document_title: List of highest-grossing media franchises

question_text: how much money has the pokemon franchise made

text: List[edit]

text:
Media franchises that have grossed over $3 billion (USD)

Franchise

Year of inception

Total revenue (USD)

Revenue breakdown (est.)

Original media

Creator(s)

Owner(s)

Pokémon

1996

 est. $85 billion[c]

Licensed merchandise – $61.1 billion[b]
Video games – $15.654 billion[d]
Card game – $10.254 billion[e]
Manga sales – $1.402 billion[i]
Anime box office – $1.033 billion[j]
Home entertainment – $863 million[k]

Video game

Satoshi Tajiri

Nintendo (trademark)  The Pokémon Company  (Nintendo, Game Freak, Creatures)  (copyright)

Hello Kitty

1974

 est. $80 billion

Merchandise sales – $80 billion[l]
Manga magazine – $23 million[n]
Music CD sales – $3 million[o]

Cartoon

Yuko Shimizu  Shintaro Tsuji

Sanrio

Winnie the Pooh

1966

 est. $75 billion

Retail sales – $74.515 billion[p]
DVD & Blu-ray – $35 million[58]
Box office – $427 million[59]

Animated cartoon

Walt Disney Animation  A. A. Milne  E. H. Shepard

The Walt Disney Company

Mickey Mouse & Friends

1928

 est. $70 billion

Retail sales – $69.85 billion[q]
VHS & DVD – $279 million[r]
Box office – $457.4 million[s]

Animated cartoon

Walt Disney  Ub Iwerks

The Walt Disney Company

Star Wars

1977

 est. $65 billion[t]

Merchandise sales – $40.294 billion[u]
Box office – $9.491 billion[74]
Home video – $9.002 billion[v]
Video games – $4.858 billion[d]
Book sales – $1.82 billion[78]
TV revenue – $4.5 million[78]

Film

George Lucas

Lucasfilm  (The Walt Disney Company)

Anpanman

1973

 est. $60 billion

Retail sales – $60.159 billion[w]
Box office – $42.3 million[j]
Museum & mall – $25.1 million[x]

Manga

Takashi Yanase

Froebel-kan

Disney Princess

2000

 est. $45 billion

Retail sales – $44.645 billion[y]

Animated series

Andy Mooney

The Walt Disney Company

Mario

1981

 est. $35 billion

Video games – $29.623 billion[d]
Licensed merchandise – $4.323 billion[z]
Manga magazine – $1.519 billion[aa]
Box office – $21 million[92]

Arcade game

Shigeru Miyamoto

Nintendo

Shōnen Jump

1968

 est. $34 billion[ab]

Manga magazines – $20.362 billion[af]
Manga volumes – $13.126 billion[au]
Video games – $217.3 million[d]

Manga

Shueisha

Shueisha  (Hitotsubashi Group)  (manga)  Bandai Namco (games)

Wizarding World / Harry Potter

1997

 est. $30 billion[av]

Box office – $8.538 billion[96]
Book sales – $7.743 billion[97]
Merchandise sales – $7.308 billion[97]
Home entertainment – $3.958 billion[aw]
Video games – $1.555 billion[d]
TV revenue – $1 billion[98]

Novel

J. K. Rowling

J. K. Rowling (books)  Warner Bros. (AT&T) (films)

Marvel Cinematic Universe

2008

 est. $28 billion

Box office – $17.534 billion[ax]
Merchandise sales – $5.43 billion[ay]
Home entertainment – $5.084 billion[az]
Comic volumes – $1 million[ba]

Film

Marvel Studios

Marvel Entertainment  (The Walt Disney Company)

Spider-Man

1962

 est. $25.6 billion

Merchandise sales – $14.805 billion[bb]
Box office & home video – $7.021 billion[bc]
Video games – $1.308 billion[d]
Comic sales – $1.063 billion[bd]
TV revenue – $880 million[112]
Pachinko sales – $308 million[be]
Broadway musical – $212 million[125]

Comic book

Stan Lee  Steve Ditko

Marvel Entertainment  (The Walt Disney Company)  (comics)  Sony (films)

Batman

1939

 est. $25.2 billion

Retail sales – $20.178 billion[bf]
Home video – $1.212 billion[bg]
Box office – $4.994 billion[bh]
TV revenue – $40 million[136]

Comic book

Bob Kane  Bill Finger

DC Entertainment  (AT&T)

Gundam

1979

 est. $24.7 billion

Retail sales – $24.297 billion[bj]
Video games – $1.129 billion[d]
Home entertainment – $887.2 million[bk]
Manga magazine – $200 million[bl]
Pachinko sales – $185 million[be]
Anime box office – $55 million[j]

Anime

Yoshiyuki Tomino

Sunrise  (Bandai Namco Holdings)

Dragon Ball

1984

 est. $22.3 billion

Manga magazines – $7.017 billion[bm]
Merchandise sales – $5.636 billion[bn]
Video games – $3.76 billion[d]
Manga volumes – $3.02 billion[ag]
Home entertainment – $1.62 billion[bp]
Trading card sales – $961.3 million[bq]
Box office – $420.2 million[br]
Music sales – $47 million[bs]

Manga

Akira Toriyama

Bird Studio  Shueisha (Hitotsubashi Group)  (manga)  Toei Animation (anime)

Barbie

1987

 est. $22.3 billion[bt]

Merchandise sales – $21.635 billion[bu]
DVD & Blu-ray sales – $660 million[bv]
Box office – $5.1 million[225]

Animated film

Ruth Handler

Mattel

Cars

2006

 est. $21.8 billion

Merchandise sales – $19.114 billion[bw]
Box office – $2.025 billion[bx]
DVD & Blu-ray sales – $653 million[by]

Animated film

John Lasseter

The Walt Disney Company

Fist of the North Star

1983

 est. $21 billion

Pachinko & arcades – $16.795 billion[be]
Manga magazine – $2.508 billion[ac]
Manga volumes – $1.24 billion[aj]
Console games – $373 million[bz]
Anime DVD & Blu-ray – $37 million[ca]
Licensed merchandise – $26.2 million[cb]
Anime box office – $22 million[j]

Manga

Buronson  Tetsuo Hara

Shueisha  (Hitotsubashi Group)  (manga)  Toei Animation (anime)  Sega Sammy Holdings  (games/pachinko)

Toy Story

1995

 est. $20.2 billion

Retail sales – $17.6 billion[cc]
VHS sales – $290 million[66]
DVD & Blu-ray sales – $249 million[244]
Box office & TV revenue – $2.603 billion[cd]

Animated film

Pixar

The Walt Disney Company

James Bond

1953

 est. $19.9 billion[ce]

Box office – $7.078 billion[248]
Home video sales – $3.06 billion[247]
Merchandise & licensing – $3.06 billion[247]
Book sales – $550 million[249]

Novel

Ian Fleming

Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer

Middle-earth / Lord of the Rings

1937

 $19.9 billion[cf]

Book sales – $9.125 billion[250]
Box office – $5.896 billion[251]
Home video sales – $4.194 billion[250]
Merchandise sales – $435 million[250]
Licensing – $225 million[250]

Novel

J. R. R. Tolkien

Tolkien Estate (books)  Warner Bros. (AT&T) (films)

Yu-Gi-Oh!

1996

 est. $19.8 billion

Card game – $11.161 billion[cg]
Merchandise sales – $4.477 billion[ch]
Manga magazine – $3.643 billion[ac]
Video games – $273 million[cj]
Manga volumes – $196 million[at]
Anime box office – $42 million[j]

Manga

Kazuki Takahashi

Shueisha  (Hitotsubashi Group)

One Piece

1997

 est. $19.7 billion

Manga magazine – $8.507 billion[ac]
Merchandise sales – $5.593 billion[ck]
Manga volumes – $2.611 billion[ah]
Video games – $1.533 billion[d]
Home entertainment – $1.038 billion[cl]
Anime box office – $377.1 million[j]

Manga

Eiichiro Oda

Shueisha  (Hitotsubashi Group)  Toei Animation  Bandai Namco (games)

Peanuts

1950

 est. $17.4 billion

Retail sales – $17.143 billion[cm]
Box office – $250 million[281]
DVD & Blu-ray sales – $35 million[281]

Comic strip

Charles M. Schulz

Sony Music Entertainment Japan  (Sony Corporation)  DHX Media

Transformers

1984

 est. $16.8 billion

Retail sales – $11.68 billion[cn]
Box office – $4.385 billion[284]
Home entertainment – $740 million[285][co]

Animated series

Takara  Hasbro  Nobuyuki Okude

Hasbro  Takara Tomy

KochiKame

1976

 est. $16.3 billion

Manga magazine – $15.447 billion[ac]
Manga volumes – $807 million[ak]
Box office – $10 million[287]

Manga

Osamu Akimoto

Shueisha  (Hitotsubashi Group)

Neon Genesis Evangelion

1994

 est. $16.2 billion

Pachinko sales – $11.585 billion[cp]
Merchandise sales – $2.46 billion[cq]
Home entertainment – $848.5 million[cr]
Karaoke music – $750 million[cs]
Music CD sales – $226.2 million[ct]
Manga sales – $180.5 million[cu]
Anime box office – $154.5 million[j]
Video games – $30.1 million[cv]
Music royalties – $5.6 million[298]

Anime

Hideaki Anno  Gainax  Tatsunoko Production

Khara[cw][299][300]

Super Sentai / Power Rangers

1975

 est. $16.2 billion

Retail sales – $15.98 billion[cy]
Licensed merchandise – $13.191 billion[cx]
DVD & Blu-ray – $15 million[306]
Box office – $218.4 million[308]

Television series

Shotaro Ishinomori  Haim Saban  Shuki Levy

Toei Company  Hasbro  Bandai Namco Holdings

Call of Duty

2003

 est. $16 billion

Video games – $16 billion[d]

Computer game

Infinity Ward

Activision  (Activision Blizzard)

Dora the Explorer

2000

 est. $15.7 billion

Retail sales – $15.413 billion[cz]
Home video sales – $250 million[311][da]

Animated series

Chris Gifford  Valerie Walsh  Eric Weiner

Nickelodeon  (Viacom)

The Simpsons

1989

 est. $15.3 billion[db]

Merchandise sales – $6.818 billion[dc]
TV advertising – $5.76 billion[312]
TV syndication – $1.15 billion[312]
Home video sales – $1.091 billion[312]
Box office – $527 million[314]

Animated series

Matt Groening

20th Century Fox

Pac-Man

1980

 est. $15.1 billion

Video games – $14.098  billion[d][dd]
Merchandise & licensing – $1 billion[315][316]
Music sales – $32 million[de]

Arcade game

Toru Iwatani  Namco

Bandai Namco Entertainment  (Bandai Namco Holdings)

Looney Tunes

1930

 est. $14.2 billion

Retail sales – $13.88 billion[df]
Box office – $299 million[dg]

Animated cartoon

Warner Bros.

Warner Bros. (AT&T)

SpongeBob SquarePants

1999

 est. $14.1 billion

Retail sales – $13.619 billion[dh]
Box office – $463 million[321][322]

Animated series

Stephen Hillenburg

Nickelodeon  (Viacom)

Space Invaders

1978

 est. $13.9 billion

Video game – $13.93 billion[323][di]
Music single – $522,000[dj]

Arcade game

Tomohiro Nishikado

Taito  (Square Enix)

The Lion King

1994

 est. $13.7 billion

Musical theatre – $8.1 billion[326]
Merchandise sales – $3.07 billion[dk]
Home entertainment – $1.5 billion[328]
Box office – $987 million[329]

Animated film

Roger Allers  Rob Minkoff

The Walt Disney Company

Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles

1984

 est. $12.7 billion

Merchandise sales – $11.288 billion[dl]
Box office – $1.15 billion[332]
Video games – $450 million[333]
DVD & Blu-ray sales – $124 million[334]
VHS sales – $94.22 million[335]
Video rentals – $67.65 million[136]

Comic book

Kevin Eastman  Peter Laird

Viacom

Dragon Quest

1986

 est. $12.2 billion

Video games – $5.791 billion[d]
Manga magazine – $4.962 billion[ac]
Merchandise sales – $988.3 million[dm]
Manga volumes – $471.2 million[as]

Video game

Yuji Horii  Koichi Nakamura  Akira Toriyama

Square Enix

Final Fantasy

1987

 est. $11.6 billion

Video games – $10.398 billion[d]
Licensed merchandise – $416.2 million[dn]
Home video sales – $316 million[do]
Book sales – $213.1 million[dp]
Music sales – $121 million[349]
Box office – $92 million[dq]
Video rentals – $27 million[353]
Card game – $14 million[dr]

Video game

Hironobu Sakaguchi  Hiromichi Tanaka  Nasir Gebelli

Square Enix

Ultraman

1966

 est. $11.5 billion

Merchandise sales – $10.294 billion[ds]
Pachinko sales – $967 million[be]
Home video sales – $275.3 million[dt]

Television series

Eiji Tsuburaya

Tsuburaya Productions  (Bandai Namco Holdings)

Street Fighter

1987

 est. $11.5 billion

Video games – $11.279 billion[d]
Box office – $128.2 million[du]
VHS rentals – $33 million[359]
Home video sales – $17.1 million[dv]
Soundtrack album – $7.2 million[dw]

Arcade game

Takashi Nishiyama  Hiroshi Matsumoto

Capcom

Frozen

2013

 est. $11.3 billion

Merchandise sales – $9.575 billion[dx]
Box office – $1.29 billion[368]
DVD & Blu-ray sales – $391 million[369]
Musical theatre – $82 million[dy]

Animated film

Chris Buck  Jennifer Lee

The Walt Disney Company

Superman

1938

 est. $11.1 billion

Retail sales – $5.381 billion[ea]
Box office – $3.212 billion[ec]
Comic issues – $1.341 billion[ed]
DVD & Blu-ray sales – $529 million[dz]
TV revenue – $428 million[ee]
Comic magazine – $85 million[ef]
VHS sales & rentals – $74.1 million[eg]

Comic book

Jerry Siegel  Joe Shuster

DC Entertainment  (AT&T)

Warcraft

1994

 est. $10.8 billion

Video games – $10.391 billion[d]
Box office – $434 million[385]
DVD & Blu-ray sales – $17 million[386]

Computer game

Allen Adham  Frank Pearce  Michael Morhaime

Blizzard Entertainment  (Activision Blizzard)

Star Trek

1966

 est. $10.6 billion[eh]

Retail sales – $4.561 billion[ei]
TV revenue – $2.3 billion[390]
Box office – $2.266 billion[391]
VHS sales – $1 billion[390]
DVD & Blu-ray – $326 million[389]

Television series

Gene Roddenberry

CBS Corporation  Paramount Pictures  (Viacom)

Dungeon Fighter Online

2005

 est. $10.5 billion

Computer game – $10.523 billion[d]

Computer game

Neople

Nexon

Naruto

1999

 est. $10.1 billion

Manga magazine – $6.529 billion[ac]
Manga volumes – $1.637 billion[ai]
Licensed merchandise – $1.27 billion[ej]
Video games – $562 million[ek]
Anime box office – $147.1 million[j]
Home entertainment – $93 million[el]

Manga

Masashi Kishimoto

Shueisha  (Hitotsubashi Group)  Pierrot

JoJo's Bizarre Adventure

1987

 est. $9.8 billion

Manga magazine – $8.937 billion[ac]
Manga volumes – $489 million[an]
Video games – $306 million[en]
Anime DVD & Blu-ray – $40 million[eo]
Licensed merchandise – $23 million[ep]
Box office – $2 million[406]

Manga

Hirohiko Araki

Shueisha  (Hitotsubashi Group)

Angry Birds

2009

 est. $8.78 billion

Merchandise sales – $8.297 billion[eq]
Box office – $353 million[408]
Video games – $100 million[409]
DVD & Blu-ray sales – $27 million[408]

Mobile game

Jaakko Iisalo

Rovio

Thomas & Friends

1946

 est. $8.75 billion

Retail sales – $8.73 billion[er]
Box office – $20 million[411]

Book

Wilbert Awdry  Christopher Awdry

Egmont Group  Mattel

Grand Theft Auto

1997

 est. $8.56 billion

Video games – $8.561 billion[d]

Computer game

David Jones  Mike Dailly

Rockstar Games  (Take-Two Interactive)

Despicable Me / Minions

2010

 est. $8.36 billion

Merchandise sales – $3.95 billion[es]
Box office – $3.72 billion[413]
DVD & Blu-ray sales – $686 million[413]

Animated film

Sergio Pablos

Illumination Entertainment  (Comcast)

Jurassic Park

1990

 est. $8.19 billion

Box office – $4.892 billion[414]
Retail sales – $3.3 billion[415]
Home video sales – $678 million[et]

Novel

Michael Crichton

Alfred A. Knopf (novel)  Universal Pictures (Comcast) (film)

Sesame Street / The Muppets

1966

 est. $7.91 billion

Merchandise sales – $7.839 billion[eu]
Box office – $452 million[419]
TV licensing – $96 million[420]
DVD & Blu-ray sales – $71 million[419]
VHS sales – $2 million[382]

Television series

Jim Henson  Joan Ganz Cooney  Lloyd Morrisett

The Muppets Studio  (The Walt Disney Company)  Sesame Workshop

Pirates of the Caribbean

2003

 est. $7.91 billion

Box office – $4.524 billion[421]
Home entertainment – $1.781 billion[ev]
Merchandise sales – $1.6 billion[424][ew]

Film

The Walt Disney Company

The Walt Disney Company

X-Men

1963

 est. $7.78 billion

Box office – $5.75 billion[425]
Retail sales – $900 million[46]
DVD & Blu-ray sales – $667 million[425]
Comic sales – $466.4 million[ex]

Comic book

Stan Lee  Jack Kirby

Marvel Entertainment  (The Walt Disney Company)

Pretty Cure / Glitter Force

2004

 est. $7.53 billion

Merchandise sales – $7.301 billion[ey]
Video games – $67.4 million[ez]
Anime box office – $161 million[j]

Anime

Izumi Todo  Toei Animation

Toei Company  Asahi Broadcasting Corporation  Asatsu-DK

Monster Strike

2013

 est. $7.25 billion

Video games – $7.236 billion[d]
Anime box office – $10 million[fa]

Mobile game

Yoshiki Okamoto

Mixi

Sonic the Hedgehog

1991

 est. $7.24 billion

Video games – $6.228 billion[d]
Merchandise sales – $1.005 billion[fb]
Comic sales – $7.8 million[fc]

Video game

Yuji Naka  Naoto Ohshima  Hirokazu Yasuhara

Sega  (Sega Sammy Holdings)

Bleach

2001

 est. $7.22 billion

Manga magazine – $6.168 billion[ac]
Manga volumes – $740 million[al]
Licensed merchandise – $260 million[fd]
Anime DVD & Blu-ray – $26 million[fe]
Box office – $25 million[ff]

Manga

Tite Kubo

Shueisha  (Hitotsubashi Group)  Pierrot

Puzzle & Dragons

2012

 est. $7.08 billion

Video games – $7.083 billion[d]

Mobile game

GungHo Online

GungHo Online

Doraemon

1969

 est. $6.85 billion

Licensed merchandise – $5.592 billion[fg]
Anime box office – $1.262 billion[j]

Manga

Fujiko F. Fujio

Shogakukan-Shueisha  (Hitotsubashi Group)

Ben 10

2005

 est. $6.68 billion

Retail sales – $6.681 billion[fh]

Animated series

Man of Action Studios

Cartoon Network (AT&T)  Bandai Namco Holdings (toys)

Sailor Moon

1991

 est. $6.64 billion[fi]

Merchandise sales – $5 billion[fj][440]
Home entertainment – $546.2 million[fk]
Manga magazine – $346 million[fm]
Video games – $210 million[fn]
Manga volumes – $175.5 million[fo]
Anime box office – $42.12 million[j]

Manga

Naoko Takeuchi

Kodansha  Toei Animation

Twilight

2005

 est. $6.39 billion

Box office – $3.344 billion[452]
Book sales – $1.661 billion[453]
DVD & Blu-ray sales – $948 million[454]
Merchandise sales – $395 million[453]
Video rentals – $45.4 million[453]

Novel

Stephenie Meyer

Little, Brown and Company  Summit Entertainment

Digimon

1997

 est. $6.36 billion

Licensed merchandise – $5.39 billion[fp]
Digital pets – $424.1 million[fq]
Manga & comic sales – $252 million[460][fr]
Box office – $143 million[fs]
Console games – $90.5 million[ft]
Home entertainment – $59.1 million[fu]

Digital pet

Akiyoshi Hongo  Toei Animation  Bandai

Toei Company  Bandai Namco Holdings

Tamagotchi

1996

 est. $6.2 billion

Digital pets – $2.955 billion[fv]
Licensed merchandise – $3.081 billion[fw]
Console games – $154 million[fx]
Box office – $6.8 million[468]

Digital pet

Aki Maita  Akihiro Yokoi  Bandai

Bandai Namco Holdings

Ice Age

2002

$6 billion[fy][469]

Box office – $2.9 billion[470]
Retail sales – $1.3 billion[470]

Animated film

Blue Sky Studios

20th Century Fox

Minecraft

2009

 est. $5.81 billion

Merchandise sales – $3.597 billion[fz]
Video games – $2.211 billion[d]

Computer game

Mojang

Microsoft Studios

Aladdin

1992

 est. $5.77 billion

Pachinko & arcades – $2.85 billion[be]
VHS sales – $1.182 billion[ga]
Box office – $504 million[476]
Merchandise sales – $500 million[477]
Broadway musical – $353 million[478]
Console games – $200 million[479]
DVD & Blu-ray sales – $130 million[gb]
Soundtrack album – $47 million[gd]

Animated film

Walt Disney Animation  Youhenna Diab

The Walt Disney Company  (franchise)  Sega Sammy Holdings  (games/pachinko)

The Phantom of the Opera

1986

 est. $5.76 billion

Musical theatre – $5.6 billion[484]
Box office – $155 million[485]

Musical theatre

Andrew Lloyd Webber

Andrew Lloyd Webber

Shrek

1990

 est. $5.74 billion

Box office – $3.547 billion[486]
Home entertainment – $1.922 billion[ge]
Merchandise sales – $275 million[29]

Novel

William Steig  DreamWorks Animation

Universal Pictures  (Comcast)

League of Legends

2009

 est. $5.69 billion

Computer games – $5.69 billion[d]

Computer game

Riot Games

Tencent Games

Fast & Furious

2001

 est. $5.59 billion

Box office – $5.139 billion[488]
DVD & Blu-ray sales – $449 million[488]

Film

Gary Scott Thompson

Universal Pictures  (Comcast)

Westward Journey

2001

 est. $5.55 billion

Video games – $5.55 billion[d]

Computer game

NetEase

NetEase

Resident Evil

1996

 est. $5.24 billion

Video games – $3.311 billion[d]
Box office – $1.237 billion[gf]
Pachinko sales – $520 million[be]
DVD & Blu-ray sales – $168 million[gh]

Video game

Shinji Mikami  Tokuro Fujiwara

Capcom

Case Closed / Detective Conan

1994

 est. $5.16 billion

Manga magazine – $3.077 billion[gj]
Manga volumes – $1.161 billion[gk]
Anime box office – $811 million[j]
Home entertainment – $108 million[gl]

Manga

Gosho Aoyama

Shogakukan  (Hitotsubashi Group)  TMS Entertainment  (Sega Sammy Holdings)

Halo

2001

 est. $5.011 billion

Games & hardware – $5 billion[493]
Anime DVD sales – $11 million[494]

Video game

Bungie

Microsoft

Mortal Kombat

1992

 $5 billion[gm][495]

Video games – $1.878 billion[d]
Box office – $173.6 million[496][497]

Arcade game

Midway Games Chicago  Ed Boon  John Tobias

Warner Bros. (AT&T)

A Song of Ice and Fire /  Game of Thrones

1996

 est. $4.98 billion

TV revenue – $4 billion[498]
Book sales – $700 million[gn]
DVD & Blu-ray sales – $280 million[go]
Box office – $1.9 million[508]

Novel

George R. R. Martin

Random House  WarnerMedia (AT&T)

DC Extended Universe

2013

 est. $4.919 billion

Box office – $3.768 billion[509]
Home video sales – $651 million[gp]
Merchandise sales – $500 million[512]

Film

DC Entertainment

DC Entertainment  (AT&T)

Slam Dunk

1990

 est. $4.81 billion

Manga magazine – $4.146 billion[ac]
Manga volumes – $591.4 million[am]
Anime box office – $48.1 million[gq]
Anime DVD & Blu-ray – $19 million[gr]

Manga

Takehiko Inoue

Shueisha  (Hitotsubashi Group)

Friends

1994

 est. $4.67 billion

TV syndication – $3.5 billion[gs]
TV advertising – $1.166 billion[gt]

Television series

David Crane  Marta Kauffman

Bright/Kauffman/Crane Productions

Beyblade

1999

 est. $4.6 billion

Merchandise sales – $4.6 billion[520][gu]
Box office – $9 million[gv]

Manga

Takao Aoki

Shogakukan  (Hitotsubashi Group)

The Big Bang Theory

2007

 est. $4.57 billion

TV advertising – $3.57 billion[gw]
TV syndication – $1 billion[524]

Television series

Chuck Lorre  Bill Prady

CBS Corporation  Warner Bros. (AT&T)

Kumamon

2010

 est. $4.53 billion

Retail sales – $4.46 billion[gx]
Anime box office – $65 million[gy]

Cartoon

Kumamoto Prefecture

Kumamoto Prefecture

Yo-kai Watch

2013

 est. $4.37 billion

Merchandise sales – $3.484 billion[gz]
Video games – $690 million[ha]
Anime box office – $159.2 million[j]
Pachinko sales – $135 million[be]
Home entertainment – $39 million[hb]

Video game

Level-5

Level-5  Nintendo

Assassin's Creed

2007

 est. $4.34 billion

Video games – $4.091 billion[d]
Box office – $241 million[537]
DVD & Blu-ray sales – $12.4 million[538]

Video game

Patrice Désilets  Jade Raymond  Corey May

Ubisoft

My Little Pony

1984

 est. $4.3 billion

Retail sales – $4.226 billion[hc]
Box office – $67.3 million[hd]
DVD & Blu-ray sales – $4.3 million[547]

Animated cartoon

Lauren Faust  Bonnie Zacherle

Hasbro

Rurouni Kenshin / Samurai X

1994

 est. $4.28 billion

Manga magazine – $3.736 billion[ac]
Manga volumes – $360 million[aq]
Box office – $134 million[he]
Anime video sales – $51 million[hf]

Manga

Nobuhiro Watsuki

Shueisha  (Hitotsubashi Group)

Hunter × Hunter

1998

 est. $4.15 billion

Manga magazine – $3.798 billion[ac]
Manga volumes – $324.1 million[ar]
Anime box office – $20.1 million[j]
Anime DVD & Blu-ray – $6.3 million[hg]

Manga

Yoshihiro Togashi

Shueisha  (Hitotsubashi Group)

Seinfeld

1989

 est. $4.06 billion

TV revenue – $4.06 billion[555][hh]

Television series

Larry David  Jerry Seinfeld

National Broadcasting Company  (Comcast)

The Hunger Games

2008

 est. $4.05 billion[hi]

Box office – $2.968 billion[557]
DVD & Blu-ray – $652 million[hj]

Novel

Suzanne Collins

Scholastic Corporation  Lionsgate

Mission: Impossible

1966

 $4 billion[hk][559]

Box office – $2.8 billion[560]
DVD & Blu-ray sales – $124 million[560]

Television series

Bruce Geller

Paramount Pictures  (Viacom)

Strawberry Shortcake

1979

 est. $4 billion

Retail sales – $4 billion[280]
DVD sales – $2.6 million[561]

Greeting card

American Greetings

American Greetings

Gran Turismo

1997

 est. $4 billion

Video games – $4 billion[562]

Video game

Kazunori Yamauchi  Polyphony Digital

Sony

Beauty and the Beast

1991

 est. $3.98 billion

Box office – $1.689 billion[hl]
Musical theatre – $1.6 billion[484]
VHS sales – $318 million[66]
DVD & Blu-ray – $305.7 million[hm]

Animated film

Don Hahn  Gabrielle-Suzanne de Villeneuve

The Walt Disney Company

Kinnikuman / Ultimate Muscle

1987

 est. $3.82 billion

Manga magazine – $3.387 billion[ac]
Manga volumes – $376 million[ap]
Anime box office – $27 million[j]
Anime DVD sales – $26 million[ho]

Manga

Yudetamago

Shueisha  (Hitotsubashi Group)  Toei Company

G.I. Joe

1942

 est. $3.7 billion

Merchandise sales – $2.9 billion[hp]
Box office – $678 million[571]
DVD & Blu-ray – $126 million[571]

Comic

Dave Breger

Hasbro

Candy Crush Saga

2012

 est. $3.68 billion

Mobile games – $3.681 billion[d]

Mobile game

King

King  (Activision Blizzard)

Disney Fairies

2005

 est. $3.59 billion

Retail sales – $3.097 billion[hq]
Box office – $191 million[hr]
Home entertainment – $302 million[hr]

Book

Andy Mooney  J. M. Barrie

The Walt Disney Company

Monster Hunter

2004

 est. $3.58 billion

Video games – $2.539 billion[d]
Pachinko sales – $900.1 million[be]
Licensed merchandise – $142 million[hs]

Video game

Capcom

Capcom

Lego Movie

2014

 est. $3.57 billion

Merchandise sales – $2.46 billion[ht]
Box office – $904 million[575]
DVD & Blu-ray sales – $202 million[576]

Animated film

Phil Lord  Christopher Miller

Warner Bros. (AT&T)  The Lego Group

Terminator

1984

 est. $3.52 billion[hu]

Box office – $1.843 billion[578]
Pachinko sales – $150 million[be]
VHS rentals – $70 million[580]
DVD & Blu-ray sales – $81 million[579]

Film

James Cameron  Gale Anne Hurd

Skydance Media

Magic: The Gathering

1993

 est. $3.52 billion

Card game – $3.498 billion[hv]
Computer game – $20.6 million[584]

Card game

Richard Garfield

Wizards of the Coast  (Hasbro)

Skylanders

2011

 $3.5 billion[hw][585]

Licensed merchandise – $1.858 billion[hx]

Video game

Toys for Bob

Activision   (Activision Blizzard)

The Wicked Years

1995

 est. $3.5 billion

Musical theatre – $3.499 billion[hy]

Novel

Gregory Maguire

HarperCollins

The Legend of Zelda

1986

 est. $3.44 billion

Video games – $3.253 billion[d]
Merchandise sales – $129 million[hz]
Manga sales – $54 million[ia]

Video game

Shigeru Miyamoto

Nintendo

Avatar

2009

 est. $3.34 billion

Box office – $2.788 billion[591]
DVD & Blu-ray sales – $399 million[592]
Merchandise sales – $153 million[593]

Film

James Cameron

20th Century Fox

Astro Boy

1952

 est. $3.15 billion

Merchandise sales – $3 billion[594]
Manga sales – $100.3 million[ib]
Box office – $42 million[597]
DVD & Blu-ray sales – $10.2 million[597]

Manga

Osamu Tezuka

Tezuka Productions

Tomb Raider

1996

 est. $3.12 billion

Video games – $2.08 billion[d]
Box office – $705 million[598]
Pachinko sales – $300 million[be]
DVD rentals – $36.6 million[599]

Video game

Core Design

Square Enix

Hamtaro

1997

 est. $3.11 billion

Retail sales – $3.109 billion[ic]

Manga

Ritsuko Kawai

Shogakukan  (Hitotsubashi Group)

Les Misérables

1980

 est. $3.12 billion

Musical theatre – $2.6 billion[484]
Box office – $442 million[601]
DVD & Blu-ray sales – $82 million[601]

Musical theatre

Alain Boublil  Victor Hugo

Cameron Mackintosh Overseas

Care Bears

1981

 est. $3.06 billion

Retail sales – $3 billion[602]
Box office – $52 million[id]

Greeting card

American Greetings

American Greetings


document_title: Song Beneath the Song

question_text: who sings universe and u grey's anatomy

question_tokens: who sings universe and u grey 's anatomy

root

text: Song Beneath the Song

text: Plot[edit]

text: En route to a weekend getaway, surgeons Arizona Robbins (Jessica Capshaw) and Callie Torres (Sara Ramirez) are involved in a vehicular collision, moments after Robbins proposes marriage. Torres suffers severe injuries, which endanger both her life and the life of her unborn child. She and Robbins are taken to Seattle Grace Mercy West Hospital, the institute at which they both work. Their colleagues attempt to save Torres, while Robbins and Mark Sloan (Eric Dane), the father of Torres's baby, stand by. Torres's many injuries include neurological trauma. While barely conscious, she hallucinates an uninjured version of herself standing beside her. The hallucinatory Torres begins to sing, and is gradually joined by the doctors treating her. This singing continues throughout the episode, as Torres's projection of herself attempts to reach out to Robbins.

tag: p

text: Torres goes into cardiac arrest and is taken into an operating room she is temporarily stabilized, pending further surgery. She is moved into intensive care, while neonatal surgeon Addison Montgomery (Kate Walsh) is flown in by helicopter in case the baby has to be delivered prematurely. Robbins and Sloan argue over Torres's treatment; Robbins believes that Torres would not risk endangering the baby, but Sloan argues for saving Torres at all costs. The attending surgeons devise a treatment plan, led by trauma surgeon Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd). As they do so, Torres dreams about the moments preceding the accident. Her dream self sings to Robbins, interspersed with shots of the hospital staff singing and dancing with their own partners. Dr. Cristina Yang (Sandra Oh) suggests treating Torres with a high-risk but potentially effective cardiothoracic procedure she learned from her old mentor, Preston Burke (Isaiah Washington). Her current mentor, Teddy Altman (Kim Raver), refuses to perform it, but when Torres's condition deteriorates and she is rushed back into surgery, Hunt agrees that Yang should attempt the procedure.

text: When Torres again goes into cardiac arrest, Montgomery delivers her daughter at twenty-three weeks's gestation. The baby is initially unable to breathe, so with Sloan's support, Robbins steps in and is able to revive her. Across the operating room, Torres's condition begins to improve. Once the surgery is complete, the doctors deal with their own affairs; Sloan's former partner Lexie Grey (Chyler Leigh) commits to her new relationship with resident Jackson Avery (Jesse Williams); Lexie's sister (and series main character) Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo, primary series star) confesses that she was jealous of Torres's pregnancy, which prompts her husband Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey) to promise that they will have a child together; Altman tells Yang that she can no longer teach her; Sloan and Robbins bond over their shared parenthood. Later, as Robbins keeps a vigil by Torres's bedside, the hallucinatory Torres is able to rouse her recovering self. As she regains consciousness, Torres accepts Robbins's proposal.

text: Production[edit]

text: Conception[edit]

text: Since Grey's Anatomy began, series creator Shonda Rhimes had planned to produce a musical episode. She first discussed the idea during filming of the pilot episode, when the program was as yet untitled.[1] Rhimes felt that seasons six and seven were the right time for the crew to "try anything and everything [they had] always wanted to do," and explained that she "finally [had] the right idea and the right talent to make [a musical episode] happen."[2] Filming began seven and a half years after Rhimes initially raised the idea.[1] The episode was shot in approximately two weeks.[3] Though cast member Dempsey jokingly referred to the episode as Glee M.D.,[4] Rhimes intended for it to differ from other musical television episodes.[2] She called it the opposite of "Once More, with Feeling," the "all-out, show-stopping," musical episode of Buffy the Vampire Slayer, as she aimed to "do something that was musical without being a musical."[2]

text: Rhimes said she had difficulty getting the network's permission. She added: "I begged the studio people. I begged the network people. I took these people to dinner and begged. I jumped out at these people in bathrooms and begged. And they all smiled politely but what they were clearly really thinking was, 'This woman is an idiot.'"[1]

text: Rhimes also told about delays in producing this episode:

text:
“

Explaining what the heck took us so long is too complicated to go into here. There are a lot of reasons – I was busy telling other awesome stories at Seattle Grace, [...] I was raising my tiny human, my musical talent involves oboe-playing and nothing else, the network thought it was the dumbest idea they’d ever heard of and refused to do it.[1]

”

tag: table

text: The script was written by Rhimes in November 2010. She centered the episode around Ramirez's character, Callie, and stated that the storyline would have developed regardless of whether it involved musical performances.[2] Sara Ramirez used the opportunity to launch her career as a singer-songwriter; an alternate version of "The Story" is included on her debut EP, released four days prior to the episode's premiere.[5] In this episode, Mark and Arizona improve their relationship. Capshaw said, "The traumatic circumstance leads to them having a greater understanding of each other and then appreciation, and then need for each other and desire to be in each other’s lives. They come to care, I think, for one another."[6]

text: Musical performances[edit]

text: Rhimes, executive producer Betsy Beers and director Tony Phelan selected songs that had become well-known by their use in Grey's Anatomy, and chose "the most iconic ones, the ones that best suited [their] singers, and the ones that made the most sense."[2][7] The multiple cover versions include the program's theme tune, "Cosy in the Rocket" by Psapp.[4] The primary vocalists are cast members Ramirez, McKidd, Leigh and Chandra Wilson.[8] The soundtrack also includes "How to Save a Life" by The Fray and "Running on Sunshine" by Jesus Jackson, performed as ensemble pieces by Ramirez, McKidd, Wilson, Leigh, Daniel Sunjata, Scott Foley, Ellen Pompeo, Justin Chambers, Raver, Dane, and Capshaw.[7][9] Ramirez, McKidd and Wilson also perform together on Snow Patrol's "Chasing Cars."[4] Ramirez is the lead vocalist on "The Story" by Brandi Carlile,[7] and "Grace" by Kate Havnevik, which also features the other female cast members, including Leigh and Sarah Drew on the chorus.[4][9] Capshaw duets with Ramirez on KT Tunstall's "Universe & U."[7] Wilson is the lead vocalist on "Wait" by Get Set Go, McKidd on "How We Operate" by Gomez, and Leigh on Anna Nalick's "Breathe (2 AM)."[7][9]

text:
When it first came up I was nervous, but at the same time I was just thinking, 'Hey, this is a really great opportunity for me to actually explore this side of me and be able to just let that go and have fun and know that I'm in a very safe and encouraging environment.' I was and I did and I had such a wonderful time.
Chyler Leigh's impressions on singing for the episode[10]

tag: div

text: Leigh said that some actors were not "excited" about singing but still could participate in the episode.[11] "There were certain ways in which the scenes were written, even if there was a song in there, that perhaps a line was spoken instead of sung," she said.[11]

text: A vocal coach was enlisted to help the cast.[10] Music director Chris Horvath was recruited to arrange the selected songs for the cast. The arrangements took around two months, with vocals recorded over four days in February 2011.[7][12] Horvath praised the cast's response to the episode, noting that only four performers had "serious vocal talent," while some had "barely sung in the shower" before.[7] Those with professional singing experience include Ramirez, who won a Tony Award for her role in the musical Spamalot, and Wilson, who appeared in the Broadway production of Caroline, or Change.[7] Cast members's reactions toward the episode varied. Pompeo initially deemed the idea "crazy," but changed her mind following the first read-through.[4] Recurring cast member Sunjata stated that singing was "a bit out of [his] comfort zone," but found it an "interesting challenge,"[13] and McKidd deemed it "very exciting to do something that's completely out on a limb for the show."[12]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Pre-broadcast commentary[edit]

text: Critical response prior to broadcast was mixed. TVLine's Michael Ausiello assessed that the episode would "either be a show-stopping triumph or a spectacular failure," with no possible middle ground.[14] William Keck of TV Guide initially had "serious doubts," which were allayed by a visit to the set, during which he listened to the soundtrack. Keck likened it to the "much-beloved early seasons of Grey's, when music played a vital role on the show."[4] Entertainment Weekly's Dan Snierson predicted heavy use of Auto Tune,[15] though fellow EW writer Jennifer Armstrong was optimistic that the episode would be a success, commenting: "I have faith. I like musicals, I like Grey's. I'm rooting for this to work."[16]

text: Ratings[edit]

text: During its original broadcast, "Song Beneath the Song" was watched by an average of 13.09 million American viewers. It attained a 4.9/13 Nielsen rating/share in the 18–49 demographic, making it the second highest-rated program of the night, behind only American Idol on the Fox network. The rating was the second highest of the seventh season until that point, and a 30 percent increase from the previous episode, "This is How We Do It," which was watched by 2.4 million fewer viewers.[17]

text: In Canada, where the episode also aired on March 31, 2011, it was watched by 3.18 million viewers. Viewership again increased on "This is How We Do It," which attained 2.63 million viewers. However, while the preceding episode was the most-viewed scripted show for the week of its original broadcast, "Song Beneath the Song" ranked second, behind The Big Bang Theory.[18][19]

text: Post-broadcast commentary[edit]

text: Following the first minutes of the drama, reactions on Twitter were mixed.[20] Nicole Golden from TV Fanatic gave the episode 4.5 stars out of 5.0. She found that "overall, the concept worked since music really has always played a big part in the show. Some songs were more appropriate and/or better performed than others, though." She also wrote the concept worked in part because it was new but noted "the format would probably not have the same effect if used in future episodes."[21] Even though Boston Herald's critic Mark Perigard was not a fan of the concept, saying "the Grey's Anatomy event proved how tricky it is for an established show, especially a drama, to pull off a musical episode," he did like several actors's performances. He wrote: "Chandra Wilson and Chyler Leigh (whom I never have anything good to say about) delivered some impressive vocal work. Eric Dane did some of his best acting of his career last night as an anxious father-to-be terrified he would lose his best friend."[22] Lyneka Little of The Wall Street Journal wrote, "If Glee and ER had a baby it would be tonight’s episode of the medical drama Grey’s Anatomy titled “Song Beneath the Song.”"[20] In his review of the episode Alan Sepinwall of HitFix wrote "Like Grey's Anatomy as a whole, some parts were unintentionally silly, others were surprisingly powerful, and it was rarely dull, at least."[23]

text:
Patrick Dempsey admitted that the musical episode might not have been showrunner Shonda Rhimes's best idea. He explained: "It's very difficult to keep it fresh when you're doing 24
episodes a year. Shonda Rhimes has a lot of ideas, and she is in a position where she can take more chances. Sometimes that works, sometimes it does not. Last year we had the singing episode, which I think was a big mistake. But you have to try."[24]

text: Accolades[edit]

text: In 2011, the episode was ranked number 19 on the TV Guide Network special, 25 Biggest TV Blunders 2.[25] It was included in TV Guide's list "The Worst of 2011" saying, "Sara Ramirez has powerhouse pipes, but what this episode desperately needed was a better playlist."[26] BuddyTV, however, ranked it number 43 on its list of 2011's 50 Best TV Episodes and it also appeared on Digital Spy's shortlist of "TV's Best Musical Episodes."[27][28] Supervising Music Editor Jennifer Barak and Music Editors Carli Barber and Jessica Harrison were nominated in the Best Sound Editing: Short Form Musical in Television category at the 2012 Golden Reel Awards for their work on the episode.[29]

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text:
Grey's Anatomy: The Music EventSoundtrack album by Grey's Anatomy CastReleased
March 31, 2011 (2011-03-31)Recorded
February 2011Length
35:48

text: Track listing[edit]

text: No.TitleWriter(s)Performer(s)Length1."Chasing Cars" (Original by Snow Patrol)Gary LightbodySara Ramirez, Kevin McKidd, Chandra Wilson4:112."Breathe" (Original by Anna Nalick)Anna NalickChyler Leigh4:363."How We Operate" (Original by Gomez)Ben OttewellKevin McKidd4:304."Wait" (Original by Get Set Go) Chandra Wilson, Sarah Drew, Chyler Leigh3:225."Runnin' on Sunshine" (Original by Jesus Jackson)Norman Cook, Roland ClarkSara Ramirez, Daniel Sunjata, Kevin McKidd, Scott Foley, Justin Chambers, Chandra Wilson, Jessica Capshaw, Kim Raver, Chyler Leigh, Ellen Pompeo, and Patrick Dempsey4:056."Universe & U" (Original by KT Tunstall)Tunstall, PleasureSara Ramirez, Jessica Capshaw4:057."Grace" (Original by Kate Havnevik)Kate HavnevikSara Ramirez, Sarah Drew, Chyler Leigh3:458."How to Save a Life" (Original by The Fray)Isaac Slade, Joe KingKevin McKidd, Kim Raver, Ellen Pompeo, Eric Dane, Chyler Leigh, Jessica Capshaw, Sara Ramirez, Chandra Wilson, Sarah Drew, Justin Chambers3:469."The Story" (Original by Brandi Carlile)Phil HanserothSara Ramirez3:28

text: Chart history[edit]

text: Grey's Anatomy: The Music Event debuted at number 24 on the Billboard 200, with 19,000 copies sold.[31] It reached number 2 on the U.S. Soundtracks chart, and was the number 5 Independent Album.[32] "The Story" entered the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart at number 69,[33] and the Canadian Hot 100 at 72.[34]


document_title: Main Tera Boyfriend

question_text: who is the singer of main tera boyfriend

text: Main Tera Boyfriend

text:
"Main Tera Boyfriend"Song by J Star (Original Version). Arijit Singh , Meet Bros , Neha Kakkar (Revamped version)from the album RaabtaGenre
Dance musicComposer(s)
Sohrabbudin (Original)Sourav Roy (Revamped).[1]Lyricist(s)
Jitendra Raghuvanshi (Original Version)Kumaar (Revamped version)[1]
Music video
"Main Tera Boyfriend" on YouTube

text: "Main Tera Boyfriend" is a dance song recorded by Meet Bros, Arijit Singh, and Neha Kakkar. The music video of the song stars Kriti Sanon and Sushant Singh Rajput. The song is from the Indian film Raabta.

text: The choreography was done by Ahmed Khan. It is a revamped version of J Star's 2015 chartbuster track "Na Na Na Na".[2][3]

text: Media coverage[edit]

text: India's leading newspaper and portal, the Daily News and Analysis's Prachita Pandey wrote: "It's so refreshing to hear Arijit Singh crooning something fun and peppy after a series of heartbreaking/slow/soft romantic numbers. He proves yet again that he can sing any song with utmost perfection. Neha Kakkar complements him well, but we felt her vocals to be a bit toned down in terms of energy. Meet brothers too have sung some additional portions in the song."[1]

text: "CNN-News18, described the song as the "Party Anthem of the Season".[4]


document_title: Entropy (order and disorder)

question_text: which law of thermodynamics states that the entropy or randomness of the universe is increasing

text: Entropy (order and disorder)

text: History[edit]

text: This "molecular ordering" entropy perspective traces its origins to molecular movement interpretations developed by Rudolf Clausius in the 1850s, particularly with his 1862 visual conception of molecular disgregation. Similarly, in 1859, after reading a paper on the diffusion of molecules by Clausius, Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell formulated the Maxwell distribution of molecular velocities, which gave the proportion of molecules having a certain velocity in a specific range. This was the first-ever statistical law in physics.[3]

text: In 1864, Ludwig Boltzmann, a young student in Vienna, came across Maxwell’s paper and was so inspired by it that he spent much of his long and distinguished life developing the subject further. Later, Boltzmann, in efforts to develop a kinetic theory for the behavior of a gas, applied the laws of probability to Maxwell's and Clausius' molecular interpretation of entropy so to begin to interpret entropy in terms of order and disorder. Similarly, in 1882 Hermann von Helmholtz used the word "Unordnung" (disorder) to describe entropy.[4]

text: Overview[edit]

text: To highlight the fact that order and disorder are commonly understood to be measured in terms of entropy, below are current science encyclopedia and science dictionary definitions of entropy:

text:
A measure of the unavailability of a system’s energy to do work; also a measure of disorder; the higher the entropy the greater the disorder.[5]
A measure of disorder; the higher the entropy the greater the disorder.[6]
In thermodynamics, a parameter representing the state of disorder of a system at the atomic, ionic, or molecular level; the greater the disorder the higher the entropy.[7]
A measure of disorder in the universe or of the unavailability of the energy in a system to do work.[8]

tag: ul

text: Entropy and disorder also have associations with equilibrium.[9] Technically, entropy, from this perspective, is defined as a thermodynamic property which serves as a measure of how close a system is to equilibrium — that is, to perfect internal disorder.[2] Likewise, the value of the entropy of a distribution of atoms and molecules in a thermodynamic system is a measure of the disorder in the arrangements of its particles.[10] In a stretched out piece of rubber, for example, the arrangement of the molecules of its structure has an “ordered” distribution and has zero entropy, while the “disordered” kinky distribution of the atoms and molecules in the rubber in the non-stretched state has positive entropy. Similarly, in a gas, the order is perfect and the measure of entropy of the system has its lowest value when all the molecules are in one place, whereas when more points are occupied the gas is all the more disorderly and the measure of the entropy of the system has its largest value.[10]

text: In systems ecology, as another example, the entropy of a collection of items comprising a system is defined as a measure of their disorder or equivalently the relative likelihood of the instantaneous configuration of the items.[11] Moreover, according to theoretical ecologist and chemical engineer Robert Ulanowicz, “that entropy might provide a quantification of the heretofore subjective notion of disorder has spawned innumerable scientific and philosophical narratives.”[11][12] In particular, many biologists have taken to speaking in terms of the entropy of an organism, or about its antonym negentropy, as a measure of the structural order within an organism.[11]

text:
The mathematical basis with respect to the association entropy has with order and disorder began, essentially, with the famous Boltzmann formula,

S
=

k

B

ln

W

{\displaystyle S=k_{\mathrm {B} }\ln W\!}

, which relates entropy S to the number of possible states W in which a system can be found.[13] As an example, consider a box that is divided into two sections. What is the probability that a certain number, or all of the particles, will be found in one section versus the other when the particles are randomly allocated to different places within the box? If you only have one particle, then that system of one particle can subsist in two states, one side of the box versus the other. If you have more than one particle, or define states as being further locational subdivisions of the box, the entropy is larger because the number of states is greater. The relationship between entropy, order, and disorder in the Boltzmann equation is so clear among physicists that according to the views of thermodynamic ecologists Sven Jorgensen and Yuri Svirezhev, “it is obvious that entropy is a measure of order or, most likely, disorder in the system.”[13] In this direction, the second law of thermodynamics, as famously enunciated by Rudolf Clausius in 1865, states that:

text:
“
The entropy of the universe tends to a maximum.
”

text: Thus, if entropy is associated with disorder and if the entropy of the universe is headed towards maximal entropy, then many are often puzzled as to the nature of the "ordering" process and operation of evolution in relation to Clausius' most famous version of the second law, which states that the universe is headed towards maximal “disorder”. In the recent 2003 book SYNC – the Emerging Science of Spontaneous Order by Steven Strogatz, for example, we find “Scientists have often been baffled by the existence of spontaneous order in the universe. The laws of thermodynamics seem to dictate the opposite, that nature should inexorably degenerate toward a state of greater disorder, greater entropy. Yet all around us we see magnificent structures—galaxies, cells, ecosystems, human beings—that have all somehow managed to assemble themselves.” [14]

text: The common argument used to explain this is that, locally, entropy can be lowered by external action, e.g. solar heating action, and that this applies to machines, such as a refrigerator, where the entropy in the cold chamber is being reduced, to growing crystals, and to living organisms.[2] This local increase in order is, however, only possible at the expense of an entropy increase in the surroundings; here more disorder must be created.[2][15] The conditioner of this statement suffices that living systems are open systems in which both heat, mass, and or work may transfer into or out of the system. Unlike temperature, the putative entropy of a living system would drastically change if the organism were thermodynamically isolated. If an organism was in this type of “isolated” situation, its entropy would increase markedly as the once-living components of the organism decayed to an unrecognizable mass.[11]

text: Phase change[edit]

text: Owing to these early developments, the typical example of entropy change ΔS is that associated with phase change. In solids, for example, which are typically ordered on the molecular scale, usually have smaller entropy than liquids, and liquids have smaller entropy than gases and colder gases have smaller entropy than hotter gases. Moreover, according to the third law of thermodynamics, at absolute zero temperature, crystalline structures are approximated to have perfect "order" and zero entropy. This correlation occurs because the numbers of different microscopic quantum energy states available to an ordered system are usually much smaller than the number of states available to a system that appears to be disordered.

text: From his famous 1896 Lectures on Gas Theory, Boltzmann diagrams the structure of a solid body, as shown above, by postulating that each molecule in the body has a "rest position". According to Boltzmann, if it approaches a neighbor molecule it is repelled by it, but if it moves farther away there is an attraction. This, of course was a revolutionary perspective in its time; many, during these years, did not believe in the existence of either atoms or molecules (see: history of the molecule).[16] According to these early views, and others such as those developed by William Thomson, if energy in the form of heat is added to a solid, so to make it into a liquid or a gas, a common depiction is that the ordering of the atoms and molecules becomes more random and chaotic with an increase in temperature:

text: Thus, according to Boltzmann, owing to increases in thermal motion, whenever heat is added to a working substance, the rest position of molecules will be pushed apart, the body will expand, and this will create more molar-disordered distributions and arrangements of molecules. These disordered arrangements, subsequently, correlate, via probability arguments, to an increase in the measure of entropy.[17]

text: Adiabatic demagnetization[edit]

text: In the quest for ultra-cold temperatures, a temperature lowering technique called adiabatic demagnetization is used, where atomic entropy considerations are utilized which can be described in order-disorder terms.[18] In this process, a sample of solid such as chrome-alum salt, whose molecules are equivalent to tiny magnets, is inside an insulated enclosure cooled to a low temperature, typically 2 or 4 kelvins, with a strong magnetic field being applied to the container using a powerful external magnet, so that the tiny molecular magnets are aligned forming a well-ordered "initial" state at that low temperature. This magnetic alignment means that the magnetic energy of each molecule is minimal.[19] The external magnetic field is then reduced, a removal that is considered to be closely reversible. Following this reduction, the atomic magnets then assume random less-ordered orientations, owing to thermal agitations, in the "final" state:

text: The "disorder" and hence the entropy associated with the change in the atomic alignments has clearly increased.[18] In terms of energy flow, the movement from a magnetically aligned state requires energy from the thermal motion of the molecules, converting thermal energy into magnetic energy.[19] Yet, according to the second law of thermodynamics, because no heat can enter or leave the container, due to its adiabatic insulation, the system should exhibit no change in entropy, i.e. ΔS = 0. The increase in disorder, however, associated with the randomizing directions of the atomic magnets represents an entropy increase? To compensate for this, the disorder (entropy) associated with the temperature of the specimen must decrease by the same amount.[18] The temperature thus falls as a result of this process of thermal energy being converted into magnetic energy. If the magnetic field is then increased, the temperature rises and the magnetic salt has to be cooled again using a cold material such as liquid helium.[19]

text: Difficulties with the term "disorder"[edit]

text: In recent years the long-standing use of term "disorder" to discuss entropy has met with some criticism.[20][21][22]


document_title: List of Greek dishes

question_text: greek meat dish served in a pita with tzatziki

text: List of Greek dishes

text: Salads, spreads, dips[edit]

text:
Name
Image
Description

Greek salad (χωριάτικη σαλάτα)

Greek salad consists of tomatoes, sliced cucumbers, onion, feta cheese, and olives (usually Kalamata olives), typically seasoned with salt and oregano, and dressed with olive oil. Sliced capsicum, usually green, is often added also.

Dakos (ντάκος)

Dry barley rusk, soaked in olive oil and topped with diced tomatoes, herbs, and feta cheese. Capers are often added also

Taramosalata (ταραμοσαλάτα)

Fish roe, breadcrumbs, olive oil, lemon juice.

Tirokafteri (τυροκαυτερή)

Sometimes written 'tyrokafteri'. A spread or dip of feta cheese, roasted red peppers, and (rarely) garlic. Can be spicy hot or mild.

Tzatziki (τζατζίκι)

Dip made from combining yogurt, cucumber, and (usually) garlic. Dill is sometimes added according to people's tastes. Olive oil is typically added.

Skordalia (σκορδαλιά)

A purée that typically accompanies fried cod (called bakaliaros or μπακαλιάρος) and in some cases, salads. The main ingredients are potato, garlic, olive oil and vinegar.

text: Appetizers[edit]

text:
Name
Image
Description

Florina peppers (πιπεριές Φλωρίνης)

Roasted red bell peppers dressed with olive oil and vinegar. Often stuffed with such things as feta cheese and herbs

Fried squid (καλαμαράκια τηγανιτ

Batter-coated, deep fried squid, served plain, with salt and lemon on the side.

Kolokythoanthoi (κολοκυθοανθοί)

Fried zucchini flowers often stuffed with rice and various herbs and spices.

Kolokythakia (κολοκυθάκια τηγανιτά)

Fried zucchini, typically accompanied with tzatziki

Lakerda (λακέρδα)

Salted bonito

Loukaniko (χωριάτικο λουκάνικο)

Sausage made from pork and/or lamb. Typically flavoured with orange zest or leeks.

Octopus (χταπόδι)

Usually grilled and served as a mezze or as a main dish. Dressed with lemon juice.

Pita (πίτα)

Several styles of pita are found all over Greece, with fillings such as cheese (τυρόπιτα), spinach (σπανακόπιτα), leek (πρασόπιτα), onions (κρεμμυδόπιτα), minced meat (κρεατόπιτα), and custard (γαλατόπιτα).

Spanakopita (σπανακόπιτα)

A filo pastry pie of spinach and feta cheese filling.

Tiropita (τυρόπιτα)

Tiropita or tyropita is a Greek layered pastry pie of a (feta) cheese filling.

text: Soups[edit]

text:
Name
Image
Description

Fakes (φακές σούπα) or Faki (φακή)

A popular lentil soup usually served with vinegar and olives and/or smoked herring (kipper).

Fasolada (φασολάδα)

A popular bean soup considered the traditional Greek dish. It is typically made from various beans, tomatoes, carrot, onion, celery, dried herbs, and plenty of olive oil.

Kotosoupa (κοτόσουπα)

A hearty chicken soup with pieces of chicken, thin pasta called fides (φιδές), and a rich flavoured broth. Vegetables are not commonly added.

Hortosoupa (χορτόσουπα)

A mixture of a variety of vegetables. Main ingredients are carrot, cabbage, zucchini, onions and potato. Sometimes served with cheese or yogurt.[1]

Magiritsa (μαγειρίτσα)

A traditional Easter soup made with lamb offal and thickened with avgolemono. Endives and dill are commonly added.

Patsas (πατσάς)

A tripe soup.

Psarosoupa (ψαρόσουπα) or kakavia (κακαβιά) as it is known on some Greek islands

Various fish soups, using various fish and possibly vegetables (carrots, parsley, celery, potatoes, onion),

Revithia (ρεβύθια)

A chickpea soup.

Avgolemono (αβγολέμονο)

A traditional soup commonly consumed on Easter.

text: Vegetarian and non-meat dishes[edit]

text: Very popular during fasting periods, such as the Great Lent:

text:
Name
Image
Description

Anginares a la Polita (αγκινάρες αλά πολίτα)

Artichokes with olive oil.

Arakas me aginares (αρακάς με αγκινάρες)

Fresh peas and artichokes mixed together. The artichokes can be substituted with potatoes, and carrot is also typically added.

Bamies (μπάμιες)

Okra with tomato sauce, often with potatoes and/or some type of meat.

Briám (μπριάμ)

An oven-baked ratatouille of summer vegetables based on sliced potatoes and zucchini in olive oil. Usually includes eggplant, tomatoes, onions, and ample aromatic herbs and seasonings.

Fasolakia (φασολάκια)

Fresh green beans stewed in tomato sauce. Some people might also add potatoes, carrots, and/or zucchini.

Gigandes plaki (γίγαντες πλακί)

Baked beans with tomato sauce and various herbs.[2] Often made spicy with various peppers.

Hilopites (χυλόπιτες)

Greek egg pasta.

Horta (χόρτα)

Quite often consumed as a (very) light main meal, and sometimes served with boiled potatoes and bread.

Lachanorizo (λαχανόριζο)

Cabbage with rice

Manestra (μανέστρα)

A form of short-cut pasta, identical to risoni. It can be served alone, as a soup accompaniment, as part of a salad, or baked in a casserole.

Omeletta (ομελέτα)

A fried egg cooked with vegetables such as spinach, peppers and onions then cheese.

Prassorizo (πρασόρυζο)

Leeks and rice stew cooked in lemon juice and olive oil.

Spanakorizo (σπανακόρυζο)

Spinach and rice stew cooked in lemon juice and olive oil. Lamb can often be added.

Strapatsada (στραπατσάδα)

Greek-style scrambled eggs and tomato.

Tsouknidopita (τσουκνιδόπιτα)

Nettle pie with filo pastry, (sheep's milk) butter and feta cheese

Yemista (γεμιστά)

Baked stuffed vegetables. Usually tomatoes, peppers, or other vegetables such as potato and zucchini, hollowed out and baked with a rice and herb filling. Minced meat is also commonly used in the filling.

text: Meat and fish dishes[edit]

text:
Name
Image
Description

Baked lamb with potatoes (αρνί στο φούρνο με πατάτες)

A common Greek dish. There are many variations with additional ingredients.

Giouvetsi (γιουβέτσι)

Baked lamb in a clay pot with kritharaki (a Greek pasta identical to risoni or orzo)

Gyros (γύρος)

Meat roasted and sliced on a turning spit, typically served with sauces like tzatziki and garnishes (tomato, onions) on pita bread (a popular fast food in Greece and Cyprus).

Kotopoulo me ryzi (κοτόπουλο με ρύζι)

Chicken with rice

Kreatopita (κρεατόπιτα)

Meat pie using lamb, goat, or pork mince (or a combination thereof) with rice and a light tomato sauce wrapped in pastry kneaded with white wine. Popular dish on the island of Kefalonia.

Kleftiko (κλέφτικο)

Literally meaning of the klephts, this Cypriot dish is lamb slow-baked on the bone, first marinated in garlic and lemon juice, originally cooked in a pit oven. It is often baked with potatoes.

Kokkinisto (κοκκινιστό)

Kokkinisto means 'reddened', and is a family of meat stews with tomatoes.

Kokoretsi (κοκορέτσι)

Seasoned lamb innards

Keftedakia (κεφτέδες, κεφτεδάκια)

Meatballs, either fried or oven-baked, seasoned with salt and spices, typically oregano and mint. Some people add grated carrots and/or capsicum along with onions to the mixture.

Makaronia me kima

Pasta topped with saltsa kima

Moussaka (μουσακάς)

Casserole made of (typically fried) aubergine, potato, and spiced minced meat. There are other, less common variations besides eggplant, such as zucchini.

Mydia (μύδια)

Mussels

Païdakia (παϊδάκια)

Grilled lamb chops with lemon, oregano, salt and pepper.

Pastitsio (παστίτσιο)

A baked pasta dish with a filling of ground, spiced minced meat and a Bechamel sauce topping.

Safridia (σαφρίδια)

Mackerel is a fish high in oils and as it is grilled, the skin has a hint of a smoky flavour.

Soutzoukakia Smyrneika (σουτζουκάκια σμυρνέικα)

Sausages made from minced meat in a red wine sauce.

Snails (σαλιγκάρια)

In Greece and Italy snails are eaten in a diversity of dishes and sometimes they are even used in sauces and poured over various types of pasta. On Crete, one popular dish is snails in tomato sauce.

Souvlaki (σουβλάκι)

(Lit: 'little skewer') Anything grilled on a skewer (lamb, chicken, pork, swordfish, shrimp). Most common is lamb, pork, and chicken, typically marinated in oil, salt, pepper, oregano and lemon. Also known as kalamaki (καλαμάκι)

Spetsofai (σπετσοφάι)

A dish made from country-style sausages, peppers, onions and wine. Originates from Mt. Pelion.

Stifado (στιφάδο)

Game (rabbit, venison etc.) stew with pearl onions, red wine and cinnamon.

Swordfish

Swordfish is generally grilled.

text: Desserts and sweets[edit]

text:
Name
Image
Description

Bougatsa (μπουγάτσα)

Pastry consisting of either vanilla custard or (salty) cheese filling between layers of phyllo.

Diples (δίπλες)

A Christmas and wedding delicacy made of thin, sheet-like dough which is cut in large squares and dipped in a swirling fashion in a pot of hot olive oil for a few seconds. As the dough fries, it stiffens into a helical tube; it is then removed immediately and sprinkled with a great amount of honey and crushed walnuts. Originates from Crete.[3]

Fanouropita (φανουρόπιτα)

A kind of spicebread with ground cloves and cinnamon, resembling a sweet bread rather than a cake. Baked typically on the feast day of Saint Fanourios (August 27), after who it is named.

Finikia (φοινίκια)

The basic ingredients for finikia involve varieties of flour and butter, as well as sugar. Many varieties of this dish exist, including citrus flavourings.

Galaktoboureko (γαλακτομπούρεκο)

Custard between layers of filo.

Karydopita (καρυδόπιτα)

A soft walnut cake flavoured with various spices.

Koulourakia (κουλουράκια)

Butter or olive-oil cookies, typically baked for Easter.

Kourabiedes (κουραμπιέδες)

Christmas cookies made by kneading flour, butter and crushed roasted almonds, then generously dusted with powdered sugar. Can also be baked for Easter.

Lazarakia (λαζαράκια)

Lazarákia are small, sweet spice breads made on Lazarus Saturday, the Saturday that begins Holy Week.

Melitinia cookies

These sweet cheese pastries originated in the Cyclades. Soft myzithra goat's milk cheese is typically used as a filling, but ricotta can also be used as a substitute.

Melomakarona (μελομακάρονα)

"Honey macaroons" which are cookies soaked in a syrup of diluted honey (μέλι or meli in Greek, thus melo-makarona), then sprinkled with crushed walnuts. Typically baked for Easter and Christmas.

Moustalevria (μουσταλευριά)

A flour and grape must pudding. Typically found in Cyprus.

Moustokouloura (μουστοκούλουρα)

Cookies of flour kneaded with fresh grape must instead of water.

Rizogalo (ρυζόγαλο)

Literally meaning 'rice-milk', this is the Greek version of rice pudding. Commonly sprinkled with cinnamon.

Milopita (μηλόπιτα)

Apple pie with cinnamon and powdered sugar.

Pasteli (παστέλι)

Pasteli are sesame seed candy made from sesame seeds, sugar, and/or honey pressed into a bar. Typically found on the Greek islands.

Spoon sweets (γλυκά του κουταλιού)

Made of various fruits, ripe or unripe, or green unripe nuts. Spoon sweets are essentially made the same way as marmalade, except that the fruit are boiled whole or in large chunks. One particular type of spoon sweet, called υποβρύχιο (literally meaning submarine), is made from mastic, which is found on the island of Chios.

Tsoureki (τσουρέκι)

An Easter sweet bread also known as Lambropsomo (λαμπρόψωμο or Easter bread), flavoured with "mahlepi", the intensely aromatic extract of the stone of the St. Lucie Cherry. It is commonly adorned with almond flakes and red-dyed eggs, according to Easter tradition.

Vasilopita (βασιλόπιτα)

Saint Basil's cake or King's cake, traditionally prepared for New Year's Day. Vasilopites are often baked with a coin inside, and whoever comes across the coin in their slice is considered to have God's blessing for the new year.

Loukoumades (λουκουμάδες)

Friged balls of dough that are often spiced with cinamon and drizzled with honey.

text: Cheeses[edit]

text: There is a wide variety of cheeses made in various regions across Greece. The vast majority of them are unknown outside Greece. Many artisanal hand made cheeses, both common varieties and local specialties, are produced by small family farms throughout Greece and offer distinct flavors. A good list of some of the varieties of cheese produced and consumed in Greece can be found in the List of cheeses article, under the name of the country. Here are some of the more popular throughout Greece:

text:
Name
Image
Description

Anthotyros

Formaela

Feta

Feta is a white salty Greek cheese made from the milk of ewes or goats.

Graviera

Graviera is one of the most popular cheeses in Crete. It is a hard cheese with a light yellow color, and has a slightly sweet and nutty taste. The Cretan version (there is also a graviera made in Naxos) is made from sheep's milk, or sheep's milk with a small amount of goat's milk.

Kasseri

Kasseri is a medium-hard pale yellow cheese made from unpasteurized sheep's milk with very little, if any, goat's milk mixed in.

Kefalotyri

Kefalotyri or kefalotiri is a hard, salty yellow cheese made from sheep milk and/or goat's milk in Greece and Cyprus.

Kefalograviera

Kefalograviera is a hard table cheese usually produced from sheep's milk or mixture of sheep's and goat's milk.

Myzithra

Mizithra or Myzithra is a fresh cheese made with milk and whey from sheep and/or goats. The ratio of milk to whey usually is 7 to 3.

Manouri

Manouri is a Greek semi-soft, fresh white whey cheese made from goat or sheep milk as a by-product following the production of feta. It is produced primarily in Thessalia and Macedonia in central and northern Greece.

Metsovone

Metsovone is a semi-hard smoked pasta filata cheese produced in the region of Metsovo. Metsovone has been a European protected designation of origin since 1996. Metsovone is manufactured from cow’s milk or a mixture of cow and sheep or goat milk.

text: Drinks[edit]

text:
Name
Image
Description

Beer

Widely drunk; common brands include Vergina, Heineken, Amstel, Zeos, Mythos, Alfa Hellenic Lager, Fix, Henninger, and Kaiser, all of which are produced locally, some under license.

Greek coffee (ελληνικός καφές)

A strong coffee brewed in a briki (μπρίκι) and served with a glass of water.

Greek frappé coffee (φραπέ)

A foam-covered drink derived from spray-dried instant coffee that is consumed cold.

Mavrodafni (μαυροδάφνη Πατρών)

Sweet, liquor-style, red wine with higher alcohol percentage than normal. This dessert wine originated in the city of Patras.

Mastichato (μαστιχάτο)

Mastika is a liquor seasoned with mastic, a resin gathered from the mastic tree, a small evergreen tree native to the island of Chios.

Metaxa

A brand of sweet brandy, 40% alcohol content.

Ouzo (ούζο)

An 80-proof clear alcoholic beverage that is flavored with anise; it turns milky white with water or ice.

Retsina (ρετσίνα)

A white wine with pine resin added; a specialty in North Greece (Thessaloniki). It is invariably drunk young.

Tentura (τεντούρα)

A cinnamon flavored liquor from Patras.

Tsipouro (τσίπουρο) or tsikoudia/raki (ρακή) (Crete)

Often home-brewed, a clear drink produced from grape pomace, often with higher alcohol content, and usually not flavored with herbs. The city of Volos at the centre of Greece is well known for its Tsipouradika (literally: tsipouro places). In Thessaly tsipouro is always flavored with anise.The Cypriot version is called Zivania using pomace from Xynisteri and Mavro grapes sometimes flavored with cinnamon.

Wine

The most common drink in Greece. Legend claims that wine was invented on the island of Icaria.

Commandaria

Fortified Wine described by Hesiod in ancient times produced in Cyprus and used by during Holy Communion.


document_title: Epidermis (botany)

question_text: what type of division makes possible the development of multilayered epidermis

text: Epidermis (botany)

text: Description[edit]

text: The epidermis is the outermost cell layer of the primary plant body. In some older works the cells of the leaf epidermis have been regarded as specialised parenchyma cells,[1] but the established modern preference has long been to classify the epidermis as dermal tissue, whereas parenchyma is classified as ground tissue.[2] The epidermis is the main component of the dermal tissue system of leaves (diagrammed below), and also stems, roots, flowers, fruits, and seeds; it is usually transparent (epidermal cells have fewer chloroplasts or lack them completely, except for the guard cells.)

text: The cells of the epidermis are structurally and functionally variable. Most plants have an epidermis that is a single cell layer thick. Some plants like Ficus elastica and Peperomia, which have periclinal cellular division within the protoderm of the leaves, have an epidermis with multiple cell layers. Epidermal cells are tightly linked to each other and provide mechanical strength and protection to the plant. The walls of the epidermal cells of the above ground parts of plants contain cutin, and are covered with a cuticle.  The cuticle reduces water loss to the atmosphere, it is sometimes covered with wax in smooth sheets,  granules, plates, tubes or filaments. The wax layers give some plants a whitish or bluish surface color. Surface wax acts as a moisture barrier and protects the plant from intense sunlight and wind.[3] The underside of many leaves have a thinner cuticle than the top side, and leaves of plants from dry climates often have thickened cuticles to conserve water by reducing transpiration.[citation needed]

text: The epidermal tissue includes several differentiated cell types: epidermal cells, guard cells, subsidiary cells, and epidermal hairs (trichomes). The epidermal cells are the most numerous, largest, and least specialized. These are typically more elongated in the leaves of monocots than in those of dicots.

text: Trichomes or hairs grow out from the epidermis in many species. In root epidermis, epidermal hairs, termed root hairs are common and are specialized for absorption of water and mineral nutrients.

text: In plants with secondary growth, the epidermis of roots and stems is usually replaced by a periderm through the action of a cork cambium.

text: Guard cells[edit]

text:
The leaf and stem epidermis is covered with pores called stomata (sing., stoma), part of a stoma complex consisting of a pore surrounded on each side by chloroplast-containing guard cells, and two to four subsidiary cells that lack chloroplasts. The stomata complex regulates the exchange of gases and water vapor between the outside air and the interior of the leaf.  Typically, the stomata are more numerous over the abaxial (lower) epidermis of the leaf than the (adaxial) upper epidermis. An exception is floating leaves where most or all stomata are on the upper surface. Vertical leaves, such as those of many grasses, often have roughly equal numbers of stomata on both surfaces.
The stoma is bounded by two guard cells. The guard cells differ from the epidermal cells in the following aspects:

text:
The guard cells are bean-shaped in surface view, while the epidermal cells are irregular in shape
The guard cells contain chloroplasts, so they can manufacture food by photosynthesis (The epidermal cells do not contain chloroplasts)
Guard Cells are the only epidermal cells that can make sugar. According to one theory, in sunlight the concentration of potassium ions (K+) increases in the guard cells. This, together with the sugars formed, lowers the water potential in the guard cells. As a result, water from other cells enter the guard cells by osmosis so they swell and become turgid. Because the guard cells have a thicker cellulose wall on one side of the cell, i.e. the side around the stomatal pore, the swollen guard cells become curved and pull the stomata open.

text: At night, the sugar is used up and water leaves the guard cells, so they become flaccid and the stomatal pore closes. In this way, they reduce the amount of water vapour escaping from the leaf.

text: Cell differentiation in the epidermis[edit]

text: This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The plant epidermis consists of three main cell types: pavement cells, guard cells and their subsidiary cells that surround the stomata and trichomes, otherwise known as leaf hairs. The epidermis of petals also form a variation of trichomes called conical cells.[citation needed]

text: Trichomes develop at a distinct phase during leaf development, under the control of two major trichome specification genes: TTG and GL1. The process may be controlled by the plant hormones gibberellins, and even if not completely controlled, gibberellins certainly have an effect on the development of the leaf hairs. GL1 causes endoreplication, the replication of DNA without subsequent cell division as well as cell expansion. GL1 turns on the expression of a second gene for trichome formation, GL2, which controls the final stages of trichome formation causing the cellular outgrowth.

text: Arabidopsis thaliana uses the products of inhibitory genes to control the patterning of trichomes, such as TTG and TRY. The products of these genes will diffuse into the lateral cells, preventing them from forming trichomes and in the case of TRY promoting the formation of pavement cells.

text: Expression of the gene MIXTA, or its analogue in other species, later in the process of cellular differentiation will cause the formation of conical cells over trichomes. MIXTA is a transcription factor.

text: Stomatal patterning is a much more controlled process, as the stoma effect the plants water retention and respiration capabilities. As a consequence of these important functions, differentiation of cells to form stomata is also subject to environmental conditions to a much greater degree than other epidermal cell types.

text: Stomata are pores in the plant epidermis that are surrounded by two guard cells, which control the opening and closing of the aperture. These guard cells are in turn surrounded by subsidiary cells which provide a supporting role for the guard cells.

text: Stomata begin as stomatal meristemoids.[clarification needed] The process varies between dicots and monocots. Spacing is thought to be essentially random in dicots though mutants do show it is under some form of genetic control, but it is more controlled in monocots, where stomata arise from specific asymmetric divisions of protoderm cells. The smaller of the two cells produced becomes the guard mother cells. Adjacent epidermal cells will also divide asymmetrically to form the subsidiary cells.

text: Because stomata play such an important role in the plants survival, collecting information on their differentiation is difficult by the traditional means of genetic manipulation, as stomatal mutants tend to be unable to survive. Thus the control of the process is not well understood. Some genes have been identified. TMM is thought to control the timing of stomatal initiation specification and FLP is thought to be involved in preventing further division of the guard cells once they are formed.

text: Environmental conditions affect the development of stomata, in particular their density on the leaf surface. It is thought that plant hormones, such as ethylene and cytokines, control the stomatal developmental response to the environmental conditions. Accumulation of these hormones appears to cause increased stomatal density such as when the plants are kept in closed environments.