document_title: Lost in Space (2018 TV series)

question_text: where do they film the new lost in space

root

text: Lost in Space (2018 TV series)

text: Premise[edit]

text: In the aftermath of an impact event that threatens the survival of humanity, the Robinson family is selected for the 24th mission of the Resolute, an interstellar spacecraft carrying selected families to colonize the Alpha Centauri star system.

tag: p

text: Before they reach their destination, an alien robot breaches the Resolute's hull. Forced to evacuate the mothership in short-range Jupiter spacecraft, scores of colonists, among them the Robinsons, crash on a nearby habitable planet. There they must contend with a strange environment and battle their own personal demons as they search for a way back to the Resolute.[1]

text: Cast[edit]

text: Main[edit]

text:
Molly Parker as mission commander Maureen Robinson, an aerospace engineer taking her family on the mission to colonize Alpha Centauri in hopes of building a new life on a better world. Married to John Robinson, she is the biological mother of Judy, Penny, and Will Robinson.[3]
Toby Stephens as John Robinson, former U.S. Navy SEAL and husband to Maureen. He is adoptive father to Judy and biological father to Penny and Will.[4]
Maxwell Jenkins as 11-year-old Will Robinson, who forms a tight bond with the Robot, which he saves from destruction during a forest fire.[5]
Taylor Russell as 18-year-old Judy Robinson, who serves as mission doctor, having received accelerated medical training.[6][7]
Mina Sundwall as 15-year-old Penny Robinson.[7][8]
Ignacio Serricchio as Don West, ship's mechanic and smuggler of luxury goods. He is accompanied by Debbie, which he calls his lucky chicken.[9]
Parker Posey as June Harris, a criminal and psychopath who assumes the identity of her sister Jessica to take her place on the colony ship and subsequently impersonates Dr. Zachary Smith during the attack to take his seat on an evacuating Jupiter ship. After landing on the planet, Harris attempts to sabotage the colonists' chances of rescue by the Resolute, all the while manipulating and gaslighting other survivors to avoid prosecution for her crimes.[10] The theft of the doctor's identity is a reference to the corresponding character of Dr. Smith in the original television series.[11]
Brian Steele as the Robot,[12] an alien robot being that Will encounters following the crash. The robot has a different form from the ones that appeared in the previous series and film.[13]
Sibongile Mlambo as Angela Goddard,[14], a fellow survivor struggling with post traumatic stress disorder in the wake of her husband's death during the attack on the Resolute.

tag: ul

text: Recurring[edit]

text:
Raza Jaffrey as Victor Dhar, an officious politician whose arrogance and impatience mask an underlying sense of insecurity.[15]
Ajay Friese as Vijay Dhar, Victor's son and Penny's love interest
Cary-Hiroyuki Tagawa as Hiroki Watanabe, scientist and friend of Maureen
Kiki Sukezane as Aiko Watanabe, Hiroki's daughter
Yukari Komatsu as Naoko Watanabe, Hiroki's wife
Veenu Sandhu as Prisha Dhar, Victor's wife
Adam Greydon Reid as Peter Beckert
Amelia Burstyn as Diane
Iain Belcher as Evan
Shaun Parkes as Captain Radic, commander of the Resolute

text: Guest[edit]

text:
Selma Blair as Jessica Harris, June's wealthy younger sister
Bill Mumy as Dr. Zachary Smith, the real Dr. Smith, whose identity June steals

text: Episodes[edit]

text: This section's plot summaries may be too long or excessively detailed. Please help improve them by removing unnecessary details and making them more concise. (May 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text:
No.TitleDirected byWritten byOriginal release date1"Impact"Neil MarshallMatt Sazama & Burk SharplessApril 13, 2018 (2018-04-13)
The spacecraft Resolute, a large ferris wheel style ship, is carrying colonists, including the Robinson family, to Alpha Centauri. The Resolute is attacked and colonists escape in their “family home” Jupiter landing crafts but are hurled into a wormhole, crash-landing on an Earth-like planet. The Robinsons' craft, Jupiter 2, crashes into a glacial bed. The family evacuates with some supplies before their craft sinks in rapidly freezing water. Eldest Robinson child, Judy, a doctor, dives to the ship to retrieve power equipment. She becomes encased in ice, and with five hours of oxygen left in Judy's suit, John and son, Will, set out to collect magnesium that will melt the ice. Judy guides her sister, Penny, through a medical procedure to treat their injured mother, Maureen. Inside a cave, Will falls down a chasm, landing at the edge of a forest. John radios Will, saying he will return after saving Judy. Alone, Will finds a crashed alien ship and a dismembered robot that he helps to self-repair. In return, it saves Will as a forest fire nearly engulfs them. The family attempt to free Judy, but a sudden rainstorm hinders their progress. Will and the Robot arrive, and the Robot rescues Judy. In a flashback scene, a woman steals the identity of Dr. Zachary Smith and boards a Jupiter landing craft, along with Don West and Tam Roughneck.
2"Diamonds in the Sky"Neil MarshallMatt Sazama & Burk SharplessApril 13, 2018 (2018-04-13)
Don West, Smith, and Debbie the chicken survive the Jupiter 18 landing. While looking for other survivors, they find Angela Goddard, who is barely alive. When a storm approaches, Don and Angela take cover while Smith heads out. Meanwhile, the robot melts more ice to allow the Robinsons to start the process of recovering the Jupiter 2. Maureen, John, Will and the robot hike to another Jupiter crash site and then later to the robot's ship. They leave Penny and Judy behind, instructing them how to carefully raise the ship out of the ice. Inside the alien ship, a holographic map of the planet is activated, showing John and Maureen they are in an unidentified galaxy. Outside, the robot touches the ship's hull, creating a mental connection to Will who learns what really happened on the Resolute. He decides to say nothing to his parents about the vision. When Penny sees the storm approaching and is unable to reach her parents to warn them, she raises the Jupiter 2 enough that the garage can be opened. She drives the ship's Chariot  all-terrain vehicle to reach her family just in front of the storm. As they head back to Jupiter 2, they pass Don who sees them only to discover his flare gun is missing. The Robinsons see a flare and find Smith, who claims to be alone, returning with her to the Jupiter 2.
3"Infestation"Tim SouthamZack EstrinApril 13, 2018 (2018-04-13)
In a flashback, Dr. Smith is revealed to be June Harris, the older, ex-con sister of Jess Harris, a successful businesswoman. Jess offers June her entire estate as she is leaving Earth, but June drugs Jess and assumes her sister's identity. Aboard the Resolute, she bumps into her sister's lover and there is a struggle ending in him getting blown out an airlock. June is arrested but escapes during the robot's attack. In the present, Maureen explains they are trillions of light years from Earth. At night, the ice layer over Jupiter 2 cracks, endangering the ship. They rush to complete repairs, but the engines are losing fuel. When Will and the robot discover large eel-like creatures in the conduits, the robot locks Will, along with Smith, in the storeroom for safety. The glacier shifts, which forces the crew to make an emergency take-off after flushing the eels from the engines. They escape with just enough fuel to land near a forest region. Comms pick up radio communication from other Jupiter survivors and also from Resolute, who are searching for survivors. Somebody hacks the onboard 3D printer to make a gun. Will finds it, and hides the gun under his mattress, unaware Smith is watching.
4"The Robinsons Were Here"Alice TroughtonKatherine CollinsApril 13, 2018 (2018-04-13)
Stuck without fuel, the family initiates Jupiter 2's colonization expansion protocol. Smith and Will discuss the robot, who does Will's bidding. Don West and Angela are rescued by the Watanabe family; Hiroki Watanabe reunites with John and Maureen at Jupiter 11 where Judy treats Angela. She tells Judy about the attack on Resolute. The Robinsons learn none of the other surviving families can fly due to the giant eels consuming fuel. John notices that one crash site is not a Jupiter ship. Maureen, John, and Don go there and discover the Resolute's comm dish. They realize the Resolute cannot hear them. Maureen also discovers contraband whiskey that Don smuggled aboard. Judy confronts Will about the robot, and he reveals he knew it attacked the Resolute. They decide to hide the robot in a nearby cave, unaware Smith is following them. On the way, they are spotted by Vijay Dhar, the son of another survivor group. Penny blackmails him to say nothing about the robot, having found and keeping an item he dropped. While away, Maureen and John discuss their marital problems. The next morning, the kids return to Jupiter 2 before their parents arrive. Smith talks to the robot inside the cave, attempting to instill distrust in it about Will. When John and Maureen return home, the kids tell them that the robot wandered away.
5"Transmission"Deborah ChowKari DrakeApril 13, 2018 (2018-04-13)
The surviving colonists build a light tower to try to signal the Resolute. Maureen, noticing strange weather phenomena, conducts an experiment using a weather balloon. She discovers the sun is paired with a deadly black hole, and that the disturbances will only get worse until the planet is entirely unhabitable. Will ignores Penny and Judy's advice to tell their father about the Robot. Penny develops a crush on Vijay, flirting with him as they move supplies. Don confronts Dr. Smith about the stolen flare gun, though she claims she took it by mistake. In a flashback, Maureen and the kids discuss pros versus cons of going to Alpha Centauri. Judy and Don discuss his smuggling activities. He also reveals his suspicions about Dr. Smith's identity. Judy confronts Dr. Smith about this, but she lies and instead casts doubt on Don. When the colonists activate the light signal, Dr. Smith sneaks away and shuts off the perimeter fence, allowing a large reptilian creature to enter the camp and destroy the light tower. Smith tells John about the kids hiding the robot.  When another creature shows up, Dr. Smith tells Will to call the robot. It does save the survivors, but only after Will tells it to defend itself against the creatures. It assumes its original multi-limb form to do this. The colonists witness all of this and recognize the robot from the attack on the Resolute.
6"Eulogy"Vincenzo NataliEd McCardieApril 13, 2018 (2018-04-13)
Maureen tells her family about the black hole but is afraid the other colonists might panic. John has a heated argument with the other survivors about the robot. In the end, despite an enraged Angela claiming it killed her husband, John convinces the community to allow the robot to stay and takes Will on a hike to discuss Will's responsibility for the robot's actions. He has Will fetch 27 large stones to build a memorial to the casualties. Don takes the community leader and Vijay's father, Victor Dhar, to his Jupiter which crashed in the desert where there are none of the eel-like creatures, and wants money for its fuel. Don also retrieves identification of the real Dr. Smith, later showing Judy. Maureen learns that Hiroki also knows the planet is dying. Penny tells Vijay about the black hole but swears him to secrecy, and they share a kiss. Back at camp, Dr. Smith makes the distraught Angela recount the horrifying details of the robot attack. The emotional Angela enters the hub with the gun Dr. Smith has taken from Will's bunk and arranged for her to find. When she shoots at the robot it goes into attack mode and accidentally injures John before Will gets it to stop. Distraught, Will takes the robot to a cliff and orders it to walk off. He then places a stone on the memorial for the robot.
7"Pressurized"Tim SouthamVivian LeeApril 13, 2018 (2018-04-13)
While driving back to Jupiter 2, Judy is about to tell Dr. Smith she knows the truth about her when Don stops her. When Will is confronted by his mother, he confirms the robot 3D-printed the gun and that he hid it. Anyone could have taken the gun, though. Dr. Smith refuses blame for Angela's attack, and suggests Victor Dhar might have taken the gun. John and Maureen's rover gets stuck in a tar pit. As they sink to the bottom, Maureen admits to doctoring Will's test results. To escape the vehicle, Maureen uses the helium weather balloon to create a shielded path to the surface. Meanwhile, Smith locates the destroyed robot, but cannot get it to reassemble. Don's group speeds through a dangerous geyser field but a tube shakes loose and when Evan fixes the problem, a geyser blast flips the tanker on top of him. Victor realizes that a rock has punctured the tanker and if they move it they'll lose most of the fuel. Despite this Don reluctantly sides with Judy and lifts the tanker, spilling the fuel, but Evan dies anyway. Back on Jupiter 2, Dr. Smith finally manages to reactivate the robot. When Victor returns home, Vijay tells him about the planet's coming demise. Victor decides to use what fuel they did retrieve to launch their own Jupiter 4.
8"Trajectory"Stephen SurjikKatherine Collins & Kari DrakeApril 13, 2018 (2018-04-13)
Maureen cannot talk Victor out of launching, but John sneaks aboard the Dhar's Jupiter 4 and triggers the emergency shut down. Later, he explains to the gathered colonists how the planet is about to become uninhabitable. Penny breaks off with Vijay for him telling his father. Maureen has a plan on how to launch despite the limited fuel, stripping out non-essential modules, and relying on old-school manual piloting. Judy tells Maureen the truth about the real Dr. Smith aboard Don's Jupiter. Returning to Jupiter 2, Maureen confines Dr. Smith to a holding cell. Dr. Smith now claims she is really Jessica Harris, a physicist. Maureen tells John about Smith, and he tells her that Don believes the Jupiter 4 is still too heavy to take off. With life support also removed, the pilot now needs a spacesuit and will need to withstand extreme G-forces. They select John, but not even he can regain consciousness fast enough to make all the maneuvers alone. When the Resolute sends a message that due to Hawking radiation they must leave the planet's orbit within 24 hours, Don reluctantly agrees to help pilot the ship. With his assistance the test run is a success. As John and Don launch in the Jupiter 4, Dr. Smith tricks Will and escapes to knock out Maureen right when John needs her instructions. With everyone watching, the ship explodes mid-air and John and Don are presumed dead.
9"Resurrection"Tim SouthamStory by : Daniel McLellan Teleplay by : Kari DrakeApril 13, 2018 (2018-04-13)
Will tries to signal his father using his radio, convinced he survived the explosion. Dr. Smith drives Maureen to the alien wreck, where she tells Maureen she did not know Maureen was needed for the ship launch, and when she knocked her out, the ship exploded. She does promise to help Maureen get her children off the planet, if she in return helps Dr. Smith with the alien ship. Will discovers that the rocks he collected in the cave are petrified biomass that can fuel the Jupiter ships to reach the Resolute. While the colonists gather to harvest the biomass, Judy leaves to find Maureen. The colonists find enough biomass to power all the Jupiters, but they must sneak it out quietly so as to not wake winged predators roosting in the cave. When John manages to send a signal, Penny and others are trapped inside the cave after the creatures wake up. Throughout the episode, flashbacks reveal the Christmas Star not to be a meteor but an alien craft, and that its engine was used to build The Resolute. The robot's attack was an attempt to retrieve the stolen engine. The group trapped in the cave manage to narrowly escape. Judy tracks Smith and Maureen. She manages to disable Dr. Smith, but the robot reactivates and is revealed to obey the Doctor's commands.
10"Danger, Will Robinson"David NutterMatt Sazama & Burk SharplessApril 13, 2018 (2018-04-13)
John and Don survived the explosion and are clinging to ship wreckage in orbit, with only a few hours of oxygen left. Will is upset to learn the robot now serves Dr. Smith. John responds to Will, confirming that he and Don are still alive. Will tries to bond with the robot again but is rejected. Victor Dhar hails them from the Resolute, telling them it will leave in just over an hour. Maureen traps Dr Smith and the robot in order to search for John and Don. Just as they are about to retrieve them, Dr Smith and the robot escape. Maureen leads the robot into the garage, as an alien ship arrives to retrieve the engine. When the alien robot is about to kill Will, his robot remembers him and attacks the alien robot, saving Will. In the fight, both robots are flung out into space and the garage ramp is damaged. Will goes outside the hull to manually close the hatch. Afterwards, he loses his grip but is saved by his father, who was rescued by Dr. Smith. With everyone safely back on the Jupiter, Maureen is grateful to Dr. Smith, but still locks her up. Before they can dock with the Resolute, the alien engine aboard the Jupiter 2 sends it and the Robinsons to a different galaxy. Will recognizes its shape from the robot's sand drawing: Danger.

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: In October 2014, it was announced that Legendary Television and Synthesis Entertainment were developing a new reboot of Lost in Space and had hired screenwriting duo Matt Sazama and Burk Sharpless to pen the pilot episodes.[16] In November 2015, Netflix landed the project.[17][18] On June 29, 2016, Netflix ordered a full 10 episode season of Lost in Space, with Zack Estrin as executive producer and showrunner. Sazama, Sharpless, Kevin Burns, Jon Jashni, Neil Marshall, and Marc Helwig also serve as executive producers.[19]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Production on the first season began in February 2017, in Vancouver, British Columbia, and concluded in July 2017.[20][21]

text: Release[edit]

text: The series was released on April 13, 2018, on Netflix.[1] On March 31, 2018, the series pilot was screened at Awesome Con in Washington, D.C..[22]

text: Reception[edit]

text: The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 68% approval rating with an average rating of 6.21/10, based on 65 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads: "Lost in Space's production values are ambitious enough to attract sci-fi adventure fans, while the story's large heart adds an emotional anchor to all the deep space derring-do."[23] Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a normalized score of 58 out of 100 based on 27 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[24]

text: David Griffin of IGN gave the first season a rating of 8.5/10, calling it "an excellent sci-fi adventure with a slight villain problem," giving particular praise to the Robinson family, while criticizing Parker Posey's Dr. Smith as an unsophisticated and one-dimensional character who lacks redeeming qualities.[25] In contrast, Jen Chaney of Vulture characterized Posey's performance as providing "understated, sly comedic touches".[26]


document_title: A Dog's Purpose (film)

question_text: who plays ethan in a dog's purpose

question_tokens: who plays ethan in a dog 's purpose

text: A Dog's Purpose (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: In the 1950s, a feral puppy named Toby is whisked away to the dog pound and quickly euthanized, wondering if "fun" truly is life's purpose.

text: His strong spirit is reborn and reincarnated as a newborn Retriever puppy in 1961, Toby leaves his cage at a puppy mill and is found by two garbage men who plan to sell him for their own profit. They leave to drink and Toby is spotted locked inside their pick-up truck by a young boy named Ethan and his mother, who rescue him from the brink of death by heatstroke. After they convince Ethan's father, the dog is allowed to stay and renamed Bailey.

text: Bailey and Ethan bond quickly, especially over the summer when the family visits Ethan's maternal grandparents' farm, and Bailey now believes Ethan alone is his purpose. Years pass and after several attempts at advancing in his job failed, Ethan's father has become a deadbeat alcoholic, though teenage Ethan still tries to respect him - inviting him to a football game now that he has been named starting quarterback.

text: Over the summer, Ethan goes to a fair with Bailey and meets Hannah, who he quickly begins dating, with Bailey referring to her as "part of the pack". Ethan and Hannah spend their summer happy together though their senior years are upcoming, but they plan to go to the same school; popular Ethan getting a football scholarship and Hannah following him on an academic one. When he goes home one night though, Ethan's father is drunk and shouting at Ethan's mother. He turns on Ethan then and when his mother tries to keep them separated, he shoves her to the ground. Ethan orders his father to leave and never come back, and becomes "the leader of the pack."

text: Later, at a game watched by scouts, Ethan is offered a full 4-year scholarship to Michigan State, but that night a vindictive classmate named Todd throws a lit firecracker into Ethan's house as a prank, which unintentionally results in a house fire. Bailey alerts Ethan, who goes to save his mother. Unable to get out of the door, they head out through his mother's bedroom window upstair. Ethan first lowers her with her sheets to the neighbors below, then Bailey — but when trying to jump himself, Ethan badly fractures his leg, ending his dreams of an athletic scholarship. Bailey attacks Todd, who is apprehended by the police. Instead Ethan must go to an agricultural school where he will learn to take over his grandparents' farm. Falling into depression, self-pity and bitterness, he grudgingly breaks off his romance with Hannah before leaving for college. Sometime afterwards, an aged Bailey slowly expires at the veterinarian's office after sharing an eleventh-hour teary goodbye with Ethan.

text: Bailey reincarnates into another dog life, a female German Shepherd Police dog named Ellie, sometime in the late 1970s/early 1980s, while possessing full memories and experiences of his past lives. Ellie is partnered with a widowed officer named Carlos from the Chicago Police Department, and works hard at "showing" and "finding", now seeing the job as life's purpose. The two form a close relationship which ends after Ellie jumps into a rushing river and saves a kidnapped girl from drowning, and is then fatally shot during a struggle with the armed kidnapper who was a moment away from killing an unsuspecting Carlos.

text: Reborn again in the mid-1980s as a Pembroke Welsh Corgi, he forms a bond with an Atlanta college student named Maya who names him Tino. Maya is lonely, which Tino, having bonded closely with the girl, realizes, and makes his purpose to find her some happiness. She starts a relationship with another classmate named Al who she begins seeing after Tino falls for Al's dog, a black and white Landseer named Roxie, and allows her to open up to him. Maya and Al marry and have 3 children who all love the Corgi. In love with Roxie (though she does not seem to reciprocate the romance), Tino is permanently heartbroken when one day she does not return from the vet. As he lies dying of old age in the late 1990s, Tino thanks Maya for giving him one of his best lives.

text: Bailey is again reborn and reincarnated, this time, as a St. Bernard-Australian Shepherd mix, sometime during the next decade, only to be taken in by an abusive and neglectful urban couple who name him Waffles. Waffles is eventually dumped in an abandoned lot and reluctantly sets off in search of a new life. Walking past a dog park and remembering how long it had been since he played, Waffles meets a dog and her human who hold a familiar scent to him, though he knows neither of them. He gradually makes his way to the country area where he spent summers as Bailey without even realizing at first where he is headed. He joyfully reunites with his old master Ethan, who is now somewhere in his 50s, living a lonely life and apparently broken in spirit at his Grandparents' old farm, which he now owns and runs. Ethan, of course, initially has no idea who this wandering dog really is and hands him over to the local animal shelter. But he soon has a change of heart and reclaims him, naming him Buddy. Buddy, sensing that he has finally found the true purpose of life that has long evaded him, finds a way to reunite Ethan with a widowed Hannah, and they eventually get married.

text: Buddy finally convinces Ethan that he is his beloved childhood pet by performing some tricks and responding to key phrases that were known only to the two of them all those many, many long years ago. The dog in voiceover tells the viewer that life is about having fun; saving others; not getting caught in the past or regrets; finding someone to be with; and living for today.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Josh Gad as the voice of Toby, Bailey, Ellie, Tino, Waffles and Buddy.
Dennis Quaid as Ethan Montgomery (adult)[8]

KJ Apa as teenage Ethan Montgomery[8]
Bryce Gheisar as eight-year old Ethan Montgomery

Juliet Rylance as Elizabeth Montgomery, Ethan's mother.[8]
Peggy Lipton as Hannah (adult)[8]

Britt Robertson as young Hannah[8]

John Ortiz as Carlos Ruiz
Kirby Howell-Baptiste as Maya
Pooch Hall as Al[9]
Luke Kirby as Jim Montgomery, Ethan's father
Michael Bofshever as Bill, Ethan's grandfather
Gabrielle Rose as Fran, Ethan's grandmother
Logan Miller as Todd, the vindictive classmate

text: Production[edit]

text: In 2015, DreamWorks acquired the film rights for Cameron's novel.[10] On May 8, 2015, it was announced Lasse Hallström would direct the film.[11] On August 5, 2015, Britt Robertson and Dennis Quaid joined the cast.[8] On September 18, 2015, Pooch Hall was cast in the film.[9] On October 15, 2015, Bradley Cooper joined the cast to play the dog's inner voice.[12] He was eventually replaced by Josh Gad.[13] Principal photography began on August 17, 2015.[14]

text: Release[edit]

text: In December 2015, the film switched from a DreamWorks Pictures release to under the Amblin Entertainment banner as per Amblin Partners' newly enacted branded strategy.[15] The film was released by Universal Pictures on January 27, 2017.[16] Universal also distributed it overseas, except for countries where Mister Smith Entertainment handled international sales.

text: Box office[edit]

text: A Dog's Purpose has grossed $64.3 million in the United States and Canada and $136.7 million in other territories for a worldwide gross of $201 million, against a production budget of $22 million.[3]

text: In North America was released alongside Resident Evil: The Final Chapter and Gold, and was projected to gross $18–22 million from 3,050 theaters in its opening weekend, slightly lower than initial $27 million tracking had the film debuting to before boycotts against the film were called for.[4] It made $466,000 from Thursday night previews and $5.3 million on its first day. It ended up debuting to $18.2 million, finishing second at the box office behind the second weekend of Universal's own Split.[17] The film dropped 40.6% in its second weekend, grossing $10.8 million and finishing third at the box office.[18]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 30% based on 121 reviews, and an average rating of 4.7/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "A Dog's Purpose offers an awkward blend of sugary sentiment and canine suffering that tugs at animal-loving audiences' heartstrings with shameless abandon."[19] On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating, the film has a score 43 out of 100, based on 32 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[20] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale.[21]

text: Home media[edit]

text: A Dog's Purpose was released on digital HD on April 18, 2017, and was followed by a release on Blu-ray and DVD on May 2, 2017, from Universal Studios Home Entertainment.[22][23] The film topped the home video sales chart for the week ending on May 7, 2017.[24]

text: Animal abuse allegations[edit]

text: Initial reaction[edit]

text: On January 18, 2017, a video surfaced on TMZ showing footage taken from the set of the film, which shows a German Shepherd named Hercules being dragged and dipped into rushing water while visibly resisting.[25] After a cut in the video, the next clip shows the dog being submerged in the water at the other end of the tank while a voice on set can be heard shouting "CUT IT!", and various people are then seen rushing towards the dog.[26] The American Humane Association, which ensures that animals are not harmed in entertainment productions, announced that its representative on set had been suspended over the incident, and that the incident is under further investigation.[27][28] PETA called for a boycott of the film.[29] Actor Josh Gad, who voices the dog in the movie, was not on set during the making of the film, but stated that he was "shaken and sad to see any animal put in a situation against its will".[30] Due to the release of the video, Universal Pictures cancelled the film's scheduled January 19 Los Angeles premiere.[31]

text: Director Lasse Hallström stated on Twitter that he "did not witness" the actions in the video, and was "very disturbed" by the footage.[32]

text: Validity of the video[edit]

text: Amblin Entertainment released a statement in regards to the incident, saying that "on the day of the shoot, Hercules did not want to perform the stunt portrayed on the tape so the Amblin production team did not proceed with filming that shot", and that "Hercules is happy and healthy".[33]

text: Dennis Quaid also came out against the TMZ video, stating that the video did not tell the whole story, saying:

text: My experience is that the animals were treated great. There was no animal abuse. That video that someone took and sold for money and held on to for a year and a half until right before the film's coming out, does not tell the whole story. First of all, it's been edited and manipulated. And I think it's a scam, to tell you the truth. What they (the viewers of the video) saw was completely out of context. It was edited...and all of the footage I saw, the dog was going into the water happily and had to be restrained, actually, from going into the water many times during that day.

text: Quaid also said that the video was shot towards the end of the day and I would not say, in real context, that the dog was frightened. The dog was acting like a dog who was kind of tired of taking a bath and was ready to get out. And, in fact, that's what happened. They took the dog out.[34]

text: On February 4, 2017, the American Humane Association reported that an independent third-party animal-cruelty expert had concluded that safety measures on the set of the film were in place and the video had been deliberately edited to mislead the public.[5]

text: The film was released with AHAD approval number 06202.

text: Sequel[edit]

text: On June 21, 2017, CEO of Amblin Entertainment Michael Wright announced that a sequel was in development.[35]


document_title: Gastrointestinal physiology

question_text: absorption is a major function of the gi tract. how is absorption accomplished in the gi tract

question_tokens: absorption is a major function of the gi tract . how is absorption accomplished in the gi tract

text: Gastrointestinal physiology

text: Motility[edit]

text: The gastrointestinal tract generates motility using smooth muscle subunits linked by gap junctions. These subunits fire spontaneously in either a tonic or a phasic fashion. Tonic contractions are those contractions that are maintained from several minutes up to hours at a time. These occur in the sphincters of the tract, as well as in the anterior stomach. The other type of contractions, called phasic contractions, consist of brief periods of both relaxation and contraction, occurring in the posterior stomach and the small intestine, and are carried out by the muscularis externa.

text: Stimulation[edit]

text: The stimulation for these contractions likely originates in modified smooth muscle cells called interstitial cells of Cajal. These cells cause spontaneous cycles of slow wave potentials that can cause action potentials in smooth muscle cells. They are associated with the contractile smooth muscle via gap junctions. These slow wave potentials must reach a threshold level for the action potential to occur, whereupon Ca2+ channels on the smooth muscle open and an action potential occurs. As the contraction is graded based upon how much Ca2+ enters the cell, the longer the duration of slow wave, the more action potentials occur. This, in turn, results in greater contraction force from the smooth muscle. Both amplitude and duration of the slow waves can be modified based upon the presence of neurotransmitters, hormones or other paracrine signaling. The number of slow wave potentials per minute varies based upon the location in the digestive tract. This number ranges from 3 waves/min in the stomach to 12 waves/min in the intestines.[3]

text: Contraction patterns[edit]

text: The patterns of GI contraction as a whole can be divided into two distinct patterns, peristalsis and segmentation. Occurring between meals, the migrating motor complex is a series of peristaltic wave cycles in distinct phases starting with relaxation, followed by an increasing level of activity to a peak level of peristaltic activity lasting for 5–15 minutes.[4] This cycle repeats every 1.5–2 hours but is interrupted by food ingestion. The role of this process is likely to clean excess bacteria and food from the digestive system.[5]

text: Peristalsis[edit]

text: Peristalsis is one of the patterns that occur during and shortly after a meal. The contractions occur in wave patterns traveling down short lengths of the GI tract from one section to the next. The contractions occur directly behind the bolus of food that is in the system, forcing it toward the anus into the next relaxed section of smooth muscle. This relaxed section then contracts, generating smooth forward movement of the bolus at between 2–25 cm per second. This contraction pattern depends upon hormones, paracrine signals, and the autonomic nervous system for proper regulation.[3]

text: Segmentation[edit]

text: Segmentation also occurs during and shortly after a meal within short lengths in segmented or random patterns along the intestine. This process is carried out by the longitudinal muscles relaxing while circular muscles contract at alternating sections thereby mixing the food. This mixing allows food and digestive enzymes to maintain a uniform composition, as well as to ensure contact with the epithelium for proper absorption.[3]

text: Secretion[edit]

text: Every day, seven liters of fluid are secreted by the digestive system. This fluid is composed of four primary components: ions, digestive enzymes, mucus, and bile. About half of these fluids are secreted by the salivary glands, pancreas, and liver, which compose the accessory organs and glands of the digestive system. The rest of the fluid is secreted by the GI epithelial cells.

text: Ions[edit]

text: The largest component of secreted fluids is ions and water, which are first secreted and then reabsorbed along the tract. The ions secreted primarily consist of H+, K+, Cl−, HCO3− and Na+. Water follows the movement of these ions. The GI tract accomplishes this ion pumping using a system of proteins that are capable of active transport, facilitated diffusion and open channel ion movement. The arrangement of these proteins on the apical and basolateral sides of the epithelium determines the net movement of ions and water in the tract.

text: H+ and Cl− are secreted by the parietal cells into the lumen of the stomach creating acidic conditions with a low pH of 1. H+ is pumped into the stomach by exchanging it with K+. This process also requires ATP as a source of energy; however, Cl− then follows the positive charge in the H+ through an open apical channel protein.

text: HCO3− secretion occurs to neutralize the acid secretions that make their way into the duodenum of the small intestine. Most of the HCO3− comes from pancreatic acinar cells in the form of NaHCO3 in an aqueous solution.[4] This is the result of the high concentration of both HCO3− and Na+ present in the duct creating an osmotic gradient to which the water follows.[3]

text: Digestive enzymes[edit]

text: The second vital secretion of the GI tract is that of digestive enzymes that are secreted in the mouth, stomach and intestines. Some of these enzymes are secreted by accessory digestive organs, while others are secreted by the epithelial cells of the stomach and intestine. While some of these enzymes remain embedded in the wall of the GI tract, others are secreted in an inactive proenzyme form.[3] When these proenzymes reach the lumen of the tract, a factor specific to a particular proenzyme will activate it. A prime example of this is pepsin, which is secreted in the stomach by chief cells. Pepsin in its secreted form is inactive (pepsinogen). However, once it reaches the gastic lumen it becomes activated into pepsin by the high H+ concentration, becoming an enzyme vital to digestion. The release of the enzymes is regulated by neural, hormonal, or paracrine signals. However, in general, parasympathetic stimulation increases secretion of all digestive enzymes.

text: Mucus[edit]

text: Mucus is released in the stomach and intestine, and serves to lubricate and protect the inner mucosa of the tract. It is composed of a specific family of glycoproteins termed mucins and is generally very viscous. Mucus is made by two types of specialized cells termed mucus cells in the stomach and goblet cells in the intestines. Signals for increased mucus release include parasympathetic innervations, immune system response and enteric nervous system messengers.[3]

text: Bile[edit]

text: Bile is secreted into the duodenum of the small intestine via the common bile duct. It is produced in liver cells and stored in the gall bladder until release during a meal. Bile is formed of three elements: bile salts, bilirubin and cholesterol. Bilirubin is a waste product of the breakdown of hemoglobin. The cholesterol present is secreted with the feces. The bile salt component is an active non-enzymatic substance that facilitates fat absorption by helping it to form an emulsion with water due to its amphoteric nature. These salts are formed in the hepatocytes from bile acids combined with an amino acid. Other compounds such as the waste products of drug degradation are also present in the bile.[4]

text: Regulation[edit]

text: The digestive system has a complex system of motility and secretion regulation which is vital for proper function. This task is accomplished via a system of long reflexes from the central nervous system (CNS), short reflexes from the enteric nervous system (ENS) and reflexes from GI peptides working in harmony with each other.[3]

text: Long reflexes[edit]

text: Long reflexes to the digestive system involve a sensory neuron sending information to the brain, which integrates the signal and then sends messages to the digestive system. While in some situations, the sensory information comes from the GI tract itself; in others, information is received from sources other than the GI tract. When the latter situation occurs, these reflexes are called feedforward reflexes. This type of reflex includes reactions to food or danger triggering effects in the GI tract. Emotional responses can also trigger GI response such as the butterflies in the stomach feeling when nervous. The feedforward and emotional reflexes of the GI tract are considered cephalic reflexes.[3]

text: Short reflexes[edit]

text: Control of the digestive system is also maintained by ENS, which can be thought of as a digestive brain that can help to regulate motility, secretion and growth. Sensory information from the digestive system can be received, integrated and acted upon by the enteric system alone. When this occurs, the reflex is called a short reflex.[3] Although this may be the case in several situations, the ENS can also work in conjunction with the CNS; vagal afferents from the viscera are received by the medulla, efferents are affected by the vagus nerve. When this occurs, the reflex is called vagovagal reflex. The myenteric plexus and submucosal plexus are both located in the gut wall and receive sensory signals from the lumen of the gut or the CNS.[4]

text: Gastrointestinal peptides[edit]

text: For further information see Gastrointestinal hormone

text: GI peptides are signal molecules that are released into the blood by the GI cells themselves. They act on a variety of tissues including the brain, digestive accessory organs, and the GI tract. The effects range from excitatory or inhibitory effects on motility and secretion to feelings of satiety or hunger when acting on the brain. These hormones fall into three major categories, the gastrin and secretin families, with the third composed of all the other hormones unlike those in the other two families. Further information on the GI peptides is summarized in the table below.[6]

text:
General GI peptide information

Secreted by
Target
Effects on endocrine secretion
Effects on exocrine secretion
Effects on motility
Other effects
Stimulus for release

Gastrin
G Cells in stomach
ECL cells; parietal cells
None
Increases acid secretion, increases mucus growth
Stimulates gastric contraction
None
Peptides and amino acids in lumen; gastrin releasing peptide and ACh in nervous reflexes

Cholecystokinin (CCK)
Endocrine I cells of the small intestine; neurons of the brain and gut
Gallbladder, pancreas, gastric smooth muscle
None
Stimulates pancreatic enzyme and HCO3- secretion
Stimulates gallbladder contraction; inhibits stomach emptying
Satiety
Fatty acids and some amino acids

Secretin
Endocrine S cells of the small intestine
Pancreas, stomach
None
Stimulates pancreatic and hepatic HCO3- secretion; inhibits acid secretion; pancreatic growth
Stimulates gallbladder contraction; Inhibits stomach emptying
None
Acid in small intestine

Gastric inhibitory Peptide
Endocrine K cells of the small intestine
Beta cells of the pancreas
Stimulates pancreatic insulin release
Inhibits acid secretion
None
Satiety and lipid metabolism
Glucose, fatty acid, and amino acids in small intestine

Motilin
Endocrine M cells in small intestine
Smooth muscle of stomach and duodenum
None
None
Stimulates migrating motor complex
Action in brain, stimulates migratory motor complex
Fasting: cyclic release every 1.5–2 hours by neural stimulus

Glucagon-like peptide-1
Endocrine cells in small intestine
Endocrine pancreas
Stimulates insulin release; inhibits glucagon release
Possibly inhibits acid secretion
Slows gastric emptying
Satiety; various CNS functions
Mixed meals of fats and carbohydrates

text: Digestion[edit]

text:
carbohydrates (monosaccharide, disaccharide)
proteins
lipids

text: Splanchnic circulation[edit]

text:
Superior mesenteric artery
Inferior mesenteric artery


document_title: Daylight saving time

question_text: when was daylight savings time created in the usa

question_tokens: when was daylight savings time created in the usa

text: Daylight saving time

text: Rationale[edit]

text: Industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, and the coordination of mass transit, for example, usually remain constant year-round. In contrast, an agrarian society's daily routines for work and personal conduct are more likely governed by the length of daylight hours[8][9] and by solar time, which change seasonally because of the Earth's axial tilt. North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater the further one moves away from the tropics.

text: By synchronously resetting all clocks in a region to one hour ahead of standard time (one hour "fast"), individuals who follow such a year-round schedule will wake an hour earlier than they would have otherwise; they will begin and complete daily work routines an hour earlier, and they will have available to them an extra hour of daylight after their workday activities.[10][11] However, they will have one fewer hour of daylight at the start of each day, making the policy less practical during winter.[12][13]

text: While the times of sunrise and sunset change at roughly equal rates as the seasons change, proponents of Daylight Saving Time argue that most people prefer a greater increase in daylight hours after the typical "nine to five" workday.[14][15] Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, but the actual effect on overall energy use is heavily disputed.

text: The manipulation of time at higher latitudes (for example Iceland, Nunavut or Alaska) has little impact on daily life, because the length of day and night changes more extremely throughout the seasons (in comparison to other latitudes), and thus sunrise and sunset times are significantly out of phase with standard working hours regardless of manipulations of the clock.[16] DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year.[17] The effect also varies according to how far east or west the location is within its time zone, with locations farther east inside the time zone benefiting more from DST than locations farther west in the same time zone.[18]

text: History[edit]

text: Although they did not fix their schedules to the clock in the modern sense, ancient civilizations adjusted daily schedules to the sun more flexibly than DST does, often dividing daylight into twelve hours regardless of daytime, so that each daylight hour was longer during summer.[19] For example, the Romans kept time with water clocks that had different scales for different months of the year: at Rome's latitude the third hour from sunrise, hora tertia, started by modern standards at 09:02 solar time and lasted 44 minutes at the winter solstice, but at the summer solstice it started at 06:58 and lasted 75 minutes.[20] After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season. Unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos[21] and all Jewish ceremonies.[22]

text: During his time as an American envoy to France, Benjamin Franklin, publisher of the old English proverb "Early to bed, and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise",[23][24] anonymously published a letter suggesting that Parisians economize on candles by rising earlier to use morning sunlight.[25] This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells and firing cannons at sunrise.[26] Despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST; 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this soon changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklin's day.[27]

text: Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him leisure time to collect insects and led him to value after-hours daylight.[3] In 1895 he presented a paper to the Wellington Philosophical Society proposing a two-hour daylight-saving shift,[10] and after considerable interest was expressed in Christchurch, he followed up in an 1898 paper.[28] Many publications credit DST proposal to the prominent English builder and outdoorsman William Willett,[29] who independently conceived DST in 1905 during a pre-breakfast ride, when he observed with dismay how many Londoners slept through a large part of a summer day.[15] An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk.[30] His solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later.[31] The proposal was taken up by the Liberal member of parliament (MP) Robert Pearce, who introduced the first Daylight Saving Bill to the House of Commons on February 12, 1908.[32] A select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearce's bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915.

text: William Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912.[33]

text: Starting on April 30, 1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST (German: Sommerzeit) as a way to conserve coal during wartime. Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the next year, and the United States adopted it in 1918.

text: Broadly speaking, daylight saving time was abandoned in the years after the war (with some notable exceptions including Canada, the UK, France, and Ireland). However, it was brought back for periods of time in many different places during the following decades and commonly during World War II. It became widely adopted, particularly in North America and Europe, starting in the 1970s as a result of the 1970s energy crisis.

text: Since then, the world has seen many enactments, adjustments, and repeals.[34] For specific details, an overview is available at Daylight saving time by country.

text: Procedure[edit]

text: In the case of the United States, where a one-hour shift occurs at 02:00 local time, in spring the clock jumps forward from the last instant of 01:59 standard time to 03:00 DST and that day has 23 hours, whereas in autumn the clock jumps backward from the last instant of 01:59 DST to 01:00 standard time, repeating that hour, and that day has 25 hours.[35] A digital display of local time does not read 02:00 exactly at the shift to summer time, but instead jumps from 01:59:59.9 forward to 03:00:00.0.

text: Clock shifts are usually scheduled near a weekend midnight to lessen disruption to weekday schedules. A one-hour shift is customary.[36] Twenty-minute and two-hour shifts have been used in the past.

text: Coordination strategies differ when adjacent time zones shift clocks. The European Union shifts all zones at the same instant, at 01:00 Greenwich Mean Time[37] or 02:00 CET or 03:00 EET. The result of this procedure is that Eastern European Time is always one hour ahead of Central European Time, at the cost of the shift happening at different local times.[38] In contrast most of North America shifts at 02:00 local time, so its zones do not shift at the same instant; for example, Mountain Time is temporarily (for one hour) zero hours ahead of Pacific Time, instead of one hour ahead, in the autumn and two hours, instead of one, ahead of Pacific Time in the spring. In the past, Australian districts went even further and did not always agree on start and end dates; for example, in 2008 most DST-observing areas shifted clocks forward on October 5 but Western Australia shifted on October 26.[39] In some cases only part of a country shifts; for example, in the U.S., Hawaii and most of Arizona do not observe DST.[40][41]

text: Start and end dates vary with location and year. Since 1996, European Summer Time has been observed from the last Sunday in March to the last Sunday in October; previously the rules were not uniform across the European Union.[38] Starting in 2007, most of the United States and Canada observe DST from the second Sunday in March to the first Sunday in November, almost two-thirds of the year.[42] The 2007 U.S. change was part of the Energy Policy Act of 2005; previously, from 1987 through 2006, the start and end dates were the first Sunday in April and the last Sunday in October, and Congress retains the right to go back to the previous dates now that an energy-consumption study has been done.[43] Proponents for permanently retaining November as the month for ending DST point to Halloween as a reason to delay the change—to provide extra daylight on October 31.

text: Beginning and ending dates are roughly the reverse in the southern hemisphere. For example, mainland Chile observed DST from the second Saturday in October to the second Saturday in March, with transitions at 24:00 local time.[44]

text: As a result, time difference between two regions varies along the year because of DST. Central European Time is usually six hours later than North American Eastern Time, except a few weeks in March and October/November. Likewise, the United Kingdom and mainland Chile could be five hours apart during the northern summer, three hours during the southern summer, and four hours a few weeks per year because of mismatch of changing dates.

text: Politics[edit]

text: Daylight saving has caused controversy since it began.[2] Winston Churchill argued that it enlarges "the opportunities for the pursuit of health and happiness among the millions of people who live in this country"[45] and pundits have dubbed it "Daylight Slaving Time".[46] Historically, retailing, sports, and tourism interests have favored daylight saving, while agricultural and evening entertainment interests have opposed it, and its initial adoption had been prompted by energy crises and war.[47]

text: The fate of Willett's 1907 proposal illustrates several political issues involved. The proposal attracted many supporters, including Arthur Balfour, Churchill, David Lloyd George, Ramsay MacDonald, Edward VII (who used half-hour DST at Sandringham or "Sandringham time"), the managing director of Harrods, and the manager of the National Bank. However, the opposition was stronger: it included Prime Minister H. H. Asquith, Christie (the Astronomer Royal), George Darwin, Napier Shaw (director of the Meteorological Office), many agricultural organizations, and theatre owners. After many hearings the proposal was narrowly defeated in a parliamentary committee vote in 1909. Willett's allies introduced similar bills every year from 1911 through 1914, to no avail.[48] The U.S. was even more skeptical: Andrew Peters introduced a DST bill to the United States House of Representatives in May 1909, but it soon died in committee.[49]

text: After Germany led the way with starting DST (German: Sommerzeit) during World War I on April 30, 1916 together with its allies to alleviate hardships from wartime coal shortages and air raid blackouts, the political equation changed in other countries; the United Kingdom used DST first on May 21, 1916.[50] U.S. retailing and manufacturing interests led by Pittsburgh industrialist Robert Garland soon began lobbying for DST, but were opposed by railroads. The U.S.'s 1917 entry to the war overcame objections, and DST was established in 1918.[51]

text: The war's end swung the pendulum back. Farmers continued to dislike DST, and many countries repealed it after the war. Britain was an exception: it retained DST nationwide but over the years adjusted transition dates for several reasons, including special rules during the 1920s and 1930s to avoid clock shifts on Easter mornings. Now under a European Community directive summer time begins annually on the last Sunday in March, which may be Easter Sunday (as in 2016).[38] The U.S. was more typical: Congress repealed DST after 1919. President Woodrow Wilson, like Willett an avid golfer, vetoed the repeal twice but his second veto was overridden.[52] Only a few U.S. cities retained DST locally thereafter,[53] including New York so that its financial exchanges could maintain an hour of arbitrage trading with London, and Chicago and Cleveland to keep pace with New York.[54] Wilson's successor Warren G. Harding opposed DST as a "deception". Reasoning that people should instead get up and go to work earlier in the summer, he ordered District of Columbia federal employees to start work at 08:00 rather than 09:00 during summer 1922. Some businesses followed suit though many others did not; the experiment was not repeated.[11]

text: Since Germany's adoption in 1916, the world has seen many enactments, adjustments, and repeals of DST, with similar politics involved.[55]

text: The history of time in the United States includes DST during both world wars, but no standardization of peacetime DST until 1966.[56][57] In May 1965, for two weeks, St. Paul, Minnesota and Minneapolis, Minnesota were on different times, when the capital city decided to join most of the nation by starting Daylight Saving Time while Minneapolis opted to follow the later date set by state law.[58] In the mid-1980s, Clorox (parent of Kingsford Charcoal) and 7-Eleven provided the primary funding for the Daylight Saving Time Coalition behind the 1987 extension to U.S. DST, and both Idaho senators voted for it based on the premise that during DST fast-food restaurants sell more French fries, which are made from Idaho potatoes.[59]

text: In 1992, after a three-year trial of daylight saving in Queensland, Australia, a referendum on daylight saving was held and defeated with a 54.5% 'no' vote – with regional and rural areas strongly opposed, while those in the metropolitan south-east were in favor.[60] In 2005, the Sporting Goods Manufacturers Association and the National Association of Convenience Stores successfully lobbied for the 2007 extension to U.S. DST.[61] In December 2008, the Daylight Saving for South East Queensland (DS4SEQ) political party was officially registered in Queensland, advocating the implementation of a dual-time zone arrangement for daylight saving in South East Queensland while the rest of the state maintains standard time.[62] DS4SEQ contested the March 2009 Queensland state election with 32 candidates and received one percent of the statewide primary vote, equating to around 2.5% across the 32 electorates contested.[63] After a three-year trial, more than 55% of Western Australians voted against DST in 2009, with rural areas strongly opposed.[64] On April 14, 2010, after being approached by the DS4SEQ political party, Queensland Independent member Peter Wellington, introduced the Daylight Saving for South East Queensland Referendum Bill 2010 into the Queensland parliament, calling for a referendum at the next state election on the introduction of daylight saving into South East Queensland under a dual-time zone arrangement.[65] The Bill was defeated in the Queensland parliament on June 15, 2011.[66]

text: In the UK the Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents supports a proposal to observe SDST's additional hour year-round, but is opposed in some industries, such as postal workers and farmers, and particularly by those living in the northern regions of the UK.[9]

text: In some Muslim countries, DST is temporarily abandoned during Ramadan (the month when no food should be eaten between sunrise and sunset), since the DST would delay the evening dinner. Ramadan took place in July and August in 2012. This concerns at least Morocco,[67][68] although Iran keeps DST during Ramadan.[69] Most Muslim countries do not use DST, partially for this reason.

text: The 2011 declaration by Russia that it would stay in DST all year long was subsequently followed by a similar declaration from Belarus.[70] Russia's plan generated widespread complaints due to the dark of wintertime morning, and thus was abandoned in 2014.[71] The country changed its clocks to Standard Time on October 26, 2014 and intends to stay there permanently.[72]

text: Dispute over benefits and drawbacks[edit]

text: Proponents of DST generally argue that it saves energy, promotes outdoor leisure activity in the evening (in summer), and is therefore good for physical and psychological health, reduces traffic accidents, reduces crime or is good for business. Groups that tend to support DST are urban workers, retail businesses, outdoor sports enthusiasts and businesses, tourism operators, and others who benefit from increased light during the evening in summer.

text: Opponents argue that actual energy savings are inconclusive,[74] that DST increases health risks such as heart attack,[74] that DST can disrupt morning activities, and that the act of changing clocks twice a year is economically and socially disruptive and cancels out any benefit. Farmers have tended to oppose DST.[75][76]

text: Common agreement about the day's layout or schedule confers so many advantages that a standard DST schedule has generally been chosen over ad hoc efforts to get up earlier.[77] The advantages of coordination are so great that many people ignore whether DST is in effect by altering their nominal work schedules to coordinate with television broadcasts or daylight.[78] DST is commonly not observed during most of winter, because its mornings are darker; workers may have no sunlit leisure time, and children may need to leave for school in the dark.[12] Since DST is applied to many varying communities, its effects may be very different depending on their culture, light levels, geography, and climate; that is why it is hard to make generalized conclusions about the absolute effects of the practice. Some areas may adopt DST simply as a matter of coordination with others rather than for any direct benefits.

text: Energy use[edit]

text: The period of Daylight Saving Time before the longest day is shorter than the period after, in several countries including the United States and Europe. This unequal split is an energy saving measure. For example, in the U.S. the period of Daylight Saving Time is defined by the Energy Policy Act of 2005. The period for Daylight Saving Time was extended by changing the start date from the first Sunday of April to the second Sunday of March, and the end date from the last Sunday in October to the first Sunday in November.

text: DST's potential to save energy comes primarily from its effects on residential lighting, which consumes about 3.5% of electricity in the United States and Canada.[79] Delaying the nominal time of sunset and sunrise reduces the use of artificial light in the evening and increases it in the morning. As Franklin's 1784 satire pointed out, lighting costs are reduced if the evening reduction outweighs the morning increase, as in high-latitude summer when most people wake up well after sunrise. An early goal of DST was to reduce evening usage of incandescent lighting, once a primary use of electricity.[80] Although energy conservation remains an important goal,[81] energy usage patterns have greatly changed since then, and recent research is limited and reports contradictory results. Electricity use is greatly affected by geography, climate, and economics, making it hard to generalize from single studies.[79]

text:
The United States Department of Transportation (DOT) concluded in 1975 that DST might reduce the country's electricity usage by 1% during March and April,[79] but the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) reviewed the DOT study in 1976 and found no significant savings.[12]
In 2000, when parts of Australia began DST in late winter, overall electricity consumption did not decrease, but the morning peak load and prices increased.[82]
In Western Australia during summer 2006–2007, DST increased electricity consumption during hotter days and decreased it during cooler days, with consumption rising 0.6% overall.[83]
Although a 2007 study estimated that introducing DST to Japan would reduce household lighting energy consumption,[84] a 2007 simulation estimated that DST would increase overall energy use in Osaka residences by 0.13%, with a 0.02% decrease due to less lighting more than outweighed by a 0.15% increase due to extra cooling; neither study examined non-residential energy use.[85] This is probably because DST's effect on lighting energy use is mainly noticeable in residences.[79]
A 2007 study found that the earlier start to DST that year had little or no effect on electricity consumption in California.[86]
A 2007 study estimated that winter daylight saving would prevent a 2% increase in average daily electricity consumption in Great Britain.[87] This paper was revised in October 2009.[88]
A 2008 study examined billing data in Indiana before and after it adopted DST in 2006, and concluded that DST increased overall residential electricity consumption by 1% to 4%, due mostly to extra afternoon cooling and extra morning heating; the main increases came in the fall. A study estimated the overall annual cost of DST to Indiana households $9 million, with an additional $1.7–5.5 million for social costs due to increased pollution.[89]
The United States Department of Energy (DOE) concluded in a 2008 report that the 2007 United States extension of DST saved 0.5% of electricity usage during the extended period.[90] This report analyzed only the extension, not the full eight months of DST, and did not examine the use of heating fuels.[91]

text: Several studies have suggested that DST increases motor fuel consumption.[79] The 2008 DOE report found no significant increase in motor gasoline consumption due to the 2007 United States extension of DST.[90]

text: A 2018 meta-analysis of 44 studies found that DST leads to electricity savings of 0.34% during the days when DST applies.[92][93] The meta-analysis furthermore found that "electricity savings are larger for countries farther away from the equator, while subtropical regions consume more electricity because of DST."[92][93]

text: Economic effects[edit]

text: Retailers, sporting goods makers, and other businesses benefit from extra afternoon sunlight, as it induces customers to shop and to participate in outdoor afternoon sports.[94] In 1984, Fortune magazine estimated that a seven-week extension of DST would yield an additional $30 million for 7-Eleven stores, and the National Golf Foundation estimated the extension would increase golf industry revenues $200 million to $300 million.[95] A 1999 study estimated that DST increases the revenue of the European Union's leisure sector by about 3%.[79]

text: Conversely, DST can adversely affect farmers,[74] parents of young children,[74] and others whose hours are set by the sun and they have traditionally opposed the practice,[96] although some farmers are neutral.[97] One reason why farmers oppose DST is that grain is best harvested after dew evaporates, so when field hands arrive and leave earlier in summer their labor is less valuable.[8] Dairy farmers are another group who complain of the change. Their cows are sensitive to the timing of milking, so delivering milk earlier disrupts their systems.[76][98] Today some farmers' groups are in favor of DST.[99]

text: DST also hurts prime-time television broadcast ratings,[100][74] drive-ins and other theaters.[101]

text: Changing clocks and DST rules has a direct economic cost, entailing extra work to support remote meetings, computer applications and the like. For example, a 2007 North American rule change cost an estimated $500 million to $1 billion,[102] and Utah State University economist William F. Shughart II has estimated the lost opportunity cost at around US$1.7 billion.[74] Although it has been argued that clock shifts correlate with decreased economic efficiency, and that in 2000 the daylight-saving effect implied an estimated one-day loss of $31 billion on U.S. stock exchanges,[103] the estimated numbers depend on the methodology.[104] The results have been disputed,[105] and the original authors have refuted the points raised by disputers.[106]

text: Public safety[edit]

text: In 1975 the U.S. DOT conservatively identified a 0.7% reduction in traffic fatalities during DST, and estimated the real reduction at 1.5% to 2%,[107] but the 1976 NBS review of the DOT study found no differences in traffic fatalities.[12] In 1995 the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety estimated a reduction of 1.2%, including a 5% reduction in crashes fatal to pedestrians.[108] Others have found similar reductions.[109] Single/Double Summer Time (SDST), a variant where clocks are one hour ahead of the sun in winter and two in summer, has been projected to reduce traffic fatalities by 3% to 4% in the UK, compared to ordinary DST.[110] However, accidents do increase by as much as 11% during the two weeks that follow the end of British Summer Time.[111] It is not clear whether sleep disruption contributes to fatal accidents immediately after the spring clock shifts.[112] A correlation between clock shifts and traffic accidents has been observed in North America and the UK but not in Finland or Sweden. If this effect exists, it is far smaller than the overall reduction in traffic fatalities.[113] A 2009 U.S. study found that on Mondays after the switch to DST, workers sleep an average of 40 minutes less, and are injured at work more often and more severely.[114]

text: In the 1970s the U.S. Law Enforcement Assistance Administration (LEAA) found a reduction of 10% to 13% in Washington, D.C.'s violent crime rate during DST. However, the LEAA did not filter out other factors, and it examined only two cities and found crime reductions only in one and only in some crime categories; the DOT decided it was "impossible to conclude with any confidence that comparable benefits would be found nationwide".[115] Outdoor lighting has a marginal and sometimes even contradictory influence on crime and fear of crime.[116]

text: In several countries, fire safety officials encourage citizens to use the two annual clock shifts as reminders to replace batteries in smoke and carbon monoxide detectors, particularly in autumn, just before the heating and candle season causes an increase in home fires. Similar twice-yearly tasks include reviewing and practicing fire escape and family disaster plans, inspecting vehicle lights, checking storage areas for hazardous materials, reprogramming thermostats, and seasonal vaccinations.[117] Locations without DST can instead use the first days of spring and autumn as reminders.[118]

text: A 2017 study in the American Economic Journal: Applied Economics estimated that "the transition into DST caused over 30 deaths at a social cost of $275 million annually," primarily by increasing sleep deprivation.[119]

text: Health[edit]

text: DST has mixed effects on health. In societies with fixed work schedules it provides more afternoon sunlight for outdoor exercise.[121] It alters sunlight exposure; whether this is beneficial depends on one's location and daily schedule, as sunlight triggers vitamin D synthesis in the skin, but overexposure can lead to skin cancer.[122] DST may help in depression by causing individuals to rise earlier,[123] but some argue the reverse.[124] The Retinitis Pigmentosa Foundation Fighting Blindness, chaired by blind sports magnate Gordon Gund, successfully lobbied in 1985 and 2005 for U.S. DST extensions.[59][61] DST shifts are associated with higher rates of ischemic stroke in the first two days after the shift, though not in the week thereafter.[125]

text: Clock shifts were found to increase the risk of heart attack by 10 percent,[74] and to disrupt sleep and reduce its efficiency.[6] Effects on seasonal adaptation of the circadian rhythm can be severe and last for weeks.[126] A 2008 study found that although male suicide rates rise in the weeks after the spring transition, the relationship weakened greatly after adjusting for season.[127] A 2008 Swedish study found that heart attacks were significantly more common the first three weekdays after the spring transition, and significantly less common the first weekday after the autumn transition.[128] A 2013 review found little evidence that people slept more on the night after the fall DST shift, even though it is often described as allowing people to sleep for an hour longer than normal. The same review stated that the lost hour of sleep resulting from the spring shift appears to result in sleep loss for at least a week afterward.[129] In 2015, two psychologists recommended that DST be abolished, citing its disruptive effects on sleep as one reason for this recommendation.[130]

text: The government of Kazakhstan cited health complications due to clock shifts as a reason for abolishing DST in 2005.[131] In March 2011, Dmitri Medvedev, president of Russia, claimed that "stress of changing clocks" was the motivation for Russia to stay in DST all year long. Officials at the time talked about an annual increase in suicides.[132]

text: An unexpected adverse effect of daylight saving time may lie in the fact that an extra part of morning rush hour traffic occurs before dawn and traffic emissions then cause higher air pollution than during daylight hours.[133]

text: In 2017, researchers at the University of Washington and the University of Virginia reported that judges who experienced sleep deprivation as a result of DST tended to issue longer sentences.[134]

text: Complexity[edit]

text: DST's clock shifts have the obvious disadvantage of complexity. People must remember to change their clocks; this can be time-consuming, particularly for mechanical clocks that cannot be moved backward safely.[135] People who work across time zone boundaries need to keep track of multiple DST rules, as not all locations observe DST or observe it the same way. The length of the calendar day becomes variable; it is no longer always 24 hours. Disruption to meetings, travel, broadcasts, billing systems, and records management is common, and can be expensive.[136] During an autumn transition from 02:00 to 01:00, a clock reads times from 01:00:00 through 01:59:59 twice, possibly leading to confusion.[137]

text: Damage to a German steel facility occurred during a DST transition in 1993, when a computer timing system linked to a radio time synchronization signal allowed molten steel to cool for one hour less than the required duration, resulting in spattering of molten steel when it was poured.[5] Medical devices may generate adverse events that could harm patients, without being obvious to clinicians responsible for care.[138] These problems are compounded when the DST rules themselves change; software developers must test and perhaps modify many programs, and users must install updates and restart applications. Consumers must update devices such as programmable thermostats with the correct DST rules or manually adjust the devices' clocks.[7] A common strategy to resolve these problems in computer systems is to express time using the Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) rather than the local time zone. For example, Unix-based computer systems use the UTC-based Unix time internally.

text: Some clock-shift problems could be avoided by adjusting clocks continuously[139] or at least more gradually[140]—for example, Willett at first suggested weekly 20-minute transitions—but this would add complexity and has never been implemented.

text: DST inherits and can magnify the disadvantages of standard time. For example, when reading a sundial, one must compensate for it along with time zone and natural discrepancies.[141] Also, sun-exposure guidelines such as avoiding the sun within two hours of noon become less accurate when DST is in effect.[142]

text: Terminology[edit]

text: As explained by Richard Meade in the English Journal of the (American) National Council of Teachers of English, the form daylight savings time (with an "s") was already in 1978 much more common than the older form daylight saving time in American English ("the change has been virtually accomplished"). Nevertheless even dictionaries such as Merriam-Webster's, American Heritage, and Oxford, which describe actual usage instead of prescribing outdated usage (and therefore also list the newer form), still list the older form first. This is because the older form is still very common in print and preferred by many editors. ("Although daylight saving time is considered correct, daylight savings time (with an "s") is commonly used.")[143] The first two words are sometimes hyphenated (daylight-saving[s] time). Merriam-Webster's also lists the forms daylight saving (without "time"), daylight savings (without "time"), and daylight time.[1]

text: In Britain, Willett's 1907 proposal[31] used the term daylight saving, but by 1911 the term summer time replaced daylight saving time in draft legislation.[73] The same or similar expressions are used in many other languages: Sommerzeit in German, zomertijd in Dutch, kesäaika in Finnish, horario de verano or hora de verano in Spanish, heure d'été in French,[50] and hora de verão in Portuguese. In Italy the term is ora legale, "legal time" (legally enforced time), as opposed to "ora solare", "solar time", in winter.[clarification needed]

text: The name of local time typically changes when DST is observed. American English replaces standard with daylight: for example, Pacific Standard Time (PST) becomes Pacific Daylight Time (PDT). In the United Kingdom, the standard term for UK time when advanced by one hour is British Summer Time (BST), and British English typically inserts summer into other time zone names, e.g. Central European Time (CET) becomes Central European Summer Time (CEST).

text: The North American English mnemonic "spring forward, fall back" (also "spring ahead ...", "spring up ...", and "... fall behind") helps people remember which direction to shift clocks.[2]

text: Computing[edit]

text: Changes to DST rules cause problems in existing computer installations. For example, the 2007 change to DST rules in North America required that many computer systems be upgraded, with the greatest impact on e-mail and calendar programs. The upgrades required a significant effort by corporate information technologists.[144]

text: Some applications standardize on UTC to avoid problems with clock shifts and time zone differences.[145] Likewise, most modern operating systems internally handle and store all times as UTC and only convert to local time for display.[146][147]

text: However, even if UTC is used internally, the systems still require external leap second updates and time zone information to correctly calculate local time as needed. Many systems in use today base their date/time calculations from data derived from the IANA time zone database also known as zoneinfo.

text: IANA time zone database[edit]

text: The IANA time zone database maps a name to the named location's historical and predicted clock shifts. This database is used by many computer software systems, including most Unix-like operating systems, Java, and the Oracle RDBMS;[148] HP's "tztab" database is similar but incompatible.[149] When temporal authorities change DST rules, zoneinfo updates are installed as part of ordinary system maintenance. In Unix-like systems the TZ environment variable specifies the location name, as in TZ=':America/New_York'. In many of those systems there is also a system-wide setting that is applied if the TZ environment variable is not set: this setting is controlled by the contents of the /etc/localtime file, which is usually a symbolic link or hard link to one of the zoneinfo files. Internal time is stored in timezone-independent epoch time; the TZ is used by each of potentially many simultaneous users and processes to independently localize time display.

text: Older or stripped-down systems may support only the TZ values required by POSIX, which specify at most one start and end rule explicitly in the value. For example, TZ='EST5EDT,M3.2.0/02:00,M11.1.0/02:00' specifies time for the eastern United States starting in 2007. Such a TZ value must be changed whenever DST rules change, and the new value applies to all years, mishandling some older timestamps.[150]

text: Microsoft Windows[edit]

text: As with zoneinfo, a user of Microsoft Windows configures DST by specifying the name of a location, and the operating system then consults a table of rule sets that must be updated when DST rules change. Procedures for specifying the name and updating the table vary with release. Updates are not issued for older versions of Microsoft Windows.[151] Windows Vista supports at most two start and end rules per time zone setting. In a Canadian location observing DST, a single Vista setting supports both 1987–2006 and post-2006 time stamps, but mishandles some older time stamps. Older Microsoft Windows systems usually store only a single start and end rule for each zone, so that the same Canadian setting reliably supports only post-2006 time stamps.[152]

text: These limitations have caused problems. For example, before 2005, DST in Israel varied each year and was skipped some years. Windows 95 used rules correct for 1995 only, causing problems in later years. In Windows 98, Microsoft marked Israel as not having DST, forcing Israeli users to shift their computer clocks manually twice a year. The 2005 Israeli Daylight Saving Law established predictable rules using the Jewish calendar but Windows zone files could not represent the rules' dates in a year-independent way. Partial workarounds, which mishandled older time stamps, included manually switching zone files every year[153] and a Microsoft tool that switches zones automatically.[154] In 2013, Israel standardized its daylight saving time according to the Gregorian calendar.[155]

text: Microsoft Windows keeps the system real-time clock in local time. This causes several problems, including compatibility when multi booting with operating systems that set the clock to UTC, and double-adjusting the clock when multi booting different Windows versions, such as with a rescue boot disk. This approach is a problem even in Windows-only systems: there is no support for per-user timezone settings, only a single system-wide setting. In 2008 Microsoft hinted that future versions of Windows will partially support a Windows registry entry RealTimeIsUniversal that had been introduced many years earlier, when Windows NT supported RISC machines with UTC clocks, but had not been maintained.[156] Since then at least two fixes related to this feature have been published by Microsoft.[157][158]

text: The NTFS file system used by recent versions of Windows stores the file with a UTC time stamp, but displays it corrected to local—or seasonal—time. However, the FAT filesystem commonly used on removable devices stores only the local time. Consequently, when a file is copied from the hard disk onto separate media, its time will be set to the current local time. If the time adjustment is changed, the timestamps of the original file and the copy will be different. The same effect can be observed when compressing and uncompressing files with some file archivers. It is the NTFS file that changes seen time. This effect should be kept in mind when trying to determine if a file is a duplicate of another, although there are other methods of comparing files for equality (such as using a checksum algorithm).

text: Permanent daylight saving time[edit]

text: A move to "permanent daylight saving time" (staying on summer hours all year with no time shifts) is sometimes advocated, and has in fact been implemented in some jurisdictions such as Argentina, Chile,[159] Iceland, Singapore, Uzbekistan, Belarus[76] and Turkey. It could be a result of following the timezone of a neighbouring region,[160] political will or other causes.[161] Advocates cite the same advantages as normal DST without the problems associated with the twice yearly time shifts. However, many remain unconvinced of the benefits, citing the same problems and the relatively late sunrises, particularly in winter, that year-round DST entails.[13]

text: Russia switched to permanent DST from 2011 to 2014, but the move proved unpopular because of the late sunrises in winter, so the country switched permanently back to "standard" or "winter" time in 2014.[162] The United Kingdom also experimented with year-round summer time between 1968 and 1971, and put clocks forward by an extra hour during World War II.[163]

text: By country and region[edit]

text: Time portal

text:
Daylight saving time by country
Africa
Asia
Europe
North and South America
Oceania


document_title: Conversion (gridiron football)

question_text: where do they kick the extra point from

question_tokens: where do they kick the extra point from

text: Conversion (gridiron football)

text: History[edit]

text: The try/convert is among the oldest parts of the game of gridiron football and dates to its rugby roots. In its earliest days, scoring a touchdown was not the primary objective but a means of getting a free kick at the goal (hence why the name "try", more commonly associated with rugby today, is still used in American football rule books), and thus early scoring rubrics for the game gave more points to the subsequent kick than the actual advancement of the ball over the goal line. The related term "conversion" is still used in both rugby union and rugby league to refer to extra points scored by kicking the ball through the posts after a try has been scored.

text: By the start of the 20th century, touchdowns had become more important and the roles of touchdown and kick were reversed. By this time the point value for the after-touchdown kick had reduced to its current one-point value while the touchdown was now worth five. (This later increased to six points in American football in 1912 and in Canadian football in 1956.)[citation needed]

text: For much of the 20th century, a one-point conversion could be scored either by kick or by way of a scrimmage play. Beginning in 1958, the scrimmage play method of scoring became worth two points (a two-point conversion). While the American Football League adopted the college rule throughout its existence (as did the United States Football League throughout its existence in the 1980s), other professional leagues did not follow suit; all levels of Canadian football did so in 1975, and the National Football League did not do so until 1994.

text: Although a successful kick is only worth one point with a very high rate of success, missed or blocked attempts can decide the outcome of the game. Perhaps the most famous example to this was the 2003 game between the New Orleans Saints and Jacksonville Jaguars where, after scoring a touchdown as time expired as a result of the multiple-lateral River City Relay, Saints kicker John Carney missed the extra point, giving the Jaguars a 20-19 victory. On November 11, 1979, the New York Jets lost to the Buffalo Bills 14-12 – the difference coming from two missed extra points by place kicker Toni Linhart. Linhart, who had been cut earlier in the 1979 season by the Baltimore Colts and was signed by the Jets to fill in for the injured Pat Leahy, never played another game in the NFL.

text: Another 2003 game, this one between the Carolina Panthers and Tampa Bay Buccaneers, was sent to overtime after what would have been a game-winning extra point was blocked; the Panthers won the game in overtime 12-9. A 2005 game between the Green Bay Packers and Tampa Bay Buccaneers is another notable exception, as the Buccaneers won 17-16, the difference being Ryan Longwell missing an extra point after a Packers touchdown.[2]

text: In the 2016 AFC Championship Game, New England Patriots placekicker Stephen Gostkowski missed an extra point in the first quarter, keeping the score at 7–6 in favor of the Denver Broncos. The Patriots were forced to go for two when they scored a touchdown late in the fourth quarter. The two-point try was intercepted, putting the Broncos in Super Bowl 50 with a 20–18 victory.[3]

text: The CFL and NFL both made major changes to the rules governing conversions prior to their respective 2015 seasons, reducing and eliminating some of the differences between the two leagues in the process as discussed below.

text: Duration of the play[edit]

text: In American high school football (in most states), the play is over once the ball becomes dead or the defense takes possession. In many other levels of football, including the CFL, NFL, and American college football, the play continues after a turnover to the defense. This allows the defense to return the ball to the opponent's end zone for two points and also allows for a one-point safety. Two states, Texas and Massachusetts, play high school football under NCAA rules and thus allow the defense to score on an extra-point attempt.

text: Differences between leagues[edit]

text: In American high school and college football, the line of scrimmage is the three-yard line.

text: In American football, the game clock does not run during an extra-point attempt, except for some rare circumstances at the high-school level (some state associations allow for the clock to run continuously in the second half if one team is leading the other by a large margin)[4] and for arena football, which runs the clock continuously except during the final minute of each half and overtime. In Canadian football, the clock runs during a conversion attempt except during the last three minutes of each half.

text: Prior to the 2015 season, the NFL used the two-yard line for all conversion (P.A.T.) attempts. In Canadian football, the line of scrimmage was from the five-yard line.

text: In the NFL, the conversion was required after a touchdown scored during the regulation game (i.e., not overtime), because point differential is used for some tiebreakers in the standings. Rarely, this can result in such an attempt having to be made at the end of the game when it cannot change the outcome of the game; two of the best-known examples of this occurred after the winning touchdown by the Philadelphia Eagles in the December 19, 2010 game known as the Miracle at the New Meadowlands and after the controversial game-winning touchdown by the Seattle Seahawks on September 24, 2012.

text: If the game is in sudden death overtime, the extra-point attempt is omitted if the winning score is a touchdown. In American high school and college football, it is likewise omitted following a touchdown on the game's final play if a successful conversion attempt cannot change the outcome of the game.

text: There is, however, one notable exception in college football because the defense can also score two points on a return of a conversion try (and theoretically score a one-point safety) and the NCAA rules state that the conversion try must be run if any subsequent scoring on the play could impact the outcome of the game. Therefore, if a team scores to take the lead by one or two points as time expires, they must still attempt the conversion, although most teams will simply opt to take a knee to prevent the risk of the defense scoring. For example, on October 24, 2009, Iowa scored as time expired to take a 15–13 lead over Michigan State. Making the conversion would have made no difference in Iowa winning the game, but Iowa still had to attempt it, so Ricky Stanzi simply knelt down, as a return by Michigan State would have tied the game and forced overtime.

text: In Canadian football, the scoring team is entitled to a conversion play after scoring with no time on the clock, but may choose to waive it if they feel it is not needed. Because head-to-head points scored is used as a tiebreaker in the standings between teams, they often choose to take it if is against a division opponent with whom a tie in the standings is possible. As in U.S. college football, Canadian football allows defenses to score two points for the successful return of a convert attempt.

text: The CFL and NFL both implemented major changes to how conversions were attempted starting with their respective 2015 seasons.[5][6]

text: In the CFL, the line of scrimmage for a kick attempt moved back 20 yards to the 25-yard line while the line of scrimmage for a two-point attempt moved forward two yards to the three-yard line.

text: In the NFL, the line of scrimmage for a kick attempt moved back 13 yards to the 15-yard line, effectively placing the ball the same distance from the goalposts as in the CFL. The line of scrimmage for a two-point attempt remained at the two-yard line. However, NFL defenses became able to run back failed conversion attempts for a two-point score. On December 6, 2015, New Orleans Saints linebacker Stephone Anthony became the first player in NFL history to do so, after New Orleans blocked an extra-point kick by the Carolina Panthers.[7]

text: Finally, the NFL adopted the CFL rule allowing teams to waive "unnecessary" extra point attempts at the end of the game. Among the first prominent uses of this rule was following the Miracle in Motown Hail Mary pass by Green Bay Packers quarterback Aaron Rodgers; the Packers elected not to attempt the extra point, settling instead for a 27-23 win over the Detroit Lions.

text: As expected, the 2015 rule changes increased the frequency of two-point conversion attempts, from a rate of about five percent to about eight percent,[8] much of that increase coming from the Pittsburgh Steelers alone.[9]

text: Special college overtime rules[edit]

text: In most cases in gridiron football, one point may be scored following a touchdown--bringing the total value of the touchdown to seven points--by place kicking the ball through the uprights. An exception occurs in overtime in college football. If the game reaches the third or subsequent period of overtime, no further one-point kicks are allowed--only two-point conversions.[10]

text: Other leagues[edit]

text: In 1968, the AFL and NFL eliminated the extra-point kick for interleague preseason games, allowing only one-point scrimmage plays. The World Football League and XFL did the same in their short lives, though the XFL later implemented a variable system that allowed increasing point values for increasing the distance to the end zone on the attempt for its playoffs; that system was later adopted by the Stars Football League[citation needed] and, in a reduced form, the Legends Football League.[11] The CFL proposed to test the variable-distance scoring system during the 2015 preseason, but the proposal was rejected. In arena football, two points can also be scored by means of a drop-kicked field goal. Some youth football leagues turn the scoring upside-down to an extent, scoring one point for a running touchdown and two points for either a passing touchdown or field goal; six-man football follows a similar convention that rewards one point for a pass or run and two points for a kick.