document_title: Bt cotton

question_text: bt-cotton is genetically engineered by inserting a gene from a

text: Bt cotton

text: Description[edit]

text: Strains of the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis produce over 200 different Bt toxins, each harmful to different insects. Most notably, Bt toxins are insecticidal to the larvae of moths and butterflies, beetles, cotton bollworms and ghtu flies but are harmless to other forms of life.[1] The gene coding for Bt toxin has been inserted into cotton as a transgene, causing it to produce this natural insecticide in its tissues. In many regions, the main pests in commercial cotton are lepidopteran larvae, which are killed by the Bt protein in the genetically modified cotton they eat. This eliminates the need to use large amounts of broad-spectrum insecticides to kill lepidopteran pests (some of which have developed pyrethroid resistance). This spares natural insect predators in the farm ecology and further contributes to noninsecticide pest management.

text: Bt cotton is ineffective against many cotton pests such as plant bugs, stink bugs, and aphids; depending on circumstances it may be desirable to use insecticides in prevention. A 2006 study done by Cornell researchers, the Center for Chinese Agricultural Policy and the Chinese Academy of Science on Bt cotton farming in China found that after seven years these secondary pests that were normally controlled by pesticide had increased, necessitating the use of pesticides at similar levels to non-Bt cotton and causing less profit for farmers because of the extra expense of GM seeds.[2]

text: Mechanism[edit]

text: Bt cotton was created through the addition of genes encoding toxin crystals in the Cry group of endotoxin.[1] When insects attack and eat the cotton plant the Cry toxins are dissolved due to the high pH level of the insect's stomach. The dissolved and activated Cry molecules bond to cadherin-like proteins on cells comprising the brush border molecules.[1] The epithelium of the brush border membranes separates the body cavity from the gut while allowing access for nutrients. The Cry toxin molecules attach themselves to specific locations on the cadherin-like proteins present on the epithelial cells of the midge and ion channels are formed which allow the flow of potassium.[1] Regulation of potassium concentration is essential and, if left unchecked, causes death of cells. Due to the formation of Cry ion channels sufficient regulation of potassium ions is lost and results in the death of epithelial cells. The death of such cells creates gaps in the brush border membrane.

text: History[edit]

text: Bt cotton was first approved for field trials in the United States in 1993, and first approved commercial use in the United States in 1995.[3] Bt cotton was approved by the Chinese government in 1997.[4]

text: In 2002, a joint venture between Monsanto and Mahyco introduced Bt cotton to India.[5]

text: In 2011, India grew the largest GM cotton crop at 10.6 million hectares. The U.S. GM cotton crop was 4.0 million hectares, the second largest area in the world, followed by China with 3.9 million hectares and Pakistan with 2.6 million hectares.[6] By 2014, 96% of cotton grown in the United States was genetically modified[7] and 95% of cotton grown in India was GM.[8] India is the largest producer of cotton, and GM cotton, as of 2014.

text: Advantages[edit]

text: Bt cotton has several advantages over non-Bt cotton. The important advantages of Bt cotton are briefly :

text:
Increases yield of cotton due to effective control of three types of bollworms, viz. American, Spotted and Pink bollworms.
Insects belonged to Lepidoptera (Bollworms) are sensitive to crystalline endotoxic protein produced by Bt gene which in turn protects cotton from bollworms.
Reduction in insecticide use in the cultivation of Bt cotton in which bollworms are major pests.
Potential reduction in the cost of cultivation (depending on seed cost versus insecticide costs).
Reduction in environmental pollution by the use of insecticides.
Bt cotton exhibit genetic resistance or inbuilt resistance which is a permanent type of resistance and not affected by environmental factors. Thus protects crop from bollworms.
Bt cotton is ecofriendly and does not have adverse effect on parasites, predators, beneficial insecticides and organisms present in soil.
It promotes multiplication of parasites and predators which help in controlling the bollworms by feeding on larvae and eggs of bollworm.
No health hazards due to rare use of insecticides (particularly who is engaged in spraying of insecticides).

text: The main selling points of Bt cotton are the reductions in pesticides to be sprayed on a crop and the ecological benefits which stem from that. China first planted Bt cotton in 1997 specifically in response to an outbreak of cotton bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera, that farmers were struggling to control with conventional pesticides.[9] Similarly in India and the US, Bt cotton initially alleviated the issues with pests whilst increasing yields and delivering higher profits for farmers.[10][11][12]

text: Studies showed that the lower levels of pesticide being sprayed on the cotton crops promoted biodiversity by allowing non-target species like ladybirds, lacewings and spiders to become more abundant.[9] Likewise it was found that integrated pest management strategies (IPM) were becoming more effective due to the lower levels of pesticide encouraging the growth of natural enemy populations.[9]

text: Disadvantages[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Bt cotton has some limitations

text:
High cost of Bt cotton seeds as compared to non Bt cotton seeds.
Effectiveness up to 120 days, after that the toxin producing efficiency of the Bt gene drastically reduces.
Ineffective against sucking pests like jassids, aphids, whitefly etc.

text: In India[edit]

text: Bt cotton is supplied in India`s Maharashatra by the agri-biotechnology company Mahyco, which distributes it.[13]

text: The use of Bt cotton in India has grown exponentially since its introduction in 2002.[14] Recently[when?] India has become the number one global exporter of cotton and the second largest cotton producer in the world. India has bred Bt-cotton varieties such as Bikaneri Nerma and hybrids such as NHH-44.[15]

text: Socio-economic surveys confirm that Bt cotton continues to deliver significant and multiple agronomic, economic, environmental and welfare benefits to Indian farmers and society including halved insecticide requirements and a doubling of yields.[16]

text: India’s success has been subject to scrutiny. Monsanto's seeds are expensive and lose vigour after one generation, prompting the Indian Council of Agricultural Research to develop a cheaper Bt cotton variety with seeds that could be reused. The cotton incorporated the cry1Ac gene from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), making the cotton toxic to bollworms. This variety showed poor yield, was removed within a year[when?], and contained a DNA sequence owned by Monsanto, prompting an investigation.[17] In parts of India cases of acquired resistance against Bt cotton have occurred. Monsanto has admitted[when?] that the pink bollworm is resistant to first generation transgenic Bt cotton that expresses the single Bt gene (Cry1Ac).[15]

text: The state of Maharashtra banned the sale and distribution of Bt cotton in 2012, to promote local Indian seeds, which demand less water, fertilizers and pesticide input,[18] but lifted the ban in 2013.[13]

text: Punjab Agricultural University(PAU) has successfully developed the country’s first Bt cotton varieties. ICAR has identified three varieties, namely PAU Bt 1, F1861 and RS 2013, for cultivation in Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan. It is a cheaper alternative to Bt cotton hybrid seed.

text: Bt-resistant pests[edit]

text: After the introduction of Bt cotton in northern China, non-target pests such as mirid bugs (Heteroptera: Miridae) became more abundant, because less pesticides were sprayed.[19] In 2013, a second issue being seen across the world, was the development of Bt resistant pests limiting the usefulness of Bt crops.[20]

text: Main drivers for the widespread resistance in India and China included the high proportion of Bt cotton being planted, 90% and 95% respectively in 2011,[9][17] and few refuge areas.[12][21][22]

text: Refuge areas of non-Bt crops limit resistance development in targeted pests.[21] The US Environmental Protection Agency requires farmers to have refuge areas of 20%-50% non-Bt crops within 0.8 km of their Bt fields.[23] Such requirements were not seen in China, where instead farmers relied on natural refuge areas to decrease resistance.[22]

text: In 2009, a novel solution to the resistance problem was trialed in Arizona, when sterile male pink bollworms (Pectinophora gossypiella) were released into populations of their wild Bt-resistant counterparts. The hypothesis was that sterile males mating with the few surviving females, who had developed resistance, would lead to a decrease in pests in the following generation. There was a dramatic reduction in pink bollworms, with only two pink bollworm larvae being found by the third year of the study.[21]

text: Controversies[edit]

text: In India, Bt cotton has been enveloped in controversies[24] due to its supposed links with seed monopolies and farmer suicides. The link between the introduction of Bt cotton to India and a surge in farmer suicides has been refuted by other studies,[25] with decreased farmer suicides since Bt cotton was introduced.[26] Bt cotton accounts for 93% of cotton grown in India.[17]

text: In the USA[edit]

text: In Hawaii, growing GMO cotton has been prohibited since 2013.[27] Hybridization with the wild cotton species Gossypium tomentosum may be possible. Transgenic cotton is also banned in some parts of Florida.

text: In Africa[edit]

text: Burkina Faso, Africa's top cotton producer, banned GM cotton in 2016, because of economic and quality concerns.[28]


document_title: Hank the Cowdog

question_text: what kind of dog is hank the cow dog

question_tokens: what kind of dog is hank the cow dog

root

text: Hank the Cowdog

text: Characters[edit]

text: Hank: Hank is the main character and narrator of each story in the Hank the Cowdog adventures. Hank is the only character to appear in every single story in the series.  Hank claims to be a "purebred top-of-the-line blue-ribbon cowdog" but is in fact most likely a mutt. He styles himself as the "Head of Ranch Security" and conducts security sweeps and nightly patrols. However his real task is to serve as the assistant to Slim and Loper in herding cattle. Hank has a superiority complex which causes him to have an inflated sense of his own intelligence, strength, courage and attractiveness. As a result of this, Hank frequently finds himself in sticky situations, usually of his own creation. Much of the humor of the series comes from Hank as narrator shamelessly attempting to make himself seem more competent with hindsight than he really was, but the reader is rarely fooled. Despite his flaws Hank is deeply loyal to his family and the ranch community and usually rises to the occasion at the moment of true crisis.[7] The dog is based on an Australian Shepherd named Hank that was owned by a neighbor of Erickson's when he was managing a ranch in Oklahoma. The neighbor wanted to use the dog to help with the cattle but the dog was not trained and proved a hassle.[8]

tag: p

text: Drover: Drover is a younger dog who lives on the ranch with Hank. Hank refers to him as his assistant, or as a "little mutt" when Hank is angry with him. Unlike Hank, Drover has no delusions of grandeur and enjoys spending most his time staying out of trouble and sleeping (16 hours a day according to Hank), often engaging in useless tasks he invents for himself. In The Case of the Car-Barkaholic Dog, for example, Hank observes that while he is helping the cowboys with the cattle herding, Drover spends the afternoon chewing on an old horn, buries it, and then promptly forgets where it is buried. He is also unashamedly timid, and frequently avoids "the call of duty" by pretending to have a bad leg. Drover has a great deal of curiosity and often asks Hank obscure questions such as "Why does the moon rise in the evening and set in the morning?" Hank rarely knows the answer to these questions, but this doesn't stop him from providing ones. Drover often appears to have more common sense than Hank, which allows him to avoid getting into many of the same catastrophes Hank creates for himself.  [9]Drover appears in every story in the series, with the exception of A1: The Homeless Pooch.

text: Sally May: Sally May is the wife of High Loper and the mother of Little Alfred and little Molly. She is a housewife who enjoys parties and often serves as a civilizing check on her cowboy husband. She is often high-strung, particularly in "The Case of the Killer Stud Horse" and "The Phantom in the Mirror", when she has company coming over. Pete the Barn Cat is her favorite pet and she is affectionate towards both him and Drover. She dislikes Hank, however, and frequently gets angry at him for coming into her yard, her house or fighting with Pete. Her most common response when angered is to try to hit him with her broom. Despite this Hank often seems to think that Sally May secretly respects him.  In reality, her feelings fluctuate between disgust and temporary respect as Hank usually follows up his shenanigans with an act of heroism.

text: High Loper: Owner of the ranch, High Loper (his last name is never given) is an old-fashioned cowboy who enjoys roping, riding and working his ranch.  While Loper never wants to leave the ranch and is loath to go out of town, he is far from a workaholic, settling for shoddy workmanship on many of his projects and pawning the dirty work onto his ranch hand, Slim Chance. His more anti-social cowboy instincts have been tamed by his wife, who he loves. However, in some episodes he expresses nostalgia for the times when he was just a simple cowboy. In "Murder in the Middle Pasture" when Sally May is giving Slim a lecture on how he will understand the importance of social events when he is married, Loper mouths the words "no you won't" behind her back. While Loper makes fun of Hank frequently and is often angry at him, he also relies on Hank to help with the cattle herding. In "Every Dog Has His Day" Hank saves Loper from some quicksand, proving his loyalty to his master.

text: Little Alfred: Loper and Sally May's older child. Little Alfred (middle name Leroy) likes Hank and often participates in adventures with him. Some of these are harmless, though in "The Case of the Hooking Bull" Alfred deliberately tricks Hank into going into the dryer and then turning the machine on, showing he has a mischievous streak. Most of the story "Lost in the Dark Unchanted Forest" revolves around Hank's search for Alfred when he goes missing in the woods. In this story and a few others Alfred is shown to have the ability to talk to animals, although in later stories he does not appear to have this ability.  It is revealed that the older a child gets, the more their ability to understand animals diminishes. Hank is very protective of Alfred and frequently risks his life to protect him, labeling it every cowdog's duty.

text: Pete the Barn Cat: Hank's primary antagonist on the ranch. Pete is Sally May's favorite pet and he frequently uses this to his advantage in his petty clashes with Hank. Pete is much more clever than Hank and usually manages to outwit him, although Hank usually perceives the events differently. Many of Hank's adventures are initiated by an embarrassing incident where he has been tricked by Pete. In "The Further Adventures of Hank the Cowdog", Hank's eyes go crossed after staring at a bloody nose he received by attacking a fried egg Pete obtained that was just behind Sally May's garden fence. In "The Curse of the Incredible Priceless Corncob", the entire story revolves around Hank's over-protectiveness towards a corncob Pete has tricked him into believing is worth a fortune. In "The Case of the Missing Cat" Hank eventually loses patience with Pete and tries to strand him on the plains, but has a change of heart and rescues him from the coyotes Rip and Snort. The two then lament the fact that by saving Pete's life Hank and Pete must be friends and stop fighting each other. At the end of the adventure, however, the two return to fighting over scraps, suggesting that they both secretly like their antagonistic relationship.

text: Slim Chance: A lazy but loyal cowboy and ranch hand that works for High Loper.  It is unclear how long Slim has worked at the ranch, but despite several comments made about wanting to move to a bigger operation, he has never quit.[10]  He does most of the work on the ranch that Loper does not want, and occasionally gets forced into babysitting Little Alfred, for whom he has an affinity.  Slim lives in a run down shack two miles from ranch headquarters, and maintains a filthy house, frequently leaving old dishes, clothes, food, and livestock magazines lying around and fostering a chronic rodent problem.  He also hates cooking, which results in him maintaining a horrible diet and eating things that would disgust the average reader, like sardine and ketchup sandwiches and boiled turkey necks.  Although Slim loves to play pranks on Hank and poke fun at him, it is clear he has an affinity for both him and Drover, frequently asking them to come along with him on odd jobs.  The first audio-only book, The Homeless Pooch, establishes that Slim, not Loper, is Hank's owner.

text: Wallace and Junior: Two buzzards that Hank sometimes encounters.  Wallace, an old buzzard and father to Junior, is very harsh and abrasive, not easily getting along with most of the other characters of the series. He is also relatively single-minded, judging most things mainly on their usefulness as a food source. He doesn't seem to like Hank much, but sometimes acts decently towards him. Junior, Wallace's slow and clumsy son, is more timid than his father and has a stuttering problem.  He loves his father but often makes Wallace angry by being cowardly, being friendly towards other animals (who Wallace says they should rather think about eating), and generally being bad at being a buzzard.  Wallace also loathes Junior's love of singing.

text: Rip and Snort: Two coyote brothers who have a grudge against Hank.  At one point in The Original Adventures of Hank the Cowdog however, Hank, Rip, and Snort became friends.  However, they are enemies in every other book. They are vicious and strong, but not very smart, and Hank manages to escape from sticky situations involving them by tricking them. They call Hank "Hunk."

text: Scraunch: A vicious coyote near the top of the pack's pecking order, he maintains an intense hatred of Hank. He is the brother of Missy Coyote, to which Hank was once promised in marriage.  He is smarter, tougher, and more grumpy than Rip and Snort.

text: Missy Coyote: A coyote who was at one point promised to be Hank's mate, and thus join her family pack if Hank attacked the ranch and killed Drover. Hank ultimately refused to do so, showing that he is loyal to the ranch inhabitants, and loyal to Drover as a good friend.  Hank seems to share Missy's feelings and though he doesn't like coyotes it seemed that at one point he seriously considered joining Missy's pack. Missy was originally named, "Girl-Who-Drink-Blood", but Hank disliked the name, instead calling her Missy Coyote. Unlike most of Hank's crushes, Missy actually considers him cute.

text: Beulah: A collie who resides on a local ranch, and with whom Hank is madly in love.  He is constantly trying to impress her, which usually results in his making a fool of himself instead.  Beulah lives on her ranch with her boyfriend Plato, a bird dog who Hank despises.  Although she likes Hank as a friend, she does not return his love, and tries to let him down easy for fear of hurting his feelings.  Despite this, Hank continues to be convinced Beulah is in love with him, and would express it if it weren't for Plato.

text: Plato: A polite bird dog who likes Hank despite Hank's obvious disdain for him. He is in love with Beulah, much to Hank's consternation, and seems not to notice or care that Hank is constantly trying to court her.  He also seems to be oblivious to Hank's malice towards him. He has only very minor roles, except in The Case of the Missing Bird Dog and The Quest for the Great White Quail, in which he got lost and Hank had to find him.

text: Madame Moonshine: A witch owl who assists Hank on occasion. She has a bodyguard, a rattlesnake named Timothy, who lives in the same hole as her. When she does use her magic, it normally is very odd and may not have the desired results. For example, in Lost in the Dark Unchanted Forest, she and Hank were tied upside-down to a tree branch, while Rip and Snort were planning to eat them below. She recited a spell to make them stop, but, because they were upside-down, it just made them sing their song backwards.

text: Ralph: A basset hound who lives in the local dog pound. His owner works at the pound and just puts him in whichever kennel is currently available. He has a fairly uneventful life, except when his owner lets him out as happens in The Fling.

text: Eddy the Rac: A raccoon who occasionally shows up and causes trouble. He was orphaned as a baby and Slim took care of him for a while in Moonlight Madness. He causes Hank to be confused every time he appears, from posing as monsters/aliens to convincingly telling Hank a variety of tall-tales.  Everytime Slim puts Eddy in a cage, Eddy convinces Hank to let him out and enter the cage himself, at which point Eddy locks him in.  Despite this, Hank continues to be fooled and does not particularly like Eddy.

text: List of books[edit]

text:
The Original Adventures of Hank the Cowdog (1983)
The Further Adventures of Hank the Cowdog (1983)
It's a Dog's Life (1985)
Murder in the Middle Pasture (1985)
Faded Love (1986)
Let Sleeping Dogs Lie (1986)
The Curse of the Incredible Priceless Corncob (1986)
The Case of the One-Eyed Killer Stud Horse  (1987)
The Case of the Halloween Ghost (1987)
Every Dog Has His Day (1988)
Lost in the Dark Unchanted Forest (1988)
The Case of the Fiddle Playing Fox (1989)
The Wounded Buzzard on Christmas Eve (1989)
Hank the Cowdog and Monkey Business (1990)
The Case of the Missing Cat (1990)
Lost in the Blinded Blizzard (1991)
The Case of the Car-Barkaholic Dog (1991)
The Case of the Hooking Bull (1992)
The Case of the Midnight Rustler (1992)
The Phantom in the Mirror (1993)
The Case of the Vampire Cat (1993)
The Case of the Double Bumblebee Sting (1994)
Moonlight Madness (1994)
The Case of the Black-Hooded Hangmans (1995)
The Case of the Swirling Killer Tornado (1995)
The Case of the Kidnapped Collie (1996)
The Case of the Night-Stalking Bone Monster (1996)
The Mopwater Files (1997)
The Case of the Vampire Vacuum Sweeper (1997)
The Case of the Haystack Kitties (1998)
The Case of the Vanishing Fishhook (1998)
The Garbage Monster from Outer Space (1999)
The Case of the Measled Cowboy (1999)
Slim's Good-bye (2000)
The Case of the Saddle House Robbery (2000)
The Case of the Raging Rottweiler (2000)
The Case of the Deadly Ha-Ha Game (2001)
The Fling (2001)
The Secret Laundry Monster Files (2002)
The Case of the Missing Bird Dog (2002)[11]
The Case of the Shipwrecked Tree (2003)
The Case of the Burrowing Robot (2003)
The Case of the Twisted Kitty (2004)
The Dungeon of Doom (2004)
The Case of the Falling Sky (2005)
The Case of the Tricky Trap (2005)
The Case of the Tender Cheeping Chickies (2006)
The Case of the Monkey Burglar (2006)
The Case of the Booby-Trapped Pickup (2007)
The Case of the Most Ancient Bone (2007)
The Case of the Blazing Sky (2008)
The Quest for the Great White Quail (2008)
Drover's Secret Life (2009)
The Case of the Dinosaur Birds (2009)
The Case of the Secret Weapon (2010)
The Case of the Coyote Invasion (2010)
The Disappearance of Drover (2011)
The Case of the Mysterious Voice (2011)
The Case of the Perfect Dog (2012)
The Big Question (2012)
The Case of the Prowling Bear (2013)
The Ghost of Rabbits Past (2013)
The Return of The Charlie Monsters (2014)
The Case of the Three Rings  (2014)
The Almost Last Roundup  (2015)
The Christmas Turkey Disaster (2015)
 Wagons West  (2016)
 The Secret Pledge  (2016)
The Case of the Wandering Goats (2017)
The Case of the Troublesome Lady (2017)
The Case of the Monster Fire  (2018)
The Case of the Three-Toed Tree Sloth (2018)
The Case of the Buried Deer  (2019)

tag: ol

text: Audio[edit]

text: Books 1 – 49 have cassette versions. All books have audio book versions.

text: Audio Only[edit]

text: Some books are only on audio. The numbers for these are always A#; for example, The Homeless Pooch would be A1.

text:
The Homeless Pooch
The Watermelon Patch Mystery
The Kitty Cheater
The Runaway Windmill
The Cookie Moon
The Dancing Cowboy
The Valentine's Day Robbery

text: Adaptations[edit]

text: CBS Storybreak

text: In 1985, CBS Storybreak aired an animated episode based on the first Hank the Cowdog book. The episode changed the original book: coyotes talking normally instead of their own goofy language like in the books, child removed, chicken farm in Arizona instead of cattle ranch Texas, went from married couple and a ranchhand to female in charge and 2 ranchhands.

text: Hank the Cowdog (TV series)

text: Hank the Cowdog is an animated adaptation based on the books. It will be produced by HTC Productions and Huhu Studios. It was first unveiled at a MIPJunior content market in 2015. So far there is no specific release date for the series. The series will be done in 2D animation and will have 13 episodes.[12][13]

text: There was a previous attempt at a TV series adaptation in the late 1990s. It was going to be produced by Nickelodeon, WildBrain and 501 Productions. The series would have blended 2D animation with live-action backgrounds. A test reel was uploaded onto Vimeo in 2015.[14]


document_title: Pattadakal

question_text: who built the temples at aihole badami and pattadakal

text: Pattadakal

text: Location[edit]

text: The Pattadakal monuments are located in the Indian state of Karnataka, about 165 kilometres (103 mi) southeast of Belgaum, 265 kilometres (165 mi) northeast from Goa, 14 miles (23 km) from Badami, via Karanataka state highway SH14, and about 6 miles (9.7 km) from Aihole, set midst sandstone mountains and Malprabha river valley. In total, there are over 150 Hindu, Jain and Buddhist monuments, and archaeological discoveries, dating from the 4th to 10th century CE, in addition to pre-historic dolmens and cave paintings that are preserved at the Pattadakal-Badami-Aihole  site.[11][12]

text: The nearest airport to Pattadakal is Sambra Belgaum Airport (IATA Code: IXG), a 3 hour drive to the west, which operates daily flights to Mumbai, Bangalore and Chennai.[13][14] Access to the site by train is also possible via an Indian Railways service that stops at Badami on the Hubli-Solapur metre-gauge line.[3]

text: History[edit]

text: Pattadakal ("place of coronation") was considered a holy place, being where the Malprabha river turned northwards towards the Himalayas and the Kailasha mountan (uttara-vahini). As its name implies, it was used during the Chalukya dynasty for coronation ceremonies, such as that of Vinayaditya in the 7th century CE.[3][4] Other names this place was known by were Kisuvolal meaning "valley of red soil", Raktapura meaning "city of red", and Pattada-Kisuvolal meaning "red soil valley for coronation".[3][15][16] The site, states Archaeological Survey of India, is mentioned in texts by Srivijaya and is referred to by Ptolemy as "Petirgal" in his Geography.[3]

text: Pattadakal became, along with nearby Aihole and Badami, a major cultural center and religious site for innovations in architecture and experimentation of ideas.[3] The rule of the Gupta Empire during the 5th century brought about a period of political stability, during which Aihole became a locus of scholarship. The experimentations in architecture extended into Badami over the course of the next two centuries. This culture of learning encompassed Pattadakal in the 7th century which became a nexus where ideas from northern and southern India fused.[3][17] It was during this latter period that the Chalukya empire constructed many of the temples in Aihole-Badami-Pattadakal region.[1][18]

text: After the fall of the Chalukya Empire, the region was annexed by the Rashtrakuta kingdom, who would rule over the region into the 10th century. In the 11th century, and into the 12th century, the region came under the rule of the Late Chalukyas (Western Chalukya Empire, Chalukyas of Kalyani), an offshoot of the Early Chalukya Empire.[19][20] Although the area was not a capital region, nor in proximity to one, numerous sources such as inscriptions, contemporaneous texts and the architectural style indicate that, from the 9th to 12th centuries, new Hindu, Jain and Buddhist temples and monasteries continued to be built in the Pattadakal region. Historian George Michell attributes this to the presence of a substantial population and its burgeoning wealth.[19]

text: Throughout the 13th century, Pattadakal, the Malprabha valley, as well as much of the nearby Deccan region, was subject to raids and plunder by the Delhi Sultanate armies that devastated the region.[19][21] This period ended with the rise of the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire. It was responsible for the construction of forts for the protection of the monuments, as evidenced by inscriptions in the fort at Badami. Pattadakal was a part of the border region that witnessed wars between Vijayanagara and the Sultanates to its north. Following the collapse of Vijayanagara Empire in 1565, Pattadakal was annexed by the Sultanate of Bijapur, which was ruled by the Adil Shahi dynasty.[19]  In the late 17th-century, the Mughal Empire, under Aurangzeb, gained control of Pattadakal from the Sultanate. After the collapse of Mughal Empire, Pattadakal came under the control of the Maratha Empire. It later changed hands, yet again, when Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan wrested control of it in late 18th century but would lose it when the British defeated Tipu Sultan and annexed the region.[19]

text: The monuments at Pattadakal are evidence of the existence, and the history, of interaction between the early northern and southern styles of Hindu arts.[22] According to T. Richard Blurton, the history of temple arts in northern India is unclear as the region was repeatedly sacked by invaders from Central Asia, particularly during the Muslim incursions from the 11th-century onward. The subsequent "warfare has greatly reduced the quantity of surviving examples". The Pattadakal monuments completed in 7th and 8th century are among the earliest surviving examples of these early religious arts and ideas.[22][23]

text: Description[edit]

text: Site layout[edit]

text: There are ten major temples at Pattadakal, nine Hindu and one Jain, along with numerous small shrines and plinths. Eight of the major temples are clustered together, a ninth one about half a kilometer south of this cluster, and the tenth, a Jain temple, located about a kilometer to the west of the main cluster. The Hindu temples are all connected by a walkway, while the Jain temple has road access.[3]

text: Style[edit]

text: The Pattadakal monuments reflect a fusion of two major Indian architectural styles, one from north India (Rekha-Nagara-Prasada) and the other from south India (Dravida-Vimana). Four temples were built in the Chalukya Dravida style, four in the Nagara style of Northern India, while the Papanatha temple is a fusion of the two. The nine Hindu temples are all dedicated to Shiva, and are on the banks of Malaprabha river. The oldest of these temples is Sangameshwara, which was built during the reign of Vijayaditya Satyashraya, between 697 and 733 CE. The largest of these temples in Pattadakal is the Virupaksha Temple, which was built between 740 and 745 CE.[3]

text: The last temple built in the Group of Monuments is the Jain temple, known locally as the Jain Narayana temple, which was likely built in the 9th century during the reign of Krishna II of Rashtrakutas.[1] Its style is patterned on the lines of the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram.[1][24]

text: Kadasiddheshwara temple[edit]

text: A relatively small temple, the Archaeological Survey of India has dated it to around the mid 7th century CE,[25] but George Michell dates it to the early 8th century.[26] The temple faces east and is built around a square garbha griha (sacrum sanctum).[25] It houses a linga on a pitha (platform), and the Nandi bull faces it from outside; there is a mandapa around the sacrum center. Another mandapa provides a circumambulation path in an expanded axial layout. Much of the temple has been eroded or was damaged in the following centuries. The Shikhara (spire) is a northern Nagara style (Rekhanagara) with a sukanasa projection on the east. The sukanasa has a damaged Nataraja accompanied by Parvati.[25]

text: The outer walls of the Kada Siddheshwara sanctum feature images of Ardhanarishvara (half Shiva, half Parvati) on its north, Harihara (half Shiva, half Vishnu) to its west and Lakulisha to the south.[25][26] Mounted on a lintel at the sanctum entrance is Shiva and Parvati flanked by Brahma and Vishnu on either side. The steps at the sanctum entrance are flanked by the river goddesses Ganga and Yamuna, with attendants.[25]

text: Jambulingeshwara temple[edit]

text: Another small temple, the Jambulingeshwara temple, also called the Jambulinga temple, is variously estimated by ASI and Michell to have been complete between mid 7th and early 8th century, respectively.[27][26] The temple is built around a square garbha griha (sacrum sanctum),[25] whose outer walls feature intricate devakoshtha (linteled niches with decorated frames with Hamsa and mythical makaras). Inside the frames are images of Vishnu on its north, Surya (Sun god) to its west and Lakulisha to the south.[27] The temple also experiments with the idea of projecting sukanasa from the shikhara in front, over the mandapa. The temple still faces east, greeting the sunrise. The Nandi too is provided with a raised platform which is in ruins and the Nandi image shows signs of erosion.[27][26] The dancing Shiva Nataraja with Parvati and Nandi by his side on the frontal arch sukanasa is better preserved.[26]

text: The style of the temple is northern rekha-nagara with a curvilinear profile of squares diminishing as they rise towards the sky. The amalaka and kalasha of the northern style, however, are damaged and not in place. The entrance of the Jambulingeshwara mandapa is decorated with three shakhas, each with purnakumbhas below their capitals. A swan themed frieze covers the passage way with the faint remains of the carvings of swans, kutas and salas.[27]

text: Galaganatha Temple[edit]

text: The Galaganatha temple lies to the east of the Jambulingeshwara temple. Unlike the previous two temples, ASI estimates this temple to be from the mid 8th century,[28] whereas Michell states that it is likely from late 7th century.[29] The temple is a northern rekha-nagara style with a linga, and a vestibule (antarala) within the temple sanctum (garbha griha). Outside the temple is a seated Nandi that faces the sanctum.[28]

text: The sanctum has a covered circumambulatory path (pradakshina patha), indicating that this Hindu tradition was well established by 7th to 8th century. Various mandapas exist in this temple, such as a social or community hall (sabha mandapa), used for ceremonial functions, and a mukha mandapa, of which only the foundation remains.[28][29] The entrance to the mandapa is flanked by the river goddesses Ganga and Yamuna.[29]

text: The Galagatha temple is mostly in ruins, except for the southern part which contains a carved slab showing an eight-armed Shiva killing the demon Andhaka, while wearing a garland of skulls as a yajnopavita (sacred thread across the chest).[28][29]

text: According to Michell, the Galaganatha temple is notable for being almost an exact copy of the Svarga Brahma temple of Alampur in Andhra Pradesh, a temple that is dated to 689 CE. Given both Alampur and Pattadakal were a part of the Badami Chalukya kingdom, an exchange of ideas is likely.[29] The basement of the eastern moulding is notable for depicting friezes of Panchatantra fables, such as that of the mischievous monkey and the fable of two-headed bird.[28]

text: Chandrashekhara Temple[edit]

text: Chandrashekhara temple is a small east facing temple without a tower. It is situated on the south side of the Galaganatha temple.[30] This temple has been dated by Michell to the late 9th or early 10th century,[30] whereas the ASI dates it to the mid 8th century.[31]

text: The temple has a garbha griha with a Shiva linga and a closed hall; a Nandi sits on a platform to the east facing the linga.[30] It is laid out within a space 33.33 feet in length and 17.33 in breadth, on an adhishthana (platform based on certain design rules in Hindu texts).[31] Detailed Pilasters, yet lacking in ornamentation, decorate the exterior walls of the temple.[30] There is a devakostha (niche) in the walls on either side of the Chandrashekhara temple sanctum. The temple lacks a lintel, but features a dvarapala (guardian) on each side of the entrance; the door frames are carved with shakhas.[31]

text: Sangameshwara Temple[edit]

text: Sangameshwara temple, also called the Vijayeshvara temple, is a large, Dravida style east facing temple located on the south side of the Chandrashekhara temple.[30] Inscriptions at the temple, and other evidence, date it to between 720 CE and 733 CE. The death of its patron king, Vijayaditya, in 734 CE resulted in the temple being left unfinished, although work continued intermittently in later centuries.[32][33] During the Badami Chalukya reign, between 543-757 CE, other important Sangameshwara temples were built, such as the one at KuDavelli; in modern times, this temple was relocated to Alampur, after extensive restoration work.[34] The inscriptions found in this and other temples mention sponsor names from different centuries, including those of Hindu queens, suggesting they actively supported the temple architecture and arts.[35][36]

text: Although the temple is not the largest among those at Pattadakal it is nonetheless of imposing proportions. [32] The temple has a square layout,[37] with an east facing sanctum. The sanctum, surrounded by a covered pradakshina patha (circumambulatory path) lit by three carved windows. Inside the sanctum is a Shiva Linga. In front of the sanctum is a vestibule that is flanked on each side by smaller shrines. These shrines once contained carvings of Ganesha and Durga, but the carvings have since gone missing.[32] Further east of the hall is a seated Nandi. Past the vestibule is a mandapa within which are sixteen massive pillars set in groups of four, which may have been added after construction of the temple was completed.[32][33]

text: The vimana superstructure above the temple and the outer walls of the temple are well preserved.[32] The vimana is a two tiered structure, crowned with a square kuta-sikhara and kalasha. The temple walls contain many devakostha (niches) carved with images of Vishnu and Shiva, some of which are in various stages of completion.[33] The temple is built on a raised moulded base, with decorative friezes of elephants, yali and makara mythical creatures.[32] Above the kapota (eaves) are detailed friezes of ganas (playful dwarfs), who are portrayed as if they are struggling to hold the weight of the temple structure. The parapet displays hara (various kinds of string in Hindu temple texts) of various styles, including karnakutas (square), and salas (oblong), which flow with the design below them and are decorated with kudus.[33][32]

text: A number of Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism themes are presented in the carvings at the temple. The Shaiva iconography include a dancing Nataraja, Ardhanarishvara (half Shiva, half Parvati as essential halves of each other), Shiva with Bhringi, Shiva spearing the demon Andhaka, and the yogi, Lakulisha. The Vaishnava iconography includes avatars of Vishnu such as Varaha lifting goddess earth (Bhudevi).[32]

text: Excavations into the foundations of its ruined hall, in 1969 and 1971, revealed the archaeologically significant discovery of a brick temple structure beneath the hall. This discovery led to the proposal that Sangameshwara had been built over an older temple, possibly dating to the 3rd century CE.[38]

text: Kashi Vishwanatha Temple[edit]

text: Also known as Kashivishweswara, the Kashi Vishwanatha temple is another of the smaller temples at Pattadakal. The temple has been variously dated to the late 7th century, early 8th century or the mid-8th century.[39][40][41]

text: Much like the other temples, the core of the Kashi Vishwanatha temple is the square garbha griha (sanctum), which houses a linga. To the east of the garbha griha is the moulded platform of a Nandi-mandapa, featuring the image of a seated Nandi. The temple also features a pranala, a stone structure used to drain out water used during devotional activities, and an antarala, or foyer, connecting to a mandapa with a ruined entrance porch. The river goddesses Ganga and Yamuna are still visible at the entrance to the mandapa.[41][39] The temple sits on a raised platform, with five layers of mouldings, decorated with 8th-century carvings of horses, elephants, lions, peacocks and flowery vine designs. The wall surfaces have pilaster pairs supporting chaitya-style arches.[41][39] The entrance door features a Shaiva dvarapala (guardian) on each side.[41]

text: Sculptures of Ardhanariswara (half-Shiva, half-Parvati) and Lakulisha are carved into the northern wall of the temple mandapa, but these have been damaged and defaced.[39] The kapota (cornice) are decorated with motifs and carved with ganas (playful dwarfs) carrying garlands; brackets show flying couples and kirtimukhas.[41][39]

text: The superstructure, displaying a well developed North Indian Rekha-Nagara style, is a rising five stage projection of centered squares with a complex pattern of interlocking gavakshas,[39] but the amalaka and kalasha are now missing.[41] The sukanasa, mounted on a spire in front of the temple, is of a dancing Uma-Maheswara (Parvati-Shiva) set inside a chaitya-arch.[41][39]

text: Inside the temple are pillars and pilasters intricately carved with friezes depicting the Bhagavata Purana (Vaishnavism), the Shiva Purana (Shaivism) and the Ramayana. One frieze shows the demon Ravana lifting mount Kailasha, others show the playful pranks of Krishna, while another narrates the Kalyansundarmurti (marriage of Shiva and Parvati).[41][39] One relief in particular shows Shiva coming out of the cylindrical linga.[39] The mandapa ceiling has carvings of Shiva, Nandi and Parvati holding Kartikeya. This image is concentrically surrounded by the ashta-dikpalas (eight directional guardians).[41][39]

text: Mallikarjuna Temple[edit]

text: Mallikarjuna temple, also called the Trailokeswara Maha Saila Prasada in a local inscription, is a mid 8th-century Shiva temple sponsored by queen Trailokyamahadevi.[42] It is located south of the Kashi Vishwanatha temple, southwest of the Sangameswara temple and in close proximity to Virupaksha.[43] The temple was built about the same time as the Virupaksha temple, with a similar design and layout, but is somewhat smaller and has a few important differences.[44]

text: The temple reflects a fully developed South Indian vimana style architecture. Its garbha griya (sanctum) has a Shiva linga, and features a circumambulatory path (pradakshina patha). In front of the sanctum is an antechamber (antarala) with small shrines for Durga as Mahishasuramardini killing the buffalo demon and another for Ganesha on each side, both currently empty. A Nandi-mandapa is included in the temple wherein Nandi faces the sanctum.[42] Access to the sanctum is through a pillared sabha-mandapa (community hall) with entrance porches, enclosures (prakara) and a gateway (pratoli).[42]

text: The temple, though similar to the Virupaksha temple, experiments with new architectural ideas that makes it distinct.[45] The depiction of a dancing Shiva, as Nataraja, in the Mallikarjuna temple is set in the shallow arch of the sukanasa. As another example, the topmost storey of the shikara superstructure of this temple lacks hara elements (threads), while its roof is hemispherical unlike the square roof of the Virupaksha temple.[42][45]

text: The use of stone carvings for storytelling is prevalent throughout the temple. The legends of Hindu epics and the Puranas are depicted on the temple pillars in the community hall. These stories span all major traditions within Hinduism, including Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism.[44] The rasa lila of Krishna, whose stories are found in the Bhagavata Purana, are shown on friezes as are Hindu fables from the Panchatantra.[44][46] Like other Hindu temples, the friezes of the Mallikarjuna temple show kama and mithuna scenes of amorous couples. In other places, artha scenes such as a worker walking with an elephant carrying a log and single women with different emotional expressions are carved into stone;[42][44] one of these women carries an 8th century musical instrument.[45]

text: Virupaksha Temple[edit]

text: The Virupaksha temple, located to the immediate south of the Mallikarjuna temple, is the largest and most sophisticated of the monuments at Pattadakal.[47] In inscriptions, it is referred to as "Shri Lokeshvara Mahasila Prasada", after its sponsor Queen Lokmahadevi, and is dated to about 740 CE.[10][47][48] The temple is notable for its range, and quality, of construction exemplifying a well developed Dravidian architectural style, as well as the inscribed names of the artists beneath the panels they worked on.[10][49][50]

text: As is common with other temples at Pattadakal, the Virupaksha temple was built facing east centred around a square garbha griya (sanctum), with a Shiva Linga, surrounded by a covered circumabulatory path (pradakshina patha). In front of the sanctum is an antarala with two small shrines within which are facing images of Ganesha and Parvati, in her Durga aspect as Mahishasuramardini killing the buffalo demon.[10][49] The external Nandi pavilion is aligned on an east-west axis, as are the mandapa and antechamber.[51] The temple site forms a rectangle consisting of fused squares bounded by walls, which are decorated with carvings.[49] Within the compound are smaller shrines, of which there were once 32, based on the foundation footprint layout, but most have since been lost. The entrance leads to a mandapa with 18 columns (4-5-aisle-5-4, with a 4x4 set forming the inner mandapa and two leading to the darshana space).[49]

text: The tower above the sanctum is a three-storey pyramidal structure, with each storey bearing motifs that reflect those in the sanctum below. However, for clarity of composition, the artisans had simplified the themes in the pilastered projections and intricate carvings.[52] The third storey is the simplest, having only parapet kutas, a kuta roof with each face decorated with kudus – a structure common in later Dravidian architecture Hindu temples. A kalasha-like pot, found in festivals, social ceremonies and personal rituals such as weddings, crowns the temple. The top of this pot is 17.5 metres (57 ft) above the temple pavement, the highest for any pre-9th century South Indian temple.[52] The sukanasa on the tower is large, exceeding half the height of the superstructure, to aid visibility from a distance.[53]

text:
The sanctum walls, and also those of the nearby mandapa space, are decorated with intricately detailed carvings.
These carvings depict images of Shaivism, Vaishnavism, and Shaktism deities, and themes, such as Narasimha and Varaha (Vaishaivism), Bhairava and Nataraja (Shaivism), Harihara (half Shiva-half Vishnu), Lakulisa (Shaivism), Brahma, Durga, Saraswati, Lakshmi, and others.[10][54][55] According to George Michell, the carvings on the walls and porch of the Virupaksha temple exterior are "vehicles for diverse sculptural compositions, by far the most numerous found on any Early Chalukya monument".[56] Other than Hindu gods and goddesses, numerous panels show depict people either as couples, in courtship and mithuna, or as individuals wearing jewellery or carrying work implements.[57]

text: The temple has numerous friezes spanning a variety of topics such as, for example, two men wrestling, rishi with Vishnu, rishi with Shiva, Vishnu rescuing Gajendra elephant trapped by a crocodile in a lotus pond, scenes of hermitages, and sadhus seated in meditative yoga posture. Vedic deities such as Surya riding the chariot with Aruna, Indra on elephant and others are carved in stone.[58]  A few depict scenes from the Ramayana such as those involving golden deer, Hanuman, Sugriva, Vali, Ravana and Jatayu bird, Sita being abducted, the struggles of Rama and Lakshmana. Other friezes show scenes from the Mahabharata, Krishna's playful life story in the Bhagavata Purana and the Harivamsa as well as fables from the Panchatantra and other Hindu texts.[59][60][61]

text: The temple contains historically significant inscriptions that provide hints about the society and culture of 8th-century India. For example, one inscription mentions a grant to the "musicians of the temple" by the queen.[57]

text: The famous Kailasha temple at Ellora Caves was modeled after this temple, although the Virupaksha temple was itself modeled after the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram.[10][62]

text: Papanatha temple[edit]

text: The Papanatha temple is situated apart from the main cluster of eight monuments. It is about half kilometer to the south of Virupaksha and has been dated towards the end of the Early Chalukya rule period, approximately mid 8th-century.[63][64] The temple is noted for its novel mixture of Dravida, and Nagara, Hindu temple styles .[64][65]

text: The unusual layout of the temple is possibly due to its construction, which occurred in three stages, but there is a lack of epigraphical evidence to support this hypothesis. Its architectural and sculptural details do show a consistent and unified theme, indicative of a plan. The temple is longer, incorporating two interconnected mandapas, one with 16 pillars and another with 4 pillars.[66] The decorations, parapets and some parts of the layout are Dravida in style, while the tower and pilastered niches are of the Nagara style.[66]

text: As with the other temples, the Papanatha temple faces east towards the sunrise and has a Shiva linga in its garbha griya (sanctum) except there is no Nandi-mandapa. Instead, there is an image of Nandi housed in the sabha mandapa facing the sanctum.[63][64] The temple walls are notable for the carved deities and themes of Shaivism and Vaishnavism; Durga is depicted in one of the niches. Intricately carved panels are displayed on the walls, depicting legends such as the Ramayana and excerpts of the Kiratarjuniya.[63][64]

text: The centre of the ceiling is decorated with an elaborate Shiva Nataraja, while other ceiling slabs show Vishnu; one panel shows him in a reclining Anantasayana pose.[67] Outside, in the mandapas, are images of single women and couples, in courtship and different stages of mithuna. Many panels show musicians with different types of musical instruments.[63][64]

text: Jain Narayana Temple[edit]

text: The Jaina temple at Pattadakal was built during the 9th century, possibly with sponsorship from the Rashtrakuta King Krishna II or the Kalyani Chalukyas. Unlike the other nine temples, the Narayana temple lacks Hindu deities and intricate panels of the other nine, but instead has a statue of a Jina carved into the north side kapota eave.[68][7]

text: Like the Hindu temples, this temple also features a square sanctum, a circumambulatory path, an antechamber, a mandapa and a porch. The mandapa is divided into seven bays at the north and south walls, with narrow niches containing seated Jinas. The bays are in the North Indian style, and the tower storey has a carved square shikhara.[68]

text: The mandapa has a row of lathe-turned sand stone pillars. The kakshasana are decorated with the figures of dancers, purna-ghata, nidhis, vyalas but some of the artwork is only partially finished. The entrance features carvings of a life sized elephant torso with riders.[68][7] According to Adam Hardy, the niches of this Jain temple mandapa may have previously featured images.[69]

text: The Archaeological Survey of India has conducted excavations at the site yielding evidence of an older temple and Jaina presence. According to the ASI,the excavations uncovered "the remains of a large temple complex built in bricks and also a beautiful sculpture of Tirthankara standing in sama-bhanga indicating the existence of a temple, probably belonging to the pre or  beginning of the early Chalukyan rule".[68]

text: Other monuments and inscriptions[edit]

text:
A number of inscriptions in the old Kannada language have been found at Pattadakal, notably those at the Virupaksha, Sangameshwara and Papanatha temples. These inscriptions are an important source of information regarding the grants made by King Vikramaditya, and Vijayaditya, various queens, and others, for the construction and operation of the temple. [70][71]
They have also provided valuable insight into the evolution of various written Indian scripts. As an example, one particular 8th century column is inscribed in two Sanskrit scripts, the northern Indian Siddhamatrika script[note 1] and the southern Indian proto-Kannada-Telugu script.[73]

text: Other notable monuments at Pattadakal include a monolithic stone pillar bearing numerous inscriptions, the Naganatha temple, the Mahakuteshwara temple, which also bear numerous inscriptions, as well as several small shrines dedicated to Shiva. Near the Virupaksha, Sangameshwara and Mallikarjuna temples is a Shaiva stone pillar, featuring a trident emblem. The pillar bears inscriptions stating it was erected by Jnana Shivacharya from Mrigathanikahara, located on the north bank of the Ganges, and that he had gifted a parcel of land to the Vijayeshwara.[citation needed]

text: In 2008, Upinder Singh wrote that S. Venkateshaiah, a senior archaeologist with the ASI had located the quarry where the stones were sourced some 5 kilometers away from the Pattadakal. The site is notable for sketches of Shiva, Nandi, Durga, Ganesh, trident, peacock, swastika, symbols and inscriptions. Some of these may be emblems of guilds (sanghata) that quarried and supplied the stones for temples.[74]

text: Significance[edit]

text: According to art historian Cathleen Cummings, the monuments at Pattadakal are a historically significant example of religion, society and culture, particularly Hindu and Jain, in the Deccan region and is an expression of Hindu kingship and religious worldview of 8th-century India. She writes that the artisans express the conflicting concepts of Dharma (duty, virtue, righteousness) and Moksha (liberation) in Hindu theology, particularly Pashupata Shaivism. Furthermore, she states that the significance lies not just within individual images but also in their relative location and sequence as well how it expresses the historic tension in Hindu religious tradition between the stately life of the householder and the life of the renouncer monk.[75]

text: The expression of Dharma, particularly raja-dharma (royal authority and duty) as exemplified by Rama, and Moksha are seen throughout the various temples at Pattadakal. The former is depicted in various friezes using examples of the life story of Rama from the Ramayana, while the latter is expressed with images of Lakulisha, Nataraja, Yoga, and numerous ascetics.[76] Other imagery that is particularly prevalent at Pattadakal is that between Purusha and Prakriti, the soul and the matter, the masculine and the feminine.[77]

text: The temples at Pattadakal are symbolic of the Chalukya inclination towards integration, and experimentation, resulting in a merging of the Northern and Southern Indian architectural styles. This is particularly evident when the architecture at Pattadakal, Aihole and Badami are viewed together. Aihole, in the 5th century, served as the incubator for the concepts that would lead to this integration of styles. These concepts were further refined in Badami during the 6th and 7th centuries. The culmination of this is, as described by UNESCO, "the apogee of an eclectic art which, in the 7th and 8th centuries, achieved a harmonious blend of architectural forms from the north and south of India".[2][78]

text: Early medieval era music and arts[edit]

text: Among the sculptures at Pattadakal is one of a long neck lute (Sitar-like) dated to the 10th-century. The site also shows friezes with more conventional musical instruments, but the long neck lute suggests there was a tradition of musicians innovating with new instrument designs. Another example are the 7th-century stick zithers found carved in the bas-relief at Mahabalipuram in Tamil Nadu.[79]