document_title: Ministry of Defence (Zambia)

question_text: who is the minister of defence in zambia

root

text: Ministry of Defence (Zambia)

text:
Zambia

This article is part of a series on the
politics and government of
Zambia

Constitution[show]

Human rights

Government[show]

President

Edgar Lungu

Vice-President

Inonge Wina

Cabinet

Legislature[show]

National Assembly

Speaker: Patrick Matibini

Constituencies

Elections[show]

General

1964 1968 1973 1978 1983 1988 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011 2016 2021

Referendums

1969 2016

Political parties

Administrative divisions[show]

Provinces
Districts

Foreign relations[show]

Minister of Foreign Affairs
Diplomatic missions

of Zambia
to Zambia

Passport
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National symbols[show]

Flag
Anthem

Other countries
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v
t
e

tag: table

text: The Ministry of Defence is a ministry in Zambia. It is headed by the Minister of Defence and oversees the Zambian Defence Force and Zambia National Service.[1]

tag: p

text: List of ministers[edit]

text:
Minister
Party
Term start
Term end

Alexander Grey Zulu
United National Independence Party
1970
1973

Malimba Masheke
United National Independence Party
1985
1988

Benjamin Mwila
Movement for Multi-Party Democracy
1991
1997

Wamundila Muliokela
Movement for Multi-Party Democracy
2005
2006

Kalombo Mwansa
Movement for Multi-Party Democracy
2009

Geoffrey Bwalya Mwamba
Patriotic Front
2011
2013

Edgar Lungu
Patriotic Front
2013

Davies Chama
Patriotic Front
2016

text: Deputy ministers[edit]

text:
Deputy Minister
Party
Term start
Term end

Wamundila Muliokela
Movement for Multi-Party Democracy
2002
2005


document_title: The Last Resort (Eagles song)

question_text: who sang the last resort by the eagles

question_tokens: who sang the last resort by the eagles

text: The Last Resort (Eagles song)

text: Composition[edit]

text: On an episode of In the Studio with Redbeard (which devoted an entire episode to the making of Hotel California), Frey stated:

text: I have to give all the credit for 'The Last Resort' to (Don) Henley. It was the first time that Don, on his own, took it upon himself to write an epic story. We were very much at that time, concerned about the environment and doing anti-nuclear benefit (concerts). It seemed the perfect way to wrap up all of the different topics we had explored on the Hotel California album. Don found himself as a lyricist with that song, kind of outdid himself...We're constantly screwing up paradise and that was the point of the song and that at some point there is going to be no more new frontiers. I mean we're putting junk, er, garbage into space now. There's enough crap floating around the planet that we can't even use so it just seems to be our way. It's unfortunate but that is sort of what happens.

text: Frey referred to the song as "Henley's opus."[3]

text: Henley recalled that he had been reading about "the raping and pillaging of the West by mining, timber, oil and cattle interests" at the time he wrote the song.[3] He said that he wanted to expand the song's scope even further, and so he "tried to go 'Michener' with it," but was never totally satisfied with how it came out.[3]

text: Recording[edit]

text: The band recorded "The Last Resort" at the Criteria Studios in Miami, Florida. However, Black Sabbath were also recording Technical Ecstasy in an adjacent studio and played very loudly. The Eagles had to re-recorded the song a number of times to due to noise coming through the wall from the next studio.[4]

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: Music critic Dave Thompson considers it an update of Joni Mitchell's "Big Yellow Taxi" but says that it is "even more weary and despairing."[5] Thompson regards the line "Some rich men came and raped the land. Nobody caught them" to be a critique of a free market economy.[5] Critic William Ruhlmann said of it that it "sketches a broad, pessimistic history of America that borders on nihilism."[1] Author James Perone says that it ties "all the previous songs [from Hotel California] together in this final reflection of the dark side of California Life."[6] He notes, for example, how the song lyrics contrast the beauty of the California desert with ugly suburban houses and ultimately progresses to criticize the concept of manifest destiny, on which American expansion to California was partially based.[6] He regards the key lyric to be the line "They call it paradise; I don't know why," noting the emphasis given to it by the resignation of Henley's voice and by the falling melody.[6] Perone does criticize the use of synthesizer on the song instead of actual string instruments, which he feels sounds artificial.[6] To Eagles' biographer Marc Eliot, "The Last Resort" tells "the story of a nation's self-destruction and physical decay told as metaphor for personal creative burnout."[7] In 2016, the editors of Rolling Stone rated "The Last Resort" as the Eagles #27 greatest song.[3]

text: Personnel[edit]

text:
Don Henley - lead vocals, drums, synthesizer
Glenn Frey - piano, acoustic guitar, backing vocals
Joe Walsh - electric guitar, synthesizer, backing vocals
Don Felder - pedal steel guitar, electric guitar, backing vocals
Randy Meisner - bass, backing vocals

tag: ul


document_title: Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution

question_text: who chooses the vice president if there is no majority

text: Text[edit]

text: The Electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and all persons voted for as Vice-President and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate

text: The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted.

text: The person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President.[Note 1]

text: The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States.[1]

text: Background[edit]

text: Under the original procedure for the Electoral College, as provided in Article II, Section 1, Clause 3, each elector could vote for two persons. The two people chosen by the elector could not both inhabit the same state as that elector. This prohibition was designed to keep electors from voting for two "favorite sons" of their respective states.[2] The person receiving the greatest number of votes, provided that number equaled a majority of the electors, was elected President.

text: If there were more than one individual who received the same number of votes, and such number equaled a majority of the electors, the House of Representatives would choose one of them to be President. If no individual had a majority, then the House of Representatives would choose from the five individuals with the greatest number of electoral votes. In either case, a majority of state delegations in the House was necessary for a candidate to be chosen to be President.

text: Selecting the Vice President was a simpler process. Whichever candidate received the second greatest number of votes became Vice President. The Vice President, unlike the President, was not required to receive votes from a majority of the electors. In the event of a tie for second place, the Senate would choose who would be Vice President from those tied, with each Senator casting one vote. It was not specified in the Constitution whether the sitting Vice President could cast a tie-breaking vote for Vice President under the original formula.

text: George Washington's decision not to seek a third term and the emergence of partisan political activity exposed problems with the original procedure.

text: In the 1796 election, John Adams, the Federalist Party presidential candidate, received a majority of the electoral votes. However, the Federalist electors scattered their second votes, resulting in the Democratic-Republican Party presidential candidate, Thomas Jefferson, receiving the second highest number of electoral votes and thus being elected Vice President. It became apparent that if the Vice President was a defeated electoral opponent of the President the two might not work together effectively. By having the President and Vice President elected on a party ticket, this possibility would be eliminated but it raised a different flaw in the arrangements.

text: On January 6, 1797, Representative William L. Smith of South Carolina responded to this result by presenting a resolution on the floor of the House of Representatives for an amendment to the Constitution requiring each elector to cast one vote for President and another for Vice President.[3] However, no action was taken on his proposal, setting the stage for the deadlocked election of 1800.

text: The 1800 election exposed a defect in the original formula in that if each member of the Electoral College followed party tickets, there would be a tie between the two candidates from the most popular ticket.

text: The Federalist states in the House of Representatives decided to give their votes to Aaron Burr for President when he and Jefferson tied in the Presidential election of 1800. Their aim was to prevent Jefferson, who was influential and rich in new visions, from becoming President, at any cost. With help from Alexander Hamilton, the gridlock was finally broken on the thirty-sixth vote and Jefferson was elected President on February 17, 1801.[4] The events in the House, combined with the increasing Democratic-Republican majorities in the House and Senate, prompted the Democratic-Republicans to call for a Constitutional amendment requiring separate votes for President and Vice President in the Electoral College. By doing this, the Democratic-Republicans could dash the Federalists' hopes of having any impact on the Presidential election of 1804.

text: Adoption[edit]

text: Journey to Congress[edit]

text: In March 1801, weeks after the election of 1800 was resolved, two amendments were proposed in the New York state legislature that would form the skeleton of the Twelfth Amendment. Governor John Jay submitted an amendment to the state legislature that would require a district election of electors in each state. Assemblyman Jedediah Peck submitted an amendment to adopt designations for the votes for President and Vice President. The two amendments were not considered until early 1802 because the state legislature took a break for the summer and winter. New York state senator DeWitt Clinton moved for the adoption of the amendment in January 1802. Shortly thereafter, Clinton won a vacant seat in the U.S. Senate, where he was instrumental in bringing the designation amendment to Congress. The process continued in New York on February 15 when Representative Benjamin Walker of New York proposed the designation and district election amendments to the House. Debate on the amendments began in May. The Republicans wanted to decide on the amendment quickly, but the Federalists argued that the ideas needed more time than the current session allowed. Federalist Samuel W. Dana of Connecticut wanted to examine the necessity of a Vice President. The amendment ultimately failed in the New York State Senate, but DeWitt Clinton brought the amendment discussion to the House of Representatives.[5]

text: Congress was ready to debate the presented amendment, but the Democratic-Republicans decided to wait for the 8th Congress. The 8th Congress would allow the Democratic-Republicans a better chance of meeting the two-third vote requirement for submitting a proposed Constitutional amendment.

text: Congressional debate[edit]

text: On its first day, the 8th Congress considered the designation amendment. The first formulation of the amendment had the five highest electoral vote earners on the ballot in the House if no one candidate had a majority of the electoral votes. Republican John Clopton of Virginia, the largest state in the Union, argued that having five names on the list for a contingency election took the power from the people, so he proposed that there be only two names on the list. On October 20, the House appointed a seventeen-member committee (one Representative from each state) to fine-tune the amendment.[6]

text: The original proposal starting in the New York state legislature was a dual-amendment that, along with designation, put forward the idea of district election of electors that Treasury Secretary Gallatin had supported. Shortly after the committee was formed, Federalist Benjamin Huger attempted to add a provision regarding district elections to the proposed amendment. The committee ignored him and district election disappeared.[7]

text: The committee then submitted an updated version of the designation amendment to the House on October 23 that changed the number of candidates in a contingency election from five to three and allowed the Senate to choose the Vice President if there were a tie in that race. Small Federalist states disliked the change from five to three, because it made it far less likely that a small-state candidate would make it to a contingency election. Huger and New York Federalist Gaylord Griswold argued that the Constitution was a compromise between large and small states and the method chosen by the Framers is supposed to check the influence of the larger states. Huger even asserted that the Constitution itself was not a union of people, but a union of large and small states in order to justify the original framework for electing the President. Designation, argued Griswold and Huger, would violate the spirit of the Constitution by taking away a check on the power of the large states.[5]

text: Next up for the Federalists was Seth Hastings of Massachusetts, who submitted the argument that the designation amendment rendered the Vice Presidency useless and advocated for the elimination of the three-fifths clause. John C. Smith asked the inflammatory question of whether or not the proposed amendment was to help the reelection of Jefferson. Speaker Nathaniel Macon called this inappropriate. After Matthew Lyon of Kentucky denounced any reference to the three-fifths clause as mere provocation, the House easily passed the resolution 88-39 on October 28.

text: By October 28, the Senate had already been discussing the designation amendment. Republican DeWitt Clinton expected that the Senate, with a 24-9 Republican majority would quickly passing the amendment. Federalist Jonathan Dayton proposed that the office of the Vice President should be eliminated and his colleague, Uriah Tracy, seconded it. On the other side, Wilson Cary Nicholas was simply worried that Congress would not submit the amendment in time for the states to ratify it before the 1804 election. Despite Nicholas’ concern, the Senate would not seriously deal with the amendment again until November 23.[8]

text: Much as it had in the House, debate centered around the number of candidates in a contingency election and the philosophical underpinnings of the Constitution. Again, small Federalist states vehemently argued that three candidates gave too much power to large states to pick presidents. Senator Pierce Butler of South Carolina argued that the issues with the election of 1800 were unlikely to happen again and he would not advocate changing the Constitution simply to stop a Federalist Vice President. John Quincy Adams argued that the change from five to three gave an advantage to the people that violated the federative principle of the Constitution. Rather than have the office of the President balanced between the states and the people, Adams felt designation of President and Vice President would tip that scale in favor of the people.[9]

text: Federalist Senators argued for retaining the original procedure for the Electoral College. Senator Samuel White of Delaware claimed that the original procedure had not been given "a fair experiment" and criticized the proposed amendment for entrenching the two-party system that had taken over presidential elections.[10]

text: In response, the Republicans appealed to democratic principles. Samuel Smith of Maryland argued that the presidency ought to be as closely accountable to the people as possible. As such, having three candidates in a contingency election is far better than having five, because it is possible to have the fifth best candidate become President otherwise. Also, designation itself would drastically cut down the number of elections that would reach the house, and the President is then much more likely to be the people’s choice. Another of Smith’s arguments was simply the election of 1800. William Cocke of Tennessee took a different approach when he argued that the entire small state argument of the Federalists was simply out of self-interest.[11]

text: One last order of business for the amendment was to deal with the possibility that the House would fail to choose a President by March 4. It was the least controversial portion of the Twelfth Amendment and John Taylor proposed that the Vice President would take over as President in that peculiar occurrence, “as in case of the death or other Constitutional disability of the President."[12]

text: It seemed clear all along that the Republican dominance would render this a no-contest and the Republicans were just waiting for all of their votes to be present, but the Federalists had one last defense. A marathon session of debate, lasting from 11 A.M. to 10 P.M., was the order of the day on December 2, 1803. Most notably, Uriah Tracy of Connecticut argued in a similar vein as Adams when he invoked the federative principle of the Constitution. Tracy claimed the original procedure was formulated to give the small states a chance to elect the Vice President, who would be a check on the President’s powers. In essence, the states balanced the power of the people. However, this only works if you make it partisan, as Georgia (for example) was a Republican small state.[13]

text: Proposal and ratification[edit]

text: The Twelfth Amendment was proposed by the 8th Congress on December 9, 1803, when it was approved by the House of Representatives by vote of 83–42,[14] having been previously passed by the Senate, 22–10, on December 2.[15] The amendment was officially submitted to the states on December 12, 1803, and was ratified by the legislatures of the following states:[16]

text:
North Carolina: December 21, 1803
Maryland: December 24, 1803
Kentucky: December 27, 1803
Ohio: December 30, 1803
Pennsylvania: January 5, 1804
Vermont: January 30, 1804
Virginia: February 3, 1804
New York: February 10, 1804
New Jersey: February 22, 1804
Rhode Island: March 12, 1804
South Carolina: May 15, 1804
Georgia: May 19, 1804
New Hampshire: June 15, 1804[Note 2]

tag: ol

text: Having been ratified by the requisite three-fourths of the several states, there being 17 states in the Union at the time, the ratification of the Twelfth Amendment was completed. It was subsequently ratified by:

text: The amendment was rejected by:

text:
Delaware: January 18, 1804
Connecticut: May 10, 1804

text: On September 25, 1804, in a circular letter to the governors of the states, Secretary of State Madison declared the amendment ratified by three-fourths of the states.

text: Electoral College under the Twelfth Amendment[edit]

text: While the Twelfth Amendment did not change the composition of the Electoral College or the duties of the electors, it did change the process whereby a President and a Vice President are elected. The new electoral process was first used for the 1804 election. Each presidential election since has been conducted under the terms of the Twelfth Amendment.

text: The Twelfth Amendment stipulates that each elector must cast distinct votes for President and Vice President, instead of two votes for President. Additionally, electors may not vote for presidential and vice-presidential candidates who both reside in the elector's state—at least one of them must be an inhabitant of another state.

text: If no candidate for President has a majority of the total votes, the House of Representatives, voting by states and with the same quorum requirements as under the original procedure, chooses the President. The Twelfth Amendment requires the House to choose from the three highest receivers of electoral votes, compared to five under the original procedure.

text: The Twelfth Amendment requires a person to receive a majority of the electoral votes for Vice President for that person to be elected Vice President by the Electoral College. If no candidate for Vice President has a majority of the total votes, the Senate, with each Senator having one vote, chooses the Vice President. The Twelfth Amendment requires the Senate to choose between the candidates with the "two highest numbers" of electoral votes. If multiple individuals are tied for second place, the Senate may consider all of them, in addition to the individual with the greatest number of votes. The Twelfth Amendment introduced a quorum requirement of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators for the conduct of balloting. Furthermore, the Twelfth Amendment requires the Senate to choose a Vice President by way of the affirmative votes of "a majority of the whole number" of Senators.

text: To prevent deadlocks from keeping the nation leaderless, the Twelfth Amendment provided that if the House did not choose a President before March 4 (then the first day of a Presidential term), the individual elected Vice President would "act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President." The Twelfth Amendment did not state for how long the Vice President would act as President or if the House could still choose a President after March 4. Section 3 of the Twentieth Amendment, adopted in 1933, supersedes that provision of the Twelfth Amendment by changing the date upon which a new presidential term commences to January 20, clarifying that the Vice President-elect would only "act as President" if the House has not chosen a President by January 20, and permitting Congress to statutorily provide "who shall then act as President, or the manner in which one who is to act shall be selected" if there is no President-elect or Vice President-elect by January 20. It also clarifies that if there is no President-elect on January 20, whoever acts as President does so until a person "qualified" to occupy the Presidency is elected to be President.

text: The Twelfth Amendment explicitly states the constitutional requirements as provided for the President also apply to being Vice President. It is unclear whether a two-term president could later serve as Vice President. Some argue that the Twenty-second Amendment and Twelfth Amendment both bar any two-term president from later serving as Vice President as well as from succeeding to the presidency from any point in the United States presidential line of succession.[17] Others contend that the Twelfth Amendment concerns qualification for service, while the Twenty-second Amendment concerns qualifications for election, and thus a former two-term president is still eligible to serve as Vice President.[18] The applicability of this distinction has not been tested, as no former president has ever sought the vice presidency, and thus the courts have never been required to make a judgment regarding the matter. During Hillary Clinton's 2016 candidacy, she said that she had considered naming Bill Clinton as her Vice President, but was advised it would be unconstitutional.[19]

text: Elections since 1804[edit]

text: Starting with the election of 1804, each Presidential election has been conducted under the Twelfth Amendment.

text: Only once since then has the House of Representatives chosen the President: In 1824, Andrew Jackson received 99 electoral votes, John Quincy Adams (son of John Adams) 84, William H. Crawford 41 and Henry Clay 37. All of the candidates were members of the Democratic-Republican Party (though there were significant political differences among them), and each had fallen short of the 131 votes necessary to win. Because the House could only consider the top three candidates, Clay could not become President. Crawford's poor health following a stroke made his election by the House unlikely. Andrew Jackson expected the House to vote for him, as he had won a plurality of the popular and electoral votes.[Note 3] Instead, the House elected Adams on the first ballot with thirteen states, followed by Jackson with seven and Crawford with four.[20] Clay had endorsed Adams for the Presidency; the endorsement carried additional weight because Clay was the Speaker of the House. When Adams later appointed Clay his Secretary of State, many—particularly Jackson and his supporters—accused the pair of making a "Corrupt Bargain".[21][22] In the less contested election for vice president, John C. Calhoun received 182 electoral votes and was elected outright.

text: In 1836, the Whig Party nominated different candidates in different regions in the hopes of splintering the electoral vote and denying Martin Van Buren, the Democratic candidate, a majority in the Electoral College, thereby throwing the election into the Whig-controlled House. However, this strategy failed with Van Buren winning majorities of both the popular and electoral vote. In that same election no candidate for Vice President secured a majority in the electoral college as Democratic Vice Presidential nominee Richard Mentor Johnson did not receive the electoral votes of Democratic electors from Virginia, because of his relationship with a former slave. As a result, Johnson received 147 electoral votes, one vote short of a majority; to be followed by Francis Granger with 77, John Tyler with 47 and William Smith with 23. This caused the Senate to choose whether Johnson or Granger would be the new Vice President. Johnson won with 33 votes, with Granger receiving 16.[23]

text: Since 1836, no major U.S. party has nominated multiple regional presidential or vice presidential candidates in an election. However, since the Civil War there have been two serious attempts by Southern-based parties to run regional candidates in hopes of denying either of the two major candidates an electoral college majority. Both attempts (in 1948 and 1968) failed, but not by much—in both cases a shift in the result of two close states would have forced the respective elections into the House.[24][25]

text: In modern elections, a running mate is often selected in order to appeal to a different set of voters. A Habitation Clause issue arose during the 2000 presidential election contested by George W. Bush (running-mate Dick Cheney) and Al Gore (running-mate Joe Lieberman), because it was alleged that Bush and Cheney were both inhabitants of Texas and that the Texas electors therefore violated the Twelfth Amendment in casting their ballots for both. Bush's residency was unquestioned, as he was Governor of Texas at the time. Cheney and his wife had moved to Dallas five years earlier when he assumed the role of chief executive at Halliburton. Cheney grew up in Wyoming and had represented it in Congress. A few months before the election, he switched his voter registration and driver's license to Wyoming and put his home in Dallas up for sale. Three Texas voters challenged the election in a federal court in Dallas and then appealed the decision to the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit, where it was dismissed.[26]


document_title: Right hemisphere brain damage

question_text: damage to this part of the brain can result in reduced ability to comprehend and/or produce humor

question_tokens: damage to this part of the brain can result in reduced ability to comprehend and / or produce humor

text: Right hemisphere brain damage

text: Signs and symptoms[edit]

text: Visual Processing[edit]

text: Individuals with right hemisphere damage exhibit deficits in visual processing. It appears as though they are only able to recognize the parts of a picture, symbol, etc. rather than seeing the image as a whole. This was shown during an experiment when patients with right hemisphere damage had to draw an M made up of small triangles. When they attempted to recreate the image, they only depicted the small triangles. This countered patients with left hemisphere damage who were able to draw the M, but left out the small triangles that made it up. [3]In addition, those with right hemisphere damage have difficulty changing their perception of a whole pertaining to an image. They focus on one particular whole and have a hard time changing their perception and incorporating another whole when new information is presented. This phenomenon is called inference revising and individuals with right hemisphere damage therefore experience a deficit in this area.

text: Cognitive and communicative[edit]

text: General

text: Patients with right hemisphere brain damage most commonly have difficulties with attention, perception, learning, memory, recognition and expression of emotion, and neglect.[4] Other frequently occurring, though slightly less common, deficits include reasoning and problem solving, awareness, and orientation.[4] It is also common for patients with right hemisphere damage to have a flat affect, lack of emotional expression, while speaking.  Additionally, these patients commonly have difficulty recognizing other people's emotions when expressed through facial expressions and tone of voice.[2] This lack of ability to recognize emotion suggests individuals have an impaired theory of mind, the ability to recognize the thoughts and feelings of others outside of one’s self. Although these deficits alone may complicate therapy, the patient may also exhibit anosognosia, or ignorance of his or her impairments.[5][6] Due to possible anosognosia, it is common for patients to not become frustrated or upset when they are unable to complete tasks they were previously able to complete.[7]

text: Unlike that of aphasia victims, the speech patterns of individuals with right hemisphere damage are not typically characterized by “word finding problems, paraphasias, circumlocutions, or impaired phonological processing.” Circumlocution in persons with RHD tends to center around general concepts, not specific words. For example, in describing what brought a RHD-affected individual to the hospital, though the patient would likely remember the word “stroke” and other specific words to describe his situation, the RHD impairment to his discourse level and cognitive processes would likely prevent him from describing the situation in a coherent manner.[8]

text: Linguistic Impairments

text: Syntax

text: The syntax of RHD-affected individuals tends to be “accurate and varied”; unlike aphasia victims, they tend not to have difficulty with word retrieval. In addition, people with right hemisphere damage usually understand the literal meaning of most statements. Linguistically, in cases in which RHD patients seem to have syntactic deficits, they are typically the result of problems with semantic processing.[9]

text: Semantics

text: In a 1962 study, Eisenson observed a “looseness of verbalization” in RHD-affected individuals, noting that right hemisphere damage appears to affect “relatively abstract language formulations,” evidence, according to Eisenson, that the right hemisphere likely controls “super- or extra-ordinary” language function. In other words, RHD patients have trouble with higher-level language tasks (relating to semantic and lexical processing) less common in day-to-day, average discourse.[10] In describing semantic deficits in persons with right hemisphere damage, a distinction must be drawn between convergent and divergent semantic processing. Tasks involving convergent semantic processing (“relatively straightforward linguistic tasks in which the number of responses is limited”), which involve the most straightforward meanings of words, are not nearly as difficult for RHD patients as tasks involving divergent semantic processing (tasks that “elicit a wide range of meanings which may diverge from a single semantic concept to include non-dominant meanings that are alternate, connotative, and/or less familiar”).[11]

text: In terms of convergent semantic processing, people with RHD do not demonstrate semantic impairment at the phonemic level, nor do they tend to have difficulty understanding the primary meanings of individual words. Their comprehension of simple, unambiguous sentences also remains intact, as does their basic word retrieval; this evidence suggests that these tasks are functions of the left hemisphere.[12] On the other hand, the right hemisphere is more involved in recognizing multiple and non-primary meanings of words, divergent semantic processing tasks that are impaired in individuals with right hemisphere damage.[13] Along these lines, RHD patients experience difficulty with verbal fluency; in an experiment in which RHD-affected individuals were asked to name items within a category, they tended to suggest objects connected in more ways than one (with many characteristics in common). For example, when asked to name vegetables, people with RHD would name spinach, cabbage, and lettuce, which share the attributes not only of being vegetables but also of being “green and leafy.” Such results “support a model of semantic processing in which the [right hemisphere] is superior in generating multiple, loosely connected meanings with little overlap,” a function clearly affected by right hemisphere damage.

text: As a result of pragmatic deficits, individuals with right hemisphere damage have a hard time understanding the figurative cues in language and tend to simply understand sentences from their literal meanings. For instance if someone were to say, Joey took the lion’s share, they would assume Joey took the portion that belonged to the lion as opposed to the colloquial meaning-the majority. On the same vein, they also do not understand pragmatics and the underlying clues language might have. Because of this, implicit commands or suggestions in sentences are lost on people with right hemisphere damage. In addition, they have a hard time staying on topic during a conversation and therefore show a deficit in topic maintenance. Some however may stick to the main topic, but bury it in their speech with a large amount of details that are not relevant to the main point. They also tend to show a lack of awareness for the knowledge they share with those they are communicating with and will mention people or things for which others do not have a reference.

text: Discourse Impairments

text: Considering the highly contextual and often ambiguous nature of discourse, it tends to be the area of communication most affected by right hemisphere damage. RHD is particularly evident in the inference patterns of affected individuals. Though RHD patients are typically capable of making basic inferences about situations, more subtle inferences key to discourse and conversation are often severely impaired. As Penelope Myers notes, much empirical research has shown that persons with right hemisphere damage are “significantly impaired in generating inferences about individual elements of pictured scenes,” and, most significantly, in compiling information about the individual elements together to understand the situation at-large.[14] This impairment also applies to written or spoken text. For example, Beeman (1993) cites a patient who mentioned his ability to read “straightforward texts” but noted that he had stopped reading novels with multiple characters as, in the patient’s words, “I can’t put it all together.”[15]

text: Experimentation with Norman Rockwell Paintings

text: As further evidence of this phenomenon, there has been research done with right hemisphere damaged patients using Norman Rockwell pieces. In these experiments, participants are shown a painting, without the title attached, and are asked to describe what is happening in the scene. As can be expected, there are variances between the answers of people with right hemisphere damage and no brain damage. These experiments have provided further evidence for the idea that individuals with right hemisphere damage have a hard time recognizing emotions of others as they do not mention them when asked to describe the paintings. In addition, this process has suggested that they do not pick up relevant cues and have difficulty incorporating the small details they do notice together to form a big picture. When actually describing the paintings, patients either give the experimenter too much description of what is happening, without addressing the overall theme of the piece, or provide them with a very basic one sentence “description” about what they see. After analyzing and comparing the descriptions of participants with no brain damage and those with right hemisphere damage, the researchers found that those with right hemisphere damage used twice as many words than those without brain damage even after the researchers took out the part of the descriptions that appeared to be tangential [16].

text:
Furthermore, RHD-affected individuals experience deficits in inference-revision capabilities. As an example [from Brownell et al. (1986)], when presented with the sentence, “Barbara became too bored to finish the history book, both RHD subjects and control subjects assumed Barbara was reading the book. However, when subjects were then presented with a second sentence, “She had already spent five years writing it,” control subjects altered their initial inference, whereas RHD subjects demonstrated great difficulty revising their inferences and drawing a broad, revised conclusion about the information at hand.[17]
RHD patients' difficulty with understanding non-literal meanings is also a significant cause of discourse impairment. As noted above, right hemisphere damage affects understanding of figurative language such as idioms, as a result of the right hemisphere’s role in activating non-literal and peripheral meanings. As a result of their difficulties understanding alternate meanings and making situational inferences, people with right hemisphere damage face significant challenges in terms of discourse.[18]

text: Difficulties with communication are likely to be linked to a patient's cognitive deficits. For example, communication breakdown may result because a patient with right hemisphere brain damage fails to observe appropriate social conventions or because the patient may ramble and fail to recognize appropriate times to take conversational turns.[2] The patient may also have difficulty comprehending sarcasm, irony, and other paralinguistic aspects of communication.[19] Although they do not understand irony, it has been found that patients with right hemisphere damage can provide a clear punchline for a joke, but are lost when the punchline has to connect multiple ideas or themes. Along with sticking to the main point of a story, patients may find it difficult to extract the theme of a story, or arrange sentences based on the theme of a story.[20]

text: Nespoulous, Code, Virbel and Lecours studied speech of those with different kinds of aphasias and coined a term for the speech patterns of those with right hemisphere damage. According to them, these patients engage in “modalizing” speech which is made up speech about the patient’s perspective on the real world. They found that those with right hemisphere damage contrast those with Wernicke’s Aphasia as those patients use referential speech which Nespoulous et al. identify as speech pertaining to the real world and what is occurring in it. With referential speech, the patients describe what they did, but leave out their attitude towards it. In modalizing speech, a description of the real world is missing, but they include their emotional attitude [21]

text: Motor and sensory[edit]

text: A frequently occurring motor deficit is left-sided hemiparesis (in strokes affecting the motor cortex). A less common motor deficit in this population is dysphagia.[4]

text: Patients with right hemisphere brain damage often display sensory deficits such as left neglect, in which they ignore everything in the left visual field.[5] This neglect can be present throughout many daily activities including reading, writing and self-care activities.[2] For example, individuals with left neglect typically leave out details on the neglected side of drawings or try to draw out all the details on the nonneglected side.[22] Homonymous hemianopsia is another sensory deficit that is sometimes observed in this population.[4]

text: Cause[edit]

text: Stroke is the most common source of damage for a right hemisphere damage. The stroke for this disorder occurs in the right hemisphere of the brain. Other etiologies that cause right hemisphere damage include: trauma (traumatic brain injury), disease, seizures disorders, and infections. Depending on the etiology that causes the right hemisphere damage, different deficits can be accounted for.[23] "The level of deficit or disorder an individual with right hemisphere damage displays depends on the location and extent of the damage. A small focal right hemisphere stroke can produce a very specific deficit and leave most other cognitive and perceptual processes intact, whereas a very large stroke in the right hemisphere more than likely results in multiple profound deficits.[24]" Adults with right hemisphere damage may exhibit behavior that can be characterized by insensitivity to others and preoccupation with self; unawareness of the social context of conversations; and verbose, rambling and tangential speech.[25]

text: Diagnosis[edit]

text: Right hemisphere brain damage is diagnosed by a medical professional. Computerized tomography (CT) scans and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are often used to determine where the damage occurred and how severe it is (ASHA).[26]

text: Standardized assessments are used by speech-language pathologists to determine the presence and severity of  right hemisphere brain damage. The three most popular standardized assessments include:

text: - The Mini Inventory of Right Brain Injury - Second Edition (MIRBI -2) - a standardized test that can be used to identify the presence, severity, and identify the patient's strengths and weaknesses.

text: - The Right Hemisphere Language Battery - Second Edition, (RHLB-2) -a comprehensive test battery for evaluation of right hemisphere-injured adults.

text: - The Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago Evaluation of Communicative Problems in Right-Hemisphere Dysfunction Revised (RICE-R) -includes nine subtests which include a patient interview  and  ratings of facial and written expression and severity ratings for each subtest.[2]

text: Non-standardized tests can also be useful in determining the communicative deficits of adults with right-hemisphere brain damage. Those procedures include tests of: Visual and Spatial Perception, Attention, and Organization, Component Attentional Processes and Visual Organization. [Do the previously listed “tests” need to be capitalized?] Other non-standardized tests that can be used include:

text: - The Boston Diagnostic Aphasia Exam (BDAE)-Auditory comprehension, oral expression, and reading subtests

text: - The Revised Token Test

text: - The Boston Naming Test

text: - The Word Fluency Test.[2]

text: Treatment[edit]

text: Treatment for right hemisphere damage is given by speech-language pathologists. There is not much research that has been done regarding the efficacy of treatments for right hemisphere damage. The research that has been done has shown that persons with right hemisphere damage benefit from therapy at both the chronic and acute stages of recovery for language.[27] Research has also shown that treatment given by speech-language pathologists to persons with right hemisphere damage results in improvement in the areas of problem solving, attention, memory, and pragmatics.[28]

text: Different treatment approaches can be used to treat the different symptoms of right hemisphere damage including neglect, visuospatial awareness, prosody, and pragmatics. Therapy for each person is individualized to their symptoms and severity of impairment. Intervention should focus on the needs of the person in both communication and functional aspects.

text: Data from the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA) indicate that treatment for individuals with right hemisphere damage tends to focus on areas other than communication, including swallowing, memory, and problem solving. Deficits in language expression, language comprehension, and pragmatics are addressed much less frequently (in 22%, 23%, and 5% of individuals, respectively).[29] The lack of research focusing on communication treatment is cited as a possible explanation for these low percentages.[27] Small-scale and pilot studies have been conducted in recent years to fill the identified gaps in the treatment literature. Emerging evidence is discussed below.

text: Prosody[edit]

text: Right hemisphere damage can lead to aprosodia—the inability to produce or comprehend emotional prosody of language. Emotional prosody is typically conveyed and interpreted through changes in pitch, rhythm, or loudness (Leon et al., 2005).[30] Right hemisphere damaged patients have the most difficulty then with sentence types that revolve around pitch and inflection. These sentence types include: declarative, as there is a fall in pitch at the end; interrogative, as there is a rise in pitch for a yes/no question and a drop when there is an interrogative pronoun; and imperative sentence types where there is even pitch until a rise of intensity is made at the end of the command. Research thus far has focused primarily on motoric-imitative and cognitive-linguistic approaches to prosody treatment. In a motoric-imitative approach, the client imitates clinician-modeled sentences produced with target emotional prosody. Modeling and cueing is gradually reduced following a six-step hierarchy until the client reaches independent production. In the cognitive-linguistic approach, the client is prompted to produce sentences with the support of cue cards. Cues include the name of the target emotion, the vocal characteristics of the emotional tone, and a picture of a corresponding facial expression. Again, cues are gradually removed as the client progresses toward independent production.[31] Clinical studies of small groups of participants (four participants;[30] 14 participants.[31]) revealed statistically significant gains in the production of emotional prosody following treatment. Additional research is needed to replicate the results of the limited studies that have been conducted thus far, to evaluate the efficacy of additional treatment approaches, and to compare the relative efficacy of different approaches.[27][32]

text: Outcome[edit]

text: It appears as though individuals with right hemisphere damage maintain their real world knowledge and their mental scripts of what the world is like and what to expect from common scenarios, they just can’t translate it when they see it. Desite this, right hemisphere damage can lead to deficits in discourse abilities, including difficulty with interpretation of abstract language, making inferences, and understanding nonverbal cues.[27][32] In particular, individuals with right hemisphere damage struggle with the skilled use of context to interpret and express ideas.[32] A study of five participants with right hemisphere damage found that participants’ ability to orally interpret metaphors was statistically significantly improved following a five-week structured training intervention. The training program included five phases focused on facilitating the use of word meanings and semantic associations to increase participants’ understanding of metaphors.[33]  Another study of three participants found that a contextual stimulation treatment increased participants’ ability to efficiently activate distantly associated meanings and to suppress contextually inappropriate meanings.[34] Again, additional research is needed to replicate and extend results, but the emerging literature represents a small step toward evidence-based treatments for right hemisphere damage.[27]

text: Prognosis[edit]

text: Sex Differences[edit]

text: Research has indicated that women are more likely to be left hemisphere dominant, and men are more likely to be right hemisphere dominant. Because of this, women recover faster from left hemisphere damage, and men are more likely to recover faster from right hemisphere damage. Men who have suffered a right hemisphere stroke also have significantly better rehabilitation outcomes than men who suffer a left hemisphere stroke. Recovery of functional abilities is often greater in male stroke survivors than females, especially in the area of activities of daily living.[35]

text: Neglect[edit]

text: Left neglect is common in patients recovering from right hemisphere damage as the right hemisphere controls the left half of the body. The presence and severity of neglect has been shown to influence functional outcomes as well as length of rehabilitation after a stroke.

text: Patients with neglect for peripersonal space (space within reach), are likely to recover most during the first 10 days after a stroke, but further improvements from 6 months to 1 year post onset are unlikely. However, the prognosis for patients with neglect for personal body space or neglect for far space is much better. These types of neglect are more likely to recover completely or almost completely after 6 months post onset. Although there may be some lasting effects of neglect of varying degrees based on the type, many patients with neglect are likely to improve over time (Appelros et al., 2004).[36]

text: Functional outcomes[edit]

text: The Functional Independence Measure (FIM) is often used to determine the functional skills a patient has at various times after their brain damage. Research has indicated that patients with more severe neglect are less likely to make functional improvements than patients with less severe neglect based on FIM scores. Additionally, patients with any level of neglect tend to have reduced functional cognitive and communication skills than patients without neglect (Cherney et al., 2001).[37]

text: Rehabilitation[edit]

text: Patients with neglect have been shown to need rehabilitation longer than patients who suffered from right hemisphere damage that did not result in neglect. On average, patients with neglect stayed in inpatient rehabilitation facilities one week longer, and this length of stay did not differ for patients with more or less severe neglect (Cherney et al., 2001).[37]

text: Anosognosia[edit]

text: Anosognosia is a lack of awareness or understanding of the loss of function caused by the brain injury and is common in individuals who have suffered a right hemisphere stroke. Because patients with anosognosia may be unaware of their deficits, they may be less likely to seek treatment once they are released from the hospital. The lack of proper treatment could lead to higher levels of dependency later on. In order to make functional recovery gains, right hemisphere stroke survivors should receive rehabilitation services, so patients with anosognosia should be encouraged to seek out additional treatment. However, due to the anosognosia, these patients often report a higher perceived quality of life than other right hemisphere stroke survivors because of the unawareness of the resulting deficits (Daia et al., 2014).[38] Those with right hemisphere damage may confabulate, or make up stories to help explain what is going on in their minds compared to what is actually occurring in the outside world. For example, one patient who had right hemisphere damage was in a wheelchair and kept putting his left hand in the spokes. When the nurse asked him to stop, he looked down and said, “that’s not my hand.” Since the right hemisphere controls motor functioning for the left side of the body, the patient did not recognize the actions of his own hand and made up a story to explain what was going on. This often occurs because what is actually happening to them is deeply disturbing so their minds need a way to cope. Patients with smaller lesions often recover faster from anosognosia than patients with larger lesions resulting in anosognosia (Hier et al., 1983).[39]

text: Other influences[edit]

text: Age: Younger patients typically recover faster than older patients, especially with regards to prosopagnosia (difficulty recognizing faces)

text: Size of lesion: Patients with smaller lesions typically recover faster from neglect and hemiparesis (unilateral body weakness) than patients with larger lesions (Hier et al., 1983).[39]

text: History[edit]

text: For the majority of the nineteenth century, the left brain hemisphere was the key focus of clinical research on language disorders (Brookshire, 2007).[2] In the twentieth century, focus gradually shifted to include right hemisphere damage (Brookshire, 2007).[2] It is now well established that language and cognition can be seriously impaired by unilateral right hemisphere brain damage.[40] Specific cognitive tests can help diagnose the existence of right hemisphere brain damage and differentiate symptoms from those of left hemisphere damage.[41] Unlike the aphasias, caused by left hemisphere damage and generally resulting in focused language deficits, right hemisphere brain damage can result in a variety of diffuse deficits which complicate formal testing of this disorder (Brookshire, 2007).[2] These formal tests assess areas such as understanding humor, metaphors, sarcasm, facial expression, and prosody.[23] However, not all individuals with right hemisphere brain damage have problems in language or communication and some may have no discernible symptoms.[40]  Indeed, about half of patients with right hemisphere damage have intact communication abilities (Brookshire, 2007).[2][42]


document_title: Game & Watch

question_text: when did mr game and watch come out

question_tokens: when did mr game and watch come out

text: Game & Watch

text: Origin and design[edit]

text: In 1979,[citation needed] Gunpei Yokoi, traveling on a Shinkansen, saw a bored businessman playing with an LCD calculator by pressing the buttons. Yokoi then thought of an idea for a watch that doubled as a miniature game machine for killing time.[3]

text: The units use LR4x/SR4x "button-cell" batteries, the same type used in most laser pointers or handheld calculators.

text: Different models were manufactured, with some having two screens and a clam-shell design (the Multi Screen Series). The Game Boy Advance SP, Nintendo DS, and Nintendo 3DS later reused this design.

text: Titles available in Game & Watch form vary from Mickey Mouse to Balloon Fight, including Nintendo staples such as Donkey Kong, The Legend of Zelda, and Mario Bros..

text: The modern "cross" D-pad design was developed in 1982 by Yokoi for the Donkey Kong handheld game. The design proved to be popular for subsequent Game & Watch titles. This particular design was patented and later earned a Technology & Engineering Emmy Award.[4][5]

text: Game A and Game B[edit]

text: Most of the titles have a 'GAME A' and a 'GAME B' button. Game B is generally a faster, more difficult version of Game A, although exceptions do exist, including:

text:
In Squish, Game B is radically different from Game A — the player must touch aliens to eliminate them as opposed to avoiding moving walls.[6]
In Flagman, Game B is a mode where the player has to press the right button within a certain amount of time, not memorizing patterns.
In Judge, Boxing, Donkey Kong 3, and Donkey Kong Hockey, Game B is a two-player version of Game A.[7]
In Climber,[8] Balloon Fight,[9] and Super Mario Bros.,[10][11] there is no Game B button.

text: Series[edit]

text:
Silver (1980)
Gold (1981)
Wide Screen (1981–1982)
Multi Screen (1982–1989)
New Wide Screen (1982–1991)
Tabletop (1983)
Panorama (1983–1984)
Super Color (1984)
Micro Vs. System (1984)
Crystal Screen (1986)

text: There were 59 different Game & Watch games produced for sale and one that was only available as a contest prize, making 60 in all.[12] The prize game was given to winners of Nintendo's F-1 Grand Prix tournament, a yellow-cased version of Super Mario Bros. that came in a plastic box modeled after the Disk-kun character Nintendo used to advertise their Famicom Disk System.[11] As only 10,000 units were produced and it was never available for retail sale, the yellow version is considered rare.[12]

text: Mario the Juggler, released in 1991, was the last game created in the Game & Watch series.[13]

text: Releases[edit]

text: The Game & Watch games were renewed between 1995 and 2002 with the Game & Watch Gallery series, five Game & Watch collections released for the Game Boy, Game Boy Color, and Game Boy Advance. They feature the original ports, as well as new, modernized versions starring the Mario series cast.

text: From 1998 onward, a number of third-party distributors have been licensed to re-release smaller LCD versions of ten separate Game & Watch games which together compose the Nintendo Mini Classics series.

text: In 2001, Nintendo released Manhole-e bundled with its Nintendo e-Reader systems.[14] Although an entire line of Game & Watch e-Reader cards were planned, they were never released.

text: Between July 2006 and March 2010, Nintendo produced two Game & Watch Collection cartridges for the Nintendo DS to be released exclusively for Club Nintendo members. The first cartridge featured three games from the Game & Watch Multi Screen series: Oil Panic, Donkey Kong, and Green House. The second compilation, Game & Watch Collection 2, contained Parachute, Octopus, and a new dual-screen game with Parachute on the top screen and Octopus on the bottom. Both cartridges are now available to the general public.

text: Between July 2009 and April 2010 Nintendo released nine separate Game & Watch ports for DSiWare including remakes of Ball (called Game & Watch: Ball),[15] Flagman (called Game & Watch: Flagman), Manhole (called Game & Watch: Manhole),[16] and Mario's Cement Factory (called Game & Watch: Mario's Cement Factory) among others.[17][18]

text: In March 2010, Takara Tomy released officially licensed Game & Watch-styled keychains, based on the Wide Screen series editions of Octopus, Parachute, and Chef. They do not actually run the games, instead just display a demo screen. While the game cannot be played, the speed at which the demo runs can be adjusted. The batteries are recharged with solar panels on the unit.[19]

text: Ball was rereleased exclusively via Club Nintendo to celebrate the 30th anniversary of Game & Watch, with the Club Nintendo logo on the back. Unlike the original release, this version includes a mute switch.[20] For members of the Japanese Club Nintendo, after an announcement in November 2009, it was shipped in April 2010 to Platinum members.[21][22] For members of the North American Club Nintendo, it was available for 1200 coins from February 2011.[23][24] For members of the European Club Nintendo, it was available for 7500 stars from November 2011.[25][26]

text: Legacy[edit]

text: The Game & Watch made handhelds vastly popular. Many toy companies followed in the footsteps of Game & Watch, such as Tiger Electronics and their Star Wars themed games.

text: Nintendo's Game & Watch units were eventually superseded by the original Game Boy. Each Game & Watch was only able to play one game, due to the use of a segmented LCD display being pre-printed with an overlay. The speed and responsiveness of the games was also limited by the time it took the LCD to change state. The Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) controllers were based on the controls in Game & Watch, and Game & Watch Multi Screen version became the model on which the Nintendo DS was based.

text: Nintendo Game & Watch was issued under different trademarks in different countries, resulting in different packaging. These have become rare and are also collectible.

text: The Game & Watch Gallery series recreates the Game & Watch games in video game form, with modes that imitate the LCD displays and modes that modernise the graphics and include Mario characters. Game & Watch games have also been released through DSiWare.

text: Game & Wario for the Wii U heavily references the Game & Watch line, including the ability to play a virtual Game & Watch version of Pyoro/Bird & Beans.

text: Mr. Game & Watch[edit]

text: Mr. Game & Watch is a generic amalgam of characters from the Game & Watch games. The Mr. Game & Watch name first appeared in Super Smash Bros. Melee.[27] The character was created as an homage to the Game & Watch series, and his moveset consists of elements from many different titles; for example, his standard attack is the bug spray from Greenhouse, and his neutral special attack uses the frying pan from Chef to launch food at his enemies.

text: In the Game & Watch games themselves, the playable characters vary in appearance, as they often sport eyes, teeth and clothes, all of which Mr. Game & Watch lacks. However, in the Super Smash Bros. series, his trophies list his first appearance as "Game & Watch, 1980".

text: After his debut, Mr. Game & Watch reappeared in subsequent Super Smash Bros. titles, as well as in Game & Watch Gallery 4, wherein he is the manager of the "classic games" area alongside Mario. He also makes a cameo appearance in Donkey Kong Country Returns in the background of level 7-1, as a worker in a foggy factory, which could be a reference to the game Mario's Cement Factory. He also appears during certain stages in Rhythm Heaven Fever.

text: Mr. Game & Watch is never heard speaking in the Super Smash Bros. series. Instead, he emits beeping noises similar to those heard while playing the Game & Watch games, although he does have speech balloons in Game & Watch Gallery 4. His other distinct traits include being paper-thin due to having only two dimensions and thus not possessing depth, which is translated to him being a lightweight character within the Super Smash Bros. series, as well as limited/choppy animations. These traits allude to the graphical limitations of the Game & Watch games.

text: In Super Smash Bros. Brawl, the game's main storyline, The Subspace Emissary, suggests Mr. Game & Watch is made of a primordial substance that can take on any number of forms. Mr. Game & Watch was harvested for this reason to create The Subspace Army.[28] As revealed on the Smash Bros. DOJO!!, the official website for Super Smash Bros. Brawl, Mr. Game & Watch allowed this to happen because he has no concept of good and evil.[29]

text: Game & Watch games referenced by Mr. Game & Watch's moveset include:

text:
Ball - All throws
Flagman - Up tilt
Vermin - Down smash and all floor attacks
Fire - Up special
Judge - Side special
Manhole - Down tilt
Helmet - Dash attack
Lion - Side tilt
Parachute - Neutral aerial (Melee) or up special (Brawl and 3DS/Wii U)
Octopus - Up smash and Final Smash
Chef - Neutral special
Turtle Bridge - Back aerial
Fire Attack - Side smash
Oil Panic - Down special
Donkey Kong Jr. - Down aerial
Green House - Neutral attack
Mario Bros. - Forward aerial
Mario's Cement Factory - Grab
Spitball Sparky - Up aerial
Tropical Fish - Neutral aerial (Brawl and SSB for 3DS/Wii U)
Alarm from multiple titles - Pummel and edge attack

text: Reception[edit]

text: UGO.com listed Mr. Game and Watch on their list of "The Cutest Characters", stating "Mr. Game and Watch is adorable because he's completely oblivious to his condition."[30]


document_title: Digestion

question_text: where does digestion of fat take place in human digestive system

text: Digestion

text: Digestive system

text: Digestive systems take many forms. There is a fundamental distinction between internal and external digestion. External digestion developed earlier in evolutionary history, and most fungi still rely on it.[2] In this process, enzymes are secreted into the environment surrounding the organism, where they break down an organic material, and some of the products diffuse back to the organism. Animals have a tube (gastrointestinal tract) in which internal digestion occurs, which is more efficient because more of the broken down products can be captured, and the internal chemical environment can be more efficiently controlled.[3]

text: Some organisms, including nearly all spiders, simply secrete biotoxins and digestive chemicals (e.g., enzymes) into the extracellular environment prior to ingestion of the consequent "soup". In others, once potential nutrients or food is inside the organism, digestion can be conducted to a vesicle or a sac-like structure, through a tube, or through several specialized organs aimed at making the absorption of nutrients more efficient.

text: Secretion systems

text: Bacteria use several systems to obtain nutrients from other organisms in the environments.

text: Channel transport system

text: In a channel transupport system, several proteins form a contiguous channel traversing the inner and outer membranes of the bacteria. It is a simple system, which consists of only three protein subunits: the ABC protein, membrane fusion protein (MFP), and outer membrane protein (OMP)[specify]. This secretion system transports various molecules, from ions, drugs, to proteins of various sizes (20 – 900 kDa). The molecules secreted vary in size from the small Escherichia coli peptide colicin V, (10 kDa) to the Pseudomonas fluorescens cell adhesion protein LapA of 900 kDa.[4]

text: Molecular syringe

text: A type III secretion system means that a molecular syringe is used through which a bacterium (e.g. certain types of Salmonella, Shigella, Yersinia) can inject nutrients into protist cells. One such mechanism was first discovered in Y. pestis and showed that toxins could be injected directly from the bacterial cytoplasm into the cytoplasm of its host's cells rather than simply be secreted into the extracellular medium.[5]

text: Conjugation machinery

text: The conjugation machinery of some bacteria (and archaeal flagella) is capable of transporting both DNA and proteins. It was discovered in Agrobacterium tumefaciens, which uses this system to introduce the Ti plasmid and proteins into the host, which develops the crown gall (tumor).[6] The VirB complex of Agrobacterium tumefaciens is the prototypic system.[7]

text: The nitrogen fixing Rhizobia are an interesting case, wherein conjugative elements naturally engage in inter-kingdom conjugation. Such elements as the Agrobacterium Ti or Ri plasmids contain elements that can transfer to plant cells. Transferred genes enter the plant cell nucleus and effectively transform the plant cells into factories for the production of opines, which the bacteria use as carbon and energy sources. Infected plant cells form crown gall or root tumors. The Ti and Ri plasmids are thus endosymbionts of the bacteria, which are in turn endosymbionts (or parasites) of the infected plant.

text: The Ti and Ri plasmids are themselves conjugative. Ti and Ri transfer between bacteria uses an independent system (the tra, or transfer, operon) from that for inter-kingdom transfer (the vir, or virulence, operon). Such transfer creates virulent strains from previously avirulent Agrobacteria.

text: Release of outer membrane vesicles

text: In addition to the use of the multiprotein complexes listed above, Gram-negative bacteria possess another method for release of material: the formation of outer membrane vesicles.[8][9]  Portions of the outer membrane pinch off, forming spherical structures made of a lipid bilayer enclosing periplasmic materials.  Vesicles from a number of bacterial species have been found to contain virulence factors, some have immunomodulatory effects, and some can directly adhere to and intoxicate host cells.  While release of vesicles has been demonstrated as a general response to stress conditions, the process of loading cargo proteins seems to be selective.[10]

text: Gastrovascular cavity

text: The gastrovascular cavity functions as a stomach in both digestion and the distribution of nutrients to all parts of the body.  Extracellular digestion takes place within this central cavity, which is lined with the gastrodermis, the internal layer of epithelium. This cavity has only one opening to the outside that functions as both a mouth and an anus: waste and undigested matter is excreted through the mouth/anus, which can be described as an incomplete gut.

text: In a plant such as the Venus Flytrap that can make its own food through photosynthesis, it does not eat and digest its prey for the traditional objectives of harvesting energy and carbon, but mines prey primarily for essential nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus in particular) that are in short supply in its boggy, acidic habitat.[11]

text: Phagosome

text: A phagosome is a vacuole formed around a particle absorbed by phagocytosis.  The vacuole is formed by the fusion of the cell membrane around the particle. A phagosome is a cellular compartment in which pathogenic microorganisms can be killed and digested. Phagosomes fuse with lysosomes in their maturation process, forming phagolysosomes. In humans, Entamoeba histolytica can phagocytose red blood cells.[12]

text: Specialised organs and behaviours

text: To aid in the digestion of their food animals evolved organs such as beaks, tongues, teeth, a crop, gizzard, and others.

text: Beaks

text: Birds have bony beaks that are specialised according to the bird's ecological niche. For example, macaws primarily eat seeds, nuts, and fruit, using their impressive beaks to open even the toughest seed. First they scratch a thin line with the sharp point of the beak, then they shear the seed open with the sides of the beak.

text: The mouth of the squid is equipped with a sharp horny beak mainly made of cross-linked proteins. It is used to kill and tear prey into manageable pieces. The beak is very robust, but does not contain any minerals, unlike the teeth and jaws of many other organisms, including marine species.[13] The beak is the only indigestible part of the squid.

text: Tongue

text: The tongue is skeletal muscle on the floor of the mouth that manipulates food for chewing (mastication) and swallowing (deglutition). It is sensitive and kept moist by saliva. The underside of the tongue is covered with a smooth mucous membrane. The tongue also has a touch sense for locating and positioning food particles that require further chewing. The tongue is utilized to roll food particles into a bolus before being transported down the esophagus through peristalsis.

text: The sublingual region underneath the front of the tongue is a location where the oral mucosa is very thin, and underlain by a plexus of veins. This is an ideal location for introducing certain medications to the body. The sublingual route takes advantage of the highly vascular quality of the oral cavity, and allows for the speedy application of medication into the cardiovascular system, bypassing the gastrointestinal tract.

text: Teeth

text: Teeth (singular tooth) are small whitish structures found in the jaws (or mouths) of many vertebrates that are used to tear, scrape, milk and chew food. Teeth are not made of bone, but rather of tissues of varying density and hardness, such as enamel, dentine and cementum. Human teeth have a blood and nerve supply which enables proprioception. This is the ability of sensation when chewing, for example if we were to bite into something too hard for our teeth, such as a chipped plate mixed in food, our teeth send a message to our brain and we realise that it cannot be chewed, so we stop trying.

text: The shapes, sizes and numbers of types of animals' teeth are related to their diets. For example, herbivores have a number of molars which are used to grind plant matter, which is difficult to digest. Carnivores have canine teeth which are used to kill and tear meat.

text: Crop

text: A crop, or croup, is a thin-walled expanded portion of the alimentary tract used for the storage of food prior to digestion. In some birds it is an expanded, muscular pouch near the gullet or throat. In adult doves and pigeons, the crop can produce crop milk to feed newly hatched birds.[14]

text: Certain insects may have a crop or enlarged esophagus.

text: Abomasum

text: Herbivores have evolved cecums (or an abomasum in the case of ruminants). Ruminants have a fore-stomach with four chambers. These are the rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum. In the first two chambers, the rumen and the reticulum, the food is mixed with saliva and separates into layers of solid and liquid material.  Solids clump together to form the cud (or bolus). The cud is then regurgitated, chewed slowly to completely mix it with saliva and to break down the particle size.

text: Fibre, especially cellulose and hemi-cellulose, is primarily broken down into the volatile fatty acids, acetic acid, propionic acid and butyric acid in these chambers (the reticulo-rumen) by microbes: (bacteria, protozoa, and fungi). In the omasum, water and many of the inorganic mineral elements are absorbed into the blood stream.

text: The abomasum is the fourth and final stomach compartment in ruminants. It is a close equivalent of a monogastric stomach (e.g., those in humans or pigs), and digesta is processed here in much the same way. It serves primarily as a site for acid hydrolysis of microbial and dietary protein, preparing these protein sources for further digestion and absorption in the small intestine.  Digesta is finally moved into the small intestine, where the digestion and absorption of nutrients occurs. Microbes produced in the reticulo-rumen are also digested in the small intestine.

text: Specialised behaviours

text: Regurgitation has been mentioned above under abomasum and crop, referring to crop milk, a secretion from the lining of the crop of pigeons and doves with which the parents feed their young by regurgitation.[15]

text: Many sharks have the ability to turn their stomachs inside out and evert it out of their mouths in order to get rid of unwanted contents (perhaps developed as a way to reduce exposure to toxins).

text: Other animals, such as rabbits and rodents, practise coprophagia behaviours – eating specialised faeces in order to re-digest food, especially in the case of roughage. Capybara, rabbits, hamsters and other related species do not have a complex digestive system as do, for example, ruminants. Instead they extract more nutrition from grass by giving their food a second pass through the gut. Soft faecal pellets of partially digested food are excreted and generally consumed immediately. They also produce normal droppings, which are not eaten.

text: Young elephants, pandas, koalas, and hippos eat the faeces of their mother, probably to obtain the bacteria required to properly digest vegetation. When they are born, their intestines do not contain these bacteria (they are completely sterile). Without them, they would be unable to get any nutritional value from many plant components.

text: In earthworms

text: An earthworm's digestive system consists of a mouth, pharynx, esophagus, crop, gizzard, and intestine. The mouth is surrounded by strong lips, which act like a hand to grab pieces of dead grass, leaves, and weeds, with bits of soil to help chew. The lips break the food down into smaller pieces. In the pharynx, the food is lubricated by mucus secretions for easier passage. The esophagus adds calcium carbonate to neutralize the acids formed by food matter decay. Temporary storage occurs in the crop where food and calcium carbonate are mixed. The powerful muscles of the gizzard churn and mix the mass of food and dirt. When the churning is complete, the glands in the walls of the gizzard add enzymes to the thick paste, which helps chemically breakdown the organic matter. By peristalsis, the mixture is sent to the intestine where friendly bacteria continue chemical breakdown. This releases carbohydrates, protein, fat, and various vitamins and minerals for absorption into the body.

text: Overview of vertebrate digestion

text: In most vertebrates, digestion is a multistage process in the digestive system, starting from ingestion of raw materials, most often other organisms. Ingestion usually involves some type of mechanical and chemical processing. Digestion is separated into four steps:

text:
Ingestion: placing food into the mouth (entry of food in the digestive system),
Mechanical and chemical breakdown:  mastication and the mixing of the resulting bolus with water, acids, bile and enzymes in the stomach and intestine to break down complex molecules into simple structures,
Absorption: of nutrients from the digestive system to the circulatory and lymphatic capillaries through osmosis, active transport, and diffusion, and
Egestion (Excretion): Removal of undigested materials from the digestive tract through defecation.

text: Underlying the process is muscle movement throughout the system through swallowing and peristalsis. Each step in digestion requires energy, and thus imposes an "overhead charge" on the energy made available from absorbed substances. Differences in that overhead cost are important influences on lifestyle, behavior, and even physical structures. Examples may be seen in humans, who differ considerably from other hominids (lack of hair, smaller jaws and musculature, different dentition, length of intestines, cooking, etc.).

text: The major part of digestion takes place in the small intestine. The large intestine primarily serves as a site for fermentation of indigestible matter by gut bacteria and for resorption of water from digests before excretion.

text: In mammals, preparation for digestion begins with the cephalic phase in which saliva is produced in the mouth and digestive enzymes are produced in the stomach.  Mechanical and chemical digestion begin in the mouth where food is chewed, and mixed with saliva to begin enzymatic processing of starches.  The stomach continues to break food down mechanically and chemically through churning and mixing with both acids and enzymes. Absorption occurs in the stomach and gastrointestinal tract, and the process finishes with defecation.[1]

text: Human digestion process

text: The human gastrointestinal tract is around 9 meters long. Food digestion physiology varies between individuals and upon other factors such as the characteristics of the food and size of the meal, and the process of digestion normally takes between 24 and 72 hours.[16]

text: Digestion begins in the mouth with the secretion of saliva and its digestive enzymes. Food is formed into a bolus by the mechanical mastication and swallowed into the esophagus from where it enters the stomach through the action of peristalsis. Gastric juice contains hydrochloric acid and pepsin which would damage the walls of the stomach and mucus is secreted for protection. In the stomach further release of enzymes break down the food further and this is combined with the churning action of the stomach. The partially digested food enters the duodenum as a thick semi-liquid chyme. In the small intestine, the larger part of digestion takes place and this is helped by the secretions of bile, pancreatic juice and intestinal juice.  The intestinal walls are lined with villi, and their epithelial cells is covered with numerous microvilli to improve the absorption of nutrients by increasing the surface area of the intestine.

text: In the large intestine the passage of food is slower to enable fermentation by the gut flora to take place. Here water is absorbed and waste material stored as feces to be removed by defecation via the anal canal and anus.

text: Neural and biochemical control mechanisms

text: Different phases of digestion take place including: the cephalic phase, gastric phase, and intestinal phase.

text: The cephalic phase occurs at the sight, thought and smell of food, which stimulate the cerebral cortex. Taste and smell stimuli are sent to the hypothalamus and medulla oblongata. After this it is routed through the vagus nerve and release of acetylcholine. Gastric secretion at this phase rises to 40% of maximum rate. Acidity in the stomach is not buffered by food at this point and thus acts to inhibit parietal (secretes acid) and G cell (secretes gastrin) activity via D cell secretion of somatostatin.

text: The gastric phase takes 3 to 4 hours. It is stimulated by distension of the stomach, presence of food in stomach and decrease in pH. Distention activates long and myenteric reflexes. This activates the release of acetylcholine, which stimulates the release of more gastric juices. As protein enters the stomach, it binds to hydrogen ions, which raises the pH of the stomach. Inhibition of gastrin and gastric acid secretion is lifted. This triggers G cells to release gastrin, which in turn stimulates parietal cells to secrete gastric acid.  Gastric acid is about 0.5% hydrochloric acid (HCl), which lowers the pH to the desired pH of 1-3.  Acid release is also triggered by acetylcholine and histamine.

text: The intestinal phase has two parts, the excitatory and the inhibitory. Partially digested food fills the duodenum. This triggers intestinal gastrin to be released. Enterogastric reflex inhibits vagal nuclei, activating sympathetic fibers causing the pyloric sphincter to tighten to prevent more food from entering, and inhibits local reflexes.

text: Breakdown into nutrients

text: This section needs expansion with: digestion of other substances. You can help by adding to it. (August 2011)

text: Protein digestion

text: Protein digestion occurs in the stomach and duodenum in which 3 main enzymes, pepsin secreted by the stomach and trypsin and chymotrypsin secreted by the pancreas, break down food proteins into polypeptides that are then broken down by various exopeptidases and dipeptidases into amino acids.  The digestive enzymes however are mostly secreted as their inactive precursors, the zymogens.  For example, trypsin is secreted by pancreas in the form of trypsinogen, which is activated in the duodenum by enterokinase to form trypsin.  Trypsin then cleaves proteins to smaller polypeptides.

text: Fat digestion

text: Digestion of some fats can begin in the mouth where lingual lipase breaks down some short chain lipids into diglycerides. However fats are mainly digested in the small intestine.[17]  The presence of fat in the small intestine produces hormones that stimulate the release of pancreatic lipase from the pancreas and bile from the liver which helps in the emulsification of fats for absorption of fatty acids.[17]  Complete digestion of one molecule of fat (a triglyceride) results a mixture of  fatty acids, mono- and di-glycerides, as well as some undigested triglycerides, but no free glycerol molecules.[17]

text: Carbohydrate digestion

text: In humans, dietary starches are composed of glucose units arranged in long chains called amylose, a polysaccharide. During digestion, bonds between glucose molecules are broken by salivary and pancreatic amylase, resulting in progressively smaller chains of glucose.  This results in simple sugars glucose and maltose (2 glucose molecules) that can be absorbed by the small intestine.

text: Lactase is an enzyme that breaks down the disaccharide lactose to its component parts, glucose and galactose.  Glucose and galactose can be absorbed by the small intestine.  Approximately 65 percent of the adult population produce only small amounts of lactase and are unable to eat unfermented milk-based foods.  This is commonly known as lactose intolerance.  Lactose intolerance varies widely by ethnic heritage;  more than 90 percent of peoples of east Asian descent are lactose intolerant, in contrast to about 5 percent of people of northern European descent.[18]

text: Sucrase is an enzyme that breaks down the disaccharide sucrose, commonly known as table sugar, cane sugar, or beet sugar. Sucrose digestion yields the sugars fructose and glucose which are readily absorbed by the small intestine.

text: DNA and RNA digestion

text: DNA and RNA are broken down into mononucleotides by the nucleases deoxyribonuclease and ribonuclease (DNase and RNase) from the pancreas.

text: Non-destructive digestion

text: Some nutrients are complex molecules (for example vitamin B12) which would be destroyed if they were broken down into their functional groups.  To digest vitamin B12 non-destructively, haptocorrin in saliva strongly binds and protects the B12 molecules from stomach acid as they enter the stomach and are cleaved from their protein complexes.[19]

text: After the B12-haptocorrin complexes pass from the stomach via the pylorus to the duodenum, pancreatic proteases cleave haptocorrin from the B12 molecules which rebind to intrinsic factor (IF).  These B12-IF complexes travel to the ileum portion of the small intestine where cubilin receptors enable assimilation and circulation of B12-IF complexes in the blood.[20]

text: Digestive hormones

text: There are at least five hormones that aid and regulate the digestive system in mammals. There are variations across the vertebrates, as for instance in birds. Arrangements are complex and additional details are regularly discovered. For instance, more connections to metabolic control (largely the glucose-insulin system) have been uncovered in recent years.

text:
Gastrin – is in the stomach and stimulates the gastric glands to secrete pepsinogen (an inactive form of the enzyme pepsin) and hydrochloric acid. Secretion of gastrin is stimulated by food arriving in stomach. The secretion is inhibited by low pH.
Secretin – is in the duodenum and signals the secretion of sodium bicarbonate in the pancreas and it stimulates the bile secretion in the liver.  This hormone responds to the acidity of the chyme.
Cholecystokinin (CCK) – is in the duodenum and stimulates the release of digestive enzymes in the pancreas and stimulates the emptying of bile in the gall bladder. This hormone is secreted in response to fat in chyme.
Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) – is in the duodenum and decreases the stomach churning in turn slowing the emptying in the stomach. Another function is to induce insulin secretion.
Motilin – is in the duodenum and increases the migrating myoelectric complex component of gastrointestinal motility and stimulates the production of pepsin.

text: Significance of pH

text: Digestion is a complex process controlled by several factors. pH plays a crucial role in a normally functioning digestive tract. In the mouth, pharynx and esophagus, pH is typically about 6.8, very weakly acidic. Saliva controls pH in this region of the digestive tract. Salivary amylase is contained in saliva and starts the breakdown of carbohydrates into monosaccharides. Most digestive enzymes are sensitive to pH and will denature in a high or low pH environment.

text: The stomach's high acidity inhibits the breakdown of carbohydrates within it. This acidity confers two benefits: it denatures proteins for further digestion in the small intestines, and provides non-specific immunity, damaging or eliminating various pathogens.[citation needed]

text: In the small intestines, the duodenum provides critical pH balancing to activate digestive enzymes. The liver secretes bile into the duodenum to neutralize the acidic conditions from the stomach, and the pancreatic duct empties into the duodenum, adding bicarbonate to neutralize the acidic chyme, thus creating a neutral environment. The mucosal tissue of the small intestines is alkaline with a pH of about 8.5.[citation needed]


document_title: Aaj Jaane Ki Zid Na Karo

question_text: aaj jane ki jid na karo movie name

question_tokens: aaj jane ki jid na karo movie name

text: Aaj Jaane Ki Zid Na Karo

text:
"Aaj Jaane Ki Zid Na Karo"

Song

Genre
Ghazal (Raag Yaman Kalyan)

Length
7:11

Composer(s)
Sohail Rana

Lyricist(s)
Fayyaz Hashmi

text: Aaj Jaane Ki Zid Na Karo (Urdu: آج جانے کی ضد نہ کرو; please don't insist on leaving today) is a Nazm written by Pakistani poet Fayyaz Hashmi.[1] The tune was composed by Sohail Rana, an eminent composer from Pakistan. It was popularlised by noted classical vocalists, Habib Wali Mohammad who also sang this song as a film playback singer in a Pakistani film Badal Aur Bijli (1973). Then the famous ghazal singer Farida Khanum also used to sing it in her television performances and in her live public concerts.[2] It is sung in Raag Yaman Kalyan.[3]

text: The song is sung by many artistes like Asha Bhosle (Asha Bhosle: Love Supreme, 2006)[4] The song was used as background music in a scene in the Mira Nair's Golden Lion award winning film, Monsoon Wedding (2001).[5] Habib Wali Mohammad's version of the song is also very popular. It is also a part of 'The Shruti Box', online music series by Shankar Tucker, where it was sung by Rohini Ravada. A.R. Rahman had performed this number in MTV Unplugged Season 2.[6]

text: In 2015, this song was recomposed by Strings for Coke Studio Pakistan and re-sung by Farida Khanum after a significant gap from music in the finale episode of eighth season, concluding their run of 2015 season.

text: The song was used in an episode of Crime Patrol broadcast on 9th Feb 2016 on Sony TV.

text: Arijit Singh also recreated the song for TV show Naamkarann, telecast on Star Plus channel in August 2016.

text: The song was also recreated by Pritam, and featured in 2016 film Ae Dil Hai Mushkil in the voice of Shilpa Rao.[7]