document_title: Wine color

question_text: where do the tannins in wine come from

question_tokens: where do the tannins in wine come from

text: Wine color

text: Color origins[edit]

text: The color of the wine mainly depends on the color of the drupe of the grape variety. Since pigments are localized in the center of the grape drupe, not in the juice, the color of the wine depends on the method of vinification and the time the must is in contact with those skins, a process called maceration. The Teinturier grape is an exception in that it also has a pigmented pulp. The blending of two or more varieties of grapes can explain the color of certain wines, like the addition of Rubired to intensify redness.

text: Red drupe grapes can produce white wine if they are quickly pressed and the juice not allowed to be in contact with the skins. The color is mainly due to plant pigments, notably phenolic compounds (anthocyanidins, tannins, etc.). The color depends on the presence of acids in the wine. It is altered with wine aging by reactions between different active molecules present in the wine, these reactions generally giving rise to a browning of the wine, leading from red to a more tawny color. The use of a wooden barrel (generally oak barrels) in aging also affects the color of the wine.

text: The color of a wine can be partly due to co-pigmentation of anthocyanidins with other non-pigmented flavonoids or natural phenols (cofactors or "copigments").[1]

text: Rosé wine is made by the practice of saignée (exposing wine to red grape skins for only a short period of time in order to give it a lighter feel closer to that of white wine) or by blending a white wine with a red wine.

text: Color evolution[edit]

text: The presence of a complex mixture of anthocyanins and procyanidins can increase the stability of color in wine.[2]

text: As it ages, the wine undergoes chemical autoxidation reactions involving acetaldehyde of its pigments molecules. The newly formed molecules are more stable to the effect of pH or sulfite bleaching.[3] The new compounds include pyranoanthocyanins like vitisins (A and B), pinotins and portosins and other polymeric derived pigments.[4][5][6][7]

text: Malvidin glucoside-ethyl-catechin is a flavanol-anthocyanin adduct.[8] Flavanol-anthocyanin adducts are formed during wine ageing through reactions between anthocyanins and tannins present in grape, with yeast metabolites such as acetaldehyde. Acetaldehyde-induced reactions yield ethyl-linked species such as malvidin glucoside-ethyl-catechin.[9][10] This compound has a better color stability at pH 5.5 than malvidin-3O-glucoside. When the pH was increased from 2.2 to 5.5, the solution of the pigment became progressively more violet (λmax = 560 nm at pH 5.5), whereas similar solutions of the anthocyanin were almost colorless at pH 4.0.[11]

text: The exposure of wine to oxygen in limited quantities can be beneficial to the wine. It affects color.[12]

text: Castavinols are another class of colorless molecules derived from colored anthocyanin pigments.

text: In model solutions, colorless compounds, such as catechin, can give rise to new types of pigments. The first step is the formation of colorless dimeric compounds consisting of two flavanol units linked by carboxy-methine bridge. This is followed by the formation of xanthylium salt yellowish pigments and their ethylesters, resulting from the dehydration of the colorless dimers, followed by an oxidation process. The loss of a water molecule takes place between two A ring hydroxyl groups of the colorless dimers.[13]

text: Colors[edit]

text: The main colors of wine are:

text:
Gray, as in vin gris (gray wine).
Orange, as in Skin-contact wine, a white wine that has spent some time in contact with its skin, giving it a slightly darker hue.
Red wine (although this is a general term for dark wines, whose color can be as far from "red" as bluish-violet)
Rosé (meaning pinkish in French)
Tawny, as in tawny port.
White wine (light colored wine)
Yellow (or straw color), see for instance vin jaune, a special and characteristic type of white wine made in the Jura wine region in eastern France, Jurançon or Sauternes.

text: Other:

text:
Burgundy (color), a shade of purplish red
Sangria (color), a color that resembles Sangría wine
Ox blood, probably referring to ancient practice of fining red wines with dry powdered blood

text:
A glass of tawny port.

Glasses of Beaumes de Venise white and rosé.

Glass of Amontillado sherry.

A glass of Vin Santo with its characteristic amber color.

Beringer "white" Zinfandel

text: Scientific color determination[edit]

text: The International Organisation of Vine and Wine (OIV) provides methods to assess the color of a wine using a spectrophotometer and the calculation of indices in the Lab color space.[14]


document_title: List of Utah Jazz seasons

question_text: when was the last time the jazz went to the playoffs

root

text: List of Utah Jazz seasons

text: This article is a list of seasons completed by the Utah Jazz of the National Basketball Association (NBA). The Jazz joined the NBA as the New Orleans Jazz, an expansion team that began play in the 1974–75 season. The Jazz relocated from New Orleans to Salt Lake City, Utah for the 1979–80 season. As of April 15, 2015, the Utah Jazz are the last franchise to not record a 60-loss season.

tag: p

text:
League Champions
Conference Champions
Division Champions
Playoff Berth

tag: table

text:
Season
League
Conference
Finish
Division
Finish
Wins
Losses
Win%
GB
Playoffs
Awards

New Orleans Jazz

1974–75
NBA
Eastern
9th
Central
5th
23
59
.280
37

1975–76
NBA
Eastern
8th
Central
4th
38
44
.463
11

1976–77
NBA
Eastern
8th
Central
5th
35
47
.427
14

1977–78
NBA
Eastern
7th
Central
5th
39
43
.476
13

1978–79
NBA
Eastern
11th
Central
6th
26
56
.317
22

Utah Jazz

1979–80
NBA
Western
10th
Midwest
5th
24
58
.293
25

1980–81
NBA
Western
11th
Midwest
5th
28
54
.341
24

Darrell Griffith (ROY)

1981–82
NBA
Western
11th
Midwest
6th
25
57
.305
23

1982–83
NBA
Western
9th
Midwest
5th
30
52
.366
23

1983–84
NBA
Western
2nd
Midwest
1st
45
37
.549
—
Won First Round (Nuggets) 3–2
Lost Conference Semifinals (Suns) 2–4
Frank Layden (COY)

1984–85
NBA
Western
6th
Midwest
4th
41
41
.500
11
Won First Round (Rockets) 3–2
Lost Conference Semifinals (Nuggets) 1–4
Mark Eaton (DPOY)

1985–86
NBA
Western
5th
Midwest
4th
42
40
.512
9
Lost First Round (Mavericks) 1–3

1986–87
NBA
Western
4th
Midwest
2nd
44
38
.537
11
Lost First Round (Warriors) 2–3

1987–88
NBA
Western
5th
Midwest
3rd
47
35
.573
7
Won First Round (Trail Blazers) 3–1
Lost Conference Semifinals (Lakers) 3–4

1988–89
NBA
Western
2nd
Midwest
1st
51
31
.622
—
Lost First Round (Warriors) 0–3
Karl Malone (ASG MVP)
Mark Eaton (DPOY)

1989–90
NBA
Western
4th
Midwest
2nd
55
27
.671
1
Lost First Round (Suns) 2–3

1990–91
NBA
Western
5th
Midwest
2nd
54
28
.659
1
Won First Round (Suns) 3–1
Lost Conference Semifinals (Trail Blazers) 1–4

1991–92
NBA
Western
2nd
Midwest
1st
55
27
.671
—
Won First Round (Clippers) 3–2
Won Conference Semifinals (SuperSonics) 4–1
Lost Conference Finals (Trail Blazers) 2–4

1992–93
NBA
Western
6th
Midwest
3rd
47
35
.573
8
Lost First Round (SuperSonics) 2–3
Karl Malone & John Stockton (ASG MVP)

1993–94
NBA
Western
5th
Midwest
3rd
53
29
.646
5
Won First Round (Spurs) 3–1
Won Conference Semifinals (Nuggets) 4–3
Lost Conference Finals (Rockets) 1–4

1994–95
NBA
Western
3rd
Midwest
2nd
60
22
.732
2
Lost First Round (Rockets) 2–3

1995–96
NBA
Western
3rd
Midwest
2nd
55
27
.671
4
Won First Round (Trail Blazers) 3–2
Won Conference Semifinals (Spurs) 4–2
Lost Conference Finals (SuperSonics) 3–4

1996–97
NBA
Western
1st
Midwest
1st
64
18
.780
—
Won First Round (Clippers) 3–0
Won Conference Semifinals (Lakers) 4–1
Won Conference Finals (Rockets) 4–2
Lost NBA Finals (Bulls) 2–4
Karl Malone (MVP)

1997–98
NBA
Western
1st
Midwest
1st
62
20
.756
—
Won First Round (Rockets) 3–2
Won Conference Semifinals (Spurs) 4–1
Won Conference Finals (Lakers) 4–0
Lost NBA Finals (Bulls) 2–4

1998–99
NBA[1]
Western
3rd
Midwest
2nd
37
13
.740
—
Won First Round (Kings) 3–2
Lost Conference Semifinals (Trail Blazers) 2–4
Karl Malone (MVP)

1999–2000
NBA
Western
2nd
Midwest
1st
55
27
.671
—
Won First Round (SuperSonics) 3–2
Lost Conference Semifinals (Trail Blazers) 1–4

2000–01
NBA
Western
4th
Midwest
2nd
53
29
.646
5
Lost First Round (Mavericks) 2–3

2001–02
NBA
Western
8th
Midwest
4th
44
38
.537
14
Lost First Round (Kings) 1–3

2002–03
NBA
Western
7th
Midwest
4th
47
35
.573
13
Lost First Round (Kings) 1–4

2003–04
NBA
Western
9th
Midwest
7th
42
40
.512
16

2004–05
NBA
Western
14th
Northwest
5th
26
56
.317
26

2005–06
NBA
Western
9th
Northwest
2nd
41
41
.500
3

2006–07
NBA
Western
4th
Northwest
1st
51
31
.622
—
Won First Round (Rockets) 4–3
Won Conference Semifinals (Warriors) 4–1
Lost Conference Finals (Spurs) 1–4

2007–08
NBA
Western
4th
Northwest
1st
54
28
.659
—
Won First Round (Rockets) 4–2
Lost Conference Semifinals (Lakers) 2–4

2008–09
NBA
Western
8th
Northwest
3rd
48
34
.585
6
Lost First Round (Lakers) 1–4

2009–10
NBA
Western
5th
Northwest
2nd
53
29
.646
—
Won First Round (Nuggets) 4–2
Lost Conference Semifinals (Lakers) 0–4

2010–11
NBA
Western
11th
Northwest
4th
39
43
.476
16

2011–12
NBA[2]
Western
8th
Northwest
3rd
36
30
.545
11
Lost First Round (Spurs) 0–4

2012–13
NBA
Western
9th
Northwest
3rd
43
39
.524
17

2013–14
NBA
Western
15th
Northwest
5th
25
57
.305
34

2014–15
NBA
Western
11th
Northwest
3rd
38
44
.463
13

2015–16
NBA
Western
9th
Northwest
3rd
40
42
.488
15

2016–17
NBA
Western
5th
Northwest
1st
51
31
.622
—
Won First Round (Clippers) 4–3
Lost Conference Semifinals (Warriors) 0–4

Regular season totals
1866
1612
.537
1974–present

Playoff totals
118
134
.468
1974–present

text: Footnotes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ A lockout shortened the season to 50 games.
Jump up ^ A lockout shortened the season to 66 games.

tag: ol

text:
[show]

v
t
e

NBA season-by-season team history

Eastern
Conference

Atlantic

Boston Celtics
Brooklyn Nets
New York Knicks
Philadelphia 76ers
Toronto Raptors

Central

Chicago Bulls
Cleveland Cavaliers
Detroit Pistons
Indiana Pacers
Milwaukee Bucks

Southeast

Atlanta Hawks
Charlotte Hornets
Miami Heat
Orlando Magic
Washington Wizards

Western
Conference

Northwest

Denver Nuggets
Minnesota Timberwolves
Oklahoma City Thunder
Portland Trail Blazers
Utah Jazz

Pacific

Golden State Warriors
Los Angeles Clippers
Los Angeles Lakers
Phoenix Suns
Sacramento Kings

Southwest

Dallas Mavericks
Houston Rockets
Memphis Grizzlies
New Orleans Pelicans
San Antonio Spurs

text:
[show]

v
t
e

Utah Jazz

Founded in 1974
Played in New Orleans (1974–79)
Based in Salt Lake City, Utah

Franchise

Franchise
Summer League
1974 Expansion Draft
All-time roster
Draft history
Records
Head coaches
Seasons
Current season

Arenas

Loyola Field House
New Orleans Municipal Auditorium
Louisiana Superdome
Salt Palace
Vivint Smart Home Arena

Personnel

Checketts
Gardner
Rigby

G League affiliate

Salt Lake City Stars

Administration

Owner: Jazz Basketball Investors, Inc. (represented by Gail Miller, widow of Larry H. Miller)
President: Steve Starks
Executive VP, Basketball Operations: Kevin O'Connor
General Manager: Dennis Lindsey
Head coach: Quin Snyder

Retired numbers

1
4
7
9
12
14
32
35
53
1223
Hot Rod Hundley (Microphone)

Hall of Famers

Pete Maravich
Adrian Dantley
John Stockton
Jerry Sloan
Hot Rod Hundley
Karl Malone

Western Conference
Championships (2)

1997
1998

Division titles (9)

1984
1989
1992
1997
1998
2000
2007
2008
2017

Rivals

Houston Rockets

Culture and lore

Jazz Bear
Dan Roberts
Game 6 of the 1998 NBA Finals
Celtic Pride
Tiffany Coyne
"Kill Gil, Volumes I & II" (The Simpsons episode)

Media

TV
AT&T SportsNet Utah (current)
KJZZ-TV (former)
Radio
Radio Network

KZNS-AM
KZNS-FM

Announcers
Craig Bolerjack
Matt Harpring
David Locke
Ron Boone

text:
[show]

v
t
e

New Orleans / Utah Jazz seasons

1970s

1974–75
1975–76
1976–77
1977–78
1978–79

1980s

1979–80
1980–81
1981–82
1982–83
1983–84
1984–85
1985–86
1986–87
1987–88
1988–89

1990s

1989–90
1990–91
1991–92
1992–93
1993–94
1994–95
1995–96
1996–97
1997–98
1998–99

2000s

1999–00
2000–01
2001–02
2002–03
2003–04
2004–05
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09

2010s

2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
2012–13
2013–14
2014–15
2015–16
2016–17
2017–18

text: Utah Jazz seasons

tag: ul


document_title: History of the Palace of Versailles

question_text: who forced the king and the royal family to abandon versailles and return to paris

text: History of the Palace of Versailles

text: Origins[edit]

text: The earliest mention of the name of Versailles is found in a document which predates 1038, the Charte de l'abbaye Saint-Père de Chartres (Charter of the Saint-Père de Chartres Abbey),[1] in which one of the signatories was a certain Hugo de Versailliis (Hugues de Versailles), who was seigneur of Versailles.[2]

text: During this period, the village of Versailles centred on a small castle and church, and the area was governed by a local lord. Its location on the road from Paris to Dreux and Normandy brought some prosperity to the village but, following an outbreak of the Plague and the Hundred Years' War, the village was largely destroyed, and its population sharply declined.[3] In 1575, Albert de Gondi, a naturalized Florentine who gained prominence at the court of Henry II, purchased the seigneury of Versailles.

text: Ancien Régime[edit]

text: Louis XIII[edit]

text: In the early seventeenth century, Gondi invited Louis XIII on several hunting trips in the forests surrounding Versailles. Pleased with the location, Louis ordered the construction of a hunting lodge in 1624. Designed by Philibert Le Roy, the structure, a small château, was constructed of stone and red brick, with a based roof. Eight years later, Louis obtained the seigneury of Versailles from the Gondi family and began to make enlargements to the château.[5]

text: A vignette of Versailles from the 1652 Paris map of Jacques Gomboust (fr) shows a traditional design: an entrance court with a corps de logis on the far western end, flanked by secondary wings on the north and south sides, and closed off by an entrance screen. Adjacent exterior towers were located at the four corners, with the entire structure surrounded by a moat. This was preceded by two service wings, creating a forecourt with a grilled entrance marked by two round towers. The vignette also shows a garden on the western side of the château with a fountain on the central axis and rectangular planted parterres to either side.[6]

text: Louis XIV had played and hunted at the site as a boy.[7] With a few modifications, this structure would become the core of the new palace.[8]

text: Louis XIV[edit]

text: Louis XIII's successor, Louis XIV, had a great interest in Versailles. He settled on the royal hunting lodge at Versailles, and over the following decades had it expanded into one of the largest palaces in the world.[9] Beginning in 1661, the architect Louis Le Vau, landscape architect André Le Nôtre, and painter-decorator Charles Lebrun began a detailed renovation and expansion of the château. This was done to fulfill Louis XIV's desire to establish a new centre for the royal court. Following the Treaties of Nijmegen in 1678, he began to gradually move the court to Versailles. The court was officially established there on 6 May 1682.[10]

text: By moving his court and government to Versailles, Louis XIV hoped to extract more control of the government from the nobility and to distance himself from the population of Paris. All the power of France emanated from this centre: there were government offices here, as well as the homes of thousands of courtiers, their retinues, and all the attendant functionaries of court.[11] By requiring that nobles of a certain rank and position spend time each year at Versailles, Louis prevented them from developing their own regional power at the expense of his own and kept them from countering his efforts to centralise the French government in an absolute monarchy.[12] The meticulous and strict court etiquette that Louis established, which overwhelmed his heirs with its petty boredom, was epitomised in the elaborate ceremonies and exacting procedures that accompanied his rising in the morning, known as the Lever, divided into a petit lever for the most important and a grand lever for the whole court. Like other French court manners, étiquette was quickly imitated in other European courts.[13]

text: The expansion of the château became synonymous with the absolutism of Louis XIV.[14] In 1661, following the death of Cardinal Mazarin, chief minister of the government, Louis had declared that he would be his own chief minister. The idea of establishing the court at Versailles was conceived to ensure that all of his advisors and provincial rulers would be kept close to him. He feared that they would rise up against him and start a revolt and believed that if he kept all of his potential threats near him, they would be powerless. After the disgrace of Nicolas Fouquet in 1661 – Louis claimed the finance minister would not have been able to build his grand château at Vaux-le-Vicomte without having embezzled from the crown – Louis, after the confiscation of Fouquet’s estate, employed the talents of Le Vau, Le Nôtre, and Le Brun, who all had worked on Vaux-le-Vicomte, for his building campaigns at Versailles and elsewhere. For Versailles, there were four distinct building campaigns (after minor alterations and enlargements had been executed on the château and the gardens in 1662–1663), all of which corresponded to Louis XIV’s wars.[15]

text: First building campaign[edit]

text: The first building campaign (1664–1668) commenced with the Plaisirs de l’Île enchantée of 1664, a fête that was held between 7 and 13 May 1664. The fête was ostensibly given to celebrate the two queens of France – Anne of Austria, the Queen Mother, and Marie-Thérèse, Louis XIV’s wife – but in reality honored the king’s mistress, Louise de La Vallière. The celebration of the Plaisirs de l’Île enchantée is often regarded as a prelude to the War of Devolution, which Louis waged against Spain. The first building campaign (1664–1668) involved alterations in the château and gardens to accommodate the 600 guests invited to the party.[16]

text: Second building campaign[edit]

text: The second building campaign (1669–1672) was inaugurated with the signing of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, which ended the War of Devolution. During this campaign, the château began to assume some of the appearance that it has today. The most important modification of the château was Le Vau’s envelope of Louis XIII’s hunting lodge. The enveloppe – often referred to as the château neuf to distinguish it from the older structure of Louis XIII – enclosed the hunting lodge on the north, west, and south. The new structure provided new lodgings for the king and members of his family. The main floor – the piano nobile – of the château neuf was given over entirely to two apartments: one for the king, and one for the queen. The grand appartement du roi occupied the northern part of the château neuf and grand appartement de la reine occupied the southern part.

text: The western part of the enveloppe was given over almost entirely to a terrace, which was later enclosed with the construction of the Hall of Mirrors (Galerie des Glaces). The ground floor of the northern part of the château neuf was occupied by the appartement des bains, which included a sunken octagonal tub with hot and cold running water. The king’s brother and sister-in-law, the duke and duchesse d’Orléans occupied apartments on the ground floor of the southern part of the château neuf. The upper story of the château neuf was reserved for private rooms for the king to the north and rooms for the king’s children above the queen’s apartment to the south.[18]

text: Significant to the design and construction of the grands appartements is that the rooms of both apartments are of the same configuration and dimensions – a hitherto unprecedented feature in French palace design. It has been suggested that this parallel configuration was intentional as Louis XIV had intended to establish Marie-Thérèse d’Autriche as queen of Spain, and thus thereby establish a dual monarchy.[19] Louis XIV’s rationale for the joining of the two kingdoms was seen largely as recompense for Philip IV's failure to pay his daughter Marie-Thérèse’s dowry, which was among the terms of capitulation to which Spain agreed with the promulgation of the Treaty of the Pyrenees, which ended the war between France and Spain that began in 1635 during the Thirty Years’ War. Louis XIV regarded his father-in-law’s act as a breach of the treaty and consequently engaged in the War of Devolution.

text: Both the grand appartement du roi and the grand appartement de la reine formed a suite of seven enfilade rooms. Each room is dedicated to one of the then known celestial bodies and is personified by the appropriate Greco-Roman deity. The decoration of the rooms, which was conducted under Le Brun's direction depicted the “heroic actions of the king” and were represented in allegorical form by the actions of historical figures from the antique past (Alexander the Great, Augustus, Cyrus, etc.).[20]

text: Third building campaign[edit]

text: With the signing of the Treaty of Nijmegen in 1678, which ended the Dutch War, the third building campaign at Versailles began (1678–1684). Under the direction of the architect, Jules Hardouin-Mansart, the Palace of Versailles acquired much of the look that it has today. In addition to the Hall of Mirrors, Hardouin-Mansart designed the north and south wings, which were used, respectively, by the nobility and Princes of the Blood, and the Orangerie. Le Brun was occupied not only with the interior decoration of the new additions of the palace, but also collaborated with Le Nôtre's in landscaping the palace gardens.[21] As symbol of France’s new prominence as a European super-power, Louis XIV officially installed his court at Versailles in May 1682.[14]

text: Fourth building campaign[edit]

text: Soon after the crushing defeat of the War of the League of Augsburg (1688–1697) and owing possibly to the pious influence of Madame de Maintenon, Louis XIV undertook his last building campaign at Versailles. The fourth building campaign (1699–1710) concentrated almost exclusively on construction of the royal chapel designed by Hardouin-Mansart and finished by Robert de Cotte and his team of decorative designers. There were also some modifications in the appartement du roi, namely the construction of the Salon de l’Œil de Bœuf and the King’s Bedchamber. With the completion of the chapel in 1710, virtually all construction at Versailles ceased; building would not be resumed at Versailles until some twenty one years later during the reign of Louis XV.[22]

text:
Plans of the evolution of Versailles

The palace in 1668
The palace in 1674
The palace in 1680

text: Louis XV[edit]

text: After the death of the Louis XIV in 1715, the five-year-old king Louis XV, the court, and the Régence government of Philippe d’Orléans returned to Paris. In May 1717, during his visit to France, the Russian czar Peter the Great stayed at the Grand Trianon. His time at Versailles was used to observe and study the palace and gardens, which he later used as a source of inspiration when he built Peterhof on the Bay of Finland, west of Saint Petersburg.[23]

text: During the reign of Louis XV, Versailles underwent transformation but not on the scale that had been seen during his predecessor's reign. When Louis XV and the court returned to Versailles in 1722, the first project was the completion of the Salon d'Hercule, which had been begun during the last years of Louis XIV's reign but was never finished due to the king’s death.[24]

text: Significant among Louis XV’s contributions to Versailles were the petit appartement du roi; the appartements de Mesdames, the appartement du dauphin, the appartement de la dauphine on the ground floor; and the two private apartments of Louis XV – petit appartement du roi au deuxième étage (later transformed into the appartement de Madame du Barry) and the petit appartement du roi au troisième étage – on the second and third floors of the palace. The crowning achievements of Louis XV’s reign were the construction of the Opéra and the Petit Trianon.[25]

text: Equally significant was the destruction of the Escalier des Ambassadeurs (Ambassadors' Stair), the only fitting approach to the State Apartments, which Louis XV undertook to make way for apartments for his daughters.[26]

text: The gardens remained largely unchanged from the time of Louis XIV; the completion of the Bassin de Neptune between 1738 and 1741 was the most important legacy Louis XV made to the gardens.[27]

text: Towards the end of his reign, Louis XV, under the advice of Ange-Jacques Gabriel, began to remodel the courtyard façades of the palace. With the objective revetting the entrance of the palace with classical façades, Louis XV began a project that was continued during the reign of Louis XVI, but which did not see completion until the 20th century.[28]

text: Louis XVI[edit]

text: In 1774, shortly after his ascension, Louis XVI ordered an extensive replanting of the bosquets of the gardens, since many of the century-old trees had died. Only a few changes to Le Nôtre's design were made: some bosquets were removed, others altered, including the Bains d'Apollon (north of the Parterre de Latone), which was redone after a design by Hubert Robert in anglo-chinois style (popular during the late 18th century), and the Labyrinthe (at the southern edge of the garden) was converted to the small Jardin de la Reine.[29] In the interior of the palace, the library and the salon des jeux in the petit appartement du roi and the petit appartement de la reine, redecorated by Richard Mique for Marie-Antoinette, are among the finest examples of the style Louis XVI.[30]

text: French Revolution[edit]

text: On 6 October 1789, the royal family had to leave Versailles and move to the Tuileries Palace in Paris, as a result of the Women's March on Versailles.[31] During the early years of the French Revolution, preservation of the palace was largely in the hands of the citizens of Versailles. In October 1790, Louis XVI ordered the palace to be emptied of its furniture, requesting that most be sent to the Tuileries Palace. In response to the order, the mayor of Versailles and the municipal council met to draft a letter to Louis XVI in which they stated that if the furniture was removed, it would certainly precipitate economic ruin on the city.[32] A deputation from Versailles met with the king on 12 October after which Louis XVI, touched by the sentiments of the residents of Versailles, rescinded the order.

text: Eight months later, however, the fate of Versailles was sealed: on 21 June 1791, Louis XVI was arrested at Varennes after which the Assemblée nationale constituante accordingly declared that all possessions of the royal family had been abandoned. To safeguard the palace, the Assemblée nationale constituante ordered the palace of Versailles to be sealed. On 20 October 1792 a letter was read before the National Convention in which Jean-Marie Roland de la Platière, interior minister, proposed that the furnishings of the palace and those of the residences in Versailles that had been abandoned be sold and that the palace be either sold or rented. The sale of furniture transpired at auctions held between 23 August 1793 and 30 nivôse an III (19 January 1795). Only items of particular artistic or intellectual merit were exempt from the sale. These items were consigned to be part of the collection of a museum, which had been planned at the time of the sale of the palace furnishings.

text: In 1793, Charles-François Delacroix deputy to the Convention and father of the painter Eugène Delacroix proposed that the metal statuary in the gardens of Versailles be confiscated and sent to the foundry to be made into cannon.[33] The proposal was debated but eventually it was tabled. On 28 floréal an II (5 May 1794) the Convention decreed that the château and gardens of Versailles, as well as other former royal residences in the environs, would not be sold but placed under the care of the Republic for the public good.[34] Following this decree, the château became a repository for art work seized from churches and princely homes. As a result of Versailles serving as a repository for confiscated art works, collections were amassed that eventually became part of the proposed museum.[35]

text: Among the items found at Versailles at this time a collection of natural curiosities that has been assembled by the sieur Fayolle during his voyages in America. The collection was sold to the comte d’Artois and was later confiscated by the state. Fayolle, who had been nominated to the Commission des arts, became guardian of the collection and was later, in June 1794, nominated by the Convention to be the first directeur du Conservatoire du Muséum national de Versailles.[36] The next year, André Dumont the people's representative, became administrator for the department of the Seine-et-Oise. Upon assuming his administrative duties, Dumont was struck with the deplorable state into which the palace and gardens had sunk. He quickly assumed administrative duties of the château and assembled a team of conservators to oversee the various collections of the museum.[37]

text: One of Dumont’s first appointments was that of Huges Lagarde (10 messidor an III (28 June 1795), a wealthy soap merchant from Marseille with strong political connections, as bibliographer of the museum. With the abandonment of the palace, there remained no less than 104 libraries which contained in excess of 200,000 printed volumes and manuscripts. Lagarde, with his political connections and his association with Dumont, became the driving force behind Versailles as a museum at this time. Lagarde was able to assemble a team of curators including sieur Fayolle for natural history and, Louis Jean-Jacques Durameau, the painter responsible for the ceiling painting in the Opéra, was appointed as curator for painting.[38]

text: Owing largely to political vicissitudes that occurred in France during the 1790s, Versailles succumbed to further degradations. Mirrors were assigned by the finance ministry for payment of debts of the Republic and draperies, upholstery, and fringes were confiscated and sent to the mint to recoup the gold and silver used in their manufacture. Despite its designation as a museum, Versailles served as an annex to the Hôtel des Invalides pursuant to the decree of 7 frimaire an VIII (28 November 1799), which commandeered part of the palace and which had wounded soldiers being housed in the petit appartement du roi.[39]

text: In 1797, the Muséum national was reorganised and renamed Musée spécial de l’École française.[40] The grands appartements were used as galleries in which the morceaux de réception submitted by artists seeking admission to the Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture during the 17th and 18th centuries, the series The Life of Saint Bruno by Eustache Le Sueur and the Life of Marie de Médicis by Peter Paul Rubens were placed on display. The museum, which included the sculptures in the garden, became the finest museum of classic French art that had existed.[41]

text: First Empire[edit]

text: With the advent of Napoléon and the First Empire, the status of Versailles changed. Paintings and art work that had previously been assigned to Muséum national and the Musée spécial de l’École française were systematically dispersed to other locations, and eventually the museum was closed. In accordance with provisions of the 1804 Constitution, Versailles was designated as an imperial palace for the department of the Seine-et-Oise.[42]

text: While Napoléon did not reside in the château, apartments were, however, arranged and decorated for the use of the empress Marie-Louise. The emperor chose to reside at the Grand Trianon. The château continued to serve, however, as an annex of the Hôtel des Invalides[43] Nevertheless, on 3 January 1805, Pope Pius VII, who came to France to officiate at Napoléon's coronation, visited the palace and blessed the throng of people gathered on the parterre d'eau from the balcony of the Hall of Mirrors.[44]

text: Bourbon Restoration[edit]

text: The Bourbon Restoration saw little activity at Versailles. Areas of the gardens were replanted but no significant restoration and modifications of the interiors were undertaken, despite the fact that Louis XVIII would often visit the palace and walk through the vacant rooms.[45] Charles X chose the Tuileries Palace over Versailles and rarely visited his former home.[46]

text: July Monarchy[edit]

text: With the Revolution of 1830 and the establishment of the July Monarchy, the status of Versailles changed. In March 1832, the Loi de la Liste civile was promulgated, which designated Versailles as a crown dependency. Like Napoléon before him, Louis-Philippe chose to live at the Grand Trianon; however, unlike Napoléon, Louis-Philippe did have a grand design for Versailles.

text: In 1833, Louis-Philippe proposed the establishment of a museum dedicated to “all the glories of France,” which included the Orléans dynasty and the Revolution of 1830 that put Louis-Philippe on the throne of France. For the next decade, under the direction of Frédéric Nepveu and Pierre-François-Léonard Fontaine, the château underwent irreversible alterations.[47] The museum was officially inaugurated on 10 June 1837 as part of the festivities that surrounded the marriage of the Prince royal, Ferdinand-Philippe d’Orléans with princess Hélène of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and represented one of the most ambitious and costly undertakings of Louis-Philippe’s reign. Over, the emperor at the king’s home – Napoléon at Louis XIV’s; in a word, it is having given to this magnificent book that is called French history this magnificent binding that is called Versailles (Victor Hugo).[48]

text: Later, Balzac characterised the effort in less laudatory terms as the “hospital of the glories of France”.[49]

text: The southern wing (Aile du Midi) was given over to the Galerie des Batailles (Hall of Battles), which necessitated the demolition of most of the apartments of the Princes of the Blood who lived in this part of the palace during the Ancien Régime. The Galerie des Batailles was modeled on the Grande Galerie of the Louvre Palace and was intended to glorify French military history from the Battle of Tolbiac (traditionally dated 495) to the Battle of Wagram (5–6 July 1809). While a number of the paintings were of questionable quality, a few were masterpieces, such as the Battle of Taillebourg by Eugène Delacroix. Part of the northern wing (Aile du Nord) was converted to the Salle des Croisades, a room dedicated to famous knights of the Crusades and decorated with their names and coats of arms. The apartments of the dauphin and the dauphine as well as those of Louis XV’s daughters on the ground floor of the corps de logis were transformed into portrait galleries. To accommodate the displays, some of the boiseries were removed and either put into storage or sold. During the Prussian occupation of the palace in 1871, the boiseries in storage were burned as firewood.[50]

text: Second Empire[edit]

text: During the Second Empire, the museum remained essentially intact. The palace did serve as the backdrop for a number of state events including the visit by Queen Victoria.

text: Versailles under Pierre de Nolhac[edit]

text: Pierre de Nolhac arrived at the Palace of Versailles in 1887 and was appointed curator of the museum 18 November 1892.[51] Upon his arrival, he planned to re-introduce historical galleries, organized scientifically, in contrast to the approach of Louis-Philippe, who had created the first galleries in a manner aimed at glorifying the history of France. At the same time, Nolhac began to restore the palace to its appearance before the Revolution. To achieve these two goals, Nolhac removed rooms, took down the artworks and gave the rooms some historical scenery. He explained in his memoirs, for example that "the first room sacrificed was that of the kings of France which had walls lined with effigies, real and imaginary, of our kings since Clovis".[52] The revolution wrought by Nolhac produced a new awareness of the castle. Members of high society and nobility, such as the Duke of Aumale and the Empress Eugenie flocked to see new developments. Nolhac also working to bring in foreign personalities. On 8 October 1896, Czar Nicolas II and his wife Alexandra, arrived at Versailles. Nolhac also organized events aimed at raising the awareness of potential donors to the palace. The owner of the New York Herald, Gordon Bennett, gave 25,000 francs for restructuring the 18th-century rooms. The development of private donations led to the creation of the Friends of Versailles in June 1907.

text: The Van der Kemp period[edit]

text: Under the aegis of Gérald Van der Kemp (fr), chief conservator of the museum from 1952 to 1980, the palace witnessed some of its most ambitious conservation and restoration projects: the Opéra (completed in 1957); the Grand Trianon (1965); the Chambre de la Reine (1975); the Chambre de Louis XIV and the Hall of Mirrors (1980).[53] At this time, the ground floor of the northern wing was converted into a gallery of French history from the 17th century to the 19th century. Additionally, at this time, policy was established in which the French government would aggressively seek to acquire as much of original furniture and artwork that had been dispersed at the time of the Revolution of 1789 as possible.[54]

text: Contemporary Versailles[edit]

text: With the past and ongoing restoration and conservation projects at Versailles, the Fifth Republic has enthusiastically promoted the museum as one of France’s foremost tourist attractions.[55] The palace, however, still serves political functions. Heads of state are regaled in the Hall of Mirrors; the Sénat and the Assemblée Nationale meet in congress in Versailles to revise or otherwise amend the French Constitution, a tradition that came into effect with the promulgation of the 1875 Constitution.[56] The Public Establishment of the Palace, Museum and National Estate of Versailles was created in 1995.

text: Château de Versailles Spectacles organised the Jeff Koons Versailles exhibition, held from 9 October 2008 to 4 January 2009. Jeff Koons said that "I hope the juxtaposition of today's surfaces, represented by my work, with the architecture and fine arts of Versailles will be an exciting interaction for the viewer."[57] Elena Geuna and Laurent Le Bon, curators of the exhibition present it as follow: "It is the city aspect that underlies this entire venture. In recent years, many a cultural institution has attempted a confrontation between a heritage setting and contemporary works. The originality of this exhibition seems to us somewhat different, as regards both the chosen venue and the way it has been laid out. Echo, dialectic, opposition, counterpoint... Not for us to judge!"[57]

text: The bronze equestrian statue of Louis XIV (Statue équestre de Louis XIV), a sculpture created by both Pierre Cartellier (1757-1831) and Louis Petitot (1794-1862) and completed in 1836, was restored in 2009. On April 27, 2009, the statue, having previously been situated in the courtyard (Cour d'Honneur), was placed outside the gates on the Place d’Armes (intersection of Avenue Rockefeller and Avenue de Paris).[58]


document_title: Evolution of reptiles

question_text: which class is thought to have been descended from dinosaurs

text: Evolution of reptiles

text: First reptiles[edit]

text: Rise from water[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Reptiles first arose from amphibians in the swamps of the late Carboniferous. Increasing evolutionary pressure and the vast untouched niches of the land powered the evolutionary changes in amphibians to gradually become more and more land-based. Environmental selection propelled the development of certain traits, such as a stronger skeletal structure, muscles, and more protective coating (scales) became more favorable; the basic foundation of reptiles were founded. The evolution of lungs and legs are the main transitional steps towards reptiles, but the development of hard-shelled external eggs replacing the amphibious water bound eggs is the defining feature of the class Reptilia and is what allowed these amphibians to fully leave water. Another major difference from amphibians is the increased brain size, more specifically, the enlarged cerebrum and cerebellum. Although their brain size is small when compared to birds and mammals, these enhancements prove vital in hunting strategies of reptiles. The increased size of these two regions of the brain allowed for improved motor skills and an increase in sensory development.

text: Early reptiles[edit]

text: The origin of the reptiles lies about 320–310 million years ago, in the swamps of the late Carboniferous period, when the first reptiles evolved from advanced reptiliomorph labyrinthodonts.[1] The oldest known animal that may have been an amniote, a reptile rather than an amphibian, is Casineria[2][3] (though it has also been argued to be a temnospondyl amphibian).[4]

text: A series of footprints from the fossil strata of Nova Scotia, dated to 315 million years, show typical reptilian toes and imprints of scales.[5] The tracks are attributed to Hylonomus, the oldest unquestionable reptile known.[6] It was a small, lizard-like animal, about 20 to 30 cm (8–12 in) long, with numerous sharp teeth indicating an insectivorous diet.[7]

text: Other examples include Westlothiana (sometimes considered a reptiliomorph amphibian rather than a true amniote)[8] and Paleothyris, both of similar build and presumably similar habit. One of the best known early reptiles is Mesosaurus, a genus from the early Permian that had returned to water, feeding on fish.

text: The earliest reptiles were largely overshadowed by bigger labyrinthodont amphibians, such as Cochleosaurus, and remained a small, inconspicuous part of the fauna until after the small ice age at the end of the Carboniferous.

text: Anapsids, synapsids, diapsids and sauropsids[edit]

text: It was traditionally assumed that first reptiles were anapsids, having a solid skull with holes only for the nose, eyes, spinal cord, etc.;[9] the discoveries of synapsid-like openings in the skull roof of the skulls of several members of Parareptilia, including lanthanosuchoids, millerettids, bolosaurids, some nycteroleterids, some procolophonoids and at least some mesosaurs[10][11][12] made it more ambiguous and it's currently uncertain whether the ancestral reptile had an anapsid-like or synapsid-like skull.[12] Very soon after the first reptiles appeared, they split into two branches.[13] One branch, Synapsida (including modern mammals), had one opening in the skull roof behind each eye. The other branch, Sauropsida, is itself divided into two main groups. One of them, the aforementioned Parareptilia, contained taxa with anapsid-like skull, as well as taxa with one opening behind each eye (see above). Members of the other group, Diapsida, possessed a hole in their skulls behind each eye, along with a second hole located higher on the skull. The function of the holes in both synapsids and diapsids was to lighten the skull and give room for the jaw muscles to move, allowing for a more powerful bite.[9]

text: Turtles have been traditionally believed to be surviving anapsids, on the basis of their skull structure.[14] The rationale for this classification was disputed, with some arguing that turtles are diapsids that reverted to this primitive state in order to improve their armor (see Parareptilia).[1] Later morphological phylogenetic studies with this in mind placed turtles firmly within Diapsida.[15] All molecular studies have strongly upheld the placement of turtles within diapsids, most commonly as a sister group to extant archosaurs.[16][17][18][19]

text: Mammalian evolution[edit]

text:
Tetrapods

Amphibians

 Amniotes

Sauropsids

 Synapsids

 Caseasaurs

 Eupelycosaurs

 Sphenacodontids

Therapsids

Mammals

Pelycosaurs

text: A basic cladogram of the origin of mammals.

text: Important developments in the transition from reptile to mammal were the evolution of warm-bloodedness, of molar occlusion, of the three-ossicle middle ear, of hair, and of mammary glands. By the end of the Triassic, there were many species that looked like modern mammals and, by the Middle Jurassic, the lineages leading to the three extant mammal groups — the monotremes, the marsupials, and the placentals — had diverged.

text: Rise of Dinosaurs[edit]

text: Permian reptiles[edit]

text: Near the end of the Carboniferous, while the terrestrial reptiliomorph labyrinthodonts were still present, the synapsids evolved the first fully terrestrial large vertebrates, the pelycosaurs such as Edaphosaurus. In the mid-Permian period, the climate turned drier, resulting in a change of fauna: The primitive pelycosaurs were replaced by the more advanced therapsids.[20]

text: The anapsid reptiles, whose massive skull roofs had no postorbital holes, continued and flourished throughout the Permian. The pareiasaurs reached giant proportions in the late Permian, eventually disappearing at the close of the period.[20]

text: Late in the period, the diapsid reptiles split into two main lineages, the archosaurs (ancestors of crocodiles and dinosaurs) and the lepidosaurs (predecessors of modern tuataras, lizards, and snakes). Both groups remained lizard-like and relatively small and inconspicuous during the Permian.

text: The Mesozoic era, the "Age of Reptiles"[edit]

text: The close of the Permian saw the greatest mass extinction known (see the Permian–Triassic extinction event). Most of the earlier anapsid/synapsid megafauna disappeared, being replaced by the archosauromorph diapsids. The archosaurs were characterized by elongated hind legs and an erect pose, the early forms looking somewhat like long-legged crocodiles. The archosaurs became the dominant group during the Triassic period, developing into the well-known dinosaurs and pterosaurs, as well as the pseudosuchians. The Mesozoic is often called the "Age of Reptiles", a phrase coined by the early 19th-century paleontologist Gideon Mantell who recognized the dinosaurs and the ancestors of the crocodilians as the dominant land vertebrates. Some of the dinosaurs were the largest land animals ever to have lived while some of the smaller theropods gave rise to the first birds.[20]

text: The sister group to Archosauromorpha is Lepidosauromorpha, containing squamates and rhynchocephalians, as well as their fossil relatives. Lepidosauromorpha contained at least one major group of the Mesozoic sea reptiles: the mosasaurs, which emerged during the Cretaceous period. The phylogenetic placement of other main groups of fossil sea reptiles – the sauropterygians and the ichthyosaurs, which evolved in the early Triassic and in the Middle Triassic respectively – is more controversial. Different authors linked these groups either to lepidosauromorphs[21] or to archosauromorphs,[22][23][24] and ichthyosaurs were also argued to be diapsids that did not belong to the least inclusive clade containing lepidosauromorphs and archosauromorphs.[25]

text: The therapsids came under increasing pressure from the dinosaurs in the Jurassic; the mammals and the tritylodontids were the only survivors of the line by the end of the period.

text: Bird evolution[edit]

text: The main points to the transition from reptile to bird are the evolution from scales to feathers, the evolution of the beak (although independently evolved in other organisms), the hallofication of bones, development of flight, and warm-bloodedness.

text: The evolution of birds is thought to have begun in the Jurassic Period, with the earliest birds derived from theropod dinosaurs. Birds are categorized as a biological class, Aves. The earliest known species in Aves is Archaeopteryx lithographica, from the Late Jurassic period. Modern phylogenetics place birds in the dinosaur clade Theropoda. According to the current consensus, Aves and Crocodilia are the sole living members of an unranked clade, the Archosauria.

text:
Coelurosaurs

Template:Clad

text: Simplified cladogram from Senter (2007).[26]

text: Demise of the dinosaurs[edit]

text: The close of the Cretaceous period saw the demise of the Mesozoic era reptilian megafauna. Along with massive amount of volcanic activity at the time, the meteor impact that created the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary is accepted as the main cause for this mass extinction event. Of the large marine reptiles, only sea turtles are left, and, of the dinosaurs, only the small feathered theropods survived in the form of birds. The end of the “Age of Reptiles” led to the “Age of Mammals”. Despite the change in phrasing, reptile diversification continued throughout the Cenozoic. Today, squamates make up the majority of extant reptiles today (over 90%).[27] There are approximately 9,766 extant species of reptiles,[27] compared with 5,400 species of mammals, so the number of reptilian species (without birds) is nearly twice the number of mammals.

text: Role reversal[edit]

text: After the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event wiped out all of the non-avian dinosaurs (birds are generally regarded as the surviving dinosaurs) and several mammalian groups, placental and marsupial mammals diversified into many new forms and ecological niches throughout the Paleogene and Neogene eras. Some reached enormous sizes and almost as wide a variation as the dinosaurs once did. Nevertheless, mammalian megafauna never quite reached the skyscraper heights of some sauropods.

text: Nonetheless, large reptiles still composed important megafaunal components, such as giant tortoises,[28][29] large crocodilians and, more locally, large varanids.

text: The four orders of Reptilia[edit]

text: Testudines[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Testudines, or turtles, may have evolved from anaspids, but their exact origin is unknown and heavily debated. Fossils date back to around 220 million years ago and share remarkably similar characteristics. These first turtles retain the same body plan as do all modern testudines and are mostly herbivorous, with some feeding exclusively on small marine organisms. The trade-mark shell is believed to have evolved from extensions from their backbone and widened ribs that fused together. This is supported by the fossil of Odontochelys semitestacea, which has an incomplete shell originating from the ribs and back bone. This species also had teeth with its beak, giving more support to it being a transitional fossil, although this claim is still controversial. This shell evolved to protect against predators, but also slows down the land-based species by a great amount. This has caused many species to go extinct in recent times. Because of alien species out-competing them for food and the inability to escape from humans, there are many endangered species in this order.

text: Sphenodontia[edit]

text: Sphenodontians arose in the mid Triassic and now consists of a single genus, tuatara, which comprises two endangered species that live on New Zealand and some of its minor surrounding islands. Their evolutionary history is filled with many species.[30] Recent paleogenetic discoveries show that tuataras are prone to quick speciation.

text: Squamata[edit]

text: The most recent order of reptiles, squamates,[31] are recognized by having a movable quadrate bone (giving them upper-jaw movement), possessing horny scales and hemipenes. They originate from the early Jurassic and are made up of the three suborders Lacertilia (paraphyletic), Serpentes, and Amphisbaenia. Although they are the most recent order, squamates contain more species than any of the other reptilian orders. Squamates are a monophyletic group included, with the Sphenodontia (e.g. tuataras), in the Lepidosauria. The latter superorder, together with some extinct animals like the plesiosaurs, constitute the Lepidosauromorpha, the sister infraclass to the group, the Archosauromorpha, that contains crocodiles, turtles, and birds. Although squamate fossils first appear in the early Jurassic, mitochondrial phylogenetics suggests that they evolved in the late Permian. Most evolutionary relationships within the squamates are not yet completely worked out, with the relationship of snakes to other groups being most problematic. From morphological data, Iguanid lizards have been thought to have diverged from other squamates very early, but recent molecular phylogenies, both from mitochondrial and nuclear DNA, do not support this early divergence.[32] Because snakes have a faster molecular clock than other squamates,[32] and there are few early snake and snake ancestor fossils,[33] it is difficult to resolve the relationship between snakes and other squamate groups.

text: Crocodilia[edit]

text: The first organisms that showed similar characteristics of Crocodilians[34] were the Crurotarsi, who appeared during the early Triassic 250 million years ago. This quickly gave rise to the Eusuchia clade 220 million years ago, which would eventually lead to the order of Crocodilians, the first of which arose about 85 million years ago during the late Cretaceous. The earliest fossil evidence of eusuchians is of the genus Isisfordia. Early species mainly fed on fish and vegetation. They were land-based, most having long legs (when compared to modern crocodiles) and many were bipedal. As diversification increased, many apex predators arose, all of which are now extinct. Modern Crocodilia arose through specific evolutionary traits. The complete loss of bipedalism was traded for a generally low quadrupedal stance for an easy and less noticeable entrance to bodies of water. The shape of the skull/jaw changed to allow more grasp along with upward-pointing nostrils and eyes. Mimicry is evident, as the backs of all crocodilia resemble some type of floating log and their general color scheme of brown and green mimics moss or wood. Their tail also took on a paddle shape to increase swimming speed. The only remaining groups[35] of this order are the alligators and caimans; crocodiles; and gharials.


document_title: John Doe

question_text: where does the saying john doe come from

text: John Doe

text: Usage[edit]

text: John Doe is sometimes used to refer to a typical male in other contexts as well, in a similar manner to John Q. Public in the United States or Joe Public, John Smith or Joe Bloggs in Britain. For example: the first name listed on a form might be John Doe, along with a fictional address or other fictional information to provide an example of how to fill in the form. The name is also used frequently in US popular culture, for example in the Frank Capra film Meet John Doe. John Doe was also the name of a 2002 American television series.

text: Similarly, a child or baby whose identity is unknown may be referred to as Baby Doe. A notorious murder case in Kansas City, Missouri, referred to the baby victim as Precious Doe.[2] Other unidentified female murder victims have also been nicknamed by the public or investigators as "Cali Doe" and "Princess Doe". Additional persons may be called James Doe, Judy Doe, etc. However, to avoid possible confusion, if two anonymous or unknown parties are cited in a specific case or action, the surnames Doe and Roe may be used simultaneously; for example, "John Doe v. Jane Roe". If several anonymous parties are referenced, they may simply be labelled John Doe #1, John Doe #2, etc. (the U.S. Operation Delego cited 21 (numbered) "John Doe"s) or labelled with other variants of Doe / Roe / Poe / etc. Other early alternatives such as John Stiles and Richard Miles are now rarely used, and Mary Major has been used in some American federal cases.[3]

text: The Doe names are also used for anonymous or unknown defendants. Another set of names used for anonymous parties, particularly plaintiffs, are Richard Roe for men and Jane Roe for women (as in the landmark U.S. Supreme Court abortion decision Roe v. Wade).

text: Bearing the actual name John Doe can cause difficulty, such as being stopped by airport security or suspected of being an incognito celebrity.[4]

text: The term is sometimes used in lawsuits in Ireland and the United States; see, for example McKeogh v. John Doe[5] and Uber Technologies, Inc. v. Doe I.[6]

text: The term John Doe or Jane Doe is used in US police investigations when the identity of the victim(s) is unknown or incorrect.

text: Origin[edit]

text: The names "John Doe" and "Richard Roe," along with "John Roe" or "Doo" were regularly invoked in English legal instruments to satisfy technical requirements governing standing and jurisdiction, beginning perhaps as early as the reign of England's King Edward III (1327–1377).[7]

text: Other fictitious names for a person involved in litigation under English law were John-Noakes, or John Noakes/Nokes and John-a-Stiles/John Stiles.[8]

text: The Oxford English Dictionary states that John Doe is "the name given to the fictitious lessee of the plaintiff, in the (now obsolete in the UK) mixed action of ejectment, the fictitious defendant being called Richard Roe".

text: This usage is mocked in the 1834 English song "John Doe and Richard Roe":

text:
Two giants live in Britain's land,
John Doe and Richard Roe,
Who always travel hand in hand,
John Doe and Richard Roe.
Their fee-faw-fum's an ancient plan
To smell the purse of an Englishman,
And, 'ecod, they'll suck it all they can,
John Doe and Richard Roe ...[9]

text: This particular use became obsolete in the UK in 1852:

text:
As is well known, the device of involving real people as notional lessees and ejectors was used to enable freeholders to sue the real ejectors. These were then replaced by the fictional characters John Doe and Richard Roe. Eventually the medieval remedies were (mostly) abolished by the Real Property Limitation Act of 1833; the fictional characters of John Doe and Richard Roe by the Common Law Procedure Act 1852; and the forms of action themselves by the Judicature Acts 1873–75."
Secretary of State for Environment, Food, and Rural Affairs (Respondent) v Meier and another(FC) (Appellant) and others and another (FC)(Appellant) and another (2009).[10]

text: The term 'John Doe Injunction' (or John Doe Order)[11] is used in the UK to describe an injunction sought against someone whose identity is not known at the time it is issued:

text: "8.02 If an unknown person has possession of the confidential personal information and is threatening to disclose it, a 'John Doe' injunction may be sought against that person. The first time this form of injunction was used since 1852 in the United Kingdom was in 2005 when lawyers acting for JK Rowling and her publishers obtained an interim order against an unidentified person who had offered to sell chapters of a stolen copy of an unpublished Harry Potter novel to the media".[12]

text: Unlike in the United States the name (John) Doe does not actually appear in the formal name of the case, for example: X & Y v Persons Unknown [2007] HRLR 4.[13]

text: Court cases[edit]

text:
The landmark 1973 United States Supreme Court abortion cases Roe v. Wade and Doe v. Bolton get half of their names from anonymous plaintiffs Jane Roe and Mary Doe, women later revealed to be named Norma McCorvey and Sandra Cano.
A Toronto woman, publicly known only as Jane Doe, waged an 11-year court battle against the Toronto Police Service after being raped in 1986, alleging that the police had used her as bait to catch the Balcony Rapist. She won the case in 1998, and was named Chatelaine's Woman of the Year that year.[14] She published a book about her experience, The Story of Jane Doe: A Book about Rape, in 2003.
A Doe subpoena is an investigatory tool that a plaintiff may use to seek the identity of an unknown defendant. Doe subpoenas are often served on online service providers and ISPs to obtain the identity of the author of an anonymous post.[15]
Serial killer Richard Laurence Marquette confessed to the murder of an unknown woman identified only as Jane Doe.
File sharing websites were blocked in India on 21 July 2011 on some ISPs including Bharti Airtel, BSNL, and Reliance Communications, because Reliance BIG Pictures got a "John Doe" order from Delhi High Court allowing them to serve cease and desist notices on people illegally redistributing the film Singham.[16] This allegedly brought down copyright infringement of the film by 30%.
On 29 August 2011 Reliance Entertainment procured a 'John Doe' order from the Delhi High Court to prevent the illegal broadcast or streaming of its upcoming film Bodyguard. This order gives protection to the intellectual property owner, Reliance Entertainment, from copyright violation by prospective anonymous offenders.[17]

text: The use and selection of pseudonyms is not standardized in U.S. courts and the practice itself is opposed on legal grounds by some and was rare prior to 1969.

text:
On March 10, 2015, HTG Capital Partners LLC filed a federal lawsuit against unnamed “spoofers,” which the suit referred to as John Doe(s), in the hopes of getting a judge to force the Chicago Mercantile Exchange to reveal the names of the firms. HTG said it had found evidence of thousands of such manipulations over 2013 and 2014."[20]
In November 2016, a woman only identified as "Jane Doe" abandoned plans to go public about allegedly being raped by Donald Trump.[21]
In October 2017, an unidentified minor Jane Doe detained by U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement sued to enjoin the government from obstructing her access to abortion in Garza v. Hargan.

text: Other variants[edit]

text: In addition to Doe and Roe, other "_oe" names have been used when more than two unknown or unidentified persons are named in U.S. court proceedings, e.g., Poe v. Snyder, 834 F.Supp.2d 721 (W. D. Mich. 2011),[22] whose full style is

text: and Friedman v. Ferguson, No. 87-3758, unpublished disposition, 850 F.2d 689 (4th Cir., 29 June 1988),[23] whose full style is

text: In a lawsuit in the UK about the publication of D.H. Lawrence's novel "Lady Chatterley's Lover" the 'average person' was referred to as "the man on the Clapham omnibus". Parallels in other cultures are in France "Monsieur Brun", in Italy "Signor Rossi", in India "Ashok Kumar".[25]


document_title: 21 Jump Street (film)

question_text: what was the drug on 21 jump street

question_tokens: what was the drug on 21 jump street

text: 21 Jump Street (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: In 2005, scholarly student Morton Schmidt (Jonah Hill) and popular underachieving jock Greg Jenko (Channing Tatum) miss their school prom; Schmidt being rejected by the girl he asked to be his date and Jenko being barred from attending because of his grades. Seven years later, the duo meets again at the Police Academy and become friends and partners on bicycle patrol. They catch a break when they arrest Domingo (DeRay Davis), the leader of a one-percenter motorcycle gang, but are forced to release him after they failed to read him his Miranda rights.

text: The duo is reassigned to a revived scheme from the 1980s, which specializes in infiltrating high schools. Captain Dickson (Ice Cube) assigns them to contain the spread of a synthetic drug called HFS at Sagan High School. He gives them new identities and enrolls them as students, giving them class schedules fitting their previous academic performances; Jenko taking mostly arts and humanities, and Schmidt taking mostly science classes, but the duo mixes up their identities. Schmidt gets a lead on HFS from classmate Molly (Brie Larson), and he and Jenko meet the school's main dealer, popular student Eric (Dave Franco). The two take HFS in front of him to maintain their cover. After experiencing the drug's effects, the duo discovers that Schmidt's intelligence now makes him popular, while Jenko's lax attitude is frowned upon.

text: Eric takes a liking to Schmidt, who develops a romantic interest in Molly. Jenko becomes friends with the students in his AP Chemistry class and finds himself becoming more interested in geeky hobbies and academic pursuits. Schmidt and Jenko throw a party at Schmidt's parents' house, where they are living during the course of their assignment, and invite Eric. During the party, a fight breaks out between Schmidt, Jenko, and some party crashers. Schmidt wins the fight, solidifying his social status and gaining Eric's trust. Jenko's friends hack Eric's phone to enable them to listen in on his conversations.

text: At a party at Eric's house, using the phone hack, Jenko and his friends overhear information about an upcoming meeting between Eric and his supplier, but also catch Schmidt making disparaging comments about Jenko. The rift between the duo grows as their new school life intrudes upon their official police work. Schmidt and Jenko track Eric to a cash transaction with the distributors of HFS – the motorcycle gang from the park – and a chase ensues on the freeway. They return to school, argue, and eventually begin fighting, which disrupts the school play. They are expelled from school and are removed from the Jump Street program.

text: Eric, stressed and terrified, recruits Schmidt and Jenko as security for a deal taking place at the school prom. While dressing for the prom, Schmidt and Jenko rekindle their friendship. At the prom, they discover that the supplier is the physical education teacher, Mr. Walters (Rob Riggle), who created the drug accidentally and started selling it to the students to supplement his teacher's salary. Having caught Eric smoking marijuana, he was able to persuade him into being his dealer.

text: The motorcycle gang arrives for the deal but Molly interrupts them and starts arguing with Schmidt. As a result, the gang leader recognizes Schmidt and Jenko, and orders his men to kill them. Two of the gang members reveal themselves as undercover DEA agents Tom Hanson and Doug Penhall (Johnny Depp and Peter DeLuise), and former members of the 21 Jump Street program. In the ensuing gunfight, Hanson and Penhall are fatally wounded. Mr. Walters and Eric escape with the money and Molly as a hostage; the gang, Schmidt, and Jenko follow close behind. Jenko creates a homemade bomb and uses it to kill the gang. Mr. Walters shoots at Schmidt but Jenko takes the bullet to his arm, sparing Schmidt's life. In response, Schmidt shoots Mr. Walters, unintentionally severing his penis. As they arrest Mr. Walters and Eric (in addition to successfully reading the Miranda rights), Schmidt and Jenko reconcile their relationship and Schmidt and Molly share a kiss.

text: Both officers are congratulated and reinstated in Jump Street as Dickson gives them a new assignment: infiltrating a college.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Jonah Hill as Officer Morton Schmidt / Doug McQuaid, a socially awkward yet smart police officer.
Channing Tatum as Officer Greg Jenko / Brad McQuaid, a slow-witted yet handsome cop.
Brie Larson as Molly Tracey, one of Eric's friends and Schmidt's love interest.
Dave Franco as Eric Molson, a student who is one of the H.F.S. dealers.
Rob Riggle as Mr. Walters, a physical education teacher.
DeRay Davis as Domingo, the leader of the One-Percenters.
Ice Cube as Captain Dickson, a coarse police captain who manages 21 Jump Street.
Chris Parnell as Mr. Gordon, a drama teacher.
Ellie Kemper as Ms. Griggs, a science teacher who has a sexual interest towards Jenko and doesn't know he is a cop.
Jake Johnson as Principal Dadier, the principal of Sagan High.
Nick Offerman as Deputy Chief Hardy.
Holly Robinson Peete as Officer Judy Hoffs.
Lindsey Broad as Lisa.
Johnny Simmons as Billiam Willing-ham, a Sagan High student who died due to H.F.S.
Spencer Boldman as French Samuels
Rye Rye as Jr. Jr.
Caroline Aaron as Annie Schmidt
Dakota Johnson as Fugazy
Valerie Tian as Burns
Luis Da Silva as One-Percenter
Johnny Depp (uncredited cameo) as Tom Hanson[7]
Peter DeLuise (uncredited cameo) as Doug Penhall[7]

text: Production[edit]

text: In May 2008, Columbia Pictures confirmed that a film adaptation of the series was under development. Jonah Hill rewrote an existing script by screenwriter Joe Gazzam and executive produced the film, as well as starred in the film.[8] Hill has said he wanted horror director Rob Zombie to direct the picture. In May 2009, Hill described the film adaptation as being an "R-rated, insane, Bad Boys-meets-John Hughes-type movie".[9] On December 21, 2009, it was announced that Columbia Pictures were in talks with Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs directing duo, Phil Lord and Christopher Miller, to direct the film.[10] The film follows the same continuity as the TV series; Lord said, "So, all of those events of the original happened. And now here we are 20 years later, and we’re watching it happen to different people."[11] However, the film features a highly comedic tone, departing radically from the more dramatic and earnest tone of the series.[12]

text: Filming[edit]

text: The film was shot in and around the city of Metairie, Louisiana (suburb of New Orleans) in 2011, although the filmmakers took elaborate steps to disguise the location as a generic city named "Metropolitan City". They replaced distinctive street signs with signs using a Helvetica typeface, digitally removed billboards from local businesses (except the recognizable local RTA signs toward the end of the film as well as a Zatarain's billboard ad), and avoided filming locations with iconic New Orleans imagery. Despite this, signature landmarks such as the Crescent City Connection and distinctive French Quarter–area street are still partially visible.[13] The main school used as the stand-in for the fictional Sagan High School was Riverdale High School, located in Jefferson, Louisiana.[14] The naked baby pictures of Hill's character used in the film were actual pictures of Hill as a child.[15]

text: Music[edit]

text: The score for the film was composed by Mark Mothersbaugh. In September 2014, it was released by La-La Land Records on a double disc album, limited to 2,000 copies. The second disc of the album also contains the score from the film's sequel, 22 Jump Street, composed by Mothersbaugh as well.[16] A modernized cover of the original television's theme song by Rye Rye (who had a small part in the film) and Esthero was released as a single in the iTunes Store.[17]

text: In addition, a total of 21 songs were licensed for use in the film. The songs featured in the film include:

text:
"The Real Slim Shady" – Eminem
"Police and Thieves" – The Clash
"You Can't Lose" – The Knux
"Boombox" – Dirt Nasty
"Caesar" – Ty Segall
"Helena Beat" – Foster the People
"So Into You" – Atlanta Rhythm Section
"Party Rock Anthem" – LMFAO
"Straight Outta Compton" – N.W.A
"Get Me Golden" – Terraplane Sun
"Swell Window" – Zee Avi
"Lookin' Fly" (feat. Will.i.am) – Murs
"Rescue Song" – Mr. Little Jeans
"Graduation (Friends Forever)" – Vitamin C
"Call the Police" – Ini Kamoze
"21 Jump Street – Main Theme (From the Motion Picture "21 Jump Street")" – Rye Rye & Esthero
"21 Jump Street (Main Theme)" – Wallpaper.
"You Are the Best" – Tim Myers
"Every Time I See Your Face" – Elon

text: Release[edit]

text: The premiere of 21 Jump Street took place on March 12, 2012, at the Paramount Theatre in Austin, TX, during SXSW.[18] The film opened in a wide release in theaters on March 16, 2012.  21 Jump Street grossed $138.4 million in the United States and Canada and $63.1 million in other countries for a worldwide total of $201.6 million; it is also the top-grossing high school comedy film of all-time.[5] The film grossed $13.2 million on its opening day. During the weekend, the film grossed $35 million, taking The Lorax out of the #1 spot that it held for its first two weeks.[19]

text: 21 Jump Street was released on DVD and Blu-ray in Canada and the United States on June 28, 2012[20][21] and was released in the United Kingdom on July 9, 2012.[22] Some of the Blu-ray bonus features include 20 deleted scenes and "Johnny Depp on Set" explaining how they brought Johnny Depp to reprise his role as Tom Hanson. It was revealed that Johnny wanted his character to die, but for unknown reasons. In one of the deleted scenes, Tom and his partner, Doug Penhall, were shown to have survived the shootout.

text: Reception[edit]

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, a review aggregator, the film has an approval rating of 85% based on 213 reviews and an average rating of 7.2/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "A smart, affectionate satire of '80s nostalgia and teen movie tropes, 21 Jump Street offers rowdy mainstream comedy with a surprisingly satisfying bite."[23] On Metacritic, the film has a score of 69 out of 100 based on 41 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[24] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale.[25]

text: Richard Roeper of The Chicago-Sun Times gave the film a grade of a B+ saying, “I didn't think we needed a 21 Jump Street, but it's actually kind of funny".[26]

text: Accolades[edit]

text: The film was listed as the number 6 most illegally downloaded film of 2012 using the BitTorrent protocol with approximately 7.6 million downloads.[27]

text:
Year
Award
Category
Recipients and nominees
Result
Ref.

2012

BMI Film & TV Awards

Film Music Award

Mark Mothersbaugh

Won

[28]

Golden Trailer Awards

Best Pre-show Theatrical Advertising

Won

[29]

Best Comedy TV Spot

Won

MTV Movie Awards

Best Comedic Performance

Jonah Hill

Nominated

[30]

Best Cast

21 Jump Street

Best On-Screen Transformation

Johnny Depp

Best Fight

Channing Tatum and Jonah Hill vs. Kid Gang

Best Gut-Wrenching Performance

Jonah Hill and Rob Riggle

Best Music

Party Rock Anthem by LMFAO

Won

Teen Choice Awards

Choice Movie: Comedy

21 Jump Street

Won

[31]

Choice Movie: Actor Comedy

Channing Tatum

Won

Choice Movie: Actor Comedy

Jonah Hill

Nominated

Artios Awards

Outstanding Achievement in Casting - Big Budget Comedy Feature

21 Jump Street - Jeanne McCarthy, Nicole Abellera, Elizabeth Coulon, (Location Casting), Yesi Ramirez (Associate)

Nominated

[32]

People's Choice Awards

Favorite Comedy Movie

21 Jump Street

Nominated

[33]

2013

Critic's Choice Award

Best Comedy

21 Jump Street

Nominated

[34]

Best Actor in a Comedy

Channing Tatum

Nominated

text: Sequels and spin-offs[edit]

text: 22 Jump Street[edit]

text: On March 17, 2012, Sony Pictures announced that it was pursuing a sequel to the film, signing a deal that would see Hill and Bacall return to write a script treatment that would be again developed by Bacall. Hill and Tatum returned to star in the film. They were executive producers as well, alongside producer Neal H. Moritz.[35] Phil Lord and Christopher Miller returned to direct this sequel. The film was originally scheduled to be released on June 6, 2014.[36] On May 8, 2013, it was announced that the film would be pushed back a week until June 13, 2014.[37] The film's title was  22 Jump Street.[38] Like the first film, 22 Jump Street received positive reviews.

text: 23 Jump Street[edit]

text:
On September 10, 2014, 23 Jump Street was confirmed.[39] Channing Tatum has yet to sign on to the project. Tatum stated, "I don't know if that joke works three times, so we'll see."[40] On August 7, 2015, it was revealed that Lord and Miller will not direct the film, but instead write and produce. A first draft of the film's script has been completed.[41]
In early 2015, a female-driven 21 Jump Street film was rumoured to be in the works alongside the movie.[42] However, with the announcement of the Men in Black crossover and no further updates, the status of the film is unclear.

text: MIB 23[edit]

text: On December 10, 2014, it was revealed that Sony was planning a crossover between Men in Black and Jump Street. The news was leaked after Sony's system was hacked[43] and then confirmed by the directors of the films, Chris Miller and Phil Lord, during an interview about it.[44][45] James Bobin was announced as the director in March 2016.[46][47]

text: Untitled female-led spin-off[edit]

text: A female-driven 21 Jump Street film is being developed.[48] In December 2016, Rodney Rothman was announced as the director and screenwriter for the film. Rothman returns to the franchise after co-writing 22 Jump Street, and MIB 23 as well.[49]