document_title: NFL win–loss records

question_text: who has the worst record in nfl football

text: NFL win–loss records

text: Regular season[edit]

text: The following is a listing of all 32 current National Football League (NFL) teams ranked by their regular season win–loss record percentage, accurate as of the end of the 2017 NFL regular season.[1] For teams that previously played in the All-America Football Conference (AAFC), their AAFC win-loss records are not included as the NFL does not officially count AAFC statistics despite the 1950 NFL–AAFC merger.[2][a] However, for teams that played in the American Football League (AFL), their AFL win-loss records are included and officially counted by the NFL. Ties are registered as a half win and a half loss when calculating the win-loss record.

text: Best win–loss record in division

text:
Rank
Team
Won
Lost
Tied
Pct.
First NFL Season
Total Games
Division

1
Dallas Cowboys
502
374
6
.573
1960
882
NFC East

2
Green Bay Packers
737
562
37
.565
1921
1,336
NFC North

3
Chicago Bears
749
579
42
.562
1920
1,370
NFC North

4
Miami Dolphins
445
351
4
.559
1966
800
AFC East

5
New England Patriots[b]
489
386
9
.558
1960
884
AFC East

6
Minnesota Vikings
470
390
10
.546
1961
870
NFC North

7
Baltimore Ravens
190
161
1
.541
1996
352
AFC North

8
New York Giants
687
585
33
.539
1925
1,305
NFC East

9
Denver Broncos
470
404
10
.537
1960
884
AFC West

10
San Francisco 49ers
528
460
14
.534
1950
1,002
NFC West

11
Pittsburgh Steelers
614
538
20
.532
1933
1,172
AFC North

12
Oakland Raiders
462
411
11
.529
1960
884
AFC West

13
Indianapolis Colts[c]
506
453
7
.527
1953
966
AFC South

14
Kansas City Chiefs
457
415
12
.524
1960
884
AFC West

15
Seattle Seahawks
334
325
1
.507
1976
660
NFC West

16
Washington Redskins
595
581
28
.506
1932
1,202
NFC East

17
Carolina Panthers
183
184
1
.499
1995
368
NFC South

18
Los Angeles Chargers[d]
435
438
11
.498
1960
884
AFC West

19
Los Angeles Rams
555
559
21
.498
1937
1,135
NFC West

20
Cleveland Browns
462
482
10
.490
1950
954
AFC North

21
Philadelphia Eagles
568
594
26
.489
1933
1,188
NFC East

22
Tennessee Titans
422
456
6
.481
1960
884
AFC South

23
Buffalo Bills
409
467
8
.467
1960
884
AFC East

24
Detroit Lions
553
648
32
.461
1930
1,233
NFC North

25
Cincinnati Bengals
351
417
4
.457
1968
772
AFC North

26
New York Jets
397
479
8
.454
1960
884
AFC East

27
Jacksonville Jaguars
165
203
0
.448
1995
368
AFC South

28
New Orleans Saints
349
432
5
.447
1967
786
NFC South

29
Atlanta Falcons
351
443
6
.443
1966
790
NFC South

30
Houston Texans
110
146
0
.430
2002
256
AFC South

31
Arizona Cardinals
550
740
40
.429
1920
1,330
NFC West

32
Tampa Bay Buccaneers
255
404
1
.387
1976
660
NFC South

text: Playoffs[edit]

text: The following is a listing of all 32 current National Football League (NFL) teams ranked by their playoff win-loss record percentage, accurate as of the end of Super Bowl LII.

text:
Best win–loss record in division

Team active in playoffs

text:
Rank
Team
Games
Won
Lost
Pct.
Last playoff
appearance
Division

1
Baltimore Ravens
23
15
8
.652
2014
AFC North

2
New England Patriots
54
34
20
.630
2017
AFC East

3
Green Bay Packers
56
34
22
.607
2016
NFC North

4
San Francisco 49ers
50
30
20
.600
2013
NFC West

5
Pittsburgh Steelers
61
36
25
.590
2017
AFC North

6
Oakland Raiders
44
25
19
.568
2016
AFC West

7
Dallas Cowboys
61
34
27
.557
2016
NFC East

8 (tie)
Denver Broncos
42
23
19
.548
2015
AFC West

8 (tie)
Washington Redskins
42
23
19
.548
2015
NFC East

10
Carolina Panthers
17
9
8
.529
2017
NFC South

11
Seattle Seahawks
31
16
15
.516
2016
NFC West

12
Philadelphia Eagles
43
22
21
.512
2017
NFC East

13
Jacksonville Jaguars
14
7
7
.500
2017
AFC South

14
New York Giants
49
24
25
.490
2016
NFC East

15
Indianapolis Colts
45
22
23
.489
2014
AFC South

16
Miami Dolphins
41
20
21
.488
2016
AFC East

17
Chicago Bears
35
17
18
.486
2010
NFC North

18
New York Jets
25
12
13
.480
2010
AFC East

19
Buffalo Bills
30
14
16
.467
2017
AFC East

20
New Orleans Saints
18
8
10
.444
2017
NFC South

21
Arizona Cardinals
16
7
9
.438
2015
NFC West

22
Los Angeles Rams
44
19
25
.432
2017
NFC West

23 (tie)
Tennessee Titans
35
15
20
.429
2017
AFC South

23 (tie)
Houston Texans
7
3
4
.429
2016
AFC South

25
Atlanta Falcons
24
10
14
.417
2017
NFC South

26
Minnesota Vikings
49
20
29
.408
2017
NFC North

27
Tampa Bay Buccaneers
15
6
9
.400
2007
NFC South

28
Los Angeles Chargers
28
11
17
.393
2013
AFC West

29
Cleveland Browns
31
11
20
.355
2002
AFC North

30
Detroit Lions
20
7
13
.350
2016
NFC North

31
Kansas City Chiefs
27
9
18
.333
2017
AFC West

32
Cincinnati Bengals
19
5
14
.263
2015
AFC North

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ For example, the Browns' regular season win–loss record does not include a 47–4–3 record compiled in the All-America Football Conference from 1946 to 1949, nor does their playoff record include the 5–0 record compiled during the same period. Likewise, the 49ers' AAFC regular season win–loss record of 38–14–2, nor their 1-1 AAFC playoff record are officially counted
Jump up ^ The Patriots played as the "Boston Patriots" from 1960–1970, before adopting the "New England Patriots" name, which they have played under since the 1971 season.[3] The team was also briefly known as the "Bay State Patriots" prior to the 1971 season.[4]
Jump up ^ The Colts played under the "Baltimore Colts" name from 1953–1983, before relocating to Indianapolis and adpoting their current "Indianapolis Colts" name, which they have played under since the 1984 season.[5]
Jump up ^ The Chargers played as the "Los Angeles Chargers" in 1960 before relocating to San Diego in 1961 and adopting the "San Diego Chargers" as their name from 1961-2016. Before the 2017 season the franchise relocated back to Los Angeles and has played under their initial "Los Angeles Chargers" name since.


document_title: Educational psychology

question_text: who is called the father of educational psychology

root

text: Educational psychology

text: History[edit]

text: Early years[edit]

text: Educational psychology is a fairly new and growing field of study. Though it can date back as early as the days of Plato and Aristotle, it was not identified as a specific practice. It was unknown that everyday teaching and learning in which individuals had to think about individual differences, assessment, development, the nature of a subject being taught, problem solving, and transfer of learning was the beginning to the field of educational psychology. These topics are important to education and as a result it is important to understanding human cognition, learning, and social perception.[4]

tag: p

text: Plato and Aristotle[edit]

text: Educational psychology dates back to the time of Aristotle and Plato. Plato and Aristotle researched individual differences in the field of education, training of the body and the cultivation of psycho-motor skills, the formation of good character, the possibilities and limits of moral education. Some other educational topics they spoke about were the effects of music, poetry, and the other arts on the development of individual, role of teacher, and the relations between teacher and student.[4]  Plato saw knowledge as an innate ability, which  evolves through experience and understanding of the world. Such a statement has evolved into a continuing argument of nature vs. nurture in understanding conditioning and learning today. Aristotle observed the phenomenon of "association." His four laws of association included succession, contiguity, similarity, and contrast. His studies examined recall and facilitated learning processes.[5]

text: John Locke[edit]

text: John Locke was considered one of the most influential philosophers in post-renaissance Europe in about mid 1600s. Locke was called "Father of English Psychology". One of Locke's most important works was written in 1690, named An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. In this essay, he introduced the term "tabula rasa" meaning "blank slate." Locke explained that learning was primarily understood through experience only, and we were all born without knowledge.[6]

text: He followed by contrasting Plato's theory of innate learning processes. Locke believed the mind was formed by experiences, not innate ideas. Locke introduced this idea as "empiricism," or the understanding that knowledge is only built on knowledge and experience.

text: In the late 1600s, John Locke advanced the hypothesis that people learn primarily from external forces.  He believed that the mind was like a blank tablet (tabula rasa), and that successions of simple impressions give rise to complex ideas through association and reflection.  Locke is credited with establishing "empiricism" as a criterion for testing the validity of knowledge, thus providing a conceptual framework for later development of experimental methodology in the natural and social sciences.[7]

text: Before 1890[edit]

text: Philosophers of education such as Juan Vives, Johann Pestalozzi, Friedrich Fröbel, and Johann Herbart had examined, classified and judged the methods of education centuries before the beginnings of psychology in the late 1800s.

text: Juan Vives[edit]

text: Juan Vives (1493–1540) proposed induction as the method of study and believed in the direct observation and investigation of the study of nature. His studies focus of humanistic learning, which opposed scholasticism and was influenced by a variety of sources including philosophy, psychology, politics, religion, and history.[8] He was one of the first to emphasize that the location of the school is important to learning.[9] He suggested that the school should be located away from disturbing noises; the air quality should be good and there should be plenty of food for the students and teachers.[9] Vives emphasized the importance of understanding individual differences of the students and suggested practice as an important tool for learning.[9]

text: Vives introduced his educational ideas in his writing, "De anima et vita" in 1538. In this publication, Vives explores moral philosophy as a setting for his educational ideals; with this, he explains that the different parts of the soul (similar to that of Aristotle's ideas) are each responsible for different operations, which function distinctively. The first book covers the different "souls": "The Vegatative Soul;" this is the soul of nutrition, growth, and reproduction, "The Sensitive Soul," which involves the five external senses; "The Cogitative soul," which includes internal senses and cognitive facilities. The second book involves functions of the rational soul: mind, will, and memory. Lastly, the third book explains the analysis of emotions.[10]

text: Johann Pestalozzi[edit]

text: Johann Pestalozzi (1746–1827), a Swiss educational reformer, emphasized the child rather than the content of the school.[11] Pestalozzi fostered an educational reform backed by the idea that early education was crucial for children, and could be manageable for mothers. Eventually, this experience with early education would lead to a "wholesome person characterized by morality."[12] Pestalozzi has been acknowledged for opening institutions for education, writing books for mother's teaching home education, and elementary books for students, mostly focusing on the kindergarten level. In his later years, he published teaching manuals and methods of teaching.[12]

text: During the time of The Enlightenment, Pestalozzi's ideals introduced "educationalisation." This created the bridge between social issues and education by introducing the idea of social issues to be solved through education. Horlacher describes the most prominent example of this during The Enlightenment to be "improving agricultural production methods."[12]

text: Johann Herbart[edit]

text: Johann Herbart (1776–1841) is considered the father of educational psychology.[13]  He believed that learning was influenced by interest in the subject and the teacher.[13] He thought that teachers should consider the students' existing mental sets—what they already know—when presenting new information or material.[13] Herbart came up with what are now known as the formal steps. The 5 steps that teachers should use are:

text:
Review material that has already been learned by the student[13]
Prepare the student for new material by giving them an overview of what they are learning next[13]
Present the new material.[13]
Relate the new material to the old material that has already been learned.[13]
Show how the student can apply the new material and show the material they will learn next.[13]

tag: ol

text: There were three major figures in educational psychology in this period: William James, G. Stanley Hall, and John Dewey. These three men distinguished themselves in general psychology and educational psychology, which overlapped significantly at the end of the 19th century.[14]

text: William James (1842–1910)[edit]

text: The period of 1890–1920 is considered the golden era of educational psychology where aspirations of the new discipline rested on the application of the scientific methods of observation and experimentation to educational problems. From 1840 to 1920 37 million people immigrated to the United States.[8] This created an expansion of elementary schools and secondary schools. The increase in immigration also provided educational psychologists the opportunity to use intelligence testing to screen immigrants at Ellis Island.[8] Darwinism influenced the beliefs of the prominent educational psychologists.[8] Even in the earliest years of the discipline, educational psychologists recognized the limitations of this new approach. The pioneering American psychologist William James commented that:

text: Psychology is a science, and teaching is an art; and sciences never generate arts directly out of themselves. An intermediate inventive mind must make that application, by using its originality".[15]

text: James is the father of psychology in America but he also made contributions to educational psychology.  In his famous series of lectures Talks to Teachers on Psychology, published in 1899, James defines education as "the organization of acquired habits of conduct and tendencies to behavior".[15]  He states that teachers should "train the pupil to behavior"[15] so that he fits into the social and physical world. Teachers should also realize the importance of habit and instinct. They should present information that is clear and interesting and relate this new information and material to things the student already knows about.[15] He also addresses important issues such as attention, memory, and association of ideas.

text: Alfred Binet[edit]

text: Alfred Binet published Mental Fatigue in 1898, in which he attempted to apply the experimental method to educational psychology.[8]  In this experimental method he advocated for two types of experiments, experiments done in the lab and experiments done in the classroom.  In 1904 he was appointed the Minister of Public Education.[8] This is when he began to look for a way to distinguish children with developmental disabilities.[8] Binet strongly supported special education programs because he believed that "abnormality" could be cured.[8]  The Binet-Simon test was the first intelligence test and was the first to distinguish between  "normal children" and those with developmental disabilities.[8]  Binet believed that it was important to study individual differences between age groups and children of the same age.[8] He also believed that it was important for teachers to take into account individual students strengths and also the needs of the classroom as a whole when teaching and creating a good learning environment.[8] He also believed that it was important to train teachers in observation so that they would be able to see individual differences among children and adjust the curriculum to the students.[8] Binet also emphasized that practice of material was important.  In 1916 Lewis Terman revised the Binet-Simon so that the average score was always 100.[13] The test became known as the Stanford-Binet and was one of the most widely used tests of intelligence.  Terman, unlike Binet, was interested in using intelligence test to identify gifted children who had high intelligence.[8] In his longitudinal study of gifted children, who became known as the Termites, Terman found that gifted children become gifted adults.[13]

text: Edward Thorndike[edit]

text: Edward Thorndike (1874–1949) supported the scientific movement in education. He based teaching practices on empirical evidence and measurement.[8] Thorndike developed the theory of instrumental conditioning or the law of effect.   The law of effect states that associations are strengthened when it is followed by something pleasing and associations are weakened when followed by something not pleasing. He also found that learning is done a little at a time or in increments, learning is an automatic process and all the principles of learning apply to all mammals. Thorndike's research with Robert Woodworth on the theory of transfer found that learning one subject will only influence your ability to learn another subject if the subjects are similar.[8] This discovery led to less emphasis on learning the classics because they found that studying the classics does not contribute to overall general intelligence.[8] Thorndike was one of the first to say that individual differences in cognitive tasks were due to how many stimulus response patterns a person had rather than a general intellectual ability.[8]  He contributed word dictionaries that were scientifically based to determine the words and definitions used.[8] The dictionaries were the first to take into consideration the users maturity level.[8]  He also integrated pictures and easier pronunciation guide into each of the definitions.[8] Thorndike contributed arithmetic books based on learning theory. He made all the problems more realistic and relevant to what was being studied, not just to improve the general intelligence.[8] He developed tests that were standardized to measure performance in school related subjects.[8] His biggest contribution to testing was the CAVD intelligence test which used a multidimensional approach to intelligence and the first to use a ratio scale.[8] His later work was on programmed instruction, mastery learning and computer-based learning:

text: If, by a miracle of mechanical ingenuity, a book could be so arranged that only to him who had done what was directed on page one would page two become visible, and so on, much that now requires personal instruction could be managed by print.[16]

text: John Dewey[edit]

text: John Dewey (1859–1952) had a major influence on the development of progressive education in the United States. He believed that the classroom should prepare children to be good citizens and facilitate creative intelligence.[8] He pushed for the creation of practical classes that could be applied outside of a school setting.[8] He also thought that education should be student-oriented, not subject-oriented. For Dewey, education was a social experience that helped bring together generations of people. He stated that students learn by doing. He believed in an active mind that was able to be educated through observation, problem solving and enquiry. In his 1910 book How We Think, he emphasizes that material should be provided in a way that is stimulating and interesting to the student since it encourages original thought and problem solving.[17]  He also stated that material should be relative to the student's own experience.[17]

text: "The material furnished by way of information should be relevant to a question that is vital in the students own experience"[17]

text: Jean Piaget[edit]

text: Jean Piaget (1896–1980) was one of the most powerful researchers in the area of developmental psychology during the 20th century. He developed the theory of cognitive development.[8] The theory stated that intelligence developed in four different stages. The stages are the sensorimotor stage from birth to 2 years old, the preoperational state from 2 years old to 7 years old, the concrete operational stage from 7 years old to 10 years old, and formal operational stage from 11 years old and up.[8] He also believed that learning was constrained to the child's cognitive development. Piaget influenced educational psychology because he was the first to believe that cognitive development was important and something that should be paid attention to in education.[8]  Most of the research on Piagetian theory was carried out by American educational psychologists.

text: The number of people receiving a high school and college education increased dramatically from 1920 to 1960.[8] Because very few jobs were available to teens coming out of eighth grade, there was an increase in high school attendance in the 1930s.[8] The progressive movement in the United State took off at this time and led to the idea of progressive education. John Flanagan, an educational psychologist, developed tests for combat trainees and instructions in combat training.[8]  In 1954 the work of Kenneth Clark and his wife on the effects of segregation on black and white children was influential in the Supreme Court case Brown v. Board of Education.[13] From the 1960s to present day, educational psychology has switched from a behaviorist perspective to a more cognitive based perspective because of the influence and development of cognitive psychology at this time.[8]

text: Jerome Bruner[edit]

text: Jerome Bruner is notable for integrating Piaget's cognitive approaches into educational psychology.[8] He advocated for discovery learning where teachers create a problem solving environment that allows the student to question, explore and experiment.[8] In his book The Process of Education Bruner stated that the structure of the material and the cognitive abilities of the person are important in learning.[8] He emphasized the importance of the subject matter. He also believed that how the subject was structured was important for the student's understanding of the subject and it is the goal of the teacher to structure the subject in a way that was easy for the student to understand.[8]  In the early 1960s Bruner went to Africa to teach math and science to school children, which influenced his view as schooling as a cultural institution.  Bruner was also influential in the development of MACOS, Man a Course of Study, which was an educational program that combined anthropology and science.[8] The program explored human evolution and social behavior.  He also helped with the development of the head start program. He was interested in the influence of culture on education and looked at the impact of poverty on educational development.[8]

text: Benjamin Bloom[edit]

text: Benjamin Bloom (1913–1999) spent over 50 years at the University of Chicago, where he worked in the department of education.[8] He believed that all students can learn. He developed taxonomy of educational objectives.[8] The objectives were divided into three domains: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. The cognitive domain deals with how we think.[18] It is divided into categories that are on a continuum from easiest to more complex.[18] The categories are knowledge or recall, comprehension application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation.[18]  The affective domain deals with emotions and has 5 categories.[18] The categories are receiving phenomenon, responding to that phenomenon, valuing, organization, and internalizing values.[18] The psychomotor domain deals with the development of motor skills, movement and coordination and has 7 categories, that also goes from simplest to complex.[18] The 7 categories of the psychomotor domain are perception, set, guided response, mechanism, complex overt response, adaptation, and origination.[18] The taxonomy provided broad educational objectives that could be used to help expand the curriculum to match the ideas in the taxonomy.[8]  The taxonomy is considered to have a greater influence internationally than in the United States. Internationally, the taxonomy is used in every aspect of education from training of the teachers to the development of testing material.[8] Bloom believed in communicating clear learning goals and promoting an active student. He thought that teachers should provide feedback to the students on their strengths and weaknesses.[8] Bloom also did research on college students and their problem solving processes. He found that they differ in understanding the basis of the problem and the ideas in the problem. He also found that students differ in process of problem solving in their approach and attitude toward the problem.[8]

text: Nathaniel Gage[edit]

text: Nathaniel Gage (1917 -2008) is an important figure in educational psychology as his research focused on improving teaching and understanding the processes involved in teaching.[8] He edited the book Handbook of Research on Teaching (1963), which helped develop early research in teaching and educational psychology.[8] Gage founded the Stanford Center for Research and Development in Teaching, which contributed research on teaching as well as influencing the education of important educational psychologists.[8]

text: Perspectives[edit]

text: Behavioral[edit]

text: Applied behavior analysis, a research-based science utilizing behavioral principles of operant conditioning, is effective in a range of educational settings.[19] For example, teachers can alter student behavior by systematically rewarding students who follow classroom rules with praise, stars, or tokens exchangeable for sundry items.[20][21] Despite the demonstrated efficacy of awards in changing behavior, their use in education has been criticized by proponents of self-determination theory, who claim that praise and other rewards undermine intrinsic motivation. There is evidence that tangible rewards decrease intrinsic motivation in specific situations, such as when the student already has a high level of intrinsic motivation to perform the goal behavior.[22] But the results showing detrimental effects are counterbalanced by evidence that, in other situations, such as when rewards are given for attaining a gradually increasing standard of performance, rewards enhance intrinsic motivation.[23][24] Many effective therapies have been based on the principles of applied behavior analysis, including pivotal response therapy which is used to treat autism spectrum disorders.

text: Cognitive[edit]

text: Among current educational psychologists, the cognitive perspective is more widely held than the behavioral perspective, perhaps because it admits causally related mental constructs such as traits, beliefs, memories, motivations and emotions.[citation needed] Cognitive theories claim that memory structures determine how information is perceived, processed, stored, retrieved and forgotten. Among the memory structures theorized by cognitive psychologists are separate but linked visual and verbal systems described by Allan Paivio's dual coding theory. Educational psychologists have used dual coding theory and cognitive load theory to explain how people learn from multimedia presentations.[25]

text: The spaced learning effect, a cognitive phenomenon strongly supported by psychological research, has broad applicability within education.[27] For example, students have been found to perform better on a test of knowledge about a text passage when a second reading of the passage is delayed rather than immediate (see figure).[26] Educational psychology research has confirmed the applicability to education of other findings from cognitive psychology, such as the benefits of using mnemonics for immediate and delayed retention of information.[28]

text: Problem solving, according to prominent cognitive psychologists, is fundamental to learning. It resides as an important research topic in educational psychology. A student is thought to interpret a problem by assigning it to a schema retrieved from long-term memory. A problem students run into while reading is called "activation." This is when the student's representations of the text are present during working memory. This causes the student to read through the material without absorbing the information and being able to retain it. When working memory is absent from the reader's representations of the working memory they experience something called "deactivation." When deactivation occurs, the student has an understanding of the material and is able to retain information. If deactivation occurs during the first reading, the reader does not need to undergo deactivation in the second reading. The reader will only need to reread to get a "gist" of the text to spark their memory. When the problem is assigned to the wrong schema, the student's attention is subsequently directed away from features of the problem that are inconsistent with the assigned schema.[29] The critical step of finding a mapping between the problem and a pre-existing schema is often cited as supporting the centrality of analogical thinking to problem solving.

text: Cognitive view of intelligence[edit]

text: Each person has an individual profile of characteristics, abilities and challenges that result from predisposition, learning and development. These manifest as individual differences in intelligence, creativity, cognitive style, motivation and the capacity to process information, communicate, and relate to others. The most prevalent disabilities found among school age children are attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), learning disability, dyslexia, and speech disorder. Less common disabilities include intellectual disability, hearing impairment, cerebral palsy, epilepsy, and blindness.[30]

text: Although theories of intelligence have been discussed by philosophers since Plato, intelligence testing is an invention of educational psychology, and is coincident with the development of that discipline. Continuing debates about the nature of intelligence revolve on whether intelligence can be characterized by a single factor known as general intelligence,[31] multiple factors (e.g., Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences[32]), or whether it can be measured at all. In practice, standardized instruments such as the Stanford-Binet IQ test and the WISC[33] are widely used in economically developed countries to identify children in need of individualized educational treatment. Children classified as gifted are often provided with accelerated or enriched programs. Children with identified deficits may be provided with enhanced education in specific skills such as phonological awareness. In addition to basic abilities, the individual's personality traits are also important, with people higher in conscientiousness and hope attaining superior academic achievements, even after controlling for intelligence and past performance.[34]

text: Developmental[edit]

text: Developmental psychology, and especially the psychology of cognitive development, opens a special perspective for educational psychology. This is so because education and the psychology of cognitive development converge on a number of crucial assumptions. First, the psychology of cognitive development defines human cognitive competence at successive phases of development. Education aims to help students acquire knowledge and develop skills which are compatible with their understanding and problem-solving capabilities at different ages. Thus, knowing the students' level on a developmental sequence provides information on the kind and level of knowledge they can assimilate, which, in turn, can be used as a frame for organizing the subject matter to be taught at different school grades. This is the reason why Piaget's theory of cognitive development was so influential for education, especially mathematics and science education.[35] In the same direction, the neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development suggest that in addition to the concerns above, sequencing of concepts and skills in teaching must take account of the processing and working memory capacities that characterize successive age levels.[36][37]

text: Second, the psychology of cognitive development involves understanding how cognitive change takes place and recognizing the factors and processes which enable cognitive competence to develop. Education also capitalizes on cognitive change, because the construction of knowledge presupposes effective teaching methods that would move the student from a lower to a higher level of understanding. Mechanisms such as reflection on actual or mental actions vis-à-vis alternative solutions to problems, tagging new concepts or solutions to symbols that help one recall and mentally manipulate them are just a few examples of how mechanisms of cognitive development may be used to facilitate learning.[37][38]

text: Finally, the psychology of cognitive development is concerned with individual differences in the organization of cognitive processes and abilities, in their rate of change, and in their mechanisms of change. The principles underlying intra- and inter-individual differences could be educationally useful, because knowing how students differ in regard to the various dimensions of cognitive development, such as processing and representational capacity, self-understanding and self-regulation, and the various domains of understanding, such as mathematical, scientific, or verbal abilities, would enable the teacher to cater for the needs of the different students so that no one is left behind.[37][39]

text: Constructivist[edit]

text: Constructivism is a category of learning theory in which emphasis is placed on the agency and prior "knowing" and experience of the learner, and often on the social and cultural determinants of the learning process. Educational psychologists distinguish individual (or psychological) constructivism, identified with Piaget's theory of cognitive development, from social constructivism. A dominant influence on the latter type is Lev Vygotsky's work on sociocultural learning, describing how interactions with adults, more capable peers, and cognitive tools are internalized to form mental constructs. Elaborating on Vygotsky's theory, Jerome Bruner and other educational psychologists developed the important concept of instructional scaffolding, in which the social or information environment offers supports for learning that are gradually withdrawn as they become internalized.[40]

text: Jean Piaget's Cognitive Development[edit]

text: Jean Piaget was interested in how an organism adapts to its environment. Piaget hypothesized that infants are born with a schema operating at birth that he called "reflexes". Piaget  identified four stages in cognitive development. The four stages are sensorimotor stage, pre-operational stage, concrete operational stage and formal operational stage.[41]

text: Conditioning and learning[edit]

text: To understand the characteristics of learners in childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age, educational psychology develops and applies theories of human development.[42] Often represented as stages through which people pass as they mature, developmental theories describe changes in mental abilities (cognition), social roles, moral reasoning, and beliefs about the nature of knowledge.

text: For example, educational psychologists have conducted research on the instructional applicability of Jean Piaget's theory of development, according to which children mature through four stages of cognitive capability. Piaget hypothesized that children are not capable of abstract logical thought until they are older than about 11 years, and therefore younger children need to be taught using concrete objects and examples. Researchers have found that transitions, such as from concrete to abstract logical thought, do not occur at the same time in all domains. A child may be able to think abstractly about mathematics, but remain limited to concrete thought when reasoning about human relationships. Perhaps Piaget's most enduring contribution is his insight that people actively construct their understanding through a self-regulatory process.[30]

text: Piaget proposed a developmental theory of moral reasoning in which children progress from a naïve understanding of morality based on behavior and outcomes to a more advanced understanding based on intentions. Piaget's views of moral development were elaborated by Kohlberg into a stage theory of moral development. There is evidence that the moral reasoning described in stage theories is not sufficient to account for moral behavior. For example, other factors such as modeling (as described by the social cognitive theory of morality) are required to explain bullying.

text: Rudolf Steiner's model of child development interrelates physical, emotional, cognitive, and moral development[43] in developmental stages similar to those later described by Piaget.[44]

text: Developmental theories are sometimes presented not as shifts between qualitatively different stages, but as gradual increments on separate dimensions. Development of epistemological beliefs (beliefs about knowledge) have been described in terms of gradual changes in people's belief in: certainty and permanence of knowledge, fixedness of ability, and credibility of authorities such as teachers and experts. People develop more sophisticated beliefs about knowledge as they gain in education and maturity.[45]

text: Motivation[edit]

text: Motivation is an internal state that activates, guides and sustains behavior. Motivation can have several impacting effects on how students learn and how they behave towards subject matter:[46]

text:
Provide direction towards goals
Enhance cognitive processing abilities and performance
Direct behavior toward particular goals
Lead to increased effort and energy
Increase initiation of and persistence in activities

tag: ul

text: Educational psychology research on motivation is concerned with the volition or will that students bring to a task, their level of interest and intrinsic motivation, the personally held goals that guide their behavior, and their belief about the causes of their success or failure. As intrinsic motivation deals with activities that act as their own rewards, extrinsic motivation deals with motivations that are brought on by consequences or punishments. A form of attribution theory developed by Bernard Weiner[47] describes how students' beliefs about the causes of academic success or failure affect their emotions and motivations. For example, when students attribute failure to lack of ability, and ability is perceived as uncontrollable, they experience the emotions of shame and embarrassment and consequently decrease effort and show poorer performance. In contrast, when students attribute failure to lack of effort, and effort is perceived as controllable, they experience the emotion of guilt and consequently increase effort and show improved performance.[47]

text: The self-determination theory (SDT) was developed by psychologists Edward Deci and Richard Ryan. SDT focuses on the importance of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in driving human behavior and posits inherent growth and development tendencies. It emphasizes the degree to which an individual's behavior is self-motivated and self-determined. When applied to the realm of education, the self-determination theory is concerned primarily with promoting in students an interest in learning, a value of education, and a confidence in their own capacities and attributes.[48]

text: Motivational theories also explain how learners' goals affect the way they engage with academic tasks.[49] Those who have mastery goals strive to increase their ability and knowledge. Those who have performance approach goals strive for high grades and seek opportunities to demonstrate their abilities. Those who have performance avoidance goals are driven by fear of failure and avoid situations where their abilities are exposed. Research has found that mastery goals are associated with many positive outcomes such as persistence in the face of failure, preference for challenging tasks, creativity and intrinsic motivation. Performance avoidance goals are associated with negative outcomes such as poor concentration while studying, disorganized studying, less self-regulation, shallow information processing and test anxiety. Performance approach goals are associated with positive outcomes, and some negative outcomes such as an unwillingness to seek help and shallow information processing.[49]

text: Locus of control is a salient factor in the successful academic performance of students. During the 1970s and '80s, Cassandra B. Whyte did significant educational research studying locus of control as related to the academic achievement of students pursuing higher education coursework. Much of her educational research and publications focused upon the theories of Julian B. Rotter in regard to the importance of internal control and successful academic performance.[50] Whyte reported that individuals who perceive and believe that their hard work may lead to more successful academic outcomes, instead of depending on luck or fate, persist and achieve academically at a higher level. Therefore, it is important to provide education and counseling in this regard.[51]

text: Technology[edit]

text:
Instructional design, the systematic design of materials, activities and interactive environments for learning, is broadly informed by educational psychology theories and research. For example, in defining learning goals or objectives, instructional designers often use a taxonomy of educational objectives created by Benjamin Bloom and colleagues.[52] Bloom also researched mastery learning, an instructional strategy in which learners only advance to a new learning objective after they have mastered its prerequisite objectives. Bloom[53] discovered that a combination of mastery learning with one-to-one tutoring is highly effective, producing learning outcomes far exceeding those normally achieved in classroom instruction. Gagné, another psychologist, had earlier developed an influential method of task analysis in which a terminal learning goal is expanded into a hierarchy of learning objectives[54] connected by prerequisite relationships.
The following list of technological resources incorporate computer-aided instruction and intelligence for educational psychologists and their students:

text:
Intelligent tutoring system
Cognitive tutor
Cooperative learning
Collaborative learning
Problem-based learning
Computer-supported collaborative learning
Constructive alignment

text: Technology is essential to the field of educational psychology, not only for the psychologist themselves as far as testing, organization, and resources, but also for students. Educational Psychologists whom reside in the K- 12 setting focus the majority of their time with Special Education students. It has been found that students with disabilities learning through technology such as IPad applications and videos are more engaged and motivated to learn in the classroom setting. Liu et al. explain that learning-based technology allows for students to be more focused, and learning is more efficient with learning technologies. The authors explain that learning technology also allows for students with social- emotional disabilities to participate in distance learning.[55]

text: Applications[edit]

text: Teaching[edit]

text: Research on classroom management and pedagogy is conducted to guide teaching practice and form a foundation for teacher education programs. The goals of classroom management are to create an environment conducive to learning and to develop students' self-management skills. More specifically, classroom management strives to create positive teacher–student and peer relationships, manage student groups to sustain on-task behavior, and use counseling and other psychological methods to aid students who present persistent psychosocial problems.[57]

text: Introductory educational psychology is a commonly required area of study in most North American teacher education programs. When taught in that context, its content varies, but it typically emphasizes learning theories (especially cognitively oriented ones), issues about motivation, assessment of students' learning, and classroom management. A developing Wikibook about educational psychology gives more detail about the educational psychology topics that are typically presented in preservice teacher education.

text:
Special education
Secondary Education
Lesson plan

text: Counseling[edit]

text: Training[edit]

text: In order to become an educational psychologist, students can complete an undergraduate degree in their choice. They then must go to graduate school to study education psychology, counseling psychology, and/ or school counseling. Most students today are also receiving their doctorate degrees in order to hold the "psychologist" title. Educational psychologists work in a variety of settings. Some work in university settings where they carry out research on the cognitive and social processes of human development, learning and education. Educational psychologists may also work as consultants in designing and creating educational materials, classroom programs and online courses.Educational psychologists who work in k–12 school settings (closely related are school psychologists in the US and Canada) are trained at the master's and doctoral levels. In addition to conducting assessments, school psychologists provide services such as academic and behavioral intervention, counseling, teacher consultation, and crisis intervention. However, school psychologists are generally more individual-oriented towards students.[58]

text: Many colleges and high schools are starting to teach students how to teach students in the classroom. In colleges educational psychology is starting to be a general education requirement.

text: Employment outlook[edit]

text: Employment for psychologists in the United States is expected to grow faster than most occupations through the year 2014, with anticipated growth of 18–26%. One in four psychologists are employed in educational settings. In the United States, the median salary for psychologists in primary and secondary schools is US$58,360 as of May 2004.[59] Colleges offer and allow someone to obtain a PHD in educational Psychology.

text: In recent decades the participation of women as professional researchers in North American educational psychology has risen dramatically.[60]

text: Methods of research[edit]

text: Educational psychology, as much as any other field of psychology heavily relies on a balance of pure observation and quantitative methods in psychology. The study of education generally combines the studies of history, sociology, and ethics with theoretical approaches. Smeyers and Depaepe explain that historically, the study of education and child rearing have been associated with the interests of policymakers and practitioners within the educational field, however, the recent shift to sociology and psychology has opened the door for new findings in education as a social science. Now being its own academic discipline, educational psychology has proven to be helpful for social science researchers.[61]

text: Quantitative research is the backing to most observable phenomena in psychology. This involves observing, creating, and understanding a distribution of data based upon the studies subject matter. Researchers use particular variables to interpret their data distributions from their research and employ statistics as a way of creating data tables and analyzing their data. Psychology has moved from the "common sense" reputations initially posed by Thomas Reid to the methodology approach comparing independent and dependent variables through natural observation, experiments, or combinations of the two. Though results are still, with statistical methods, objectively true based upon significance variables or p- values.[61]


document_title: Batman (1966 film)

question_text: who played the penguin in the original batman movie

text: Batman (1966 film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: When Batman and Robin get a tip that Commodore Schmidlapp is in danger aboard his yacht, they launch a rescue mission using the Batcopter. As Batman descends on the bat-ladder to land on the yacht, it suddenly vanishes beneath him. He rises out of the sea with a shark attacking his leg. After Batman dislodges it with bat-shark repellent, the shark explodes. Batman and Robin head back to Commissioner Gordon's office, where they deduce that the tip was a set-up by the United Underworld, a gathering of four of the most powerful villains in Gotham City (The Joker, The Penguin, The Riddler, and The Catwoman).

text: The United Underworld equip themselves with a dehydrator that can turn humans into dust (an invention of Schmidlapp, who is unaware he has been kidnapped), a submarine made to resemble a penguin, and their three pirate henchmen (Bluebeard, Morgan and Quetch). It is revealed the yacht was really a projection. When Batman and Robin return to a buoy concealing a projector, they are trapped on the buoy by a magnet and targeted by torpedoes. They use a radio-detonator to destroy two of the missiles, and a porpoise sacrifices itself to intercept the last one. The Catwoman, disguised as Soviet journalist "Miss Kitka", helps the group kidnap Bruce Wayne and pretends to be kidnapped with him, as part of a plot to lure Batman and finish him off with another of the Penguin's explosive animals (not knowing that Bruce Wayne is Batman's alter-ego). After Bruce Wayne escapes captivity, the Penguin disguises himself as the Commodore and schemes his way into the Batcave along with five dehydrated henchmen. This plan fails when the henchmen unexpectedly disappear into antimatter once struck: The Penguin mistakenly rehydrated them with heavy water, used to recharge the Batcave's atomic pile.

text: Ultimately, Batman and Robin are unable to prevent the kidnapping of the dehydrated United World Organization's Security Council. Giving chase in the batboat to retrieve them (and Miss Kitka, presumed by the duo as still captive), Robin uses a sonic charge weapon to disable Penguin's submarine and force it to surface, where a fist fight ensues. Although Batman and Robin win the fight, Batman is heartbroken to find out that his "true love" Miss Kitka is actually the Catwoman when her mask falls off. Commodore Schmidlapp accidentally breaks the vials containing the powdered Council members, mixing them together.

text: Batman sets to work, constructing an elaborate filter to separate the mingled dust. Robin asks him whether it might be in the world's best interests for them to alter the dust samples, so that humans can no longer harm one another. In response, Batman says that they cannot do so, reminding Robin of the fate of the Penguin's henchmen and their tainted rehydration, and can only hope for people in general to learn to live together peacefully on their own.

text: With the world watching, the Security Council is re-hydrated. All of the members are restored alive and well, continuing to squabble among themselves and totally oblivious of their surroundings, but each of them now speaks the language and displays the stereotypical mannerisms of a nation other than their own. Batman quietly expresses his sincere hope to Robin that this "mixing of minds" does more good than it does harm. The duo quietly leave United World Headquarters by climbing out of the window.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Adam West as Bruce Wayne / Batman
Burt Ward as Dick Grayson / Robin
Lee Meriwether as The Catwoman (Kitka)
Cesar Romero as The Joker
Burgess Meredith as The Penguin
Frank Gorshin as The Riddler
Alan Napier as Alfred Pennyworth
Neil Hamilton as Commissioner James Gordon
Stafford Repp as Chief Miles O'Hara
Madge Blake as Aunt Harriet Cooper
Reginald Denny as Commodore Schmidlapp
Milton Frome as Vice Admiral Fangschleister
Gil Perkins as Bluebeard
Dick Crockett as Morgan
George Sawaya as Quetch
Van Williams (uncredited voice) as President Lyndon B. Johnson[4]

text: The film includes most members of the original TV cast: the actors for Batman, Robin, Alfred, Gordon, O'Hara, Aunt Harriet, the Joker, the Penguin, and the Riddler all reprised their roles. Though Julie Newmar had at this point played Catwoman in two episodes of season one in the TV series, she had other commitments at that time[5] and was replaced by Lee Meriwether in the film. According to the Biography special Catwoman: Her Many Lives, aired on July 20, 2004, it was stated that Newmar was unable to reprise her role due to a reported back injury. Catwoman was nonetheless played by Newmar once again in the following eleven episodes of season two of the series; Eartha Kitt would then play Catwoman in three episodes of season three.

text: In his autobiography, Adam West writes of his asking for more money to do the film and that the producers countered with the fact that another actor would be hired. Batman was Denny's final film appearance. Jack LaLanne has a cameo as a man on a rooftop with bikini-clad women.[6]

text: Production[edit]

text: William Dozier wanted to make a big-screen film to generate interest in his proposed Batman TV series by having the feature in theaters while the first season of the series was rolling before the cameras. The studio, 20th Century Fox, refused because it would have to cover the entire cost of a movie, while it would only have to share the cost of a TV series (a much less risky proposition).[7]

text: The film features many characters from the show. It was written by series writer Lorenzo Semple, Jr. and directed by Leslie H. Martinson.[8] Martinson had directed a pair of the television series season one episodes: "The Penguin Goes Straight" and "Not Yet, He Ain't".

text: Tone[edit]

text: Even though it is often described (like many contemporary shows) as a parody of a popular comic-book character, some commentators believe that its comedy is not so tightly confined. They felt the film's depiction of the Caped Crusader "captured the feel of the contemporary comics perfectly".[9] The film was, they remind us, made at a time when "the Batman of the Golden Age comics was already essentially neutered."[10]

text: Certain elements verge into direct parody of the history of Batman. The movie, like the TV series, is strongly influenced by the comparatively obscure 1940s serials of Batman, such as the escapes done almost out of luck.[10] The penchant for giving devices a "Bat-" prefix and the dramatic use of stylized title cards during fight scenes acknowledge some of the conventions that the character had accumulated in various media. However, the majority of Batman's campier moments can be read as a broader parody on contemporary mid-1960s culture in general.[11]

text: Furthermore, the movie represented Batman's first major foray into Cold War issues paying heavy attention to Polaris Missiles, war surplus submarines and taking a poke at the Pentagon. The inclusion of a glory-hunting presidential character and the unfavorable portrayal of Security Council Members marked Batman's first attempts to poke fun at domestic and international politics.[12]

text: Vehicles[edit]

text: Besides the Batmobile, other vehicles used by The Dynamic Duo include:

text:
Batcycle with side car
Batboat, provided by Glastron
Batcopter

text: Of the three new Batvehicles which first appeared in the Batman film, only the Batcycle properly crossed over into the TV series as the budgetary limits of the TV series precluded the full use of the others. While the Batcopter and Batboat from the movie appeared briefly in episodes (including a use of the Batboat in the conclusion of the first post-film two-parter: "Walk the Straight and Narrow"), they primarily did so in the form of stock-footage scenes from the film intercut into the series.

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text: Nelson Riddle's original score to Batman the Movie was released in 2010 by La-La Land Records and Fox Music. The album contains the entire score as heard in the film in chronological order as well as an unreleased cue. This limited edition includes a lavishly illustrated color booklet which features exclusive liner notes by Brian Baterwhite. This Limited Edition was of 2000 units.

text: It was newly re-issued in 2016. While the program and master of this release is identical to the 2010 release, this reissue features all-new exclusive liner notes by John Takis and art design by Jim Titus. This new Limited Edition is of 2500 units.

text: Track listing

text:
Acknowledgment/Main Title 2:31
Batmobile To Airport 2:01
A Good Job 2:22
Roger Wilco (2:45)
Just Ring/Yo Ho, Sir/Let’s Find Out 2:21
Tricky Buoy 3:24
Torpedoes 2:35
Holy Polaris 1:01
Kitka 1:13
Dark Eyes (Source) 0:21
Plaisir D’amour (Source) 1:25
Bruce And Kitka* 0:44
Shades Of Smolensic 3:20
Jet Umbrellas 1:50
Filthy Criminals 1:34
Chamber 17 1:14
Credulous Creatures/Fine Finkish Friends 2:19
Dehydrated 1:36
Stand Clear 2:10
Flee For Your Life 2:38
False Feathers/Swallow This Pill 3:19
My Very Paradise 2:06
The Grotto/A Stitch In Time 3:09
Emergency Operation 2:55
Small Craft 3:30
Attack (3:23)
Take It In Tow 0:56
Vials 4:23
End Title 1:10

text: Bonus Tracks

text:
“Again” 2:05
Submarine Battle (Edited Music)* 4:37
Batman Theme 0:46

text: Previously Unreleased

text: Total Time: 72:13

text: Release[edit]

text: Batman premiered at the Paramount Theatre in Austin, Texas on July 30, 1966 (between the first and second seasons of the TV series); it was moderately successful at the box office. The Batboat featured in the film was created by Austin-based company Glastron, whose payment was in having the film premiere in their hometown. In conjunction with the premiere, Jean Boone of Austin CBS affiliate station KTBC interviewed the film's cast, including Lee Meriwether, Cesar Romero, and Adam West.[13]

text: ABC, the network which previously aired the Batman television series, first broadcast the film on the July 4, 1971 edition of The ABC Sunday Night Movie; the film was quickly rebroadcast on ABC September 4 of that year. The film debuted on home video via formats VHS and Betamax release in 1985 by Playhouse Video, in 1989 by CBS/Fox Video, and in 1994 by Fox Video. The film was released on DVD in 2001, and re-released July 1, 2008 on DVD and on Blu-ray.[14]

text: Reception[edit]

text: The film has received generally positive reviews over the years. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an 80% rating based on 30 reviews, with an average rating of 6.2/10. The site's consensus states: "Batman: The Movie elevates camp to an art form -- and has a blast doing it, every gloriously tongue-in-cheek inch of the way."[15] Bill Gibron of Filmcritic.com gave the film 3 out of 5 stars: "Unlike other attempts at bringing these characters to life...the TV cast really captures the inherent insanity of the roles."[16] Variety magazine stated on their review that "the intense innocent enthusiasm of Cesar Romero, Burgess Meredith and Frank Gorshin as the three criminals is balanced against the innocent calm of Adam West and Burt Ward, Batman and Robin respectively."[17]


document_title: Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease

question_text: how did charcot marie tooth disease get its name

text: Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease

text: Signs and symptoms[edit]

text: Symptoms of CMT usually begin in early childhood or early adulthood, but can begin later. Some people do not experience symptoms until their early thirties or forties. Usually, the initial symptom is foot drop early in the course of the disease. This can also cause hammer toe, where the toes are always curled. Wasting of muscle tissue of the lower parts of the legs may give rise to a "stork leg" or "inverted champagne bottle" appearance. Weakness in the hands and forearms occurs in many people as the disease progresses.

text: Loss of touch sensation in the feet, ankles and legs, as well as in the hands, wrists and arms occur with various types of the disease. Early and late onset forms occur with 'on and off' painful spasmodic muscular contractions that can be disabling when the disease activates. High-arched feet (pes cavus) or flat-arched feet (pes planus) are classically associated with the disorder.[3] Sensory and proprioceptive nerves in the hands and feet are often damaged, while unmyelinated pain nerves are left intact. Overuse of an affected hand or limb can activate symptoms including numbness, spasm, and painful cramping.

text: Symptoms and progression of the disease can vary. Involuntary grinding of teeth as well as squinting are prevalent and often go unnoticed by the person affected. Breathing can be affected in some; so can hearing, vision, as well as the neck and shoulder muscles. Scoliosis is common, causing hunching and loss of height. Hip sockets can be malformed. Gastrointestinal problems can be part of CMT,[4][5] as can difficulty chewing, swallowing, and speaking (due to atrophy of vocal cords).[6] A tremor can develop as muscles waste. Pregnancy has been known to exacerbate CMT, as well as severe emotional stress. Patients with CMT must avoid periods of prolonged immobility such as when recovering from a secondary injury as prolonged periods of limited mobility can drastically accelerate symptoms of CMT.[7]

text: Pain due to postural changes, skeletal deformations, muscle fatigue and cramping is fairly common in people with CMT. It can be mitigated or treated by physical therapies, surgeries, and corrective or assistive devices. Analgesic medications may also be needed if other therapies do not provide relief from pain.[8] Neuropathic pain is often a symptom of CMT, though, like other symptoms of CMT, its presence and severity varies from case to case. For some people, pain can be significant to severe and interfere with daily life activities. However, pain is not experienced by all people with CMT. When neuropathic pain is present as a symptom of CMT, it is comparable to that seen in other peripheral neuropathies, as well as postherpetic neuralgia and complex regional pain syndrome, among other diseases.[9]

text: Causes[edit]

text: Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease is caused by mutations that cause defects in neuronal proteins. Nerve signals are conducted by an axon with a myelin sheath wrapped around it. Most mutations in CMT affect the myelin sheath, but some affect the axon.

text: The most common cause of CMT (70–80% of the cases) is the duplication of a large region on the short arm of chromosome 17 that includes the gene PMP22. Some mutations affect the gene MFN2, which codes for a mitochondrial protein. Cells contain separate sets of genes in their nucleus and in their mitochondria. In nerve cells, the mitochondria travel down the long axons. In some forms of CMT, mutated MFN2 causes the mitochondria to form large clusters, or clots, which are unable to travel down the axon towards the synapses. This prevents the synapses from functioning.[10]

text: CMT is divided into the primary demyelinating neuropathies (CMT1, CMT3, and CMT4) and the primary axonal neuropathies (CMT2), with frequent overlap. Another cell involved in CMT is the Schwann cell, which creates the myelin sheath, by wrapping its plasma membrane around the axon.[11]

text: Neurons, Schwann cells, and fibroblasts work together to create a functional nerve. Schwann cells and neurons exchange molecular signals that regulate survival and differentiation. These signals are disrupted in CMT.[11]

text: Demyelinating Schwann cells causes abnormal axon structure and function. They may cause axon degeneration, or they may simply cause axons to malfunction.[1]

text: The myelin sheath allows nerve cells to conduct signals faster. When the myelin sheath is damaged, nerve signals are slower, and this can be measured by a common neurological test, electromyography. When the axon is damaged, on the other hand, this results in a reduced compound muscle action potential (CMAP).[12]

text: Diagnosis[edit]

text: CMT can be diagnosed through symptoms, through measurement of the speed of nerve impulses (nerve conduction studies), through biopsy of the nerve, and through DNA testing. DNA testing can give a definitive diagnosis, but not all the genetic markers for CMT are known. CMT is first noticed when someone develops lower leg weakness, such as foot drop; or foot deformities, including hammertoes and high arches. But signs alone do not lead to diagnosis. Patients must be referred to a physician specialising in neurology or rehabilitation medicine. To see signs of muscle weakness, the neurologist asks patients to walk on their heels or to move part of their leg against an opposing force. To identify sensory loss, the neurologist tests for deep tendon reflexes, such as the knee jerk, which are reduced or absent in CMT. The doctor also asks about family history, because CMT is hereditary. The lack of family history does not rule out CMT, but helps rule out other causes of neuropathy, such as diabetes or exposure to certain chemicals or drugs.[13]

text: In 2010, CMT was one of the first diseases where the genetic cause of a particular patient's disease was precisely determined by sequencing the whole genome of an affected individual. This was done by the scientists employed by the Charcot Marie Tooth Association (CMTA)[14][15] Two mutations were identified in a gene, SH3TC2, known to cause CMT. Researchers then compared the affected patient's genome to the genomes of the patient's mother, father, and seven siblings with and without the disease. The mother and father each had one normal and one mutant copy of this gene, and had mild or no symptoms. The offspring that inherited two mutant genes presented fully with the disease.

text: Histology[edit]

text: The constant cycle of demyelination and remyelination, which occurs in CMT, can lead to the formation of layers of myelin around some nerves, termed an "onion bulb". These are also seen in chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy (CIDP).[16] Muscles show fiber type grouping, a similarly non-specific finding that indicates a cycle of denervation/reinnervation. Normally, type I and type II muscle fibers show a checkerboard-like random distribution. However, when reinnervation occurs, the group of fibers associated with one nerve are of the same type. The standard for indicating fiber type is histoenzymatic adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase at pH 9.4).[17]

text: Classification[edit]

text: CMT is a result of genetic mutations in a number of genes.[18] Based on the affected gene, CMT can be categorized into types and subtypes.[15]

text: Management[edit]

text: Often the most important goal for patients with CMT is to maintain movement, muscle strength, and flexibility. Therefore, an interprofessional team approach with occupational therapy, physical therapy, orthotist, podiatrist and or orthopedic surgeon is recommended.[19] PT typically focuses on muscle strength training, muscle, and ligament stretching while OT can provide education on energy conservation strategies and moderate aerobic exercise in activities of daily living. Physical therapy should be involved in designing an exercise program that fits a person's personal strengths and flexibility. Bracing can also be used to correct problems caused by CMT. An orthotist may address gait abnormalities by prescribing the use of ankle-foot orthoses (AFOs). These orthoses help control foot drop and ankle instability and often provide a better sense of balance for patients. Appropriate footwear is also very important for people with CMT, but they often have difficulty finding well-fitting shoes because of their high arched feet and hammer toes. Due to the lack of good sensory reception in the feet, CMT patients may also need to see a podiatrist for help in trimming nails or removing calluses that develop on the pads of the feet. A final decision a patient can make is to have surgery. Using a podiatrist or an orthopedic surgeon, patients can choose to stabilize their feet or correct progressive problems. These procedures include straightening and pinning the toes, lowering the arch, and sometimes, fusing the ankle joint to provide stability.[7] CMT patients must take extra care to avoid falling because fractures take longer to heal in someone with an underlying disease process. Additionally, the resulting inactivity may cause the CMT to worsen.[7]

text: The Charcot-Marie-Tooth Association classifies the chemotherapy drug vincristine as a "definite high risk" and states that "vincristine has been proven hazardous and should be avoided by all CMT patients, including those with no symptoms."[20]

text: There are also several corrective surgical procedures that can be done to improve physical condition.[21]

text: Prognosis[edit]

text: The severity of symptoms vary widely even for the same type of CMT. There have been cases of monozygotic twins with varying levels of disease severity, showing that identical genotypes are associated with different levels of severity (see penetrance). Some patients are able to live a normal life and are almost or entirely asymptomatic.[22] A 2007 review stated that "Life expectancy is not known to be altered in the majority of cases".[23]

text: History[edit]

text: The disease is named after those who classically described it: Jean-Martin Charcot (1825–1893), his pupil Pierre Marie (1853–1940) ("Sur une forme particulière d'atrophie musculaire progressive, souvent familiale débutant par les pieds et les jambes et atteignant plus tard les mains". Revue médicale. Paris. 6: 97–138. 1886. ), and Howard Henry Tooth (1856–1925) ("The peroneal type of progressive muscular atrophy", dissertation, London, 1886.)


document_title: Land of the Lost (film)

question_text: actor who plays chaka in land of the lost

text: Land of the Lost (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: Pompous paleontologist Rick Marshall has a low-level job at the La Brea Tar Pits, three years after a disastrous interview with Matt Lauer of Today became a viral video and ruined his career. Doctoral candidate Holly Cantrell tells him that his controversial theories combining time warps and paleontology inspired her. She shows him a fossil with an imprint of a cigarette lighter that he recognizes as his own along with a crystal made into a necklace that gives off strong tachyon energy. She convinces him to finish his tachyon amplifier and come help her on a seemingly routine expedition to the cave where Holly found the fossil, which is in the middle of nowhere. With cave gift shop owner Will Stanton they raft into the cave, where Marshall has detected high levels of tachyons. He activates the tachyon amplifier, triggering an earthquake that opens a time warp into which the raft falls. The group finds themselves in a desert, filled with various items from many eras, and without the amplifier. They rescue a primate-like creature, Cha-Ka of the Pakuni tribe, who becomes their friend and guide.

text: The gang spends a night in a cave after surviving a meeting with a fast, intelligent Tyrannosaurus they nickname "Grumpy", who stalks Marshall for calling him stupid. Marshall receives a telepathic message begging for help and finds himself in ancient ruins. The group encounters a race of lizard men called Sleestaks before meeting the one who sent Marshall the telepathic message, Enik the Altrusian. He explains that he was exiled by the evil Zarn who is attempting to take over Earth with his Sleestak minions, but Enik can prevent this if Marshall retrieves the tachyon amplifier.

text: The group stumble upon a desert where many things from across time end up and they encounter many Compsognathus, Dromaeosaurs, Grumpy, and a female Allosaurus. The Allosaurus and Grumpy battle it out over a previously killed ice-cream seller until they sense Marshall and chase him. Marshall kills the Allosaurus with liquid nitrogen and finds that the amplifier was eaten by the Allosaurus. The amplifier is then stolen by a Pteranodon and taken to its nest. The group arrives at the nest and Marshall lightly steps through the Pteranodon eggs to retrieve the amplifier, but when he reaches it, it stops broadcasting the soundtrack to Marshall's favorite musical A Chorus Line. When the eggs begin to hatch, Holly realizes that the music was acting as a sort of lullaby keeping the baby Pteranodons asleep. Marshall, Will and Holly belt out "I Hope I Get It", with Cha-ka inexplicably joining in, displaying an impressive singing voice.

text: Marshall, Will and Cha-ka celebrate their good fortune. Meanwhile, Holly pockets a dinosaur egg and learns from a recording left by the long-deceased Zarn that Enik deceived them and he is actually the one planning to invade Earth. But she is captured by the Sleestaks to be brought to the Library of Skulls for judgment. The others saved her from being executed for helping Enik, but the villain—now possessing the amplifier, and mind-controlling the Sleestaks—leaves them to open a portal to Earth. Marshall pole vaults into Grumpy's mouth and after removing an intestinal blockage, befriends him. He joins the others to defeat the Sleestak army and confront Enik. After the crystal link between the Land of the Lost and Earth is shattered, Enik reveals the portal will close forever. Thinking fast, Marshall grabs Holly's crystal and inserts it into the port, knowing that the substitute crystal won't hold for long. Will chooses to stay behind to live a better life and to prevent Enik from following Marshall and Holly back to Earth, learning later that female Pakuni are very attractive.

text: A triumphant Marshall again appears on Today with the dinosaur egg Holly brought back to promote his new book Matt Lauer Can Suck It. The egg left behind on the Today set hatches a baby Sleestak, which hisses as the screen goes black.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Will Ferrell as Dr. Rick Marshall, a renowned paleontologist and author, determined to prove his theory on time warps, thus embarking on a time travel experiment.
Anna Friel as Holly Cantrell, Rick's biggest fan.
Danny McBride as Will Stanton, a gift shop owner who takes Holly and Rick to a tachyon rich cave.
Jorma Taccone as Cha-Ka
John Boylan as Enik who plans to invade and conquer Earth, and deceives Rick and the others into believing otherwise; he also controls the Sleestak.
Matt Lauer as himself
Leonard Nimoy as the voice of The Zarn
Douglas Tait as Sleestak

text: The original actors who played Holly and Will in the TV series, Kathy Coleman and Wesley Eure, filmed cameos for the film.[4] However, the final version of the film cut these scenes.[4] Bobb'e J. Thompson, Kiernan Shipka (uncredited), Dylan Sprayberry, and Sierra McCormick appeared in a cameo as Tar Pit Kids and Raymond Ochoa as an uncredited boy in a museum.[5]

text: Production[edit]

text: Production for the film began on March 4, 2008. Only one week's worth of filming was shot using a large-scale soundstage with green screen technology.[6] The rest of filming took place on location in places such as the Dumont Dunes in the Mojave Desert, the La Brea Tar Pits in Hancock Park, and Trona, California.[citation needed]

text: Marketing[edit]

text: The first trailer was shown during Super Bowl XLIII. Subway Restaurants, which paid to appear in the film and had cross promotions with (appearing on their cups), unveiled the second trailer exclusively on their website. JW Marriott Hotels and Pop Rocks also purchased rights to market with film tie-ins.[7] Syfy aired a marathon of the original series on Memorial Day in 2009 in coordination with the studio to have frequent film clips and an interview with Sid and Marty Krofft.[8] After the film's release, another marathon aired on Chiller on June 6. The majority of the first two seasons were also made available on Hulu. Ahead of the film's release, Universal also released the complete series on DVD; it had previously been released by Rhino Home Video. The entire series is also available via download from Xbox Live. Two different games were released online to promote the film. "Chakker" was available to play on the film's official Web site while "Crystal Adventure" was a free downloadable game for iPhones from Kewlbox. Both Subway and MapQuest hosted an online sweepstakes on their respective Web sites with various movie-related merchandise given away as prizes. Both sweepstakes ran from May 18 through June 7 of 2009. Ferrell also appeared on the season 4 premiere of Man vs. Wild, which aired June 2, 2009, to promote the film.

text: Music[edit]

text: The score to Land of the Lost was composed by Michael Giacchino, who recorded his score with an 88-piece ensemble of the Hollywood Studio Symphony and a 35-person choir.[9] On May 10, it was also announced by Dave Mustaine on TheLiveLine that some music from Megadeth would appear in the film.[10] Whether this would be music from the new record was not entirely clear, however during the phone message Mustaine stated that there was new music playing in the background of the message. However parts of the song "The Right to Go Insane", from the 2009 album Endgame, can be heard near the end of the film. In the film, Rick Marshall sings the original Land of the Lost theme and two other tracks (Tracks 5 and 27) utilize parts of the theme as well., The musical A Chorus Line plays a part in the story, and Ferrell sings Cher's 1998 dance pop hit "Believe". Varèse Sarabande released the soundtrack album on June 9, 2009 (tracks 30-32 are bonus tracks).

text: Differences from original series[edit]

text: The film serves as a parody of the original TV series, similar to Starsky & Hutch and The Brady Bunch Movie.[citation needed] In the original series, the main characters were the father and two children. While the first names remain the same, the film converts the Holly character into an unrelated research assistant to allow for more risque humor because she is the main character's love interest.[11] Will, instead of being a son, is an amusement park operator and survivalist.[12] Rick Marshall is a paleontologist in the film, not a park ranger as in the original series. The film's budget also uses CGI special effects rather than the puppet and stop motion animation effects that defined the original series."[13] While the original Saturday morning show targeted a child audience, the film was designed for a more adult audience and includes profanity, sex, and a drug reference, among other adult-oriented items.[14]

text: Release[edit]

text: Land of the Lost was originally scheduled to be released on July 9, but the release date was moved up to June 5 to avoid competition with Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince.[citation needed]

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: The film received generally negative reviews from critics. Rotten Tomatoes reports that 26% of critics had given the film a positive review. The Wall Street Journal stated that it "isn't worth the celluloid it's printed on", Entertainment Weekly remarked that "it leaves you feeling splattered", the New York Daily News called it "a high-concept disaster", The Christian Science Monitor labeled it "resolutely uninspired", The Hollywood Reporter labeled it "lame", and The Miami Herald commented that "the whole thing feels at least three summers too stale."[15] A few critics professed admiration for it, notably Roger Ebert who gave the film three stars out of four and wrote:

text:
“
The dinosaurs are so obviously not really there in shots where they menace humans that you could almost say their shots are about how they're not really there. Confronted with such effects, the actors make not the slightest effort to appear terrified, amazed or sometimes even mildly concerned. Some might consider that a weakness. I suspect it is more of a deliberate choice, and I say I enjoyed it.[16]
”

tag: table

text: Empire magazine's Sam Toy put the film #8 on his best of the year list.[17] On February 1, 2010, the film led the 30th Golden Raspberry Awards with seven nominations (tied with Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen) including Worst Picture, Worst Actor (Ferrell), Worst Director (Silberling), Worst Screenplay, Worst Supporting Actor (Taccone), Worst Screen Couple (Ferrell and any co-star, creature or "comic riff") and Worst Prequel, Remake, Rip-off or Sequel. The film won the Worst Prequel, Remake, Rip-off or Sequel award.[18] While at the Savannah Film Festival in 2011, Ron Meyer (president of Universal Pictures), said that "Land of the Lost was just crap. I mean, there was no excuse for it. The best intentions all went wrong."[19][20]

text: Awards[edit]

text:
Award
Category
Nominee
Result

Golden Raspberry Award
Worst Actor
Will Ferrell
Nominated

Worst Screen Couple
Nominated

Any co-star, creature or "comic riff"
Nominated

Worst Director
Brad Silberling
Nominated

Worst Picture
Universal Pictures
Nominated

Worst Screenplay
Dennis McNicholas and Chris Henchy
Nominated

Worst Supporting Actor
Jorma Taccone
Nominated

Worst Prequel, Remake, Rip-off or Sequel

Won

text: Box office[edit]

text: On its opening day of June 5, the film was a box office flop by grossing only $7.9 million. The film performed under expectations in its first weekend in theaters, its $19 million opening was far less than the expected $30 million. The film's box office results fell far behind that of the 2009 comedy The Hangover, which opened during the same weekend.[21][22] The film's opening weekend gross was about two-thirds what Universal reportedly expected to earn.[23] It made $69 million worldwide.[3] In 2014, the Los Angeles Times listed the film as one of the most expensive box office flops of all time.[24]

text: Home media[edit]

text: The DVD was released on October 13, 2009, with sales reaching $20,286,563 as of August 2011.[3]


document_title: Berne Convention

question_text: what countries are part of the berne convention

text: Berne Convention

text: Content[edit]

text: The Berne Convention requires its parties to treat the copyright of works of authors from other parties to the convention (known as members of the Berne Union) at least as well as those of its own nationals. For example, French copyright law applies to anything published or performed in France, regardless of where it was originally created.

text: In addition to establishing a system of equal treatment that harmonised copyright amongst parties, the agreement also required member states to provide strong minimum standards for copyright law.

text: Copyright under the Berne Convention must be automatic; it is prohibited to require formal registration. However, when the United States joined the Convention 1 March 1989,[2] it continued to make statutory damages and attorney's fees only available for registered works.

text: However, in Moberg v Leygues, a 2009 decision of a Delaware Federal District Court, decided that the protections of the Berne Convention are supposed to essentially be "frictionless," meaning no registration requirements can be imposed on a work from a different Berne member country. This means Berne member countries can require works originating in their own country to be registered and/or deposited, but cannot require these formalities of works from other Berne member countries.[3]

text: Applicability[edit]

text: Under Article 3, the protection of the Convention applies to nationals and residents of countries that are party to the convention, and to works first published or simultaneously published (under Article 3(4), "simultaneously" is defined as "within 30 days"[4]) in a country that is party to the convention.[4] Under Article 4, it also applies to cinematic works by persons who have their headquarters or habitual residence in a party country, and to architectural works situated in a party country.[5]

text: Country of origin[edit]

text: The Convention relies on the concept of "country of origin". Often determining the country of origin is straightforward: when a work is published in a party country and nowhere else, this is the country of origin. However, under Article 5(4), when a work is published simultaneously in several party countries (under Article 3(4), "simultaneously" is defined as "within 30 days"[4]), the country with the shortest term of protection is defined as the country of origin.[6]

text: For works simultaneously published in a party country and one or more non-parties, the party country is the country of origin. For unpublished works or works first published in a non-party country (without publication within 30 days in a party country), the author's nationality usually provides the country of origin, if a national of a party country. (There are exceptions for cinematic and architectural works.)[6]

text: In the Internet age, unrestricted publication online may be considered publication in every sufficiently internet-connected jurisdiction in the world. It is not clear what this may mean for determining "country of origin". In Kernel v. Mosley, a U.S. court "concluded that a work created outside of the United States, uploaded in Australia and owned by a company registered in Finland was nonetheless a U.S. work by virtue of its being published online". However other U.S. courts in similar situations have reached different conclusions, e.g. Håkan Moberg v. 33T LLC.[7] The matter of determining the country of origin for digital publication remains a topic of controversy among law academics as well.[8]

text: Copyright term[edit]

text: The Berne Convention states that all works except photographic and cinematographic shall be copyrighted for at least 50 years after the author's death, but parties are free to provide longer terms,[9] as the European Union did with the 1993 Directive on harmonising the term of copyright protection. For photography, the Berne Convention sets a minimum term of 25 years from the year the photograph was created, and for cinematography the minimum is 50 years after first showing, or 50 years after creation if it hasn't been shown within 50 years after the creation. Countries under the older revisions of the treaty may choose to provide their own protection terms, and certain types of works (such as phonorecords and motion pictures) may be provided shorter terms.

text: If the author is unknown, because for example the author was deliberately anonymous or worked under a pseudonym, the Convention provides for a term of 50 years after publication ("after the work has been lawfully made available to the public"). However, if the identity of the author becomes known, the copyright term for known authors (50 years after death) applies.[9]

text: Although the Berne Convention states that the copyright law of the country where copyright is claimed shall be applied, Article 7(8) states that "unless the legislation of that country otherwise provides, the term shall not exceed the term fixed in the country of origin of the work",[9] i.e., an author is normally not entitled a longer copyright abroad than at home, even if the laws abroad give a longer term. This is commonly known as "the rule of the shorter term". Not all countries have accepted this rule.

text: The minimum standards of protection relate to the works and rights to be protected[edit]

text: As to works, protection must include "every production in the literary, scientific and artistic domain, whatever the mode or form of its expression" (Article 2(1) of the Convention).

text: Subject to certain allowed reservations, limitations or exceptions, the following are among the rights that must be recognized as exclusive rights of authorization:

text:
the right to translate,
the right to make adaptations and arrangements of the work,
the right to perform in public dramatic, dramatico-musical and musical works,
the right to recite literary works in public,
the right to communicate to the public the performance of such works,
the right to broadcast (with the possibility that a Contracting State may provide for a mere right to equitable remuneration instead of a right of authorization),
the right to make reproductions in any manner or form (with the possibility that a Contracting State may permit, in certain special cases, reproduction without authorization, provided that the reproduction does not conflict with the normal exploitation of the work and does not unreasonably prejudice the legitimate interests of the author; and the possibility that a Contracting State may provide, in the case of sound recordings of musical works, for a right to equitable remuneration),
the right to use the work as a basis for an audiovisual work, and the right to reproduce, distribute, perform in public or communicate to the public that audiovisual work.

text: Copyright exceptions and limitations[edit]

text: The Berne Convention does not explicitly authorize countries to permit "fair uses" of copyrighted works in other publications or broadcasts in a broad sense.[10] Berne only permits a limited form of copyright exceptions and limitations known as the "three-step test." Copyright exceptions permitted by the Berne Convention are scattered in several provisions due to the historical reason of Berne negotiations. For example, Article 10(2) permits Berne members to provide for a "teaching exception" within their copyright statutes. But this exception is limited to a use for illustration of the subject matter taught and it must be related to teaching activities.[11] In other words, a broad exception in a manner similar to the "fair use" jurisprudence of American copyright law is not expressly permitted by Berne. Nevertheless, the WTO Panel has ruled, in United State - Section 110(5) of the U.S. Copyright Act, that although the three-step test under both Berne and TRIPs required a "certain and well-defined exception," this did not rule out open norms such as the US copyright law.

text: The Agreed Statement of the parties to the WIPO Copyright Treaty of 1996 states that: "It is understood that the mere provision of physical facilities for enabling or making a communication does not in itself amount to communication within the meaning of this Treaty or the Berne Convention."[12] This language may mean that Internet service providers are not liable for the infringing communications of their users.[12] Critics claim that the convention does not mention any other rights of consumers of works except for fair use.[13]

text: There is a legal debate about whether the U.S. Fair Use doctrine is lawful under the Three-step test.[14] However, fair use derives from the First Amendment, and thus would apply regardless of whether Berne permitted fair use or not.

text: History[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The Berne Convention was developed at the instigation of Victor Hugo[15] of the Association Littéraire et Artistique Internationale.[16] Thus it was influenced by the French "right of the author" (droit d'auteur), which contrasts with the Anglo-Saxon concept of "copyright" which only dealt with economic concerns.[17] Under the Convention, copyrights for creative works are automatically in force upon their creation without being asserted or declared. An author need not "register" or "apply for" a copyright in countries adhering to the Convention. As soon as a work is "fixed", that is, written or recorded on some physical medium, its author is automatically entitled to all copyrights in the work and to any derivative works, unless and until the author explicitly disclaims them or until the copyright expires. Foreign authors are given the same rights and privileges to copyrighted material as domestic authors in any country that ratified the Convention.

text: Before the Berne Convention, copyright legislation remained uncoordinated at an international level.[18] So for example a work published in the United Kingdom by a British national would be covered by copyright there, but could be copied and sold by anyone in France. Dutch publisher Albertus Willem Sijthoff, who rose to prominence in the trade of translated books, wrote to Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands in 1899 in opposition to the convention over concerns that its international restrictions would stifle the Dutch print industry.[19]

text: The Berne Convention followed in the footsteps of the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property of 1883, which in the same way had created a framework for international integration of the other types of intellectual property: patents, trademarks and industrial designs.[20]

text: Like the Paris Convention, the Berne Convention set up a bureau to handle administrative tasks. In 1893 these two small bureaux merged and became the United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property (best known by its French acronym BIRPI), situated in Berne.[21] In 1960, BIRPI moved to Geneva, to be closer to the United Nations and other international organizations in that city.[22] In 1967 it became the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), and in 1974 became an organization within the United Nations.[21]

text: The Berne Convention was completed in Paris in 1886, revised in Berlin in 1908, completed in Berne in 1914, revised in Rome in 1928, in Brussels in 1948, in Stockholm in 1967 and in Paris in 1971, and was amended in 1979.[23]

text: The World Intellectual Property Organization Copyright Treaty was adopted in 1996 to address the issues raised by information technology and the Internet, which were not addressed by the Berne Convention.[24]

text: Adoption and implementation[edit]

text: The examples and perspective in this section may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (December 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The first version of the Berne Convention treaty was signed on 9 September 1886, by Belgium, France, Germany, Haiti, Italy, Liberia, Spain, Switzerland, Tunisia, and the United Kingdom.[25] They ratified it on September 5, 1887.[26]

text: Although the United Kingdom ratified the convention in 1887, it did not implement large parts of it until 100 years later with the passage of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

text:
The United States acceded to the convention on November 16, 1988, and the convention entered into force for the United States on March 1, 1989.[27][26]
The United States initially refused to become a party to the Convention, since that would have required major changes in its copyright law, particularly with regard to moral rights, removal of the general requirement for registration of copyright works and elimination of mandatory copyright notice. This led first to the U.S. ratifying the Buenos Aires Convention (BAC) in 1910, and later the Universal Copyright Convention (UCC) in 1952 to accommodate the wishes of other countries.
With the WIPO's Berne revision on Paris 1971,[28] many other countries joined the treaty, as expressed by Brazil federal law of 1975.[29]

text: On 1 March 1989, the U.S. Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988 was enacted, and the U.S. Senate advised and consented to ratification of the treaty, making the United States a party to the Berne Convention,[30] and making the Universal Copyright Convention nearly obsolete.[31] Except for extremely technical points not relevant, with the accession of Nicaragua in 2000, every nation that is a member of the Buenos Aires Convention is also a member of Berne, and so the BAC has also become nearly obsolete and is essentially deprecated as well.[who?]

text: Since almost all nations are members of the World Trade Organization, the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights requires non-members to accept almost all of the conditions of the Berne Convention.

text: As of February 2018, there are 176 states that are parties to the Berne Convention. This includes 173 UN member states plus the Cook Islands, the Holy See and Niue.