document_title: Father's Day (United States)

question_text: when was father day declared a national holiday

text: Father's Day (United States)

text: History[edit]

text: Father's Day was inaugurated in the United States in the early 20th century to complement Mother's Day in celebrating fathers, fathering, and fatherhood.

text: Father's Day was founded in Spokane, Washington at the YMCA in 1910 by Sonora Smart Dodd, who was born in Arkansas.[4] Its first celebration was in the Spokane YMCA on June 19, 1910.[4][5] Her father, the Civil War veteran William Jackson Smart, was a single parent who raised his six children there.[4] After hearing a sermon about Jarvis' Mother's Day at Central Methodist Episcopal Church in 1909, she told her pastor that fathers should have a similar holiday honoring them.[4][6] Although she initially suggested June 5, her father's birthday, the pastors did not have enough time to prepare their sermons, and the celebration was deferred to the third Sunday of June.[7][8]

text: It did not have much success initially. In the 1920s, Dodd stopped promoting the celebration because she was studying in the Art Institute of Chicago, and it faded into relative obscurity, even in Spokane.[9] In the 1930s Dodd returned to Spokane and started promoting the celebration again, raising awareness at a national level.[10] She had the help of those trade groups that would benefit most from the holiday, for example the manufacturers of ties, tobacco pipes, and any traditional present to fathers.[11] Since 1938 she had the help of the Father's Day Council, founded by the New York Associated Men's Wear Retailers to consolidate and systematize the commercial promotion.[12] Americans resisted the holiday during a few decades, perceiving it as just an attempt by merchants to replicate the commercial success of Mother's Day, and newspapers frequently featured cynical and sarcastic attacks and jokes.[13] But the trade groups did not give up: they kept promoting it and even incorporated the jokes into their adverts, and they eventually succeeded.[14] By the mid-1980s the Father's Council wrote that "(...) [Father's Day] has become a Second Christmas for all the men's gift-oriented industries."[15]

text: A bill to accord national recognition of the holiday was introduced in Congress in 1913.[16] In 1916, President Woodrow Wilson went to Spokane to speak in a Father's Day celebration[17] and wanted to make it official, but Congress resisted, fearing that it would become commercialized.[18] US President Calvin Coolidge recommended in 1924 that the day be observed by the nation, but stopped short of issuing a national proclamation.[17] Two earlier attempts to formally recognize the holiday had been defeated by Congress.[17][19] In 1957, Maine Senator Margaret Chase Smith wrote a proposal accusing Congress of ignoring fathers for 40 years while honoring mothers, thus "[singling] out just one of our two parents".[19] In 1966, President Lyndon B. Johnson issued the first presidential proclamation honoring fathers, designating the third Sunday in June as Father's Day.[18] Six years later, the day was made a permanent national holiday when President Richard Nixon signed it into law in 1972.[3][17][18][19]

text: In addition to Father's Day, International Men's Day is celebrated in many countries on November 19 for men and boys who are not fathers.

text: A "Father's Day" service was held on July 5, 1908, in Fairmont, West Virginia, in the Williams Memorial Methodist Episcopal Church South, now known as Central United Methodist Church.[7] Grace Golden Clayton was mourning the loss of her father when, on December 1907, the Monongah Mining Disaster in nearby Monongah killed 361 men, 250 of them fathers, leaving around a thousand fatherless children. Clayton suggested her pastor Robert Thomas Webb to honor all those fathers.[20][21][22] Clayton chose the Sunday nearest to the birthday of her father, Methodist minister Fletcher Golden.

text: Clayton's event did not have repercussions outside of Fairmont for several reasons, among them: the city was overwhelmed by other events, the celebration was never promoted outside of the town itself and no proclamation was made in the City Council. Also two events overshadowed this event: the celebration of Independence Day July 4, 1908, with 12,000 attendants and several shows including a hot air balloon event, which took over the headlines in the following days, and the death of a 16-year-old girl on July 4. The local church and Council were overwhelmed and they did not even think of promoting the event, and it was not celebrated again for many years. The original sermon was not reproduced in press and it was lost. Finally, Clayton was a quiet person, who never promoted the event or even talked to other persons about it.[20][21][22]

text: Clayton also may have been inspired by Anna Jarvis' crusade to establish Mother's Day; two months prior, Jarvis had held a celebration for her dead mother in Grafton, West Virginia, a town about 15 miles (24 km) away from Fairmont.[citation needed]

text: In 1911, Jane Addams proposed a citywide Father's Day in Chicago, but she was turned down.[8]

text: In 1912, there was a Father's Day celebration in Vancouver, Washington, suggested by Methodist pastor J. J. Berringer of the Irvingtom Methodist Church. They believed mistakenly that they had been the first to celebrate such a day.[7] They followed a 1911 suggestion by the Portland Oregonian.[8]

text: Harry C. Meek, member of Lions Clubs International, claimed that he had first the idea for Father's Day in 1915.[7][8] Meek claimed that the third Sunday of June was chosen because it was his birthday (it would have been more natural to choose his father's birthday).[8] The Lions Club has named him "Originator of Father's Day".[7] Meek made many efforts to promote Father's Day and make it an official holiday.[7][8]

text: The U.S. Open golf tournament is scheduled to finish on Father's Day, as was the 2016 NBA Finals. The FireKeepers Casino 400 NASCAR auto race at Michigan International Speedway is sometimes held on Father's Day.

text: Spelling[edit]

text: In the United States, Dodd used the "Fathers' Day" spelling on her original petition for the holiday,[4] but the spelling "Father's Day" was already used in 1913 when a bill was introduced to the U.S. Congress as the first attempt to establish the holiday,[16] and it was still spelled the same way when its creator was commended in 2008 by the U.S. Congress.[23]

text: Dates[edit]

text:
Year

Father's Day

1910
1938
1966
1994
2022
2050
2078
June 19

1911
1939
1967
1995
2023
2051
2079
June 18

1912
1940
1968
1996
2024
2052
2080
June 16

1913
1941
1969
1997
2025
2053
2081
June 15

1914
1942
1970
1998
2026
2054
2082
June 21

1915
1943
1971
1999
2027
2055
2083
June 20

1916
1944
1972
2000
2028
2056
2084
June 18

1917
1945
1973
2001
2029
2057
2085
June 17

1918
1946
1974
2002
2030
2058
2086
June 16

1919
1947
1975
2003
2031
2059
2087
June 15

1920
1948
1976
2004
2032
2060
2088
June 20

1921
1949
1977
2005
2033
2061
2089
June 19

1922
1950
1978
2006
2034
2062
2090
June 18

1923
1951
1979
2007
2035
2063
2091
June 17

1924
1952
1980
2008
2036
2064
2092
June 15

1925
1953
1981
2009
2037
2065
2093
June 21

1926
1954
1982
2010
2038
2066
2094
June 20

1927
1955
1983
2011
2039
2067
2095
June 19

1928
1956
1984
2012
2040
2068
2096
June 17

1929
1957
1985
2013
2041
2069
2097
June 16

1930
1958
1986
2014
2042
2070
2098
June 15

1931
1959
1987
2015
2043
2071
2099
June 21

1932
1960
1988
2016
2044
2072

June 19

1933
1961
1989
2017
2045
2073

June 18

1934
1962
1990
2018
2046
2074

June 17

1935
1963
1991
2019
2047
2075

June 16

1936
1964
1992
2020
2048
2076

June 21

1937
1965
1993
2021
2049
2077

June 20


document_title: Occupational fatality

question_text: which industry has the highest fatality rate on an annual basis

root

text: Occupational fatality

text: Common causes[edit]

text: Common causes of occupational fatalities include falls, machine-related incidents, motor vehicle accidents, electrocution, falling objects, homicides and suicides. Occupational fatalities can be prevented.

tag: p

text: In the United States in 2006, 41% of occupational fatalities occurred during a transportation incident, 17% occurred after a worker came into contact with an object or equipment, and 15% occurred as a result of a fall.[1] The remaining 12% of deaths were the result of chemical or environmental exposures (9%) and fires or explosions (3%).[1] Lastly, 15% of all occupational fatalities are the consequences of assault and other violent acts in the workplace.

text:
Number and rate of fatal occupational injuries, by industry sector, 2013 in the United States.[2]

Selected occupations with high fatality rates, 2011, in the United States.[2]

tag: table

text: Risk factors[edit]

text: Many factors contribute to a fatal incident at work. Lack of appropriate employee training and failure to provide and enforce the use of safety equipment are frequent contributors to occupational fatalities. In some cases, employees do receive safety training, but language barriers prevent the employee from fully understanding the safety procedures. Incidents can also be the result of insufficient supervision of inexperienced employees or employees who have taken on a responsibility for which they are not properly trained. Poor worksite organization, staffing and scheduling issues, unworkable policies and practices and workplace culture can all play a role in occupational fatalities. An incident leading to an occupational fatality is generally not the fault of a single person, but the result of a combination of many human and environmental factors.[citation needed]

text: Demographics[edit]

text: Age[edit]

text: Although all workers are at risk for occupational fatalities, elderly workers age 65 and older are roughly three times more likely to die at work.[3] Hispanic workers die on the job at a higher rate than non-Hispanic workers. Men account for 92% of occupational deaths.[1]

text: Gender[edit]

text: The majority of occupational deaths occur among men. In one US study, 93% of deaths on the job involved men,[4] with a death rate approximately 11 times higher than women. The industries with the highest death rates are mining, agriculture, forestry, fishing, and construction, all of which employ more men than women.[5] Deaths of members in the military is currently above 90% men.[6]

text: Prevention[edit]

text: Occupational fatalities are preventable. Prevention of occupational fatalities depends on the understanding that worker safety is not only the responsibility of the worker, but is the primary responsibility of the employer. Employers must train all employees in the appropriate safety procedures and maintain a safe working environment so that fatalities are less likely to occur.[7] An occupational fatality is not just the fault of the deceased worker; instead, it is the combination of unsafe work environments, insufficient safety training, and negligible employee supervision that contribute fatal incidents. As a result, it is imperative that an employer address all the potential [risk] factors at the workplace and educate all employees in safe work practices and risk awareness.

text: In order to perform adequate risk assessment of injuries that occur in the workplace, health and safety professionals use resources such as the Haddon Matrix. This model assesses the risks leading up to, during, and after a death in order to prevent future incidents of a similar nature. Employers and employees can learn how to identify risk factors in their work environment in order to avoid incidents that may result in death.

text: Research, regulation, reporting and recommendations[edit]

text: The regulatory organization for occupational injury control and prevention is the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Formed in 1970 as an agency of the United States Department of Labor under the Occupational Safety and Health Act, OSHA exists to prevent occupational injuries and deaths by creating and enforcing standards in the workplace. OSHA standards address employee training programs, safety equipment, employer record keeping and proper maintenance of the work environment. Failure to comply with the OSHA standards can result in workplace inspections and legal action including citations and fines. In very severe cases of employer misconduct, OSHA can “red flag” an operation and send the employer to legal court.[8]

text: To regulate the millions of workplaces in the United States, OSHA requires that all employers maintain a record of occupational injuries, illnesses and fatalities. Occupational fatalities must be reported to OSHA within eight hours of the incident. Failure to do so can result in legal action against the employer. Employers are responsible for staying current on OSHA standards and enforcing them in their own workplace. State OSHA organizations exist in twenty-eight states and are required to have the same or more rigorous standards than the federal OSHA standards. In these states, employers must abide by their state’s regulations. It is not the responsibility of the employee to stay current on the OSHA standards.

text: In addition to OSHA, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) was formed under the Occupational Safety and Health Act as a federal research agency to formulate industry recommendations for health and safety. NIOSH is part of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in the United States Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS). NIOSH analyzes workplace injury and illness data from all fifty states as well as provides support for state-based projects in occupational health and safety.

text: Under NIOSH, the Fatality Assessment and Control Evaluation (FACE) Program tracks and investigates occupational fatalities in order to provide recommendations for prevention. A voluntary program for individual states created in 1989, FACE is active in California, Iowa, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Michigan, New Jersey, New York, Oregon, and Washington. The primary responsibilities of the state FACE programs are to track occupational fatalities in their state, investigate select fatalities, and provide recommendations for prevention. As part of the prevention efforts, FACE programs also produce extensive prevention education materials that are disseminated to employees, employers, unions, and state organizations.

text: Nationally, the Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries (CFOI), within the U.S. Department of Labor, compiles national fatality statistics. CFOI is the key, comprehensive system in the surveillance of occupational fatalities in the United States.

text: Many other non-governmental organizations also work to prevent occupational fatalities. Trade associations and unions play an active role in protecting workers and disseminating prevention information. The National Safety Council also works to prevent occupational fatalities as well as provide resources to employers and employees.


document_title: Scandinavian Scotland

question_text: where did the vikings first land in scotland

text: Scandinavian Scotland

text: Geography[edit]

text: The Northern Isles, known to the Norse as the Norðreyjar, are the closest parts of the United Kingdom to Norway and these islands experienced the first and most long-lasting Norse influence of any part of Scotland. Shetland is some 300 kilometres (190 mi) due west of Norway[2][3] and in favourable conditions could be reached in 24 hours from Hordaland in a Viking longship.[4] Orkney is 80 kilometres (50 mi) further to the south west.[2]

text: Some 16 kilometres (10 mi) due south of Orkney is the Scottish mainland.[5] The two most northerly provinces of mainland Scotland, Caithness and Sutherland, fell under Norse control at an early date. South of there the entire western seaboard of mainland Scotland from Wester Ross to Kintyre was also subject to significant Scandinavian influence.

text: The Suðreyjar, or "Southern Isles" include:

text:
The Hebrides or Western Isles comprising:[Note 1]

The Outer Hebrides, aka the "Long Island" to the west, separated from the northern Inner Hebrides by the waters of the Minch. These islands are some 180 kilometres (110 mi) west of Orkney.[5]
The Inner Hebrides including Skye, Islay, Jura, Mull and Iona.

The islands of the Firth of Clyde some 140 kilometres (87 mi) to the south, the largest of which are Bute and Arran.[5]
The Isle of Man, located in the Irish Sea equidistantly from modern England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales[7]

tag: ul

text: The total distance from the southern tip of the Isle of Man to the Butt of Lewis, the northern extremity of the Outer Hebrides, is approximately 515 kilometres (320 mi).[3] This entire region became dominated by Norse culture for much of the period under consideration. For example, it is likely that the Norse language became as dominant throughout the Inner Hebrides as it did on Lewis during the 10th and 11th centuries.[8][9][10]

text: There was also significant direct Norse influence exerted in Galloway in south west Scotland[11] and for much of the period, up until the 1266 Treaty of Perth, Norwegian and Danish foreign policy and the activities of independent or semi-independent Norse rulers of the above parts of Scandinavian-dominated Scotland had a powerful influence on the affairs of Scotland as a whole.[12][13][14]

text: History[edit]

text: Contemporary documentation of the Viking period of Scottish history is very weak. The presence of the monastery on Iona led to this part of Scotland being relatively well recorded from the mid-6th to the mid-9th century. But from 849 on, when Columba's relics were removed in the face of Viking incursions, written evidence from local sources all but vanishes for three hundred years.[15] The sources for information about the Hebrides and much of northern Scotland from the 8th to the 11th century are thus almost exclusively Irish, English or Norse. The main Norse text is the Orkneyinga Saga, which was written in the early 13th century by an unknown Icelander. The English and Irish sources are more contemporary, but may have "led to a southern bias in the story", especially as much of the Hebridean archipelago became Norse-speaking during this period.[16] Dates should therefore be regarded as approximate throughout.

text: The archaeological record for this period is relatively scant,[17] although improving. Toponymy provides significant information about the Scandinavian presence and examples of Norse runes provide further useful evidence. There is a significant corpus of material from the Gaelic oral tradition that relates to this period, but its value is questionable.[18]

text: Language and personal names provide some difficulties. The former is an important indicator of culture but there is very little direct evidence for its use in specific circumstances during the period under consideration. Pictish, Middle Irish and Old Norse would certainly have been spoken and Woolf (2007) suggests that a significant degree of linguistic balkanisation took place.[19] As a result, single individuals often appear in sources under a variety of different names.[20]

text: Colonisation process[edit]

text: Scholarly interpretations of the period "have led to widely divergent reconstructions of Viking Age Scotland"[21] especially in the early period and Barrett (2008) has identified four competing theories, none of which he regards as proven.[22]

text: The traditional explanation is the earldom hypothesis. This assumes a period of Norse expansion into the Northern Isles and the creation of an aristocratic dynasty that lasted well into the Medieval period, which exerted considerable influence in western Scotland and Mann into the 11th century. This version of events is essentially as told by the Norse sagas and is supported by some archaeological evidence although it has been criticised for exaggerating Orcadian influence in the Suðreyar.[22]

text: The second of these theories is the genocide hypothesis, which asserts that the aboriginal populations of the Northern and Western Isles were eradicated and replaced wholesale with settlers of Scandinavian stock. The strength of this argument is the almost total replacement of pre-existing place names by those of Norse origin throughout much of the region.[22] Its weakness is that the place name evidence is from a relatively late date and the nature of this transition remains controversial.[25] Genetic studies show that Shetlanders have almost identical proportions of Scandinavian matrilineal and patrilineal ancestry, suggesting that the islands were settled by both men and women in equal measure.[26][Note 2]

text: The pagan reaction hypothesis proposed by Bjorn Mhyre suggests a long tradition of mobility amongst the various populations of the North Atlantic seaboard and that the expansion of Christian missions resulted in ethnic tensions that led to or exacerbated Viking expansion. There is some evidence of such mobility, such as Irish missionary activities in Iceland and Faroe Islands in the 8th century, but little that is conclusive.[22][28]

text: The fourth suggestion is the Laithlind or Lochlann hypothesis. This word appears in various forms in the early Irish literature and is usually assumed to refer to Norway itself, although some have preferred to locate it in the Norse-dominated parts of Scotland.[29] Donnchadh Ó Corráin is a proponent of this view and claims that a substantial part of Scotland—the Northern and Western Isles and large areas of the coastal mainland—were conquered by the Vikings in the first quarter of the 9th century and that a Viking kingdom was set up there earlier than the middle of the century.[30] Essentially a variant of the earldom hypothesis, there is little archaeological evidence in its favour,[22] although it is clear that extensive Viking incursions on the Irish coasts were supported by a presence of some kind in the Hebrides, even if the date the latter became prominent is far from certain.[Note 3] As Ó Corráin himself admits "when and how the Vikings conquered and occupied the Isles is unknown, perhaps unknowable".[31]

text: Early Viking incursions[edit]

text: Norse contacts with Scotland certainly predate the first written records in the 8th century, although their nature and frequency are unknown.[32] Excavations at Norwick on the island of Unst in Shetland indicate that Scandinavian settlers had reached there, perhaps as early as the mid 7th century, consistent with dates produced for Viking levels at Old Scatness.[33]

text: From 793 onwards repeated raids by Vikings on the British Isles are recorded. "All the islands of Britain" were devastated in 794[34] with Iona being sacked in 802 and 806.[35] (These attacks on Christian settlements in the islands of the west were not new. In the 6th century Tiree was raided by Pictish forces, Tory Island was attacked in the early 7th century by a "marine fleet" and Donnán of Eigg and 52 companions were murdered by Picts on Eigg in 617.)[36][Note 4] Various named Viking leaders, who were probably based in Scotland, appear in the Irish annals: Soxulfr in 837, Turges in 845 and Hákon in 847.[38] The king of Fortriu Eógan mac Óengusa and the king of Dál Riata Áed mac Boanta were among the dead in a major defeat to the Vikings in 839.[39] Another early reference to the Norse presence in the Irish records is that there was a king of "Viking Scotland" whose heir, Thórir, brought an army to Ireland in 848.[40] Caittil Find was a reported leader of the Gallgáedil fighting in Ireland in 857.[41]

text: The Frankish Annales Bertiniani may record the conquest of the Inner Hebrides by Vikings in 847.[42][43][44] Amlaíb Conung, who died in 874, is described as the "son of the king of Lochlainn" in the Fragmentary Annals of Ireland also suggesting an early date for an organised kingdom of Viking Scotland.[45] In the same source Amlaíb is also recorded as having gone to the aid of his father Gofraidh who was under assault from Vikings in Lochlainn, circa 872.[46] Gofraidh died in 873 and may have been succeeded by his son Ímar who also died that year.[47] A lament for Áed mac Cináeda, a Pictish king who died in 878, suggests Kintyre may have been lost to his kingdom at that time.[48] The Isle of Man may also have been taken by the Norse in 877 and was certainly held by them by 900.[49]

text: Subdivisions[edit]

text: Norðreyjar[edit]

text: The Northern Isles were "Pictish in culture and speech"[50] prior to the Norse incursions, and although it is recorded that Orkney was "destroyed" by King Bridei in 682 it is not likely that the Pictish kings exerted a significant degree of ongoing control over island affairs.[50][51] According to the Orkneyinga Saga, about 872 Harald Fairhair became King of a united Norway and many of his opponents fled to the islands of Scotland. Harald pursued his enemies and incorporated the Northern Isles into his kingdom in 875 and then, perhaps a little over a decade later, the Hebrides as well. The following year the local Viking chieftains of the Hebrides rebelled. Harald then sent Ketill Flatnose to subdue them. Ketill achieved this quickly but then declared himself an independent "King of the Isles", a title he retained for the rest of his life.[52] Hunter (2000) states that Ketill was "in charge of an extensive island realm and, as a result, sufficiently prestigious to contemplate the making of agreements and alliances with other princelings".[53][Note 5] According to the Landnámabók Kettil became ruler of a region already settled by Scandinavians.[8] Some scholars believe that this entire story is apocryphal and based on the later voyages of Magnus Barelegs.[34] For example, Woolf (2007) suggests that his appearance in the sagas "looks very much like a story created in later days to legitimise Norwegian claims to sovereignty in the region" and suggests an early 11th-century creation of the earldom of Orkney, prior to which local warlords competed for influence with one another and local populations of farmers.[56][57]

text: Nonetheless, the Norse tradition states that Rognvald Eysteinsson received Orkney and Shetland from Harald as an earldom as reparation for the death of his son in battle in Scotland, and then passed the earldom on to his brother Sigurd the Mighty.[58] Sigurd's line barely survived him and it was Torf-Einarr, Rognvald's son by a slave, who founded a dynasty that controlled the Northern Isles for centuries after his death.[59][Note 6] He was succeeded by his son Thorfinn Turf-Einarsson and during this time the deposed Norwegian King Eric Bloodaxe often used Orkney as a raiding base before being killed in 954. Thorfinn's death and presumed burial at the broch of Hoxa, on South Ronaldsay, then led to a long period of dynastic strife.[61][62] Whatever the historical details, it seems likely that Orkney and Shetland were being rapidly absorbed into Norse culture by this time.[Note 7]

text: The evidence of toponymy and language is unequivocal. Placenames in Orkney with a Celtic derivation are few in number and it is clear that Norn, a local version of Old Norse, was widely spoken by the inhabitants into historic times.[64][65] Norn was also spoken in Shetland and evidence for Pictish elements in placenames is virtually non-existent, the three island names of Fetlar, Unst and Yell excepted.[66][67]

text: Jarlshof in Shetland contains the most extensive remains of a Viking site visible anywhere in Britain[68] and it is believed that the Norse inhabited the site continuously from the 9th to the 14th centuries.[69] Amongst the many important finds are drawings scratched on slate of dragon-prowed ships[69] and a bronze-gilt harness mounting made in Ireland in the 8th or 9th centuries.[68][70] Brough of Birsay in Orkney is another important archaeological site, which like Jarlshof has a continuity of settlement spanning the Pictish and Norse periods.[71] There is a remarkable collection of 12th-century runic inscriptions inside Maeshowe.[72]

text: Caithness and Sutherland[edit]

text: In early Irish literature Shetland is referred to as Inse Catt—"the Isles of Cats", which may have been the pre-Norse inhabitants' name for these islands. The Cat tribe certainly occupied parts of the northern Scottish mainland and their name can be found in Caithness, and in the Gaelic name for Sutherland (Cataibh, meaning "among the Cats").[73] There is limited evidence that Caithness may have had an intermediate phase of Gaelic-speaking control between the Pictish era and the Norse takeover,[74] but if it existed it is likely to have been short-lived.

text: Sigurd Eysteinsson and Thorstein the Red moved on northern Scotland, conquering large areas variously described in the sagas as constituting all of Caithness and Sutherland and possibly including territory in Ross and even Moray during the last decade of the 9th century.[75] The Orkneyinga Saga relates how the former defeated the Pict Máel Brigte Tusk but died from an unusual post-battle injury.

text: Thorfinn Torf-Einarsson married into the native aristocracy and his son, Skuli Thorfinnsson, is recorded as having sought the support of the King of Scots in the 10th century in pursuing his claim as Mormaer of Caithness.[76] Njáls saga relates that Sigurd the Stout was the ruler of "Ross and Moray, Sutherland and the Dales" of Caithness[77] and it is possible that in the late 10th century the Scots kings were in alliance with the Earl of Orkney against the Mormaer of Moray.[78]

text: Thorfinn Sigurdsson expanded his father's realm south beyond Sutherland[79] and by the 11th century the Norwegian crown had come to accept that Caithness was held by the Earls of Orkney as a fiefdom from the Kings of Scotland although its Norse character was retained throughout the 13th century.[80] Raghnall mac Gofraidh was granted Caithness after assisting the Scots king in a conflict with Harald Maddadson, an earl of Orkney in the early 13th century.[Note 8] This joint earldom ceased after 1375 and the Pentland Firth became the border between Scotland and Norway.[83]

text: No Norse place names have been found on the northern Scottish mainland south of Beauly and so far no archaeological evidence of Norse activity has been found in the north-west mainland.[84][85]

text: Suðreyjar[edit]

text: Like the Northern Isles, the Outer Hebrides and the northern Inner Hebrides were predominantly Pictish in the early 9th century.[50][86] By contrast, the southern Inner Hebrides formed part of the Gaelic kingdom of Dál Riata.

text: The obliteration of pre-Norse names in the Outer Hebrides and in Coll, Tiree and Islay in the Inner Hebrides is almost total and there is little continuity of style between Pictish pottery in the north and that of the Viking period. The similarities that do exist suggests the later pots may have been made by Norse who had settled in Ireland, or Irish slaves.[87][88][89] There are frequent references in early Icelandic history to slaves from Ireland and the Hebrides, but none from Orkney.[90] Gaelic certainly continued to exist as a spoken language in the southern Hebrides throughout the settlement period, but place name evidence suggests it had a lowly status[91] and Norse may have survived as a spoken language until the 16th century in the Outer Hebrides.[92]

text: There is no evidence of any direct Norwegian rule in the area other than a few brief occupations although the written record is weak and no contemporary records of the Norse period from the Outer Hebrides exist.[93][94] It is however known that Hebrides were taxed using the Ounceland system and evidence from Bornais suggests that settlers there may have been more prosperous than families of a similar status in the Northern Isles, possibly due to a more relaxed political regime.[95] Latterly, the Hebrides sent eight representatives from Lewis and Harris and Skye and another eight from the southern Hebrides to the Tynwald parliament on Man.[96]

text: Colonsay and Oronsay have produced important pagan Norse burial grounds. An 11th-century cross slab decorated with Irish and Ringerike Viking art on Islay was found in 1838.[97] Rubha an Dùnain, today an uninhabited peninsula to the south of the Cuillin hills on Skye, contains the small Loch na h-Airde, which is connected to the sea by a short artificial canal. This loch was an important site for maritime activity for many centuries, spanning the Viking and later periods of Scottish clan rule. There is a stone-built quay and a system to maintain constant water levels. Boat timbers discovered there have been dated to the 12th century.[98][99][100] Only three rune stones are known from the west coast of Scotland, on Christian memorials found on Barra, Inchmarnock and Iona.[101]

text: In the Firth of Clyde, Norse burials have been found on Arran, although not Bute and place name evidence suggests a settlement pattern that was much less well-developed than in the Hebrides. On the mainland coast there is cluster of Norse place names around Largs and an ornate silver brooch was found on a hillside near Hunterston that is of likely 7th-century Irish origin but with a 10th-century runic inscription.[102] Five Hogback monuments found in Govan hint at Scandinavian enclaves inland.[103]

text: The Isle of Man (which was absorbed into Scotland from 1266 until the 14th century) was dominated by the Norse-Gaels from an early date and from 1079 onwards by the Crovan dynasty as attested by the Chronicles of Mann and evidenced by the numerous Manx Runestones and Norse place names.[104][105] The modern-day Diocese of Sodor and Man retains the centuries-old name.

text: Western coast[edit]

text: South of Sutherland there is considerable place name evidence of Norse settlement along the entire western coast, although unlike on the islands the settlement in the south seems to have been less prolonged and undertaken in tandem with pre-existing settlement rather than replacing it entirely. The distinction between the Innse Gall (islands of the foreigners) and the Airer Goidel (coastland of the Gael) is further suggestive of a distinction between island and mainland at an early date.[92][106] In Wester Ross most of the Gaelic names that exist on the coastline today are of likely Medieval rather than pre-Norse origin[107] and a now-lost charter refers to the mainland village of Glenelg opposite Skye as having been in the possession of the king of Man.[108] As in Orkney and Shetland, Pictish seems to have been entirely replaced wherever the Norse encountered it.

text: In the 9th century the first references to the Gallgáedil (i.e. "foreign Gaels") appear. This term was variously used in succeeding centuries to refer to individuals of mixed Scandinavian-Celtic descent and/or culture who became dominant in west and south-west Scotland, parts of northern England and the isles.[109] This alliance between the two cultures, which also took place in Ireland,[110] may have been instrumental in saving the Gaels of Dál Riata from the fate of the Picts in the north and west.[111] Evidence for Norse settlement in mainland Argyll is limited[112] although the Port an Eilean Mhòir ship burial in Ardnamurchan is the first boat burial site to be discovered on the mainland of Britain.[113]

text: South-West Scotland[edit]

text: By the mid 10th century Amlaíb Cuarán controlled The Rhinns[114] and the region gets the modern name of Galloway from the mixture of Viking and Gaelic Irish settlement that produced the Gall-Gaidel.[115] Magnus Barelegs is said to have "subdued the people of Galloway"[116] in the 11th century and Whithorn seems to have been a centre of Hiberno-Norse artisans who traded around the Irish Sea by the end of the first millennium.[11] However, the place name, written and archaeological evidence of extensive Norse (as opposed to Norse-Gael) settlement in the area is not convincing.[116]

text: The ounceland system seems to have become widespread down the west coast including much of Argyll and this is just as true of most of the south west apart from land adjacent to the inner Solway Firth. In Dumfries and Galloway the place name evidence is complex and of mixed Gaelic, Norse and Danish influence, the last most likely stemming from contact with the extensive Danish holdings in northern England.[117] One feature of the area is the number of names with a "kirk" prefix followed by a saint's name such as Kirkoswald. Interpretation of this is not certain but it is also indicative of a mixed Gaelic/Norse population.[118]

text: Eastern Scotland[edit]

text: There is no evidence of permanent Viking settlement on the east coast south of the Moray Firth, or of Norse burials, although raids and even invasions certainly occurred. Dunnottar was taken during the reign of Domnall mac Causantín[119] and the Orkneyinga saga records an attack on the Isle of May, by Sweyn Asleifsson and Margad Grimsson:

text: They sailed south off Scotland until they came to Máeyar. There was a monastery, the head of which was an abbot, by name, Baldwin. Swein and his men were detained there seven nights by stress of bad weather. They said they had been sent by Earl Rögnvald to the King of Scots. The monks suspected their tale, and thinking they were pirates, sent to the mainland for men. When Swein and his comrades became aware of this, they went hastily aboard their ship, after having plundered much treasure from the monastery.[120]

text: Place name evidence of Scandinavian settlement is very limited on the east coast and in the south-east Anglian was the predominant influence during this period of history.[117][118]

text: Politics and Governance[edit]

text: Internal politics[edit]

text: The first phase of Norse expansion was that of war bands seeking plunder and the creation of new settlements. The second phase involved the integration of these settlers into organised political structures of which the most prominent in the early part were the Earls of Orkney in the north[121] and the Uí Ímair in the south.

text: Even if the commencement of a formal earldom of Orkney is a matter of discussion (see above) there is little doubt that the institution experienced continuity thereafter. Until the mid to late 11th century the Earls of Orkney and Kings of the Western Isles were probably independent rulers.[122] The imposition of direct Norwegian rule at the end of this century brought this to a close in the north and unusually, from c. 1100 onwards the Norse jarls of the Northern Isles owed allegiance both to Norway for Orkney and to the Scottish crown through their holdings as Earls of Caithness.[123] In 1231 the line of Norse earls, unbroken since Rognvald Eysteinsson, ended with Jon Haraldsson's murder in Thurso.[124] The Earldom of Caithness was granted to Magnus, second son of the Earl of Angus, whom Haakon IV of Norway confirmed as Earl of Orkney in 1236.[125] In 1379 the earldom passed to the Sinclair family, who were also barons of Roslin near Edinburgh[126] although Orkney and Shetland remained part of Norway for a century more.

text: The situation in the Suðreyar was more complex. Different kings may have ruled over very different areas and few of them can be seen as exerting any kind of close control over this "far-flung sea kingdom".[54] The Uí Ímair were certainly a powerful force from the late 9th to the early 11th century with dynasts such as Amlaíb Cuarán [127] and Gofraid mac Arailt[128] claiming kingship of the Isles. Norse sources also list various rulers such as jarls Gilli, Sigurd the Stout, Håkon Eiriksson[129] and Thorfinn the Mighty as rulers over the Hebrides who were vassals of the Kings of Norway or Denmark. The dates from the Irish and Norse sources do not significantly overlap, but it is not clear if these are records of competing empires, or reflect Uí Ímar influence in the south and direct Norse rule in the north, or both. Furthermore, two records in the Annals of Innisfallen may suggest that the Western Isles were not "organised into a kingdom or earldom" at this time but rather that they were "ruled by assemblies of freeholders who regularly elected lawmen to preside over their public affairs".[130] The Annals of the Four Masters entries for 962 and 974 hint at a similar arrangement.[131] Crawford (1987) suggests that influence from the south rather than the north was "usually predominant" whilst admitting that the islands probably formed "groups of more or less independent communities".[132]

text: Godred Crovan became the ruler of Dublin and Mann from 1079[133][134] and from the early years of the 12th century the Crovan dynasty asserted themselves and ruled as "Kings of Mann and the Isles" for the next half century. The kingdom was than sundered due to the actions of Somerled whose sons inherited the southern Hebrides whilst the Manx rulers held on to the "north isles" for another century.[135] The origins of both Godred Crovan and Somerled are obscure— the former may have been an Uí Ímair dynast from Islay, the latter married a Crovan heiress.[136][137]

text: Thus it is clear that although there were competing factions in play, the Hebrides and islands of the Clyde were essentially under the control of rulers of Scandinavian origin from "at least the late tenth century"[138] until the emergence of the kingdom of Scotland and its 13th century expansion into the west.

text: Relations with Pictland, Strathclyde and Alba[edit]

text: The early Viking threats may have speeded a long term process of gaelicisation of the Pictish kingdoms, which adopted Gaelic language and customs. There was a merger of the Gaelic and Pictish crowns, although historians continue to debate whether it was a Pictish takeover of Dál Riata, or the other way around. This culminated in the rise of Cínaed mac Ailpín in the 840s, who brought to power the House of Alpin who were leaders of a combined Gaelic-Pictish kingdom for almost two centuries.[139]

text: In 870 Dumbarton was besieged by Amlaíb Conung and Ímar, "the two kings of the Northmen", who "returned to Dublin from Britain" the following year with numerous captives.[140] Dumbarton was the capital of the Kingdom of Strathclyde and this was clearly a major assault which may have brought the whole of mainland Scotland under temporary Ui Imair control.[12][141] Three years earlier Vikings had seized Northumbria, forming the Kingdom of York[142] and subsequently conquered much of England except for a reduced Kingdom of Wessex,[142] leaving the new combined Pictish and Gaelic kingdom almost encircled.[143] Amlaíb and his brother Auisle "ravaged the whole of Pictland and took their hostages" and later occupied this territory for a protracted period.[144] The 875 Battle of Dollar was another major setback for the Picts/Scots.

text: In 902 the Norse suffered a serious reverse in Ireland losing control of Dublin and this seems to have intensified attacks on the emerging kingdom of Alba. A year later Dunkeld was attacked and Ímar, the "grandson of Ímar" was killed in battle with the forces of Constantine II in mainland Scotland.[12][145] In the late tenth century the battle of "Innisibsolian" was won by Alban forces over Vikings.[Note 9] Yet these events were setbacks for the Norse rather than a definitive moment. Of more significance were their defeats at the Battle of Brunanburh in 937 and at the Battle of Tara in 980.[148]

text: In 962 Ildulb mac Causantín, King of Scots, was killed (according to the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba) fighting the Norse near Cullen, at the Battle of Bauds[149] but the line of the House of Alpin held firm and the threat posed by the Scandinavian presence to the emergent Kingdom of Scotland lessened. Perhaps to counter growing Irish influence in the Western Isles Magnus Barelegs re-established direct Norwegian overlordship there by 1098.[150][151] He first took Orkney, the northern Scottish mainland and the Hebrides, where he "dyed his sword red in blood" in the Uists.[152] In that year, Edgar of Scotland signed a treaty with Magnus which settled much of the boundary between the Scots and Norwegian claims in the islands. Edgar formally acknowledged the existing situation by giving up his claims to the Hebrides and Kintyre.[13][Note 10]

text: Following the intervention of Somerled and his death at the Battle of Renfrew the Kings of the Isles were weakened relative to the Scottish state, but more than 150 years later Norway intervened again, this time unsuccessfully. Following Haakon Haakonarson's ill-fated invasion and the stalemate of the Battle of Largs the Hebrides and Mann and all rights that the Norwegian crown "had of old therein" were yielded to the Kingdom of Scotland as a result of the 1266 Treaty of Perth.[10][154]

text: In 1468 Orkney was pledged by Christian I, in his capacity as king of Norway, as security against the payment of the dowry of his daughter Margaret, betrothed to James III of Scotland. As the money was never paid, the connection with the crown of Scotland has become perpetual.[Note 11]

text: Religion, culture and economy[edit]

text: Although there is evidence of varying burial rites practised by Norse settlers in Scotland, such as grave goods found on Colonsay and Westray, there is little that enables a confirmation that the Norse gods were venerated prior to the reintroduction of Christianity.[158] The Odin Stone has been used as evidence of Odinic beliefs and practices but the derivation may well be from "oathing stone".[159] A few Scandinavian poetic references suggest that Orcadian audiences understood elements of the Norse pantheon, although this is hardly conclusive proof of active beliefs.[160] Nonetheless, it is likely that pagan practices existed in early Scandinavian Scotland.[161]

text: According to the sagas, the Northern Isles were Christianised by Olav Tryggvasson in 995 when he stopped at South Walls on his way from Ireland to Norway. The King summoned the jarl Sigurd the Stout and said "I order you and all your subjects to be baptised. If you refuse, I'll have you killed on the spot and I swear I will ravage every island with fire and steel." Unsurprisingly, Sigurd agreed and the islands became Christian at a stroke,[162] receiving their own bishop, Henry of Lund (also known as "the Fat"), who was appointed sometime prior to 1035.[163][Note 12] The greatest source of Scottish influence after the appointment of the Scottish earls in the 13th century was probably through the church, although it is clear that Scots influence on the culture of Orkney and Shetland was fairly limited until the close of the 14th century or later.[165] An influx of Scottish entrepreneurs helped to create a diverse and independent community that included farmers, fishermen and merchants that called themselves Communitas Orchadensis and who proved themselves increasingly able to defend their rights against their feudal overlords, be they Norwegian or Scots.[165][166][167] This independence of mind may have been fostered by the influence of Norwegian government which was essentially communal and federal by contrast with Scotland.[168] It was not until the mid 16th century that the Norse institutions were replaced by Scottish systems following large-scale immigration from the south[169] and the islanders were probably bi-lingual until the 17th century.[Note 13]

text: Once again, the situation in the Hebrides is much less clear. There was a Bishop of Iona until the late 10th century and there is then a gap of more than a century, possibly filled by the Bishops of Orkney, before the appointment of the first Bishop of Mann in 1079.[171] The conversion of Scandinavian Scotland and the resultant end to slavery and integration of Viking society into mainstream European culture was a significant event. It took place at an early date, although the popular image of marauding berserkers and of the Norse as "enemies of social progress" remains[172] despite considerable evidence that in their latter phase the Norse-speaking populations were rather "enlightened practitioners of maritime commercial principles".[173] Þings were open-air governmental assemblies that met in the presence of the jarl and the meetings were open to virtually all free men. At these sessions decisions were made, laws passed and complaints adjudicated.[174] Examples include Tingwall and Law Ting Holm in Shetland, Dingwall in Easter Ross, and Tynwald on the Isle of Man.[175][176]

text: Women enjoyed a relatively high status during the Viking Age, possibly due to the high degree of mobility in society. There is little knowledge of their role in the Scandinavian colonies of Scotland although the indirect evidence of graves during the pagan and Christian periods suggests roles similar to those held elsewhere.[177] Amongst the best known figures are Gormflaith ingen Murchada, Gunnhild Gormsdóttir, Aud the Deep-Minded[178] and Ingibjörg, the daughter of Earl Hakon Paulsson and wife of King Olaf Godredsson.

text: The Norse legacy of art and architecture is limited. The Christchurch at Brough of Birsay, now reduced, was the early seat of the Bishop's of Orkney. St. Magnus Cathedral, Kirkwall is peerless as an example of Norse-era construction in Scotland and St. Magnus Church, on Egilsay retains its round tower.[179] The iconic Lewis chessmen are the best known treasure trove and numerous finds of grave goods including brooches and weaponry[180] such as the Scar boat burial are well-documented.

text: There is growing evidence of the importance of trade and commerce. Data from the Outer Hebrides suggests that pigs were a more important aspect of Viking farming than prior to that time, that red deer numbers may have been controlled rather than the species simply being subject to hunting, that herring fishing became an important commercial consideration and that trade with centres to the south such as Dublin and Bristol may have been important. Coins found at Bornais and Cille Pheadair were produced in Norway, Westphalia, and England, although there were none from Scotland.[181] Ivory from Greenland was also found there.[182]

text: Present day influence[edit]

text: Norse and Viking colonisations and settlements have made an impression on peripheral Scotland, the evidence for which can be found in place names, language, genetics and other aspects of cultural heritage.[183]

text: The Scandinavian influence in Scotland was probably at its height in the mid 11th century[184] during the time of Thorfinn Sigurdsson, who attempted to create a single political and ecclesiastical domain stretching from Shetland to Man.[185] The Suðreyjar have a total land area of approximately 8,374 square kilometres (3,233 sq mi).[Note 14] Caithness and Sutherland have a combined area of 7,051 square kilometres (2,722 sq mi)[190] and the permanent Scandinavian holdings in Scotland at that time must therefore have been at minimum between a fifth and a quarter of the land area of modern Scotland.[Note 15]

text: The Viking invasions may have inadvertently played a role in the creation of modern Scotland. Their destructive raids initially weakened Pictland, Strathclyde and Dal Riata, but these "harassed remnants" eventually became a united front and Norse aggression thus played a significant role in the creation of the kingdom of Alba,[10] the nucleus from which the Scottish kingdom expanded as the Viking influence waned, just as in the south Wessex expanded to become the kingdom of England.[14]

text: Some Scots take pride in their Scandinavian ancestry. For example, Clan MacLeod of Lewis claims its descent from Leod, who according to tradition was a younger son of Olaf the Black.[191] Clan MacNeacail of Skye also claim Norse ancestry,[192] and occasional references are made to the idea of Scotland joining "the Nordic circle of nations" in modern political debate.[Note 16] Yet, unlike the Danelaw in England, the Scandinavian occupation of Scotland has no single common name. This may be a reflection of the less well documented nature of the various invasions involved, but it also hints at a relative lack of popular understanding of the history. By comparison to the Roman occupations of Scotland the Norse kingdoms were much longer lived, more recent and had a significantly more dramatic influence on spoken language and by extension culture and lifestyles generally. They were however confined to areas that are relatively remote from the main centres of modern population. Furthermore, regardless of the actual impact of Scandinavian culture, the hereditary leaders of the Scots nation are generally descended from Pictish and Gaelic stock. The Vikings are thus often seen in a negative light and as a foreign invasion rather than as a key part of a multi-cultural polity.[194]

text: Nonetheless, in the Northern Isles the Scandinavian connection is still celebrated, one of the best-known such events being the Lerwick fire-festival Up Helly Aa. In particular, Shetland's connection with Norway has proven to be enduring. When Norway became independent again in 1905 the Shetland authorities sent a letter to King Haakon VII in which they stated: "Today no 'foreign' flag is more familiar or more welcome in our voes and havens than that of Norway, and Shetlanders continue to look upon Norway as their mother-land, and recall with pride and affection the time when their forefathers were under the rule of the Kings of Norway."[195] At the 2013 Viking Congress held in Shetland the Scottish Government announced plans to strengthen Scotland’s historic links with Scandinavia.[196]


document_title: Dover Beach

question_text: who is the poem dover beach addressed to

text: Dover Beach

text: Analysis[edit]

text: In Stefan Collini's opinion, "Dover Beach" is a difficult poem to analyze, and some of its passages and metaphors have become so well known that they are hard to see with "fresh eyes".[4] Arnold begins with a naturalistic and detailed nightscape of the beach at Dover in which auditory imagery plays a significant role ("Listen! you hear the grating roar").[5] The beach, however, is bare, with only a hint of humanity in a light that "gleams and is gone".[6] Reflecting the traditional notion that the poem was written during Arnold's honeymoon (see composition section), one critic notes that "the speaker might be talking to his bride".[7]

text: Arnold looks at two aspects of this scene, its soundscape (in the first and second stanzas) and the retreating action of the tide (in the third stanza). He hears the sound of the sea as "the eternal note of sadness". Sophocles, a 5th-century BC Greek playwright who wrote tragedies on fate and the will of the gods, also heard this sound as he stood upon the shore of the Aegean Sea.[8][9] Critics differ widely on how to interpret this image of the Greek classical age. One sees a difference between Sophocles interpreting the "note of sadness" humanistically, while Arnold, in the industrial nineteenth century, hears in this sound the retreat of religion and faith.[10] A more recent critic connects the two as artists, Sophocles the tragedian, Arnold the lyric poet, each attempting to transform this note of sadness into "a higher order of experience".[11]

text: Having examined the soundscape, Arnold turns to the action of the tide itself and sees in its retreat a metaphor for the loss of faith in the modern age,[14] once again expressed in an auditory image ("But now I only hear / Its melancholy, long, withdrawing roar"). This fourth stanza begins with an image not of sadness, but of "joyous fulness" similar in beauty to the image with which the poem opens.[15]

text: The final stanza begins with an appeal to love, then moves on to the famous ending metaphor. Critics have varied in their interpretation of the first two lines; one calls them a "perfunctory gesture ... swallowed up by the poem's powerfully dark picture",[17] while another sees in them "a stand against a world of broken faith".[18] Midway between these is one of Arnold's biographers, who describes being "true / To one another" as "a precarious notion" in a world that has become "a maze of confusion".[19]

text: The metaphor with which the poem ends is most likely an allusion to a passage in Thucydides's account of the Peloponnesian War (Book 7, 44). He describes an ancient battle that occurred on a similar beach during the Athenian invasion of Sicily. The battle took place at night; the attacking army became disoriented while fighting in the darkness and many of their soldiers inadvertently killed each other.[20] This final image has also been variously interpreted by the critics. Culler calls the "darkling plain" Arnold's "central statement" of the human condition.[21] Pratt sees the final line as "only metaphor" and thus susceptible to the "uncertainty" of poetic language.[22]

text: "The poem's discourse", Honan tells us, "shifts literally and symbolically from the present, to Sophocles on the Aegean, from Medieval Europe back to the present—and the auditory and visual images are dramatic and mimetic and didactic. Exploring the dark terror that lies beneath his happiness in love, the speaker resolves to love—and exigencies of history and the nexus between lovers are the poem's real issues. That lovers may be 'true / To one another' is a precarious notion: love in the modern city momentarily gives peace, but nothing else in a post-medieval society reflects or confirms the faithfulness of lovers. Devoid of love and light the world is a maze of confusion left by 'retreating' faith."[25]

text: Critics have questioned the unity of the poem, noting that the sea of the opening stanza does not appear in the final stanza, while the "darkling plain" of the final line is not apparent in the opening.[26] Various solutions to this problem have been proffered. One critic saw the "darkling plain" with which the poem ends as comparable to the "naked shingles of the world".[27] "Shingles" here means flat beach cobbles, characteristic of some wave-swept coasts. Another found the poem "emotionally convincing" even if its logic may be questionable.[28] The same critic notes that "the poem upends our expectations of metaphor" and sees in this the central power of the poem.[29] The poem's historicism creates another complicating dynamic. Beginning in the present it shifts to the classical age of Greece, then (with its concerns for the sea of faith) it turns to Medieval Europe, before finally returning to the present.[25] The form of the poem itself has drawn considerable comment. Critics have noted the careful diction in the opening description,[2] the overall, spell-binding rhythm and cadence of the poem[17] and its dramatic character.[30] One commentator sees the strophe-antistrophe of the ode at work in the poem, with an ending that contains something of the "cata-strophe" of tragedy.[31] Finally, one critic sees the complexity of the poem's structure resulting in "the first major 'free-verse' poem in the language".[32]

text: Composition[edit]

text: According to Tinker and Lowry, "a draft of the first twenty-eight lines of the poem" was written in pencil "on the back of a folded sheet of paper containing notes on the career of Empedocles".[33] Allott concludes that the notes are probably from around 1849–50.[34] "Empedocles on Etna", again according to Allott, was probably written 1849–52; the notes on Empedocles are likely to be contemporary with the writing of that poem.[35]

text: The final line of this draft is:

text: Tinker and Lowry conclude that this "seem[s] to indicate that the last nine lines of the poem as we know it were already in existence when the portion regarding the ebb and flow of the sea at Dover was composed." This would make the manuscript "a prelude to the concluding paragraph" of the poem in which "there is no reference to the sea or tides".[36]

text: Arnold's visits to Dover may also provide some clue to the date of composition. Allott has Arnold in Dover in June 1851 and again in October of that year "on his return from his delayed continental honeymoon". To critics who conclude that ll. 1–28 were written at Dover and ll. 29–37 "were rescued from some discarded poem" Allott suggests the contrary, i.e., that the final lines "were written at Dover in late June," while "ll. 29–37 were written in London shortly afterwards".[2]

text: Influence[edit]

text: William Butler Yeats responds directly to Arnold's pessimism in his four-line poem, "The Nineteenth Century and After" (1929):

text: Anthony Hecht, US Poet Laureate, replied to "Dover Beach" in his poem "The Dover Bitch".[37]

text: The anonymous figure to whom Arnold addresses his poem becomes the subject of Hecht's poem. In Hecht's poem she "caught the bitter allusion to the sea", imagined "what his whiskers would feel like / On the back of her neck", and felt sad as she looked out across the channel. "And then she got really angry" at the thought that she had become "a sort of mournful cosmic last resort". After which she says "one or two unprintable things".

text: Kenneth and Miriam Allott, referring to "Dover Bitch" as "an irreverent jeu d'esprit", nonetheless see, particularly in the line "a sort of mournful cosmic last resort", an extension of the original poem's main theme.[39]

text: "Dover Beach" has been mentioned in a number of novels, plays, poems, and films:

text:
In Dodie Smith's novel, I Capture the Castle (1940), the book's protagonist remarks that Debussy's Clair de Lune reminds her of "Dover Beach" (in the film adaptation of the novel, the character quotes (or, rather, misquotes) a line from the poem).
In Fahrenheit 451 (1951), author Ray Bradbury has his protagonist Guy Montag read part of "Dover Beach" to his wife Mildred and her friends after attempts at intellectual conversation fail and Montag discovers just how shallow and uncaring they are about their families and the world around them. One of Mildred's friends cries over the poem while the other chastises Montag for exposing them to something she deems obscene and the two break off their friendship with Mildred in disgust as they leave the house.
Joseph Heller's novel Catch-22 (1961) alludes to the poem in the chapter "Havermyer": "the open-air movie theater in which—for the daily amusement of the dying—ignorant armies clashed by night on a collapsible screen."
In Charles M. Fair's "The Dying Self", he speaks of "the coming of this unhappy epoch, in which men are a danger to themselves roughly in proportion to their own triviality, announced in the Victorian Age" and exemplified by "the only first-rate poem Arnold ever wrote: 'Dover Beach'."
Ian McEwan quotes part of the poem in his novel Saturday (2005), where the effects of its beauty and language are so strong and impressive that it moves a brutal criminal to tears and remorse. He also seems to have borrowed the main setting of his novella On Chesil Beach (2005) from Dover Beach, additionally playing with the fact that Arnold's poem was composed on his honeymoon (see above).
Sam Wharton quotes the final stanza in his Jonathan Hare novel 'Ignorant Armies' set in 1954, and one of his characters uses it as a commentary on the failure of senior people to maintain appropriate standards of conduct.
In the musical Cabaret (1966), the American aspiring novelist Cliff Bradshaw recites parts of the poem to the singer Sally Bowles because being English she wants to hear proper English after having been in Berlin for some time.
In her novel Devices and Desires (1989) P.D. James's character Adam Dalgliesh, thinking about his response to a police officer after having discovered a murder on a beach on the north-east coast of Norfolk about "walking and thinking" on the beach notes that "I was thinking about the clash of ignorant armies by night, since no poet walks by the sea at moonlight without silently reciting Matthew Arnold's marvellous poem."

text: The poem is mentioned in:

text:
Fahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury,
Jakarta by Alice Munro,
The Last Gentleman by Walker Percy,
A Song For Lya by George R.R. Martin,
Portnoy's Complaint by Philip Roth,
Rush's song "Armour and Sword", from the album Snakes and Arrows (lyrics by Neil Peart),
The Bangles' song "Dover Beach", from the album All Over the Place (lyrics by Susanna Hoffs and Vicki Peterson)
Nora's Lost, a short drama by Alan Haehnel,
Daljit Nagra's prize-winning poem "Look We Have Coming to Dover!" which quotes the line, "So various, so beautiful, so new" as its epigraph,
the poem "Moon" by Billy Collins,
the travel narrative A Summer in Gascony (2008) by Martin Calder.
The Flying Dutchman character quotes the last 12 lines as he looks towards the sea in the movie, Pandora and the Flying Dutchman.
Kevin Kline's character, Cal Gold, in the film The Anniversary Party recites part of "Dover Beach" as a toast.
Samuel Barber composed a setting of "Dover Beach" for string quartet and baritone.
Jeffrey Eugenides "The Marriage Plot", p. 201 (bottom), Farrar Straus and Giroux paperback edn 2011
Jo Baker 'A Country Road, A Tree' (2015) p 24, when protagonist Samuel Beckett recalls lines 9-10 when walking by the sea at Greystones, Co. Wicklow
The Man Without a Shadow, novel by Joyce Carol Oates, (2016)

text: The poem has also provided a ready source for titles:

text:
On a Darkling Plain by Clifford Irving, A Darkling Plain by Philip Reeve, As on a Darkling Plain by Ben Bova (the title refers to the plain of a Saturnian moon covered with strange unexplained artefacts), A Tour of the Darkling Plain (the Finnegans Wake correspondence of Adaline Glasheen and Thornton Wilder), Clash by Night, a play by Clifford Odets (later made into a film noir by Fritz Lang), Clash by Night" a science fiction novel by Lewis Padgett [Henry Kuttner & CL Moore], Ignorant Armies" by Sam Wharton, and Norman Mailer's National Book Award winner The Armies of the Night about the 1967 March on the Pentagon.
The Sea of Faith movement is so called as the name is taken from this poem, as the poet expresses regret that belief in a supernatural world is slowly slipping away; the "sea of faith" is withdrawing like the ebbing tide.

text: Even in the U. S. Supreme Court the poem has had its influence: Justice William Rehnquist, in his concurring opinion in Northern Pipeline Co. v. Marathon Pipe Line Co., 458 US 50 (1982), called judicial decisions regarding Congress's power to create legislative courts "landmarks on a judicial 'darkling plain' where ignorant armies have clashed by night."

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Rosenblatt, Roger (14 January 1985). "Where Is Our Dover Beach?". Time article. Retrieved 2 August 2007. a brief poem that eventually would be remembered by many more people than would remember the Great Exhibition, indeed would become the most anthologized poem in English
^ Jump up to: a b c d Allott, 1965, p. 240.
Jump up ^ Holt Literature and Language Arts, Sixth Course. Houston, Texas: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. 2003. p. 721. ISBN 0030573742.
Jump up ^ Stefan Collini (1988) Arnold pp. 39–40, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-287659-7
Jump up ^ Culler, 1966, p. 39; Honan, 1981, p. 234; Pratt, 2000, pp. 80–81.
Jump up ^ Collini, 1988, p. 39.
Jump up ^ Honan, 1981, p. 234.
Jump up ^ Tinker and Lowry, 1965, pp. 176–178. Tinker and Lowery attempt to discover a specific reference to Sophocles, suggesting passages from Antigone, The Women of Trachis, Oedipus at Colonus, and Philoctetes. But they add that "the Greek author has reference only to the successive blows of Fate which fall upon a particular family which has been devoted to destruction by the gods. The plight described metaphorically by the English poet is conceived to have fallen upon the whole human race."
Jump up ^ Allott, 1965, p. 241. Though Allott concludes that "no passage in the plays [of Sophocles] is strictly applicable" to the passage in "Dover Beach," she feels that the passage from the Trachiniae (The Women of Trachis) comes closest.
Jump up ^ Culler, 1966, p. 40
Jump up ^ Pratt, 2000, p. 81. Pratt goes on to equate this passage to Wallace Stevens' "The Idea of Order at Key West" – "Blessed rage for order.../The maker's rage to order words of the sea."
Jump up ^ Allott, 1965, p. 241. Compare to ll. 80–82 of his "Stanzas from the Grande Chartreuse" which appears to have been written at about the same time. For probable date of composition of "Stanzas from the Grande Chartreuse", see Allott, 1965, p. 285.
Jump up ^ The "distant northern sea" is the English Channel which separates England from continental Europe and is the body of water that forms Dover beach.
Jump up ^ Collini, 1988, p. 39. Collini calls the "Sea of Faith" "a favoured Arnoldian metaphor."
Jump up ^ Culler, 1966, p. 40. Culler describes this as a "lovely, feminine, protective image of the Sea," while Pratt sees not the beauty of the metaphor but its awkwardness and obscurity. (Pratt, 2000, p. 82)
Jump up ^ Honan, 1981, p. 234. Honan sees the "vast edges drear" as a possible memory of Wastwater in the Lake District, which Honan describes as "mountainous grey 'scree' running into translucent depths of water."
^ Jump up to: a b Collini, 1988, p. 40.
Jump up ^ Pratt, 2000, p. 82.
Jump up ^ Honan, 1981, p. 235. "That lovers may be 'true / To one another' is a precarious notion: love in the modern city momentarily gives peace, but nothing else in a postmedieval society reflects or confirms the faithfulness of lovers. Devoid of love and light the world is a maze of confusion left by 'retreating' faith."
Jump up ^ Tinker and Lowry, 1965, p. 175. "Here are to be found the details used by Arnold: a night-attack, fought upon a plain at the top of a cliff, in the moonlight, so that the soldiers could not distinguish clearly between friend and foe, with the resulting flight of certain Athenian troops, and various 'alarms,' watchwords, and battle-cries shouted aloud to the increasing confusion of all."
Jump up ^ Culler, 1966, p. 41.
Jump up ^ Pratt, 2000, p. 82 (emphasis in the original) She points to the final line's "as on": this is the language of simile.
Jump up ^ Honan, 1981, p. 235. Honan notes that John Henry Newman had used the image once to define controversy as a sort of "night battle". He also notes that the image occurs in Arthur Hugh Clough's The Bothie of Tober-na-Vuolich.
Jump up ^ Tinker and Lowry, 1965, p. 175. Tinker and Lowry point out that "there is evidence that the passage about the 'night-battle' was familiar coin among Rugbeians" at the time Arnold attended Rugby and studied there under his father Dr. Thomas Arnold whose keen interest in Thucydides had a distinct impact on his students.
^ Jump up to: a b Honan, 1981, p. 235.
Jump up ^ Culler, 1966, p. 40; Pratt, 2000, pp. 79–80.
Jump up ^ Culler, 1966, p. 40.
Jump up ^ Pratt, 2000, pp. 79–80.
Jump up ^ Pratt, 2000, p. 80.
Jump up ^ Honan, 1981, p. 235. Also see "Dover Beach" discussed in the Influence section of this article.
Jump up ^ Pratt, 2000, p. 81.
Jump up ^ Collini, 1988, p. 41.
Jump up ^ Tinker and Lowry, 1940, p. 173.
Jump up ^ Allott, 1965, p. 239.
Jump up ^ Allott, 1965, p. 147.
Jump up ^ Tinker and Lowry, 1940, pp. 174-175.
Jump up ^ "Anthony Hecht - "The Dover Bitch: A Criticism Of Life" - poetry archive - plagiarist.com". plagiarist.com.
Jump up ^ "Dover Bitch," by Anthony Hecht, in Matthew Arnold, A Collection of Critical Essays, edited by David J. DeLaura, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1973.
Jump up ^ "Arnold the Poet: (ii) Narrative and Dramatic Poems" by Kenneth and Miriam Allott, in Matthew Arnold edited by Kenneth Allott from the Writers and Their Background series, 1976, Ohio University Press: Athens, Ohio, p. 88.

tag: ol


document_title: List of Game of Thrones episodes

question_text: game of thrones season 1 episode 2 name

question_tokens: game of thrones season 1 episode 2 name

text: List of Game of Thrones episodes

text: Series overview[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Originally aired
Avg. U.S. viewers
(millions)

First aired
Last aired

1
10
April 17, 2011 (2011-04-17)
June 19, 2011 (2011-06-19)
2.52[13]

2
10
April 1, 2012 (2012-04-01)
June 3, 2012 (2012-06-03)
3.80[13]

3
10
March 31, 2013 (2013-03-31)
June 9, 2013 (2013-06-09)
4.97[14]

4
10
April 6, 2014 (2014-04-06)
June 15, 2014 (2014-06-15)
6.84[15]

5
10
April 12, 2015 (2015-04-12)
June 14, 2015 (2015-06-14)
6.88[16]

6
10
April 24, 2016 (2016-04-24)
June 26, 2016 (2016-06-26)
7.69[17]

7
7
July 16, 2017 (2017-07-16)
August 27, 2017 (2017-08-27)
10.26[18]

8
6
2019 (2019)[12]
2019 (2019)[12]
TBA

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Season 1 (2011)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)

1
1
"Winter Is Coming"
Tim Van Patten
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
April 17, 2011 (2011-04-17)
2.22[19]

2
2
"The Kingsroad"
Tim Van Patten
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
April 24, 2011 (2011-04-24)
2.20[20]

3
3
"Lord Snow"
Brian Kirk
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
May 1, 2011 (2011-05-01)
2.44[21]

4
4
"Cripples, Bastards, and Broken Things"
Brian Kirk
Bryan Cogman
May 8, 2011 (2011-05-08)
2.45[22]

5
5
"The Wolf and the Lion"
Brian Kirk
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
May 15, 2011 (2011-05-15)
2.58[23]

6
6
"A Golden Crown"
Daniel Minahan
Story by : David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
Teleplay by : Jane Espenson and David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
May 22, 2011 (2011-05-22)
2.44[24]

7
7
"You Win or You Die"
Daniel Minahan
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
May 29, 2011 (2011-05-29)
2.40[25]

8
8
"The Pointy End"
Daniel Minahan
George R. R. Martin
June 5, 2011 (2011-06-05)
2.72[26]

9
9
"Baelor"
Alan Taylor
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
June 12, 2011 (2011-06-12)
2.66[27]

10
10
"Fire and Blood"
Alan Taylor
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
June 19, 2011 (2011-06-19)
3.04[28]

text: Season 2 (2012)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)

11
1
"The North Remembers"
Alan Taylor
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
April 1, 2012 (2012-04-01)
3.86[29]

12
2
"The Night Lands"
Alan Taylor
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
April 8, 2012 (2012-04-08)
3.76[30]

13
3
"What Is Dead May Never Die"
Alik Sakharov
Bryan Cogman
April 15, 2012 (2012-04-15)
3.77[31]

14
4
"Garden of Bones"
David Petrarca
Vanessa Taylor
April 22, 2012 (2012-04-22)
3.65[32]

15
5
"The Ghost of Harrenhal"
David Petrarca
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
April 29, 2012 (2012-04-29)
3.90[33]

16
6
"The Old Gods and the New"
David Nutter
Vanessa Taylor
May 6, 2012 (2012-05-06)
3.88[34]

17
7
"A Man Without Honor"
David Nutter
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
May 13, 2012 (2012-05-13)
3.69[35]

18
8
"The Prince of Winterfell"
Alan Taylor
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
May 20, 2012 (2012-05-20)
3.86[36]

19
9
"Blackwater"
Neil Marshall
George R. R. Martin
May 27, 2012 (2012-05-27)
3.38[37]

20
10
"Valar Morghulis"
Alan Taylor
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
June 3, 2012 (2012-06-03)
4.20[38]

text: Season 3 (2013)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)

21
1
"Valar Dohaeris"
Daniel Minahan
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
March 31, 2013 (2013-03-31)
4.37[39]

22
2
"Dark Wings, Dark Words"
Daniel Minahan
Vanessa Taylor
April 7, 2013 (2013-04-07)
4.27[40]

23
3
"Walk of Punishment"
David Benioff
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
April 14, 2013 (2013-04-14)
4.72[41]

24
4
"And Now His Watch Is Ended"
Alex Graves
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
April 21, 2013 (2013-04-21)
4.87[42]

25
5
"Kissed by Fire"
Alex Graves
Bryan Cogman
April 28, 2013 (2013-04-28)
5.35[43]

26
6
"The Climb"
Alik Sakharov
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
May 5, 2013 (2013-05-05)
5.50[44]

27
7
"The Bear and the Maiden Fair"
Michelle MacLaren
George R. R. Martin
May 12, 2013 (2013-05-12)
4.84[45]

28
8
"Second Sons"
Michelle MacLaren
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
May 19, 2013 (2013-05-19)
5.13[46]

29
9
"The Rains of Castamere"
David Nutter
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
June 2, 2013 (2013-06-02)
5.22[47]

30
10
"Mhysa"
David Nutter
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
June 9, 2013 (2013-06-09)
5.39[48]

text: Season 4 (2014)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)

31
1
"Two Swords"
D. B. Weiss
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
April 6, 2014 (2014-04-06)
6.64[49]

32
2
"The Lion and the Rose"
Alex Graves
George R. R. Martin
April 13, 2014 (2014-04-13)
6.31[50]

33
3
"Breaker of Chains"
Alex Graves
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
April 20, 2014 (2014-04-20)
6.59[51]

34
4
"Oathkeeper"
Michelle MacLaren
Bryan Cogman
April 27, 2014 (2014-04-27)
6.95[52]

35
5
"First of His Name"
Michelle MacLaren
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
May 4, 2014 (2014-05-04)
7.16[53]

36
6
"The Laws of Gods and Men"
Alik Sakharov
Bryan Cogman
May 11, 2014 (2014-05-11)
6.40[54]

37
7
"Mockingbird"
Alik Sakharov
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
May 18, 2014 (2014-05-18)
7.20[55]

38
8
"The Mountain and the Viper"
Alex Graves
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
June 1, 2014 (2014-06-01)
7.17[56]

39
9
"The Watchers on the Wall"
Neil Marshall
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
June 8, 2014 (2014-06-08)
6.95[57]

40
10
"The Children"
Alex Graves
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
June 15, 2014 (2014-06-15)
7.09[58]

text: Season 5 (2015)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)

41
1
"The Wars to Come"
Michael Slovis
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
April 12, 2015 (2015-04-12)
8.00[59]

42
2
"The House of Black and White"
Michael Slovis
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
April 19, 2015 (2015-04-19)
6.81[60]

43
3
"High Sparrow"
Mark Mylod
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
April 26, 2015 (2015-04-26)
6.71[61]

44
4
"Sons of the Harpy"
Mark Mylod
Dave Hill
May 3, 2015 (2015-05-03)
6.82[62]

45
5
"Kill the Boy"
Jeremy Podeswa
Bryan Cogman
May 10, 2015 (2015-05-10)
6.56[63]

46
6
"Unbowed, Unbent, Unbroken"
Jeremy Podeswa
Bryan Cogman
May 17, 2015 (2015-05-17)
6.24[64]

47
7
"The Gift"
Miguel Sapochnik
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
May 24, 2015 (2015-05-24)
5.40[65]

48
8
"Hardhome"
Miguel Sapochnik
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
May 31, 2015 (2015-05-31)
7.01[66]

49
9
"The Dance of Dragons"
David Nutter
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
June 7, 2015 (2015-06-07)
7.14[67]

50
10
"Mother's Mercy"
David Nutter
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
June 14, 2015 (2015-06-14)
8.11[68]

text: Season 6 (2016)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)

51
1
"The Red Woman"
Jeremy Podeswa
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
April 24, 2016 (2016-04-24)
7.94[69]

52
2
"Home"
Jeremy Podeswa
Dave Hill
May 1, 2016 (2016-05-01)
7.29[70]

53
3
"Oathbreaker"
Daniel Sackheim
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
May 8, 2016 (2016-05-08)
7.28[71]

54
4
"Book of the Stranger"
Daniel Sackheim
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
May 15, 2016 (2016-05-15)
7.82[72]

55
5
"The Door"
Jack Bender
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
May 22, 2016 (2016-05-22)
7.89[73]

56
6
"Blood of My Blood"
Jack Bender
Bryan Cogman
May 29, 2016 (2016-05-29)
6.71[74]

57
7
"The Broken Man"
Mark Mylod
Bryan Cogman
June 5, 2016 (2016-06-05)
7.80[75]

58
8
"No One"
Mark Mylod
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
June 12, 2016 (2016-06-12)
7.60[76]

59
9
"Battle of the Bastards"
Miguel Sapochnik
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
June 19, 2016 (2016-06-19)
7.66[77]

60
10
"The Winds of Winter"
Miguel Sapochnik
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
June 26, 2016 (2016-06-26)
8.89[78]

text: Season 7 (2017)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)

61
1
"Dragonstone"
Jeremy Podeswa
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
July 16, 2017 (2017-07-16)
10.11[79]

62
2
"Stormborn"
Mark Mylod
Bryan Cogman
July 23, 2017 (2017-07-23)
9.27[80]

63
3
"The Queen's Justice"
Mark Mylod
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
July 30, 2017 (2017-07-30)
9.25[81]

64
4
"The Spoils of War"
Matt Shakman
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
August 6, 2017 (2017-08-06)
10.17[82]

65
5
"Eastwatch"
Matt Shakman
Dave Hill
August 13, 2017 (2017-08-13)
10.72[83]

66
6
"Beyond the Wall"
Alan Taylor
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
August 20, 2017 (2017-08-20)
10.24[84]

67
7
"The Dragon and the Wolf"
Jeremy Podeswa
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
August 27, 2017 (2017-08-27)
12.07[85]

text: Season 8[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by [86][87]
Written by [88]
Original air date [12]
U.S. viewers
(millions)

68
1
TBA
David Nutter
Dave Hill
2019 (2019)
TBD

69
2
TBA
David Nutter
Bryan Cogman
2019 (2019)
TBD

70
3
TBA
Miguel Sapochnik
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
2019 (2019)
TBD

71
4
TBA
David Nutter
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
2019 (2019)
TBD

72
5
TBA
Miguel Sapochnik
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
2019 (2019)
TBD

73
6
TBA
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
2019 (2019)
TBD

text: Home media releases[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
DVD release date

Region 1
Region 2
Region 4

1
10
March 6, 2012[89]
March 5, 2012[90]
August 10, 2012[91]

2
10
February 19, 2013[92]
March 4, 2013[93]
March 6, 2013[94]

3
10
February 18, 2014[95]
February 17, 2014[96]
February 19, 2014[97]

4
10
February 17, 2015[98]
February 16, 2015[99]
February 18, 2015[100]

5
10
March 15, 2016[101]
March 14, 2016[102]
March 16, 2016[103]

6
10
November 15, 2016[104]
November 14, 2016[105]
November 16, 2016[106]

7
7
December 12, 2017[107]
December 11, 2017[108]
December 11, 2017[109]

text: Ratings[edit]

text:
Season
Ep. 1
Ep. 2
Ep. 3
Ep. 4
Ep. 5
Ep. 6
Ep. 7
Ep. 8
Ep. 9
Ep. 10
Average

1
2.22
2.20
2.44
2.45
2.58
2.44
2.40
2.72
2.66
3.04
2.52[110]

2
3.86
3.76
3.77
3.65
3.90
3.88
3.69
3.86
3.38
4.20
3.80[110]

3
4.37
4.27
4.72
4.87
5.35
5.50
4.84
5.13
5.22
5.39
4.97[111]

4
6.64
6.31
6.59
6.95
7.16
6.40
7.20
7.17
6.95
7.09
6.84[112]

5
8.00
6.81
6.71
6.82
6.56
6.24
5.40
7.01
7.14
8.11
6.88[113]

6
7.94
7.29
7.28
7.82
7.89
6.71
7.80
7.60
7.66
8.89
7.69[114]

7
10.11
9.27
9.25
10.17
10.72
10.24
12.07
N/A
10.26[115]