document_title: Party leaders of the United States House of Representatives

question_text: of the house is chosen from the majority party and leads the house of representatives

question_tokens: of the house is chosen from the majority party and leads the house of representatives

text: Party leaders of the United States House of Representatives

text: Job description[edit]

text:
This article is part of a series on the

United States House
of Representatives

History of the United States
House of Representatives

Members

Current members

(by seniority
by age
non-voting)

Former members

Hill committees

(DCCC
NRCC)

Congressional districts

Speaker of the United States
House of Representatives (list)

Party leaders
Democratic Caucus
Republican Conference

Politics and procedure

Committee of the Whole

Closed session (list)
Saxbe fix

Committees (list)
Procedures

Origination Clause
Quorum call

Unanimous consent
Salaries

Apportionment (Huntington–Hill method)

Redistricting
Gerrymandering

Articles of impeachment

Self-executing rule
Rules suspension

General ticket
Plural district

Places

United States Capitol

House office buildings

(Cannon
Ford
Longworth
Rayburn)

v
t
e

text: Unlike in Westminster style legislatures or as with the Senate Majority Leader, the House Majority Leader's duties and prominence vary depending upon the style and power of the Speaker of the House. Typically, the Speaker does not participate in debate and rarely votes on the floor. In some cases, Majority Leaders have been more influential than the Speaker; notably Tom DeLay who was more prominent than Speaker Dennis Hastert. In addition, Speaker Newt Gingrich delegated to Dick Armey an unprecedented level of authority over scheduling legislation on the House floor.[2]

text: The current Minority Leader Nancy Pelosi, of the United States House of Representatives serves as floor leader of the opposition party, and is the counterpart to the Majority Leader. Unlike the Majority Leader, the Minority Leader is on the ballot for Speaker of the House during the convening of the Congress. If the Minority Leader's party takes control of the House, and the party officers are all re-elected to their seats, the Minority Leader is usually the party's top choice for Speaker for the next Congress, while the Minority Whip is typically in line to become Majority Leader. The Minority Leader usually meets with the Majority Leader and the Speaker to discuss agreements on controversial issues.

text: The Speaker, Majority Leader, Minority Leader, Majority Whip and Minority Whip all receive special office suites in the United States Capitol.

text: Selection[edit]

text: The floor leaders and whips of each party are elected by their respective parties in a closed-door caucus by secret ballot.[3] The Speaker-elect is also chosen in a closed-door session although they are formally installed in their position by a public vote when Congress reconvenes.[1]

text: Like the Speaker of the House, the Minority Leaders are typically experienced lawmakers when they win election to this position. When Nancy Pelosi, D-CA, became Minority Leader in the 108th Congress, she had served in the House nearly 20 years and had served as minority whip in the 107th Congress. When her predecessor, Richard Gephardt, D-MO, became minority leader in the 104th House, he had been in the House for almost 20 years, had served as chairman of the Democratic Caucus for four years, had been a 1988 presidential candidate, and had been majority leader from June 1989 until Republicans captured control of the House in the November 1994 elections. Gephardt's predecessor in the minority leadership position was Robert Michel, R-IL, who became GOP Leader in 1981 after spending 24 years in the House. Michel's predecessor, Republican John Rhodes of Arizona, was elected Minority Leader in 1973 after 20 years of House service.

text: By contrast, party leaders of the United States Senate have often ascended to their position despite relatively few years of experience in that chamber,[citation needed] such as Lyndon B. Johnson, William F. Knowland, and Bill Frist. Former House Majority Leader Eric Cantor also had a comparatively quick rise to the post and was the youngest House Majority Leader in American history.[citation needed]

text: Duties[edit]

text: The House Majority Leader's duties vary, depending upon the political makeup of the majority caucus. In several recent sessions of Congress with the notable exception of the Pelosi speakership, the Majority Leader has been primarily responsible for scheduling the House floor's legislative calendar and direct management for all House committees.

text: One statutory duty, per 19 U.S.C. § 2191(c)(1), stipulates that an implementing bill submitted by the President of the United States for a fast-track negotiating authority (trade promotion authority) trade agreement must be introduced (by request) in the House by the Majority Leader of the House.

text: History[edit]

text: Before 1899, the majority party floor leader had traditionally been the Chairman of the House Ways and Means Committee, the most powerful committee in the House, as it generates the Bills of Revenue specified in the Constitution as the House's unique power.[4]

text: The office of Majority Leader was created in 1899 and first occupied by Sereno Payne.[5] Speaker David B. Henderson created the position to establish a party leader on the House floor separate from the Speaker, as the role of Speaker had become more prominent, and the size of the House had grown from 105 at the beginning of the century to 356.[citation needed]

text: Starting with Republican Nicholas Longworth in 1925, and continued through the Democrats' control of the House from 1931 to 1995, save for Republican majorities in 1947–49 and 1953–55, all majority leaders have directly ascended to the Speakership brought upon by the retirement of the incumbent. The only exceptions during this period were Charles A. Halleck who became Republican House leader and Minority Leader from 1959 to 1965, Hale Boggs who died in a plane crash, and Dick Gephardt who became the Democrats' House leader but as Minority Leader since his party lost control in the 1994 midterm elections. Since 1995, the only Majority Leader to become Speaker is John Boehner, though indirectly as his party lost control in the 2006 midterms elections. He subsequently served as Republican House leader and Minority Leader from 2007 to 2011 and then was elected Speaker when the House reconvened in 2011. In 1998, with Speaker Newt Gingrich announcing his resignation, both Majority Leader Dick Armey and Majority Whip Tom DeLay did not contest the Speakership which eventually went to Chief Deputy Whip Dennis Hastert.

text: Traditionally, the Speaker is reckoned as the leader of the majority party in the House, with the Majority Leader as second-in-command. For instance, when the Republicans gained the majority in the House after the 2010 elections, Eric Cantor succeeded Boehner as Majority Leader. Despite this, Cantor and his successor, Kevin McCarthy, have been reckoned as the second-ranking Republicans in the House, since Boehner is still reckoned as the leader of the House Republicans. However, there have been some exceptions. The most recent exception to this rule came when Majority Leader Tom DeLay generally overshadowed Speaker Dennis Hastert from 2003 to 2006.[6] In contrast, the Minority Leader is the undisputed leader of the minority party.

text: When the Presidency and both Houses of Congress are controlled by one party, the Speaker normally takes a low profile and defers to the President.[citation needed] For that situation the House Minority Leader can play the role of a de facto "leader of the opposition", often more so than the Senate Minority Leader, due to the more partisan nature of the House and the greater role of leadership.

text: When the Majority Leader's party loses control of the House, and if the Speaker and Majority Leader both remain in the leadership hierarchy, convention suggests that they would become the Minority Leader and Minority Whip, respectively. As the minority party has one less leadership position after losing the speaker's chair, there may be a contest for the remaining leadership positions. Nancy Pelosi is the most recent example of an outgoing Speaker seeking the Minority Leader post to retain the House party leadership, as the Democrats lost control of the House in the 2010 elections. She ran successfully for Minority Leader in the 112th Congress.[7][8]

text: In 2014, Eric Cantor became the first House Majority Leader to lose a primary election. Following his primary defeat, Cantor announced his resignation as Majority Leader, effective July 31, 2014,[9][10][11][12][13][14] and he subsequently resigned his seat in Congress.[15]

text: Minority Leader[edit]

text: This article is written like a manual or guidebook. Please help rewrite this article from a descriptive, neutral point of view, and remove advice or instruction. (November 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Responsibilities[edit]

text: From an institutional perspective, the rules of the House assign a number of specific responsibilities to the minority leader. For example, Rule XII, clause 6, grant the minority leader (or their designee) the right to offer a motion to recommit with instructions; Rule II, clause 6, states the Inspector General shall be appointed by joint recommendation of the Speaker, majority leader, and minority leader; and Rule XV, clause 6, provides that the Speaker, after consultation with the minority leader, may place legislation on the Corrections Calendar. The minority leader also has other institutional duties, such as appointing individuals to certain federal entities.

text: From a party perspective, the minority leader has a wide range of partisan assignments, all geared toward retaking majority control of the House. Five principal party activities direct the work of the minority leader.

text:
The minority leader provides campaign assistance to party incumbents and challengers.
The minority leader devises strategies, in consultation with other partisan colleagues, that advance party objectives. For example, by stalling action on the majority party's agenda, the minority leader may be able to launch a campaign against a "do-nothing Congress."
The minority leader works to promote and publicize the party's agenda.
The minority leader, if their party controls the White House, confers regularly with the President and the President's aides about issues before Congress, the Administration's agenda, and political events generally.
The minority leader strives to promote party harmony so as to maximize the chances for legislative and political success.

tag: ol

text: The roles and responsibilities of the minority leader are not well-defined. To a large extent, the functions of the minority leader are defined by tradition and custom. A minority leader from 1931 to 1939, Representative Bertrand Snell, R-N.Y., provided this "job description": "He is spokesman for his party and enunciates its policies. He is required to be alert and vigilant in defense of the minority's rights. It is his function and duty to criticize constructively the policies and programs of the majority, and to this end employ parliamentary tactics and give close attention to all proposed legislation."[16]

text: Since Snell's description, other responsibilities have been added to the job. These duties involve an array of institutional and party functions. Before examining the institutional and party assignments of the minority leader, it is worth highlighting the historical origin of this position.

text: Origin of the post[edit]

text:
This article is part of a series on the

Politics of the
United States of America

Federal Government[show]

Constitution of the United States

Law
Taxation

Legislature[show]

United States Congress

House of Representatives

Speaker Paul Ryan (R)

Majority Leader Kevin McCarthy (R)

Minority Leader Nancy Pelosi (D)

Congressional districts

United States Senate

President Mike Pence (R)

President Pro Tempore Orrin Hatch (R)

President Pro Tempore Emeritus Patrick Leahy (D)

Majority Leader Mitch McConnell (R)

Minority Leader Chuck Schumer (D)

Executive[show]

President of the United States

Donald Trump (R)

Vice President of the United States

Mike Pence (R)

Cabinet
Federal agencies
Executive Office

Judiciary[show]

Supreme Court of the United States

Chief Justice John Roberts

Kennedy
Thomas
Ginsburg
Breyer
Alito
Sotomayor
Kagan
Gorsuch

Courts of Appeals
District Courts (list)

Other tribunals

Elections[show]

Presidential elections
Midterm elections

Off-year elections

Political parties[show]

Democratic
Republican

Third parties

Federalism[show]

State Government

Governors

Legislatures (List)

State courts

Local government

Other countries
Atlas

v
t
e

text: To a large extent, the minority leader's position is a 20th-century innovation. Prior to this time congressional parties were often relatively disorganized, so it was not always evident who functioned as the opposition floor leader. Decades went by before anything like the modern two-party congressional system emerged on Capitol Hill with official titles for those who were its official leaders. However, from the beginning days of Congress, various House members intermittently assumed the role of "opposition leader." Some scholars suggest that Representative James Madison of Virginia informally functioned as the first "minority leader" because in the First Congress he led the opposition to Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton's fiscal policies.[17]

text: During this early period, it was more usual that neither major party grouping (Federalists and Democratic-Republicans) had an official leader. In 1813, for instance, a scholar recounts that the Federalist minority of 36 Members needed a committee of 13 "to represent a party comprising a distinct minority" and "to coordinate the actions of men who were already partisans in the same cause."[18] In 1828, a foreign observer of the House offered this perspective on the absence of formal party leadership on Capitol Hill:

text: Internal party disunity compounded the difficulty of identifying lawmakers who might have informally functioned as a minority leader. For instance, "seven of the fourteen speakership elections from 1834 through 1859 had at least twenty different candidates in the field. Thirty-six competed in 1839, ninety-seven in 1849, ninety-one in 1859, and 138 in 1855."[20] With so many candidates competing for the speakership, it is not at all clear that one of the defeated lawmakers then assumed the mantle of "minority leader." The Democratic minority from 1861 to 1875 was so completely disorganized that they did not "nominate a candidate for Speaker in two of these seven Congresses and nominated no man more than once in the other five. The defeated candidates were not automatically looked to for leadership."[21]

text: In the judgment of political scientist Randall Ripley, since 1883 "the candidate for Speaker nominated by the minority party has clearly been the Minority Leader."[22] However, this assertion is subject to dispute. On December 3, 1883, the House elected Democrat John G. Carlisle of Kentucky as Speaker. Republicans placed in nomination for the speakership J. Warren Keifer of Ohio, who was Speaker the previous Congress.[23] Clearly, Keifer was not the Republicans' minority leader. He was a discredited leader in part because as Speaker he arbitrarily handed out "choice jobs to close relatives ... all at handsome salaries."[24] Keifer received "the empty honor of the minority nomination. But with it came a sting -- for while this naturally involves the floor leadership, he was deserted by his [partisan] associates and his career as a national figure terminated ingloriously."[25] Representative Thomas Reed, R-ME, who later became Speaker, assumed the de facto role of minority floor leader in Keifer's stead. "[A]lthough Keifer was the minority's candidate for Speaker, Reed became its acknowledged leader, and ever after, so long as he served in the House, remained the most conspicuous member of his party.[26]

text: Another scholar contends that the minority leader position emerged even before 1883. On the Democratic side, "there were serious caucus fights for the minority speakership nomination in 1871 and 1873," indicating that the "nomination carried with it some vestige of leadership."[27] Further, when Republicans were in the minority, the party nominated for Speaker a series of prominent lawmakers, including ex-Speaker James Blaine of Maine in 1875, former Appropriations Chairman James A. Garfield of Ohio, in 1876, 1877, and 1879, and ex-Speaker Keifer in 1883. "It is hard to believe that House partisans would place a man in the speakership when in the majority, and nominate him for this office when in the minority, and not look to him for legislative guidance."[27] This was not the case, according to some observers, with respect to ex-Speaker Keifer.

text: In brief, there is disagreement among historical analysts as to the exact time period when the minority leadership emerged officially as a party position. Nonetheless, it seems safe to conclude that the position emerged during the latter part of the 19th century, a period of strong party organization and professional politicians. This era was "marked by strong partisan attachments, resilient patronage-based party organizations, and...high levels of party voting in Congress."[28] Plainly, these were conditions conducive to the establishment of a more highly differentiated House leadership structure.[29]

text: Minority Party Nominees for Speaker, 1865–1897[edit]

text: While the Office of the House Historian only lists Minority Leaders starting in 1899,[30] the minority's nominees for Speaker (at the beginning of each Congress) may be considered their party's leaders before that time.

text:
1865: James Brooks (D-NY)
1867: Samuel S. Marshall (D-IL)
1869: Michael C. Kerr (D-IN)
1871: George W. Morgan (D-OH)
1873: Fernando Wood (D-NY)
1875: James Gillespie Blaine (R-ME)
1877, 1879: James Abram Garfield (R-OH)
1881: Samuel Jackson Randall (D-PA)
1883: Joseph Warren Keifer (R-OH)
1885, 1887: Thomas Brackett Reed (R-ME)
1889: John Griffin Carlisle (D-KY)
1891, 1893: Thomas Brackett Reed (R-ME)
1895: Charles F. Crisp (D-GA)
1897: Joseph W. Bailey (D-TX)

text: Sources: Fighting for the Speakership: The House and the Rise of Party Government, by Jeffery A. Jenkins and Charles Haines Stewart and Archive of OurCampaigns.com

text: Trends[edit]

text: Two other points of historical interest merit brief mention. First, until the 61st Congress (1909–1910), "it was the custom to have the minority leader also serve as the ranking minority member on the two most powerful committees, Rules and Ways and Means."[31] Today, the minority leader no longer serves on these committees; however, he or she appoints the minority members of the Rules Committee and influences the assignment of partisan colleagues to the Ways and Means Committee.

text: Second, Democrats have always elevated their minority floor leader to the speakership upon reclaiming majority status. Republicans have not always followed this leadership succession pattern. In 1919, for instance, Republicans bypassed James R. Mann, R-IL, who had been minority leader for eight years, and elected Frederick Gillett, R-MA, to be Speaker. Mann "had angered many Republicans by objecting to their private bills on the floor;" also he was a protégé of autocratic Speaker Joseph Cannon, R-IL (1903–1911), and many Members "suspected that he would try to re-centralize power in his hands if elected Speaker."[32] More recently, although Robert H. Michel was the Minority Leader in 1994 when the Republicans regained control of the House in the 1994 midterm elections, he had already announced his retirement and had little or no involvement in the campaign, including the Contract with America which was unveiled six weeks before voting day.

text: In the instance when the Presidency and both Houses of Congress are controlled by one party, the Speaker normally assumes a lower profile and defers to the President. For that situation the House Minority Leader can play the role of a de facto "leader of the opposition", often more so than the Senate Minority Leader, due to the more partisan nature of the House and the greater role of leadership. Minority Leaders who have played prominent roles in opposing the incumbent President have included Gerald Ford, Richard Gephardt, Nancy Pelosi, and John Boehner.

text: Institutional functions[edit]

text: The style and role of any minority leader is influenced by a variety of elements, including personality and contextual factors, such as the size and cohesion of the minority party, whether their party controls the White House, the general political climate in the House, and the controversy that is sometimes associated with the legislative agenda. Despite the variability of these factors, there are a number of institutional obligations associated with this position. Many of these assignments or roles are spelled out in the House rule book. Others have devolved upon the position in other ways. To be sure, the minority leader is provided with extra staff resources—beyond those accorded him or her as a Representative—to assist in carrying out diverse leadership functions. Worth emphasis is that there are limits on the institutional role of the minority leader, because the majority party exercises disproportionate influence over the agenda, partisan ratios on committees, staff resources, administrative operations, and the day-to-day schedule and management of floor activities.

text: Under the rules of the House, the minority leader has certain roles and responsibilities. They include the following:

text: Drug Testing. Under Rule I, clause 9, the "Speaker, in consultation with the Minority Leader, shall develop through an appropriate entity of the House a system for drug testing in the House."

text: Inspector General. Rule II, clause 6, states that the "Inspector General shall be appointed for a Congress by the Speaker, the Majority Leader, and the Minority Leader, acting jointly." This rule further states that the minority leader and other specified House leaders shall be notified of any financial irregularity involving the House and receive audit reports of the inspector general.

text: Questions of Privilege. Under Rule IX, clause 2, a resolution "offered as a question of privilege by the Majority Leader or the Minority Leader ... shall have precedence of all other questions except motions to adjourn." This rule further references the minority leader with respect to the division of time for debate of these resolutions.

text: Oversight Plans. Under Rule X, clause 2, not later "than March 31 in the first session of a Congress, after consultation with the Speaker, the Majority Leader, and the Minority Leader, the Committee on Government Reform shall report to the House the oversight plans" of the standing committees along with any recommendations it or the House leaders have proposed to ensure the effective coordination of committees' oversight plans.

text: Committee on Standards of Official Conduct: Investigative Subcommittees. Rule X, clause 5, stipulates: "At the beginning of a Congress, the Speaker or his designee and the Minority Leader or his designee each shall appoint 10 Members, Delegates, or Resident Commissioners from his respective party who are not members of the Committee on Standards of Official Conduct to be available to serve on investigative subcommittees of that committee during that Congress."

text: Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence. "The Speaker and Minority Leader shall be ex officio members of the select committee but shall have no vote in the select committee and may not be counted for purposes of determining a quorum." In addition, each leader may designate a member of his leadership staff to assist him with his ex officio duties. (Rule X, clause 11).

text: Motion to Recommit with Instructions. Under Rule XIII, clause 6, the Rules Committee may not (except in certain specified circumstances) issue a "rule" that prevents the minority leader or a designee from offering a motion to recommit with instructions.

text: In addition, the minority leader has a number of other institutional functions. For instance, the minority leader is sometimes statutorily authorized to appoint individuals to certain federal entities; he or she and the majority leader each name three Members to serve as Private Calendar objectors; he or she is consulted with respect to reconvening the House per the usual formulation of conditional concurrent adjournment resolutions; he or she is a traditional member of the House Office Building Commission; he or she is a member of the United States Capitol Preservation Commission; and he or she may, after consultation with the Speaker, convene an early organizational party caucus or conference. Informally, the minority leader maintains ties with majority party leaders to learn about the schedule and other House matters and forges agreements or understandings with them insofar as feasible.

text: Party functions[edit]

text: The minority leader has a number of formal and informal party responsibilities. Formally, the rules of each party specify certain roles and responsibilities for their leader. For example, under Democratic rules for the 106th Congress, the minority leader may call meetings of the Democratic Caucus. He or she is a member of the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee; names the members of the Democratic Leadership Council; chairs the Policy Committee; and heads the Steering Committee. Examples of other assignments are making "recommendations to the Speaker on all Democratic Members who shall serve as conferees" and nominating party members to the Committees on Rules and House Administration. Republican rules identify generally comparable functions for their top party leader.

text: Informally, the minority leader has a wide range of party assignments. Lewis Deschler, the late House Parliamentarian (1928–1974), summarized the diverse duties of a party's floor leader:

text: A party's floor leader, in conjunction with other party leaders, plays an influential role in the formulation of party policy and programs. They are instrumental in guiding legislation favored by his party through the House, or in resisting those programs of the other party that are considered undesirable by his own party. They are instrumental in devising and implementing his party's strategy on the floor with respect to promoting or opposing legislation. They are kept constantly informed as to the status of legislative business and as to the sentiment of his party respecting particular legislation under consideration. Such information is derived in part from the floor leader's contacts with his party's members serving on House committees, and with the members of the party's whip organization.[33]

text: These and several other party roles merit further mention because they influence significantly the leader's overarching objective: retake majority control of the House. "I want to get [my] members elected and win more seats," said Minority Leader Richard Gephardt, D-MO. "That's what [my partisan colleagues] want to do, and that's what they want me to do."[34]

text: Five activities illustrate how minority leaders seek to accomplish this primary goal.

text: Provide Campaign Assistance. Minority leaders are typically energetic and aggressive campaigners for partisan incumbents and challengers. There is hardly any major aspect of campaigning that does not engage their attention. For example, they assist in recruiting qualified candidates; they establish "leadership PACs" to raise and distribute funds to House candidates of their party; they try to persuade partisan colleagues not to retire or run for other offices so as to hold down the number of open seats the party would need to defend; they coordinate their campaign activities with congressional and national party campaign committees; they encourage outside groups to back their candidates; they travel around the country to speak on behalf of party candidates; and they encourage incumbent colleagues to make significant financial contributions to the party's campaign committee. "The amount of time that [Minority Leader] Gephardt is putting in to help the DCCC [Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee] is unheard of," noted a Democratic lobbyist."No DCCC chairman has ever had that kind of support."[35]

text: Devise Minority Party Strategies. The minority leader, in consultation with other party colleagues, has a range of strategic options that he or she can employ to advance minority party objectives. The options selected depend on a wide range of circumstances, such as the visibility or significance of the issue and the degree of cohesion within the majority party. For instance, a majority party riven by internal dissension, as occurred during the early 1900s when Progressive and "regular" Republicans were at loggerheads, may provide the minority leader with greater opportunities to achieve their priorities than if the majority party exhibited high degrees of party cohesion. Among the variable strategies available to the minority party, which can vary from bill to bill and be used in combination or at different stages of the lawmaking process, are the following:

text: Cooperation. The minority party supports and cooperates with the majority party in building winning coalitions on the floor.

text: Inconsequential Opposition. The minority party offers opposition, but it is of marginal significance, typically because the minority is so small.

text: Withdrawal. The minority party chooses not to take a position on an issue, perhaps because of intraparty divisions.

text: Innovation. The minority party develops alternatives and agendas of its own and attempts to construct winning coalitions on their behalf.

text: Partisan Opposition. The minority party offers strong opposition to majority party initiatives but does not counter with policy alternatives of their own.

text: Constructive Opposition. The minority party opposes initiatives of the majority party and offers its own proposals as substitutes.

text: Participation. The minority party is in the position of having to consider the views and proposals of their president and to assess their majority-building role with respect to his priorities.[36]

text: A look at one minority leadership strategy—partisan opposition—may suggest why it might be employed in specific circumstances. The purposes of obstruction are several, such as frustrating the majority party's ability to govern or attracting press and media attention to the alleged ineffectiveness of the majority party. "We know how to delay," remarked Minority Leader Gephardt[37] Dilatory motions to adjourn, appeals of the presiding officer's ruling, or numerous requests for roll call votes are standard time-consuming parliamentary tactics. By stalling action on the majority party's agenda, the minority leader may be able to launch a campaign against a "do-nothing Congress" and convince enough voters to put his party back in charge of the House. To be sure, the minority leader recognizes that "going negative" carries risks and may not be a winning strategy if his party fails to offer policy alternatives that appeal to broad segments of the general public.

text: Promote and Publicize the Party's Agenda. An important aim of the minority leader is to develop an electorally attractive agenda of ideas and proposals that unites their own House members and that energizes and appeals to core electoral supporters as well as independents and swing voters. Despite the minority leader's restricted ability to set the House's agenda, there are still opportunities for him to raise minority priorities. For example, the minority leader may employ, or threaten to use, discharge petitions to try and bring minority priorities to the floor.[38] If he or she is able to attract the required 218 signatures on a discharge petition by attracting majority party supporters, he or she can force minority initiatives to the floor over the opposition of the majority leadership. As a GOP minority leader once said, the challenges he confronted are to "keep our people together, and to look for votes on the other side."[39]

text: Minority leaders may engage in numerous activities to publicize their party's priorities and to criticize the opposition's. For instance, to keep their party colleagues "on message," they insure that partisan colleagues are sent packets of suggested press releases or "talking points" for constituent meetings in their districts; they help to organize "town meetings" in Members' districts around the country to publicize the party's agenda or a specific priority, such as health care or education; they sponsor party "retreats" to discuss issues and assess the party's public image; they create "theme teams" to craft party messages that might be raised during the one-minute, morning hour, or special order period in the House; they conduct surveys of party colleagues to discern their policy preferences; they establish websites that highlight and distribute party images and issues to users; and they organize task forces or issue teams to formulate party programs and to develop strategies for communicating these programs to the public.

text: House minority leaders also hold joint news conferences and consult with their counterparts in the Senate—and with the president if their party controls the White House. The overall objectives are to develop a coordinated communications strategy, to share ideas and information, and to present a united front on issues. Minority leaders also make floor speeches and close debate on major issues before the House; they deliver addresses in diverse forums across the country, and they write books or articles that highlight minority party goals and achievements. They must also be prepared "to debate on the floor, ad lib, no notes, on a moment's notice," remarked Minority Leader Michel.[40] In brief, minority leaders are key strategists in developing and promoting the party's agenda and in outlining ways to neutralize the opposition's arguments and proposals.

text: Confer With the White House. If their party controls the White House, the minority leader confers regularly with the President and his aides about issues before Congress, the Administration's agenda, and political events generally. Strategically, the role of the minority leader will vary depending on whether the President is of the same party or the other party. In general, minority leaders will often work to advance the goals and aspirations of their party's President in Congress. When Robert Michel, R-IL, was minority leader (1981–1995), he typically functioned as the "point man" for Republican presidents.[41] President Ronald Reagan's 1981 policy successes in the Democratic-controlled House was due in no small measure to Minority Leader Michel's effectiveness in wooing so-called "Reagan Democrats" to support, for instance, the Administration's landmark budget reconciliation bill. There are occasions, of course, when minority leaders will fault the legislative initiatives of their President. On an administration proposal that could adversely affect his district, Michel stated that he might "abdicate my leadership role [on this issue] since I can't harmonize my own views with the administration's."[42] Minority Leader Gephardt, as another example, has publicly opposed a number of President Clinton's legislative initiatives from "fast track" trade authority to various budget issues.[43]

text: When the White House is controlled by the House majority party, then the House minority leader assumes a larger role in formulating alternatives to executive branch initiatives and in acting as a national spokesperson for their party. "As Minority Leader during [President Lyndon Johnson's] Democratic administration, my responsibility has been to propose Republican alternatives," said Minority Leader Gerald Ford, R-MI.[44] Greatly outnumbered in the House, Minority Leader Ford devised a political strategy that allowed Republicans to offer their alternatives in a manner that provided them political protection. As Ford explained:

text: "We used a technique of laying our program out in general debate," he said. When we got to the amendment phase, we would offer our program as a substitute for the Johnson proposal. If we lost in the Committee of the Whole, then we would usually offer it as a motion to recommit and get a vote on that. And if we lost on the motion to recommit, our Republican members had a choice: They could vote against the Johnson program and say we did our best to come up with a better alternative. Or they could vote for it and make the same argument. Usually we lost; but when you're only 140 out of 435, you don't expect to win many.[45]

text: Ford also teamed with Senate Minority Leader Everett Dirksen, R-IL, to act as national spokesmen for their party. They met with the press every Thursday following the weekly joint leadership meeting. Ford's predecessor as minority leader, Charles Halleck, R-IN, probably received more visibility in this role, because the press and media dubbed it the "Ev and Charlie Show." In fact, the "Republican National Committee budgeted $30,000 annually to produce the weekly news conference."[46]

text: Foster Party Harmony. Minority status, by itself, is often an important inducement for minority party members to stay together, to accommodate different interests, and to submerge intraparty factional disagreements. To hold a diverse membership together often requires extensive consultations and discussions with rank-and-file Members and with different factional groupings. As Minority Leader Gephardt said:

text: Gephardt added that "inclusion and empowerment of the people on the line have to be done to get the best performance" from the minority party.[48] Other techniques for fostering party harmony include the appointment of task forces composed of partisan colleagues with conflicting views to reach consensus on issues; the creation of new leadership positions as a way to reach out and involve a greater diversity of partisans in the leadership structure; and daily meetings in the Leader's office (or at breakfast, lunch, or dinner) to lay out floor strategy or political objectives for the minority party.

text: Party whips and assistant party leaders[edit]

text: Whips[edit]

text: A whip manages their party's legislative program on the House floor. The whip keeps track of all legislation and ensures that all party members are present when important measures are to be voted upon.

text: The Majority Whip is an elected member of the majority party who assists the Speaker of the House and the majority leader to coordinate ideas on, and garner support for, proposed legislation.

text: The Minority Whip is a member of the minority party who assists the minority leader in coordinating the party caucus in its responses to legislation and other matters. However, the U.S. House of Representatives does not use the term "minority whip," instead calling the position "Republican Whip" or "Democratic Whip" depending on the minority party.

text: The Chief Deputy Whip is the primary assistant to the whip, who is the chief vote counter for their party. The current chief deputy majority whip is Republican Patrick McHenry. Within the House Republican Conference, the chief deputy whip is the highest appointed position and often a launching pad for future positions in the House Leadership. The House Democratic Conference has multiple chief deputy whips, led by a Senior Chief Deputy Whip, which is the highest appointed position within the House Democratic Caucus. The current senior chief deputy minority whip, John Lewis, has held his post since 1991.

text:
List of Republican chief deputy whips:

David F. Emery, 1981–1983 (Minority)
Tom Loeffler, 1983–1987 (Minority)
Edward Rell Madigan, 1987–1989 (Minority)
Robert Smith Walker, 1989–1995 (Minority)
Dennis Hastert, 1995–1999 (Majority)
Roy Blunt, 1999–2003 (Majority)
Eric Cantor, 2003–2009 (Majority, 2003–2007) (Minority, 2007–2009)
Kevin McCarthy, 2009–2011 (Minority)
Peter Roskam, 2011–2014 (Majority)
Patrick McHenry, 2014–present (Majority)

List of Democratic Chief Deputy Whips

(1977–1981) Dan Rostenkowski
(1981–1987) Bill Alexander
(1987–1991) David Bonior
(1991–1993) Barbara Kennelly, Butler Derrick, & John Lewis
(1993–1995) Barbara Kennelly, Butler Derrick, John Lewis, & Bill Richardson
(1995–1997) Rosa DeLauro, John Lewis, & Bill Richardson
(1997–1999) Rosa DeLauro, Chet Edwards, John Lewis, & Robert Menendez
(1999–2002) Chet Edwards, John Lewis, Ed Pastor & Maxine Waters
(2002–2003) John Lewis, Ed Pastor, Max Sandlin & Maxine Waters
(2003–2005) John Lewis (Senior Chief Deputy Whip), Joe Crowley, Baron Hill, Ron Kind, Ed Pastor, Max Sandlin, Jan Schakowsky, & Maxine Waters
(2005–2007) John Lewis (Senior Chief Deputy Whip), Joe Crowley, Diana DeGette, Ron Kind, Ed Pastor, Jan Schakowsky, John Tanner & Maxine Waters
(2007–2011) John Lewis (Senior Chief Deputy Whip), G.K. Butterfield, Joe Crowley, Diana DeGette, Ed Pastor, Jan Schakowsky, John Tanner, Debbie Wasserman Schultz, & Maxine Waters
(2011–2013) John Lewis (Senior Chief Deputy Whip), Maxine Waters, Ed Pastor, Jan Schakowsky, Joseph Crowley, Diana DeGette, G. K. Butterfield, Debbie Wasserman Schultz, Jim Matheson, & Peter Welch
(2013–2015) John Lewis (Senior Chief Deputy Whip) Ben Ray Lujan, Terri Sewell, Jan Schakowsky, Keith Ellison, Diana DeGette, G. K. Butterfield, Debbie Wasserman Schultz, Jim Matheson, & Peter Welch
(2015–present) John Lewis (Senior Chief Deputy Whip) Jan Schakowsky, Diana DeGette, G. K. Butterfield, Debbie Wasserman Schultz, Keith Ellison, Terri Sewell, Kyrsten Sinema, Joaquin Castro & Peter Welch

text: Assistant party leaders[edit]

text: The position of Assistant Democratic Leader was established on January 3, 2011 and filled by Jim Clyburn to avoid a battle for whip between then-Majority Leader Steny Hoyer and then-Majority Whip Jim Clyburn. It is said to replace the Assistant to the Leader post previously held by Chris Van Hollen, who had attended all leadership meetings but was not in the leadership hierarchy.

text: List of party leaders and whips[edit]

text: (≥ and names in Bold indicate the Majority Leader and Majority whip)

text:
Congress
Years
Democratic whip
Democratic leader

Speaker

Republican leader
Republican whip

56
1899–1901
Oscar Underwood[49]
(Alabama)
James D. Richardson
(Tennessee)
David B. Henderson
(R, Iowa)
≥ Sereno E. Payne
(New York)
≥ James Albertus Tawney
(Minnesota)

57
1901–1903
James Tilghman Lloyd
(Missouri)

58
1903–1905
John Sharp Williams
(Mississippi)
Joe Cannon
(R, Illinois)

59
1905–1907
≥ James E. Watson
(Indiana)

60
1907–1908

1908–1909

61
1909–1911
None
Champ Clark
(Missouri)
≥ John W. Dwight
(New York)

62
1911–1913
None
≥ Oscar Underwood
(Alabama)
Champ Clark
(D, Missouri)
James Mann
(Illinois)
John W. Dwight
(New York)

63
1913–1915
≥ Thomas M. Bell
(Georgia)
Charles H. Burke
(South Dakota)

64
1915–1917
None
≥ Claude Kitchin
(North Carolina)
Charles M. Hamilton
(New York)

65
1917–1919

66
1919–1921
None
Champ Clark
(Missouri)
Frederick H. Gillett
(R, Massachusetts)
≥ Frank W. Mondell
(Wyoming)
≥ Harold Knutson
(Minnesota)

67
1921–1923
William A. Oldfield
(Arkansas)
Claude Kitchin
(North Carolina)

68
1923–1925
Finis J. Garrett
(Tennessee)
≥ Nicholas Longworth
(Ohio)
≥ Albert H. Vestal
(Indiana)

69
1925–1927
Nicholas Longworth
(R, Ohio)
≥ John Q. Tilson
(Connecticut)

70
1927–1929

71
1929–1931
John McDuffie
(Alabama)
John Nance Garner
(Texas)

72
1931–1933
≥ John McDuffie
(Alabama)
≥ Henry T. Rainey
(Illinois)
John Nance Garner
(D, Texas)
Bertrand Snell
(New York)
Carl G. Bachmann
(West Virginia)

73
1933–1935
≥ Arthur H. Greenwood
(Indiana)
≥ Jo Byrns
(Tennessee)
Henry T. Rainey
(D, Illinois)
Harry L. Englebright
(California)

74
1935–1936
≥ Patrick J. Boland
(Pennsylvania)
≥ William Bankhead
(Alabama)
Jo Byrns
(D, Tennessee)

1936–1937
≥ Sam Rayburn
(Texas)
William B. Bankhead
(D, Alabama)

75
1937–1939

76
1939–1940
Joe Martin
(Massachusetts)

1940–1941
≥ John W. McCormack
(Massachusetts)
Sam Rayburn
(D, Texas)

77
1941–1942

1942–1943
≥ Robert Ramspeck
(Georgia)

78
1943–1943

1943–1945
Leslie Arends
(Illinois)

79
1945–1945

1946–1947
≥ John Sparkman
(Alabama)

80
1947–1949
John McCormack
(Massachusetts)
Sam Rayburn
(Texas)
Joe Martin
(R, Massachusetts)
≥ Charles Halleck
(Indiana)
≥ Leslie Arends
(Illinois)

81
1949–1951
≥ Percy Priest
(Tennessee)
≥ John W. McCormack
(Massachusetts)
Sam Rayburn
(D, Texas)
Joe Martin
(Massachusetts)
Leslie Arends
(Illinois)

82
1951–1953

83
1953–1955
John McCormack
(Massachusetts)
Sam Rayburn
(Texas)
Joe Martin
(R, Massachusetts)
≥ Charles Halleck
(Indiana)
≥ Leslie Arends
(Illinois)

84
1955–1957
≥ Carl Albert
(Oklahoma)
≥ John W. McCormack
(Massachusetts)
Sam Rayburn
(D, Texas)
Joe Martin
(Massachusetts)
Leslie Arends
(Illinois)

85
1957–1959

86
1959–1961
Charles Halleck
(Indiana)

87
1961–1962

1962–1963
≥ Hale Boggs
(Louisiana)
≥ Carl Albert
(Oklahoma)
John W. McCormack
(D, Massachusetts)

88
1963–1965

89
1965–1967
Gerald Ford
(Michigan)

90
1967–1969

91
1969–1971

92
1971–1973
≥ Tip O'Neill
(Massachusetts)
≥ Hale Boggs
(Louisiana)
Carl Albert
(D, Oklahoma)

93
1973–1973
≥ John J. McFall
(California)
≥ Tip O'Neill
(Massachusetts)

1973–1975
John Rhodes
(Arizona)

94
1975–1977
Bob Michel
(Illinois)

95
1977–1979
≥ John Brademas
(Indiana)
≥ Jim Wright
(Texas)
Tip O'Neill
(D, Massachusetts)

96
1979–1981

97
1981–1983
≥ Tom Foley
(Washington)
Bob Michel
(Illinois)
Trent Lott
(Mississippi)

98
1983–1985

99
1985–1987

100
1987–1989
≥ Tony Coelho
(California)
≥ Tom Foley
(Washington)
Jim Wright
(D, Texas)

101
1989–1989
Dick Cheney
(Wyoming)

1989–1991
≥ William H. Gray III
(Pennsylvania)
≥ Dick Gephardt
(Missouri)
Tom Foley
(D, Washington)
Newt Gingrich
(Georgia)

102
1991–1991

1991–1993
≥ David Bonior
(Michigan)

103
1993–1995

104
1995–1997
David Bonior
(Michigan)
Dick Gephardt
(Missouri)
Newt Gingrich
(R, Georgia)
≥ Dick Armey
(Texas)
≥ Tom DeLay
(Texas)

105
1997–1999

106
1999–2001
Dennis Hastert
(R, Illinois)

107
2001–2002

2002–2003
Nancy Pelosi
(California)

108
2003–2005
Steny Hoyer
(Maryland)
Nancy Pelosi
(California)
≥ Tom DeLay
(Texas)
≥ Roy Blunt
(Missouri)

109
2005–2005

2005–2006
≥ Roy Blunt
(Missouri) (acting)

2006–2007
≥ John Boehner
(Ohio)

110
2007–2009
≥ Jim Clyburn
(South Carolina)
≥ Steny Hoyer
(Maryland)
Nancy Pelosi
(D, California)
John Boehner
(Ohio)
Roy Blunt
(Missouri)

111
2009–2011
Eric Cantor
(Virginia)

112
2011–2013
Steny Hoyer
(Maryland)
Nancy Pelosi
(California)
John Boehner
(R, Ohio)
≥ Eric Cantor
(Virginia)
≥ Kevin McCarthy
(California)

113
2013–2014

2014–2015
≥ Kevin McCarthy
(California)
≥ Steve Scalise
(Louisiana)

114
2015–2015

2015–2017
Paul Ryan
(R, Wisconsin)

115
2017–2019

Congress
Years
Democratic whip
Democratic leader
Speaker
Republican leader
Republican whip


document_title: List of English football champions

question_text: who has won back to back premier league titles

root

text: List of English football champions

text: List[edit]

text:
Bold indicates double winners – i.e. League and Domestic (FA) or League (EFL) Cup winners OR League and UEFA Champions League or UEFA Europa League winners.
Bold italic indicates treble winners – i.e. League, Domestic (FA) or League (EFL) Cup winners and UEFA Champions League or UEFA Europa League winners.

tag: ul

text: Football League (1888–1892)[edit]

text:
Year
Champions
(number of titles)
Runners-up
Third place
Leading goalscorer
Goals

1888–89
Preston North End[1]
Aston Villa
Wolverhampton Wanderers
 John Goodall (Preston North End)
21

1889–90
Preston North End (2)
Everton
Blackburn Rovers
 Jimmy Ross (Preston North End)
24

1890–91
Everton
Preston North End
Notts County
 Jack Southworth (Blackburn Rovers)
26

1891–92
Sunderland
Preston North End
Bolton Wanderers
 John Campbell (Sunderland)
32

tag: table

text: Football League First Division (1892–1992)[edit]

text:
Year
Champions
(number of titles)
Runners-up
Third place
Leading goalscorer
Goals

1892–93
Sunderland (2)
Preston North End
Everton
 John Campbell (Sunderland)
31

1893–94
Aston Villa
Sunderland
Derby County
 Jack Southworth (Everton)
27

1894–95
Sunderland (3)
Everton
Aston Villa
 John Campbell (Sunderland)
22

1895–96
Aston Villa (2)
Derby County
Everton
 Johnny Campbell (Aston Villa)
 Steve Bloomer (Derby County)
20

1896–97
Aston Villa (3)
Sheffield United
Derby County
 Steve Bloomer (Derby County)
22

1897–98
Sheffield United
Sunderland
Wolverhampton Wanderers
 Fred Wheldon (Aston Villa)
21

1898–99
Aston Villa (4)
Liverpool
Burnley
 Steve Bloomer (Derby County)
23

1899–1900
Aston Villa (5)
Sheffield United
Sunderland
 Billy Garraty (Aston Villa)
27

1900–01
Liverpool
Sunderland
Notts County
 Steve Bloomer (Derby County)
23

1901–02
Sunderland (4)
Everton
Newcastle United
 Jimmy Settle (Everton)
18

1902–03
The Wednesday[8]
Aston Villa
Sunderland
 Sam Raybould (Liverpool)
31

1903–04
The Wednesday[8] (2)
Manchester City
Everton
 Steve Bloomer (Derby County)
20

1904–05
Newcastle United
Everton
Manchester City
 Arthur Brown (Sheffield United)
22

1905–06
Liverpool (2)
Preston North End
The Wednesday
 Albert Shepherd (Bolton Wanderers)
26

1906–07
Newcastle United (2)
Bristol City
Everton
 Alex Young (Everton)
30

1907–08
Manchester United
Aston Villa
Manchester City
 Enoch West (Nottingham Forest)
27

1908–09
Newcastle United (3)
Everton
Sunderland
 Bert Freeman (Everton)
38

1909–10
Aston Villa (6)
Liverpool
Blackburn Rovers
 Jack Parkinson (Liverpool)
30

1910–11
Manchester United (2)
Aston Villa
Sunderland
 Albert Shepherd (Newcastle United)
25

1911–12
Blackburn Rovers
Everton
Newcastle United
 Harry Hampton (Aston Villa)
 George Holley (Sunderland)
 David McLean (The Wednesday)
25

1912–13
Sunderland (5)
Aston Villa
The Wednesday
 David McLean (The Wednesday)
30

1913–14
Blackburn Rovers (2)
Aston Villa
Middlesbrough
 George Elliot (Middlesbrough)
32

1914–15
Everton (2)
Oldham Athletic
Blackburn Rovers
 Bobby Parker (Everton)
35

1915/16–1918/19
League suspended owing to the First World War

1919–20
West Bromwich Albion
Burnley
Chelsea
 Fred Morris (West Bromwich Albion)
37

1920–21
Burnley
Manchester City
Bolton Wanderers
 Joe Smith (Bolton Wanderers)
38

1921–22
Liverpool (3)
Tottenham Hotspur
Burnley
 Andy Wilson (Middlesbrough)
31

1922–23
Liverpool (4)
Sunderland
Huddersfield Town
 Charlie Buchan (Sunderland)
30

1923–24
Huddersfield Town
Cardiff City
Sunderland
 Wilf Chadwick (Everton)
28

1924–25
Huddersfield Town (2)
West Bromwich Albion
Bolton Wanderers
 Frank Roberts (Manchester City)
31

1925–26
Huddersfield Town (3)
Arsenal
Sunderland
 Ted Harper (Blackburn Rovers)
43

1926–27
Newcastle United (4)
Huddersfield Town
Sunderland
 Jimmy Trotter (The Wednesday)
37

1927–28
Everton (3)
Huddersfield Town
Leicester City
 Dixie Dean (Everton)
60

1928–29
The Wednesday[8] (3)
Leicester City
Aston Villa
 Dave Halliday (Sunderland)
43

1929–30
Sheffield Wednesday (4)
Derby County
Manchester City
 Vic Watson (West Ham United)
41

1930–31
Arsenal
Aston Villa
Sheffield Wednesday
 Tom Waring (Aston Villa)
49

1931–32
Everton (4)
Arsenal
Sheffield Wednesday
 Dixie Dean (Everton)
44

1932–33
Arsenal (2)
Aston Villa
Sheffield Wednesday
 Jack Bowers (Derby County)
35

1933–34
Arsenal (3)
Huddersfield Town
Tottenham Hotspur
 Jack Bowers (Derby County)
34

1934–35
Arsenal (4)
Sunderland
Sheffield Wednesday
 Ted Drake (Arsenal)
42

1935–36
Sunderland (6)
Derby County
Huddersfield Town
 W. G. Richardson (West Bromwich Albion)
39

1936–37
Manchester City
Charlton Athletic
Arsenal
 Freddie Steele (Stoke City)
33

1937–38
Arsenal (5)
Wolverhampton Wanderers
Preston North End
 Tommy Lawton (Everton)
28

1938–39
Everton (5)
Wolverhampton Wanderers
Charlton Athletic
 Tommy Lawton (Everton)
35

1939/40–1945/46
League suspended owing to the Second World War

1946–47
Liverpool (5)
Manchester United
Wolverhampton Wanderers
 Dennis Westcott (Wolverhampton Wanderers)
37

1947–48
Arsenal (6)
Manchester United
Burnley
 Ronnie Rooke (Arsenal)
33

1948–49
Portsmouth
Manchester United
Derby County
 Willie Moir (Bolton Wanderers)
25

1949–50
Portsmouth (2)
Wolverhampton Wanderers
Sunderland
 Dickie Davis (Sunderland)
25

1950–51
Tottenham Hotspur
Manchester United
Blackpool
 Stan Mortensen (Blackpool)
30

1951–52
Manchester United (3)
Tottenham Hotspur
Arsenal
 George Robledo (Newcastle United)
33

1952–53
Arsenal (7)
Preston North End
Wolverhampton Wanderers
 Charlie Wayman (Preston North End)
24

1953–54
Wolverhampton Wanderers
West Bromwich Albion
Huddersfield Town
 Jimmy Glazzard (Huddersfield Town)
29

1954–55
Chelsea
Wolverhampton Wanderers
Portsmouth
 Ronnie Allen (West Bromwich Albion)
27

1955–56
Manchester United (4)
Blackpool
Wolverhampton Wanderers
 Nat Lofthouse (Bolton Wanderers)
33

1956–57
Manchester United (5)
Tottenham Hotspur
Preston North End
 John Charles (Leeds United)
38

1957–58
Wolverhampton Wanderers (2)
Preston North End
Tottenham Hotspur
 Bobby Smith (Tottenham Hotspur)
36

1958–59
Wolverhampton Wanderers (3)
Manchester United
Arsenal
 Jimmy Greaves (Chelsea)
33

1959–60
Burnley (2)
Wolverhampton Wanderers
Tottenham Hotspur
 Dennis Viollet (Manchester United)
32

1960–61
Tottenham Hotspur (2)
Sheffield Wednesday
Wolverhampton Wanderers
 Jimmy Greaves (Chelsea)
41

1961–62
Ipswich Town
Burnley
Tottenham Hotspur
 Ray Crawford (Ipswich Town)
 Derek Kevan (West Bromwich Albion)
33

1962–63
Everton (6)
Tottenham Hotspur
Burnley
 Jimmy Greaves (Tottenham Hotspur)
37

1963–64
Liverpool (6)
Manchester United
Everton
 Jimmy Greaves (Tottenham Hotspur)
35

1964–65
Manchester United (6)
Leeds United
Chelsea
 Andy McEvoy (Blackburn Rovers)
 Jimmy Greaves (Tottenham Hotspur)
29

1965–66
Liverpool (7)
Leeds United
Burnley
 Willie Irvine (Burnley)
29

1966–67
Manchester United (7)
Nottingham Forest
Tottenham Hotspur
 Ron Davies (Southampton)
37

1967–68
Manchester City (2)
Manchester United
Liverpool
 George Best (Manchester United)
 Ron Davies (Southampton)
28

1968–69
Leeds United
Liverpool
Everton
 Jimmy Greaves (Tottenham Hotspur)
27

1969–70
Everton (7)
Leeds United
Chelsea
 Jeff Astle (West Bromwich Albion)
25

1970–71
Arsenal (8)
Leeds United
Tottenham Hotspur
 Tony Brown (West Bromwich Albion)
28

1971–72
Derby County
Leeds United
Liverpool
 Francis Lee (Manchester City)
33

1972–73
Liverpool[2] (8)
Arsenal
Leeds United
 Pop Robson (West Ham United)
28

1973–74
Leeds United (2)
Liverpool
Derby County
 Mick Channon (Southampton)
21

1974–75
Derby County (2)
Liverpool
Ipswich Town
 Malcolm Macdonald (Newcastle United)
21

1975–76
Liverpool[2] (9)
Queens Park Rangers
Manchester United
 Ted MacDougall (Norwich City)
23

1976–77
Liverpool[3] (10)
Manchester City
Ipswich Town
 Malcolm Macdonald (Arsenal)
 Andy Gray (Aston Villa)
25

1977–78
Nottingham Forest[4]
Liverpool
Everton
 Bob Latchford (Everton)
30

1978–79
Liverpool (11)
Nottingham Forest
West Bromwich Albion
 Frank Worthington (Bolton Wanderers)
24

1979–80
Liverpool (12)
Manchester United
Ipswich Town
 Phil Boyer (Southampton)
23

1980–81
Aston Villa (7)
Ipswich Town
Arsenal
 Peter Withe (Aston Villa)
 Steve Archibald (Tottenham Hotspur)
20

1981–82[5]
Liverpool[4](13)
Ipswich Town
Manchester United
 Kevin Keegan (Southampton)
26

1982–83
Liverpool[4] (14)
Watford
Manchester United
 Luther Blissett (Watford)
27

1983–84
Liverpool[3][4] (15)
Southampton
Nottingham Forest
 Ian Rush (Liverpool)
32

1984–85
Everton[6] (8)
Liverpool
Tottenham Hotspur
 Kerry Dixon (Chelsea)
 Gary Lineker (Leicester City)
24

1985–86
Liverpool (16)
Everton
West Ham United
 Gary Lineker (Everton)
30

1986–87
Everton (9)
Liverpool
Tottenham Hotspur
 Clive Allen (Tottenham Hotspur)
33

1987–88
Liverpool (17)
Manchester United
Nottingham Forest
 John Aldridge (Liverpool)
26

1988–89
Arsenal (9)
Liverpool
Nottingham Forest
 Alan Smith (Arsenal)
23

1989–90
Liverpool (18)
Aston Villa
Tottenham Hotspur
 Gary Lineker (Tottenham Hotspur)
24

1990–91
Arsenal (10)
Liverpool
Crystal Palace
 Alan Smith (Arsenal)
22

1991–92
Leeds United (3)
Manchester United
Sheffield Wednesday
 Ian Wright (Crystal Palace/Arsenal)
29

text: Premier League (1992–present)[edit]

text:
Year
Champions
(number of titles)
Points
Runners-up
Points
Third place
Points
Top goalscorer
Goals

1992–93
Manchester United (8)

84

Aston Villa

74

Norwich City

72

 Teddy Sheringham (Nottingham Forest/Tottenham)
22

1993–94
Manchester United (9)

92

Blackburn Rovers

84

Newcastle United

77

 Andrew Cole (Newcastle United)
34

1994–95
Blackburn Rovers (3)

89

Manchester United

88

Nottingham Forest

77

 Alan Shearer (Blackburn Rovers)
34

1995–96
Manchester United (10)

82

Newcastle United

78

Liverpool

71

 Alan Shearer (Blackburn Rovers)
31

1996–97
Manchester United (11)

75

Newcastle United

68

Arsenal

68

 Alan Shearer (Newcastle United)
25

1997–98
Arsenal (11)

78

Manchester United

77

Liverpool

65

 Chris Sutton (Blackburn Rovers)
 Dion Dublin (Coventry City)
 Michael Owen (Liverpool)
18

1998–99
Manchester United[7] (12)

79

Arsenal

78

Chelsea

75

 Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink (Leeds United)
 Michael Owen (Liverpool)
 Dwight Yorke (Manchester United)
18

1999–2000
Manchester United (13)

91

Arsenal

73

Leeds United

69

 Kevin Phillips (Sunderland)
30

2000–01
Manchester United (14)

80

Arsenal

70

Liverpool

69

 Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink (Chelsea)
23

2001–02
Arsenal (12)

87

Liverpool

80

Manchester United

77

 Thierry Henry (Arsenal)
24

2002–03
Manchester United (15)

83

Arsenal

78

Newcastle United

69

 Ruud van Nistelrooy (Manchester United)
25

2003–04
Arsenal[1] (13)

90

Chelsea

79

Manchester United

75

 Thierry Henry (Arsenal)
30

2004–05
Chelsea[4] (2)

95

Arsenal

83

Manchester United

77

 Thierry Henry (Arsenal)
25

2005–06
Chelsea (3)

91

Manchester United

83

Liverpool

82

 Thierry Henry (Arsenal)
27

2006–07
Manchester United (16)

89

Chelsea

83

Liverpool

68

 Didier Drogba (Chelsea)
20

2007–08
Manchester United[3] (17)

87

Chelsea

85

Arsenal

83

 Cristiano Ronaldo (Manchester United)
31

2008–09
Manchester United[4] (18)

90

Liverpool

86

Chelsea

83

 Nicolas Anelka (Chelsea)
19

2009–10
Chelsea (4)

86

Manchester United

85

Arsenal

75

 Didier Drogba (Chelsea)
29

2010–11
Manchester United (19)

80

Chelsea

71

Manchester City

71

 Dimitar Berbatov (Manchester United)
 Carlos Tevez (Manchester City)
20

2011–12
Manchester City (3)

89

Manchester United

89

Arsenal

70

 Robin van Persie (Arsenal)
30

2012–13
Manchester United (20)

89

Manchester City

78

Chelsea

75

 Robin van Persie (Manchester United)
26

2013–14
Manchester City[4] (4)

86

Liverpool

84

Chelsea

82

 Luis Suárez (Liverpool)
31

2014–15
Chelsea[4] (5)

87

Manchester City

79

Arsenal

75

 Sergio Agüero (Manchester City)
26

2015–16
Leicester City

81

Arsenal

71

Tottenham Hotspur

70

 Harry Kane (Tottenham Hotspur)
25

2016–17
Chelsea (6)

93

Tottenham Hotspur

86

Manchester City

78

 Harry Kane (Tottenham Hotspur)
29

2017–18
Manchester City[4] (5)

100

Manchester United

81

Tottenham Hotspur

77

 Mohamed Salah (Liverpool)
32

2018–19

text: Total titles won[edit]

text: Teams in bold compete in the Premier League as of the 2018–19 season.

tag: p

text:
Club
Winners
Runners-up
Winning seasons

Manchester United

20

16

1907–08, 1910–11, 1951–52, 1955–56, 1956–57, 1964–65, 1966–67, 1992–93, 1993–94, 1995–96, 1996–97, 1998–99, 1999–2000, 2000–01, 2002–03, 2006–07, 2007–08, 2008–09, 2010–11, 2012–13

Liverpool

18

13

1900–01, 1905–06, 1921–22, 1922–23, 1946–47, 1963–64, 1965–66, 1972–73, 1975–76, 1976–77, 1978–79, 1979–80, 1981–82, 1982–83, 1983–84, 1985–86, 1987–88, 1989–90

Arsenal

13

9

1930–31, 1932–33, 1933–34, 1934–35, 1937–38, 1947–48, 1952–53, 1970–71, 1988–89, 1990–91, 1997–98, 2001–02, 2003–04

Everton

9

7

1890–91, 1914–15, 1927–28, 1931–32, 1938–39, 1962–63, 1969–70, 1984–85, 1986–87

Aston Villa

7

10

1893–94, 1895–96, 1896–97, 1898–99, 1899–1900, 1909–10, 1980–81

Sunderland

6

5

1891–92, 1892–93, 1894–95, 1901–02, 1912–13, 1935–36

Chelsea

6

4

1954–55, 2004–05, 2005–06, 2009–10, 2014–15, 2016–17

Manchester City

5

5

1936–37, 1967–68, 2011–12, 2013–14, 2017–18

Newcastle United

4

2

1904–05, 1906–07, 1908–09, 1926–27

Sheffield Wednesday

4

1

1902–03, 1903–04, 1928–29, 1929–30

Leeds United

3

5

1968–69, 1973–74, 1991–92

Wolverhampton Wanderers

3

5

1953–54, 1957–58, 1958–59

Huddersfield Town

3

3

1923–24, 1924–25, 1925–26

Blackburn Rovers

3

1

1911–12, 1913–14, 1994–95

Preston North End

2

6

1888–89, 1889–90

Tottenham Hotspur

2

5

1950–51, 1960–61

Derby County

2

3

1971–72, 1974–75

Burnley

2

2

1920–21, 1959–60

Portsmouth

2

0

1948–49, 1949–50

Ipswich Town

1

2

1961–62

Nottingham Forest

1

2

1977–78

Sheffield United

1

2

1897–98

West Bromwich Albion

1

2

1919–20

Leicester City

1

1

2015–16

Bristol City

0

1

Oldham Athletic

0

1

Cardiff City

0

1

Charlton Athletic

0

1

Blackpool

0

1

Queen's Park Rangers

0

1

Watford

0

1

Southampton

0

1

text: Total titles won by region[edit]

text:
Region
Number of titles
Clubs

North West

59

Manchester United (20), Liverpool (18), Everton (9), Manchester City (5) Blackburn Rovers (3), Burnley (2), Preston North End (2)

London

21

Arsenal (13), Chelsea (6), Tottenham Hotspur (2)

Yorkshire

11

Sheffield Wednesday (4), Huddersfield Town (3), Leeds United (3), Sheffield United (1)

West Midlands

11

Aston Villa (7), Wolverhampton Wanderers (3), West Bromwich Albion (1)

North East

10

Sunderland (6), Newcastle United (4)

East Midlands

4

Derby County (2), Leicester City (1), Nottingham Forest (1)

South East

2

Portsmouth (2)

East of England

1

Ipswich Town (1)

text: By City / Town[edit]

text:
City / Town
Championships
Clubs

Liverpool

27

Liverpool (18), Everton (9)

Manchester

25

Manchester United (20), Manchester City (5)

London

21

Arsenal (13), Chelsea (6), Tottenham Hotspur (2)

Birmingham

7

Aston Villa (7)

Sunderland

6

Sunderland (6)

Sheffield

5

Sheffield Wednesday (4), Sheffield United (1)

Newcastle

4

Newcastle United (4)

Blackburn

3

Blackburn Rovers (3)

Huddersfield

3

Huddersfield Town (3)

Leeds

3

Leeds United (3)

Wolverhampton

3

Wolverhampton Wanderers (3)

Burnley

2

Burnley (2)

Derby

2

Derby County (2)

Portsmouth

2

Portsmouth (2)

Preston

2

Preston North End (2)

Ipswich

1

Ipswich Town (1)

Leicester

1

Leicester City (1)

Nottingham

1

Nottingham Forest (1)

West Bromwich

1

West Bromwich Albion (1)

text: Multiple trophy wins[edit]

text: See The Double and The Treble.


document_title: Lipoprotein

question_text: what are the four major types of plasma lipoproteins

text: Lipoprotein

text: Scope[edit]

text: Transmembrane lipoproteins[edit]

text: The lipids are often an essential part of the complex, even if they seem to have no catalytic activity by themselves. Detergents are usually required to isolate transmembrane lipoproteins from their associated biological membranes.

text: Plasma lipoprotein particles[edit]

text: Because fats are insoluble in water, these cannot be transported in blood on their own. Instead, they are attached to hydrophilic proteins that function as transport vehicles. The role of lipoprotein particles is to transport triacylglycerols (a.k.a. triglycerides) and cholesterol in the blood between all the tissues of the body. The most common being the liver and the adipocytes of adipose tissue. Particles are synthesized in the small intestine and the liver, but interestingly not in the adipocytes.

text: All cells use and rely on fats and cholesterol as building-blocks to create the multiple membranes that cells use both to control internal water content and internal water-soluble elements and to organize their internal structure and protein enzymatic systems.

text: The lipoprotein particles have hydrophilic groups of phospholipids, cholesterol, and apoproteins directed outward. Such characteristics make them soluble in the salt water-based blood pool. Triglyceride-fats and cholesteryl esters are carried internally, shielded from the water by the phospholipid monolayer and the apoproteins.

text: The interaction of the proteins forming the surface of the particles (with enzymes in the blood; with each other; and with specific proteins on the surfaces of cells) determines whether triglycerides and cholesterol will be added to or removed from the lipoprotein transport particles.

text: Regarding atheroma development and progression as opposed to regression, the key issue has always been cholesterol transport patterns, not cholesterol concentration itself.[citation needed]

text: Function[edit]

text: The handling of lipoprotein particles in the body is referred to as lipoprotein particle metabolism. It is divided into two pathways, exogenous and endogenous, depending in large part on whether the lipoprotein particles in question are composed chiefly of dietary (exogenous) lipids or whether they originated in the liver (endogenous), through de novo synthesis of triacylglycerols.

text: The hepatocytes are the main platform for the handling of triacylglycerols and cholesterol; the liver can also store certain amounts of glycogen and triacylglycerols. While adipocytes are the main storage cells for triacylglycerols, they do not produce any lipoproteins.

text: Exogenous pathway[edit]

text: Bile emulsifies fats contained in the chyme, then pancreatic lipase cleaves triacylglycerol molecules into two fatty acids and one 2-monoacylglycerol. Enterocytes readily absorb these small molecules from the chymus. Inside of the enterocytes, fatty acids and monoacylglycerides are transformed again into triacylglycerides. Then these lipids (i.e. triacylglycerols, phospholipids, cholesterol, and cholesteryl esters) are assembled with apolipoprotein B-48 into nascent chylomicrons. These particles are then secreted into the lacteals in a process that depends heavily on apolipoprotein B-48. As they circulate through the lymphatic vessels, nascent chylomicrons bypass the liver circulation and are drained via the thoracic duct into the bloodstream.

text: In the blood stream, nascent chylomicron particles interact with HDL particles resulting in HDL donation of apolipoprotein C-II and apolipoprotein E to the nascent chylomicron. The chylomicron at this stage is then considered mature. Via apolipoprotein C-II, mature chylomicrons activate lipoprotein lipase (LPL), an enzyme on endothelial cells lining the blood vessels. LPL catalyzes the hydrolysis of triacylglycerol (glycerol covalently joined to three fatty acids) that ultimately releases glycerol and fatty acids from the chylomicrons. Glycerol and fatty acids can then be absorbed in peripheral tissues, especially adipose and muscle, for energy and storage.

text: The hydrolyzed chylomicrons are now called chylomicron remnants. The chylomicron remnants continue circulating the bloodstream until they interact via apolipoprotein E with chylomicron remnant receptors, found chiefly in the liver. This interaction causes the endocytosis of the chylomicron remnants, which are subsequently hydrolyzed within lysosomes. Lysosomal hydrolysis releases glycerol and fatty acids into the cell, which can be used for energy or stored for later use.

text: Endogenous pathway[edit]

text: The liver is the central platform for the handling of lipids: it is able to store glycerols and fats in its cells, the hepatocytes. Hepatocytes are also able to create triacylglycerols via de novo synthesis. They also produce the bile from cholesterol. The intestines are responsible for absorbing cholesterol. They transfer it over into the blood stream.

text: In the hepatocytes, triacylglycerols and cholesteryl esters are assembled with apolipoprotein B-100 to form nascent VLDL particles. Nascent VLDL particles are released into the bloodstream via a process that depends upon apolipoprotein B-100.

text: In the blood stream, nascent VLDL particles bump with HDL particles; as a result, HDL particles donate apolipoprotein C-II and apolipoprotein E to the nascent VLDL particle. Once loaded with apolipoproteins C-II and E, the nascent VLDL particle is considered mature.

text: Again, like chylomicrons, VLDL particles circulate and encounter lipoprotein lipase (LPL) expressed on endothelial cells. Apolipoprotein C-II activates LPL, causing hydrolysis of the VLDL particle and the release of glycerol and fatty acids. These products can be absorbed from the blood by peripheral tissues, principally adipose and muscle. The hydrolyzed VLDL particles are now called VLDL remnants or intermediate-density lipoproteins (IDLs). VLDL remnants can circulate and, via an interaction between apolipoprotein E and the remnant receptor, be absorbed by the liver, or they can be further hydrolyzed by hepatic lipase.

text: Hydrolysis by hepatic lipase releases glycerol and fatty acids, leaving behind IDL remnants, called low-density lipoproteins (LDL), which contain a relatively high cholesterol content[4] (see native LDL structure at 37°C on YouTube). LDL circulates and is absorbed by the liver and peripheral cells. Binding of LDL to its target tissue occurs through an interaction between the LDL receptor and apolipoprotein B-100 on the LDL particle. Absorption occurs through endocytosis, and the internalized LDL particles are hydrolyzed within lysosomes, releasing lipids, chiefly cholesterol.

text: Classification[edit]

text: By density[edit]

text: Lipoproteins may be classified as follows, listed from larger and less dense to smaller and denser. Lipoproteins are larger and less dense when the fat to protein ratio is increased. They are classified on the basis of electrophoresis, ultracentrifugation and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy via the Vantera Analyzer.[5]

text:
Chylomicrons carry triglycerides (fat) from the intestines to the liver, to skeletal muscle, and to adipose tissue.
Very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDL) carry (newly synthesised) triglycerides from the liver to adipose tissue.
Intermediate-density lipoproteins (IDL) are intermediate between VLDL and LDL. They are not usually detectable in the blood when fasting.
Low-density lipoproteins (LDL) carry 3,000 to 6,000 fat molecules (phospholipids, cholesterol, triglycerides, etc.) around the body. LDL particles are sometimes referred to as "bad" lipoprotein because concentrations, dose related, correlate with atherosclerosis progression.

large buoyant LDL (lb LDL) particles
small dense LDL (sd LDL) particles
Lipoprotein(a) is a lipoprotein particle of a certain phenotype

High-density lipoproteins (HDL) collect fat molecules (phospholipids, cholesterol, triglycerides, etc.) from the body's cells/tissues, and take it back to the liver. HDLs are sometimes referred to as "good" lipoprotein because higher concentrations correlate with low rates of atherosclerosis progression and/or regression.

text: For young healthy research subjects, ~70 kg (154 lb), this data represents averages across individuals studied, percentages represent % dry weight:

text:
Density (g/mL)
Class
Diameter (nm)
% protein
% cholesterol
% phospholipid
% triacylglycerol
& cholesterol ester

>1.063
HDL
5–15
33
30
29
4-8

1.019–1.063
LDL
18–28
25
46-50
21-22
8-10

1.006–1.019
IDL
25–50
18
29
22
31

0.95–1.006
VLDL
30–80
10
22
18
50

<0.95
Chylomicrons
75-1200
1-2
8
7
83-84

text: [6] [7] However, this data is not reliable for any one individual or for the general clinical population.

text: Alpha and beta[edit]

text: It is also possible to classify lipoproteins as "alpha" and "beta", according to the classification of proteins in serum protein electrophoresis. This terminology is sometimes used in describing lipid disorders such as abetalipoproteinemia.

text: Lipoprotein(a)[edit]

text: Studies[edit]

text: Atherosclerosis is the leading cause of coronary artery disease, which is the leading cause of mortality in the world.[8] Since the 1980s, many studies have examined possible correlations between the incidence of the disease and plasma lipoprotein particle concentrations in the blood. Hypotheses exist for possible causations. Studies have shown correlation between atherosclerosis and concentrations of particles. Further studies looked for correlations between nutrition and concentration of the distinguishable lipoprotein particles, e.g. whether the ratio of dietary fat raises or lowers levels of LDL particles in the blood. Studies have shown that different phenotypes do exist regarding the amount of particles and reaction to diet composition.[citation needed]


document_title: Fresh water

question_text: where is most of earths fresh water found

text: Fresh water

text: Definitions[edit]

text: Numerical definition[edit]

text: Fresh water can be defined as water with less than 500 parts per million (ppm) of dissolved salts.[1]

text:
Part of a series on

Water salinity

Salinity levels

Fresh water (< 0.05%)
Brackish water (0.05–3%)
Saline water (3–5%)
Brine (> 5%)

Bodies of water

Seawater • Salt lake • Hypersaline lake • Salt pan • Brine pool • Bodies by salinity

v
t
e

text: Other sources give higher upper salinity limits for fresh water, e.g. 1000 ppm[2] or 3000 ppm.[3]

text: Systems[edit]

text: Fresh water habitats are divided into lentic systems, which are the stillwaters including ponds, lakes, swamps and mires; lotic, or running-water systems; and groundwater which flows in rocks and aquifers. There is, in addition, a zone which bridges between groundwater and lotic systems, which is the hyporheic zone, which underlies many larger rivers and can contain substantially more water than is seen in the open channel. It may also be in direct contact with the underlying underground water.

text: The majority of fresh water on Earth is in ice caps.

text: Sources[edit]

text: The source of almost all fresh water is precipitation from the atmosphere, in the form of mist, rain and snow. Fresh water falling as mist, rain or snow contains materials dissolved from the atmosphere and material from the sea and land over which the rain bearing clouds have traveled. In industrialized areas rain is typically acidic because of dissolved oxides of sulfur and nitrogen formed from burning of fossil fuels in cars, factories, trains and aircraft and from the atmospheric emissions of industry. In some cases this acid rain results in pollution of lakes and rivers.

text: In coastal areas fresh water may contain significant concentrations of salts derived from the sea if windy conditions have lifted drops of seawater into the rain-bearing clouds. This can give rise to elevated concentrations of sodium, chloride, magnesium and sulfate as well as many other compounds in smaller concentrations.

text: In desert areas, or areas with impoverished or dusty soils, rain-bearing winds can pick up sand and dust and this can be deposited elsewhere in precipitation and causing the freshwater flow to be measurably contaminated both by insoluble solids but also by the soluble components of those soils. Significant quantities of iron may be transported in this way including the well-documented transfer of iron-rich rainfall falling in Brazil derived from sand-storms in the Sahara in north Africa.

text: Water distribution[edit]

text: Out of all the water on Earth, saline water in oceans, seas and saline groundwater make up about 97% of it. Only 2.5–2.75% is fresh water, including 1.75–2% frozen in glaciers, ice and snow, 0.5–0.75% as fresh groundwater and soil moisture, and less than 0.01% of it as surface water in lakes, swamps and rivers.[5][6] Freshwater lakes contain about 87% of this fresh surface water, including 29% in the African Great Lakes, 22% in Lake Baikal in Russia, 21% in the North American Great Lakes, and 14% in other lakes. Swamps have most of the balance with only a small amount in rivers, most notably the Amazon River. The atmosphere contains 0.04% water.[7] In areas with no fresh water on the ground surface, fresh water derived from precipitation may, because of its lower density, overlie saline ground water in lenses or layers. Most of the world's fresh water is frozen in ice sheets. Many areas suffer from lack of distribution of fresh water, such as deserts.

text: Aquatic organisms[edit]

text: Water is a critical issue for the survival of all living organisms. Some can use salt water but many organisms including the great majority of higher plants and most mammals must have access to fresh water to live. Some terrestrial mammals, especially desert rodents appear to survive without drinking but they do generate water through the metabolism of cereal seeds and they also have mechanisms to conserve water to the maximum degree.

text: Fresh water creates a hypotonic environment for aquatic organisms. This is problematic for some organisms with pervious skins or with gill membranes, whose cell membranes may burst if excess water is not excreted. Some protists accomplish this using contractile vacuoles, while freshwater fish excrete excess water via the kidney.[8] Although most aquatic organisms have a limited ability to regulate their osmotic balance and therefore can only live within a narrow range of salinity, diadromous fish have the ability to migrate between fresh water and saline water bodies. During these migrations they undergo changes to adapt to the surroundings of the changed salinities; these processes are hormonally controlled. The eel (Anguilla anguilla) uses the hormone prolactin,[9] while in salmon (Salmo salar) the hormone cortisol plays a key role during this process.[10]

text: Many sea birds have special glands at the base of the bill through which excess salt is excreted. Similarly the marine iguanas on the Galápagos Islands excrete excess salt through a nasal gland and they sneeze out a very salty excretion.

text: Freshwater molluscs include freshwater snails and freshwater bivalves. Freshwater crustaceans include freshwater crabs, and others.

text: Problems[edit]

text: Limited resource[edit]

text: Fresh water is a renewable and variable, but finite natural resource. Fresh water can only be replenished through the process of the water cycle, in which water from seas, lakes, forests, land, rivers, and reservoirs evaporates, forms clouds, and returns as precipitation. Locally however, if more fresh water is consumed through human activities than is naturally restored, this may result in reduced fresh water availability from surface and underground sources and can cause serious damage to surrounding and associated environments.

text: Fresh and unpolluted water accounts for 0.003% of total water available globally.[11]

text: The increase in the world population and the increase in per capita water use puts increasing strains on the finite resources availability of clean fresh water. The World Bank adds that the response by freshwater ecosystems to a changing climate can be described in terms of three interrelated components: water quality, water quantity or volume, and water timing. A change in one often leads to shifts in the others as well.[12] Water pollution and subsequent eutrophication also reduces the availability of fresh water.[13]

text: Many areas of the world are already experiencing stress on water availability (or water scarcity). Due to the accelerated pace of population growth and an increase in the amount of water a single person uses, it is expected that this situation will continue to get worse. A shortage of water in the future would be detrimental to the human population as it would affect everything from sanitation, to overall health and the production of grain.[14]

text: Minimum streamflow[edit]

text: An important concern for hydrological ecosystems is securing minimum streamflow, especially preserving and restoring instream water allocations.[15] Fresh water is an important natural resource necessary for the survival of all ecosystems. The use of water by humans for activities such as irrigation and industrial applications can have adverse impacts on down-stream ecosystems.

text: Fresh water withdrawal is the quantity of water removed from available sources for use in any purpose, excluding evaporation losses. Water drawn off is not necessarily entirely consumed and some portion may be returned for further use downstream.

text: Water pollution[edit]

text: Pollution from human activity, including oil spills and also presents a problem for freshwater resources. The largest petroleum spill that has ever occurred in fresh water was caused by a Royal Dutch Shell tank ship in Magdalena, Argentina, on 15 January 1999, polluting the environment, drinkable water, plants and animals.[16] Chemical contamination of fresh water can also seriously damage eco-systems.

text: Human uses[edit]

text: Agriculture[edit]

text: Changing landscape for the use of agriculture has a great effect on the flow of fresh water. Changes in landscape by the removal of trees and soils changes the flow of fresh water in the local environment and also affects the cycle of fresh water. As a result, more fresh water is stored in the soil which benefits agriculture. However, since agriculture is the human activity that consumes the most fresh water,[17] this can put a severe strain on local freshwater resources resulting in the destruction of local ecosystems.

text: In Australia, over-abstraction of fresh water for intensive irrigation activities has caused 33% of the land area to be at risk of salination.[17] With regards to agriculture, the World Bank targets food production and water management as an increasingly global issue that will foster debate.[18]

text: Examples[edit]

text: With one in eight people in the world not having access to safe water[19] it is important to use this resource in a prudent manner. Making the best use of water on a local basis probably provides the best solution. Local communities need to plan their use of fresh water and should be made aware of how certain crops and animals use water.

text: As a guide the following tables provide some indicators.

text: Table 1 Recommended basic water requirements for human needs (per person) [20]

text:
Activity
Minimum, litres / day
Range / day

Drinking Water
5
2–5

Sanitation Services
20
20–75

Bathing
15
5–70

Cooking and Kitchen
10
10–50

text: Table 2. Water Requirements of different classes of livestock [21]

text:
Animal
Average / day
Range / day

Dairy cow
76 L (20 US gal)
57 to 95 L (15 to 25 US gal)

Cow-calf pair
57 L (15 US gal)
8 to 76 L (2 to 20 US gal)

Yearling cattle
38 L (10 US gal)
23 to 53 L (6 to 14 US gal)

Horse
38 L (10 US gal)
30 to 53 L (8 to 14 US gal)

Sheep
8 L (2 US gal)
8 to 11 L (2 to 3 US gal)

text: Table 3 Approximate values of seasonal crop water needs [22]

text:
Crop
Crop water needs mm / total growing period

Sugar Cane
1500–2500

Banana
1200–2200

Citrus
900–1200

Potato
500–700

Tomato
400–800

Barley/Oats/Wheat
450–650

Cabbage
350–500

Onions
350–550

Pea
350–500


document_title: Meet Me in St. Louis

question_text: who plays john in meet me in st louis

question_tokens: who plays john in meet me in st louis

text: Meet Me in St. Louis

text: Plot[edit]

text: The backdrop for Meet Me in St. Louis is St. Louis, Missouri in the year leading up to the 1904 World's Fair.

text: It is summer 1903. The Smith family leads a comfortable upper-middle class life. Alonzo Smith (Leon Ames) and his wife Anna (Mary Astor) have four daughters: Rose (Lucille Bremer), Esther (Judy Garland), Agnes (Joan Carroll), and Tootie (Margaret O'Brien); and a son, Lon Jr. (Henry H. Daniels, Jr.). Esther, the second eldest daughter, is in love with the boy next door, John Truett (Tom Drake), although he does not notice her at first. Rose is expecting a phone call in which she hopes to be proposed to by Warren Sheffield (Robert Sully).

text: Esther finally gets to meet John properly when he is a guest at the Smiths' house party, although her chances of romancing him don't go to plan when, after all the guests are gone and he is helping her turn off the gas lamps throughout the house, he tells her she uses the same perfume as his grandmother and that she has "a mighty strong grip for a girl".

text: Esther hopes to meet John again the following Friday on a trolley ride from the city to the construction site of the World Fair. Esther is sad when the trolley sets off without any sign of him, but cheers up when she sees him running to catch the trolley mid journey.

text: On Halloween, Tootie returns home injured, claiming that John Truett attacked her. Without bothering to investigate, Esther confronts John, physically attacking him and scolding him for being a "bully". When Esther returns home, Tootie confesses that what really happened was that John was trying to protect Tootie and Agnes from the police after a dangerous prank they pulled went wrong. Upon learning the truth, Esther immediately dashes to John's house next door to apologize, and they share their first kiss.

text: Mr. Smith announces to the family that he is to be sent to New York City on business and eventually they will all move. The family is devastated and upset at the news of the move, especially Rose and Esther whose romances, friendships, and educational plans are threatened. Esther is also aghast because they will miss the World's Fair.

text: An elegant ball takes place on Christmas Eve. Esther is devastated when John cannot take her as his date, due to his leaving his tuxedo at the tailor's and being unable to get it back. But she is relieved when her grandfather (Harry Davenport) offers to take her instead. At the ball, Esther fills up a visiting girl's (Lucille Ballard, played by June Lockhart) dance card with losers because she thinks Lucille is a rival of Rose's. But when Lucille turns out to be interested in Lon, Esther switches her dance card with Lucille's and instead dances herself with the clumsy and awkward partners. After being rescued by Grandpa, she is overwhelmed when John unexpectedly turns up after somehow managing to obtain a tuxedo, and the pair dance together for the rest of the evening. Later on, John proposes to Esther and she accepts.

text: Esther returns home to an upset Tootie. She is soothed by the poignant "Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas". Tootie, however, becomes more upset at the prospect of the family's move and runs downstairs, out into the cold to destroy the snowmen they have made. Mr. Smith sees his daughter's upsetting outburst from an upstairs window.

text: Mr. Smith later announces that the family will not leave St. Louis after all when he realizes how much the move will affect his family. Warren boldly declares his love for Rose, stating that they will marry at the first possible opportunity.

text: On or after April 30, 1904, the family take two horse drawn buggies to the World's Fair. The film ends that night with the entire family (including boyfriends-to-turn-into-presumed-husbands and Lon's new love interest) overlooking the Grand Lagoon at the center of the World's Fair just as thousands of lights illuminate the grand pavilions.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Judy Garland as Esther Smith
Margaret O'Brien as "Tootie" Smith
Mary Astor as Mrs. Anna Smith
Leon Ames as Mr. Alonzo Smith
Lucille Bremer as Rose Smith
Tom Drake as John Truett
Marjorie Main as Katie the maid
Harry Davenport as Grandpa
Henry H. Daniels Jr. as Alonzo "Lon" Smith Jr.
Joan Carroll as Agnes Smith
June Lockhart as Lucille Ballard
Robert Sully as Warren Sheffield
Hugh Marlowe as Colonel Darly
Chill Wills as Mr. Neely the iceman

text: Music[edit]

text: The musical score for the film was adapted by Roger Edens, who also served as an uncredited associate producer. Georgie Stoll conducted the orchestrations of Conrad Salinger. Some of the songs in the film are from around the time of the St Louis Exposition. Others were written for the movie.

text:
"Meet Me in St. Louis, Louis" Kerry Mills and Andrew B. Sterling, 1904
"The Boy Next Door", Hugh Martin and Ralph Blane, 1944, performed by Judy Garland.
"Skip to My Lou", Traditional, with section sung to the tunes of "Kingdom Coming" and "Yankee Doodle" arranged by Hugh Martin and Ralph Blane, 1944
"I Was Drunk Last Night," performed by Margaret O'Brien.
"Under the Bamboo Tree," Words and music by Robert Cole and The Johnson Bros., 1902, performed by Judy Garland and Margaret O'Brien.
"Over the Banister," 19th-century melody adapted by Conrad Salinger, lyrics from the 1888 poem "Over the Banisters" by Ella Wheeler Wilcox, adapted by Roger Edens (1944), performed by Judy Garland.
"The Trolley Song", Hugh Martin and Ralph Blane, 1944, performed by Chorus and Judy Garland.
"You and I," Nacio Herb Brown and Arthur Freed, sung by Arthur Freed and D. Markas, dubbing for Leon Ames and Mary Astor.
"Goodbye, My Lady Love", (Instrumental), Joseph E. Howard, 1904.
"Little Brown Jug", (Instrumental), Joseph Winner, 1869.
"Down at the Old Bull and Bush," (Instrumental), Harry von Tilzer, 1903.
"Home! Sweet Home!", (Instrumental), Henry Bishop, 1823/1852.
"Auld Lang Syne", (Instrumental)
"The First Noel", (Instrumental)
"Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas", Hugh Martin and Ralph Blane, 1944, performed by Judy Garland. The lyrics for "Have Yourself A Merry Little Christmas" were originally different. The lyricist, Hugh Martin, wrote opening lyrics which were deemed too depressing by Judy Garland, Tom Drake, and Vincente Minnelli (They were: "Have yourself a merry little Christmas / It may be your last/ Next year we may all be living in the past"), so Martin changed the lyrics.

text: Deleted song[edit]

text: Judy Garland pre-recording of "Boys and Girls Like You and Me" for this film survives today, but the film footage has been lost.[7]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Upon its 1944 release, Meet Me in St. Louis was a massive critical and commercial success. During its initial theatrical release, it earned a then-massive $5,016,000 in the US and Canada and $1,550,000 elsewhere resulting in a profit of $2,359,000.[2]

text: Time called it "one of the year's prettiest pictures"; "Technicolor has seldom been more affectionately used than in its registrations of the sober mahoganies and tender muslins and benign gaslights of the period. Now & then, too, the film gets well beyond the charm of mere tableau for short flights in the empyrean of genuine domestic poetry. These triumphs are creditable mainly to the intensity and grace of Margaret O'Brien and to the ability of director Minnelli & Co. to get the best out of her."[8] O'Brien drew further praise from Time; " [her] song and her cakewalk done in a nightgown at a grown-up party, are entrancing acts. Her self-terrified Halloween adventures richly set against firelight, dark streets, and the rusty confabulations of fallen leaves, bring this section of the film very near the first-rate." The film is a New York Times Critics' Pick: after seeing it at the Astor Theatre, Bosley Crowther called it "a warm and beguiling picturization based on Sally Benson's memoirs of her folks."[9] Crowther concludes: "As a comparable screen companion to Life With Father, we would confidently predict that Meet Me in St. Louis has a future that is equally bright. In the words of one of the gentlemen, it is a ginger-peachy show." Writing in The New Yorker, Wolcott Gibbs praised the film as "extremely attractive" and called the dialogue "funny in a sense rather rare in the movies," although he thought it was too long.[10]

text: In 2005, Richard Schickel included the film on Time.com's ALL-TIME 100 best films, saying "It had wonderful songs [and] a sweetly unneurotic performance by Judy Garland....Despite its nostalgic charm, Minnelli infused the piece with a dreamy, occasionally surreal, darkness and it remains, for some of us, the greatest of American movie musicals."[11]

text: Arthur Freed: "Meet Me in St. Louis is my personal favourite. I got along wonderfully with Judy, but the only time we were ever on the outs was when we did this film. She didn't want to do the picture. Even her mother came to me about it. We bumped into some trouble with some opinions – Eddie Mannix, the studio manager, thought the Halloween sequence was wrong, but it was left in. There was a song that Rodgers and Hammerstein had written, called Boys and Girls Like You and Me, that Judy did wonderfully, but it slowed up the picture and it was cut out. After the preview of the completed film, Judy came over to me and said, "Arthur remind me not to tell you what kind of pictures to make. " [It] was the biggest grosser Metro had up to that time, except for Gone With the Wind."[12]

text: The film currently holds a 100% "Fresh" rating on the review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 30 critical reviews with an average score of 8.7/10.[13]

text: Accolades[edit]

text: The film was nominated for four Academy Awards: Best Writing, Adapted Screenplay, Best Cinematography, Color, Best Music, Scoring of a Musical Picture, and Best Music, Song (Ralph Blane and Hugh Martin for "The Trolley Song"). Margaret O'Brien received an Academy Juvenile Award for her work that year, in which she appeared in several movies along with Meet Me in St. Louis.

text: In 1994, the film has been deemed "culturally significant" by the Library of Congress and selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry.

text: The American Film Institute ranked the film 10th on AFI's Greatest Movie Musicals; two songs from the film made AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs ("The Trolley Song" at #26 and "Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas" at #76).

text: Gerald Kaufman wrote a study of the film, with the same title, which was published by the British Film Institute in 1994.

text: Adaptations[edit]

text:
Meet Me in St. Louis was remade in 1959 for television, starring Jane Powell, Jeanne Crain, Patty Duke, Walter Pidgeon, Ed Wynn, Tab Hunter and Myrna Loy. It was directed by George Schaefer from the original Brecher and Finklehoffe screenplay.
Meet Me in St. Louis was remade again for television in 1966. This was a non-musical version starring Shelley Fabares, Celeste Holm, Larry Merrill, Judy Land, Reta Shaw, Tammy Locke and Morgan Brittany. It was directed by Alan D. Courtney from a script written by Sally Benson herself. This was to be a pilot for a TV series, but no network picked it up. It was later included as a special feature on the 2 disc DVD set released in 2004.
A Broadway musical based on the film was produced in 1989, with additional songs.

text: The late-19th century vintage carousel in this movie could be found at Bob-Lo Amusement Park in Amherstburg, Ontario until the park closed in September 1993. It was dismantled and sold to private collectors.

text: Movie references[edit]

text:
The Family Stone (2005) shows two partial scenes from the movie; one where Esther and John dance, and another where Esther sings "Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas" to Tootie.
Deck the Halls (2006) shows Steve (Matthew Broderick) watching the scene where Esther sings "Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas" to Tootie and she bashes the snowmen. Steve is depressed that his family left him and watching this scene in the film makes him only more upset.
Sex and the City (2008) shows Carrie's (Sarah Jessica Parker) assistant, Louise from St. Louis, give her a DVD of the film as a Christmas gift, and later shows Carrie watching a bit of "The Trolley Song".