document_title: History of Liverpool

question_text: what did liverpool have to do with the slave trade

text: History of Liverpool

text: Origins of the name[edit]

text: The name comes from the Old English liver, meaning thick or muddy, and pol, meaning a pool or creek, and is first recorded around 1190 as Liuerpul.[1][2] According to the Cambridge Dictionary of English Place-Names, "The original reference was to a pool or tidal creek now filled up into which two streams drained".[2] The adjective Liverpudlian is first recorded in 1833.[2]

text: Early history of the area[edit]

text: In the Iron Age the area around modern-day Liverpool was sparsely populated, though there was a seaport at Meols. The Calderstones are thought to be part of an ancient stone circle and there is archaeological evidence for native Iron Age farmsteads at several sites in Irby, Halewood and Lathom. The region was inhabited by Brythonic tribes, the Setantii as well as nearby Cornovii and Deceangli. It came under Roman influence in about 70 AD, with the northward advance to crush the druid resistance at Anglesey and to end the internal strife between the ruling family of Brigantes. The main Roman presence was at the fortress and settlement at Chester. According to Ptolemy, the Latin hydronym for the Mersey was Seteia Aestuarium, which derives from the Setantii tribe.[3][4]

text: After the withdrawal of Roman troops, land in the area continued to be farmed by native Britons. The Hen Ogledd (Old North) was subject to fighting between four medieval kingdoms: the Anglo-Saxon Kingdom of Mercia eventually defeated its rival Northumbria as well as the Celtic kingdoms of Gwynedd and Powys, with the Battle of Brunanburh perhaps taking place at nearby Bromborough. The settlements at Walton (Wealas tun meaning 'farmstead of the Wealas'), and Wallasey (Wealas-eg meaning 'island of the Wealas') were named at this time with Wealas being Old English for 'foreigner' referring to the native Celtic and Romanized inhabitants.[5][6]

text: The pseudo-historical Fragmentary Annals of Ireland appears to record the Norse settlement of the Wirral in its account of the immigration of Ingimundr near Chester. This Irish source places this settlement in the aftermath of the Vikings' expulsion from Dublin in 902, and an unsuccessful attempt to settle on Anglesey soon afterwards. Following these setbacks, Ingimundr is stated to have settled near Chester with the consent of Æthelflæd, co-ruler of Mercia.[7] The Norse settlers eventually joined up with another group of Viking settlers who populated west Lancashire, and for a time had an independent Viking mini-state, with Viking placenames evident all over Merseyside. The Norse colony was governed at assembly places called þing (pronounced thing) on each side of the Mersey, at Thingwall in Wirral and also Thingwall of West Derby, and the area eventually became subject to the Danelaw.[8][9]

text: Origins of the town[edit]

text: Although a small motte and bailey castle had earlier been built by the Normans at West Derby, the origins of the city of Liverpool are usually dated from 28 August 1207, when letters patent were issued by King John advertising the establishment of a new borough, "Livpul", and inviting settlers to come and take up holdings there. It is thought that the King wanted a port in the district that was free from the control of the Earl of Chester. Initially it served as a dispatch point for troops sent to Ireland, soon after the building around 1235 of Liverpool Castle, which was removed in 1726. St Nicholas Church was built by 1257, originally as a chapel within the parish of Walton-on-the-Hill.[10] In the 13th Century, Liverpool as an area comprised just seven streets.

text: With the formation of a market on the site of the later Town Hall, Liverpool became established as a small fishing and farming community, administered by burgesses and, slightly later, a mayor. There was probably some coastal trade around the Irish Sea, and there were occasional ferries across the Mersey. However, for several centuries it remained a small and relatively unimportant settlement, with a population of no more than 1,000 in the mid 14th century. By the early fifteenth century a period of economic decline set in, and the county gentry increased their power over the town, the Stanley family fortifying their house on Water Street. The Stanley Tower was also the catalyst for a feud between the Stanley and Molyneux families. The Molyneux family residing at the nearby Liverpool Castle during the early 15th century. The resulting rivalry spilling into a near riot in 1424.[11] In the middle of the 16th century the population of Liverpool had fallen to around 600, and the port was regarded as subordinate to Chester until the 1650s.

text: Elizabethan era and the Civil War[edit]

text: In 1571 the people of Liverpool sent a memorial to Queen Elizabeth, praying relief from a subsidy which they thought themselves unable to bear, wherein they styled themselves "her majesty's poor decayed town of Liverpool." Some time towards the close of this reign, Henry Stanley, 4th Earl of Derby, on his way to the Isle of Man, stayed at his house, the Tower; at which the corporation erected a handsome hall or seat for him in the church, where he honoured them several times with his presence.

text: By the end of the sixteenth century, the town began to be able to take advantage of economic revival and the silting of the River Dee to win trade, mainly from Chester, to Ireland, the Isle of Man and elsewhere. In 1626, King Charles I gave the town a new and improved charter.[10]

text: In June 1644 Prince Rupert of the Rhine arrived in Liverpool with 10,000 men in an attempt to capture Liverpool Castle. A sixteen-day siege of Liverpool then took place.[12] To defend the city the Parliament Army created a huge trench across much of the town centre. Prince Rupert eventually took hold of the Castle only to be driven out again to take refuge in the Everton area of the city, hence the name of the tower found on the modern day Everton Football Club badge is known as Prince Rupert's Tower.

text: Transatlantic Trade[edit]

text: The first cargo from the Americas was recorded in 1648. The development of the town accelerated after the Restoration of 1660, with the growth of trade with America and the West Indies. From that time may be traced the rapid progress of population and commerce, until Liverpool had become the second metropolis of Great Britain. Initially, cloth, coal and salt from Lancashire and Cheshire were exchanged for sugar and tobacco; the town's first sugar refinery was established in 1670.

text: In 1699 Liverpool was made a parish on its own by Act of Parliament, separate from that of Walton-on-the-Hill, with two parish churches. At the same time it gained separate customs authority from Chester.[10]

text: Slavery[edit]

text: On 3 October 1699, the very same year that Liverpool had been granted status as an independent parish, Liverpool's first 'recorded' slave ship, named Liverpool Merchant, set sail for Africa, arriving in Barbados with a 'cargo' of 220 Africans, returning to Liverpool on 18 September 1700. The following month a second recorded ship, The Blessing, set sail for the Gold Coast.

text: The first wet dock in Britain was built in Liverpool and completed in 1715. It was the first commercial enclosed wet dock in the world and was constructed for a capacity of 100 ships. By the close of the 18th century 40% of the world's, and 80% of Britain's Atlantic slave activity was accounted for by slave ships that voyaged from the docks at Liverpool. Liverpool's black community dates from the building of the first dock in 1715 and grew rapidly, reaching a population of 10,000 within five years. This growth led to the opening of the Consulate of the United States in Liverpool in 1790, its first consulate anywhere in the world.

text: Vast profits from the slave trade transformed Liverpool into one of Britain's foremost important cities. Liverpool became a financial centre, rivalled by Bristol, another slaving port, and beaten only by London. In the peak year of 1799, ships sailing from Liverpool carried over 45,000 slaves from Africa.[10]

text: Many factors led to the demise of slavery including revolts, piracy, social unrest, and the repercussions of corruption such as slave insurance fraud, e.g. the Zong massacre case in 1783. It was Liverpool born politician William Roscoe who spearheaded the anti-Slavery movement in parliament at the time.[13]

text: Slavery in British colonies was finally abolished in 1833 and slave trading was made illegal in 1807 though some slavery apprenticeships ran until 1838.[14] However, many merchants managed to ignore the laws and continued to deal in underground slave trafficking, also underhandedly engaging in financial investments for slaving activities in the Americas.

text: Industrial revolution and commercial expansion[edit]

text: The international trade of the city grew, based, as well as on slaves, on a wide range of commodities - including, in particular, cotton, for which the city became the leading world market, supplying the textile mills of Manchester and Lancashire.

text: During the eighteenth century the town's population grew from some 6,000 to 80,000, and its land and water communications with its hinterland and other northern cities steadily improved. Liverpool was first linked by canal to Manchester in 1721, the St. Helens coalfield in 1755, and Leeds in 1816. In 1830, Liverpool became home to the world's first inter-urban rail link to another city, Manchester, through the Liverpool and Manchester Railway and the maiden journey Stephenson's The Rocket train.[15]

text: Liverpool's importance was such that it was home to a number of world firsts, including gaining the world's first fully electrically powered overhead railway, the Liverpool Overhead Railway, which was opened in 1893 and so pre-dated those in both New York City and Chicago.

text: The built-up area grew rapidly from the eighteenth century on. The Bluecoat Hospital for poor children opened in 1718. With the demolition of the castle in 1726, only St Nicholas Church and the historic street plan - with Castle Street as the spine of the original settlement, and Paradise Street following the line of the Pool - remained to reflect the town's mediaeval origins. The Town Hall, with a covered exchange for merchants designed by architect John Wood, was built in 1754, and the first office buildings including the Corn Exchange were opened in about 1810.

text: Throughout the 19th century Liverpool's trade and its population continued to expanded rapidly. Growth in the cotton trade was accompanied by the development of strong trading links with India and the Far East following the ending of the East India Company's monopoly in 1813. Over 140 acres (0.57 km2) of new docks, with 10 miles (16 km) of quay space, were opened between 1824 and 1858.[10]

text: During the 1840s, Irish migrants began arriving by the thousands due to the Great Famine of 1845-1849. Almost 300,000 arrived in the year 1847 alone, and by 1851 approximately 25% of the city was Irish-born. The Irish influence is reflected in the unique place Liverpool occupies in UK and Irish political history, being the only place outside Ireland to elect a member of parliament from the Irish Parliamentary Party to the British parliament in Westminster. T.P. O'Connor represented the constituency of Liverpool Scotland from 1885 to 1929.

text: As the town became a leading port of the British Empire, a number of major buildings were constructed, including St. George's Hall (1854), and Lime Street Station. The Grand National steeplechase was first run at Aintree in 1837.[16]

text: Between 1851 and 1911, Liverpool attracted at least 20,000 people from Wales in each decade, peaking in the 1880s, and Welsh culture flourished. One of the first Welsh language journals, Yr Amserau, was founded in Liverpool by William Rees (Gwilym Hiraethog), and there were over 50 Welsh chapels in the city.[17]

text: When the American Civil War broke out Liverpool became a hotbed of intrigue. The prevalence of cotton and slave interests in Liverpool ensured that the city was, in the words of the historian Sven Beckert, "the most pro-Confederate place in the world outside the Confederacy itself."[18] The Confederate Navy ship, the CSS Alabama, was built at Birkenhead on the Mersey and the CSS Shenandoah surrendered there (being the final surrender and end of the war).

text: Liverpool was granted city status in 1880, and the following year its university was established. By 1901, the city's population had grown to over 700,000, and its boundaries had expanded to include Kirkdale, Everton,[19] Walton, West Derby, Toxteth and Garston.[10]

text: 20th century[edit]

text: During the first part of the 20th century Liverpool continued to expand, pulling in immigrants from Europe. In 1903 an International Exhibition took place in Edge Lane. In 1904, the building of the Anglican Cathedral began, and by 1916 the three Pier Head buildings, including the Liver Building, were complete. This period marked the pinnacle of Liverpool's economic success, when it regarded itself as the "second city" of the British Empire.[10] The formerly independent urban districts of Allerton, Childwall, Little Woolton and Much Woolton were added in 1913, and the parish of Speke added in 1932, with large housing developments, mostly by the local authority, being built over the next few years.[20]

text: Adolf Hitler's half-brother Alois and his Irish sister-in-law Bridget Dowling are known to have lived in Upper Stanhope Street in the 1910s. Bridget's alleged memoirs, which surfaced in the 1970s, said that Adolf stayed with them in 1912-13, although this is much disputed as many believe the memoirs to be a forgery.[21][22][23]

text: The maiden voyage of Titanic in April 1912 was originally planned to depart from Liverpool, as Liverpool was its port of registration and the home of owners White Star Line. However, it was changed to depart from Southampton instead.

text: Aside from the large Irish community in Liverpool, there were other pockets of cultural diversity. The area of Gerard, Hunter, Lionel and Whale streets, off Scotland Road, was referred to as Little Italy. Inspired by an old Venetian custom, Liverpool was 'married to the sea' in September 1928. Liverpool was also home to a large Welsh population, and was sometimes referred to as the Capital of North Wales. In 1884, 1900 and 1929, Eisteddfods were held in Liverpool. The population of the city peaked at over 850,000 in the 1930s.

text: Economic changes began in the first part of the 20th century, as falls in world demand for the North West's traditional export commodities contributed to stagnation and decline in the city. Unemployment was well above the national average as early as the 1920s, and the city became known nationally for its occasionally violent religious sectarianism.[10]

text: When Everton F.C. won the Football League First Division title in 1928, their centre-forward Dixie Dean scored a Football League record of 60 goals in the same season.

text: The Great Depression hit Liverpool badly in the early 1930s with thousands of people in the city left unemployed. This was combated by a large amount of housing mostly built by the local council being constructed, creating jobs mostly in the building, plumbing and electrical trades. About 15 per cent of the city's population were rehoused in the 1920s and 1930s with more than 30,000 new council houses being built to replace the slums in the city.

text: The rising popularity of motor cars led to congestion in the city, and in 1934 the city gained its first direct road link with the Wirral Peninsula, when the first Mersey Tunnel road was opened. The Queensway, as the new tunnel was named, linked Liverpool with Birkenhead at the other side of the Mersey. Many other buildings were built in the city in the 1930s to ease the depression and became local landmarks, with many buildings featuring American inspired architecture.[24]

text: 1939-1945: World War II[edit]

text: During World War 2, Liverpool was the control centre for the Battle of the Atlantic. There were eighty air-raids on Merseyside, with an especially concentrated series of raids in May 1941 which interrupted operations at the docks for almost a week. Some 2,500 people were killed,[25] almost half the homes in the metropolitan area sustained some damage and some 11,000 were totally destroyed. Over 70,000 people were made homeless.[10] John Lennon, one of the founding members of The Beatles, was born in Liverpool during an air-raid on 9 October 1940. All four members of The Beatles were born in the city during the war, rising to fame in the early 1960s.

text: Significant rebuilding followed the war, including massive housing estates and the Seaforth Dock, the largest dock project in Britain. However, the city has been suffering since the 1950s with the loss of numerous employers. By 1985 the population had fallen to 460,000. Declines in manufacturing and dock activity struck the city particularly hard.

text: In 1955, the Labour Party, led locally by Jack and Bessie Braddock, came to power in the City Council for the first time.

text: In 1956, a private bill sponsored by Liverpool City Council was brought before Parliament to develop a water reservoir from the Tryweryn Valley. The development would include the flooding of Capel Celyn. By obtaining authority via an Act of Parliament, Liverpool City Council would not require planning consent from the relevant Welsh Local Authorities. This, together with the fact that the village was one of the last Welsh-only speaking communities, ensured that the proposals became deeply controversial. Thirty five out of thirty six Welsh Members of Parliament (MPs) opposed the bill (the other did not vote), but in 1957 it was passed. The members of the community waged an eight-year effort, ultimately unsuccessful, to prevent the destruction of their homes, which finally occurred in 1965. The incident led to a massive rise in Welsh nationalism, and a year later, Gwynfor Evans of Plaid Cymru won the party's first seat in the Carmathen by-election.

text: In the 1960s Liverpool became a centre of youth culture. The city produced the distinctive Merseybeat sound, and, most famously, The Beatles.

text: From the 1970s onwards Liverpool's docks and traditional manufacturing industries went into further sharp decline. The advent of containerisation meant that Liverpool's docks ceased to be a major local employer. In 1974, Liverpool became a metropolitan district within the newly created metropolitan county of Merseyside.

text: The 1980s saw Liverpool's fortunes sink to their lowest postwar point. Although the 1970s, along with the rest of Britain, had brought economic difficulties and a steady rise in unemployment, the situation in Liverpool went from bad to worse in the early 1980s, with endless factory closures and some of the highest unemployment rates in the UK. An average of 12,000 people each year were leaving the city, and 15% of its land was vacant or derelict.[10]

text: In July 1981 the infamous Toxteth Riots took place, during which, for the first time in the UK outside Northern Ireland, tear gas was used by police against civilians. In the same year, the Tate and Lyle sugar works, previously a mainstay of the city's manufacturing economy, closed down. The docks had already declined dramatically by this stage, depriving the city of another major source of employment.

text: By 1985, unemployment in Liverpool exceeded 20%, around double the national average. About this time the scourge of heroin, always present in port cities, really began to rise.

text: Liverpool City Council was dominated by the far-left wing Militant group during the 1980s, under the de facto leadership of Derek Hatton (although Hatton was formally only Deputy Leader). The city council sank heavily into debt, as the City Council fought a campaign to prevent central government from reducing funding for local services. Ultimately this led to 49 of the City's Councillors being removed from office by the District Auditor for refusing to cut the budget, refusing to make good the deficit and forcing the City Council into virtual bankruptcy. The conduct of Hatton and the militant tendency had even come under the scrutiny of Labour Party leader Neil Kinnock, who was keen to remove the militant tendency from the party as part of the attempt to make it electable again. At the same time, the Conservative government of Margaret Thatcher was deeply unpopular in Liverpool, with the Conservatives share of the vote in most local council and parliamentary elections being consistently low throughout the 1980s.

text: On 15 April 1989, 96 Liverpool F.C. fans (mostly from Merseyside as well as neighbouring parts of Cheshire and Lancashire) were fatally injured in the Hillsborough disaster at an FA Cup semi-final in Sheffield. This had a traumatic effect on people across the country, particularly in and around the city of Liverpool, and resulted in legally imposed changes in the way in which football fans have since been accommodated, including compulsory all-seater stadiums at all leading English clubs by the mid 1990s. Many clubs removed their perimeter fencing almost immediately after the tragedy, and such measures at football grounds in England have long since been banned.

text: In particular this led to strong feeling in Liverpool because it was widely reported in the media that the Liverpool fans were at fault. The Sun sparked particular controversy for publishing these allegations in an article four days after the disaster. Sales of the newspaper in Liverpool slumped and many newsagents refused to stock it. Three decades later, many people in the city still refuse to buy The Sun and a number of newsagents still refuse to sell it. Other media outlets including the Daily Star and Daily Mail also printed similar stories in which the behaviour of Liverpool fans was alleged to have been a major factor in the tragedy.

text: There was further controversy surrounding the tragedy in March 1991 when a verdict of accidental death was recorded on the 95 people who had died at Hillsborough (the 96th victim did not die until 1993), much to the dismay of the bereaved families, who had been hoping for a verdict of unlawful killing, or an open verdict, to be recorded; and for criminal charges to be brought against South Yorkshire Police. This verdict was eventually replaced by one of unlawful killing at fresh inquest 25 years later.

text: It has since become clear that South Yorkshire Police made a range of mistakes at the game, though the senior officer in charge of the event retired soon after.

text: The success of Liverpool FC was some compensation for the city's economic misfortune during the 1970s and 1980s. The club, formed in 1892, had won five league titles by 1947, but enjoyed its first consistent run of success under the management of Bill Shankly between 1959 and 1974, winning a further three league titles as well as the club's first two FA Cups and its first European trophy in the shape of the UEFA Cup. Following Shankly's retirement, the club continued to dominate English football for nearly 20 years afterwards. By 1990, Liverpool FC had won more major trophies than any other English club - a total of 18 top division league titles, four FA Cups, four Football League Cups, four European Cups and two UEFA Cups.[26] The club's iconic red shirt had been worn by some of the biggest names in British sport of the 1970s and 1980s, including Kevin Keegan, Kenny Dalglish (who also served as manager from 1985 to 1991 and again from 2011 to 2012), Phil Neal, Ian Rush, Ian Callaghan and John Barnes. The club has yet to win another league title since, although it has since won a further three FA Cups, three League Cups, a UEFA Cup and a European Cup, and fielded a new wave of stars including Robbie Fowler, Michael Owen, Jamie Carragher and Steven Gerrard.[27]

text: Everton F.C., the city's other senior football club, also enjoyed a degree of success during the 1970s and 1980s. The club had enjoyed a consistent run of success during the interwar years and again in the 1960s, but after winning the league title in 1970 went 14 years without winning a major trophy, although they did hold onto the First Division place which had been theirs since 1954. Then, in 1984, Everton won the FA Cup under the management of Howard Kendall, who had once been a player at the club.[28] A league title win followed in 1985, along with the club's first European trophy - the European Cup Winners' Cup.[29] By 1986, the city's two clubs were firmly established as the leading club sides in England as Liverpool finished league champions and Everton runners-up, and the two sides also met for the FA Cup final, which Liverpool won 3-1. The Everton side of the mid 1980s included some of the highest rated footballers in the English league at the time; goalkeeper Neville Southall, winger Trevor Steven, forwards Graeme Sharp and Andy Gray, and Gray's successor Gary Lineker.

text: Everton have enjoyed an unbroken run in the top flight of English football since 1954, although their only major trophy since the league title in 1987 came in 1995 when they won the FA Cup.[30] Everton added another league title in 1987, with Liverpool finishing runners-up.[31]

text: Another all-Merseyside FA Cup final 1989 saw Liverpool beat Everton 3-2. This match was played just five weeks after the Hillsborough disaster.[32]

text: A similar national outpouring of grief and shock to the Hillsborough disaster occurred in February 1993 when James Bulger was killed by two ten-year-old boys, Jon Venables and Robert Thompson. The two boys were found guilty of murder later in the year and sentenced to indefinite detention.

text: The 1990s saw the continued regeneration of the city which had started in the 1980s.

text: Recent history[edit]

text: A general economic and civic revival has been underway since the mid-nineties. Liverpool's economy has grown faster than the national average and its crime levels have remained lower than most other metropolitan areas in England and Wales, with recorded crime per head in Merseyside comparable to the national average — unusually low for an urban area.

text: In recent years, the city has emphasised its cultural attractions. Tourism has become a significant factor in Liverpool's economy, capitalising on the popularity of The Beatles and other groups of the Merseybeat era. In June 2003, Liverpool won the right to be named European Capital of Culture for 2008, beating other British cities such as Newcastle and Birmingham to the coveted title. The riverfront of the city was also designated as a World Heritage Site in 2004.

text: In October 2005, Liverpool City Council passed a public apology for the flooding Capel Celyn in Wales.[33] The full statement reads -

text:
“
The Council acknowledges its debt to the many thousands of Welsh people who have made their homes in the City. They have, in so many ways, enriched the life of the City. We know that Liverpool, especially in the fields of medicine and education, has been of real service to the people of Wales. We realise the hurt of forty years ago when the Tryweryn Valley was transformed into a reservoir to help meet the water needs of Liverpool. For any insensitivity by our predecessor Council at that time, we apologise and hope that the historic and sound relationship between Liverpool and Wales can be completely restored.
”

text: In October 2007, Liverpool and London continued with wildcat strikes after the end of the official CWU strikes that had been ongoing since June in a dispute with the Royal Mail over pay, pensions, and hours.


document_title: Parenting styles

question_text: who identified the authoritarian permissive and authoritative styles

root

text: Parenting styles

text: Distinction with parenting practices[edit]

text: According to a literature review by Christopher Spera (2005), Darling and Steinberg (1993) suggest that it is important to better understand the differences between parenting styles and parenting practices: "Parenting practices are deﬁned as speciﬁc behaviors that parents use to socialize their children", while parenting style is "the emotional climate in which parents raise their children".[1]

tag: p

text: One study association that has been made is the difference between "child's outcome and continuous measures of parental behavior". Some of the associations that are listed include the following: support, involvement, warmth, approval, control, monitoring, and harsh punishment. Parenting practices such as parental support, monitoring and firm boundaries appear to be linked to higher school grades, less behavior problems and better mental health. These components have no age limit and can begin early in pre-school leading all the way into college.[5]

text: Theories of child rearing[edit]

text: Beginning in the 17th century, two philosophers independently wrote works that have been widely influential in child rearing. John Locke's 1693 book Some Thoughts Concerning Education is a well known foundation for educational pedagogy from a Puritan standpoint. Locke highlights the importance of experiences to a child's development, and recommends developing their physical habits first. In 1762, the French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau published a volume on education, Emile: or, On Education.[6] He proposed that early education should be derived less from books and more from a child's interactions with the world. Of these, Rousseau is more consistent with slow parenting, and Locke is more for concerted cultivation.[7]

text: Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development describes how children represent and reason about the world.[8] This is a developmental stage theory that consists of a Sensorimotor stage, Preoperational stage, Concrete operational stage, and Formal operational stage. Piaget was a pioneer in the field of child development and continues to influence parents, educators and other theorists.[9]

text: Erik Erikson, a developmental psychologist, proposed eight life stages through which each person must develop. In order to move on to the next stage, the person must work out a "crisis" in which a new dilemma must be solved.[clarification needed][10] In each stage, they must understand and balance two conflicting forces, and so parents might choose a series of parenting styles that helps each child as appropriate at each stage. The first five of his eight stages occur in childhood: The virtue of hope requires balancing trust with mistrust, and typically occurs from birth to one year old. Will balances autonomy with shame and doubt around the ages of two to three. Purpose balances initiative with guilt around the ages of four to six years. Competence balances industry against inferiority around ages seven to 12. Fidelity contrasts identity with role confusion, in ages 13 to 19. The remaining adult virtues are love, care and wisdom.[11]

text: Rudolf Dreikurs believed that pre-adolescent children's misbehavior was caused by their unfulfilled wish to be a member of a social group. He argued that they then act out a sequence of four mistaken goals: first they seek attention. If they do not get it, they aim for power, then revenge and finally feel inadequate. This theory is used in education as well as parenting, forming a valuable theory upon which to manage misbehavior.[12] Other parenting techniques should also be used to encourage learning and happiness.He emphasized the significance to establish a democratic family style that adopts a method of periodic democratic family councils and meanwhile avert the punishment.[13] He advances “logical and natural consequences”.[14] That teach children to be responsible and understand the natural consequences of proper rules of conduct and improper behavior.[15]

text: Frank Furedi is a sociologist with a particular interest in parenting and families. He believes that the actions of parents are less decisive than others claim. He describes the term infant determinism[16] as the determination of a person's life prospects by what happens to them during infancy, arguing that there is little or no evidence for its truth. While commercial, governmental and other interests constantly try to guide parents to do more and worry more for their children, he believes that children are capable of developing well in almost any circumstances. Furedi quotes Steve Petersen of Washington University in St. Louis: "development really wants to happen. It takes very impoverished environments to interfere with development ... [just] don't raise your child in a closet, starve them, or hit them on the head with a frying pan".[17] Similarly, the journalist Tim Gill has expressed concern about excessive risk aversion by parents and those responsible for children in his book No Fear.[18] This aversion limits the opportunities for children to develop sufficient adult skills, particularly in dealing with risk, but also in performing adventurous and imaginative activities.[19]

text: In 1998, independent scholar Judith Rich Harris published The Nurture Assumption, in which she argued that scientific evidence, especially behavioral genetics, showed that all different forms of parenting do not have significant effects on children's development, short of cases of severe child abuse or child neglect.[20] She proposes two main points for the effects: genetic effects, and social effects involved by the peer groups in which children participate.[21] The purported effects of different forms of parenting are all illusions caused by heredity, the culture at large, and children's own influence on how their parents treat them.[22]

text: Baumrind's Parenting Typology[edit]

text: Diana Baumrind is a researcher who focused on the classification of parenting styles. Baumrind’s research is known as “Baumrind’s Parenting Typology”. In her research, she found what she considered to be the four basic elements that could help shape successful parenting: responsiveness vs. unresponsiveness and demanding vs. undemanding.[23] Parental responsiveness refers to the degree to which the parent responds to the child's needs in a supportive and accepting manner.[24][better source needed] Through her studies Baumrind identified three initial parenting styles: Authoritative parenting, authoritarian parenting and permissive parenting. Maccoby and Martin expanded upon Baumrind’s three original parenting styles by placing parenting styles into two distinct categories: demanding and undemanding.[25] With these distinctions, four new parenting styles were defined:

text:
Maccoby and Martin's Four Parenting Styles
Baumrind's Three Parenting Styles

Demanding
Undemanding

Responsive
Authoritative/Propagative
Indulgent
(Permissive)

Unresponsive
Authoritarian/Totalitarian
Neglectful

tag: table

text: Baumrind believed that parents should be neither punitive nor aloof.[26] Rather, they should develop rules for their children and be affectionate with them. These parenting styles are meant to describe normal variations in parenting, not deviant parenting, such as might be observed in abusive homes.[27] In addition, parenting stress can often cause changes in parental behavior such as inconsistency, increased negative communication, decreased monitoring and/or supervision,[citation needed] setting vague rules or limits on behavior, being more reactive and less proactive, and engaging in increasingly harsh disciplinary behaviors.

text: The three styles[edit]

text: Authoritative[edit]

text: The parent is demanding and responsive. When this style is systematically developed, it grows to fit the descriptions propagative parenting and concerted cultivation.

text: Authoritative parenting is characterized by a child-centered approach that holds high expectations of maturity. Authoritative parents can understand how their children are feeling and teach them how to regulate their feelings. Even with high expectations of maturity, authoritative parents are usually forgiving of any possible shortcomings.[28] They often help their children to find appropriate outlets to solve problems. Authoritative parents encourage children to be independent but still place limits on their actions.[26] Extensive verbal give-and-take is not refused, and parents try to be warm and nurturing toward the child.[26] Authoritative parents are not usually as controlling as authoritarian parents, allowing the child to explore more freely, thus having them make their own decisions based upon their own reasoning. Often, authoritative parents produce children who are more independent and self-reliant.[29] An authoritative parenting style mainly results when there is high parental responsiveness and high parental demands.[30]

text: Authoritative parents will set clear standards for their children, monitor the limits that they set, and also allow children to develop autonomy. They also expect mature, independent, and age-appropriate behavior of children. Punishments for misbehavior are measured and consistent, not arbitrary or violent. Often behaviors are not punished but the natural consequences of the child's actions are explored and discussed -allowing the child to see that the behavior is inappropriate and not to be repeated, rather than not repeated to merely avoid adverse consequences.[26] Authoritative parents set limits and demand maturity. They also tend to give more positive encouragement at the right places.[citation needed] However, when punishing a child, the parent will explain his or her motive for their punishment. Children are more likely to respond to authoritative parenting punishment because it is reasonable and fair.[citation needed] A child knows why they are being punished because an authoritative parent makes the reasons known. As a result, children of authoritative parents are more likely to be successful, well liked by those around them, generous and capable of self-determination.[31]

text: Authoritarian[edit]

text: The parent is demanding but not responsive.

text: Authoritarian parenting is a restrictive, punishment-heavy parenting style in which parents make their children follow their directions with little to no explanation or feedback and focus on the child's and family's perception and status.[26][30] Corporal punishment, such as spanking, and shouting are forms of discipline frequently preferred by authoritarian parents. The goal of this style, at least when well-intentioned, is to teach the child to behave, survive, and thrive as an adult in a harsh and unforgiving society by preparing the child for negative responses such as anger and aggression that the child will face if his/her behavior is inappropriate. In addition, advocates of this style often believe that the shock of aggression from someone from the outside world will be less for a child accustomed to enduring both acute and chronic stress imposed by parents.[citation needed]

text: Authoritarian parenting has distinctive effects on children:

text:
Children raised using this type of parenting may have less social competence because the parent generally tells the child what to do instead of allowing the child to choose by him or herself, making the child appear to excel in the short term but limiting development in ways that are increasingly revealed as supervision and opportunities for direct parental control decline.[32]
Children raised by authoritarian parents tend to be conformist, highly obedient, quiet, and not very happy.[33] These children often suffer from depression and self-blame.[33]

tag: ul

text:
For some children raised by authoritarian parents, these behaviors continue into adulthood.[33]
Children who are resentful of or angry about being raised in an authoritarian environment but have managed to develop high behavioral self-confidence often rebel in adolescence and/or young adulthood.[33]
Children who experience anger and resentment coupled with the downsides of both inhibited self-efficacy and high self-blame often retreat into escapist behaviors, including but not limited to substance abuse, and are at heightened risk for suicide.

text: Specific aspects of authoritarian styles prevalent among certain cultures and ethnic groups, most notably aspects of traditional Asian child-rearing practices sometimes described as authoritarian,[26] often continued by Asian American families and sometimes emulated by intensive parents from other cultures, may be associated with more positive median child outcomes than Baumrind's model predicts,[citation needed] albeit at the risk of exacerbated downside outcomes exemplified by Asian cultural phenomena such as hikikomori and the heightened suicide rates found in South Korea, in India and by international observers of China before 2014.

text: Indulgent or Permissive[edit]

text: The parent is responsive but not demanding.

text: Indulgent parenting, also called permissive, non-directive, lenient or libertarian,[34] is characterized as having few behavioral expectations for the child. "Indulgent parenting is a style of parenting in which parents are very involved with their children but place few demands or controls on them".[26] Parents are nurturing and accepting, and are responsive to the child's needs and wishes. Indulgent parents do not require children to regulate themselves or behave appropriately.The children will grow into adulthood not accustomed to aggression in others due to their inappropriate behavior which would be a great shock to them. As adults, they will pay less attention in avoiding behaviors which cause aggression in others[citation needed].

text: Permissive parents try to be "friends" with their child, and do not play a parental role.[35] The expectations of the child are very low, and there is little discipline. Permissive parents also allow children to make their own decisions, giving them advice as a friend would. This type of parenting is very lax, with few punishments or rules.[35] Permissive parents also tend to give their children whatever they want and hope that they are appreciated for their accommodating style. Other permissive parents compensate for what they missed as children, and as a result give their children both the freedom and materials that they lacked in their childhood.[35] Baumrind researched on pre-school children with permissive parents and she came up with a result that children were immature, absence in impulsive control and they were irresponsible because of permissive parenting style.[36]

text: Children of permissive parents may tend to be more impulsive and as adolescents may engage more in misconduct such as drug use,[citation needed] "Children never learn to control their own behavior and always expect to get their way."[26] But in the better cases they are emotionally secure, independent and are willing to learn and accept defeat. They mature quickly and are able to live life without the help of someone else.[citation needed]

text: From a recent study,[37]

text:
The teens least prone to heavy drinking had parents who scored high on both accountability and warmth.
So-called 'indulgent' parents, those low on accountability and high on warmth, nearly tripled the risk of their teen participating in heavy drinking.
'Strict parents' or authoritarian parents – high on accountability and low on warmth – more than doubled their teen’s risk of heavy drinking.[37]

text: Effects on children[edit]

text: Most studies, mainly in Anglophone countries, have shown that children with authoritative parents have the best outcomes in different areas (behavior, mental and social adjustment...).[38] The case might be different, however, for Asian populations, where the authoritarian style was found as good as the authoritative one. On the other hand, some studies have found a superiority of the indulgent style in Spain,[39] Portugal[40] or Brazil,[41] but the methodology of these studies has been contested.[42] More recently a study has shown that in Spain, while using the same questionnaire used in other countries, the authoritative style continues to be the best one for children.[43]

text: Other parenting styles[edit]

text: Differences for male and female children[edit]

text: Mothers and fathers[where?] tend to pick up different behaviors of parenting based on the sex of their child.[64] Studies have shown that fathers can affect their daughters' emotional adjustment more through the style of parenting they demonstrate rather than through using disciplinary approaches, such as punishment.[65] Also, both a father and mother[where?] sometimes tend to use an authoritative style towards their daughters, while feeling more comfortable switching over to an authoritarian style for sons.[66]

text: Similarly, mothers[where?] may use a more authoritative style when they parent their daughters. Also, mothers spent more time reasoning with their daughters but mothers tended to favor their sons.[67][68]


document_title: South India

question_text: what is the largest state in south india in area

text: South India

text: Etymology[edit]

text: South India also known as Peninsular India has been known by several other names. The term "Deccan" referring to the area covered by the Deccan Plateau that covers most of peninsular India excluding the coastal areas is an anglicised form of the word Prakrit dakkhin derived from the Sanskrit word dakshina meaning south.[1] Carnatic derived from "Karnād" or "Karunād" meaning high country has also been associated with South India.[2]

text: History[edit]

text: Ancient era[edit]

text: Carbon dating on ash mounds associated with Neolithic cultures in South India date back to 8000 BCE. Artefacts such as ground stone axes, and minor copper objects have been found in the region. Towards the beginning of 1000 BCE, iron technology spread through the region; however, there does not appear to be a fully developed Bronze Age preceding the Iron Age in South India.[3] The region was in the middle of a trade route that extended from Muziris to Arikamedu linking the Mediterranean and East Asia.[4][5] Trade with Phoenicians, Romans, Greeks, Arabs, Syrians, Jews and Chinese began from the Sangam period (c. 3rd century BC to c. 4th century AD).[6] The region was part of the ancient Silk Road connecting the Asian continent in the East and the West.[7]

text: Several dynasties such as the Cheras of Karuvur, the Pandyas of Madurai, the Cholas of Thanjavur, the Satavahanas of Amaravati, the Pallavas of Kanchi, the Kadambas of Banavasi, the Western Gangas of Kolar, the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta, the Chalukyas of Badami, the Hoysalas of Belur and the Kakatiyas of Orugallu ruled over the region from 6th century B.C. to 14th century A.D. The Vijayanagara Empire, founded in 14th century A.D. was the last Indian dynasty that ruled over the region. After repeated invasions from the Sultanate of Delhi and the fall of Vijayanagara empire in 1646, the region was ruled by Deccan Sultanates, polygars and Nayak governors of Vijayanagara empire who declared independence.[8]

text: Colonial era[edit]

text: The Europeans arrived in the 15th century and by the middle of the 18th century, the French and the British were involved in a protracted struggle for military control over the South India. After the defeat of Tipu Sultan in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War in 1799 and the end of the Vellore Mutiny in 1806, the British consolidated their power over much of present-day South India with the exception of French Pondichéry. The British Empire took control of the region from the British East India Company in 1857.[9] During the British colonial rule, the region was divided into the Madras Presidency, Hyderabad state, Mysore, Travancore, Kochi, Vizianagaram and a number of other minor princely states. The region played a major role in the Indian independence movement; of the 72 delegates who participated in the first session of the Indian National Congress at Bombay in December 1885, 22 hailed from South India.[10]

text: Post Independence[edit]

text: After the independence of India in 1947, the region was organised into four states: Madras State, Mysore State, Hyderabad State and Travancore-Cochin.[11] The States Reorganisation Act of 1956 reorganised the states on linguistic lines resulting in the creation of the new states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.[12][13] As a result of this Act, Madras State retained its name and Kanyakumari district was added to it from the state of Travancore-Cochin.[14] The state was subsequently renamed Tamil Nadu in 1968.[14] Andhra Pradesh was created through the merger of Andhra State with the Telugu-speaking districts of the Hyderabad State in 1956.[14] Kerala emerged from the merger of Malabar district and the Kasaragod taluk of South Canara districts of the Madras State with Travancore-Cochin.[14] Mysore State was re-organised with the addition of districts of Bellary and South Canara (excluding Kasaragod talukNote 1) and the Kollegal taluk of Coimbatore district from the Madras State, the districts of Belgaum, Bijapur, North Canara and Dharwad from the Bombay State, the Kannada-majority districts of Bidar, Raichur and Gulbarga from the Hyderabad State and the province of Coorg.[14] Mysore State was renamed as Karnataka in 1973. The Union territory of Puducherry was created in 1954 comprising the previous French enclaves of Pondichérry, Karaikal, Yanam and Mahé.[15] The Laccadive Islands, which were divided between South Canara and Malabar districts of Madras State, were united and organised into the union territory of Lakshadweep. Telangana was created on 2 June 2014 by bifurcating Andhra Pradesh and it comprises ten districts of the erstwhile state of Andhra Pradesh.[16][17]

text: ^ Taluk is a smaller administrative division than a district

text: Geography[edit]

text: South India is a peninsula in the shape of an inverted triangle bound by the Arabian Sea on the west, by the Bay of Bengal on the east and Vindhya and Satpura ranges on the north.[18] The Narmada river flows westwards in the depression between the Vindhya and Satpura ranges which define the northern spur of the Deccan plateau.[19] The Western Ghats run parallel along the western coast and the narrow strip of land between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea forms the Konkan region. The Western Ghats continue south until Kanyakumari.[20][21] The Eastern Ghats run parallel along the eastern coast and the strip of land between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal forms the Coromandel region.[22] Both the ranges meet at the Nilgiri mountains. The Nilgiris run in a crescent approximately along the borders of Tamil Nadu with northern Kerala and Karnataka, encompassing the Palakkad and Wayanad hills and the Sathyamangalam ranges, extending on to the relatively low-lying hills of the Eastern Ghats on the western portion of the Tamil Nadu–Andhra Pradesh border forming the Tirupati and Annamalai hills.[23]

text: The low lying coral islands of Lakshadweep are situated off the south-western coast of India. The Andaman and Nicobar islands lie far off the eastern coast of India. The Palk Strait and the chain of low sandbars and islands known as Rama's Bridge separate the region from Sri Lanka, which lies off the south-eastern coast.[24][25] The southernmost tip of mainland India is at Kanyakumari where the Indian Ocean meets the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea.[26]

text: The Deccan plateau is the elevated region bound by the mountain ranges.[27] The plateau rises to 100 metres (330 ft) in the north and to more than 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) in the south, forming a raised triangle within the downward-pointing triangle of the Indian subcontinent's coastline.[28] It also slopes gently from West to East resulting in major rivers arising in the Western Ghats and flowing east into the Bay of Bengal.[29] The volcanic basalt beds of the Deccan were laid down in the massive Deccan Traps eruption, which occurred towards the end of the Cretaceous period between 67 and 66 million years ago.[30] Layer after layer was formed by the volcanic activity that lasted 30,000 years[31] and when the volcanoes became extinct, they left a region of highlands with typically vast stretches of flat areas on top like a table.[32] The plateau is watered by east flowing rivers Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri and Vaigai. The major tributaries include Pennar, Tungabhadra, Bhavani and Thamirabarani.[33]

text: Climate[edit]

text: The region has a tropical climate and depends on monsoons for rainfall. According to the Köppen climate classification, it has a non-arid climate with minimum mean temperatures of 18 °C (64 °F).[34] The most humid is the tropical monsoon climate characterised by moderate to high year-round temperatures and seasonal heavy rainfall above 2,000 mm (79 in) per year. The tropical climate is experienced in a strip of south-western lowlands abutting the Malabar Coast, the Western Ghats and the islands of Lakshadweep and Andaman and Nicobar are also subject to this climate.[35]

text: The tropical wet and dry climate, drier than areas with a tropical monsoon climate prevails over most of inland peninsular region except for a semi arid rain shadow east of the Western Ghats. Winter and early summer are long and dry periods with temperatures averaging above 18 °C (64 °F), summer is exceedingly hot with temperatures in low-lying areas exceeding 50 °C (122 °F) and the rainy season lasts from June to September with annual rainfall averaging between 750 and 1,500 mm (30 and 59 in) across the region. Once the dry northeast monsoon begins in September, most precipitation in India falls in Tamil Nadu, leaving other states comparatively dry.[36] The hot semi-arid climate predominates the land east of the Western Ghats and the Cardamom Hills. The region, which includes Karnataka, inland Tamil Nadu and western Andhra Pradesh, gets between 400 and 750 millimetres (15.7 and 29.5 in) of rainfall annually with hot summers and dry winters with temperatures around 20–24 °C (68–75 °F). The months between March and May are hot and dry with mean monthly temperatures hover around 32 °C (90 °F), with 320 millimetres (13 in) precipitation and without artificial irrigation, this region is not suitable for agriculture.[37]

text: The south–west Monsoon from June to September accounts for most of the rainfall in the region. The Arabian Sea branch of the south-west monsoon hits the Western Ghats along the coastal state of Kerala and moves northwards along the Konkan coast with precipitation on coastal areas, west of the Western Ghats. The lofty Western Ghats prevent the winds from reaching the Deccan Plateau - hence the leeward region (the region that deprived of winds) receives very little rainfall.[38][39] The Bay of Bengal branch of south-west monsoon heads toward north east India, picking up moisture from the Bay of Bengal. The Coramandel coast does not receive much rainfall from the south-west monsoon due to the shape of the land. Tamil Nadu and southeast Andhra Pradesh receive rains from the north–east Monsoon.[40] The north-east monsoon take place from November to early March when the surface high-pressure system is strongest.[41] The North Indian Ocean tropical cyclones occur throughout the year in Bay of Bengal and Arabian sea bringing devastating winds and heavy rainfall.[42][43][44]

text: Flora and fauna[edit]

text: There is a wide diversity of plants and animals in South India, resulting from its varied climates and geography. Deciduous forests are found along the Western Ghats while tropical dry forests and scrub lands are common in the interior Deccan plateau. The southern Western Ghats have rainforests located at high altitudes called the South Western Ghats montane rain forests and the Malabar Coast moist forests are found on the coastal plains.[45] The Western Ghats is one of the eight hottest biodiversity hotspots in the world and a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[46][47]

text: Important ecological regions of South India are the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, located at the conjunction of the borders of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu in the Nilgiri Hills and the Anamalai Hills in the Western Ghats. Bird sanctuaries including Vedanthangal, Ranganathittu, Kumarakom, Neelapattu and Pulicat are home to numerous migratory and local birds.[48][49] Lakshadweep has been declared a bird sanctuary by the Wildlife Institute of India.[50] Other protected ecological sites include the mangrove forests of Pichavaram in Tamil Nadu, the backwaters of Pulicat lake in Tamil Nadu and Vembanad, Ashtamudi, Paravur and Kayamkulam lakes in Kerala. The Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve covers an area of 10,500 km² of ocean, islands and the adjoining coastline including coral reefs, salt marshes and mangroves. It is home to Endangered aquatic species including dolphins, dugongs, whales and sea cucumbers.[51][52]

text: The region is home to one of the largest populations of endangered Indian elephant and Bengal Tiger in India. Elephant populations are found in eight fragmented sites in South India; in northern Karnataka, along the Western Ghats, in Bhadra–Malnad, in Brahmagiri–Nilgiris–Eastern Ghats, in Nilambur–Silent Valley–Coimbatore, in Anamalai–Parambikulam, in Periyar–Srivilliputhur and Agasthyamalai[53] The region is home to one-third of the tiger population and more than half of the elephant population of India.[54][55] There are 14 Project Tiger reserves and 11 Project Elephant reserves in the region.[56][57] Other threatened and endangered species found in the region include grizzled giant squirrel,[58] grey slender loris,[59] sloth bear,[60] nilgiri tahr,[61] nilgiri langur,[62] lion-tailed macaque,[63] and Indian leopard.[64]

text:
Symbols of States of South India

Name
Animal
Bird
Tree
Fruit
Flower

Andaman and Nicobar Islands[65]
Dugong (Dugong dugon)
Andaman wood pigeon (Columba palumboides)
Andaman padauk (Pterocarpus dalbergioides)

Andaman crape myrtle (Lagerstroemia hypoleuca)

Andhra Pradesh[66]
Blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra)
Indian roller (Coracias indica)
Neem (Azadirachta indica)
Mango (Mangifera indica)
Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera)

Karnataka[67]
Indian Elephant (Elephas maximus)
Indian roller (Coracias indica)
Sandalwood (Santalum album)

Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera)

Kerala[68][69]
Indian Elephant (Elephas maximus)
Great hornbill (Buceros bicornis)
Coconut (Cocos nucifera)
Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus)
Cana fistula (Cassia fistula)

Lakshadweep[70][71]
Butterfly fish (Chaetodon falcula)
Noddy tern (Anous stolidus)
Bread fruit (Artocarpus incisa)

Puducherry[72]
Indian palm squirrel (Funambulus palmarum)
Koel (Eudynamys scolopaceus)
Bael fruit (Aegle marmelos)

Cannonball (Couroupita guianensis)

Tamil Nadu[73][74]
Nilgiri tahr (Nilgiritragus hylocrius)
Emerald dove (Chalcophaps indica)
Palmyra palm (Borassus flabellifer)
Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus)
Glory lily (Gloriosa superba)

Telangana[75]
Deer (Axis axis)
Indian roller (Coracias indica)
Khejri (Prosopis cineraria)
Mango (Mangifera indica)
Tanner's Cassia (Senna auriculata)

text: Demographics[edit]

text: As per the 2011 census of India, the estimated population of South India is 252 million, around one fifth of the total population of India. The region's total fertility rate (TFR) was less than the population replacement level of 2.1 for all states with Kerala and Tamil Nadu having the lowest TFRs in India at 1.7.[76][77] As a result, the proportion of the population of South India to India's total population has declined from 1981 to 2011.[78][79] The population density of the region is approximately 463. Scheduled Castes and Tribes form 18% of the population of the region. Agriculture is the major employer in the region with 47.5% of the population is involved in agrarian activities.[80] About 60% of the population lives in permanent housing structures.[81] 67.8% of South India has access to tap water with wells and springs forming other major sources of water supply.[82]

text: After experiencing fluctuations in the decades immediately after the independence of India, the economies of South Indian states have registered growth higher than the national average over the past three decades. While South Indian states have improved in some of the socio-economic metrics,[83][84] poverty continues to affect the region as it does the rest of the country, although it has considerably decreased over the years. Basis the 2011 census, HDI in the southern states is high and the economy has grown at a faster rate than most northern states.[85]

text: As per the 2011 census, the average literacy rate in South India is approximately 80%, considerably higher than the Indian national average of 74% with Kerala having the highest literacy rate of 93.91%.[86][87] South India has the highest sex ratio with Kerala and Tamil Nadu being the top two states.[88] The South Indian states rank amongst the top 10 in economic freedom, life expectancy, access to drinking water, house ownership and TV ownership.[89][90][91][92][93] Poverty rate is at 19% while that in the other Indian states is at 38%. The per capita income is ₹19,531 (US$300), which is more than double of the other Indian states (₹8,951 (US$140)).[94][95] Of the three demographic related targets of the Millennium Development Goals set by the United Nations expected to be achieved by 2015, Kerala and Tamil Nadu achieved the goals related to improvement of maternal health and of reducing infant mortality and child mortality by 2009.[96][97]

text: Languages[edit]

text: The largest linguistic group in South India is the Dravidian family of languages, a family of approximately 73 languages[98] The major languages spoken include Telugu, Tamil, Kannada and Malayalam.[99] Tulu is spoken by about 1.5 million people in coastal Kerala and Karnataka and Konkani, an Indo-Aryan language, is spoken by half a million people in the Konkan coast. English is also widely spoken in urban areas of South India.[100] Urdu is spoken by around 12 million Muslims in southern India.[101][102][103] Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, Urdu and Konkani are listed amongst the 22 official languages of India as per the Official Languages Act (1963). Tamil was the first language to be granted classical language status by the Government of India in 2004.[104][105] Other major languages declared classical were Kannada (in 2008), Telugu (in 2008) and Malayalam (in 2013)[106][107]

text:
S.No.
Language
Number of speakers[108]
Official in States

1
Telugu
74,002,856
Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Yanam (Puducherry)

2
Tamil
60,793,814
Tamil Nadu, Puducherry

3
Kannada
37,924,011
Karnataka

4
Malayalam
33,066,392
Kerala, Lakshadweep, Mahé, Puducherry

5
Konkani
2,489,015
Not Official in any South Indian State.

text: Religion[edit]

text:
Religion

Religion

Percent(%)

Hinduism

80%

Islam

11%

Christianity

8%

Other

1%

text: Hinduism is the major religion with about 80% of the population adhering to it. About 11% of the population follow Islam and 8% follow Christianity.[109] Evidence of prehistoric religion in South India comes from scattered Mesolithic rock paintings depicting dances and rituals in Stone Age sites such as the Kupgal petroglyphs of eastern Karnataka.[110] Hinduism, often regarded as the oldest religion in the world, traces its roots to prehistoric times in India.[111] The main spiritual traditions of South India include both Shaivite and Vaishnavite branches of Hinduism, although Buddhist and Jain philosophies had been influential several centuries earlier.[112] Ayyavazhi is spread significantly across the southern parts of South India.[113][self-published source][114] Islam was introduced to South India in the early 7th century by Arab traders in Malabar Coast of Kerala and spread during the rule of Deccan Sultanates from 17th to 18th century and the Muslims in Kerala of Arab descent are called Jonaka Mappila.[115] Christianity was introduced to South India by Thomas the Apostle, who visited Muziris in Kerala in 52 CE and baptised Kerala's Jewish settlements.[116][117] Kerala is also home to one of the oldest Jewish communities in the world who are supposed to have arrived in the Malabar coast during the reign of King Solomon.[118][119]

text: Economy[edit]

text: The economy of South India after the independence of the nation conformed to a socialist framework, with strict governmental control over private sector participation, foreign trade and foreign direct investment. Through 1960 to 1990, the South Indian economies experienced mixed economic growth. In the 1960s, Kerala achieved above average economic growth while Andhra Pradesh's economy declined during this period. Kerala experienced an economic decline in the 1970s while the economies of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka consistently exceeded national average growth rates after 1970 due to reform-oriented economic policies compared to other Indian states.[120] As of 2013–14, the total Gross domestic product of the region is ₹27.1 trillion (US$420 billion). Tamil Nadu has the second highest GDP and is the second most industrialised state in the country after Maharashtra.[121] As of March 2015, there are 109 operational Special Economic Zones in South India, which is about 60% of the country's total.[122]

text: Over 48% of South India's population is engaged in agriculture, which is largely dependent on seasonal monsoons. Some of the main crops cultivated in South India include paddy, sorghum, pearl millet, pulses, sugarcane, cotton, chilli and ragi. Areca, coffee, tea, rubber and spices are cultivated on the hilly regions. The staple food is rice; the delta regions of Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri are amongst the top rice producing areas in the country.[123] Frequent droughts have left farmers debt-ridden, forcing them to sell their livestock and sometimes to commit suicide.[124] The region accounts for 92% of the total Coffee production in India.[125] South India is also a major producer of cotton, tea, rubber, turmeric, mangoes and spices.[122][126][127][128] Other major agriculture related produce include silk and poultry.[129][130]

text: Bangalore, Chennai, Hyderabad, Coimbatore and Thiruvananthapuram are amongst the major IT hubs of India and Bangalore is also known as the Silicon Valley of India. The growth of information technology (IT) hubs in the region have spurred economic growth and attracted foreign investments and job seekers from other parts of the country.[131] Software exports from South India grossed over ₹640 billion (US$10 billion) in fiscal 2005–06.[132] Chennai, known as the "Detroit of Asia", accounts for about 35% of India's overall automotive components and automobile output.[133] Coimbatore region supplies two-thirds of India's requirements of motors and pumps and is one of the largest exporters of jewellery, wet grinders and auto components.[134]

text: The other major industry is textiles[135] with the region being home to nearly 60% of the fibre textile mills in India.[136]

text: Tourism contributes significantly to the GDP of the region with four states - Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana - among the top 10 states for tourist arrivals and accounting for more than 50% of domestic tourist visits.[137]

text:
[hide]Economic and demographic indicators[84]

Parameter
South India
National

Gross domestic product (GDP)
₹27.1 trillion (US$420 billion)
₹104.7 trillion (US$1.6 trillion)

Net state domestic product (SDP)
₹27,027 (US$420)
₹23,222 (US$360)

Population below poverty line
17.4%
26.1%

Urban population
32.8%
27.8%

Households with electricity
89.3%
67.9%

Literacy rate
80%
74%[138]

text: Subdivisions[edit]

text: South India consists of the five southern Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu as well as the union territories of Puducherry, Lakshadweep and Andaman and Nicobar.[139] Puducherry and the five states have an elected state government each, while the Lakshadweep and Andaman islands are centrally administered by the President of India.[140][141] Each sub-region is further divided into districts.[142] Each state is headed by a Governor, who is a direct appointee of the President of India, while the Chief Minister is the elected head of the state government and represents the state's ruling party or coalition.[143]

text: States[edit]

text:
S.No.
Name
ISO 3166-2 code[144][145]
Date of formation[14]
Population[146]
Area
(km2)[147]
Official
language(s)[148]
Capital
Population density
(per km2)[147]
Sex Ratio[147]
Literacy Rate (%)[86]
% of urban population[149]

1
Andhra Pradesh
AP
1 Oct 1953
49,506,799[150]
160,205[150]
Telugu
HyderabadNote 1
308[150]
996[150]
67.41[151]
29.4[150]

2
Karnataka
KA
1 Nov 1956
61,095,297
191,791
Kannada
Bengaluru
319
973
75.36
34.0

3
Kerala
KL
1 Nov 1956
33,406,061
38,852
Malayalam
Thiruvananthapuram
860
1084
94.00
26.0

4
Tamil Nadu
TN
26 Jan 1950
72,147,030
130,060
Tamil
Chennai
555
996
80.09
44.0

5
Telangana
TS
2 Jun 2014[152]
35,193,978[152]
114,840[152]
Telugu, Urdu[152]
HyderabadNote 1
307[153]
988[152]
66.50[153]
38.7[152]

text: ^Note 1 Andhra Pradesh was divided into two states, Telangana and a residual Andhra Pradesh on 2 June 2014.[154][155][156] Hyderabad, located entirely within the borders of Telangana, is to serve as joint capital for both states for a period of time not exceeding ten years.[157]

text: Union territories[edit]

text:
S.No.
Name
ISO 3166-2 code[144][145]
Population[146]
Area
(km2)[147]
Official
language[148]
Capital
Population density
(per km2)[147]
Sex Ratio[147]
Literacy Rate(%)[86]
% of urban population[149]

1
Andaman and Nicobar
AN
380,581
8,249
English, Hindi
Port Blair
46
876
86.27
32.6

2
Lakshadweep
LD
64,473
30
English, Malayalam
Kavaratti
2,013
946
92.28
44.5

3
Puducherry
PY
1,247,953
490
Tamil, Malayalam, Telugu
Puducherry
2,598
1037
86.55
66.6

text: Administration[edit]

text: South India elects 132 members to the Lok Sabha accounting for roughly one-fourth of the total strength.[158] The region has an allocation of 58 seats in Rajya Sabha out of the total 245.[159] Each state is headed by a Governor, who is a direct appointee of the President of India; the Chief Minister is the elected head of the state government and represents the ruling party or coalition.[160] Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Puducherry follow unicameral legislature while Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Telangana follow bicameral legislature.[161][162]

text: State legislatures elect members for terms of five years.[163] States with bicameral legislatures have an upper house (Legislative Council) with members not more than one-third the size of the Assembly. Governors may suspend or dissolve assemblies and can administer when no party is able to form a government.[163] Each state is organised into a number of districts, which are further subdivided into revenue divisions and taluks (or tehsils) for administration.[163] Local bodies govern respective cities, towns and villages with each electing a mayor, municipal chairman and panchayat chairman respectively to head the same.[163]

text:
State/UT
Lok Sabha[158]
Rajya Sabha[159]
Vidhan Sabha[161]
Governor/Lieutenant Governor
Chief Minister

Andaman and Nicobar
1
N/A
N/A
A. K. Singh
N/A

Andhra Pradesh
25
11
175
E. S. L. Narasimhan
N. Chandrababu Naidu

Karnataka
28
12
224
Vajubhai Vala
Siddaramaiah

Kerala
20
9
140
P. Sathasivam
Pinarayi Vijayan

Lakshadweep
1
N/A
N/A
H. Rajesh Prasad
N/A

Puducherry
1
1
30
Kiran Bedi
V. Narayanasamy

Tamil Nadu
39
18
234
Vidyasagar Rao
Edappadi K. Palaniswami

Telangana
17
7
119
E. S. L. Narasimhan
K. Chandrashekar Rao

Total
132
58
922

text: Politics[edit]

text: Politics in South India is characterised by a mix of regional and national political parties. Justice Party and Swaraj Party were the two major parties in the erstwhile Madras Presidency.[164] The Justice Party eventually lost the 1937 elections to the Indian National Congress and Chakravarti Rajagopalachari became the Chief Minister of the Madras Presidency.[164] During the 1920s and 1930s, the Self-Respect Movement emerged in the Madras Presidency spearheaded by Theagaroya Chetty and E. V. Ramaswamy Naicker (commonly known as Periyar).[165] In 1944 Periyar, who had started the Self-Respect Movement transformed the party into a social organisation, renaming the party Dravidar Kazhagam, and withdrew from electoral politics. The initial aim was the secession of Dravida Nadu from the rest of India on independence. After Independence, C. N. Annadurai, a follower of Periyar formed the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam in 1948. The Anti-Hindi agitations of Tamil Nadu led to the rise of Dravidian parties which formed its first government in 1967 in Tamil Nadu. In 1972, a split in the DMK resulted in the formation of the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam led by M. G. Ramachandran. Dravidian parties continue to dominate Tamil Nadu electoral politics; the national parties usually aligned as junior partners to the major Dravidian parties, AIADMK and DMK.[166][167]

text: Indian National Congress dominated the political scene in Tamil Nadu in 1950s and 1960s under the leadership of K. Kamaraj, who led the party after the death of Jawaharlal Nehru and ensured the selection of Prime Ministers Lal Bahadur Shastri and Indira Gandhi.[168] Congress continues to be a major party in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Kerala. The party ruled with minimal opposition for 30 years in Andhra Pradesh before the formation of Telugu Desam Party by Nandamuri Taraka Rama Rao in 1982.[169] Two prominent party systems in Kerala are the United Democratic Front, led by the Indian National Congress and the Left Democratic Front, led by the Communist Party of India (Marxist). For the past fifty years, these two coalitions have been alternately in power and E. M. S. Namboodiripad, the first elected chief minister of Kerala in 1957 is credited as the leader of the first democratically elected communist government in the world.[170][171] Bharatiya Janata Party and Janata Dal are significant parties in Karnataka.[172]

text: C. Rajagopalachari, the first Indian Governor General of India post independence, was from South India. The region has produced six Indian Presidents namely Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan,[173] V. V. Giri,[174] Neelam Sanjiva Reddy,[175] R. Venkataraman,[176] K. R. Narayanan[177] and APJ Abdul Kalam.[178] Prime Ministers P. V. Narasimha Rao and H. D. Deve Gowda were from the region.[179]

text: Culture and heritage[edit]

text: Clothing[edit]

text: South Indian women traditionally wear a sari, a garment that consists of a drape varying from 5 yards (4.6 m) to 9 yards (8.2 m) in length and 2 feet (0.61 m) to 4 feet (1.2 m) in breadth that is typically wrapped around the waist, with one end draped over the shoulder, baring the midriff.[180][181] Ancient Tamil poetry such as the Silappadhikaram describes women in exquisite drapery or sari.[182] The sari is to be wrapped around the waist, with the loose end of the drape to be worn over the shoulder, baring the midriff as according to Indian philosophy, the navel is considered as the source of life and creativity.[180] Madisar is a typical style worn by Brahmin ladies from Tamil Nadu.[183] Women wear colourful silk sarees on special occasions such as marriages.[184]

text: The men wear a dhoti, a 4.5 metres (15 ft) long, white rectangular piece of non-stitched cloth often bordered in brightly coloured stripes. It is usually wrapped around the waist and the legs and knotted at the waist.[185] A colourful lungi with typical batik patterns is the most common form of male attire in the countryside.[186] People in urban areas generally wear tailored clothing and western dress is popular in urban areas.[186] Western-style school uniforms are worn by both boys and girls in schools even in rural areas.[186]

text: Cuisine[edit]

text: Rice is the staple diet, while fish is an integral component of coastal South Indian meals.[187] Coconut and spices are used extensively in South Indian cuisine. The region has a rich cuisine involving both traditional non-vegetarian and vegetarian dishes comprising rice, legumes and lentils. Its distinct aroma and flavour is achieved by the blending of flavourings and spices including curry leaves, mustard seeds, coriander, ginger, garlic, chili, pepper, cinnamon, cloves, green cardamom, cumin, nutmeg, coconut and rosewater.[188][189] The traditional way of eating a meal involves being seated on the floor, having the food served on a banana leaf[190] and using clean fingers of the right hand to take the food into the mouth.[191] After the meal, the fingers are washed; the easily degradable banana leaf is discarded or becomes fodder for cattle.[192] Eating on banana leaves is a custom thousands of years old, imparts a unique flavor to the food and is considered healthy.[193] Idli, dosa, uthappam, appam, pongal and paniyaram are popular dishes for breakfast.[194][195] Rice is served with sambar, rasam and poriyal for lunch. Andhra cuisine is characterised by pickles and spicy curries.[196] Chettinad cuisine is famous for non-vegetarian items and Hyderabadi cuisine is popular for its biryani.[197]

text: Arts[edit]

text: The traditional music of South India is known as Carnatic music, which includes rhythmic and structured music by composers like Purandara Dasa, Kanaka Dasa, Tyagayya, Annamacharya, Bhakta Ramadasu, Muthuswami Dikshitar, Shyama Shastri, Kshetrayya, Mysore Vasudevachar and Swathi Thirunal.[198] The main instrument that is used in South Indian Hindu temples is the nadaswaram, a reed instrument played along with thavil, a type of drum instrument to create an ensemble.[199] The motion picture industry has emerged as an important platform in South India over the years, portraying the cultural changes, trends, aspirations and developments experienced by its people. South India is home to several distinct dance forms such as Bharatanatyam, Kathakali, Kerala Natanam, Koodiyattam, Kuchipudi, Margamkali, Mohiniaattam, Oppana, Ottamthullal, Theyyam, Vilasini Natyam and Yakshagana.[200][201][202][203][204] The dance, clothing and sculptures of South India exemplify the beauty of the body and motherhood.[180][205][206][207][208]

text: Cinema[edit]

text: Films in regional languages are prevalent; this includes Kannada cinema (Karnataka), Malayalam cinema (Kerala), Tamil cinema (Tamil Nadu) and Telugu cinema (Telangana and Andhra Pradesh). The first silent film in South India, Keechaka Vadham, was made by R. Nataraja Mudaliar in 1916.[209] In South India, the first Tamil talkie, Kalidas, was released on 31 October 1931, barely seven months after India's first talking picture Alam Ara[210] Mudaliar also established South India's first film studio in Madras.[211] Swamikannu Vincent built the first cinema of South India in Coimbatore and introduced the concept of "tent cinema", the first of whose kind was established in Madras and was known as "Edison's Grand Cinemamegaphone".[212] Filmmakers K Balachandar, Balu Mahendra, Bharathiraaja and Mani Ratnam in Tamil cinema, Adoor Gopalakrishnan, Shaji N. Karun, John Abraham and G. Aravindan in Malayalam cinema, and K. N. T. Sastry and B. Narsing Rao in Telugu cinema produced realistic parallel cinema throughout the 1970s,[213] Cinema has also exerted its influence on politics;[214] prominent film personalities like C N Annadurai, M G Ramachandran, M Karunanidhi, N. T. Rama Rao and Jayalalithaa have become Chief Ministers.[215] As of 2014, South Indian film industry contribute to 53% of the total films produced in India.[216]

text:
Table: Feature films certified by the Central Board of Film Certification (2017)[216]

Language
No. of films

Telugu
294

Tamil
304

Malayalam
156

Kannada
220

Tulu
9

Konkani
13

Total
996

text: Literature[edit]

text: South India has an independent literary tradition dating back over 2500 years ago. The first known literature of South India is the poetic Sangam literature, written in Tamil 2500 to 2100 years ago. The literature was composed in three successive poetic assemblies known as Tamil Sangams that were held in the ancient times on a now vanished continent far to the south of India.[217] This literature includes the oldest grammar treatise Tholkappiyam and epics Silappatikaram and Manimekalai written in Tamil.[218] References to Kannada literature appear from fourth century CE.[219][220] Telugu literature adopted a form of Prakrit which in course of development became the immediate ancestor of Telugu.[221] Distinct Malayalam literature came later in the 13th century.[222]

text: Architecture[edit]

text: South India has two distinct styles of rock architecture, the Dravidian style of Tamil Nadu and the Vesara style of Karnataka.[223] The temples considered of porches or mantapas preceding the door leading to the sanctum, gate-pyramids or gopurams, which are the principal features in the quadrangular enclosures that surround the more notable temples and pillared halls used for many purposes and are the invariable accompaniments of these temples. Besides these, a South Indian temple typically has a tank called the Kalyani or Pushkarni.[224] The gopuram is a monumental tower, usually ornate at the entrance of any temple in Southern India. This forms a prominent feature of koils, Hindu temples of the Dravidian style.[225] They are topped by the kalasam, a spherical stone finial, and function as gateways through the walls that surround the temple complex.[226] The origins of the gopuram can be traced back to early structures of the Pallavas and by the twelfth century, under the Pandya rulers, these gateways became a dominant feature of a temple's outer appearance, eventually overshadowing the inner sanctuary which became obscured from view by the colossal size of the gopuram.[227][228]

text: Transport[edit]

text: Road[edit]

text: South India has an extensive road network with 20,573 km (12,783 mi) of National Highways and 46,813 km (29,088 mi) of State Highways. The Golden Quadrilateral connects Chennai in the region with Mumbai via Bangalore and Kolkata via Visakhapatnam.[229][230] Bus services are provided by state run transport corporations namely Tamil Nadu State Transport Corporation,[231] Karnataka State Road Transport Corporation,[232] Andhra Pradesh State Road Transport Corporation,[233] Telangana State Road Transport Corporation,[234] Kerala State Road Transport Corporation[235] and Puducherry Road Transport Corporation.[236]

text:
State
National Highway [237]
State Highway[238]
Motor vehicles per 1000 pop.[239]

Andhra Pradesh
7,356 km (4,571 mi)
10,650 km (6,620 mi)
145

Karnataka
6,432 km (3,997 mi)
20,774 km (12,908 mi)
182

Tamil Nadu
5,006 km (3,111 mi)
10,764 km (6,688 mi)
257

Telangana
2,635 km (1,637 mi)
3,152 km (1,959 mi)
N/A

Kerala
1,811 km (1,125 mi)
4,341 km (2,697 mi)
198

Andaman and Nicobar
330 km (210 mi)
38 km (24 mi)
152

Puducherry
64 km (40 mi)
246 km (153 mi)
521

Total
22,635 km (14,065 mi)
49,965 km (31,047 mi)

text: Rail[edit]

text: The Great Southern India Railway Company was founded in England in 1853 and registered in 1859.[240] Construction of track in Madras Presidency began in 1859 and the 80 miles (130 km) link from Trichinopoly to Negapatam was opened in 1861. The Carnatic Railway Company was founded in 1864 and opened a Madras-Arakkonam-Conjeevaram line in 1865. The Great Southern India Railway was subsequently merged with the Carnatic Railway in 1874 to form the South Indian Railway Company.[241] In 1880, the Great Indian Peninsula Railway established by the British, built a railway network radiating inward from Madras.[242] In 1879, the Madras Railway constructed a railway line from Royapuram to Bangalore and the Maharaja of Mysore established Mysore State Railway to carryout extension from Bangalore to Mysore.[243] Madras and Southern Mahratta Railway was founded on 1 January 1908 by merging the Madras Railway and the Southern Mahratta Railway.[244][245]

text: On 14 April 1951, the Madras and Southern Mahratta Railway, the South Indian Railway and the Mysore State Railway were merged to form the Southern Railway, the first zone of Indian Railways.[246] The South Central zone was created on 2 October 1966 as the ninth zone of Indian Railways and the South Western zone was created on 1 April 2003.[247] Most of the region is covered by the three zones with small portions of coasts covered by East Coast Railway and Konkan Railway. Metro rail is operated by Namma Metro in Bangalore, Chennai Metro in Chennai, Coimbatore Metro in Coimbatore, Kochi Metro in Kochi and Hyderabad Metro in Hyderabad . Chennai MRTS provides suburban rail services in Chennai and was the first elevated railway line in India.[248] The Nilgiri Mountain Railway is a UNESCO World Heritage site.[249]

text:
Sl. No
Name of the Railway zone[250]
Abbr.
Route length
(in Km)[251]
Headquarters[250]
Founded[252]
Divisions
Major Stations[253]

1.
Southern
SR
5,098
Chennai
14 April 1951
Chennai,[254] Tiruchirappalli,[255] Madurai,[256] Palakkad,[257] Salem,[258] Thiruvananthapuram[259]
Chennai Central, Coimbatore Main, Ernakulam, Erode, Katpadi, Kollam, Kozhikode, Madurai, Mangalore Central, Palakkad, Salem, Thiruvananthapuram Central, Thrissur, Tiruchirappalli, Tirunelveli

2.
South Central
SCR
5,803
Secunderabad
2 October 1966
Secunderabad,[260] Vijayawada, Hyderabad, Guntakal, Guntur, Nanded
Guntur, Nellore, Secunderabad, Tirupati Main, Vijayawada

3.
South Western
SWR
3,177
Hubli
1 April 2003
Hubli, Bangalore, Mysore, Gulbarga[261]
Bangalore City, Hubli, Mysore

4.
East Coast
ECoR
2,572
Bhubaneswar
1 April 2003
Khurda Road, Sambalpur, Waltair[262]
Visakhapatnam

5.
Konkan
KR
741
Navi Mumbai
26 January 1988
Karwar, Ratnagiri
Madgaon

text: Air[edit]

text: In March 1930, a discussion initiated by pilot G. Vlasto led to the founding of Madras Flying Club which became a pioneer in pilot training South India.[263] On 15 October 1932, Indian aviator J. R. D. Tata flew a Puss Moth aircraft carrying mail from Karachi to Bombay (currently Mumbai) and the aircraft continued to Madras (currently Chennai) piloted by Neville Vincent, a former Royal Air Force pilot and friend of Tata.[264]

text: There are 9 international airports, 2 customs airports, 15 domestic airports and 11 air bases in South India. Chennai airport serves as the regional headquarters of the Airports Authority of India for the southern region of India comprising the states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Telangana and the union territories of Puducherry and Lakshadweep.[265] Bangalore, Chennai, Hyderabad and Kochi are amongst the top 10 busiest airports in the country.[266][267][268]

text: The Southern Air Command of Indian Air Force is headquartered at Thiruvananthapuram and the Training Command is headquartered at Bangalore. The Indian Air Force operates eleven air bases in Southern India including two in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.[269] The Indian Navy operates airbases at Kochi, Arakkonam, Uchipuli, Vizag, Campbell Bay and Diglipur in the region.[270][271]

text:
State/UT
International
CustomsNote 1
Domestic
Military

Andaman and Nicobar
1
0
0
4

Andhra Pradesh
1
1
4
1

Karnataka
2
0
2
3

Kerala
3
0
0
1

Lakshadweep
0
0
1
0

Puducherry
0
0
1
0

Tamil Nadu
4
1
2
6

Telangana
1
0
3
2

Total
10
2
14
16

text: ^ Restricted international airport

text:
Rank
Name
City
State
IATA Code
Total
Passengers (2015)

1
Kempegowda International Airport
Bangalore
Karnataka
BLR
18,971,149

2
Chennai International Airport
Chennai
Tamil Nadu
MAA
15,218,017

3
Rajiv Gandhi International Airport
Hyderabad
Telangana
HYD
12,388,159

4
Cochin International Airport
Kochi
Kerala
COK
7,749,901

5
Thiruvananthapuram International Airport
Thiruvananthapuram
Kerala
TRV
3,470,788

6
Kozhikode International Airport
Kozhikode
Kerala
CCJ
2,305,547

7
Visakhapatnam Airport
Visakhapatnam
Andhra Pradesh
VTZ
1,804,634

8
Coimbatore International Airport
Coimbatore
Tamil Nadu
CJB
1,691,553

9
Mangalore International Airport
Mangalore
Karnataka
IXE
1,674,251

10
Tiruchirappalli International Airport
Tiruchirappalli
Tamil Nadu
TRZ
1,297,212

11
Madurai International Airport
Madurai
Tamil Nadu
IXM
1,012,212

text: Water[edit]

text: A total of 89 ports are situated along the coast: Tamil Nadu (15), Karnataka (10), Kerala (17), Andhra Pradesh (12), Lakshadweep (10), Pondicherry (2) and Andaman & Nicobar (23).[272] Major ports include Chennai, Visakhapatnam, Mangalore, Tuticorin, Ennore and Kochi.[273]

text:
Name
State
Cargo Handled
(FY2014–15)[274]

'000 tonnes
 % Increase
(over previous FY)

Visakhapatnam
Andhra Pradesh
58,004
-0.85% ↓

Chennai
Tamil Nadu
52,541
2.81% ↑

Mangalore
Karnataka
36,566
-7.11% ↓

Tuticorin
Tamil Nadu
32,414
13.17% ↑

Ennore
Tamil Nadu
30,251
10.66% ↑

Kochi
Kerala
21,595
3.39% ↑

text: The Kerala backwaters are a network of interconnected canals, rivers, lakes and inlets, a labyrinthine system formed by more than 900 km of waterways. In the midst of this landscape, there are a number of towns and cities, which serve as the starting and end points of transportation services and backwater cruises.[275]

text: The Eastern Naval Command and Southern Naval Command of the Indian Navy are headquartered at Visakhapatnam and Kochi respectively.[276][277] Indian Navy has its major operational bases in Visakhapatnam, Chennai, Kochi, Karwar and Kavaratti in the region.[278][279][280]