. Autumns since 2000 have generally been very mild with notable extremes of precipitation; the UK has seen some of its wettest and driest autumns since the millennium. 2011 and 2016 were notable as many areas of the country recorded their highest temperatures of the year in September and October (for example, 28.2 °C at Hawarden on 1 October, 26.3 °C at St. Athan on 2 October 2011 and the UK's highest temperature of 2016 on 13 September with 34.4 °C at Gravesend).[26]

text: Coastal areas in the southern half of England have on average the warmest autumns, with mean temperatures of 10.7 to 13.0 °C (51.3 to 55.4 °F).[27] Mountainous areas of Wales and northern England, and almost all of Scotland, experience mean temperatures between 1.7 and 7.5 °C (35.1 and 45.5 °F).[27]

text: Winter[edit]

text: Winter in the UK is defined as lasting from December to February. The season is generally cool, wet, windy, and cloudy. Temperatures at night rarely drop below −10 °C (14 °F) and in the day rarely rise above 15 °C (59 °F). Precipitation is plentiful throughout the season, though snow is relatively infrequent despite the country's high latitude: The only areas with significant snowfall are the Scottish Highlands and the Pennines, where at higher elevations a colder climate determines the vegetation, mainly temperate coniferous forest, although deforestation has severely decreased forest area. For a majority of the landmass snow is possible but not frequent, apart from the higher altitudes, where snow can lie 1–5 months or even beyond 6 months.

text: Towards the later part of the season the weather usually stabilises with less wind, less precipitation and lower temperatures. This change is particularly pronounced near the coasts mainly because the Atlantic ocean is often at its coldest during this time after being cooled throughout the autumn and the winter. The early part of winter however is often unsettled and stormy; often the wettest and windiest time of the year.

text: Snow falls intermittently and mainly affects northern and eastern areas, high ground in Wales and especially the mountains of Scotland, where there is often enough snow lying to permit skiing at some of the five Scottish ski resorts. These resorts usually operate between December and April, depending on the snowfall. Frequently in the mountains potent depressions may move in from the north in the form of 'polar lows', introducing heavy snow and often blizzard-like conditions to parts of the United Kingdom, particularly Scotland. Blizzards have become rarer in the 21st century, although much of England was affected by one on 30 January 2003. During periods of light winds and high pressure frost and fog can become a problem and can pose a major hazard for drivers on the roads.

text: Mean winter temperatures in the UK are most influenced by proximity to the sea. The coldest areas are the mountains of Wales and northern England, and inland areas of Scotland, averaging −3.6 to 2.3 °C (25.5 to 36.1 °F).[28] Coastal areas, particularly those in the south and west, experience the mildest winters, on average 5 to 8.7 °C (41.0 to 47.7 °F).[28] Hardiness zones in the UK are high, ranging from zone 7 in the Scottish Highlands, the Pennines and Snowdonia, to zone 10 on the Isles of Scilly. Most of the UK lies in zones 8 or 9.[29] In zone 7, the average lowest temperature each year is between −17.7 and −12.3 °C (0.1 and 9.9 °F), and in zone 10, this figure is between −1.1 and 4.4 °C (30.0 and 39.9 °F).[30]

text: Snow in the UK falls almost every year, but in small quantities. The UK can suffer extreme winters like 1684, 1740, 1795 (when London received its record lowest temperature of −21.1 °C (−6.0 °F)), 1947 and 1963. In 1963 it snowed on Boxing Day, and snow lasted in most areas until 6 March, with blizzards through February, which had significant and documented effects on the FA Cup - Wrexham were forced to play on sand for one tie. In modern times snow has generally become rarer, but the UK can still get heavy falls, such as in 1978/79, 1981/82, 1986/87 and 1990/91. The winter of 2008/09 produced the heaviest snowfall since 1991 between 1 and 3 February, and the winter of 2009-10 was even more severe, with many parts of the United Kingdom experiencing the coldest and snowiest winters since 1978/79; temperatures plummeted to −22.3 °C (−8.1 °F) at Altnaharra, Sutherland – close to the −22.9 °C (−9.2 °F) recorded at the southernmost part of the globe[South Pole?] in the same period. The lowest temperature ever recorded in the UK was −27.2 °C (−17.0 °F) which was recorded on 10 January 1982 and 11 February 1895 in Braemar, Scotland and on 30 December 1995 in Altnaharra, Scotland. December 2010 was the coldest December in 120 years; the CET (Central England Temperature) was -0.7 °C; it was the coldest month since February 1986, and the coldest December since 1890. Many places had heavy snowfall and extreme cold, temperatures regularly fell below −10.0 °C (14.0 °F)) across many areas. However, the cold subsided after Christmas Day, 2010. November 2010 saw an extremely severe cold snap, with lows of −18.0 °C (−0.4 °F)) in Llysdinam on 28 November. The month saw temperatures below average, despite what was actually a very mild first half. Spring 2013 was also notoriously cold: March 2013 was the coldest month of the winter (and indeed 2013 as a whole), which is quite striking given that December 2012, January and February 2013 were all also below average in terms of temperature. The following winter was the opposite - in many places, only on 11 and 12 January was any snow recorded (some places having no snow at all), and the entire country was battered by a series of severe depressions and storms. The St Jude's Day storm first affected the UK on 26 October 2013, and many places saw no respite until a high swept across the country on 2 March 2014. Parts of the Somerset levels remained under water for most of the winter and well into spring. Record-equalling gusts of 142 mph were recorded off the north coast of Scotland on 5 December 2013, with notably severe storms also recorded on 2 November 2013, 24 December 2013, 3 January 2014 and 14 February 2014.

text: In the 1990s and 2000s, most of the winters were milder and usually wetter than average with daytime temperatures going below freezing a rare occurrence. In fact, the winter of 1995/1996 was the only one which was defined as below average in terms of the UK as a whole, although February 1991 saw heavy snowfall & January 1997 was cold in the South. The winters of 2008/09, 2009/10 and 2010/11 have however seen a different pattern with these three winters being defined as below or well below average with large snowfall amounts widespread and very low temperatures; this was the first time three consecutive cold winters in the UK have occurred since the 1960s. Since the winter of 2012/2013, winters have been mild (exceptionally so in 2013/2014 and 2015/2016), although exceptionally wet. The winter of 2014/2015 was an oddity, in that it was generally quiet and sunny. December 2014 & January 2015 were a little milder than the average, February 2015 was close to normal. The winter of 2016/17 was very nearly a very cold winter owing to the presence and position of high pressure, although ultimately only November 2016 was cold widely as a whole. Early December 2016 was cool and January 2017 was cold in the south-east, with much of the rest of England and Wales near the 1961-1990 average. At Northolt, the average minimum for January 2017 was below freezing for the first time since December 2010.

text: December 2015 became the wettest calendar month ever recorded in the United Kingdom, with January 2016 becoming the second wettest. In these months, some northern and western parts had 2 to 4 times as much rainfall as normal.[31] December 2015 was also the warmest December averaged over the whole UK, and had the highest positive anomaly for any month in the Central England temperature series which began in 1659 (CET was 9.7 °C, this is warmer than even any March[32]). Most areas of southern England had average monthly temperatures 5-6 °C above normal. Some plants flowered that would normally do so in the Spring or even Summer.[33] Hardly any stations in Wales and Southern England recorded any air frosts and temperatures were often comparable to those of April or May. The maximum recorded temperature was 17.2 °C at Teignmouth in Devon and Plockton and Achnagart in the highlands of Scotland on 16th. The lowest daily mean temperature during December 2015 at Heathrow Airport was still 8.2 °C on 9 December, comparable to the average daily high for the calendar month. Remarkably, December 2015 did not break any national records for high temperatures, just failing to reach the maximum England temperature of 17.7 °C recorded on 2 December 1985 in Chivenor, Devon and on 11 December 1994 in Penkridge, Staffordshire.[34] Despite the warmth, it was the dullest December since 1989.[35]

text: Sunshine and cloud[edit]

text: The average total annual sunshine in the United Kingdom is 1339.7 hours, which is just under 30% of the maximum possible (The maximum hours of sunshine possible in one year is approximately 4476 hours).[36] Generally the United Kingdom sees frequent cloudy skies due to its high latitude and oceanic controlled climate. The lowest sunshine hours are found in northern parts of the country and the highest in the southern parts and southern coast of England. The counties of Dorset, Hampshire, Sussex and Kent are the sunniest areas, which have annual average totals of around 1,750 hours of sunshine per year.[37] Northern, western and mountainous areas are generally the cloudiest areas of the UK, with some mountainous areas receiving fewer than 1,000 hours of sunshine a year.[37]

text: Valley areas such as the South Wales Valleys, due to their north-south orientation, receive less sunshine than lowland areas because the mountains on either side of the valley obscure the sun in the early morning and late evening. This is noticeable in winter where there are only a few hours of sunshine. The mountains of Wales, northern England and Scotland can be especially cloudy with extensive mist and fog. Near the coast, sea fog may develop in the spring and early summer. Radiation fog may develop over inland areas of Great Britain and can persist for hours or even days in the winter and can pose a major hazard for drivers and aircraft.

text: On occasions blocking anticyclones (high pressure systems) may move over the United Kingdom, which can persist for weeks or even months. The subsided, dry air often results in clear skies and few clouds, bringing frosty nights in winter and warm days in the summer.

text: Average hours of sunshine in winter range from 38–108 hours in some mountainous areas and western Scotland, up to 217 hours in the south and east of England;[38] while average hours of sunshine in summer range from 294–420 hours in northern Scotland and Northern Ireland, to 600–760 hours in southern English coastal counties.[39] The most sunshine recorded in one month was 383.9 hours at Eastbourne (East Sussex) in July 1911.[37]

text: Atlantic Ocean[edit]

text: One of the greatest influences on the climate of the UK is the Atlantic Ocean and especially the Gulf Stream, which carries warm water up from lower latitudes and modifies the high latitude air masses that pass across the UK. This thermohaline circulation has a powerful moderating and warming effect on the country's climate. This warm water current warms the climate to such a great extent that if the current did not exist then temperatures in winter would be about 10 °C (18 °F) lower than they are today and similar to eastern Russia or Canada near the same latitude. The current allows England to have vineyards at the same latitude that Canada has polar bears. These warm ocean currents also bring substantial amounts of humidity which contributes to the notoriously wet climate that western parts of the UK experience.

text: The extent of the Gulf Stream's contribution to the actual temperature in western Europe is a matter of dispute.[40][41] It has been argued that atmospheric waves that bring warm air northwards contribute to the warmer temperatures than thermohaline circulation.[40]

text: Winds[edit]

text: The high latitude and proximity to a large ocean to the west means that the United Kingdom experiences strong winds. The prevailing wind is from the south-west, but it may blow from any direction for sustained periods of time. Winds are strongest near westerly facing coasts and exposed headlands.

text: Gales — which are defined as winds with speeds of 51 to 101 km/h (32 to 63 mph)— are strongly associated with the passage of deep depressions across the country. The Hebrides experience on average 35 days of gale a year (a day where there are gale-force winds) while inland areas in England and Wales receive fewer than 5 days of gale a year.[37] Areas of high elevation tend to have higher wind speeds than low elevations, and Great Dun Fell in Cumbria (at 857 m or 2,812 ft) averaged 114 days of gale a year during the period 1963 to 1976. The highest gust recorded at a low level in England was 191 km/h (119 mph) at Gwennap Head in Cornwall on 15 December 1979,[37] and a 115 mph gust was also recorded at Shoreham-By-Sea on 16 October 1987. A disputed 122 mph gust was recorded on 16 October 1987 at Gorleston in Norfolk during the Great Storm of 1987. In Scotland, Fraserburgh in Aberdeenshire recorded 229 km/h (142 mph) on 13 February 1989, which was equalled during Cyclone Xaver on 5 December 2013. Wales' highest wind speed gust of 200 km/h (124 mph) was set at Rhoose, Vale of Glamorgan on 28 October 1989. Especially potent storm systems typically affect the UK during autumn and winter, with the winters of 1989/1990 and 2013/2014 particularly notable for the frequency and potency of storm systems.

text: An unofficial gust of 194 mph was recorded on the Shetland Isles during the New Year's Day Storm on 1 January 1992, and an equal unofficial 194 mph wind gust is claimed to have been set in the Cairngorm Mountains on 19 December 2008.[42]

text: Barometric pressure plays a role in storm systems. For the United Kingdom, record figures for barometric pressure recordings are:[43]

text: Highest - 1053.6mb (Aberdeen, 31 January 1902)

text: Lowest - 925.6mb (Ochtertyre, 26 January 1884)

text: Notably a low pressure storm system affected the UK with a central pressure of 914.0mb on 10 January 1993, however this figure is not recorded over the UK but out in the Atlantic, despite the system affecting the UK.

text: Rainfall[edit]

text: Rainfall amounts can vary greatly across the United Kingdom and generally the further west and the higher the elevation, the greater the rainfall. The mountains of Wales, Scotland, the Pennines in Northern England and the moors of South West England are the wettest parts of the country, and in some of these places as much as 4,577 millimetres (180.2 in) of rain can fall annually,[44] making these locations some of the wettest in Europe. The wettest spot in the United Kingdom is Crib Goch, in Snowdonia, which has averaged 4,473 millimetres (176.1 in) rain a year over the past 30 years.[45][46] Most rainfall in the United Kingdom comes from North Atlantic depressions which roll into the country throughout the year from the west or southwest and are particularly frequent and intense in the autumn and winter. They can on occasions bring prolonged periods of heavy rain, and flooding is quite common.

text: Parts of England are surprisingly dry, which is contrary to the stereotypical view—London receives just below 650 millimetres (25.6 in) per annum,[47] which is less than Rome, Sydney, or New York City. In East Anglia it typically rains on about 113 days per year.[48] Most of the south, south-east and East Anglia receive less than 700 millimetres (27.6 in) of rain per year.[37] The English counties of Essex, Cambridgeshire - as well as parts of North Yorkshire, the East Riding of Yorkshire, Suffolk and Norfolk - are amongst the driest in the UK, with an average annual rainfall of around 600 millimetres (23.6 in). This is due to a mild rainshadow effect, due to mountainous parts of the South West, Wales and Cumbria blocking the moist airflow across the country to the east. In some years rainfall totals in Essex and South Suffolk can be below 450 millimetres (17.7 in) (especially areas around Colchester, Clacton and Ipswich) - less than the average annual rainfall in Jerusalem, Beirut and even some semi-arid parts of the world.

text: Parts of the United Kingdom have had drought problems in recent years, particularly in 2004-2006. Fires broke out in some areas, even across the normally damp higher ground of north-west England and Wales. The landscape in much of England and east Wales became very parched, even near the coast; water restrictions were in place in some areas.

text: July 2006 was the hottest month on record for the United Kingdom and much of Europe,[49] however England has had warmer spells of 31 days which did not coincide with a calendar month—in 1976 and 1995. As well as low rainfall, drought problems were made worse by the fact that the driest parts of England also have the highest population density, and therefore highest water consumption. The drought problems ended in the period from October 2006 to January 2007, which had well above average rainfall.

text: December 2015 was the wettest month ever recorded in the United Kingdom.[50] The average rainfall for the month was almost doubled.[51]

text: Temperature[edit]

text: Generally the United Kingdom has cool to mild winters and warm summers with moderate variation in temperature throughout the year. In England the average annual temperature varies from 8.5 °C (47.3 °F) in the north to 11 °C (51.8 °F) in the south, but over the higher ground this can be several degrees lower.[37] This small variation in temperature is to a large extent due to the moderating effect the Atlantic ocean has—water has a much greater specific heat capacity than air and tends to heat and cool slowly throughout the year. This has a warming influence on coastal areas in winter and a cooling influence in summer.

text: The ocean is at its coldest in February or early March, thus around coastal areas February is often the coldest month, but inland there is little to choose between February and January as the coldest.[37] Temperatures tend to drop lowest on late winter nights inland, in the presence of high pressure, clear skies, light winds and when there is snow on the ground. On occasions, cold polar or continental air can be drawn in over the United Kingdom to bring very cold weather.

text: The floors of inland valleys away from warming influence of the sea can be particularly cold as cold, dense air drains into them. A temperature of −26.1 °C (−15.0 °F) was recorded under such conditions at Edgmond in Shropshire on 10 January 1982, the coldest temperature recorded in England and Wales. The following day the coldest maximum temperature in England, at −11.3 °C (11.7 °F), was recorded at the same site.[37]

text: On average the warmest winter temperatures occur on the south and west coasts, however, warm temperatures occasionally occur due to a foehn wind warming up downwind after the crossing the mountains. Temperatures in these areas can rise to 15 °C (59 °F) in winter on rare occasions[52] This is a particularly notable event in northern Scotland, mainly Aberdeenshire, where these high temperatures can occur in midwinter when the sun only reaches about 10° above the horizon.

text: July is on average the warmest month, and the highest temperatures tend to occur away from the Atlantic in southern, eastern and central England, where summer temperatures can rise above 30 °C (86 °F). It soared to 38.5 °C (101.3 °F) in Faversham, Kent on 10 August 2003: the highest temperature ever recorded in the United Kingdom.[53]

text:
Absolute temperature ranges

Country
Maximum temperatures
Minimum temperatures

°C
°F
Location and date
°C
°F
Location and date

England
38.5
101.3

Faversham, Kent on 10 August 2003

−26.1
−15.0

Edgmond, near Newport, Shropshire on 10 January 1982

Wales
35.2
95.4

Hawarden Bridge, Flintshire on 2 August 1990

−23.3
−9.9

Rhayader, Radnorshire on 21 January 1940

Scotland
32.9
91.2

Greycrook, Scottish Borders on 9 August 2003

−27.2
−17.0

Braemar, Aberdeenshire on 11 February 1895 and 10 January 1982
Altnaharra, Sutherland on 30 December 1995

Northern Ireland
30.8
87.4

Knockarevan, near Belleek, County Fermanagh on 30 June 1976
Belfast on 12 July 1983

−18.6
−1.5

Castlederg, County Tyrone on 23 December 2010

text: Severe weather[edit]

text: While the United Kingdom is not particularly noted for extreme weather, it does sometimes occur, and events such as floods and drought may be experienced. The summer of 1976, for example, experienced temperatures as high as 35 °C (95 °F), and it was so dry the country suffered drought and water shortages.[54]

text: Extended periods of extreme weather, such as the droughts of 1975–1976, summer 2006, and spring 2012, the long hot summers of 1911, 1976, 2003 and 2006, and the winters of 1946–1947, 1962–1963, 2009–2010, and 2010–2011 are often caused by blocking anti-cyclones which can persist for several days, weeks, or even months. In winter they can bring long periods of cold dry weather and in summer long periods of hot dry weather.

text: There have also been occurrences of severe flash floods caused by intense rainfall; the most severe was the Lynmouth disaster of 1952 in which 34 people died and 38 houses and buildings were completely destroyed. In the summer of 2004, a severe flash flood devastated the town of Boscastle in Cornwall. However, the worst floods in the United Kingdom in modern times occurred in the North Sea flood of 1953. A powerful storm from the Atlantic moved around Scotland and down the east coast of England. As it moved south it produced a storm surge which was magnified as the North Sea became narrower further south. By the time the storm affected south-east England and the Netherlands, the surge had reached the height of 3.6 metres (12 ft). Over 300 people were killed by the floods in eastern England.

text: Thunderstorms are most common in southern and eastern England, and least common in the north and west.[55] In London, thunderstorms occur on average 14–19 days a year, while in most of Northern Ireland and the west of Scotland thunderstorms occur on around 3 days a year.[55] Occasionally, thunderstorms can be severe and produce large hailstones as seen in Ottery St Mary, Devon in October 2008, where drifts reached 1.8 metres (5 ft 11 in).[56]

text: Strong winds occur mainly in the autumn and winter months associated with low pressure systems and Scotland experiences hurricane-force winds in most winters. The Gale of January 1976, Great Storm of 1987 (23 fatalities) and the Burns' Day storm of 1990 (97 fatalities) are particularly severe examples; Scotland saw winds of 142 mph during Cyclone Xaver in 2013.[57]

text: The most rain recorded to fall on a single day was 279 mm at Martinstown (Dorset) on 18 July 1955,[37] but also 243 mm fell at Bruton, Somerset on 28 June 1917.[58] Heavy rain also fell between 20 and 25 June in 2007; some areas experienced a month's rainfall in one day. Four people died in the flooding and over £1.5 billion of damage to businesses and properties was caused. On 19 August 1993, London Heathrow Airport recorded 257mm of rainfall.

text: Tropical cyclones themselves do not affect the UK due to the seas being too cold – they need temperatures above 26.5 °C (79.7 °F) to remain active. The waters near the UK, the Atlantic Ocean, only have temperatures of 2 to 18 °C (36 to 64 °F),[59] so any tropical cyclone that does come anywhere near the UK has said to have undergone a process called extratropical transition. This now means it is an extratropical cyclone, which the UK frequently experiences. The Great Storm of 1987 was a very deep depression which formed in the Bay of Biscay, which also contained the remnants of Hurricane Floyd.[60] Hurricane Lili of 1996 and Hurricane Gordon of 2006 both crossed the UK as strong extratropical cyclones with tropical storm-force winds, causing transport closures, power-cuts and flooding in Northern Ireland, Scotland and South West England. In 2011, the remnants of Hurricane Katia passed over northwestern Scotland with winds near 70 mph (110 km/h).

text: Tornadoes[edit]

text: It is internationally recognised that the United Kingdom has a higher incidence of tornadoes, measured by unit area of land, than any other country in the world. Dr T. Theodore Fujita (inventor of the Fujita scale), an American meteorologist, was the first to recognise the UK as the top site for tornadoes in 1973.[61][62] The United Kingdom has at least 33 tornadoes per year,[63] more than any other country in the world relative to its land area.[64] Although most tornadoes are weak, there are occasional destructive events, for example, the Birmingham tornado of 2005 and the London tornado of 2006. Both registered F2 on the Fujita scale and both caused significant damage and injury. The largest ever recorded was thought to have been an F4, again in London in 1091. The most deadly occurred on 28 December 1879. All 74 lives were lost when a passenger train plunged from the Tay Bridge (Tayside) into the Tay Estuary, when the middle section of the bridge collapsed. Although the bridge was poorly constructed and had already been weakened in earlier gales (including the pre-existing winds at the time of the tragedy), the ultimate failure is believed to have been caused by two or three waterspouts which were sighted close to the bridge immediately before the accident.[65] A tornado also developed in London on 3 July 2007.

text: The UK also holds the title for the highest known 'outbreak' of tornadoes outside of the United States. The largest tornado outbreak in Britain is also the largest tornado outbreak known anywhere in Europe. On 23 November 1981, 105 tornadoes were spawned by a cold front in the space of 5.25 hours. Excepting Derbyshire, every county in a triangular area from Gwynedd to Humberside to Essex was hit by at least one tornado, while Norfolk was hit by at least 13. Very fortunately most tornadoes were short-lived and also weak (the strongest was around T5 on the TORRO Tornado Scale) and no deaths occurred.[65]

text: Climate history[edit]

text: The climate of the United Kingdom has not always been the way it is today. During some periods it was much warmer and in others it was much colder. The last glacial period was a period of extreme cold weather that lasted for tens of thousands of years and ended about 10,000 years ago. During this period the temperature was so low that much of the surrounding ocean froze and a great ice sheet extended over all of the United Kingdom except the south of England (connected to mainland Europe via the dry English Channel) and southern coastal areas of Wales.

text: The cold period from the 16th to the mid-19th centuries is known as the Little Ice Age.

text: The temperature records in England are continuous back to the mid 17th century. The Central England temperature (CET) record is the oldest in the world, and is a compound source of cross-correlated records from several locations in central England. Precipitation records date back to the eighteenth century and the modern England and Wales Precipitation series begins in 1766.

text: A detailed narrative account of the weather of every year from 1913 to 1942, with photographs of plants taken on the same day in each of those years, may be found in Willis (1944).[66]

text: As with many parts of the world, over the last century the United Kingdom has reported a warming trend in temperatures. While some of this may be due to a recovery from the cooler period of climate mid 20th century (particularly the 1960s) the last 20 years has nonetheless seen an unprecedented level of warm weather. This rise in temperatures is illustrated by the most recent dataset (1981–2010) for Belfast and Cambridge Botanical Gardens, and the same data 50 years previous (1931–1960).

text:
[hide]Climate data for Belfast, 1931-1960

Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year

Average high °C (°F)
6.0
(42.8)
6.8
(44.2)
9.2
(48.6)
11.8
(53.2)
14.9
(58.8)
17.5
(63.5)
18.4
(65.1)
18.3
(64.9)
16.1
(61)
12.6
(54.7)
9.1
(48.4)
6.9
(44.4)
12.3
(54.13)

Average low °C (°F)
1.5
(34.7)
1.5
(34.7)
2.7
(36.9)
3.9
(39)
6.1
(43)
9.2
(48.6)
11.0
(51.8)
10.7
(51.3)
9.2
(48.6)
6.8
(44.2)
4.1
(39.4)
2.9
(37.2)
5.8
(42.45)

Source: Stadtklima[67]

text:
[hide]Climate data for Belfast, 1981-2010

Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year

Average high °C (°F)
7.1
(44.8)
7.4
(45.3)
9.5
(49.1)
11.9
(53.4)
15.0
(59)
17.4
(63.3)
19.1
(66.4)
18.5
(65.3)
16.3
(61.3)
12.8
(55)
9.5
(49.1)
7.4
(45.3)
12.66
(54.78)

Average low °C (°F)
1.8
(35.2)
1.7
(35.1)
2.9
(37.2)
4.3
(39.7)
6.8
(44.2)
9.6
(49.3)
11.6
(52.9)
11.4
(52.5)
9.5
(49.1)
6.9
(44.4)
4.0
(39.2)
2.1
(35.8)
6.05
(42.88)

Source: Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute[68]

text:
[hide]Climate data for Change in monthly mean temperatures at Belfast between 1931-1960 and 1981-2010

Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year

Average high °C (°F)
+1.1C
+0.6C
+0.3C
+0.1C
+0.1C
-0.1C
+0.7C
+0.2C
+0.2C
+0.4C
+0.5C
+0.4C
+0.36C

Average low °C (°F)
+0.3C
+0.2C
+0.2C
+0.4C
+0.7C
+0.4C
+0.6C
+0.7C
+0.3C
+0.1C
-0.1C
-0.8C
+0.25C

Source: Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute[68]

text: As the above tables show, all months except December at Belfast exhibit warming when both maximum and minimum temperatures are taken into account.

text:
[hide]Climate data for Cambridge, 1931-1960

Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year

Average high °C (°F)
6.3
(43.3)
7.2
(45)
10.5
(50.9)
13.7
(56.7)
17.2
(63)
20.5
(68.9)
22.2
(72)
22.0
(71.6)
19.2
(66.6)
14.6
(58.3)
9.9
(49.8)
7.3
(45.1)
14.22
(57.6)

Average low °C (°F)
0.6
(33.1)
0.5
(32.9)
1.6
(34.9)
3.8
(38.8)
6.5
(43.7)
9.7
(49.5)
11.8
(53.2)
11.5
(52.7)
9.5
(49.1)
6.1
(43)
3.5
(38.3)
1.7
(35.1)
5.57
(42.03)

Source: Stadtklima[69]

text:
[hide]Climate data for Cambridge, 1981-2010

Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year

Average high °C (°F)
7.5
(45.5)
7.9
(46.2)
11.1
(52)
13.8
(56.8)
17.5
(63.5)
20.4
(68.7)
23.1
(73.6)
22.8
(73)
19.5
(67.1)
15.2
(59.4)
10.5
(50.9)
7.6
(45.7)
14.74
(58.53)

Average low °C (°F)
1.4
(34.5)
1.1
(34)
3.0
(37.4)
4.3
(39.7)
7.3
(45.1)
10.2
(50.4)
12.4
(54.3)
12.2
(54)
10.0
(50)
7.2
(45)
3.9
(39)
1.7
(35.1)
6.23
(43.21)

Source: Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute[70]

text:
[hide]Climate data for Change in monthly mean temperatures at Cambridge between 1931-1960 and 1981-2010

Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year

Average high °C (°F)
+1.2C
+0.7C
+0.6C
+0.1C
+0.3C
-0.1C
+0.9C
+0.8C
+0.3C
+0.6C
+0.6C
+0.3C
+0.52C

Average low °C (°F)
+0.8C
+0.6C
+1.4C
+0.5C
+0.8C
+0.5C
+0.6C
+0.7C
+0.5C
+1.1C
+0.4C
+0.0C
+0.66C

Source: Stadtklima[69]

text: Again, a similar warming trend is shown for the South East of England, albeit slightly more pronounced with no month recording a fall in overall mean temperatures.

text: Monthly temperature extremes[edit]

text:
[hide]Climate data for United Kingdom

Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year

Record high °C (°F)
18.3
(64.9)
19.7
(67.5)
25.6
(78.1)
29.4
(84.9)
32.8
(91)
35.6
(96.1)
36.7
(98.1)
38.5
(101.3)
35.6
(96.1)
29.9
(85.8)
22.4
(72.3)
18.3
(64.9)
38.5
(101.3)

Average high °C (°F)
6.4
(43.5)
6.6
(43.9)
8.9
(48)
11.4
(52.5)
14.7
(58.5)
17.3
(63.1)
19.4
(66.9)
19.1
(66.4)
16.5
(61.7)
12.8
(55)
9.1
(48.4)
6.7
(44.1)
12.4
(54.3)

Average low °C (°F)
0.9
(33.6)
0.7
(33.3)
2.1
(35.8)
3.4
(38.1)
6.0
(42.8)
8.8
(47.8)
10.9
(51.6)
10.8
(51.4)
8.8
(47.8)
6.2
(43.2)
3.3
(37.9)
1.1
(34)
5.3
(41.5)

Record low °C (°F)
−27.2
(−17)
−27.2
(−17)
−22.8
(−9)
−15.0
(5)
−9.4
(15.1)
−5.6
(21.9)
−2.5
(27.5)
−4.5
(23.9)
−6.7
(19.9)
−11.7
(10.9)
−23.3
(−9.9)
−27.2
(−17)
−27.2
(−17)

Source: Met Office[71]

text:
Absolute temperature ranges

Month
Maximum temperatures
Minimum temperatures

°C
°F
Location and date
°C
°F
Location and date

January
18.3
64.9

Aber, Gwynedd (27 Jan 1958)
Aber, Gwynedd (10 Jan 1971)
Aboyne, Aberdeenshire (26 Jan 2003)
Inchmarlo, Kincardineshire (26 Jan 2003)

−27.2
−17.0

Braemar, Aberdeenshire (10 Jan 1982)

February
19.7
67.5

Greenwich Observatory, London (13 Feb 1998)[34]

−27.2
−17.0

Braemar, Aberdeenshire (11 Feb 1895)

March
25.6
78.1

Mepal, Cambridgeshire (29 Mar 1968)

−22.8
−9.0

Logie Coldstone, Aberdeenshire (14 Mar 1958)

April
29.4
84.9

Camden Square, London (16 Apr 1949)

−15.0
5.0

Newton Rigg, Cumbria (2 Apr 1917)

May
32.8
91.0

Camden Square, London (22 May 1922)
Horsham, West Sussex (29 May 1944)
Tunbridge Wells, Kent (29 May 1944)
Regent's Park, London (29 May 1944)

−9.4
15.1

Lynford, Norfolk (4 May 1941)
Lynford, Norfolk (11 May 1941)
Fort Augustus, Highland (15 May 1941)

June
35.6
96.1

Camden Square, London (29 Jun 1957)
Southampton Mayflower Park (28 Jun 1976)

−5.6
21.9

Dalwhinnie, Highland (9 Jun 1955)
Santon Downham, Norfolk (1 Jun 1962)
Santon Downham, Norfolk (3 Jun 1962)

July
36.7
98.1

Heathrow, London (1 Jul 2015)

−2.5
27.5

Lagganlia, Highland (15 Jul 1977)

August
38.5
101.3

Brogdale, Faversham, Kent (10 Aug 2003)

−4.5
23.9

Lagganlia, Highland (21 Aug 1973)

September
35.6
96.1

Bawtry, Hesley Hall, South Yorkshire (2 Sep 1906)

−6.7
19.9

Dalwhinnie, Highland (26 Sep 1942)

October
29.9
85.8

Gravesend, Kent (1 Oct 2011)

−11.7
10.9

Braemar, Aberdeenshire (25 Oct 1859)
Dalwhinnie, Highland (28 Oct 1948)

November
22.4
72.3

Trawsgoed, Ceredigion (1 Nov 2015)

−23.3
−9.9

Braemar, Aberdeenshire (14 Nov 1919)

December
18.3
64.9

Achnashellach, Highland (2 Dec 1948)

−27.2
−17.0

Altnaharra, Highland (30 Dec 1995)

text: A disputed temperature of 42 °C was set at an airfield in Wisley, Surrey on 18 July 2006. It has been suggested that the reading for this temperature should in fact have been 32 °C. It is worth noting that the Met Office expected temperatures to surpass the August 2003 record during the July 2006 heatwave, and it is still speculated that both heatwaves did set higher temperatures than those officially recorded.

text: Climate change[edit]

text: Central estimates produced by the Met Office predict average annual temperature to increase by 2 °C (4 °F) and the warmest summer day to increase by 3 °C (6 °F) by the 2050s. Average winter rainfall is also likely to increase and most areas will see a slight decrease in annual rainfall.[72]

text: According to the Met Office, in the UK, the decade from 2000-2009 was the warmest since instrumental record dating started in 1850.[73]