document_title: Flag of the Philippines

question_text: what does the sun symbolize in the philippine flag

text: Flag of the Philippines

text: Design[edit]

text: Construction[edit]

text: The flag's length is twice its width, giving it an aspect ratio of 1:2. The length of all the sides of the white triangle are equal to the width of the flag. Each star is oriented in such manner that one of its tips points towards the vertex at which it is located.[15] Moreover, the gap-angle between two neighbours of the 8 ray-bundles is as large as the angle of one ray-bundle (so 22.5°), with each major ray having double the thickness of its two minor rays.[16] The golden sun is not exactly in the center of the triangle but shifted slightly to the right. This flag is waved when having ceremonies.[17]

text: Color[edit]

text: The shade of blue used in the flag has varied over time, beginning with the original color lazuli Rosco. The exact nature of this shade is uncertain, but a likely candidate is the blue of the Cuban flag, which a theory says influenced the flag's design.[citation needed] Specifications for the flag's colors with shades matching those used in the American flag were adopted by the National Historical Institute in 1955. President Ferdinand Marcos ordered the colors restored to the original light blue and red of the Cuban flag in 1985, but this was immediately rescinded after the 1986 People Power Revolution that removed him from power. For the 1998 independence centennial celebrations, the Flag and Heraldic Code of the Philippines (RA 8491) was passed, designating royal blue as the official variant.[18]

text: The flag's colors are specified by Republic Act 8491 in terms of their cable number in the system developed by the Color Association of the United States.[15][19] The official colors and their approximations in other color spaces are listed below:.[20]

text:
Scheme

Blue

Red

White

Yellow

Cable No.
80173
80108
80001
80068

Pantone
286
186
N/A
116

RGB
0-56-168
206-17-38
255-255-255
252-209-22

CMYK
C100-M60-Y0-K5
C0-M90-Y65-K10
N/A
C0-M18-Y85-K0

HEX
#0038A8
#CE1126
#FFFFFF
#FCD116

text: Symbolism[edit]

text: The Philippine national flag has a rectangular design that consists of a white equilateral triangle, symbolizing liberty, equality, and fraternity; a horizontal blue stripe for peace, truth, and justice; and a horizontal red stripe for patriotism and valor. In the center of the white triangle is an eight-rayed golden sun symbolizing unity, freedom, people's democracy, and sovereignty. Each ray represents a province with significant involvement in the 1896 Philippine Revolution against Spain; these provinces are Manila, Bulacan, Cavite, Pampanga, Bataan, Laguna, Batangas, and Nueva Ecija (some sources specify other provinces as alternatives to some of these[a]).[8][9] However, according to the Declaration of Independence and a research by UP Professor Ambeth Ocampo, the rays of the sun symbolized the first 8 provinces of the Philippines which was declared under martial law during the First Philippine Revolution.[21] Three five-pointed stars, one for each of the triangle's points, stand for the three major island groups where the revolution started: Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao.

text: The flag's original symbolism is enumerated in the text of the independence proclamation, which makes reference to an attached drawing, though no record of the drawing has surfaced.[22]  The proclamation explains the flag as follows:

text:
“

And finally it was resolved unanimously that this Nation, already independent from today should use the same flag which it has used,  whose shape and colors are described in the attached drawing rendering realistically the three aforementioned forces representing the white triangle as the distinctive symbol of the famed Society of the Katipunan, which through the blood compact impelled the masses to rise in revolt; the three stars representing the three principal islands of this Archipelago — Luzon, Mindanao, and Panay (Visayas) in which the revolutionary movement broke out; the sun indicating the gigantic steps taken by the children of this country on the road to progress and civilization; the eight rays symbolizing the eight provinces of the Philippines,[a] and the colors of blue, red and white commemorating the flag of the United States of North America as a manifestation of our profound gratitude towards this Great Nation for its disinterested protection which it lends us, and continues to lend us.  And, carrying this flag, I unfurl it before the gentlemen assembled here—[List of names of the delegates]—and we all solemnly swear to acknowledge and defend it to the last drop of our blood.

”

text: The symbolism given in the 1898 Proclamation of Philippine Independence differs from the current official explanation. According to the document, the white triangle signifies the emblem of the Katipunan, the secret society that opposed Spanish rule. It says the flag's colors commemorate the flag of the United States as a manifestation of gratitude for American aid against the Spanish during the Philippine Revolution. It also says that one of the three stars represents the island of Panay, rather than the entire Visayan islands. Panay, which recent interpretations call as "as representative of the entire Visayas region".[23] The proclamation also declares that the sun represents the gigantic steps made by the sons of the country along the path of Progress and Civilization, and lists Bataan instead of Tarlac among the eight provinces symbolized by the sun's rays.

text: History[edit]

text: Historical flags of the Philippine Revolution[edit]

text: It has been common since the 1960s to trace the development of the Philippine flag to the various war standards of the individual leaders of the Katipunan, a pseudo-masonic revolutionary movement that opposed Spanish rule in the Philippines and led the Philippine Revolution.[22] However, while some symbols common to the Katipunan flags would be adopted into the iconography of the Revolution, it is inconclusive whether these war standards can be considered precursors to the present Philippine flag.[22]

text:
The first flag of the Katipunan.

Flag of the Magdalo Katipunan faction.

The flag adopted by the Republic of Biak-na-Bato in 1897.

Official Flag of the First Philippine Republic.

Official flag of the Republic of Negros

text: The first flag of the Katipunan was a red rectangular flag with a horizontal alignment of three white Ks (an acronym for the Katipunan's full name, Kataas-taasang Kagalang-galangang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan - Supreme and Venerable Society of the Sons of the Nation). The flag's red field symbolized blood, as members of the Katipunan signed their membership papers in their own blood.[22]

text: The various leaders of the Katipunan, such as Andrés Bonifacio, Mariano Llanera, and Pío del Pilar, also had individual war standards. The organization was represented in Cavite province by two factions: the Magdiwang faction and the Magdalo faction, with each adopting a flag. Both used a white sun. Instead of the letter K the flags bore the symbol for the syllable ka in Baybayin, the pre-Hispanic writing script of the Tagalogs.

text: The Katipunan adopted a new flag in 1897 during an assembly at Naic, Cavite. This new flag was red and depicted a white sun with a face. The sun had eight rays, representing eight provinces of the Philippines.[a]

text: Current flag[edit]

text: The earlier design of the current Philippine flag was conceptualized by Emilio Aguinaldo during his exile in British Hong Kong in 1897. The first flag was sewn by Marcela Mariño Agoncillo,  with the help of her daughter Lorenza and Delfina Herbosa Natividad (a niece of Propagandista José Rizal). It was first displayed in the Battle of Alapan on May 28, 1898.

text: The flag was formally unfurled during the proclamation of independence on June 12, 1898 in Kawit, Cavite.[24] However, a Manila Times article by Augusto de Viana, Chief History Researcher, National Historical Institute, mentions assertions in history textbooks and commemorative rites that the flag was first raised in Alapan, Imus, Cavite, on May 28, 1898, citing Presidential Proclamation No. 374, issued by then-President Diosdado Macapagal on March 6, 1965.[25] The article goes on to claim that historical records indicate that the first display of the Philippine flag took place in Cavite City, when General Aguinaldo displayed it during the first fight of the Philippine Revolution.

text: The original design of the flag adopted a mythical sun with a face influenced by Latin American republics Argentina, Peru, and Uruguay; a triangle, representing the Katipunan which inspired by the Eye of Providence in the Great Seal of the United States and the Masonic Triangle and which enshrined Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité; the stripes and colors derived from the American flag. The particular shade of blue of the original flag has been a source of controversy. Based on anecdotal evidence and the few surviving flags from the era, historians argue that the colors of the original flag was influenced by the flags of Cuba and Puerto Rico.[22]

text: During the session of the Malolos Congress, Aguinaldo presented the symbolism of the official flag to the members, delegates and representatives of the assembly as follows[26]:

text: The Flag bears three colors, three stars, and a sun, the meaning of which are as follows: the red is symbolic of Filipino courage which is second to none, and was the color used during the war in the province of Cavite since the 31st of August 1896, until the Peace of Biak-na-Bato [in 1897]; the blue carries an allegorical meaning that all Filipinos will prefer to die before submitting ourselves to the invader, whoever he may be; the white conveys the idea that, like other nations, the Filipinos know how to govern themselves, and that they do not recede from observation of foreign powers. The sun and its rays stirred up Filipinos and spread the light over their world, piercing the clouds that enshrouded it; it is now the light which brightens every spot in the Philippine islands, and under its influence the Itas, Igorots, Manguians, and Moros, all of whom I believe were made in the image of God, and whom I recognize as our brethren, now come down from the mountains to join with us

text: The original flag that was first hoisted on May 28, 1898 and unfurled during the Declaration of independence on June 12, 1898 is being preserved at the Gen Emilio Aguinaldo Museum in Baguio City. There were plans to restore the flag by replacing the worn-out portion but the idea was abandoned because matching threads could not be found. The flag is more elaborate than the flag which is currently in use. It bears the embroidered words, Libertad, Justicia and Ygualidad (Liberty, Justice and Equality) on one side of the flag and Fuerzas Expedicionarias del Norte de Luzon (Expeditionary forces of Northern Luzon) on the other[27]

text: Hostilities broke out between the Philippines and the United States in 1899. The flag was first flown with the red field up on February 4, 1899 to show that a state of war existed. Aguinaldo was captured by the Americans two years later, and swore allegiance to the United States.

text: With the defeat of the Philippine Republic, the Philippines was placed under American colonial rule and the display of the Philippine flag was declared illegal by the Sedition Act of 1907. This law was repealed on October 24, 1919.[28] With the legalization of display of the Philippine flag, the cloth available in most stores was the red and blue of the flag of the United States, so the flag from 1919 onwards adopted the "National Flag blue" color. On March 26, 1920, the Philippine Legislature passed Act. No 2928 on March 26, 1920, which legally adopted the Philippine flag as the official flag of the Philippine Islands.[28] Up until the eve of World War II, Flag Day was celebrated on annually on October 30, commemorating the date the ban on the flag was lifted.

text: The Commonwealth of the Philippines was inaugurated in 1935. On March 25, 1936, President Manuel L. Quezon issued Executive Order No. 23 which provided for the technical description and specifications of the flag.[22] Among the provisions of the order was the definition of the triangle at the hoist as an equilateral triangle, the definition of the aspect ratio at 1:2, the precise angles of the stars, the geometric and aesthetic design of the sun, and the formal elimination of the mythical face on the sun. The exact shades of colors, however, were not precisely defined. These specifications have remained unchanged and in effect to the present. In 1941, Flag Day was officially moved to June 12, commemorating the date that Philippine independence was proclaimed in 1898.

text: The flag was once again banned with the Japanese invasion and occupation of the Philippines beginning in December 1941, to be hoisted again with the establishment of the Second Republic of the Philippines, a client state of Japan. In ceremonies held in October 1943, Emilio Aguinaldo hoisted the flag with the original Cuban blue and red colors restored. The flag was initially flown with the blue stripe up, until President José P. Laurel proclaimed the existence of a state of war with the Allied Powers in 1944. The Commonwealth government-in-exile in Washington, D.C. continued to use the flag with the American colors, and had flown it with the red stripe up since the initial invasion of the Japanese. With the combined forces of the Filipino & American soldiers and the liberation of the Philippines in 1944 to 1945, the flag with the American colors was restored, and it was this flag that was hoisted upon the granting of Philippine independence from the United States on July 4, 1946.

text: Chronology[edit]

text:
Flag
Date
Use
Description

The Spanish East Indies (1565–1898)

1565–1730
Flag used when the Philippine Islands were a part of New Spain.
The Cross of Burgundy: a red saltire resembling two crossed, roughly-pruned branches, on a white field.

1730–1761
Used during Spanish East Indies period.
Flag of Spain under the reign of King Philip V

1761–1785
Used during Spanish East Indies period.
Flag of Spain under the reign of King Felipe V's grandson, King Carlos III

1762–1764
Flag during the brief British occupation of Manila, as used in occupied Manila and Cavite.
The flag of the British East India Company before 1810: A flag with red and white stripes with the Kingdom of Great Britain's Union Flag as a canton. The Union flag bears red cross on a white field, commonly called St George's Cross, superimposed on a white saltire on a blue field, known as St Andrew's Cross. Also known as the "King's Colours".

1785–1873
Used during Spanish East Indies period.
Three horizontal stripes of red, weld-yellow and red, the centre stripe being twice as wide as each red stripe with arms in the first third of the weld-yellow stripe. The arms are crowned and vertically divided, the left red field with a tower representing Castille, the right white field with a lion representing León.

1873–1874
Used by the Spanish East Indies under the First Spanish Republic.
Three horizontal stripes: red, weld-yellow and red, the yellow strip being twice as wide as each red stripe with arms in the first third of the yellow stripe. Royal crown removed from arms.

1874–1898
Used during Spanish East Indies after the restoration of the Spanish monarchy.
The flag of the Kingdom of Spain used prior to the First Spanish Republic was reinstated.

Philippine Revolution – First Philippine Republic

1897–1898
First official flag of the Philippine republic and used during the Philippine Revolution.
The flag was created in Naic, Cavite and first displayed in 1897. It features an eight-rayed white sun with a mythical face on a field of red.

1898–1901
The flag design was conceived by President Emilio Aguinaldo. The exact shade of blue is debated; three variants were used by subsequent governments.
Sewn by Marcela Marino de Agoncillo, Lorenza Agoncillo, and Delfina Herbosa de Natividad in Hong Kong and first flown in battle on May 28, 1898. It was formally unfurled during the Proclamation of Philippine Independence and the flag of the First Philippine Republic, on June 12, 1898 by President Aguinaldo. It contains a mythical sun (with a face) similar to the Sun of May in other former Spanish colonies; the triangle of Freemasonry; the eight rays representing eight rebellious provinces of the Philippines first placed under martial law by the Governor-General.[a] The flag carries the text in Spanish Fuerzas Expedicionarias del Norte de Luzon on its obverse and Libertad Justicia e Ygualdad on its reverse.

American and Commonwealth Period (1898–1946)

1898–1908
Used while under direct administration from the United States of America.
The Philippine Commission, passed Act No. 1697 or the Flag Law of 1907, which outlawed the display of the Philippine flag and replaced the country's flag to the stars and stripes of the United States of America. The same law prohibited the playing of the national anthem. Thirteen horizontal stripes of alternating red and white representing the original Thirteen Colonies; in the canton, white stars on a blue field, the number of stars increased as the United States expanded its territory.

1908–1912
Variant after Oklahoma became a state

1912–1919
Variant after Arizona and New Mexico achieved statehood

1919–1936
From October 30, 1919,[29] two flags were flown in the Philippines, the American flag and the flag conceived by Emilio Aguinaldo which was made the national flag of the Philippines with the repealing of Act No. 1697.[30]
The American flag remained unchanged since 1919. For the Philippine flag, the design conceived by Emilio Aguinaldo remained but the shades of blue and red were adopted from the American flag. The sun's face was removed, but its stylized rays were retained. It should be noted that there existed many versions of the flag as no official design had been codified.

1936–1946
Specifications codified; Defined under Executive Order No. 23, s. 1936 which was signed on March 25, 1936. The shade of blue used was navy blue, following suit from the American Flag. The triangle was made equilateral and the sun's rays were also further simplified, achieving its present form. Also used by the Commonwealth government-in-exile from 1942–1945.

Japanese Period (1942–1945)

1942–1943
Used during the Japanese Occupation.
The Japanese flag as it appeared until 1999: a red sun-disc, shifted 1% left of centre, on a white field.

1943–1945
Used during the inauguration of the Second Republic.
Emilio Aguinaldo's flag was hoisted upon proclamation of the Second Republic. However, the design as used by the Commonwealth remained.

Sovereignty (1946–present)

1946–1985
Following independence, the 1936 design specifications codified by Manuel Quezon remains but the shades of blue and red varied through the years. In 1998, the flag gained its present definitive shades.
Defined under Executive Order No. 23, s. 1936 dated March 25, 1936. The shade of blue used here is Navy Blue, following suit from the American Flag.

1985–1986
Altered by Executive Order No. 1010, s. 1985 signed on February 25, 1985. The shade of blue was changed from Navy Blue to Light Blue, amidst debate on the shade used in the original flag. A pale Sky Blue was the actual colour used since it was more available at that time and not due to any specific historical precedent.

1986–1998
1936 version of the flag restored after the 1986 People Power Revolution. President Corazon C. Aquino restored the pre-martial law specifications of the National flag through Executive Order No. 292, s. 1987 which was signed on July 25, 1986.

1998–present
The Flag and Heraldic Code of the Philippines specifies the colours for the blue field Cable No. 80173; the white field, Cable No. 80001; the red field, Cable No. 80108; and the golden-yellow Stars and Sun, Cable No. 80068.[15][17] Colours introduced for the Centennial celebrations.[citation needed]

text: Proposals[edit]

text:
Proposals for changes to the Philippine flag

 Philippine flag with the proposed ninth ray.

 Osorio's proposal

 Proposal by former President Fidel V. Ramos

 Another proposal by former President Fidel V. Ramos

text: Ninth ray for the flag's sun[edit]

text: As representative of a ninth province[edit]

text: Prior to the 1998 independence centennial celebrations, the provincial government of Zambales lobbied that the sunburst design accommodate a ninth ray, reasoning that their province was also in a state of rebellion in 1896. The Centennial Commission however refuted this change, based on research by the National Historical Institute.[31] In August 2003, then Foreign Affairs Secretary Blas Ople also lobbied for a ninth ray, saying that Quezon province should be added. He reasons that the first uprising against the Spaniards happened at the foot of Mount Banahaw which was led by Hermano Pule in 1841.[32]

text: As representative of an ethnic group[edit]

text: As of  June 2018[update], there is a proposal to add a ninth ray to the Philippine flag's sun to represent the Moro people or Filipino Muslims, as well as other indigenous groups as well for their role against colonization.[citation needed] Senator Richard Gordon filed Senate Bill No. 2590 which aimed to amend Flag and Heraldic Code of the Philippines in 2008. This measure was later substituted by Senate Bill No. 3307 which was sponsored by Senator Francis Escudero which was approved in September 2009. The bill was sent to the House of Representatives for concurrence[33][34] which came up with House Bill 6424. Both S.B. No. 3307 and H.B. 6424 was reconciled by the Bicameral Conference Committee in September 2009.[35] In June 2018, Gordon renewed his campaign to get his proposal passed into law.[33]

text: As of  2014[update], the Ninth Ray movement is among the prominent groups pushing for the addition of a ninth ray to the flag's sun. Proponents of the movement believe that a ninth ray should be added to represent the Muslim and indigenous people of the country who kept colonizers away from their lands.[36]

text: Fourth star[edit]

text: Emmanuel L. Osorio, one of the founders of the Ninth Ray movement, came up with a proposal adding not only a ninth ray to the flag's sun but also adding a fourth star to the flag representing North Borneo (present-day Sabah), a territory claimed by the Philippines but currently under Malaysian sovereignty. The flag's triangle is changed into a rectangle to accommodate a fourth star. According to Osorio, the star representing Sabah in his proposed flag was added "in principle" and said the flag proposal seeks to express the Ninth Ray movement's view that "if we get Sabah, then it could be represented by the star".[36]

text: Crescent moon[edit]

text: There have been numerous proposals as to how the crescent moon should be incorporated into the flag, including one such proposal from former President Fidel V. Ramos.[37]

text: Usage[edit]

text: Display[edit]

text: The flag should be displayed in all government buildings, official residences, public plazas, and schools every day throughout the year. All other places as may be designated by the National Historical Commission as such.[38] The days of the 28th of May (National Flag Day) and the 12th of June (Independence Day) are designated as flag days, during which all offices, agencies and instrumentalities of government, business establishments, institutions of learning and private homes are enjoined to display the flag.[15] But in recent years, the flag days are now from May 28 to June 30 yearly to promote patriotism and to celebrate the nation's independence.

text: By law, the Philippine flag must be permanently hoisted and illuminated at night at the following locations:[15]

text:
Malacañang Palace, the official residence of the President of the Philippines

Senate of the Philippines building

House of Representatives of the Philippines building (Batasang Pambansa Complex)

Supreme Court of the Philippines building

Rizal Monument in Luneta, Manila

Aguinaldo Shrine in Kawit, Cavite

Tomb of the Unknown Soldier

Mausoleo de los Veteranos de la Revolución

All international ports of entry

All other places as maybe designated by the National Historical Commission of the Philippines

text: The display of the Philippine flag in cockpit arenas, casinos, disco venues, night and day clubs, gambling joints and "places of vice or where frivolity prevails" is illegal.[39]

text: Half-mast[edit]

text: The flag may be flown at half-mast as a sign of mourning.[15] Upon the official announcement of the death of the President or a former President, the flag should be flown at half-mast for ten days. The flag should be flown at half-mast for seven days following the death of the Vice President, the Chief Justice, the President of the Senate or the Speaker of the House of Representatives.

text: The flag may also be required to fly at half-mast upon the death of other persons to be determined by the National Historical Institute, for a period less than seven days. The flag shall be flown at half-mast on all the buildings and places where the decedent was holding office, on the day of death until the day of interment of an incumbent member of the Supreme Court, the Cabinet, the Senate or the House of Representatives, and such other persons as may be determined by the National Historical Commission.

text: When flown at half-mast, the flag should be first hoisted to the peak for a moment then lowered to the half-mast position. It should be raised to the peak again before it is lowered for the day.

text: A bill was filed on 2014, to mandate the flying of the flag at half-mast as a tribute to public school teachers. Under the proposal the flag shall be flown at half-mast for at least five days at the school or district office the deceased teacher was assigned.[40]

text: In wakes and burials[edit]

text: The flag may also be used to cover the caskets of the dead of the military and civil uniformed services, veterans of previous wars, national artists, and outstanding civilians as determined by the local government. In such cases, the flag must be placed such that the white triangle is at the head and the blue portion covers the right side of the casket. The flag should not be lowered to the grave or allowed to touch the ground, but should be solemnly folded and handed to the heirs of the deceased.

text: As a war ensign[edit]

text: The Philippines does not utilize a separate war flag; instead, the national flag itself is used for this purpose.[15] To indicate a state of war, the red field is flown upwards and is placed on the right (on the observer's left) if it is in a hanging position. In times of peace, however, the blue area is the superior field.[41][42] The orientation of the flag was used during the Philippine–American War from 1899 to 1901,[43] World War II by the Philippine Commonwealth from 1941 to 1945 and by the Japanese-sponsored Philippine Republic when it declared war against the United Kingdom and the United States in 1944,[44] the coup attempts during President Corazon Aquino's administration, and EDSA III.[45]

text: The only instance that the flag was not oriented with red as superior in a state of war was at its debut during the Battle of Alapan in 1898, 15 days before the Philippine Declaration of Independence in Kawit, Cavite.

text: In intellectual property[edit]

text: The Philippine Flag itself is not eligible to be trademarked according to the Intellectual Property Office of the Philippines (IPOPHIL) since the flag is "owned by the public" in line with prohibitions on the flag's usage stated in Republic Act 8491.[15] The Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property, which the Philippines is a member of, also prohibits the registration of the state flags of its members as trademark. However both small and large businesses in the Philippines has used elements of the Philippine flag for their intellectual property. When it comes to this concern, the IPOPHIL has allowed businesses to use elements of the flag to invoke the national symbol as long as the intellectual property is neither a "true representation" Philippine flag or a "modification that would amount to defacement of the flag".[46]

text: Prohibited acts[edit]

text: According to Republic Act 8491 itself, it shall be prohibited:[15]

text: The Act mandates that violators shall, upon conviction, be punished by fine or imprisonment.[15]

text: Relevant customs[edit]

text: Pledge[edit]

text: The Pledge of Allegiance to the Philippine flag (distinct from the Patriotic Oath of Allegiance) should be recited while standing with the right hand with palm open raised shoulder high. Individuals whose faith or religious beliefs prohibit them from making such pledge are permitted to excuse themselves, but are required by law to show full respect when the pledge is being rendered by standing at attention.[15]

text: The law makes no statement regarding the language in which the pledge must be recited, but the pledge is written (and therefore recited) in the Filipino language.

text: Flag anthem[edit]

text: Spanish, Tagalog and English versions of the national anthem have been given official status throughout Philippine history. However, only the most recent and current "Filipino" version is officially recognized by law. The Flag and Heraldic Code, approved on February 12, 1998 specifies, Lupang Hinirang, "The National Anthem shall always be sung in the national language within or without the country";[15] violation of the law is punishable by a fine and imprisonment.

text: National Flag Day[edit]

text: The National Flag Day in the Philippines is celebrated every May 28, the very day of the 1898 Battle of Alapan. The official National Flag flying period starts from May 28 and ends on Independence Day, June 12, every year, although the flying period for the flag in homes, businesses and public establishments may start on a specified day of May (to be given by the National Historical Commission of the Philippines) and may last until June 30.


document_title: Dante Alighieri

question_text: where did dante live after he was exiled

root

text: Dante Alighieri

text: Life[edit]

text: Early life[edit]

text: Dante was born in Florence, Republic of Florence, present-day Italy. The exact date of his birth is unknown, although it is generally believed to be around 1265. This can be deduced from autobiographic allusions in the Divine Comedy. Its first section, the Inferno, begins, "Nel mezzo del cammin di nostra vita" ("Midway upon the journey of our life"), implying that Dante was around 35 years old, since the average lifespan according to the Bible (Psalm 89:10, Vulgate) is 70 years; and since his imaginary travel to the nether world took place in 1300, he was most probably born around 1265. Some verses of the Paradiso section of the Divine Comedy also provide a possible clue that he was born under the sign of Gemini: "As I revolved with the eternal twins, I saw revealed, from hills to river outlets, the threshing-floor that makes us so ferocious" (XXII 151–154). In 1265, the sun was in Gemini between approximately May 11 and June 11 (Julian calendar).[4]

tag: p

text: Dante claimed that his family descended from the ancient Romans (Inferno, XV, 76), but the earliest relative he could mention by name was Cacciaguida degli Elisei (Paradiso, XV, 135), born no earlier than about 1100. Dante's father, Alaghiero[5] or Alighiero di Bellincione, was a White Guelph who suffered no reprisals after the Ghibellines won the Battle of Montaperti in the middle of the 13th century. This suggests that Alighiero or his family may have enjoyed some protective prestige and status, although some suggest that the politically inactive Alighiero was of such low standing that he was not considered worth exiling.[6]

text: Dante's family had loyalties to the Guelphs, a political alliance that supported the Papacy and which was involved in complex opposition to the Ghibellines, who were backed by the Holy Roman Emperor. The poet's mother was Bella, likely a member of the Abati family.[5] She died when Dante was not yet ten years old, and Alighiero soon married again, to Lapa di Chiarissimo Cialuffi. It is uncertain whether he really married her, since widowers were socially limited in such matters, but this woman definitely bore him two children, Dante's half-brother Francesco and half-sister Tana (Gaetana). When Dante was 12, he was promised in marriage to Gemma di Manetto Donati, daughter of Manetto Donati, member of the powerful Donati family.[5] Contracting marriages at this early age was quite common and involved a formal ceremony, including contracts signed before a notary. But by this time Dante had fallen in love with another, Beatrice Portinari (known also as Bice), whom he first met when he was only nine. Years after his marriage to Gemma he claims to have met Beatrice again; he wrote several sonnets to Beatrice but never mentioned Gemma in any of his poems. The exact date of his marriage is not known: the only certain information is that, before his exile in 1301, he had three children (Pietro, Jacopo and Antonia).[5]

text: Dante fought with the Guelph cavalry at the Battle of Campaldino (June 11, 1289).[7] This victory brought about a reformation of the Florentine constitution. To take any part in public life, one had to enroll in one of the city's many commercial or artisan guilds, so Dante entered the Physicians' and Apothecaries' Guild. In the following years, his name is occasionally recorded as speaking or voting in the various councils of the republic. A substantial portion of minutes from such meetings in the years 1298–1300 was lost, however, so the true extent of Dante's participation in the city's councils is uncertain.

text: Gemma bore Dante several children. Although several others subsequently claimed to be his offspring, it is likely that only Jacopo, Pietro, Giovanni and Antonia were his actual children. Antonia later became a nun, taking the name Sister Beatrice.

text: Education and poetry[edit]

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tag: table

text: Not much is known about Dante's education; he presumably studied at home or in a chapter school attached to a church or monastery in Florence. It is known that he studied Tuscan poetry and that he admired the compositions of the Bolognese poet Guido Guinizelli—whom in Purgatorio XXVI he characterized as his "father"—at a time when the Sicilian school (Scuola poetica Siciliana), a cultural group from Sicily, was becoming known in Tuscany. His interests brought him to discover the Provençal poetry of the troubadours, such as Arnaut Daniel, and the Latin writers of classical antiquity, including Cicero, Ovid and especially Virgil.[8]

text: Dante said he first met Beatrice Portinari, daughter of Folco Portinari, at age nine, and claimed to have fallen in love with her "at first sight", apparently without even talking with her.[9] He saw her frequently after age 18, often exchanging greetings in the street, but never knew her well. In effect, he set an example of so-called courtly love, a phenomenon developed in French and Provençal poetry of prior centuries. Dante's experience of such love was typical, but his expression of it was unique. It was in the name of this love that Dante left his imprint on the dolce stil novo (sweet new style, a term which Dante himself coined), and he would join other contemporary poets and writers in exploring never-before-emphasized aspects of love (Amore). Love for Beatrice (as Petrarch would show for Laura somewhat differently) would be his reason for poetry and for living, together with political passions. In many of his poems, she is depicted as semi-divine, watching over him constantly and providing spiritual instruction, sometimes harshly. When Beatrice died in 1290, Dante sought refuge in Latin literature.[10] The Convivio chronicles his having read Boethius's De consolatione philosophiae and Cicero's De Amicitia. He then dedicated himself to philosophical studies at religious schools like the Dominican one in Santa Maria Novella. He took part in the disputes that the two principal mendicant orders (Franciscan and Dominican) publicly or indirectly held in Florence, the former explaining the doctrines of the mystics and of St. Bonaventure, the latter expounding on the theories of St. Thomas Aquinas.[11]

text: At 18, Dante met Guido Cavalcanti, Lapo Gianni, Cino da Pistoia and soon after Brunetto Latini; together they became the leaders of the dolce stil novo. Brunetto later received special mention in the Divine Comedy (Inferno, XV, 28) for what he had taught Dante: Nor speaking less on that account I go With Ser Brunetto, and I ask who are his most known and most eminent companions.[12] Some fifty poetical commentaries by Dante are known (the so-called Rime, rhymes), others being included in the later Vita Nuova and Convivio. Other studies are reported, or deduced from Vita Nuova or the Comedy, regarding painting and music.

text: Florence and politics[edit]

text: Dante, like most Florentines of his day, was embroiled in the Guelph–Ghibelline conflict. He fought in the Battle of Campaldino (June 11, 1289), with the Florentine Guelphs against Arezzo Ghibellines;[7][13] then in 1294 he was among the escorts of Charles Martel of Anjou (grandson of Charles I of Naples, more commonly called Charles of Anjou) while he was in Florence. To further his political career, he became a pharmacist. He did not intend to practice as one, but a law issued in 1295 required nobles aspiring to public office to be enrolled in one of the Corporazioni delle Arti e dei Mestieri, so Dante obtained admission to the Apothecaries' Guild. This profession was not inappropriate, since at that time books were sold from apothecaries' shops. As a politician he accomplished little, but held various offices over some years in a city rife with political unrest.

text: After defeating the Ghibellines, the Guelphs divided into two factions: the White Guelphs (Guelfi Bianchi)—Dante's party, led by Vieri dei Cerchi—and the Black Guelphs (Guelfi Neri), led by Corso Donati. Although the split was along family lines at first, ideological differences arose based on opposing views of the papal role in Florentine affairs, with the Blacks supporting the Pope and the Whites wanting more freedom from Rome. The Whites took power first and expelled the Blacks. In response, Pope Boniface VIII planned a military occupation of Florence. In 1301, Charles of Valois, brother of King Philip IV of France, was expected to visit Florence because the Pope had appointed him peacemaker for Tuscany. But the city's government had treated the Pope's ambassadors badly a few weeks before, seeking independence from papal influence. It was believed that Charles had received other unofficial instructions, so the council sent a delegation to Rome to ascertain the Pope's intentions. Dante was one of the delegates.

text: Exile and death[edit]

text: Pope Boniface quickly dismissed the other delegates and asked Dante alone to remain in Rome. At the same time (November 1, 1301), Charles of Valois entered Florence with the Black Guelphs, who in the next six days destroyed much of the city and killed many of their enemies. A new Black Guelph government was installed, and Cante de' Gabrielli da Gubbio was appointed podestà of the city. In March 1302, Dante, a White Guelph by affiliation, along with the Gherardini family, was condemned to exile for two years and ordered to pay a large fine.[14] Dante was accused of corruption and financial wrongdoing by the Black Guelphs for the time that Dante was serving as city prior (Florence's highest position) for two months in 1300.[15] The poet was still in Rome in 1302 where the Pope, who had backed the Black Guelphs, had "suggested" that Dante stay. Florence under the Black Guelphs therefore considered Dante an absconder.[16] Dante did not pay the fine, in part because he believed he was not guilty and in part because all his assets in Florence had been seized by the Black Guelphs. He was condemned to perpetual exile; if he returned to Florence without paying the fine, he could have been burned at the stake. (In June 2008, nearly seven centuries after his death, the city council of Florence passed a motion rescinding Dante's sentence.)[17]

text: He took part in several attempts by the White Guelphs to regain power, but these failed due to treachery. Dante, bitter at the treatment he received from his enemies, also grew disgusted with the infighting and ineffectiveness of his erstwhile allies and vowed to become a party of one. He went to Verona as a guest of Bartolomeo I della Scala, then moved to Sarzana in Liguria. Later he is supposed to have lived in Lucca with a woman called Gentucca, who made his stay comfortable (and was later gratefully mentioned in Purgatorio, XXIV, 37). Some speculative sources claim he visited Paris between 1308 and 1310, and other sources even less trustworthy took him to Oxford: these claims, first occurring in Boccaccio's book on Dante several decades after his death, seem inspired by readers who were impressed with the poet's wide learning and erudition. Evidently, Dante's command of philosophy and his literary interests deepened in exile and when he was no longer busy with the day-to-day business of Florentine domestic politics, and this is evidenced in his prose writings in this period, but there is no real evidence that he ever left Italy. Dante's Immensa Dei dilectione testante to Henry VII of Luxembourg confirms his residence "beneath the springs of Arno, near Tuscany" in March 1311.

text: In 1310, Holy Roman Emperor Henry VII of Luxembourg marched into Italy at the head of 5,000 troops. Dante saw in him a new Charlemagne who would restore the office of the Holy Roman Emperor to its former glory and also retake Florence from the Black Guelphs. He wrote to Henry and several Italian princes, demanding that they destroy the Black Guelphs. Mixing religion and private concerns in his writings, he invoked the worst anger of God against his city and suggested several particular targets that were also his personal enemies. It was during this time that he wrote De Monarchia, proposing a universal monarchy under Henry VII.

text: At some point during his exile, he conceived of the Comedy, but the date is uncertain. The work is much more assured and on a larger scale than anything he had produced in Florence; it is likely he would have undertaken such a work only after he realized his political ambitions, which had been central to him up to his banishment, had been halted for some time, possibly forever. It is also noticeable that Beatrice has returned to his imagination with renewed force and with a wider meaning than in the Vita Nuova; in Convivio (written c.1304–07) he had declared that the memory of this youthful romance belonged to the past.

text: An early outside indication that the poem was under way is a notice by Francesco da Barberino, tucked into his Documenti d'Amore (Lessons of Love), written probably in 1314 or early 1315. Speaking of Virgil, Francesco notes in appreciative words that Dante followed the Roman classic in a poem called "Comedy" and that the setting of this poem (or part of it) was the underworld; i.e., hell.[18] The brief note gives no incontestable indication that he himself had seen or read even the Inferno or that this part had been published at the time, but it indicates composition was well under way and that the sketching of the poem might have begun some years before. (It has been suggested that a knowledge of Dante's work also underlies some of the illuminations in Francesco da Barberino's earlier Officiolum [c. 1305–08], a manuscript that came to light only in 2003.[19]) We know that the Inferno had been published by 1317; this is established by quoted lines interspersed in the margins of contemporary dated records from Bologna, but there is no certainty as to whether the three parts of the poem were each published in full or, rather, a few cantos at a time. Paradiso seems to have been published posthumously.

text: In Florence, Baldo d'Aguglione pardoned most of the White Guelphs in exile and allowed them to return. However, Dante had gone too far in his violent letters to Arrigo (Henry VII) and his sentence was not revoked.

text: In 1312 Henry assaulted Florence and defeated the Black Guelphs, but there is no evidence that Dante was involved. Some say he refused to participate in the assault on his city by a foreigner; others suggest that he had become unpopular with the White Guelphs, too, and that any trace of his passage had carefully been removed. Henry VII died (from a fever) in 1313, and with him any hope for Dante to see Florence again. He returned to Verona, where Cangrande I della Scala allowed him to live in certain security and, presumably, in a fair degree of prosperity. Cangrande was admitted to Dante's Paradise (Paradiso, XVII, 76).

text: During the period of his exile Dante corresponded with Dominican theologian Fr. Nicholas Brunacci OP [1240–1322] who had been a student of Thomas Aquinas at the Santa Sabina studium in Rome, and later at Paris.[20][21] and of Albert the Great at the Cologne studium.[22] Brunacci became lector at the Santa Sabina studium, forerunner of the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, and later served in the papal curia.[23]

text: In 1315, Florence was forced by Uguccione della Faggiuola (the military officer controlling the town) to grant an amnesty to those in exile, including Dante. But for this, Florence required public penance in addition to a heavy fine. Dante refused, preferring to remain in exile. When Uguccione defeated Florence, Dante's death sentence was commuted to house arrest on condition that he go to Florence to swear he would never enter the town again. He refused to go, and his death sentence was confirmed and extended to his sons. He still hoped late in life that he might be invited back to Florence on honorable terms. For Dante, exile was nearly a form of death, stripping him of much of his identity and his heritage. He addressed the pain of exile in Paradiso, XVII (55–60), where Cacciaguida, his great-great-grandfather, warns him what to expect:

text:
... Tu lascerai ogne cosa diletta
più caramente; e questo è quello strale
che l'arco de lo essilio pria saetta.
Tu proverai sì come sa di sale
lo pane altrui, e come è duro calle
lo scendere e 'l salir per l'altrui scale ...

... You shall leave everything you love most:
this is the arrow that the bow of exile
shoots first. You are to know the bitter taste
of others' bread, how salty it is, and know
how hard a path it is for one who goes
ascending and descending others' stairs ...

text: As for the hope of returning to Florence, he describes it as if he had already accepted its impossibility (in Paradiso, XXV, 1–9):

text:
Se mai continga che 'l poema sacro
al quale ha posto mano e cielo e terra,
sì che m'ha fatto per molti anni macro,
vinca la crudeltà che fuor mi serra
del bello ovile ov'io dormi' agnello,
nimico ai lupi che li danno guerra;
con altra voce omai, con altro vello
ritornerò poeta, e in sul fonte
del mio battesmo prenderò 'l cappello ...

If it ever comes to pass that the sacred poem
to which both heaven and earth have set their hand
so as to have made me lean for many years
should overcome the cruelty that bars me
from the fair sheepfold where I slept as a lamb,
an enemy to the wolves that make war on it,
with another voice now and other fleece
I shall return a poet and at the font
of my baptism take the laurel crown ...

text: Alighieri accepted Prince Guido Novello da Polenta's invitation to Ravenna in 1318. He finished Paradiso, and died in 1321 (aged 56) while returning to Ravenna from a diplomatic mission to Venice, possibly of malaria contracted there. He was buried in Ravenna at the Church of San Pier Maggiore (later called San Francesco). Bernardo Bembo, praetor of Venice, erected a tomb for him in 1483.

text: On the grave, some verses of Bernardo Canaccio, a friend of Dante, dedicated to Florence:

text:
parvi Florentia mater amoris

Florence, mother of little love

text: Legacy[edit]

text: The first formal biography of Dante was the Vita di Dante (also known as Trattatello in laude di Dante), written after 1348 by Giovanni Boccaccio;[24] Although several statements and episodes of it have been deemed unreliable on the basis of modern research, an earlier account of Dante's life and works had been included in the Nuova Cronica of the Florentine chronicler Giovanni Villani.[25]

text: Florence eventually came to regret Dante's exile, and the city made repeated requests for the return of his remains. The custodians of the body in Ravenna refused, at one point going so far as to conceal the bones in a false wall of the monastery. Nonetheless, a tomb was built for him in Florence in 1829, in the Basilica of Santa Croce. That tomb has been empty ever since, with Dante's body remaining in Ravenna, far from the land he had loved so dearly. The front of his tomb in Florence reads Onorate l'altissimo poeta—which roughly translates as "Honor the most exalted poet". The phrase is a quote from the fourth canto of the Inferno, depicting Virgil's welcome as he returns among the great ancient poets spending eternity in limbo. The ensuing line, L'ombra sua torna, ch'era dipartita ("his spirit, which had left us, returns"), is poignantly absent from the empty tomb.

text: On April 30, 1921, in honor of the 600th anniversary of Dante's death, Pope Benedict XV promulgated an encyclical named In praeclara summorum, calling him one "of the many celebrated geniuses of whom the Catholic faith can boast" and the "pride and glory of humanity".[26]

text: In 2007, a reconstruction of Dante's face was undertaken in a collaborative project. Artists from Pisa University and engineers at the University of Bologna at Forlì constructed the model, portraying Dante's features as somewhat different from what was once thought.[27][28]

text: In 2008, the Municipality of Florence officially apologized for expelling Dante 700 years earlier.[29]

text: A celebration was held in 2015 for the 750th anniversary of his birth.[30][31]

text: Works[edit]

text: The Divine Comedy describes Dante's journey through Hell (Inferno), Purgatory (Purgatorio), and Paradise (Paradiso); he is first guided by the Roman poet Virgil and then by Beatrice, the subject of his love (and of another of his works, La Vita Nuova). While the vision of Hell, the Inferno, is vivid for most modern readers, the theological niceties presented in the other books require a certain amount of patience and knowledge to appreciate. Purgatorio is arguably the most lyrical of the three, referencing more contemporary poets and artists than Inferno; Paradiso is the most heavily theological, and the one in which, many scholars have argued, the Divine Comedy's most beautiful and mystic passages appear (e.g., when Dante looks into the face of God: "all'alta fantasia qui mancò possa"—"at this high moment, ability failed my capacity to describe," Paradiso, XXXIII, 142).

text: With its seriousness of purpose, its literary stature and the range—both stylistic and thematic—of its content, the Comedy soon became a cornerstone in the evolution of Italian as an established literary language. Dante was more aware than most early Italian writers of the variety of Italian dialects and of the need to create a literature and a unified literary language beyond the limits of Latin writing at the time; in that sense, he is a forerunner of the Renaissance, with its effort to create vernacular literature in competition with earlier classical writers. Dante's in-depth knowledge (within the limits of his time) of Roman antiquity, and his evident admiration for some aspects of pagan Rome, also point forward to the 15th century. Ironically, while he was widely honored in the centuries after his death, the Comedy slipped out of fashion among men of letters: too medieval, too rough and tragic, and not stylistically refined in the respects that the high and late Renaissance came to demand of literature.

text: He wrote the Comedy in a language he called "Italian", in some sense an amalgamated literary language mostly based on the regional dialect of Tuscany, but with some elements of Latin and other regional dialects.[32] He deliberately aimed to reach a readership throughout Italy including laymen, clergymen and other poets. By creating a poem of epic structure and philosophic purpose, he established that the Italian language was suitable for the highest sort of expression. In French, Italian is sometimes nicknamed la langue de Dante. Publishing in the vernacular language marked Dante as one of the first in Roman Catholic Western Europe (among others such as Geoffrey Chaucer and Giovanni Boccaccio) to break free from standards of publishing in only Latin (the language of liturgy, history and scholarship in general, but often also of lyric poetry). This break set a precedent and allowed more literature to be published for a wider audience, setting the stage for greater levels of literacy in the future. However, unlike Boccaccio, Milton or Ariosto, Dante did not really become an author read all over Europe until the Romantic era. To the Romantics, Dante, like Homer and Shakespeare, was a prime example of the "original genius" who sets his own rules, creates persons of overpowering stature and depth, and goes far beyond any imitation of the patterns of earlier masters; and who, in turn, cannot truly be imitated. Throughout the 19th century, Dante's reputation grew and solidified; and by 1865, the 600th anniversary of his birth, he had become established as one of the greatest literary icons of the Western world.

text: New readers often wonder how such a serious work may be called a "comedy". In the classical sense the word comedy refers to works which reflect belief in an ordered universe, in which events tend toward not only a happy or amusing ending but one influenced by a Providential will that orders all things to an ultimate good. By this meaning of the word, as Dante himself wrote in a letter to Cangrande I della Scala, the progression of the pilgrimage from Hell to Paradise is the paradigmatic expression of comedy, since the work begins with the pilgrim's moral confusion and ends with the vision of God.

text: Dante's other works include Convivio ("The Banquet"),[33] a collection of his longest poems with an (unfinished) allegorical commentary; Monarchia,[34] a summary treatise of political philosophy in Latin which was condemned and burned after Dante's death[35][36] by the Papal Legate Bertrando del Poggetto, which argues for the necessity of a universal or global monarchy in order to establish universal peace in this life, and this monarchy's relationship to the Roman Catholic Church as guide to eternal peace; De vulgari eloquentia ("On the Eloquence of Vernacular"),[37] on vernacular literature, partly inspired by the Razos de trobar of Raimon Vidal de Bezaudun; and La Vita Nuova ("The New Life"),[38] the story of his love for Beatrice Portinari, who also served as the ultimate symbol of salvation in the Comedy. The Vita Nuova contains many of Dante's love poems in Tuscan, which was not unprecedented; the vernacular had been regularly used for lyric works before, during all the thirteenth century. However, Dante's commentary on his own work is also in the vernacular—both in the Vita Nuova and in the Convivio—instead of the Latin that was almost universally used. References to Divina Commedia are in the format (book, canto, verse), e.g., (Inferno, XV, 76).

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Bloom, Harold (1994). The Western Canon.
Jump up ^ Shaw, Prue (2014). Reading Dante: From Here to Eternity. New York: Liveright Publishign Corporation. pp. Introduction. ISBN 9780871407429.  |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Haller, Elizabeth K. (2012). "Dante Alighieri". In Matheson, Lister M. Icons of the Middle Ages: Rulers, Writers, Rebels, and Saints. 1. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood. p. 244. ISBN 978-0-313-34080-2.
Jump up ^ His birth date is listed as "probably in the end of May" by Robert Hollander in "Dante" in Dictionary of the Middle Ages, volume 4. According to Boccaccio, the poet himself said he was born in May. See "Alighieri, Dante" in the Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Chimenz, S.A. Alighieri, Dante. Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani (in Italian). Enciclopedia Italiana. Retrieved 2016-03-07.
Jump up ^ Santagata, Marco (2012). Dante: Il romanzo della sua vita. Milan: Mondadori. p. 21. ISBN 978-8804620266.
^ Jump up to: a b Davenport, John (2005). Dante: Poet, Author, and Proud Florentine. Infobase Publishing. p. 53. ISBN 978-1-4381-0415-7. Retrieved 2016-03-07.
Jump up ^ Alighieri, Dante (2007-10-29). "Dante Alighieri". Dante Alighieri. Retrieved 2017-08-23.
Jump up ^ Dante Alighieri (2013). Delphi Complete Works of Dante Alighieri. 6 (Illustrated ed.). Delphi Classics. ISBN 9781909496194.
Jump up ^ Alleen Pace Nilsen, Don L. F. Nilsen (2007). Names and Naming in Young Adult Literature. 27. Scarecrow Press. p. 133. ISBN 9780810866850.
Jump up ^ Dante Alighieri (1904). Philip Henry Wicksteed, Herman Oelsner, ed. The Paradiso of Dante Alighieri (fifth ed.). J.M. Dent and Company. p. 129.
Jump up ^ Jay Ruud (2008). Critical Companion to Dante. Infobase Publishing. p. 138. ISBN 9781438108414.
Jump up ^ "Guelphs and Ghibellines". Dante Alighieri Society of Massachusetts. Archived from the original on December 12, 2015. Retrieved December 30, 2015.
Jump up ^ Dino Compagni, Cronica delle cose occorrenti ne' tempi suoi
Jump up ^ Robert Harrison, "Dante on Trial", NY Review of Books, 19 Feb 2015, pp. 36–37
Jump up ^ Harrison, p. 36.
Jump up ^ Malcolm Moore "Dante's infernal crimes forgiven", Daily Telegraph, June 17, 2008. Retrieved on June 18, 2008.
Jump up ^ See Bookrags.com and Tigerstedt, E.N. 1967, Dante; Tiden Mannen Verket (Dante; The Age, the Man, the Work), Bonniers, Stockholm, 1967.[dead link]
Jump up ^ Fabio M. Bertolo (2003). "L′Officiolum ritrovato di Francesco da Barberino". Spolia – Journal of Medieval Studies. Retrieved August 18, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Aquinatis: Vida de Santo Tomás de Aquino". Aquinatis.blogspot.com. Retrieved 2017-03-27.
Jump up ^ "Le famiglie Brunacci". Brunacci.it. Retrieved 2017-03-27.
Jump up ^ Eugenio Garin. History of Italian Philosophy: VIBS. Books.google.com. p. 85. Retrieved 2017-03-27.
Jump up ^ "Frater Nicolaus Brunatii [† 1322] sacerdos et predicator gratiosus, fuit lector castellanus, arectinus, perusinus, urbevetanus et romanus apud Sanctam Sabinam tempore quo papa erat in Urbe, viterbiensis et florentinus in studio generali legens ibidem annis tribus (Cr Pg 37v). Cuius sollicita procuratione conventus perusinus meruit habere gratiam a summo pontifice papa Benedicto XI ecclesiam scilicet et parrochiam Sancti Stephani tempore quo [maggio 13041 ipse prior actu in Perusio erat (Cr Pg 38r)". E-theca.net. Retrieved May 9, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Dante Alighieri". The Catholic Encyclopedia. Retrieved May 2, 2010.
Jump up ^ Vauchez, André; Dobson, Richard Barrie; Lapidge, Michael (2000). Encyclopedia of the Middle Ages. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers. p. 1517. ; Caesar, Michael (1989). Dante, the Critical Heritage, 1314(?)–1870. London: Routledge. p. xi.
Jump up ^ "In praeclara summorum: Encyclical of Pope Benedict XV on Dante". The Holy See. Retrieved Nov. 7, 2014.
Jump up ^ Pullella, Philip (January 12, 2007). "Dante gets posthumous nose job – 700 years on". Statesman. Reuters. Retrieved November 5, 2007.
Jump up ^ Benazzi, S (2009). "The Face of the Poet Dante Alighieri, Reconstructed by Virtual Modeling and Forensic Anthropology Techniques". Journal of Archaeological Science. 36 (2): 278–283. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2008.09.006.
Jump up ^ Florence sorry for banishing Dante
Jump up ^ "Messaggio del Santo Padre al Presidente del Pontificio Consiglio della Cultura in occasione della celebrazione del 750° anniversario della nascita di Dante Alighieri". Press.vatican.va. Archived from the original on 2015-05-04. Retrieved 2015-10-21.
Jump up ^ "Translator". Microsofttranslator.com. Retrieved 2015-10-21.
Jump up ^ Dante at Encyclopædia Britannica
Jump up ^ "Banquet". Dante online. Retrieved September 2, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Monarchia". Dante online. Retrieved September 2, 2008.
Jump up ^ Anthony K. Cassell The Monarchia Controversy. The Monarchia stayed on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum from its inception until 1881.
Jump up ^ Giuseppe Cappelli, La divina commedia di Dante Alighieri, in Italian.
Jump up ^ "De vulgari Eloquentia". Dante online. Retrieved September 2, 2008.
Jump up ^ "New Life". Dante online. Retrieved September 2, 2008.

tag: ol


document_title: World's Finest Chocolate

question_text: where does world's finest chocolate come from

question_tokens: where does world 's finest chocolate come from

text: World's Finest Chocolate

text: This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (May 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
World's Finest Chocolate

Type

Private

Founded
1949

Headquarters
Chicago, Illinois, U.S.

Products
Chocolate

Website
WorldsFinestChocolate.com

text: World's Finest Chocolate is a chocolate company based in Chicago, Illinois.[1] The company was founded as E & A Opler, Inc. in 1922.[2]

text: The company has sold more than 5 billion chocolate bars, their best-known product.[3] They manufacture chocolate "from bean to bar", and source cocoa beans from their own cocoa farm in St. Lucia.[3] These chocolate bars are frequently sold in fundraisers.


document_title: General Schedule (US civil service pay scale)

question_text: what is a gs 11 equivalent to in the military

text: History[edit]

text: The GS was enacted into law by the Classification Act of 1949, which replaced a similar act of the same name (except for the 1949 part) enacted in 1923. The GS is now codified as part of Chapter 53 of Title 5 of the United States Code sections 5331 to 5338 (5 U.S.C. §§ 5331–5338). The pay scale was originally created with the purpose of keeping federal salaries in line with equivalent private sector jobs. Although never the intent, the GS schedule does do a good job of ensuring equal pay for equal work by reducing pay gaps between men, women, and minorities, in accordance with another, separate law, the Equal Pay Act of 1963.

text: Prior to January 1994, GS personnel were generally paid the same amount (for a given grade and step) regardless of where they worked. This system ignored the growing reality of regional differences in salaries and wages across the United States, and this led to a perception that in many locations federal civil service salaries were increasingly uncompetitive with those in the private sector, thus affecting recruiting and retention efforts by federal agencies. In January 1994, the Federal Employees Pay Comparability Act of 1990 (FEPCA) introduced a "locality pay adjustment" component to the GS salary structure. Both Republican and Democratic administrations have complained about the methodology used to compute locality adjustments and the projected cost of closing the pay gap (as determined by FEPCA) between federal salaries and those in the private sector. In December 2007, the President's Pay Agent reported that an average locality pay adjustment of 36.89 per cent would be required to reach the target set by FEPCA (to close the computed pay gap between federal and non-federal pay to a disparity of five per cent). By comparison, in calendar year 2007, the average locality pay adjustment actually authorized was 16.88 per cent. As a result, FEPCA has never been fully implemented.

text: Administration[edit]

text: The Office of Personnel Management administers the GS pay schedule on behalf of other federal agencies.

text: Changes to the GS must normally be authorized by either the president (via Executive Order) or by Congress (via legislation). Normally, the President directs annual across-the-board pay adjustments at the beginning of a calendar year after Congress has passed the annual appropriations legislation for the federal government.

text: Under FEPCA, the Bureau of Labor Statistics conducts annual surveys of wages and salaries paid to non-federal workers in designated locality pay areas. Surveys are used to determine the disparity, if any, between federal and non-federal pay in a given locality pay area. The Federal Salary Council (created by FEPCA) prepares recommendations concerning the composition of the designated locality pay areas and the annual comparability adjustment for each area, as well as an adjustment for all other workers outside these areas, referred to as "Rest of U.S.". The council's recommendations are transmitted to the President's Pay Agent (also created by FEPCA), which then establishes, modifies, or disestablishes individual locality pay areas and makes the final recommendation on pay adjustments to the president, who may either accept the agent's recommendations or (in effect) reject them through the submission of an alternative pay plan.

text: FEPCA also provides for an automatic annual across-the-board adjustment of GS pay rates. A common misconception is that the annual federal pay adjustments are determined according to cost of living fluctuations and other regional considerations. In fact, the across-the-board adjustments to the GS (but not locality pay) are determined according to the rise in the cost of employment as measured by the Department of Labor's Employment Cost Index, which does not necessarily correlate to the better-known Consumer Price Index, which tracks consumer prices.

text: Grade and step structure[edit]

text: The GS is separated into 15 grades (GS-1, GS-2, etc. up to GS-15); each grade is separated into 10 steps. At one time, there were also three GS "supergrades" (GS-16, GS-17 and GS-18); these were eliminated under the provisions of the Civil Service Reform Act of 1978 and replaced by the Senior Executive Service and the more recent Senior Level (non-supervisory) pay scale.

text: Most positions in the competitive service are paid according to the GS. In addition, many positions in the excepted service use the GS as a basis for setting pay rates. Some positions in the excepted service use the grade designator "GG"—for example, "GG-12" or "GG-13". The GG pay rates are generally identical to published GS pay rates.

text: The GS-1 through GS-7 range generally marks entry-level positions, while mid-level positions are in the GS-8 to GS-12 range and top-level positions (senior managers, high-level technical specialists, or physicians) are in the GS-13 to GS-15 range. A new GS employee is normally employed in the first step of their assigned GS grade, although the employer has discretion to, as a recruiting incentive, authorize initial appointment at a higher step (other agencies may place the employee at a higher grade). In most professional occupations, entry to mid-level positions are classified at two-grade intervals—that is, an employee would advance from GS-5 to GS-7, then to GS-9 and finally to GS-11, skipping grades 6, 8 and 10.

text: Advancement between steps within the same grade[edit]

text: Permanent employees below step 10 in their grade normally earn step increases after serving a prescribed period of service in at least a satisfactory manner. The normal progression is 52 weeks (one year) between steps 1–2, 2–3, and 3–4, then 104 weeks (two years) between steps 4–5, 5–6, and 6–7, and finally 156 weeks (three years) between steps 7–8, 8–9, and 9–10.[2] However, an employee can be rewarded for outstanding work performance via a "quality step increase" ("QSI"), which advances the employee one step within grade regardless of time at the previous step.[3] (When a QSI is awarded, the date of the QSI becomes the starting date for the next step increase, which (if future step increases are awarded on the normal progression) will shorten the overall time for an employee to reach the final step within a grade.)

text: Advancement between grades[edit]

text: Depending on the agency and the work description, a GS position may provide for advancement within a "career ladder," meaning that an employee performing satisfactorily will advance between GS grades, normally on an annual basis, until he(she) has reached the top GS grade for that job (which represents full performance). Advancement beyond the top grade (to either a specialized technical position or to a managerial position) would be subject to competitive selection.

text: Not all positions, however, provide for such a "career ladder," thus requiring employees who seek advancement to consider other career paths, either within their agency or outside it.

text: An example is the "career ladder" for auditors within the Defense Contract Audit Agency (DCAA). The "entry level" grade within DCAA is the GS-7 level (though the GS-9 level can also be used) and the "career ladder" is GS-7 to GS-9 to GS-11 and finally to GS-12, with the employee expected to advance between grades after one year and to reach the GS-12 level after three years. Beyond the GS-12 level, advancements to the higher levels (GS-13, GS-14, and GS-15, most of which are managerial positions) are based on competitive selections.

text: Furthermore, if an employee is promoted to a grade which is not part of the career ladder (such as a promotion to a supervisory position), the employee's salary is set at the step within the higher grade nearest the employee's current salary (but never below the current salary), plus additional steps to reward the employee for the promotion and to account for the increased responsibilities that go along with the new position. As an example (and not including locality adjustments), an employee at GS-12 Step 10 (base salary $79,936) being promoted to a GS-13 position would initially have his/her salary set at GS-13 Step 4 (base salary $80,426, as it is the nearest salary to GS-12 Step 10 but not lower than it), and then have his/her salary adjusted to a higher step (such as GS-13 Step 6, having a base salary of $85,300).

text: Salary calculation[edit]

text: Salaries under the GS have two components: a base salary and a "locality pay adjustment".

text: Base salary[edit]

text: The base salary is based on a table compiled by Office of Personnel Management (the 2017 table is shown below),[4] and is used as the baseline for the locality pay adjustment. The increases between steps for Grades GS-1 and GS-2 varies between the steps; for Grades GS-3 through GS-15 the increases between the steps are the same within the grade, but increase as the grade increases. The table is revised effective January of each year to reflect the basic cost of living adjustment (known as the General Schedule Increase).

text:
Grade
Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4
Step 5
Step 6
Step 7
Step 8
Step 9
Step 10

1
$18,526
$19,146
$19,762
$20,375
$20,991
$21,351
$21,960
$22,575
$22,599
$23,171

2
$20,829
$21,325
$22,015
$22,599
$22,853
$23,525
$24,197
$24,869
$25,541
$26,213

3
$22,727
$23,485
$24,243
$25,001
$25,759
$26,517
$27,275
$28,033
$28,791
$29,549

4
$25,514
$26,364
$27,214
$28,064
$28,914
$29,764
$30,614
$31,464
$32,314
$33,164

5
$28,545
$29,497
$30,449
$31,401
$32,353
$33,305
$34,257
$35,209
$36,161
$37,113

6
$31,819
$32,880
$33,941
$35,002
$36,063
$37,124
$38,185
$39,246
$40,307
$41,368

7
$35,359
$36,538
$37,717
$38,896
$40,075
$41,254
$42,433
$43,612
$44,791
$45,970

8
$39,159
$40,464
$41,769
$43,074
$44,379
$45,684
$46,989
$48,294
$49,599
$50,904

9
$43,251
$44,693
$46,135
$47,577
$49,019
$50,461
$51,903
$53,345
$54,787
$56,229

10
$47,630
$49,218
$50,806
$52,394
$53,982
$55,570
$57,158
$58,746
$60,334
$61,922

11
$52,329
$54,073
$55,817
$57,561
$59,305
$61,049
$62,793
$64,537
$66,281
$68,025

12
$62,722
$64,813
$66,904
$68,995
$71,086
$73,177
$75,268
$77,359
$79,450
$81,541

13
$74,584
$77,070
$79,556
$82,042
$84,528
$87,014
$89,500
$91,986
$94,472
$96,958

14
$88,136
$91,074
$94,012
$96,950
$99,888
$102,826
$105,764
$108,702
$111,640
$114,578

15
$103,672
$107,128
$110,584
$114,040
$117,496
$120,952
$124,408
$127,864
$131,320
$134,776

text: Some positions have their own unique GS scales, with one notable example being patent examiners. For example, as of 2017, a newly hired examiner at the lowest possible pay for that position (GS-5, Step 1) currently earns $43,674, whether based at the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) headquarters in Alexandria, Virginia or the agency's satellite offices in Dallas, Denver, Detroit, and Silicon Valley. Under the laws governing special GS scales, employees whose positions are covered by those scales earn either the special scale salary, or the standard GS scale salary plus a locality adjustment (see below), whichever is higher. GS-5 examiners receive a 53% supplement from the standard GS scale; this supplement drops until reaching a final value of 33% at GS-12 and up. Of the metropolitan areas that have USPTO offices, only the San Francisco Bay Area has a locality adjustment higher than 33% (more precisely, 38.17%); this means that the only examiners who would be paid on the standard scale are GS-12 and higher employees based in Silicon Valley. The high end of the examiner scale is also elevated with respect to the normal GS scale; a GS-15 examiner at Step 7 or higher earns a salary of $161,900.[5]

text: Another notable exception is the United States Secret Service Uniformed Division. The pay scales for Uniformed Division employees replace grade numbers with ranks, and the lowest starting salary a new officer can receive, with the locality adjustment for basic training, is $56,681 as of January 2017[6].

text: Locality adjustment[edit]

text: The second component of the GS salary, the locality pay adjustment, was introduced in 1994 as part of the Federal Employees Pay Comparability Act of 1990 (FEPCA). Prior to FEPCA, all GS employees received the same salary regardless of location, which failed to reflect both the disparity between public sector and private sector pay as well as differences in cost of living in major metropolitan areas. As noted earlier, an employee in a position with a special GS scale does not receive a locality adjustment unless the standard scale plus the adjustment elevates the employee's salary to a higher level than that called for in the special scale of that position.

text: Under FEPCA, specified metropolitan areas, plus Alaska and Hawaii, are designated to receive pay adjustments in excess of the general adjustment provided to the "Rest of U.S.". Salary adjustments in other U.S. Territories and for overseas employees are separate from this adjustment. As of 2017[update], 44 metropolitan areas, plus the entire states of Alaska and Hawaii, have been designated to receive this excess adjustment. The designated areas (shown by major city, except for Alaska and Hawaii) and their 2017 pay adjustments (plus the "Rest of U.S." adjustment) are as follows:

text:
Area
Adjustment
Area
Adjustment
Area
Adjustment
Area
Adjustment
Area
Adjustment
Area
Adjustment

Alaska
27.13%
Cincinnati
19.52%
Harrisburg
15.63%
Los Angeles
29.65%
Portland
21.95%
Washington, D.C.
27.10%

Albany
15.85%
Cleveland
19.71%
Hartford
27.57%
Miami
22.13%
Raleigh
19.02%
"Rest of U.S."
15.06%

Albuquerque
15.36%
Colorado Springs
15.99%
Hawaii
17.92%
Milwaukee
19.61%
Richmond
18.19%

Atlanta
20.70%
Columbus
18.49%
Houston
30.97%
Minneapolis
22.72%
Sacramento
24.14%

Austin
15.97%
Dallas
22.61%
Huntsville
17.82%
New York City
31.22%
St. Louis
15.83%

Boston
26.73%
Davenport
15.56%
Indianapolis
15.85%
Palm Bay
15.48%
San Diego
26.98%

Buffalo
18.66%
Dayton
17.59%
Kansas City
15.59%
Philadelphia
23.87%
San Jose
38.17%

Charlotte
15.65%
Denver
24.65%
Laredo
16.68%
Phoenix
18.57%
Seattle
24.24%

Chicago
26.85%
Detroit
25.68%
Las Vegas
15.93%
Pittsburgh
17.86%
Tucson
15.66%

text: As an example of the overall calculation, in 2016 a GS employee, Grade GS-12, Step 10 in Dallas would have received a base salary of $80,731 plus a locality pay adjustment of 21.04 percent (an additional $16,986) for a total salary of $97,717. By comparison, a similar employee in San Antonio (which then, as now, was not one of the 47 designated areas for an increased adjustment) would have received only the standard "Rest of U.S." 14.35 percent increase (an additional $11,585) over the same $80,731 base salary, for a total salary of $92,316. (A patent examiner at the same grade and step level would have received $107,372 at any location except the Silicon Valley office, where the salary would be $109,592 [$80,731 plus $28,861 locality adjustment].)

text: However, FEPCA places a cap on the total salary of highly paid employees (mainly those at the higher GS-15 Grade steps) – the total base pay plus locality adjustment cannot exceed the salary for employees under Level IV of the Executive Schedule, which as of January 2017 was $161,900.

text: The locality pay adjustment is counted as part of the "high-3" salary in calculating Federal Employees Retirement System (FERS) and Civil Service Retirement System (CSRS) annuities, as well as the baseline for individuals having a percentage of salary deducted for deposit into the Thrift Savings Plan.

text: Personnel outside the United States[edit]

text: Personnel based outside the United States (e.g. U.S. territories, foreign overseas areas) receive a lower locality adjustment (4.76 percent for 2010). However, they may also receive certain non-taxable allowances such as cost-of-living allowances, post allowances and housing allowances in accordance with other laws, such as the Foreign Service Act. Federal civilian workers based in CONUS do not normally receive housing allowances or government-furnished housing. Also, some civilian personnel stationed overseas do not receive housing allowances; this may include military dependents working in federal civilian positions overseas, military members that left the service while overseas and were hired into an overseas position, and U.S. citizens hired into overseas positions while traveling abroad.

text: In contrast, the tax-free allowances paid during overseas assignments (especially the housing allowances) are generally considered to be an incentive to serve overseas, as they can be quite generous. While this situation may be advantageous to some personnel during their assignment overseas, these tax-free allowances are not considered to be part of one's salary, therefore they are not counted when computing a civil service annuity at retirement. CONUS locality adjustments, however, are counted when computing annuities.

text: Employees stationed in Alaska and Hawaii were formerly considered OCONUS and received a cost of living adjustment, but are being phased into the domestic locality pay system.

text: NOTE:"Employees of the U.S. Government are not entitled to the foreign earned income exclusion or the foreign housing exclusion/deduction under section 911 because “foreign earned income” does not include amounts paid by the U.S. Government as an employee. But see Other Employment, later"[7]

text: Comparison between civilian and military rank equivalents[edit]

text: Protocol Precedence Lists for civilian and military personnel have been developed by each of the Department of Defense organizations to establish the order of government, military, and civic leaders for diplomatic, ceremonial, and social events. Protocol is a code of established guidelines on proper etiquette. Precedence is defined as priority in place, time, or rank. In the government, military and diplomatic corps, precedence among individuals' positions plays a substantial role. Equivalency between civilian pay grades and military rank is only for protocol purposes and informally for delegated supervisory responsibilities. While the authority of military rank extends across services and within each service, the same does not exist for civilian employees and therefore, there is no equivalency of command or supervisory authority between civilian and military personnel external to the local organization. The "Department of the Army Protocol Precedence List" is developed by the Army Protocol Directorate. Another form of the Army "Precedence List" can be found in Appendix D of DA PAM 600-60: A Guide to Protocol and Etiquette for Official Entertainment. The Department of the Navy "Civilian and Military Pay Grades" list can be found in Annex D of OPNAVINST 1710.7A: Social Usage and Protocol. The Department of the Air Force "Military and Civilian Rank Equivalents" can be found in Attachment 10 of AFI 34-1201. Consolidated DOD lists have been compiled by JMAR.[8]

text:
Geneva Convention Category
MILITARY
GS

V: General Officer
O-7 through O-10
Senior Executive Service

IV: Field Grade Officer
O-6
O-5
O-4
GS-14/GS-15
GS-13
GS-12

III: Company Grade Officer
O-3
O-2
O-1
GS-10/GS-11
GS-8/GS-9
GS-6/GS-7

II: Non-commissioned Officer (NCO)
E-8/E-9
E-5/E-6/E-7
WS/GS-5
WL/WS/GS-1 through GS-4

I: Enlisted
E-1 through E-4
WG/WL

text: The comparison of GS and military ranks with respect to financial accounting has different rules than those treating protocol. According to DoD 7000.14-R Financial Management Regulation Volume 11A, Chapter 6 Appendix B (January 2011):[9]

text:
Geneva Convention Category
GS/SES
MILITARY

V: General Officer
ES Level III
ES Level IV
ES Level V
O-9
O-8
O-7

IV: Field Grade Officer
GS-15
GS-14
GS-13
O-6
O-5
O-4

III: Warrant Officer/Company Grade Officer
GS-12
GS-11
GS-9
O-3, WO-5/WO-4
O-2, WO-3
O-1, WO-2/WO-1

II: Non-commissioned Officer/Senior Non-commissioned Officer
GS-08
GS-07
GS-06
GS-05
E-9
E-8
E-7
E-6/E-5

I: Enlisted
GS-04
GS-03
GS-02
GS-01
E-4
E-3
E-2
E-1

text: Pay for performance[edit]

text: In recent years, there have been several attempts to eliminate the GS and replace it with various pay systems emphasizing "pay for performance" (i.e., a system in which pay increases are awarded based more on merit and work performance and less on seniority and length of service). The pay structure which enables this is typically known as pay banding. The best known efforts in this area are the pay systems created for the Departments of Homeland Security and Defense (the National Security Personnel System)[10] in 2002 and 2003, respectively. These efforts were challenged by federal labor unions and other employee groups.[citation needed] Many supervisory and non-bargaining-unit employees, however, were converted from their GS positions into equitable NSPS positions. As part of his fiscal 2007 and 2008 budget proposals, President George W. Bush proposed the eventual elimination of the GS to be replaced by a pay-for-performance concept throughout the Executive Branch of the government. The Office of Management and Budget prepared draft legislation, known as the "Working for America Act",[11] but as of January 2008[update][needs update] Congress has not implemented the proposal. President Barack Obama signed the legislation repealing the NSPS system on October 29, 2009. Under the terms of the 2010 Defense Authorization Act, Public Law 111-84, all employees under NSPS must be converted back to their previous pay system not later than January 1, 2012. The law also mandates that no employees lose pay as a result of this conversion.[12] In order to ensure this, a set of conversion rules has been developed. In most cases, if an employee's current NSPS salary falls between two step levels of the GS grade to which their position is classified, their salary will be increased to the higher step. Employees whose salary was increased beyond the GS step 10 amount while under NSPS will be placed on retained pay, meaning they will receive 50% of the annual cost of living increase until the GS table catches up to the level of salary they are earning.[13]

text: List of other pay scale terms[edit]

text:
AD: Administratively Determined
DB: Demonstration Army Engineers and Scientists External Link
DE: Demonstration Army Technical and Business Support External Link
DJ: Demonstration Army Administrative External Link
DK: Demonstration Army General Support External Link
DO: Demonstration Air Force Business Management and Professional External Link
DR: Demonstration Air Force Scientist and Engineer External Link
DU: Demonstration Air Force Mission Support External Link
DX: Demonstration Air Force Technician External Link
ES: executive schedule
FO, FP, FS: Foreign Service (Department of State, USAID, Commerce, Agriculture)
FV: Federal Aviation Administration[14]
GG: General schedule, excepted service (except patent examiners)
GM, GL, GP, GR: e.g., see General Schedule Supervisory Guide and U.S. Personnel Management – Pay & Leave
HS: House Employee Schedule, governs salaries of employees of the United States House of Representatives and is maintained by the Committee on House Administration[15].
HWS: House Wage Schedule, similar to the House Employee Schedule but applies to certain House employees not employed by Member offices[16].
IA: Defense Civilian Intelligence Personnel System (DCIPS)—used by the Navy and others External link
IC: Incident Command – FEMA Exempted Service Intermittent Disaster Staff (FEMA Reservist)
IT: Incident Teams – FEMA Exempted Service Incident Management Staff (FEMA CORE) Pay Band I–V
JS: Judiciary Salary – U.S. Courts
NF: Non-Appropriated Fund
NY: Corporation for National and Community Service[17]
SV: Department of Homeland Security excepted service (i.e., Transportation Security Administration)
VN: Federal medical careers
WG: Wage grade
WM: Wage Mariner. Operates government owned, government operated (GOGO) ships for National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and Military Sealift Command (MSC) among other agencies.
Y (National Security Personnel System): Formerly used for Department of Defense (DoD) civil service jobs (approx. 2006–2012)[18] There are four Career Groups: (1) Standard: YA, YB, YC, YP, (2) Scientific and Engineering: YD, YE, YF, (3) Medical: YG, YH, YI, YJ, (4) Investigative and Protective Services: YK, YL, YM, YN (NSPS was repealed in 2009; see National Security Personnel System for more info)
Z: National Institute of Standards and Technology's Alternative Personnel Management System (APMS)[19]

tag: ul


document_title: Yellowstone Caldera

question_text: the yellowstone supervolcano is an example of which kind of volcanism

text: Yellowstone Caldera

text: Volcanism at Yellowstone

text: Volcanism at Yellowstone is relatively recent, with calderas that were created during large eruptions that took place 2.1 million, 1.3 million, and 630,000 years ago. The calderas lie over a hotspot where light, hot, magma (molten rock) from the mantle rises toward the surface. While the Yellowstone hotspot is now under the Yellowstone Plateau, it did help to create the eastern Snake River Plain (to the west of Yellowstone) through a series of huge volcanic eruptions. The hotspot appears to move across terrain in the east-northeast direction, but in fact the hotspot is much deeper than terrain and remains stationary while the North American Plate moves west-southwest over it.[6]

text: Over the past 18 million years or so, this hotspot has generated a succession of violent eruptions and less violent floods of basaltic lava. Together these eruptions have helped create the eastern part of the Snake River Plain from a once-mountainous region. At least a dozen of these eruptions were so massive that they are classified as supereruptions. Volcanic eruptions sometimes empty their stores of magma so swiftly that the overlying land collapses into the emptied magma chamber, forming a geographic depression called a caldera.

text: The oldest identified caldera remnant straddles the border near McDermitt, Nevada–Oregon, although there are volcaniclastic piles and arcuate faults that define caldera complexes more than 60 km (37 mi) in diameter in the Carmacks Group of southwest-central Yukon, Canada, which are interpreted to have formed 70 million years ago by the Yellowstone hotspot.[7][8] Progressively younger caldera remnants, most grouped in several overlapping volcanic fields, extend from the Nevada–Oregon border through the eastern Snake River Plain and terminate in the Yellowstone Plateau. One such caldera, the Bruneau-Jarbidge caldera in southern Idaho, was formed between 10 and 12 million years ago, and the event dropped ash to a depth of one foot (30 cm) 1,000 miles (1,600 km) away in northeastern Nebraska and killed large herds of rhinoceros, camel, and other animals at Ashfall Fossil Beds State Historical Park. The United States Geological Survey ("USGS") estimates there are one or two major caldera-forming eruptions and 100 or so lava extruding eruptions per million years, and "several to many" steam eruptions per century.[9]

text: The loosely defined term "supervolcano" has been used to describe volcanic fields that produce exceptionally large volcanic eruptions. Thus defined, the Yellowstone Supervolcano is the volcanic field which produced the latest three supereruptions from the Yellowstone hotspot; it also produced one additional smaller eruption, thereby creating West Thumb Lake[10] 174,000 years ago. The three supereruptions occurred 2.1 million, 1.3 million, and approximately 630,000 years ago, forming the Island Park Caldera, the Henry's Fork Caldera, and Yellowstone calderas, respectively.[11] The Island Park Caldera supereruption (2.1 million years ago), which produced the Huckleberry Ridge Tuff, was the largest, and produced 2,500 times as much ash as the 1980 Mount St. Helens eruption. The next biggest supereruption formed the Yellowstone Caldera (~ 630,000 years ago) and produced the Lava Creek Tuff. The Henry's Fork Caldera (1.2 million years ago) produced the smaller Mesa Falls Tuff, but is the only caldera from the Snake River Plain-Yellowstone hotspot that is plainly visible today.[12]

text: Non-explosive eruptions of lava and less-violent explosive eruptions have occurred in and near the Yellowstone caldera since the last supereruption.[13][14] The most recent lava flow occurred about 70,000 years ago, while a violent eruption excavated the West Thumb of Lake Yellowstone around 150,000 years ago. Smaller steam explosions occur as well: an explosion 13,800 years ago left a 5 km (3.1 mi) diameter crater at Mary Bay on the edge of Yellowstone Lake (located in the center of the caldera).[15][3] Currently, volcanic activity is exhibited via numerous geothermal vents scattered throughout the region, including the famous Old Faithful Geyser, plus recorded ground-swelling indicating ongoing inflation of the underlying magma chamber.

text: The volcanic eruptions, as well as the continuing geothermal activity, are a result of a great cove of magma located below the caldera's surface. The magma in this cove contains gases that are kept dissolved by the immense pressure under which the magma is contained. If the pressure is released to a sufficient degree by some geological shift, then some of the gases bubble out and cause the magma to expand. This can cause a chain reaction. If the expansion results in further relief of pressure, for example, by blowing crust material off the top of the chamber, the result is a very large gas explosion.

text: According to analysis of earthquake data in 2013, the magma chamber is 80 km (50 mi) long and 20 km (12 mi) wide. It also has 4,000 km3 (960 cu mi) underground volume, of which 6–8% is filled with molten rock. This is about 2.5 times bigger than scientists had previously imagined it to be; however, scientists believe that the proportion of molten rock in the chamber is much too low to allow another supereruption.[16][17]

text: Yellowstone hotspot origin

text: The source of the Yellowstone hotspot is controversial. Some geoscientists hypothesize that the Yellowstone hotspot is the effect of an interaction between local conditions in the lithosphere and upper mantle convection.[18][19] Others suggest an origin in the deep mantle (mantle plume).[20] Part of the controversy is the relatively sudden appearance of the hotspot in the geologic record. Additionally, the Columbia Basalt flows appeared at the same approximate time in the same place, causing speculation about their common origin. As the Yellowstone hotspot traveled to the east and north, the Columbia disturbance moved northward and eventually subsided.[21]

text: Hazards

text: Earthquakes

text: Volcanic and tectonic actions in the region cause between 1,000 and 2,000 measurable earthquakes annually. Most are relatively minor, measuring a magnitude of 3 or weaker. Occasionally, numerous earthquakes are detected in a relatively short period of time, an event known as an earthquake swarm. In 1985, more than 3,000 earthquakes were measured over a period of several months. More than 70 smaller swarms were detected between 1983 and 2008. The USGS states these swarms are likely caused by slips on pre-existing faults rather than by movements of magma or hydrothermal fluids.[23][24]

text: In December 2008, continuing into January 2009, more than 500 quakes were detected under the northwest end of Yellowstone Lake over a seven-day span, with the largest registering a magnitude of 3.9.[25][26] The most recent swarm started in January 2010, after the Haiti earthquake and before the Chile earthquake. With 1,620 small earthquakes between January 17, 2010, and February 1, 2010, this swarm was the second-largest ever recorded in the Yellowstone Caldera. The largest of these shocks was a magnitude 3.8 that occurred on January 21, 2010.[24][27] This swarm reached the background levels by February 21. On March 30, 2014, at 6:34 AM MST, a magnitude 4.8 earthquake struck Yellowstone, the largest recorded there since February 1980.[28]

text: Volcanoes

text: The last full-scale eruption of the Yellowstone Supervolcano, the Lava Creek eruption which happened approximately 640,000 years ago,[29] ejected approximately 240 cubic miles (1,000 km3) of rock, dust and volcanic ash into the sky.[3]

text: Geologists are closely monitoring the rise and fall of the Yellowstone Plateau, which has been rising as fast as 0.6 inches (1.5 cm) per year, as an indication of changes in magma chamber pressure.[30][31]

text: The upward movement of the Yellowstone caldera floor between 2004 and 2008—almost 3 inches (7.6 cm) each year—was more than three times greater than ever observed since such measurements began in 1923.[32] From 2004 to 2008, the land surface within the caldera moved upward as much as 8 inches (20 cm) at the White Lake GPS station.[33][34] By the end of 2009, the uplift had slowed significantly and appeared to have stopped.[35] In January 2010, the USGS stated that "uplift of the Yellowstone Caldera has slowed significantly"[36] and that uplift continues but at a slower pace.[37] The U.S. Geological Survey, University of Utah and National Park Service scientists with the Yellowstone Volcano Observatory maintain that they "see no evidence that another such cataclysmic eruption will occur at Yellowstone in the foreseeable future. Recurrence intervals of these events are neither regular nor predictable."[3] This conclusion was reiterated in December 2013 in the aftermath of the publication of a study by University of Utah scientists finding that the "size of the magma body beneath Yellowstone is significantly larger than had been thought". The Yellowstone Volcano Observatory issued a statement on its website stating,

text: Although fascinating, the new findings do not imply increased geologic hazards at Yellowstone, and certainly do not increase the chances of a 'supereruption' in the near future. Contrary to some media reports, Yellowstone is not 'overdue' for a supereruption.[38]

text: Other media reports were more hyperbolic in their coverage.[39]

text: A study published in GSA Today, the monthly news and science magazine of the Geological Society of America, identified three fault zones on which future eruptions are most likely to be centered.[40] Two of those areas are associated with lava flows aged 174,000–70,000 years, and the third is a focus of present-day seismicity.[40]

text: Hydrothermal explosions

text: Studies and analysis may indicate that the greater hazard comes from hydrothermal activity which occurs independently of volcanic activity. Over 20 large craters have been produced in the past 14,000 years, resulting in such features as Mary Bay, Turbid Lake, and Indian Pond which was created in an eruption about 1300 BC.

text: In a 2003 report, USGS researchers proposed that an earthquake may have displaced more than 77 million cubic feet (2,200,000 m3) (576,000,000 US gallons) of water in Yellowstone Lake, creating colossal waves that unsealed a capped geothermal system and led to the hydrothermal explosion that formed Mary Bay.[41][42]

text: Further research shows that very distant earthquakes reach and have effects upon the activities at Yellowstone, such as the 1992 7.3 magnitude Landers earthquake in California’s Mojave Desert that triggered a swarm of quakes from more than 800 miles (1,300 km) away, and the 2002 7.9 magnitude Denali fault earthquake 2,000 miles (3,200 km) away in Alaska that altered the activity of many geysers and hot springs for several months afterward.[43]

text: In 2016, the United States Geological Survey announced plans to map the subterranean systems responsible for feeding the area's hydrothermal activity. According to the researchers, these maps could help predict when another supereruption occurs.[44]