document_title: Nuclear arms race

question_text: who won the arms race in the cold war

question_tokens: who won the arms race in the cold war

text: Nuclear arms race

text: World War II[edit]

text: The first nuclear weapon was created by the U.S. during the Second World War and was developed to be used against the Axis powers.[1] Scientists of the Soviet Union were aware of the potential of nuclear weapons and had also been conducting research on the field.[2]

text: The Soviet Union was not informed officially of the Manhattan Project until Stalin was briefed at the Potsdam Conference on July 24, 1945, by U.S. President Harry S. Truman,[3][4] eight days after the first successful test of a nuclear weapon. Despite their wartime military alliance, the United States and Britain had not trusted the Soviets enough to keep knowledge of the Manhattan Project safe from German spies: there were also concerns that, as an ally, the Soviet Union would request and expect to receive technical details of the new weapon.[citation needed]

text: When President Truman informed Stalin of the weapons, he was surprised at how calmly Stalin reacted to the news and thought that Stalin had not understood what he had been told. Other members of the United States and British delegations who closely observed the exchange formed the same conclusion.[5]

text: In fact Stalin had long been aware of the program,[6] despite the Manhattan Project having a secret classification so high that, even as Vice President, Truman did not know about it or the development of the weapons (Truman was not informed until shortly after he became president).[6] A ring of spies operating within the Manhattan Project, (including Klaus Fuchs[7] and Theodore Hall) had kept Stalin well informed of American progress.[8] They provided the Soviets with detailed designs of the implosion bomb and the hydrogen bomb.[citation needed] Fuchs' arrest in 1950 led to the arrests of many other Russian spies, including Harry Gold, David Greenglass, and Ethel and Julius Rosenberg.[9]

text: In August 1945, on Truman's orders, two atomic bombs were dropped on Japanese cities. The first bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, and the second bomb was dropped on Nagasaki by the B-29 bombers named Enola Gay and Bockscar respectively.

text: Shortly after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the United Nations was founded. During the United Nation's first General Assembly in London in January 1946, they discussed the future of Nuclear Weapons and created the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission. The goal of this assembly was to eliminate the use of all Nuclear weapons. The United States presented their solution, which was called the Baruch Plan.[10] This plan proposed that there should be an international authority that controls all dangerous atomic activities. The Soviet Union disagreed with this proposal and rejected it. The Soviets' proposal involved universal nuclear disarmament. Both the American and Soviet proposals were refused by the UN.

text: Early Cold War[edit]

text: Warhead Development[edit]

text: In the years immediately after the Second World War, the United States had a monopoly on specific knowledge of and raw materials for nuclear weaponry. American leaders hoped that their exclusive ownership of nuclear weapons would be enough to draw concessions from the Soviet Union but this proved ineffective.

text: Just six months after the UN General Assembly, the United States conducted its first post-war nuclear tests. This was called Operation Crossroads.[11] The purpose of this operation was to test the effectiveness of nuclear explosions on ships. These tests were performed at Bikini Atoll in the Pacific on 95 ships, including German and Japanese ships that were captured during World War II. One plutonium implosion-type bomb was detonated over the fleet, while the other one was detonated underwater.

text: Behind the scenes, the Soviet government was working on building its own atomic weapons. During the war, Soviet efforts had been limited by a lack of uranium but new supplies in Eastern Europe were found and provided a steady supply while the Soviets developed a domestic source. While American experts had predicted that the Soviet Union would not have nuclear weapons until the mid-1950s, the first Soviet bomb was detonated on August 29, 1949, shocking the entire world. The bomb, named "First Lightning" by the West, was more or less a copy of "Fat Man", one of the bombs the United States had dropped on Japan in 1945.

text: Both governments spent massive amounts to increase the quality and quantity of their nuclear arsenals. Both nations quickly began the development of a hydrogen bomb and the United States detonated the first hydrogen bomb on November 1, 1952, on Enewetak, an atoll in the Pacific Ocean.[12] Code-named "Ivy Mike", the project was led by Edward Teller, a Hungarian-American nuclear physicist. It created a cloud 100 miles wide and 25 miles high, killing all life on the surrounding islands.[13] Again, the Soviets surprised the world by exploding a deployable thermonuclear device in August 1953 although it was not a true multi-stage hydrogen bomb. However, it was small enough to be dropped from an airplane, making it ready for use. The development of these two Soviet bombs was greatly aided by the Russian spies Harry Gold and Klaus Fuchs.

text: On March 1, 1954, the U.S. conducted the Castle Bravo test, which tested another hydrogen bomb on Bikini Atoll.[14] Scientists significantly underestimated the size of the bomb, thinking it would yield 5 megatons. However, it yielded 14.8 megatons, which is the largest nuclear explosion tested by the U.S. The explosion was so large the nuclear fallout exposed residents up to 300 miles away to significant amounts of radiation. They were eventually evacuated, but most of them experienced radiation poisoning and resulted in one death from a crew member of a fishing boat 90 miles from the explosion.

text: The Soviet Union detonated its first "true" hydrogen bomb on November 22, 1955, which had a yield of 1.6 megatons. On October 30, 1961, the Soviets detonated a hydrogen bomb with a yield of approximately 58 megatons.[15]

text: Arms Race[edit]

text: With both sides in the "cold war" having nuclear capability, an arms race developed, with the Soviet union attempting first to catch up and then to surpass the Americans.[16]

text: Delivery Vehicles[edit]

text: Strategic bombers were the primary delivery method at the beginning of the Cold War.

text: Missiles had long been regarded the ideal platform for nuclear weapons, and were potentially a more effective delivery system than bombers. Starting in the 1950s, medium-range ballistic missiles and intermediate-range ballistic missiles ("IRBM"s) were developed for delivery of tactical nuclear weapons, and the technology developed to the progressively longer ranges, eventually becoming intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs). On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union showed the world that they had missiles able to reach any part of the world when they launched the Sputnik satellite into Earth orbit. The United States launched its first satellite Explorer 1 on January 31, 1958.

text: Meanwhile, submarine-launched ballistic missiles were also developed. By the 1960s, the "triad" of nuclear weapon delivery was established, with each side deploying bombers, ICBMs, and SLBMs, in order to insure that even if a defense was found against one delivery method, the other methods would still be available.

text: Some in the United States during the early 1960s pointed out that although all of the individual components of nuclear missiles had been tested separately (warheads, navigation systems, rockets), it was infeasible to test them all combined. Critics charged that it was not really known how a warhead would react to the gravity forces and temperature differences encountered in the upper atmosphere and outer space, and Kennedy was unwilling to run a test of an ICBM with a live warhead. The closest thing to an actual test was 1962's Operation Frigate Bird, in which the submarine USS Ethan Allen (SSBN-608) launched a Polaris A2 missile over 1,000 miles to the nuclear test site at Christmas Island. It was challenged by, among others, Curtis LeMay, who put missile accuracy into doubt to encourage the development of new bombers. Other critics pointed out that it was a single test which could be an anomaly; that it was a lower-altitude SLBM and therefore was subject to different conditions than an ICBM; and that significant modifications had been made to its warhead before testing.

text:
Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs), warheads and throw-weights of United States and Soviet Union, 1964–1982[17][18]

Year
Launchers
Warheads
Megatonnage

United States
Soviet Union
United States
Soviet Union
United States
Soviet Union

1964
2,416
375
6,800
500
7,500
1,000

1966
2,396
435
5,000
550
5,600
1,200

1968
2,360
1,045
4,500
850
5,100
2,300

1970
2,230
1,680
3,900
1,800
4,300
3,100

1972
2,230
2,090
5,800
2,100
4,100
4,000

1974
2,180
2,380
8,400
2,400
3,800
4,200

1976
2,100
2,390
9,400
3,200
3,700
4,500

1978
2,058
2,350
9,800
5,200
3,800
5,400

1980
2,042
2,490
10,000
7,200
4,000
6,200

1982
2,032
2,490
11,000
10,000
4,100
8,200

text: Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD)[edit]

text: By the 1950s both the United States and Soviet Union had enough nuclear power to obliterate[clarification needed] the other side. Both sides developed a capability to launch a devastating attack even after sustaining a full assault from the other side (especially by means of submarines), called a second strike.[19] This policy became known as Mutual Assured Destruction: both sides knew that any attack upon the other would be devastating to themselves, thus in theory restraining them from attacking the other.

text: Both Soviet and American experts hoped to use nuclear weapons for extracting concessions from the other, or from other powers such as China, but the risk connected with using these weapons was so grave that they refrained from what John Foster Dulles referred to as brinkmanship. While some, like General Douglas MacArthur, argued nuclear weapons should be used during the Korean War, both Truman and Eisenhower opposed the idea.[citation needed]

text: Both sides were unaware of the details of the capacity of the enemy's arsenal of nuclear weapons. The Americans suffered from a lack of confidence, and in the 1950s they believed in a non-existing bomber gap. Aerial photography later revealed that the Soviets had been playing a sort of Potemkin village game with their bombers in their military parades, flying them in large circles, making it appear they had far more than they truly did. The 1960 American presidential election saw accusations of a wholly spurious missile gap between the Soviets and the Americans. On the other side, the Soviet government exaggerated the power of Soviet weapons to the leadership and Nikita Khrushchev.[citation needed]

text: Initial nuclear proliferation[edit]

text: In addition to the United States and the Soviet Union, three other nations, the United Kingdom,[20] People's Republic of China,[21] and France[22] developed nuclear weapons during the early cold war years.

text: In 1952, the United Kingdom became the third nation to possess nuclear weapons when it detonated an atomic bomb in Operation Hurricane[23] on October 3, 1952, which had a yield of 25 kilotons. Despite major contributions to the Manhattan Project by both Canadian and British governments, the U.S. Congress passed the Atomic Energy Act of 1946, which prohibited multi-national cooperation on nuclear projects. The McMahon Act fueled resentment from British scientists and Winston Churchill, as they believed that there were agreements regarding post-war sharing of nuclear technology, and led to Britain developing its own nuclear weapons. Britain did not begin planning the development of their own nuclear weapon until January 1947. Because of Britain’s small size, they decided to test their bomb on the Monte Bello Islands, off the coast of Australia. Following this successful test, under the leadership of Churchill, Britain decided to develop and test a hydrogen bomb. The first successful hydrogen bomb test occurred on November 8, 1957, which had a yield of 1.8 megatons.[24] An amendment to the Atomic Energy Act in 1958 allowed nuclear cooperation once again, and British-U.S. nuclear programs resumed. During the Cold War, British nuclear deterrence came from submarines and nuclear-armed aircraft. The Resolution class ballistic missile submarines armed with the American-built Polaris missile provided the sea deterrent, while aircraft such as the Avro Vulcan, SEPECAT Jaguar, Panavia Tornado and several other Royal Air Force strike aircraft carrying WE.177 gravity bomb provided the air deterrent.

text: France became the fourth nation to possess nuclear weapons on February 13, 1960, when the atomic bomb "Gerboise Bleue" was detonated in Algeria,[25] then still a French colony [Formally a part of the Metropolitan France.] France began making plans for a nuclear-weapons program shortly after the Second World War, but the program did not actually begin until the late 1950s. Eight years later, France conducted its first thermonuclear test above Fangatuafa Atoll. It had a yield of 2.6 megatons.[26] This bomb significantly contaminated the atoll with radiation for six years, making it off-limits to humans. During the Cold War, the French nuclear deterrent was centered around the Force de frappe, a nuclear triad consisting of Dassault Mirage IV bombers carrying such nuclear weapons as the AN-22 gravity bomb and the ASMP stand-off attack missile, Pluton and Hades ballistic missiles, and the Redoutable class submarine armed with strategic nuclear missiles.

text: The People's Republic of China became the fifth nuclear power on October 16, 1964 when it detonated a 25 kiloton uranium-235 bomb in a test codenamed 596[27] at Lop Nur. In the late 1950s, China began developing nuclear weapons with substantial Soviet assistance in exchange for uranium ore. However, the Sino-Soviet ideological split in the late 1950s developed problems between China and the Soviet Union. This caused the Soviets to cease helping China develop nuclear weapons. However, China continued developing nuclear weapons without Soviet support and made remarkable progress in the 1960s.[28] Due to Soviet/Chinese tensions, the Chinese might have used nuclear weapons against either the United States or the Soviet Union in the event of a nuclear war between the United States and the Soviet Union.[citation needed] During the Cold War, the Chinese nuclear deterrent consisted of gravity bombs carried aboard H-6 bomber aircraft, missile systems such as the DF-2, DF-3, and DF-4,[29] and in the later stages of the Cold War, the Type 092 ballistic missile submarine. On June 14, 1967, China detonated its first hydrogen bomb.

text: Cuban Missile Crisis[edit]

text: On January 1, 1959, the Cuban government fell to communist revolutionaries, propelling Fidel Castro into power. The Soviet Union supported and praised Castro and his resistance, and the new government was recognized by the Soviet government on January 10. When the United States began boycotting Cuban sugar, the Soviet Union began purchasing large quantities to support the Cuban economy in return for fuel and eventually placing nuclear ballistic missiles on Cuban soil. These missiles would be capable of reaching the United States very quickly. On October 14, 1962, an American spy plane discovered these nuclear missile sites under construction in Cuba.[30]

text: President Kennedy immediately called a series of meetings for a small group of senior officials to debate the crisis. The group was split between a militaristic solution and a diplomatic one. President Kennedy ordered a naval blockage around Cuba and all military forces to DEFCON 3. As tensions increased, Kennedy eventually ordered U.S. military forces to DEFCON 2. This was the closest the world has been to a nuclear war. While the U.S. military had been ordered to DEFCON 2, reaching a nuclear war was still a ways off. The theory of mutually assured destruction seems to put the entry into nuclear war an unlikely possibility. While the public perceived the Cuban Missile Crisis as a time of near mass destruction, the leaders of the United States and the Soviet Union were working behind the sight of the public eye in order to come to a peaceful conclusion. Premier Khrushchev writes to President Kennedy in a telegram on October 26, 1962 saying that, "Consequently, if there is no intention to tighten that knot and thereby to doom the world to the catastrophe of thermonuclear war, then let us not only relax the forces pulling on the ends of the rope, let us take measures to untie that knot."[31] It is apparently clear that both men wanted to avoid nuclear war due to mutually assured destruction which leads to the question of just how close the world was from experiencing a nuclear war.

text: Eventually, on October 28, through much discussion between U.S and Soviet officials, Khrushchev announced that the Soviet Union would withdraw all missiles from Cuba. Shortly after, the U.S. withdrew all their nuclear missiles from Turkey in secret, which had threatened the Soviets. The U.S.'s withdrawal of their Jupiter Missiles from Turkey was kept private for decades after, causing the negotiations between the two nations to appear to the world as a major U.S. victory. This ultimately led to the downfall of Premier Khrushchev.

text: Détente[edit]

text: By the 1970s, with the cold war entering its 30th year with no direct conflict between the superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union entered a period of reduced conflict, in which the two powers engaged in trade and exchanges with each other. This period known as détente. This period included negotiation of a number of arms control agreements, building with the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in the 1950s, but with significant new treaties negotiated in the 1970s. These treaties were only partially successful. Although both states continued to hold massive numbers of nuclear weapons and research more effective technology, the growth in number of warheads was first limited, and later, with the START I, reversed.

text: Treaties[edit]

text: In 1958, both the U.S. and Soviet Union agreed to informally suspend nuclear testing. However, this agreement was ended when the Soviets resumed testing in 1961, followed by a series of nuclear tests conducted by the U.S. These events led to much political fallout, as well as the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962. Something had to be done to ease the great tensions between these two countries, so on October 10, 1963, the Limited Test Ban Treaty (LTBT) was signed.[32] This was an agreement between the U.S., the Soviet Union, and the U.K., which significantly restricted nuclear testing. All atmospheric, underwater, and outer space nuclear testing were agreed to be halted, but testing was still allowed underground. An additional 113 countries have signed this treaty since 1963.

text: SALT I and SALT II limited the size of the states' arsenals. Bans on nuclear testing, anti-ballistic missile systems, and weapons in space all attempted to limit the expansion of the arms race through the Partial Test Ban Treaty.

text: In November, 1969, Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) begun. This was primarily due to the economic impact that nuclear testing and production had on both U.S. and Soviet economies. The SALT I Treaty, which was signed in May, 1972, produced an agreement on two significant documents. These were the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (ABM Treaty) and the Interim Agreement on the Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms.[33] The ABM treaty limited each country to two ABM sites, while the Interim Agreement froze each country's number of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) and submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) at current levels for five years. This treaty significantly reduced nuclear-related costs as well as the risk of nuclear war. However, SALT I failed to address how many nuclear warheads could be placed on one missile. A new technology, known as multiple-independently targetable re-entry vehicle (MIRV), allowed single missiles to hold and launch multiple nuclear missiles at targets while in mid-air. Over the next 10 years, the Soviet Union and U.S added 12,000 nuclear warheads to their already built arsenals.

text: Throughout the 1970s, both the Soviet Union and United States replaced old missiles and warheads with newer, more powerful and effective ones. This continued to worsen Soviet-U.S relations. On June 18, 1979, the SALT II treaty was signed in Vienna. This treaty limited both sides' nuclear arsenals and technology. However, this treaty as well as the era of the détente ended with the Soviet Union's invasion of Afghanistan in January, 1980.[34] The United States once again significantly increased military and nuclear spending, while the Soviets were unable to respond and continued to pursue the détente.

text: In 1991, the START (Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty) was negotiated between the U. S. and the Soviet Union, to reduce the number and limit the capabilities of limitation of strategic offensive arms. This was eventually succeeded by the START II, START III, and New START treaties.

text: Reagan and the Strategic Defense Initiative[edit]

text: Despite détente, both sides continued to develop and introduce more accurate weapons and weapons with more warheads ("MIRVs"). The presidency of Ronald Reagan proposed a missile defense programmed tagged the Strategic Defense Initiative, a space based anti-ballistic missile system derided as "Star Wars" by its critics; simultaneously, missile defense was also being researched in the Soviet Union. However, the SDI would require technology that had not yet been developed, or even researched. This system proposed both space- and earth-based laser battle stations. It would also need sensors on the ground, in the air, and in space with radar, optical, and infrared technology to detect incoming missiles.[35] Simultaneously, however, Reagan initiated negotiations with Mikhail Gorbachev ultimately resulting in the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty on reducing nuclear stockpiles.

text: Due to high costs and complex technology for its time, the scope of the SDI project was reduced from defense against a massive attack to a system for defending against limited attacks, transitioning into the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization.

text: The end of the Cold War[edit]

text: During the mid-1980s, the U.S-Soviet relations significantly improved, Mikhail Gorbachev assumed control of the Soviet Union after the deaths of several former Soviet leaders, and announced a new era of perestroika and glasnost, meaning restructuring and openness respectively. Gorbachev proposed a 50% reduction of nuclear weapons for both the U.S and Soviet Union at the meeting in Reykjavik, Iceland in October 1986. However, the proposal was refused due to disagreements over Reagan's SDI. Instead, the Intermediate Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty was signed on December 8, 1987 in Washington, which eliminated an entire class of nuclear weapons.[36]

text: Due to the dramatic economic and social changes occurring within the Soviet Union, many of its constituent republics began to declare their independence. With the wave of revolutions sweeping across Eastern-Europe, the Soviet Union was unable to impose its will on its satellite states and so its sphere of influence slowly diminished. By December 16, 1991, all of the republics had declared independence from the Union. The Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev resigned as the country's President on December 25 and the Soviet Union was declared non-existent the following day.

text: Post–Cold War[edit]

text: The examples and perspective in this article may not include all significant viewpoints. Please improve the article or discuss the issue. (December 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: With the end of the Cold War, the United States and Russia cut down on nuclear weapons spending.[citation needed] Fewer new systems were developed and both arsenals were reduced; although both countries maintain significant stocks of nuclear missiles. In the United States, stockpile stewardship programs have taken over the role of maintaining the aging arsenal.[37]

text: After the Cold War ended, large inventories of nuclear weapons and facilities remained. Some are being recycled, dismantled, or recovered as valuable substances.[citation needed] As a result, a large amount of resources and money which was once spent on developing nuclear weapons in Soviet Union was then spent on repairing the environmental damage produced by the nuclear arms race, and almost all former production sites are now major cleanup sites.[citation needed] In the United States, the plutonium production facility at Hanford, Washington and the plutonium pit fabrication facility at Rocky Flats, Colorado are among the most polluted sites.[citation needed]

text: Military policies and strategies have been modified to reflect the increasing intervals without major confrontation. In 1995, United States policy and strategy regarding nuclear proliferation was outlined in the document "Essentials of Post–Cold War Deterrence", produced by the Policy Subcommittee of the Strategic Advisory Group (SAG) of the United States Strategic Command.

text: On April 8, 2010, former U.S. President Barack Obama and Russian President Dmitry Medvedev signed the New START Treaty, which called for a fifty percent reduction of strategic nuclear missile launchers and a curtailment of deployed nuclear warheads.[38] The U.S. Senate ratified the treaty in December 2010 by a three-quarter majority.

text: On December 22, 2016, U.S. President Donald Trump proclaimed in a tweet that "the United States must greatly strengthen and expand its nuclear capability until such time as the world comes to its senses regarding nukes,"[39] effectively challenging the world to re-engage in a race for nuclear dominance. The next day, Trump reiterated his position to Morning Joe host Mika Brzezinski of MSNBC, stating: "Let it be an arms race. We will outmatch them at every pass and outlast them all."[40]

text: India and Pakistan[edit]

text: In South Asia, India and Pakistan have also engaged in a technological nuclear arms race since the 1970s. The nuclear competition started in 1974 with India detonating the device, codename Smiling Buddha, at the Pokhran region of the Rajasthan state.[41] The Indian government termed this test as a "peaceful nuclear explosion", but according to independent sources, it was actually part of an accelerated covert nuclear program of India.[42]

text: This test generated great concern and doubts in Pakistan, with fear it would be at the mercy of its long–time arch rival. Pakistan had its own covert atomic bomb projects in 1972 which extended over many years since the first Indian weapon was detonated. After the 1974 test, Pakistan's atomic bomb program picked up a great speed and accelerated its atomic project to successfully build its own atomic weapons program. In the last few decades of the 20th century, India and Pakistan began to develop nuclear-capable rockets and nuclear military technologies. Finally, in 1998 India, under Atal Bihari Vajpayee government, test detonated 5 more nuclear weapons. While the international response to the detonation was muted,[citation needed] domestic pressure within Pakistan began to build steam and Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif ordered the test, detonated 6 nuclear war weapons (Chagai-I and Chagai-II) in a tit-for-tat fashion and to act as a deterrent.

text: Defense against nuclear attacks[edit]

text: From the beginning of the Cold War, The United States, Russia, and other nations have all attempted to develop Anti-ballistic missiles. The United States developed the LIM-49 Nike Zeus in the 1950s in order to destroy incoming ICBMs.

text: Russia has, too, developed ABM missiles in the form of the A-35 anti-ballistic missile system and the later A-135 anti-ballistic missile system. Chinese state media has also announced to have tested anti-ballistic missiles,[43] though specific information is not public.

text: India has successfully developed its Ballistic Missile Shield in the programme Indian Ballistic Missile Defence Programme with the test fire of Prithvi Air Defense (PAD) and it has also developed a cruise missile defense Akash Air Defense (AAD)[44] to intercept low flying missiles making India one of the five countries with Missile Shield. [45]


document_title: Once Upon a Time (season 7)

question_text: who plays cinderella in once upon a time 2017

root

text: Once Upon a Time (season 7)

text: Cast and characters[edit]

text: Regular[edit]

text:
Lana Parrilla as Evil Queen / Regina Mills / Roni[3]
Colin O'Donoghue as Captain Hook / Killian Jones / Rogers[3]
Andrew J. West as Henry Mills[3]
Dania Ramirez as Cinderella / Jacinda[7][8]
Gabrielle Anwar as Lady Tremaine / Victoria Belfrey[4][8]
Alison Fernandez as Lucy[3]
Robert Carlyle as Rumplestiltskin / Mr. Gold / Weaver[3]
Mekia Cox as Tiana / Sabine[4][5]

tag: ul

text: Recurring[edit]

text:
Adelaide Kane as Drizella / Ivy Belfrey[4][9]
Rose Reynolds as Alice / Tilly[4][10]
Emma Booth as Gothel / Eloise Gardener[11][12]
Rebecca Mader as Wicked Witch of the West / Zelena[13]
Meegan Warner as Rapunzel[14]
Tiera Skovbye as Robin[15]
Nathan Parsons as Jack / Nick Branson[16][17]

text: Guest[edit]

text:
Jared S. Gilmore as young Henry Mills[18]
Jennifer Morrison as Emma Swan[19]
Emilie de Ravin as Belle[20]
Giles Matthey as Gideon[21]
Robin Givens as Eudora[22]
Kevin Ryan as Robert[23]
Daniel Francis as Dr. Facilier[23]
Chris Gauthier as William Smee[17]
Yael Yurman as Anastasia[24][25]
TBA as Naveen[26]
Chad Rook as TBA[27]

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)

134
1
"Hyperion Heights"
Ralph Hemecker
Edward Kitsis & Adam Horowitz
October 6, 2017 (2017-10-06)
3.26[28]

In a flashback, an 18-year-old Henry says goodbye to Regina as he departs Storybrooke on a trip to new realms in hopes of finding his own story. Many years later, Henry runs into Cinderella's carriage in the Magical Forest and after a string of events that almost get them captured at a ball, he offers her the chance at a new start back in Storybrooke, as he is due to return through a portal that evening. When Henry finds a glass slipper left for him at their meeting spot, he decides to stay behind. In present-day Seattle, an older Henry is reunited with his daughter Lucy, whom he does not remember because of a curse. In hopes of breaking it, Lucy leads him to her neighborhood of Hyperion Heights, home to many other cursed fairytale characters including Jacinda, Lucy's down-on-her-luck single mother who is in a contentious relationship with her powerful stepmother Victoria. Others include Roni, a bar owner who is struggling with having to sell her establishment to Victoria, and Rogers, a cop who gets promoted to a detective and is introduced to his new partner, Weaver.

135
2
"A Pirate's Life"
Tara Nicole Weyr
Jane Espenson & Jerome Schwartz
October 13, 2017 (2017-10-13)
2.74[29]

In a flashback, Emma expresses her worries about Henry leaving home and Hook presents her with a "message in a bottle" that Henry can use to keep in contact. Many years later, as Henry is about to be captured by Lady Tremaine, he uses the bottle to call on Emma, Hook, and Regina for help. Hook and Regina arrive and rescue him though, unbeknownst to them, the bottle also summoned the Hook from the Wish Realm, who later appears and knocks the original Hook out to assume his place. When Emma arrives and reveals to Henry that she is pregnant, the other Hook feels guilty and decides to switch back, though the real Hook ends up stabbing him in a fight. The other Hook then reveals that he had a daughter who got trapped in a tower by a witch. After hearing this, Hook gets Emma to heal his counterpart. Afterwards, Henry does not feel like it is time to go back home yet and gets Emma's blessing to continue his journey. Henry, Regina, and the other Hook decide to travel together, while Emma and Hook return to Storybrooke. In the present, Victoria hires Rogers and Weaver to drive Henry out of the neighborhood. Rogers does not agree with Weaver's methods and helps Henry instead. Rogers, Henry, and Roni end up forming an alliance against Victoria. Meanwhile, Jacinda has to find another way to be at Lucy's ballet recital after Victoria makes things difficult for her.

136
3
"The Garden of Forking Paths"
Ron Underwood
David H. Goodman & Brigitte Hales
October 20, 2017 (2017-10-20)
2.49[30]

In a flashback, Cinderella arrives at the spot in the forest where she is supposed to meet Henry, but does not find him there. She then meets Princess Tiana, who recruits her to be part of the resistance against Lady Tremaine. She leaves one of her glass slippers behind for Henry to find. A short while later, Henry, Regina, and Hook arrive at their campsite and join the efforts. Later, Cinderella sneaks into Tremaine's castle alone, where Tremaine reveals that she has kept her almost-deceased daughter Anastasia preserved since her "death" at age 14 and needs a pure heart to revive her. She tasks Cinderella with stealing Henry's, since he has the heart of the truest believer. In the present day, Jacinda tries to save Lucy's beloved community garden from Victoria, while Lucy takes a skeptical Henry on a trip under the garden lot in hopes of finding proof of everyone's fairytale pasts. Meanwhile, Henry, Roni, and Rogers find their first lead against Victoria. Rogers captures the man working with her, but is irritated to find Weaver setting the man free to use him as a future connection. Also, it is revealed that Victoria is not cursed and has been keeping a witch as her prisoner at the top of Belfrey Towers.

137
4
"Beauty"
Mick Garris
Dana Horgan & Leah Fong
October 27, 2017 (2017-10-27)
2.44[31]

In a flashback to Gideon's first birthday, Rumple and Belle decide to leave Storybrooke to travel the world. Years later, Rumple tells Belle that he wants to stop being the Dark One so he can be mortal again and live out one single life with her. Over the years, they search for ways to get rid of his darkness. When Gideon is 18, Belle comes across a prophecy that leads them to the Edge of Realms, where they must wait for the sun's brightest set before they can be guided to the path Rumple must take to get rid of the Darkness. They build a home there as they wait for the event to occur. However, an aging Belle eventually admits that the "sun" of which the prophecy spoke was actually herself and that her death will mark the start of his journey. When Belle dies, Rumple sets off to search for a Guardian who will be able to take over the Darkness from him so that he can ultimately be reunited with Belle. In the present day, Tilly, who is actually Alice, begins to wake up from the curse after she stops taking pills given to her by Victoria. In her new state of clarity, she tries to get Weaver to remember his true identity. Meanwhile, Ivy is tasked with taking Lucy trick-or-treating and loses her in the streets. She ends up bonding with Henry and defies her mother to give Jacinda and Lucy time together.

138
5
"Greenbacks"
Geofrey Hildrew
Christopher Hollier & Adam Karp
November 3, 2017 (2017-11-03)
2.29[32]

In the flashbacks, Tiana seeks a prince to help save her kingdom and is guided by Dr. Facilier to a man named Robert. She soon realizes that Facilier had enlisted Robert to steal a magical ruby from her in exchange for reuniting him with his lover who had been turned into a frog. In the present day, Tiana decides to run a pop-up beignet shop out of Mr. Cluck's with Jacinda's help. Victoria sends someone to burn the place down, which then causes friction between the two roommates. Rogers comes across a detainee at the police station who he thinks is connected to Eloise Gardener, the missing girl he's trying to find. Meanwhile, Roni decides to investigate Ivy's interest in helping Henry. Ivy takes her to the top of the towers and Roni finds a photo of herself and a young Henry taken in Storybrooke. However, it is later revealed that Ivy hasn't been cursed either and has her own dealings with the witch of which her mother is unaware.

139
6
"Wake Up Call"
Sharat Raju
Jerome Schwartz & Jane Espenson
November 10, 2017 (2017-11-10)
2.37[33]

In a flashback, Regina comes across Drizella, who is looking for magic to escape from her mother. When she reveals that she was actually born with magic, Regina begins to train her. However after Regina runs into Rumple, who tells her that Lady Tremaine must have been aware of the magic lessons, the two women realize that Lady Tremaine was counting on using Drizella's heart to revive Anastasia. Drizella ends up blackening her own heart by killing the prince, making it unusable for revival, and vows to cast a curse like Regina's to make her mother suffer. In the present day, Roni struggles with what to believe about the mysterious photo, which is complicated by newly discovered information about "Regina Mills" into which Lucy encouraged her to look. Drizella gathers the ingredients for a plant that the witch then cultivates and, when she serves its essence to Roni, she wakes up and remembers her life as Regina. Drizella then reveals that she cast the curse and blackmails Regina into keeping Henry and Jacinda apart, reminding her of a special contingency that was put into the curse that would force her to comply.

140
7
"Eloise Gardener"
Alex Kalymnios
David H. Goodman & Brigitte Hales
November 17, 2017 (2017-11-17)
2.28[34]

In a flashback to the Wish Realm shortly after the Charmings have stopped Regina from casting her curse, Hook agrees to procure magic for her from a witch. When he arrives at the witch's tower, he finds Rapunzel instead. She instructs him to retrieve a golden flower from the witch's garden. When he returns with it to help her, they spend a night together. The next morning, it is revealed that Rapunzel is actually Gothel and their night together produced a baby, whom Gothel leaves behind so she can escape the tower. Hook gives the Jolly Roger to Smee and decides to stay with his daughter, who is unable to leave due to the tower's spell. He names her Alice after his own mother. In the present day, Rogers is on a mad hunt for Eloise, with help from Henry and Tilly. Tilly later informs him that Eloise has died but it turns out that the news had been planted by Weaver to throw him off the case. Weaver warns Rogers that Eloise isn't the person he thinks she is. When Rogers finds Gothel, he mistakenly believes that she is Eloise and frees her from Victoria, who gets locked up for kidnapping. Meanwhile, Tremaine has discovered that Drizella is awake and Regina tries to put some distance between Henry and Jacinda.

141
8
"Pretty in Blue"
Ralph Hemecker
Dana Horgan & Leah Fong
November 17, 2017 (2017-11-17)
2.28[34]

In the flashbacks, Hook is reunited with Alice, who claims that they have been cured of their curse. However, when they try to embrace, Hook gets hurt and Alice runs away in fear. Henry and Ella chase her back to Wonderland, a place where Ella reveals that her mother Cecilia had ran to after abandoning her and her stepfather. She takes a shrinking potion and leaves Henry to head into the Infinite Maze alone to find answers. She finds Alice, who tells her that she had met Cecilia before and that the woman had also been afflicted with the same Curse of the Poisoned Heart. Drizella is also in Wonderland with a plan to curse Henry but Alice and Ella are able to save him. Henry and Ella then share their first kiss. In the present day, Jacinda contacts Nick (a cursed friend of Henry's from Fairy Tale Land), a lawyer whom she has been cursed to believe is Lucy's father. He agrees to help her regain custody of Lucy, to Henry's disdain, and Lucy encourages Henry to fight for Jacinda. Meanwhile, Drizella and Gothel plan to revive Anastasia but when they open her coffin, her body is missing. After Regina confronts Rumple, who refuses to confirm that he has woken up from the curse, she announces to Henry that she's heading to San Francisco to meet with someone who had been pushed out of town by Victoria. He agrees to join her on the trip.

142
9
"One Little Tear"[35]
TBA
Christopher Hollier & Adam Karp
December 8, 2017 (2017-12-08)[36]
TBD

143
10
"The Eighth Witch"[37]
TBA
Jane Espenson & Jerome Schwartz
TBA
TBD

144
11
"Secret Garden"[38]
TBA
Edward Kitsis & Adam Horowitz
TBA
TBD

145
12
"A Taste of the Heights"[39]
TBA
David H. Goodman & Brigitte Hales
TBA
TBD

146
13
"Knightfall"[40]
TBA
Jerome Schwartz & Miguel Ian Raya
TBA
TBD

tag: table

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: In January 2017, while season 6 was still in production, ABC president Channing Dungey spoke of a possible "reset" of the show's narrative in the event that the show received a season 7 order.[6] After much speculation, executive producers Adam Horowitz and Edward Kitsis later confirmed that certain characters would have their storylines wrapped up and that the back-end of the sixth season had been written with the season 7 narrative change in mind.[41] Despite the major changes from seasons past, the showrunners have said that they do not view season 7 as a complete reboot of the show: "We're more thinking about it as a hybrid of a lot of things. We're paying homage to the original premise, but there are certain characters who are returning and some who are not. It's a combination of a lot of things, but what we're trying to do is go in a new direction but stay true to the spirit of what the show has always been."[42]

tag: p

text: In July 2017, the creators announced that the series now take place in the Seattle neighborhood of Hyperion Heights, which was created under a new and darker curse. Residents of this neighborhood include displaced characters from the original and new versions of the Enchanted Forest, as well as regular people from the Land Without Magic. This differs from Storybrooke in season 1, which was an isolated town that was blocked off from real-world Maine. The initial villain is Lady Tremaine, assumes the role of an urban developer who seeks to "gentrify the neighborhood" and push out and separate fairy tale residents. Meanwhile, Storybrooke and various Fairy Tale Land locations still appear in the flashbacks of the season as the story bounces back and forth between the characters' lives before and during the latest curse.[43]

text: Casting[edit]

text: In May 2017, it was announced that Lana Parrilla, Colin O'Donoghue, and Robert Carlyle would be the only series regulars from season 6 to continue onto season 7.[3] It was teased that the three would be portraying their original characters but with cursed identities, similar to the circumstances in season 1. In July, the first promo of the season revealed that Killian is now a Seattle police officer with the last name Rogers, who is living with an unexplained sense of loss.[44] In August, it was revealed that Regina is now a bar owner named Roni, who is more dressed down and is "no longer in charge."[45]

text: Former main cast member Jennifer Morrison has confirmed that she has agreed to return for one episode, later revealed to be the second episode of the season.[46][47] Morrison announced her last filming day on July 19, 2017.[48] On July 22, it was confirmed that Emilie de Ravin would return for the fourth episode in the seventh season.[20]

text: In March 2017, Andrew J. West and Alison Fernandez were cast for unknown guest roles in the season six finale. During the episode, it was revealed that West was portraying an adult Henry Mills, while Fernandez portrayed his daughter, Lucy. After that episode's airing, they were confirmed as series regulars for season 7.[3] West will be taking over the role from Jared S. Gilmore, who has been confirmed to appear in at least the first two episodes of the season.[18][49]

text: On July 6, 2017, it was announced that Dania Ramirez and Gabrielle Anwar would be two additional series regulars for season 7.[3] Additionally, Adelaide Kane, Mekia Cox, and Rose Reynolds were cast in recurring roles for the upcoming season.[3] On July 15, it was announced that Ramirez would be portraying Cinderella, albeit a different version from the one previously played by Jessy Schram for the first six seasons.[7] On July 22 at San Diego Comic-Con, it was revealed that Anwar and Kane will be portraying Lady Tremaine and Drizella, respectively. Cox would be portraying Tiana from The Princess and the Frog, while Reynolds would be playing an alternate version of Alice, a character previously heavily featured in the spin-off Once Upon a Time in Wonderland.[44] In August 2017, Cox was promoted to series regular.[5]

text: On August 1, it was announced that Giles Matthey would return as an adult Gideon for the season's fourth episode. The episode, also featuring Emilie de Ravin, would be centered around Rumple.[21] On that same day, it was also announced that Emma Booth was cast in a major recurring role as the Witch,[11] whose more specific identity would be revealed later on during the season.[50] On August 25, Kevin Ryan announced that he would be making an appearance as a new prince in the upcoming season.[51] On August 30, it was announced that Robin Givens had been cast as Tiana's mother, Eudora.[22]

text: On September 8, it was announced that Meegan Warner would be guest starring as an alternate version of Rapunzel, a character previously featured in one episode of season 3.[14] It was later revealed that the character would appear in a multi-episode arc.[52] On September 20, it was announced that former main Rebecca Mader would return for multiple episodes in the seventh season as Zelena, who will also have a cursed identity.[13][53]

text: On October 2, it was announced that Dr. Facilier from The Princess and the Frog would make an appearance during the season,[54] later revealed to be portrayed by Daniel Francis in the season's fifth episode.[23] On October 3, it was announced that flashbacks of the ninth episode would feature a "tweenage" Anastasia, Lady Tremaine's other biological daughter.[24]

text: On November 1, it was announced that Tiera Skovbye would be recurring as an older version of Robin, the daughter of Zelena and Robin Hood.[15] On November 2, it was announced that Nathan Parsons had been cast in a recurring role as Nick, a lawyer and potential love interest for another character.[16] On November 3, it was announced that the show was casting for the role of Naveen from The Princess and the Frog, who will be appearing in the second half of the season.[26] On November 16, actor Chad Rook announced that he had been cast in an unknown role.[27]

text: Ratings[edit]

text:
No.
Title
Air date
Rating/share
(18–49)
Viewers
(millions)
DVR
(18–49)
DVR viewers
(millions)
Total
(18–49)
Total viewers
(millions)

1
"Hyperion Heights"
October 6, 2017
0.7/3
3.26[28]
0.7
1.72
1.4
4.98[55]

2
"A Pirate's Life"
October 13, 2017
0.7/3
2.74[29]
0.6
N/A
1.3[56]
N/A

3
"The Garden of Forking Paths"
October 20, 2017
0.5/3
2.49[30]
0.6
N/A
1.1[57]
N/A

4
"Beauty"
October 27, 2017
0.5/2
2.44[31]
0.5
N/A
1.0[58]
N/A

5
"Greenbacks"
November 3, 2017
0.5/2
2.29[32]
0.5
1.27
1.0
3.56[59]

6
"Wake Up Call"
November 10, 2017
0.5/2
2.37[33]
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD

7
"Eloise Gardener"
November 17, 2017
0.5/2
2.28[34]
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD

8
"Pretty in Blue"
November 17, 2017
0.5/2
2.28[34]
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD


document_title: CONCACAF Gold Cup

question_text: who has won the most concacaf gold cups

question_tokens: who has won the most concacaf gold cups

text: CONCACAF Gold Cup

text: History[edit]

text: Championships before CONCACAF[edit]

text: Before the Confederation of North, Central American and Caribbean Association Football (CONCACAF) was formed in 1961, association football in the region was divided into smaller, regional divisions. The two main bodies consisted of the Confederación Centroamericana y del Caribe de Fútbol (CCCF) founded in 1938 (consisting of Central America and most of the Caribbean) and the North American Football Confederation (NAFC) founded in 1946 (consisting of the North American nations of United States, Mexico, Canada, and Cuba). Each confederation held its own competition, the CCCF Championship and the NAFC Championship. The CCCF held 10 championships from 1941–1961, Costa Rica winning seven (1941, ’46, ’48, ’53, ’55, ’60, ’61), and one each by El Salvador (1943), Panama (1951) and Haiti (1957). The NAFC held four championships in 1947 and 1949 and later, after 41 years of absence, in 1990 and 1991 for the North American zone as the North American Nations Cup with Mexico winning two (47 & ’49) and Canada winning one (1990) before the introduction of the CONCACAF Gold Cup. [3]

text: CONCACAF Championship (1963–1989)[edit]

text: CONCACAF was founded in 1961 through the merging of NAFC and CCCF which resulted in a single championship being held for the continent. The first CONCACAF tournament was held in 1963 in El Salvador with Costa Rica becoming the first champion. The CONCACAF Campeonato de Naciones, as it was called, was held every two years from 1963–1973. The second tournament was held in Guatemala in 1965 when Mexico defeated the host country in the final of a six-team tournament. The 1967 competition was held in Honduras and saw a third champion crowned, Guatemala. Costa Rica won their second title as hosts in 1969, knocking off Guatemala, while two years later, Mexico won their second championship as the tournament moved to Trinidad & Tobago, the first time in the Caribbean. In 1973, the tournament kept the same format of six teams playing a single round-robin, but there were bigger stakes attached: CONCACAF’s berth in the FIFA World Cup tournament in 1974. In Port-au-Prince, Haiti, the host country pulled off a shocking upset by winning the tournament and claiming a spot in the World Cup in West Germany.

text: With the Campeonato de Naciones doubling as the final World Cup qualifying tournament, the next two editions were held in Mexico City and Tegucigalpa, Honduras in 1977 and 1981, respectively. In each case the host country was crowned champion and earned a spot in the World Cup. In 1985 and 1989, the winner of the World Cup qualifying tournament was again crowned Confederation champion. Canada and Costa Rica were named champions in 1985 and 1989, receiving a trophy.[4][better source needed]

text: CONCACAF Gold Cup (1991–present)[edit]

text: In 1990, CONCACAF brought the CONCACAF Championship to an end and created the CONCACAF Gold Cup, with the USA hosting the first competition in 1991. The host country was the inaugural champion of the eight-team tournament. Mexico dominated the remainder of the decade, winning three consecutive CONCACAF Gold Cup titles in 1993, 1996 and 1998.

text: In 1996, the Gold Cup field included its first guest team, the defending FIFA World Cup Champions Brazil. Guests were invited to participate in the six Gold Cup tournaments from 1996 to 2005. Starting with the 2000 Gold Cup, the tournament field was increased to twelve teams and for the 2007 tournament, the Gold Cup again was contested exclusively by nations within CONCACAF.

text: The 2007 Gold Cup was contested in the United States where the hosts successfully defended their title beating Mexico in the final 2–1 in Chicago; Canada and Guadeloupe shared third place. Mexico won the 2009 Gold Cup by beating the United States 5–0. In the 2011 Gold Cup, Mexico defeated the USA 4–2 in the final while the USA won the 2013 Gold Cup by beating Panama 1–0.

text: Since the formation of the Gold Cup in 1991, the CONCACAF Championship has been won seven times by Mexico, six times by the United States, and once by Canada. Runners-up include Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Honduras, Panama, and Jamaica.

text: In January 2017, Victor Montagliani announced the expansion of the Gold Cup from 12 to 16 teams, starting with the 2019 tournament.[5]

text: Tournament results[edit]

text:
CONCACAF Gold Cup

Year
Host

Final

Third Place Match

Winner
Score
Runner-up
3rd Place
Score
4th Place

1991
Details
 United States

United States
0–0 a.e.t.
(4–3 pen.)

Honduras

Mexico
2–0

Costa Rica

1993
Details
 United States
 Mexico

Mexico
4–0

United States
 Costa Rica
 Jamaica
1–1
a.e.t. (1)

1996
Details
 United States

Mexico
2–0

Brazil

United States
3–0

Guatemala

1998
Details
 United States

Mexico
1–0

United States

Brazil
1–0

Jamaica

2000
Details
 United States

Canada
2–0

Colombia
Not Held

 Peru
 Trinidad and Tobago

2002
Details
 United States

United States
2–0

Costa Rica

Canada
2–1

South Korea

2003
Details
 United States
 Mexico

Mexico
1–0
a.s.d.e.t.

Brazil

United States
3–2

Costa Rica

2005
Details
 United States

United States
0–0 a.e.t.
(3–1 pen.)

Panama
Not held

 Colombia
 Honduras

2007
Details
 United States

United States
2–1

Mexico
 Canada
 Guadeloupe

2009
Details
 United States

Mexico
5–0

United States
 Costa Rica
 Honduras

2011
Details
 United States

Mexico
4–2

United States
 Honduras
 Panama

2013
Details
 United States

United States
1–0

Panama
 Honduras
 Mexico

2015
Details
 United States
 Canada

Mexico
3–1

Jamaica

Panama
1–1 a.e.t.
(3–2 pen.)

United States

2017
Details
 United States

United States
2–1

Jamaica
Not held

 Costa Rica
 Mexico

2019
TBA

TBD
-
TBD

TBD

text: (1) Costa Rica and Jamaica shared third place.

text: Teams in italics are guest nations.

text: Performance by country[edit]

text: The following table shows cumulative top four results for all editions of the CONCACAF Gold Cup. The Third Place column lists third-place match winners, and teams eliminated in semi-finals in years without a third-place match.

text:
Team
Winners
Runners-up
Third Place
Fourth Place

 Mexico
7 (1993, 1996, 1998, 2003, 2009, 2011, 2015)
1 (2007)
3 (1991, 2013, 2017)
—

 United States
6 (1991, 2002, 2005, 2007, 2013, 2017)
4 (1993, 1998, 2009, 2011)
2 (1996, 2003)
1 (2015)

 Canada
1 (2000)
—
2 (2002, 2007)
—

 Panama
—
2 (2005, 2013)
2 (2011, 2015)
—

 Jamaica
—
2 (2015, 2017)
1 (1993)
1 (1998)

 Brazil
—
2 (1996, 2003)
1 (1998)
—

 Honduras
—
1 (1991)
4 (2005, 2009, 2011, 2013)
—

 Costa Rica
—
1 (2002)
3 (1993, 2009, 2017)
2 (1991, 2003)

 Colombia
—
1 (2000)
1 (2005)
—

 Peru
—
—
1 (2000)
—

 Trinidad and Tobago
—
—
1 (2000)
—

 Guadeloupe
—
—
1 (2007)
—

 Guatemala
—
—
—
1 (1996)

 South Korea
—
—
—
1 (2002)

text: Records and statistics[edit]

text: Media coverage[edit]

text: In the United States, the CONCACAF Gold Cup airs on Fox Sports (since 2007) and Univision Deportes (since 2000). In Mexico it airs on Televisa and TV Azteca. In Canada it switched to TSN in 2017, after years on Sportsnet.


document_title: Sea level

question_text: where is sea level measured in the uk

question_tokens: where is sea level measured in the uk

text: Sea level

text: Measurement[edit]

text: Precise determination of a "mean sea level" is difficult to achieve because of the many factors that affect sea level.[3] Sea level varies quite a lot on several scales of time and space. This is because the sea is in constant motion, affected by the tides, wind, atmospheric pressure, local gravitational differences, temperature, salinity and so forth. The easiest way this may be calculated is by selecting a location and calculating the mean sea level at that point and use it as a datum. For example, a period of 19 years of hourly level observations may be averaged and used to determine the mean sea level at some measurement point.

text: To an operator of a tide gauge, MSL means the "still water level"—the level of the sea with motions such as wind waves averaged out—averaged over a period of time such that changes in sea level, e.g., due to the tides, also get averaged out. One measures the values of MSL in respect to the land. Hence a change in MSL can result from a real change in sea level, or from a change in the height of the land on which the tide gauge operates.

text: In the UK, the Ordnance Datum (the 0 metres height on UK maps) is the mean sea level measured at Newlyn in Cornwall between 1915 and 1921. Prior to 1921, the datum was MSL at the Victoria Dock, Liverpool.

text: In Hong Kong, "mPD" is a surveying term meaning "metres above Principal Datum" and refers to height of 1.230m below the average sea level.

text: In France, the Marégraphe in Marseilles measures continuously the sea level since 1883 and offers the longest collapsed data about the sea level. It is used for a part of continental Europe and main part of Africa as official sea level. Elsewhere in Europe vertical elevation references (European Vertical Reference System) are made to the Amsterdam Peil elevation, which dates back to the 1690s.

text: Satellite altimeters have been making precise measurements of sea level[4] since the launch of TOPEX/Poseidon in 1992. A joint mission of NASA and CNES, TOPEX/Poseidon was followed by Jason-1 in 2001 and the Ocean Surface Topography Mission on the Jason-2 satellite in 2008.

text: Height above mean sea level[edit]

text: Height above mean sea level (AMSL) is the elevation (on the ground) or altitude (in the air) of an object, relative to the average sea level datum. It is also used in aviation, where some heights are recorded and reported with respect to mean sea level (MSL) (contrast with flight level), and in the atmospheric sciences, and land surveying. An alternative is to base height measurements on an ellipsoid of the entire Earth, which is what systems such as GPS do. In aviation, the ellipsoid known as World Geodetic System 84 is increasingly used to define heights; however, differences up to 100 metres (328 feet) exist between this ellipsoid height and mean tidal height. The alternative is to use a geoid-based vertical datum such as NAVD88.

text: When referring to geographic features such as mountains on a topographic map, variations in elevation are shown by contour lines. The elevation of a mountain denotes the highest point or summit and is typically illustrated as a small circle on a topographic map with the AMSL height shown in metres, feet or both.

text: In the rare case that a location is below sea level, the elevation AMSL is negative. For one such case, see Amsterdam Airport Schiphol.

text: Difficulties in use[edit]

text:
Ocean
Reference ellipsoid
Local plumb line
Continent
Geoid

tag: ol

text: To extend this definition far from the sea means comparing the local height of the mean sea surface with a "level" reference surface, or geodetic datum, called the geoid. In a state of rest or absence of external forces, the mean sea level would coincide with this geoid surface, being an equipotential surface of the Earth's gravitational field. In reality, due to currents, air pressure variations, temperature and salinity variations, etc., this does not occur, not even as a long-term average. The location-dependent, but persistent in time, separation between mean sea level and the geoid is referred to as (stationary) ocean surface topography. It varies globally in a range of ± 2 m.

text: Historically, adjustments were made to sea-level measurements to take into account the effects of the 235 lunar month Metonic cycle and the 223-month eclipse cycle on the tides.[5]

text: Dry land[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Several terms are used to describe the changing relationships between sea level and dry land. When the term "relative" is used, it means change relative to a fixed point in the sediment pile. The term "eustatic" refers to global changes in sea level relative to a fixed point, such as the centre of the earth, for example as a result of melting ice-caps. The term "steric" refers to global changes in sea level due to thermal expansion and salinity variations. The term "isostatic" refers to changes in the level of the land relative to a fixed point in the earth, possibly due to thermal buoyancy or tectonic effects; it implies no change in the volume of water in the oceans. The melting of glaciers at the end of ice ages is one example of eustatic sea level rise. The subsidence of land due to the withdrawal of groundwater is an isostatic cause of relative sea level rise. Paleoclimatologists can track sea level by examining the rocks deposited along coasts that are very tectonically stable, like the east coast of North America. Areas like volcanic islands are experiencing relative sea level rise as a result of isostatic cooling of the rock which causes the land to sink.

text: On other planets that lack a liquid ocean, planetologists can calculate a "mean altitude" by averaging the heights of all points on the surface. This altitude, sometimes referred to as a "sea level", serves equivalently as a reference for the height of planetary features.

text: Change[edit]

text: Local and eustatic[edit]

text: Local mean sea level (LMSL) is defined as the height of the sea with respect to a land benchmark, averaged over a period of time (such as a month or a year) long enough that fluctuations caused by waves and tides are smoothed out. One must adjust perceived changes in LMSL to account for vertical movements of the land, which can be of the same order (mm/yr) as sea level changes. Some land movements occur because of isostatic adjustment of the mantle to the melting of ice sheets at the end of the last ice age. The weight of the ice sheet depresses the underlying land, and when the ice melts away the land slowly rebounds. Changes in ground-based ice volume also affect local and regional sea levels by the readjustment of the geoid and true polar wander. Atmospheric pressure, ocean currents and local ocean temperature changes can affect LMSL as well.

text: Eustatic change (as opposed to local change) results in an alteration to the global sea levels due to changes in either the volume of water in the world's oceans or net changes in the volume of the ocean basins.[6]

text: Short term and periodic changes[edit]

text: There are many factors which can produce short-term (a few minutes to 14 months) changes in sea level. Two major mechanisms are causing sea level to rise. First, shrinking land ice, such as mountain glaciers and polar ice sheets, is releasing water into the oceans. Second, as ocean temperatures rise, the warmer water expands.[7]

text:
Periodic sea level changes

Diurnal and semidiurnal astronomical tides
12–24 h P
0.2–10+ m

Long-period tides

Rotational variations (Chandler wobble)
14-month P

Meteorological and oceanographic fluctuations

Atmospheric pressure
Hours to months
−0.7 to 1.3 m

Winds (storm surges)
1–5 days
Up to 5 m

Evaporation and precipitation (may also follow long-term pattern)
Days to weeks

Ocean surface topography (changes in water density and currents)
Days to weeks
Up to 1 m

El Niño/southern oscillation
6 mo every 5–10 yr
Up to 0.6 m

Seasonal variations

Seasonal water balance among oceans (Atlantic, Pacific, Indian)

Seasonal variations in slope of water surface

River runoff/floods
2 months
1 m

Seasonal water density changes (temperature and salinity)
6 months
0.2 m

Seiches

Seiches (standing waves)
Minutes to hours
Up to 2 m

Earthquakes

Tsunamis (generate catastrophic long-period waves)
Hours
Up to 10 m

Abrupt change in land level
Minutes
Up to 10 m

text: Recent changes[edit]

text: For at least the last 100 years, sea level has been rising at an average rate of about 1.8 mm (0.1 in) per year.[8] Most of this rise can be attributed to the increase in temperature of the sea and the resulting slight thermal expansion of the upper 500 metres (1,640 feet) of sea water. Additional contributions, as much as one-quarter of the total, come from water sources on land, such as melting snow and glaciers and extraction of groundwater for irrigation and other agricultural and human needs.[9]

text: Aviation[edit]

text: Pilots can estimate height above sea level with an altimeter set to a defined barometric pressure. Generally, the pressure used to set the altimeter is the barometric pressure that would exist at MSL in the region being flown over. This pressure is referred to as either QNH or "altimeter" and is transmitted to the pilot by radio from air traffic control (ATC) or an automatic terminal information service (ATIS). Since the terrain elevation is also referenced to MSL, the pilot can estimate height above ground by subtracting the terrain altitude from the altimeter reading. Aviation charts are divided into boxes and the maximum terrain altitude from MSL in each box is clearly indicated. Once above the transition altitude, the altimeter is set to the international standard atmosphere (ISA) pressure at MSL which is 1013.25 hPa or 29.92 inHg.[10]


document_title: List of Texas Revolution battles

question_text: where did the first battle of the texas revolution take place

text: List of Texas Revolution battles

text: When General Santa Anna changed the constitution and began operating as a dictator, Federalists throughout the country revolted; in Texas, an armed uprising began on October 2 when settlers refused to return a small cannon to Mexican troops. This [Battle of Gonzales] ended with Mexican troops retreating empty handed to San Antonio de Bexar (now the U.S. city of San Antonio, Texas). Emboldened by their victory, the Texans formed a volunteer army. A small force of Texans traveled down the Texas coastline, defeating Mexican troops at Goliad and at Fort Lipantitlán. The majority of the Texan troops followed General Stephen F. Austin to Bexar, where they initiated a siege of the Mexican garrison. After victories in several skirmishes, including the Battle of Concepción and the Grass Fight, the Texans attacked Bexar. After several days of fighting, the Siege of Bexar ended with the surrender of Mexican general The youngest person in the Alamo was 16 years old

text: Many Texans believed the war was now over, and the majority of the settlers returned to their homes. The remaining troops were garrisoned at the Alamo Mission in Bexar and at Presidio La Bahia in Goliad. In early January, a large number of the remaining soldiers, most of them adventurers recently arrived from the United States, began clamoring to invade Mexico. Colonel Frank W. Johnson and Dr. James Grant began preparing to attack Matamoros.

text: Even before Cos's defeat, Santa Anna had been making plans to retake Texas. In January, he led the "Army of Operations in Texas" towards the rebellious territory. At the Rio Grande, the army divided; Santa Anna led the bulk of the troops toward Bexar, where he laid siege to the Alamo. The remaining troops, under General Jose de Urrea, traveled up the coastline, easily defeating Johnson and Grant at the battles of San Patricio and Agua Dulce. News of these first Mexican victories cheered the Mexican force gathered at Bexar. On March 6, Santa Anna ordered an assault on the Alamo; all but a few of the defenders were killed. A woman, the wife of an Alamo defender, her baby, and a slave of an Alamo defender were released to tell Sam Houston what had happened. They were told to say that everyone would either surrender or die. News of the Texan defeat and approach of the Mexican army terrified the settlers; in an event later known as the Runaway Scrape, settlers, the Texas government, and the remnants of the Texan army under the command of Sam Houston fled east, away from the approaching army. Houston ordered Colonel James Fannin to abandon Goliad and join his retreat. However, Fannin delayed his departure and sent a quarter of his troops to help evacuate the settlers at Refugio. Centralist forces in the area were stronger than the Texans expected at Refugio and defeated them. After receiving word of the defeat, Fannin finally began his retreat. His men were quickly overtaken and surrounded by Mexican soldiers. Fannin fought courageously at the Battle of Coleto, but was forced to surrender. He and his 300 men were taken prisoner, but just days later were executed in the Goliad Massacre.

text: The only remaining Texan troops were those retreating with Houston. After learning that Santa Anna had again divided his forces, Houston ordered an attack on April 21, 1836. Crying "Remember the Alamo" and "Remember Goliad", the Texans showed little mercy during the Battle of San Jacinto. Santa Anna was captured in hiding the following day and he ordered his army to return to Mexico, ending the Texas Revolution.

text:
Battle
Location
Date(s)
Engagement remarks
Victor

Battle of Gonzales
Gonzales
October 2, 1835
This battle resulted in the first casualties of the Texas Revolution. One Mexican soldier killed
T

Battle of Goliad
Goliad
October 10, 1835
Texans captured Presidio La Bahia, blocking the Mexican Army in Texas from accessing the primary Texas port of Copano.[1] One Texan was wounded,[2] and estimates of Mexican casualties range from one to three soldiers killed and from three to seven wounded.[3][4]
T

Battle of Lipantitlán
San Patricio
November 4–5, 1835
Texans captured and destroyed Fort Lipantitlán.[5][6] Most of the Mexican soldiers retreated to Matamoros. One Texan was wounded, and 3–5 Mexican soldiers were killed, with an additional 14–17 Mexican soldiers wounded.[7]
T

Battle of Concepción
San Antonio de Bexar
October 28, 1835
In the last offensive ordered by General Martin Perfecto de Cos during the Texas Revolution, Mexican soldiers surprised a Texan force camped near Mission Concepción.[8] The Texans repulsed several attacks with what historian Alwyn Barr described as "able leadership, a strong position, and greater firepower".[9] One Texan was injured, and Richard Andrews became the first Texan soldier to die in battle.[9] Between 14 and 76 Mexican soldiers were killed.[9][10] Historian Stephen Hardin believes that "the relative ease of the victory at Concepción instilled in the Texans a reliance on their long rifles and a contempt for their enemies",[11] which may have led to the later Texan defeat at Coleto.[12]
T

Grass Fight
San Antonio de Bexar
November 26, 1835
Texans attack a large Mexican army pack train. 4 Texans wounded and 17 Mexican casualties. Resulted in the capture of horses and hay (grass).
T

Siege of Bexar
San Antonio de Bexar
October 12 – December 11, 1835
In a six-week siege, Texans attacked Bexar and fought from house to house for five days. After Cos surrendered, all Mexican troops in Texas were forced to retreat beyond the Rio Grande, leaving the Texans in military control. 150 Mexicans killed or wounded and 35 Texans killed or wounded.
T

Battle of San Patricio
San Patricio
February 27, 1836
This was the first battle of the Goliad Campaign. The Johnson-Grant venture, the first battle of the Texas Revolution in which the Mexican Army was the victor. From the Johnson forces, 20 Texans killed, 32 captured and 1 Mexican loss, 4 wounded. Johnson and 4 others escaped after capture and proceeded to Goliad. Johnson would survive the Texas Revolution.
M

Battle of Agua Dulce
Agua Dulce
March 2, 1836
Second battle of the Goliad Campaign. Of 27 men of the Grant and Morris forces from the Johnson-Grant venture-12/15 killed; 6 captured and imprisoned at Matamoros; Six escaped, of whom five were killed at Goliad Massacre
M

Battle of the Alamo
San Antonio de Bexar
February 23 –
March 6, 1836
Mexican President Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna personally oversaw the siege of the Alamo and the subsequent battle, where almost all 189-250 Texan defenders were killed. 600 Mexicans killed or wounded. Anger over Santa Anna's lack of mercy led many Texan settlers to join the Texan Army. (This battle is considered one of the most famous battles in American history and is the inspiration for dozens of movies and books)
M

Battle of Refugio
Refugio
March 14, 1836
Third battle of the Goliad Campaign. Texans inflicted heavy casualties, but split their forces and retreated, ending in capture. About 50 Texans killed and 98 captured with some later executions, 29 spared as laborers, survivors sent to Goliad and possibly 80-100 Mexican casualties with 50 wounded.
M

Battle of Coleto
outside Goliad
March 19–20, 1836
Final battle of the Goliad Campaign. In an attempt to rendezvous with other Texan forces, the southernmost wing of Texan army brazenly departs their heavily fortified location in the midst of oppositional forces. A battle ensues with 10 Texans killed, 60 wounded and 200 Mexicans killed or wounded. After the second day of fighting, a Texan surrender is agreed upon. Approximately 342 of the captured Texans were not pardoned but were executed on March 27 in the Goliad Massacre with 20 spared and 28 escaped. Anger over Santa Anna's lack of mercy led many future Texan settlers to join the Texan Army.
M

Battle of San Jacinto
near modern La Porte, Texas
April 21, 1836
After an 18-minute battle, Texans routed Santa Anna's forces, eventually taking Santa Anna prisoner. This was the last battle of the Texas Revolution. 630 Mexicans killed, 208 wounded, 730 captured and 9 Texans killed, 30 wounded.
T


document_title: The mother of parliaments (expression)

question_text: why is the british parliament known as the mother of parliaments

text: The mother of parliaments (expression)

text: "The mother of parliaments" is an expression coined by the British politician and reformer John Bright in a speech at Birmingham on 18 January 1865.

text: It was a reference to England. His actual words were: "England is the mother of parliaments". This was reported in The Times on the following day.[1]

text: The expression is often applied to the Parliament of the United Kingdom because of the adoption of the Westminster model of parliamentary democracy by many countries of the former British Empire.[2][3][4]


document_title: Madam Secretary (TV series)

question_text: who plays the cia director on madam secretary

text: Madam Secretary (TV series)

text: Synopsis[edit]

text: Madam Secretary explores Secretary Elizabeth McCord's life as the determined United States Secretary of State. McCord drives international diplomacy, battles office politics, and circumvents protocol if needed as she negotiates worldwide issues. The show also focuses on the personal lives of the characters.[5][6]

text: Cast and characters[edit]

text: Main[edit]

text:
Téa Leoni as Elizabeth "Bess" Adams McCord, the United States Secretary of State. She spent twenty years as a CIA analyst before becoming a professor of political science at the University of Virginia. She was selected by her old boss, Conrad Dalton, who is now the President of the United States, to replace Secretary of State Vincent Marsh, who died in a plane crash.
Tim Daly as Henry McCord, Elizabeth's husband of 25 years. A former Marine captain/aviator during Operation Desert Storm and theology professor, his unique blend of skills are sought by the National Security Agency, which engages him as an operative in combating religious extremism. At the end of season 3, Henry is named the head of the CIA Special Activities Division.
Bebe Neuwirth as Nadine Tolliver (seasons 1–4), Elizabeth's chief of staff who had a six-year affair with the deceased Secretary of State, Vincent Marsh, beginning when he was a senator. Originally suspicious and resentful of the new Secretary of State, Nadine soon learns to trust Elizabeth, and the two cultivate a strong working relationship. In season 1, Nadine slowly began to date again, romancing the Administrator of NASA, Glenn, and later fell into a relationship with the recurring political consultant Mike Barnow. In season 4, Nadine leaves the State Department to spend more time with her family.
Željko Ivanek as Russell Jackson, White House Chief of Staff.[7] His primary objective of keeping the President politically secure at home and abroad sets him up for occasional confrontations with Secretary McCord's unorthodox diplomatic maneuvering.
Erich Bergen as Blake Moran, Elizabeth's personal assistant, and the only member of her staff that she hired rather than inherited.
Patina Miller as Daisy Grant, Elizabeth's press coordinator. Daisy dates Matt during season 1 but goes on to date other men following their breakup. In season 3 she dates "Kevin" from Budget and Planning, who turns out to be an undercover operative for the CIA investigating the State Department. He is killed in a weapons-trafficking conspiracy, and Daisy subsequently finds herself pregnant with his child. In the fourth season, Daisy gives birth to a daughter Joanna Grant.
Geoffrey Arend as Matt Mahoney, Elizabeth's speechwriter. Matt and Daisy dated during season 1, but ended things.
Wallis Currie-Wood as Stephanie "Stevie" McCord, Elizabeth and Henry's older daughter. Stevie attended Lovell University and later Georgetown University and applied to Harvard Law school. Stevie serves as an intern to Russell Jackson and was, for a time, engaged to Jareth Glover. She has an affair with Dmitri Petrov (then undercover) in season 4 that puts her in danger.
Kathrine Herzer as Alison McCord, Elizabeth and Henry's younger daughter. Alison planned to attend Rafferty College to pursue her dreams of fashion and design, but later changed her mind.
Evan Roe as Jason McCord, Elizabeth and Henry's teenage son, a self-proclaimed anarchist. Jason is critical of political systems in general, but in season 1 he was expelled from his school for punching a student who insulted Elizabeth.
Keith Carradine as Conrad Dalton (seasons 2–present; recurring season 1), the President of the United States. Conrad served in the United States Marine Corps as a second lieutenant during the Vietnam War and was the Director of the Central Intelligence Agency during Elizabeth's time at the CIA. In the third season, Dalton secures reelection as an independent after failing to secure his party's nomination, partly due to a controversial change in policy championed by Elizabeth. He offers Elizabeth the role of Vice President during his campaign, but eventually names someone else in order to further his campaign. Elizabeth remains Secretary of State.
Sebastian Arcelus as Jay Whitman, Elizabeth's current chief of staff and previous senior policy advisor (seasons 3–present; recurring seasons 1–2). In season 3, it is revealed that Jay's busy schedule working for the Secretary has strained his marriage. He is currently separated from his wife Abby, who maintains custody of their daughter Chloe. Jay is promoted to chief of staff in season 4.
Sara Ramirez as Kat Sandoval, Elizabeth's Policy Advisor and a former Chief of Staff to the UN Ambassador (season 4 and 5)

text: Recurring[edit]

text:
Johanna Day as Ellen Hill, a retired admiral and the National Security Advisor. She was the first female Chairwoman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff prior to being appointed National Security Advisor.
Tony Plana as Ed Parker, an admiral and member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.
Francis Jue as Ming Chen, China's Foreign Minister and Elizabeth's Chinese counterpart.
Mandy Gonzalez as Lucy Knox, President Dalton's aide.
Mike Pniewski as Gordon Becker, the United States Secretary of Defense.
Kevin Rahm as Michael "Mike B." Barnow, a political official who is said to drift between the United States Cabinet departments. It is mentioned that he is a Rhodes Scholar, who turned his brilliant legal career into a promising political career that was cut short by a scandalous divorce six years prior to his first appearance before settling into his current job. He is often seen assisting Secretary McCord. He is also often seen with his dog.
Jason Ralph as Harrison Dalton (seasons 1–2), son of President Dalton and long-time friend of Stevie McCord. In season 1, it is revealed Harrison has a drug addiction and is color blind. In season 4 it is revealed that he is back in rehab.
Cotter Smith as Darren Hahn (seasons 1–2), President Dalton's first known National Security Advisor.
Patrick Breen as Andrew Munsey (season 1), the Director of the CIA and a protégé of President Dalton.
Nilaja Sun as Juliet Humphrey (season 1; guest season 3), a former CIA analyst, friend and colleague of Elizabeth and Isabelle.
Usman Ally as Zahed Javani (season 1), Iran's Foreign Minister and Elizabeth's Iranian counterpart.
Dion Graham as Fred Cole (season 1), the Bureau of Diplomatic Security Head Agent who served as Elizabeth's principal bodyguard.
Josh Hamilton as Arthur Gilroy (season 1), Stevie's 39-year-old microloan employer and ex-boyfriend.
Anna Deavere Smith as Mary Campbell (season 1), the United States Attorney General.
Marin Hinkle as Isabelle Barnes (season 1), a CIA analyst and Elizabeth's close friend, who assists the McCords with the investigation of the death of Secretary of State Vincent Marsh.
Yorgo Constantine as Anton Gorev (seasons 1–2), Russia's Foreign Minister and a friend of both Secretary and Dr. McCord.
Clifton Davis as Ephraim Ware (seasons 2–present), Director of National Intelligence.
Julian Acosta as Craig Sterling (season 2), a former US Department of Defense official, he becomes National Security Advisor in season 2 much to Elizabeth and Russell's dismay, and rival of Elizabeth's.
Alex Fernandez as Mark Delgado (season 2), the Vice President of the United States.
Angela Gots as Maria Ostrova (season 2), the President of Russia and widow of late Russian President Pavel Ostrov.
Leslie Hendrix as Louise Cronenberg (season 2), the United States Attorney General.
Jill Hennessy as Jane Fellows (season 2), Henry's DIA superior, and a member of Murphy Station; the first Ishbal Jahed task force.
Kobi Libii as Oliver Shaw (season 2; guest season 3), the Cybersecurity Coordinator. Shaw looked into the attack against Air Force One and is the love interest of Daisy Grant in the second season.
Chris Petrovski as Dmitri Petrov (seasons 2, 4; guest season 3), a 24-year-old Russian Army captain who studied at the National War College. He was recruited by Professor Henry McCord (on behalf of the DIA) to become an American spy in exchange for getting his sick sister medical care in Stockholm, Sweden. Dmitri is captured by the Russians and eventually exchanged to the Americans for another traitor to the state. Following his capture Dmitri feels abandoned by Henry and is very angry and bitter toward him. He is placed into a witness protection program under the name Alexander (Alex) Mehranov. In season 4, he gets recruited by the CIA as an analyst.
Masha King as Talia Petrov, Dmitri's sister who was placed into witness protection with her brother and is now his roommate.
Carlos Gómez as Jose Campos (seasons 2–3), an Ishbal Jahed task force member.
J. C. MacKenzie as Sam Evans (season 3), the governor of Pennsylvania and the presidential nominee for Dalton's party. Evans is particularly vindictive during the campaign and, following Dalton's victory through a vote in the House of Representatives, threatens to have the vote overturned due to little-known law he claims Elizabeth broke. However, he is manipulated into accepting the terms of the vote after Russel Jackson threatens to expose him for having a gene that makes him likely to develop early-onset Alzheimer's.
René Auberjonois as Walter Novack (seasons 2–present), a State Department analyst with the Bureau of International Security and Nonproliferation.
Christopher O'Shea as Jareth Glover, Stevie's fiance from England. He gave up a fellowship at Oxford to return to America to be with Stevie after she had trouble adjusting to life in England. His family is a member of the upper class and even nobility in England. Stevie and Jareth broke up in season 4.
Justine Lupe as Ronnie Baker (seasons 3–present), a United States Army captain seconded from United States Cyber Command who assists Elizabeth on several occasions.
Eric Stoltz as Will Adams, Secretary Elizabeth McCord's younger brother and a member of Doctors Without Borders.
Jordan Lage as Kohl, a United States Army general.
Sam Breslin Wright as Dylan Larson, an ex–Army Ranger who has been working for the CIA for seven years as of the start of season 4.
Christine Garver as Molly Reid, a career CIA agent, starting her career as a field agent in Chechnya. She is pregnant and due in a couple months from the start of season 4.

text: Guest stars[edit]

text:
Yuval David as Matvey Sokolov (season 4), a Russian special agent.
Louis Gossett, Jr. as Laurent Vasseur (season 1, episode 6), a Catholic priest and an old friend of Henry's.
William Allen Young as Steven Cushing (season 1, episode 12), the U.S. Deputy Secretary of State.
Tom Skerritt as Patrick McCord (season 1, episode 13), Henry's father.
Bob Schieffer as himself (season 1, episode 17). Schieffer is the former moderator of Face the Nation.
Morgan Freeman as Frawley, the Chief Justice of the United States (season 2, episode 1; season 3, episode 1; season 4, episode 1).
Madeleine Albright as herself (season 2, episode 2). Albright was the first female U.S. Secretary of State.
Kate Burton as Maureen McCord-Ryan (season 2, episode 13), Henry's sister.
Jane Pauley as herself (season 2, episode 18; season 3, episode 1).
Shivam Chopra as Sanjay (season 1, episode 7).
Stephanie J. Block as Abby, Jay's wife. Block is the real-life wife of Sebastian Arcelus. Mirroring real life, Block had previously given birth to their daughter while Arcelus was filming season 1, episode 17, where Jay's wife also gives birth to a daughter.
Joel de la Fuente as Datu Andrada (season 3, episode 15), the President of the Philippines.
Christine Ebersole as Lydia Dalton, the First Lady.
Monna Sabouri as the Interpreter (season 3, episode 9), a Russian- and Persian-speaking agent.
Elpidia Carrillo as President Daphne Tejeda (season 4, episode 18) The Friendship Game.

text: Dalton Cabinet and principal advisors[edit]

text: The Dalton CabinetOfficeNameTermPresidentConrad Dalton (Keith Carradine)2013–Vice PresidentMark Delgado (Alex Fernandez)2013–2017Teresa Hurst (Jan Maxwell/Jayne Atkinson)2017–Secretary of StateVincent Marsh (Brian Stokes Mitchell)2013–2014Elizabeth McCord (Téa Leoni)2014–Secretary of TreasuryMax Quinn (Michael Cumpsty)2013–2014Secretary of DefenseGordon Becker (Mike Pniewski)2013–Attorney GeneralMary Campbell (Anna Deavere Smith)2013–2015Nolan (John Bolton)2017–Unknown (Shown in "French Revolution")2016–2017Louise Cronenberg (Leslie Hendrix)2015–2016Chief of StaffRussell Jackson (Željko Ivanek)2013–National Security AdvisorDarren Kahn (Cotter Smith)2013–2015ADM (Ret.) Ellen Hill (Johanna Day)2016–Craig Sterling (Julian Acosta)2015–2015Chairman of theJoint Chiefs of StaffADM Ellen Hill, USN (Johanna Day)2013–2015GEN Kelsey Reeves, US Army (Ralph Byers)2015–Director of National IntelligenceEphraim Ware (Clifton Davis)2013–Director of theCentral Intelligence AgencyAndrew Munsey (Patrick Breen)2013–2015Hugh Haymond (Michael Gaston)2016–Dennis Ellerman (John Doman)2015–2016Sean Williams (Larry Pine)2015–2015Director of theFederal Bureau of InvestigationNeil Hendricks (Wayne Duvall)2013–2016Keith Doherty (Michael Boatman)2016–

text: Other officials[edit]

text:
Office

Name

Term

Chief Justice of the United States

Frawley (Morgan Freeman)

2013–

Deputy Secretary of State

Steven Cushing (William Allen Young)

2013–

Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs

Susan Thompson (Tonya Pinkins)

2014–

United States Ambassador to Yemen

Paul Wellington (Tim Guinee)

2013–

United States Ambassador to Myanmar

Arlen Maxwell (David Rasche)

2013–2014

United States Ambassador to Algeria

Roy Curtis (Dakin Matthews)

2013–2016

Deputy Director of the FBI

Marguerite Sanchez (Rosyln Ruff)

2013–

Administrator of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Glenn (John Pankow)

2013–

Chairman of the National Transportation Safety Board

Humphrey Nelson (Alfredo Narciso)

2013–

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Broadcast[edit]

text: In Canada, the series airs on Global at the same time as the original broadcast.[9] In Finland, it premiered January 1, 2016, on MTV3.[10] The series has been popular in Finland: 11% of Finnish people watched the first episode.[11] In Australia, it premiered on October 2, 2014 on Network Ten.[12] On October 23, 2014, it was announced that it will air on Sky Living in the United Kingdom, along with new formats to air TV3 in Ireland, and other international channels.[13] The series launched in the United Kingdom on April 23, 2015.[14] It is broadcast on Sony Channel Asia.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Ratings[edit]

text:
Season

Episodes

Timeslot (ET)

Original airing

Rank

Viewers(in millions)

Season premiere

Season finale

TV season

1

22

Sunday 8:00 pm

September 21, 2014

May 3, 2015

2014–2015

No. 10

14.17[15]

2

23

October 4, 2015

May 8, 2016

2015–2016

No. 14

12.39[16]

3

23

Sunday 9:00 pm

October 2, 2016

May 21, 2017

2016–2017

No. 18

10.92[17]

4

22

Sunday 10:00 pm

October 8, 2017

May 20, 2018

2017–2018

No. 37

8.84[18]

5

TBA

October 7, 2018

2018–2019

text: Note: During the National Football League season and several weeks through the season, the series airs at 10:30 pm ET/9:30 pm CT to account for game or PGA Tour golf overruns (there are no delays from the Mountain Time Zone westward). Since its move to the last hour of primetime, several new episodes have been delayed a week at the last minute due to games overrunning into the 8:00 pm timeslot to allow local newscasts to start as close to 11:00 pm ET/ 10:00 pm CT as possible; in this case, a repeat of the series airs in the Mountain Time Zone westward instead, with Canada's Global following CBS's scheduling in order to take advantage of simsub opportunities.

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: Madam Secretary has been met with generally positive reviews from TV critics. On Metacritic, the show has a score of 66 out of 100, based on 31 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[19] On Rotten Tomatoes, the show holds a rating of 66%, based on 50 reviews, with an average rating of 6.9/10. The site's consensus reads, "Bolstered by Tea Leoni's strong central performance, Madam Secretary is a solid but unspectacular political drama."[20]

text: Criticism[edit]

text: Three women have served as Secretary of State to date: Madeleine Albright from 1997 to 2001 under Bill Clinton, Condoleezza Rice from 2005 to 2009 under George W. Bush, and Hillary Clinton from 2009 to 2013 under Barack Obama. Shortly after the series' debut, Fox News asked if the show therefore served as a campaign ad supporting Hillary Clinton, but quoted the Los Angeles Times saying the lead character was "no Hillary knockoff" and a New York publicist calling the casting of a woman "simple business and smart on CBS' behalf". Conservative activist organization Culture and Media Institute, however, said the connection was clear, citing the women's blond hair and pantsuits.[21]

text: When the trailer of the fifteenth episode of Season 3 (Break in Diplomacy) was released showing McCord responding to unwanted sexual advances by fictional Philippine president Datu Andrada by punching Andrada in the face, it became controversial in the Philippines due to perceived parallels between Andrada and real-life President Rodrigo Duterte, who was known for making inappropriate and sexist remarks.[22] The Philippine Embassy in Washington even published a statement protesting the negative depiction on its Facebook page.[23]

text: The first episode of the fourth season, News Cycle, led to a hard protest from East Timor's Minister of State and Nobel Peace Prize laureate José Ramos-Horta. "It's a slander against a country that only shows ignorance and racism," he explained. The TV show used the border dispute between Australia and East Timor in the Timor Sea (The dispute is transferred in the TV show to the South China Sea, although neither Australia nor East Timor is bordering to it) as background story. East Timor is shown as a country controlled by a Mexican drug cartel and used for drug transfer. US Secretary of State McCord is asking China to take measures to prevent the leader of the drug cartel from making a narco-state out of East Timor.[24]

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
Year

Association

Category

Nominee(s)

Result

2014

TV Guide Award

Favorite New Show

Madam Secretary

Nominated

2015

American Cinema Editors Awards 2015[25]

Best Edited One-Hour Series for Commercial Television

Elena Maganini and Michael D. Ornstein

Nominated

41st People's Choice Awards[26]

Favorite Actress in a New TV Series

Téa Leoni

Nominated

Favorite New TV Drama

Madam Secretary

Nominated

Publicists Guild of America

The Maxwell Weinberg Publicists Showmanship Television Award

CBS Television Studio/Madam Secretary

Nominated

2015

Humanitas Prize

60 Minute Network or Syndicated Television

Madam Secretary

Nominated

2016

CBS MVP Awards[27]

Best Motivational Speech

Téa Leoni

Nominated

2016

Humanitas Prize

60 Minute Network of Syndicated Television

Madam Secretary

Nominated


document_title: The Wasp Factory

question_text: who does frank kill in the wasp factory

question_tokens: who does frank kill in the wasp factory

text: The Wasp Factory

text: Plot[edit]

text: The story is told from the perspective of 16-year-old Frank Cauldhame. Frank lives with his father on a small island in rural Scotland, and he has not seen his mother in many years. There is no official record of his birth, meaning his existence is largely unknown.

text: Frank occupies his time with rituals, building dams, and maintaining an array of weapons (a small catapult, pipe bombs and a crude flamethrower) for killing small animals around the island and the coastline. He takes long walks to patrol the island and occasionally gets drunk with his only friend, a dwarf named Jamie, in the local pub. Otherwise Frank has almost no contact with the outside world. He is haunted by the memory of a dog attack in his youth, which resulted in the loss of his genitalia. He resents others for his impotence, particularly women. This is in part due to the mauling coinciding with the last time he saw his absentee mother, who had come back to the island to give birth to his younger brother, leaving immediately after.

text: Frank's older brother Eric escapes a mental institution in the opening of the book, having been arrested some years prior for setting fire to the town's dogs and terrorizing local children by force-feeding them maggots and worms. Eric often calls Frank from phone boxes to inform Frank of his progress back to the island. Eric is extremely erratic; their conversations invariably end badly, with Eric exploding in fits of rage. Frank is confused as to whether or not he is looking forward to seeing Eric, but it is clear Frank loves his brother.

text: The "Wasp Factory" that the title refers to is a mechanism put together by Frank, made from a huge clock face, salvaged from the local dump, encased in a glass box. Behind each of the 12 numerals on the clock face is a trap which leads to a different ritual death (for example burning, crushing, or drowning in Frank's urine) for the wasp that Frank puts into it via the hole at the centre of the clock face. Frank believes the death "chosen" by the wasp predicts something about the future. The Factory is in the house’s loft, which Frank’s father cannot access because of a leg injury. There are also “Sacrifice Poles”. The bodies and heads of animals, such as mice that Frank has killed, are stuck onto the poles for the purpose of attracting birds which will fly away and alert Frank of anybody approaching the island's borders.

text: It is revealed that when Frank was much younger, he killed three of his relatives: two cousins and his younger brother. He also exhumed the skull of the dog that castrated him, and he uses it as part of his rituals.

text: Eric is described as having been extremely sensitive before the incident that drove him mad: a tragic case of neglect in a hospital where Eric was a volunteer when studying to become a doctor. While attempting to feed a brain-damaged newborn with acalvaria, Eric notes that the child is unresponsive and smiling, despite usually appearing expressionless. The child’s skull is held together by a metal plate over its head. Eric checks underneath the plate to find the child's exposed brain tissue infested and being consumed by day-old maggots.

text: Frank’s father is distant and spends most of his time in his study, which he keeps locked at all times. Frank longs to know what is inside the study. He attempts to gain access to it each time his father leaves the house. Frank is used to being lied to by his father, who seemingly often does it purely for his own amusement or interest.

text: At the end of the novel, Frank is alerted of Eric's imminent return when he sees a dog that has been burned alive and discovers Eric’s campsite. This knowledge incites Frank’s father to get drunk and then forget to conceal the keys to his study, where Frank discovers male hormone drugs, tampons and what appears to be the remains of his own genitals in a jar. Frank, who hates women, assumes that his findings mean that his father is actually female. During the ensuing confrontation with his father, Eric returns and attempts to destroy the house and island with explosives and fire but is not successful. After Eric flees, the father explains that it was Frank who was born a female; the hormones had been fed to him by his father since the dog attack in an experiment to see whether Frank would transition from female to male. The remains of his genitals were fake and it is suggested that his father’s reasoning for doing this was to distance himself from the women he felt had ruined his life.

text: In the closing pages Frank finds Eric, half asleep, seemingly calm. Frank sits with him and considers his life up to this point and whether he should leave the island.

text: Literary significance and criticism[edit]

text: The book was initially greeted with a mixture of acclaim and criticism, due to its gruesome depiction of violence. While this is mostly against animals, Frank also recollects killing three younger children. The murders are described in an honest and matter-of-fact way, often with grotesque humour. The Irish Times called it "a work of unparalleled depravity."[2]

text: A 1997 poll of over 25,000 readers of The Independent listed The Wasp Factory as one of the top 100 books of the 20th century.[3]

text: Adaptations[edit]

text: In 2013, the Australian producer and composer Ben Frost directed an opera adaptation of the Iain Banks' novel, in which Frank is represented by three female singers.[4]

text: Release details[edit]

text: 1984, UK, Macmillan (ISBN 0-333-36380-9), Pub date 16 February 1984, hardback (First edition)