document_title: Advent wreath

question_text: why is the advent wreath made of evergreen branches

text: Advent wreath

text: History[edit]

text: The concept of the Advent wreath originated among German Lutherans in the 16th Century.[7] However, it was not until three centuries later that the modern Advent wreath took shape.[8]

text: Research by Prof. Haemig of Luther Seminary, St. Paul, points to Johann Hinrich Wichern (1808–1881), a Protestant pastor in Germany and a pioneer in urban mission work among the poor as the inventor of the modern Advent wreath in the 19th century.[9] During Advent, children at the mission school Rauhes Haus, founded by Wichern in Hamburg, would ask daily if Christmas had arrived. In 1839, he built a large wooden ring (made out of an old cartwheel) with 20 small red and 4 large white candles. A small candle was lit successively every weekday and Saturday during Advent. On Sundays, a large white candle was lit. The custom gained ground among Protestant churches in Germany and evolved into the smaller wreath with four or five candles known today. Roman Catholics in Germany began to adopt the custom in the 1920s, and in the 1930s it spread to North America.[10] Professor Haemig's research also indicates that the custom did not reach the United States until the 1930s, even among German Lutheran immigrants.

text: In Medieval times Advent was a fast during which people's thoughts were directed to the expected second coming of Christ; but in modern times it has been seen as the lead up to Christmas, and in that context Advent Wreath serves as a reminder of the approach of the feast.

text: In 1964, an Advent crown made at home from wire coathangers and tinsel, appeared on the bi-weekly children's TV program Blue Peter. This 'make' became one of the program's most iconic, repeated each year, and was the introduction of this tradition to most of the broadly Anglican audience.[11] In later years, the candles were replaced by baubles, out of concern over fire.

text: More recently, some Eastern Orthodox families have adopted an Advent wreath with six candles symbolizing the longer Christmas fast in Orthodox tradition, which corresponds to Advent in Western Christianity.[12]

text: Forms of the Advent wreath[edit]

text: Advent wreaths are circular, representing God's infinite love, and are usually made of evergreen leaves, which "represent the hope of eternal life brought by Jesus Christ."[13] Within the Advent wreath are candles that generally represent the four weeks of the Advent season as well as "the light of God coming into the world through the birth of Jesus Christ" although each of the candles has its own significance as well;[13] individually, the candles specifically symbolize the Christian concepts of hope (week one), peace (week two), joy (week three) and love (week four) in many traditions.[14][15][16][17] Many Advent wreaths also have a white candle in the centre to symbolize the arrival of Christmastide, sometimes known as the "Christ candle." It is lit on Christmas Eve or Christmas Day. The Christ candle is coloured white because this is the traditional festal colour in the Western Church.[18]

text: In many Catholic and Protestant churches, the most popular colours for the four surrounding Advent candles are violet and rose, corresponding with the colors of the liturgical vestments for the Sundays of Advent. For denominations of the Western Christian Church, violet is the historic liturgical color for three of the four Sundays of Advent: Violet is the traditional color of penitential seasons.[16] Blue is also a popular alternative color for both Advent vestments and Advent candles, especially in some Anglican and Methodist churches,[16] which use a blue shade associated with the Sarum rite, in addition to Lutheran churches that also implement this practice. One interpretation holds that blue means hope and waiting, which aligns with the seasonal meaning of Advent. Rose is the liturgical color for the Third Sunday of Advent, known as Gaudete Sunday from the Latin word meaning "to rejoice"—also from the first line of the traditional entrance prayer (called the Introit) for the Mass or Worship Service of the third Sunday of Advent; it is a pause from the penitential spirit of Advent.[19][20] As such, the third candle, representing joy, is often a different color from the other three.[16][14]

text: In other Protestant churches, especially in the United Kingdom, it is more common for Advent wreaths to have four red candles (reflecting their traditional use in Christmas decorations).[21] The Advent wreath used by Pope Benedict XVI of the Catholic Church also had four red candles.[22]


document_title: Karen Newman

question_text: who sings the national anthem for the detroit red wings

root

text: Karen Newman

text: This biography of a living person needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately, especially if potentially libelous or harmful. (June 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text:
Karen Newman

Newman singing The Star-Spangled Banner prior to a Detroit Red Wings game at Joe Louis Arena on November 11, 2010.

Born
Detroit, Michigan,
United States

Nationality
United States

Alma mater
Oakland University

Known for
Singing

Website
www.karennewmanmusic.com

text: Karen Newman is a professional singer based in Detroit, Michigan and the anthem singer of the Detroit Red Wings.

tag: p

text: Biography[edit]

text: Newman was raised in the Michigan towns of Rochester and Grand Blanc, and studied music at Oakland University. She is best known for being "the voice" of the National Hockey League's Detroit Red Wings, regularly performing the national anthem before the team's home games, dating back to when they played at Joe Louis Arena. She has been uniquely known as The Red Wings' Own. She has toured with Bob Seger and Kid Rock. [1]

text: Newman has five previously released CDs[citation needed] including the patriotic EP, How Far We've Come, which is available through CDBABY.com and electronically through iTunes. This CD includes both the U.S. National anthem as well as the Canadian anthem. The single "Christmas Eve on Woodward Avenue" has become a traditional favorite for many Detroit radio stations, and has been included for many years as part of the Detroit Thanksgiving Parade.[citation needed] This hometown favorite can be found on her first Christmas CD, What Christmas Means to Me and NOW... On her newly released full length holiday CD, Christmas Eve on Woodward Avenue, a collection of traditional favorites with a contemporary flair.

text: Karen is also very well known for her annual Christmas concerts which began with the regional hit "Christmas Eve on Woodward Avenue", a tribute to her hometown Detroit. Karen will perform her Christmas show for the fifth year at the fabulous Fox Theater in downtown Detroit on December 15, 2015.

text: Karen has done numerous television commercials for local and national companies and has served as celebrity spokesperson for John Bowman Chevrolet, Evola Music, Discount Tire Company, Sargent Appliance, Hanson Windows, Diabetes Care Education Association, St, John Providence Health Systems "Because We Care" campaign and many other others. She works with and supports numerous local children's and animal charities in and around Michigan.

text: Karen and her family live in a suburb of Detroit.


document_title: Alps

question_text: which mountains would you cross to travel from northern italy to switzerland

question_tokens: which mountains would you cross to travel from northern italy to switzerland

text: Alps

text: Etymology and toponymy[edit]

text: The English word Alps derives from the Latin Alpes (through French). Maurus Servius Honoratus, an ancient commentator of Virgil, says in his commentary (A. X 13) that all high mountains are called Alpes by Celts. The term may be common to Italo-Celtic, because the Celtic languages have terms for high mountains derived from alp.

text: This may be consistent with the theory that in Greek Alpes is a name of non-Indo-European origin (which is common for prominent mountains and mountain ranges in the Mediterranean region). According to the Old English Dictionary, the Latin Alpes might possibly derive from a pre-Indo-European word *alb "hill"; "Albania" is a related derivation. Albania, a name not native to the region known as the country of Albania, has been used as a name for a number of mountainous areas across Europe. In Roman times, "Albania" was a name for the eastern Caucasus, while in the English languages "Albania" (or "Albany") was occasionally used as a name for Scotland,[5] although many scholars[who?] point out this is more likely derived from the Latin albus, the color white.

text: In modern languages the term alp, alm, albe or alpe refers to a grazing pastures in the alpine regions below the glaciers, not the peaks.[6] An alp refers to a high mountain pasture where cows are taken to be grazed during the summer months and where hay barns can be found, and the term "the Alps", referring to the mountains, is a misnomer.[7][8] The term for the mountain peaks varies by nation and language: words such as Horn, Kogel, Kopf, Gipfel, Spitze, Stock, and Berg are used in German speaking regions; Mont, Pic, Tête, Pointe, Dent, Roche, and Aiguille in French speaking regions; and Monte, Picco, Corno, Punta, Pizzo, or Cima in Italian speaking regions.[9]

text: Geography[edit]

text: The Alps are a crescent shaped geographic feature of central Europe that ranges in a 800 km (500 mi) arc from east to west and is 200 km (120 mi) in width. The mean height of the mountain peaks is 2.5 km (1.6 mi).[10] The range stretches from the Mediterranean Sea north above the Po basin, extending through France from Grenoble, and stretching eastward through mid and southern Switzerland. The range continues onward toward Vienna, Austria, and east to the Adriatic Sea and Slovenia.[11][12][13] To the south it dips into northern Italy and to the north extends to the southern border of Bavaria in Germany.[13] In areas like Chiasso, Switzerland, and Allgäu, Bavaria, the demarcation between the mountain range and the flatlands are clear; in other places such as Geneva, the demarcation is less clear. The countries with the greatest alpine territory are Switzerland, France, Austria and Italy.

text: The highest portion of the range is divided by the glacial trough of the Rhône valley, with the Pennine Alps from Mont Blanc to the Matterhorn and Monte Rosa on the southern side, and the Bernese Alps on the northern. The peaks in the easterly portion of the range, in Austria and Slovenia, are smaller than those in the central and western portions.[13]

text: The variances in nomenclature in the region spanned by the Alps makes classification of the mountains and subregions difficult, but a general classification is that of the Eastern Alps and Western Alps with the divide between the two occurring in eastern Switzerland according to geologist Stefan Schmid,[6] near the Splügen Pass.

text: The highest peaks of the Western Alps and Eastern Alps, respectively, are Mont Blanc, at 4,810 m (15,780 ft)[14] and Piz Bernina at 4,049 metres (13,284 ft). The second-highest major peaks are Monte Rosa at 4,634 m (15,200 ft) and Ortler[15] at 3,905 m (12,810 ft), respectively

text: Series of lower mountain ranges run parallel to the main chain of the Alps, including the French Prealps in France and the Jura Mountains in Switzerland and France. The secondary chain of the Alps follows the watershed from the Mediterranean Sea to the Wienerwald, passing over many of the highest and most well-known peaks in the Alps. From the Colle di Cadibona to Col de Tende it runs westwards, before turning to the northwest and then, near the Colle della Maddalena, to the north. Upon reaching the Swiss border, the line of the main chain heads approximately east-northeast, a heading it follows until its end near Vienna.[citation needed]

text: Passes[edit]

text: The Alps have been crossed for war and commerce, and by pilgrims, students and tourists. Crossing routes by road, train or foot are known as passes, and usually consist of depressions in the mountains in which a valley leads from the plains and hilly pre-mountainous zones.[16] In the medieval period hospices were established by religious orders at the summits of many of the main passes.[8] The most important passes are the Col de l'Iseran (the highest), the Brenner Pass, the Mont-Cenis, the Great St. Bernard Pass, the Col de Tende, the Gotthard Pass, the Semmering Pass, the Simplon Pass, and the Stelvio Pass.[17] Crossing the Italian-Austrian border, the Brenner Pass separates the Ötztal Alps and Zillertal Alps and has been in use as a trading route since the 14th century. The lowest of the Alpine passes at 985 m (3,232 ft), the Semmering crosses from Lower Austria to Styria; since the 12th century when a hospice was built there it has seen continuous use. A railroad with a tunnel 1 mile (1.6 km) long was built along the route of the pass in the mid-19th century. With a summit of 2,469 m (8,100 ft), the Great St. Bernard Pass is one of the highest in the Alps, crossing the Italian-Swiss border east of the Pennine Alps along the flanks of Mont Blanc. The pass was used by Napoleon Bonaparte to cross 40,000 troops in 1800.

text: The Mont Cenis pass has been a major commercial and military road between Western Europe and Italy. The pass was crossed by many troops on their way to the Italian peninsula. From Constantine I, Pepin the Short and Charlemagne to Henry IV, Napoléon and more recently the German Gebirgsjägers during World War II. Now the pass has been supplanted by the Fréjus Road (opened 1980) and Rail Tunnel (opened 1871).

text: The Saint Gotthard Pass crosses from Central Switzerland to Ticino; in 1882 the 15 km (9 mi) long Saint Gotthard Railway Tunnel was opened connecting Lucerne in Switzerland, with Milan in Italy. 98 years later followed Gotthard Road Tunnel (16.9 km (11 mi) long) connecting the A2 motorway in Göschenen on the German-Swiss side with Airolo on the Italian-Swiss side, exactly like the railway tunnel. On 1 June 2016 the world's longest railway tunnel, the Gotthard Base Tunnel was opened, which connects Erstfeld in canton of Uri with Bodio in canton of Ticino by two single tubes of 57.09 kilometres (35.47 mi).[18] It is the first tunnel, which traverses the Alps on ground level.[clarification needed][19] From 11 December 2016 it will be part of the official railway timetable for 2017 and be used hourly as standard way to ride between Basel/Luzern/Zurich and Bellinzona/Lugano/Milano.[20]

text: The highest pass in the alps is the col de l'Iseran in Savoy (France) at 2,770 m (9,088 ft), followed by the Stelvio Pass in northern Italy at 2,756 m (9,042 ft); the road was built in the 1820s.[17]

text: Orogeny and geology[edit]

text: Important geological concepts were established as naturalists began studying the rock formations of the Alps in the 18th century. In the mid-19th century the now defunct theory of geosynclines was used to explain the presence of "folded" mountain chains but by the mid-20th century the theory of plate tectonics became widely accepted.[21]

text: The formation of the Alps (the Alpine orogeny) was an episodic process that began about 300 million years ago.[23] In the Paleozoic Era the Pangaean supercontinent consisted of a single tectonic plate; it broke into separate plates during the Mesozoic Era and the Tethys sea developed between Laurasia and Gondwana during the Jurassic Period.[21] The Tethys was later squeezed between colliding plates causing the formation of mountain ranges called the Alpide belt, from Gibraltar through the Himalayas to Indonesia—a process that began at the end of the Mesozoic and continues into the present. The formation of the Alps was a segment of this orogenic process,[21] caused by the collision between the African and the Eurasian plates[24] that began in the late Cretaceous Period.[25]

text: Under extreme compressive stresses and pressure, marine sedimentary rocks were uplifted, creating characteristic recumbent folds, or nappes, and thrust faults.[26] As the rising peaks underwent erosion, a layer of marine flysch sediments was deposited in the foreland basin, and the sediments became involved in younger nappes (folds) as the orogeny progressed. Coarse sediments from the continual uplift and erosion were later deposited in foreland areas as molasse.[24] The molasse regions in Switzerland and Bavaria were well-developed and saw further upthrusting of flysch.[27]

text: The Alpine orogeny occurred in ongoing cycles through to the Paleogene causing differences in nappe structures, with a late-stage orogeny causing the development of the Jura Mountains.[28] A series of tectonic events in the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous periods caused different paleogeographic regions.[28] The Alps are subdivided by different lithology (rock composition) and nappe structure according to the orogenic events that affected them.[6] The geological subdivision differentiates the Western, Eastern Alps and Southern Alps: the Helveticum in the north, the Penninicum and Austroalpine system in the centre and, south of the Periadriatic Seam, the Southern Alpine system.[29]

text: According to geologist Stefan Schmid, because the Western Alps underwent a metamorphic event in the Cenozoic Era while the Austroalpine peaks underwent an event in the Cretaceous Period, the two areas show distinct differences in nappe formations.[28] Flysch deposits in the Southern Alps of Lombardy probably occurred in the Cretaceous or later.[28]

text: Peaks in France, Italy and Switzerland lie in the "Houillière zone", which consists of basement with sediments from the Mesozoic Era.[29] High "massifs" with external sedimentary cover are more common in the Western Alps and were affected by Neogene Period thin-skinned thrusting whereas the Eastern Alps have comparatively few high peaked massifs.[27] Similarly the peaks in eastern Switzerland extending to western Austria (Helvetic nappes) consist of thin-skinned sedimentary folding that detached from former basement rock.[30]

text: In simple terms the structure of the Alps consists of layers of rock of European, African and oceanic (Tethyan) origin.[31] The bottom nappe structure is of continental European origin, above which are stacked marine sediment nappes, topped off by nappes derived from the African plate.[32] The Matterhorn is an example of the ongoing orogeny and shows evidence of great folding. The tip of the mountain consists of gneisses from the African plate; the base of the peak, below the glaciated area, consists of European basement rock. The sequence of Tethyan marine sediments and their oceanic basement is sandwiched between rock derived from the African and European plates.[22]

text: The core regions of the Alpine orogenic belt have been folded and fractured in such a manner that erosion created the characteristic steep vertical peaks of the Swiss Alps that rise seemingly straight out of the foreland areas.[25] Peaks such as Mont Blanc, the Matterhorn, and high peaks in the Pennine Alps, the Briançonnais, and Hohe Tauern consist of layers of rock from the various orogenies including exposures of basement rock.[33]

text: "Four-thousanders" and ascents[edit]

text: The Union Internationale des Associations d'Alpinisme (UIAA) has defined a list of 82 "official" Alpine summits that reach at least 4,000 m (13,123 ft).[34] The list includes not only mountains, but also subpeaks with little prominence that are considered important mountaineering objectives. Below are listed the 22 "four-thousanders" with at least 500 m (1,640 ft) of prominence.

text: While Mont Blanc was first climbed in 1786, most of the Alpine four-thousanders were climbed during the second half of the 19th century; the ascent of the Matterhorn in 1865 marked the end of the golden age of alpinism. Karl Blodig (1859–1956) was among the first to successfully climb all the major 4,000 m peaks. He completed his series of ascents in 1911.[35]

text: The first British Mont Blanc ascent was in 1788; the first female ascent in 1819. By the mid-1850s Swiss mountaineers had ascended most of the peaks and were eagerly sought as mountain guides. Edward Whymper reached the top of the Matterhorn in 1865 (after seven attempts), and in 1938 the last of the six great north faces of the Alps was climbed with the first ascent of the Eiger Nordwand (north face of the Eiger).[36]

text:
The 22 Alpine four-thousanders with at least 500 metres of topographic prominence[37]

Name
Height
Range
Name
Height
Range

Mont Blanc
4,810 m (15,781 ft)
Graian Alps
Dent d'Hérens
4,171 m (13,684 ft)
Pennine Alps

Monte Rosa
4,634 m (15,203 ft)
Pennine Alps
Jungfrau
4,158 m (13,642 ft)
Bernese Alps

Dom
4,545 m (14,911 ft)
Pennine Alps
Aiguille Verte
4,122 m (13,524 ft)
Graian Alps

Weisshorn
4,506 m (14,783 ft)
Pennine Alps
Mönch
4,107 m (13,474 ft)
Bernese Alps

Matterhorn
4,478 m (14,692 ft)
Pennine Alps
Barre des Écrins
4,102 m (13,458 ft)
Dauphiné Alps

Dent Blanche
4,357 m (14,295 ft)
Pennine Alps
Schreckhorn
4,078 m (13,379 ft)
Bernese Alps

Grand Combin
4,314 m (14,154 ft)
Pennine Alps
Ober Gabelhorn
4,063 m (13,330 ft)
Pennine Alps

Finsteraarhorn
4,273 m (14,019 ft)
Bernese Alps
Gran Paradiso
4,061 m (13,323 ft)
Graian Alps

Grandes Jorasses
4,208 m (13,806 ft)
Graian Alps
Piz Bernina
4,049 m (13,284 ft)
Bernina Range

Rimpfischhorn
4,199 m (13,776 ft)
Pennine Alps
Weissmies
4,017 m (13,179 ft)
Pennine Alps

Aletschhorn
4,193 m (13,757 ft)
Bernese Alps
Lagginhorn
4,010 m (13,156 ft)
Pennine Alps

text: Minerals[edit]

text: The Alps are a source of minerals that have been mined for thousands of years. In the 8th to 6th centuries BC during the Hallstatt culture, Celtic tribes mined copper; later the Romans mined gold for coins in the Bad Gastein area. Erzberg in Styria furnishes high-quality iron ore for the steel industry. Crystals are found throughout much of the Alpine region such as cinnabar, amethyst, and quartz. The cinnabar deposits in Slovenia are a notable source of cinnabar pigments.[38]

text: Alpine crystals have been studied and collected for hundreds of years, and began to be classified in the 18th century. Leonhard Euler studied the shapes of crystals, and by the 19th century crystal hunting was common in Alpine regions. David Friedrich Wiser amassed a collection of 8000 crystals that he studied and documented. In the 20th century Robert Parker wrote a well-known work about the rock crystals of the Swiss Alps; at the same period a commission was established to control and standardize the naming of Alpine minerals.[39]

text: Glaciers[edit]

text: In the Miocene Epoch the mountains underwent severe erosion because of glaciation,[25] which was noted in the mid-19th century by naturalist Louis Agassiz who presented a paper proclaiming the Alps were covered in ice at various intervals—a theory he formed when studying rocks near his Neuchâtel home which he believed originated to the west in the Bernese Oberland. Because of his work he came to be known as the "father of the ice-age concept" although other naturalists before him put forth similar ideas.[40]

text: Agassiz studied glacier movement in the 1840s at the Unteraar Glacier where he found the glacier moved 100 m (328 ft) per year, more rapidly in the middle than at the edges. His work was continued by other scientists and now a permanent laboratory exists inside a glacier under the Jungfraujoch, devoted exclusively to the study of Alpine glaciers.[40]

text: Glaciers pick up rocks and sediment with them as they flow. This causes erosion and the formation of valleys over time. The Inn valley is an example of a valley carved by glaciers during the ice ages with a typical terraced structure caused by erosion. Eroded rocks from the most recent ice age lie at the bottom of the valley while the top of the valley consists of erosion from earlier ice ages.[40] Glacial valleys have characteristically steep walls (reliefs); valleys with lower reliefs and talus slopes are remnants of glacial troughs or previously infilled valleys.[41] Moraines, piles of rock picked up during the movement of the glacier, accumulate at edges, centre and the terminus of glaciers.[40]

text: Alpine glaciers can be straight rivers of ice, long sweeping rivers, spread in a fan-like shape (Piedmont glaciers), and curtains of ice that hang from vertical slopes of the mountain peaks. The stress of the movement causes the ice to break and crack loudly, perhaps explaining why the mountains were believed to be home to dragons in the medieval period. The cracking creates unpredictable and dangerous crevasses, often invisible under new snowfall, which cause the greatest danger to mountaineers.[42]

text: Glaciers end in ice caves (the Rhône Glacier), by trailing into a lake or river, or by shedding snowmelt on a meadow. Sometimes a piece of glacier will detach or break resulting in flooding, property damage and loss of life.[42] In the 17th century about 2500 people were killed by an avalanche in a village on the French-Italian border; in the 19th century 120 homes in a village near Zermatt were destroyed by an avalanche.[43]

text: High levels of precipitation cause the glaciers to descend to permafrost levels in some areas whereas in other, more arid regions, glaciers remain above about the 3,500 m (11,483 ft) level.[44] The 1,817 square kilometres (702 sq mi) of the Alps covered by glaciers in 1876 had shrunk to 1,342 km2 (518 sq mi) by 1973, resulting in decreased river run-off levels.[45] Forty percent of the glaciation in Austria has disappeared since 1850, and 30% of that in Switzerland.[46]

text: Rivers and lakes[edit]

text: The Alps provide lowland Europe with drinking water, irrigation, and hydroelectric power.[48] Although the area is only about 11 percent of the surface area of Europe, the Alps provide up to 90 percent of water to lowland Europe, particularly to arid areas and during the summer months. Cities such as Milan depend on 80 percent of water from Alpine runoff.[11][49][50] Water from the rivers is used in over 500 hydroelectricity power plants, generating as much as 2900 GWh of electricity.[4]

text: Major European rivers flow from Switzerland, such as the Rhine, the Rhône, the Inn, the Ticino and the Po, all of which have headwaters in the Alps and flow into neighbouring countries, finally emptying into the North Sea, the Mediterranean Sea, the Adriatic Sea and the Black Sea. Other rivers such as the Danube have major tributaries flowing into them that originate in the Alps.[11] The Rhône is second to the Nile as a freshwater source to the Mediterranean Sea; the river begins as glacial meltwater, flows into Lake Geneva, and from there to France where one of its uses is to cool nuclear power plants.[51] The Rhine originates in a 30 square kilometre area in Switzerland and represents almost 60 percent of water exported from the country.[51] Tributary valleys, some of which are complicated, channel water to the main valleys which can experience flooding during the snow melt season when rapid runoff causes debris torrents and swollen rivers.[52]

text: The rivers form lakes, such as Lake Geneva, a crescent shaped lake crossing the Swiss border with Lausanne on the Swiss side and the town of Evian-les-Bains on the French side. In Germany, the medieval St. Bartholomew's chapel was built on the south side of the Königssee, accessible only by boat or by climbing over the abutting peaks.[53]

text: Scientists have been studying the impact of climate change and water use. For example, each year more water is diverted from rivers for snowmaking in the ski resorts, the effect of which is yet unknown. Furthermore, the decrease of glaciated areas combined with a succession of winters with lower-than-expected precipitation may have a future impact on the rivers in the Alps as well as an effect on the water availability to the lowlands.[49][54]

text: Climate[edit]

text: The Alps are a classic example of what happens when a temperate area at lower altitude gives way to higher-elevation terrain. Elevations around the world that have cold climates similar to those of the polar regions have been called Alpine. A rise from sea level into the upper regions of the atmosphere causes the temperature to decrease (see adiabatic lapse rate). The effect of mountain chains on prevailing winds is to carry warm air belonging to the lower region into an upper zone, where it expands in volume at the cost of a proportionate loss of temperature, often accompanied by precipitation in the form of snow or rain.[55] The height of the Alps is sufficient to divide the weather patterns in Europe into a wet north and a dry south because moisture is sucked from the air as it flows over the high peaks.[56]

text: The severe weather in the Alps has been studied since the 18th century; particularly the weather patterns such as the seasonal foehn wind. Numerous weather stations were placed in the mountains early in the early 20th century, providing continuous data for climatologists.[10] Some of the valleys are quite arid such as the Aosta valley in Italy, the Maurienne in France, the Valais in Switzerland, and northern Tyrol.[10]

text: The areas that are not arid and receive high precipitation experience periodic flooding from rapid snowmelt and runoff.[52] The mean precipitation in the Alps ranges from a low of 2,600 mm (100 in) per year to 3,600 mm (140 in) per year, with the higher levels occurring at high altitudes. At altitudes between 1,000 and 3,000 m (3,281 and 9,843 ft), snowfall begins in November and accumulates through to April or May when the melt begins. Snow lines vary from 2,400 to 3,000 m (7,874 to 9,843 ft), above which the snow is permanent and the temperatures hover around the freezing point even July and August. High-water levels in streams and rivers peak in June and July when the snow is still melting at the higher altitudes.[57]

text: The Alps are split into five climatic zones, each with different vegetation. The climate, plant life and animal life vary among the different sections or zones of the mountains. The lowest zone is the colline zone, which exists between 500 and 1,000 m (1,640 and 3,281 ft), depending on the location. The montane zone extends from 800 to 1,700 m (2,625 to 5,577 ft), followed by the sub-Alpine zone from 1,600 to 2,400 m (5,249 to 7,874 ft). The Alpine zone, extending from tree line to snow line, is followed by the glacial zone, which covers the glaciated areas of the mountain. Climatic conditions show variances within the same zones; for example, weather conditions at the head of a mountain valley, extending directly from the peaks, are colder and more severe than those at the mouth of a valley which tend to be less severe and receive less snowfall.[58]

text: Various models of climate change have been projected into the 22nd century for the Alps, with an expectation that a trend toward increased temperatures will have an effect on snowfall, snowpack, glaciation, and river runoff.[59] Significant changes, of both natural and anthropogenic origins, have already been diagnosed from observations.[60][61][62]

text: Ecology[edit]

text: Flora[edit]

text: Thirteen thousand species of plants have been identified in the Alpine regions.[4] Alpine plants are grouped by habitat and soil type which can be limestone or non-calcareous. The habitats range from meadows, bogs, woodland (deciduous and coniferous) areas to soil-less scree and moraines, and rock faces and ridges.[7] A natural vegetation limit with altitude is given by the presence of the chief deciduous trees—oak, beech, ash and sycamore maple. These do not reach exactly to the same elevation, nor are they often found growing together; but their upper limit corresponds accurately enough to the change from a temperate to a colder climate that is further proved by a change in the presence of wild herbaceous vegetation.[63] This limit usually lies about 1,200 m (3,940 ft) above the sea on the north side of the Alps, but on the southern slopes it often rises to 1,500 m (4,920 ft), sometimes even to 1,700 m (5,580 ft).[64]

text: Above the forestry, there is often a band of short pine trees (Pinus mugo), which is in turn superseded by Alpenrosen, dwarf shrubs, typically Rhododendron ferrugineum (on acid soils) or Rhododendron hirsutum (on alkaline soils).[65] Although the Alpenrose prefers acidic soil, the plants are found throughout the region.[7] Above the tree line is the area defined as "alpine" where in the alpine meadow plants are found that have adapted well to harsh conditions of cold temperatures, aridity, and high altitudes. The alpine area fluctuates greatly because of regional fluctuations in tree lines.[66]

text: Alpine plants such as the Alpine gentian grow in abundance in areas such as the meadows above the Lauterbrunnental. Gentians are named after the Illyrian king Gentius, and 40 species of the early-spring blooming flower grow in the Alps, in a range of 1,500 to 2,400 m (4,921 to 7,874 ft).[67] Writing about the gentians in Switzerland D. H. Lawrence described them as "darkening the day-time, torch-like with the smoking blueness of Pluto's gloom."[68] Gentians tend to "appear" repeatedly as the spring blooming takes place at progressively later dates, moving from the lower altitude to the higher altitude meadows where the snow melts much later than in the valleys. On the highest rocky ledges the spring flowers bloom in the summer.[7]

text: At these higher altitudes, the plants tend to form isolated cushions. In the Alps, several species of flowering plants have been recorded above 4,000 m (13,120 ft), including Ranunculus glacialis, Androsace alpina and Saxifraga biflora. Eritrichium nanum, commonly known as the King of the Alps, is the most elusive of the alpine flowers, growing on rocky ridges at 2,600 to 3,750 m (8,530 to 12,303 ft).[69] Perhaps the best known of the alpine plants is Edelweiss which grows in rocky areas and can be found at altitudes as low as 1,200 m (3,937 ft) and as high as 3,400 m (11,155 ft).[7] The plants that grow at the highest altitudes have adapted to conditions by specialization such as growing in rock screes that give protection from winds.[70]

text: The extreme and stressful climatic conditions give way to the growth of plant species with secondary metabolites important for medicinal purposes. Origanum vulgare, Prunella vulgaris, Solanum nigrum and Urtica dioica are some of the more useful medicinal species found in the Alps.[71]

text: Human interference has nearly exterminated the trees in many areas, and, except for the beech forests of the Austrian Alps, forests of deciduous trees are rarely found after the extreme deforestation between the 17th and 19th centuries.[72] The vegetation has changed since the second half of the 20th century, as the high alpine meadows cease to be harvested for hay or used for grazing which eventually might result in a regrowth of forest. In some areas the modern practice of building ski runs by mechanical means has destroyed the underlying tundra from which the plant life cannot recover during the non-skiing months, whereas areas that still practice a natural piste type of ski slope building preserve the fragile underlayers.[70]

text: Fauna[edit]

text: The Alps are a habitat for 30,000 species of wildlife, ranging from the tiniest snow fleas to brown bears, many of which have made adaptations to the harsh cold conditions and high altitudes to the point that some only survive in specific micro-climates either directly above or below the snow line.[4][73]

text: The largest mammal to live in the highest altitudes are the alpine ibex, which have been sighted as high as 3,000 m (9,843 ft). The ibex live in caves and descend to eat the succulent alpine grasses.[74] Classified as antelopes,[7] chamois are smaller than ibex and found throughout the Alps, living above the tree line and are common in the entire alpine range.[75] Areas of the eastern Alps are still home to brown bears. In Switzerland the canton of Bern was named for the bears but the last bear is recorded as having been killed in 1792 above Kleine Scheidegg by three hunters from Grindelwald.[76]

text: Many rodents such as voles live underground. Marmots live almost exclusively above the tree line as high as 2,700 m (8,858 ft). They hibernate in large groups to provide warmth,[77] and can be found in all areas of the Alps, in large colonies they build beneath the alpine pastures.[7] Golden eagles and bearded vultures are the largest birds to be found in the Alps; they nest high on rocky ledges and can be found at altitudes of 2,400 m (7,874 ft). The most common bird is the alpine chough which can be found scavenging at climber's huts or at the Jungfraujoch, a high altitude tourist destination.[78]

text: Reptiles such as adders and vipers live up to the snow line; because they cannot bear the cold temperatures they hibernate underground and soak up the warmth on rocky ledges.[79] The high-altitude Alpine salamanders have adapted to living above the snow line by giving birth to fully developed young rather than laying eggs. Brown trout can be found in the streams up to the snow line.[79] Molluscs such as the wood snail live up the snow line. Popularly gathered as food, the snails are now protected.[80]

text: A number of species of moths live in the Alps, some of which are believed to have evolved in the same habitat up to 120 million years ago, long before the Alps were created. Blue moths can commonly be seen drinking from the snow melt; some species of blue moths fly as high as 1,800 m (5,906 ft).[81] The butterflies tend to be large, such as those from the swallowtail Parnassius family, with a habitat that ranges to 1,800 m (5,906 ft). Twelve species of beetles have habitats up to the snow line; the most beautiful and formerly collected for its colours but now protected is Rosalia alpina.[82] Spiders, such as the large wolf spider, live above the snow line and can be seen as high as 400 m (1,312 ft). Scorpions can be found in the Italian Alps.[80]

text: Some of the species of moths and insects show evidence of having been indigenous to the area from as long ago as the Alpine orogeny. In Emosson in Valais, Switzerland, dinosaur tracks were found in the 1970s, dating probably from the Triassic Period.[83]

text: History[edit]

text: Prehistory to Christianity[edit]

text: About 10,000 years ago, when the ice melted after the last glacial period, late Palaeolithic communities were established along the lake shores and in cave systems. Evidence of human habitation has been found in caves near Vercors, close to Grenoble; in Austria the Mondsee culture shows evidence of houses built on piles to keep them dry. Standing stones have been found in Alpine areas of France and Italy. The rock drawings in Valcamonica are more than 5000 years old; more than 200,000 drawings and etchings have been identified at the site.[84]

text: In 1991 a mummy of a neolithic body, known as Ötzi the Iceman, was discovered by hikers on the Similaun glacier. His clothing and gear indicate that he lived in an alpine farming community, while the location and manner of his death – an arrowhead was discovered in his shoulder – suggests he was travelling from one place to another.[85] Analysis of the mitochondrial DNA of Ötzi, has shown that he belongs to the K1 subclade which cannot be categorized into any of the three modern branches of that subclade. The new subclade has provisionally been named K1ö for Ötzi.[86]

text: Celtic tribes settled in Switzerland between 1000 and 1500 BC. The Raetians lived in the eastern regions, while the west was occupied by the Helvetii and the Allobrogi settled in the Rhône valley and in Savoy. Among the many substances Celtic tribes mined was salt in areas such as Salzburg in Austria where evidence of the Hallstatt culture was found by a mine manager in the 19th century.[84] By the 6th century BC the La Tène culture was well established in the region,[87] and became known for high quality decorated weapons and jewellery.[88] The Celts were the most widespread of the mountain tribes—they had warriors that were strong, tall and fair skinned, and skilled with iron weapons, which gave them an advantage in warfare.[89]

text: During the Second Punic War in 218 BC, the Carthaginian general Hannibal probably crossed the Alps with an army numbering 38,000 infantry, 8,000 cavalry, and 37 war elephants. This was one of the most celebrated achievements of any military force in ancient warfare,[90] although no evidence exists of the actual crossing or the place of crossing. The Romans, however, had built roads along the mountain passes, which continued to be used through the medieval period to cross the mountains and Roman road markers can still be found on the mountain passes.[91]

text: The Roman expansion brought the defeat of the Allobrogi in 121 BC and during the Gallic Wars in 58 BC Julius Caesar overcame the Helvetii. The Rhaetians continued to resist but were eventually conquered when the Romans turned northward to the Danube valley in Austria and defeated the Brigantes.[92] The Romans built settlements in the Alps; towns such as Aosta (named for Augustus) in Italy, Martigny and Lausanne in Switzerland, and Partenkirchen in Bavaria show remains of Roman baths, villas, arenas and temples.[93] Much of the Alpine region was gradually settled by Germanic tribes, (Lombards, Alemanni, Bavarii, and Franks) from the 6th to the 13th centuries mixing with the local Celtic tribes.[94]

text: Christianity, feudalism, and Napoleonic wars[edit]

text: Christianity was established in the region by the Romans, and saw the establishment of monasteries and churches in the high regions. The Frankish expansion of the Carolingian Empire and the Bavarian expansion in the eastern Alps introduced feudalism and the building of castles to support the growing number of dukedoms and kingdoms. Castello del Buonconsiglio in Trento, Italy, still has intricate frescoes, excellent examples of Gothic art, in a tower room. In Switzerland, Château de Chillon is preserved as an example of medieval architecture.[95]

text: Much of the medieval period was a time of power struggles between competing dynasties such as the House of Savoy, the Visconti in northern Italy and the House of Habsburg in Austria and Slovenia.[96] In 1291 to protect themselves from incursions by the Habsburgs, four cantons in the middle of Switzerland drew up a charter that is considered to be a declaration of independence from neighbouring kingdoms. After a series of battles fought in the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries, more cantons joined the confederacy and by the 16th century Switzerland was well-established as a separate state.[97]

text: During the Napoleonic Wars in the late 18th century and early 19th century, Napoleon annexed territory formerly controlled by the Habsburgs and Savoys. In 1798 he established the Helvetic Republic in Switzerland; two years later he led an army across the St. Bernard pass and conquered almost all of the Alpine regions.[98]

text: After the fall of Napoléon, many alpine countries developed heavy protections to prevent any new invasion. Thus, Savoy built a series of fortifications in the Maurienne valley in order to protect the major alpine passes, such as the col du Mont-Cenis that was even crossed by Charlemagne and his father to defeat the Lombards. The later indeed became very popular after the construction of a paved road ordered by Napoléon Bonaparte. The Barrière de l'Esseillon is a serie of forts with heavy batteries, built on a cliff with a perfect view on the valley, a gorge on one side and steep mountains on the other side.

text: In the 19th century, the monasteries built in the high Alps during the medieval period to shelter travellers and as places of pilgrimage, became tourist destinations. The Benedictines had built monasteries in Lucerne, Switzerland, and Oberammergau; the Cistercians in the Tyrol and at Lake Constance; and the Augustinians had abbeys in the Savoy and one in the centre of Interlaken, Switzerland.[99] The Great St Bernard Hospice, built in the 9th or 10th centuries, at the summit of the Great Saint Bernard Pass was shelter for travellers and place for pilgrims since its inception; by the 19th century it became a tourist attraction with notable visitors such as author Charles Dickens and mountaineer Edward Whymper.[100]

text: Exploration[edit]

text: Radiocarbon dated charcoal placed around 50,000 years ago was found in the Drachloch (Dragon's Hole) cave above the village of Vattis in the canton of St. Gallen, proving that the high peaks were visited by prehistoric people. Seven bear skulls from the cave may have been buried by the same prehistoric people.[101] The peaks, however, were mostly ignored except for a few notable examples, and long left to the exclusive attention of the people of the adjoining valleys.[102][103] The mountain peaks were seen as terrifying, the abode of dragons and demons, to the point that people blindfolded themselves to cross the Alpine passes.[104] The glaciers remained a mystery and many still believed the highest areas to be inhabited by dragons.[105]

text: Charles VII of France ordered his chamberlain to climb Mont Aiguille in 1356. The knight reached the summit of Rocciamelone where he left a bronze triptych of three crosses, a feat which he conducted with the use of ladders to traverse the ice.[106] In 1492 Antoine de Ville climbed Mont Aiguille, without reaching the summit, an experience he described as "horrifying and terrifying."[103] Leonardo da Vinci was fascinated by variations of light in the higher altitudes, and climbed a mountain—scholars are uncertain which one; some believe it may have been Monte Rosa. From his description of a "blue like that of a gentian" sky it is thought that he reached a significantly high altitude.[107] In the 18th century four Chamonix men almost made the summit of Mont Blanc but were overcome by altitude sickness and snowblindness.[108]

text: Conrad Gessner was the first naturalist to ascend the mountains in the 16th century, to study them, writing that in the mountains he found the "theatre of the Lord".[109] By the 19th century more naturalists began to arrive to explore, study and conquer the high peaks.[110] Two men who first explored the regions of ice and snow were Horace-Bénédict de Saussure (1740–1799) in the Pennine Alps,[111] and the Benedictine monk of Disentis Placidus a Spescha (1752–1833).[110] Born in Geneva, Saussure was enamoured with the mountains from an early age; he left a law career to become a naturalist and spent many years trekking through the Bernese Oberland, the Savoy, the Piedmont and Valais, studying the glaciers and the geology, as he became an early proponent of the theory of rock upheaval.[112] Saussure, in 1787, was a member of the third ascent of Mont Blanc—today the summits of all the peaks have been climbed.[36]

text: The Romantics[edit]

text: Albrecht von Haller's poem Die Alpen (1732) described the mountains as an area of mythical purity.[113] Jean-Jacques Rousseau was another writer who presented the Alps as a place of allure and beauty, in his novel Julie, or the New Heloise (1761), Later the first wave of Romantics such as Goethe and Turner came to admire the scenery;[citation needed] Wordsworth visited the area in 1790, writing of his experiences in The Prelude (1799). Schiller later wrote the play William Tell (1804), which tells the story the legendary Swiss marksman William Tell as part of the greater Swiss struggle for independence from the Habsburg Empire in the early 14th century. At the end of the Napoleonic Wars, the Alpine countries began to see an influx of poets, artists, and musicians,[114] as visitors came to experience the sublime effects of monumental nature.[115]

text: In 1816 Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley and his wife Mary Shelley visited Geneva and all three were inspired by the scenery in their writings.[114] During these visits Shelley wrote the poem "Mont Blanc", Byron wrote "The Prisoner of Chillon" and the dramatic poem Manfred, and Mary Shelley, who found the scenery overwhelming, conceived the idea for the novel Frankenstein in her villa on the shores of Lake Geneva in the midst of a thunderstorm. When Coleridge travelled to Chamonix, he declaimed, in defiance of Shelley, who had signed himself "Atheos" in the guestbook of the Hotel de Londres near Montenvers,[116] "Who would be, who could be an atheist in this valley of wonders".[117]

text: By the mid-19th century scientists began to arrive en masse to study the geology and ecology of the region.[118]

text: The Nazis[edit]

text: Austrian-born Adolf Hitler had a lifelong romantic fascination with the Alps and by the 1930s established a home in the Obersalzberg region outside of Berchtesgaden. His first visit to the area was in 1923 and he maintained a strong tie there until the end of his life. At the end of World War II the US Army occupied Obersalzberg, to prevent Hitler from retreating with the Wehrmacht into the mountains.[119]

text: By 1940 the Third Reich had occupied many of the Alpine countries. Austria underwent a political coup that made it part of the Third Reich; France had been invaded and Italy was a fascist regime. Switzerland was the only country to avoid invasion.[120] The Swiss Confederation mobilized its troops—the country follows the doctrine of "armed neutrality" with all males required to have military training—a number that General Eisenhower estimated to be about 850,000. The Swiss commanders wired the infrastructure leading into the country with explosives, and threatened to destroy bridges, railway tunnels and roads across passes in the event of a Nazi invasion; and if there was an invasion the Swiss army would then retreated to the heart of the mountain peaks, where conditions were harsher, and a military invasion would involve difficult and protracted battles.[121]

text: German Ski troops were trained for the war, and battles were waged in mountainous areas such as the battle at Riva Ridge in Italy, where the American 10th Mountain Division encountered heavy resistance in February 1945.[122] At the end of the war, a substantial amount of Nazi plunder was found stored in Austria, where Hitler had hoped to retreat as the war drew to a close. The salt mines surrounding the Altaussee area, where American troops found 75 kilos of gold coins stored in a single mine, were used to store looted art, jewels, and currency; vast quantities of looted art were found and returned to the owners.[123]

text: Alpine people and culture[edit]

text: The population of the region is 14 million spread across eight countries.[4] On the rim of the mountains, on the plateaus and the plains the economy consists of manufacturing and service jobs whereas in the higher altitudes and in the mountains farming is still essential to the economy.[124] Farming and forestry continue to be mainstays of Alpine culture, industries that provide for export to the cities and maintain the mountain ecology.[125]

text: Much of the Alpine culture is unchanged since the medieval period when skills that guaranteed survival in the mountain valleys and in the highest villages became mainstays, leading to strong traditions of carpentry, woodcarving, baking and pastry-making, and cheesemaking.[126]

text: Farming had been a traditional occupation for centuries, although it became less dominant in the 20th century with the advent of tourism. Grazing and pasture land are limited because of the steep and rocky topography of the Alps. In mid-June cows are moved to the highest pastures close to the snowline, where they are watched by herdsmen who stay in the high altitudes often living in stone huts or wooden barns during the summers.[126] Villagers celebrate the day the cows are herded up to the pastures and again when they return in mid-September. The Almabtrieb, Alpabzug, Alpabfahrt, Désalpes («coming down from the alps») is celebrated by decorating the cows with garlands and enormous cowbells while the farmers dress in traditional costumes.[126]

text: Cheesemaking is an ancient tradition in most Alpine countries. A wheel of cheese from the Emmental in Switzerland can weigh up to 45 kg (100 lb), and the Beaufort in Savoy can weight up to 70 kg (150 lb). Owners of the cows traditionally receive from the cheesemakers a portion in relation to the proportion of the cows' milk from the summer months in the high alps. Haymaking is an important farming activity in mountain villages which has become somewhat mechanized in recent years, although the slopes are so steep that usually scythes are necessary to cut the grass. Hay is normally brought in twice a year, often also on festival days.[126] Alpine festivals vary from country to country and often include the display of local costumes such as dirndl and trachten, the playing of Alpenhorns, wrestling matches, some pagan traditions such as Walpurgis Night and, in many areas, Carnival is celebrated before Lent.[127]

text: In the high villages people live in homes built according to medieval designs that withstand cold winters. The kitchen is separated from the living area (called the stube, the area of the home heated by a stove), and second-floor bedrooms benefit from rising heat. The typical Swiss chalet originated in the Bernese Oberland. Chalets often face south or downhill, and are built of solid wood, with a steeply gabled roof to allow accumulated snow to slide off easily. Stairs leading to upper levels are sometimes built on the outside, and balconies are sometimes enclosed.[126][128]

text: Food is passed from the kitchen to the stube, where the dining room table is placed. Some meals are communal, such as fondue, where a pot is set in the middle of the table for each person to dip into. Other meals are still served in a traditional manner on carved wooden plates. Furniture has been traditionally elaborately carved and in many Alpine countries carpentry skills are passed from generation to generation.

text: Roofs are traditionally constructed from Alpine rocks such as pieces of schist, gneiss or slate.[129] Such chalets are typically found in the higher parts of the valleys, as in the Maurienne valley in Savoy, where the amount of snow during the cold months is important. The inclination of the roof cannot exceed 40%, allowing the snow to stay on top, thereby functioning as insulation from the cold.[130] In the lower areas where the forests are widespread, wooden tiles are traditionally used. Commonly made of Norway spruce, they are called "tavaillon". The Alpine regions are multicultural and linguistically diverse. Dialects are common, and vary from valley to valley and region to region. In the Slavic Alps alone 19 dialects have been identified. Some of the French dialects spoken in the French, Swiss and Italian alps of Aosta Valley derive from Arpitan, while the southern part of the western range is related to Old Provençal; the German dialects derive from Germanic tribal languages.[131] Romansh, spoken by two percent of the population in southeast Switzerland, is an ancient Rhaeto-Romanic language derived from Latin, remnants of ancient Celtic languages and perhaps Etruscan.[131]

text: Tourism[edit]

text: The Alps are one of the more popular tourist destinations in the world with many resorts such Oberstdorf, in Bavaria, Saalbach in Austria, Davos in Switzerland, Chamonix in France, and Cortina d'Ampezzo in Italy recording more than a million annual visitors. With over 120 million visitors a year, tourism is integral to the Alpine economy with much it coming from winter sports, although summer visitors are also an important component.[132]

text: The tourism industry began in the early 19th century when foreigners visited the Alps, travelled to the bases of the mountains to enjoy the scenery, and stayed at the spa-resorts. Large hotels were built during the Belle Époque; cog-railways, built early in the 20th century, brought tourists to ever higher elevations, with the Jungfraubahn terminating at the Jungfraujoch, well above the eternal snow-line, after going through a tunnel in Eiger. During this period winter sports were slowly introduced: in 1882 the first figure skating championship was held in St. Moritz, and downhill skiing became a popular sport with English visitors early in the 20th century,[132] as the first ski-lift was installed in 1908 above Grindelwald.[133]

text: In the first half of the 20th century the Olympic Winter Games were held three times in Alpine venues: the 1924 Winter Olympics in Chamonix, France; the 1928 Winter Olympics in St. Moritz, Switzerland; and the 1936 Winter Olympics in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany. During World War II the winter games were cancelled but after that time the Winter Games have been held in St. Moritz (1948), Cortina d'Ampezzo (1956), Innsbruck, Austria (1964 and 1976), Grenoble, France, (1968), Albertville, France, (1992), and Torino (2006).[134] In 1930 the Lauberhorn Rennen (Lauberhorn Race), was run for the first time on the Lauberhorn above Wengen;[135] the equally demanding Hahnenkamm was first run in the same year in Kitzbühl, Austria.[136] Both races continue to be held each January on successive weekends. The Lauberhorn is the more strenuous downhill race at 4.5 km (2.8 mi) and poses danger to racers who reach 130 km/h (81 mph) within seconds of leaving the start gate.[137]

text: During the post-World War I period ski-lifts were built in Swiss and Austrian towns to accommodate winter visitors, but summer tourism continued to be important; by the mid-20th century the popularity of downhill skiing increased greatly as it became more accessible and in the 1970s several new villages were built in France devoted almost exclusively to skiing, such as Les Menuires. Until this point Austria and Switzerland had been the traditional and more popular destinations for winter sports, but by the end of the 20th century and into the early 21st century, France, Italy and the Tyrol began to see increases in winter visitors.[132] From 1980 to the present, ski-lifts have been modernized and snow-making machines installed at many resorts, leading to concerns regarding the loss of traditional Alpine culture and questions regarding sustainable development as the winter ski industry continues to develop quickly and the number of summer tourists decline.[132]

text: Transportation[edit]

text: The region is serviced by 4,200 km (2,600 mi) of roads used by 6 million vehicles.[4] Train travel is well established in the Alps, with, for instance 120 km (75 mi) of track for every 1,000 km2 (390 sq mi) in a country such as Switzerland.[138] Most of Europe's highest railways are located there. On 2007 the new 34.57 km-long (21 mi) Lötschberg Base Tunnel has been opened, which circumvents the 100 years older Lötschberg Tunnel. With the opening of the 57.1 km-long (35 mi) Gotthard Base Tunnel on 1 June 2016 it bypasses the Gotthard Tunnel built in the 19th century and realizes the first flat route through the Alps.[139]

text: Some high mountain villages, such as Avoriaz (in France), Chamois (in Italy), Wengen, and Zermatt (in Switzerland) are accessible only by cable car or cog-rail trains, and are car free. Other villages in the Alps are considering becoming car free zones or limiting the number of cars for reasons of sustainability of the fragile Alpine terrain.[140]

text: The lower regions and larger towns of the Alps are well-served by motorways and main roads, but higher mountain passes and byroads, which are amongst the highest in Europe, can be treacherous even in summer due to steep slopes. Many passes are closed in winter. A number of airports around the Alps (and some within), as well as long-distance rail links from all neighbouring countries, afford large numbers of travellers easy access.[4]

text: Notes[edit]

text: Jump up ^ The Caucasus Mountains are higher, and the Urals longer, but both lie partly in Asia.

tag: ol


document_title: Union Public Service Commission

question_text: who appoints the chairman of union public service commission

text: Union Public Service Commission

text: History[edit]

text: The Royal Commission on the superior Civil Services in India was set up under the chairmanship of Lord Lee of Fareham by the British Government in 1923.[8][6] With equal numbers of Indian and British members, the commission submitted its report in 1924, recommending setting up of a Public Service Commission.[9] The Lee Commission proposed that 40% of future entrants should be British, 40% Indians directly recruited, and 20% Indians promoted from the provincial services.[8][7]

text: This led to the establishment of the first Public Service Commission on 1 October 1926 under the chairmanship of Sir Ross Barker.[6] A mere limited advisory function was granted to the Public Service Commission and the leaders of the freedom movement continually stressed on this aspect, which then resulted in the setting up of a Federal Public Service Commission under the Government of India Act, 1935.[6][7]

text: The Federal Public Service Commission became the Union Public Service Commission after independence. It was given a constitutional status with under of Constitution of India on 26 January 1950.[9][7][10]

text: Constitutional status[edit]

text: Articles 315 to 323 of Part XIV of the constitution, titled as Services Under the Union and the States, provide for a Public Service Commission for the Union and for each state.[2][3] Accordingly, as per Art. 315, at Union level, Union Public Service Commission is envisaged by it. UPSC is amongst the few institutions which function with both autonomy and freedom, along with the country’s higher judiciary and lately the Election Commission.[4]

text: Appointment[edit]

text: As per Art. 316, the Chairman and other members of Union Public Service Commission shall be appointed by the President. In case the office of the Chairman becomes vacant his duties shall be performed by one of the other members of the Commission as the President may appoint for the purpose.[11]

text: Also, nearly half of the members of the Commission shall be persons who at the dates of their respective appointments have held office for at least ten years either under the Government of India or under the Government of a State. A member of a Union Public Service Commission shall hold office for a term of six years from the date on which he enters upon his office or until he attains the age of sixty-five years, whichever is earlier. Under Art 318, the President is empowered to determine number of members of the Commission and their conditions of service. Further, he can make provision with respect to the number of members of the staff of the Commission and their conditions of service too. Also, conditions of service cannot be varied to his disadvantage after his appointment.[11]

text: As per Art 319, a person who holds office as Chairman shall, on the expiration of his term of office, be ineligible for re-appointment to that office. But, a member other than the Chairman of the Union Public Service Commission shall be eligible for appointment as the Chairman of the Union Public Service Commission, or as the Chairman of a State Public Service Commission, but not for any other employment either under the Government of India or under the Government of a State. Also, the Chairman of a State Public Service Commission shall be eligible for appointment as the Chairman or any other member of the Union Public Service Commission.[11]

text: Removal and suspension[edit]

text: As per Art. 317, the Chairman or any other member of a Public Service Commission shall only be removed from his office by order of the President on the ground of "misbehaviour" after the Supreme Court, on reference being made to it by the President, has, on inquiry reported that the Chairman or such other member ought to be removed. The President may suspend the Chairman or other member of the Commission until report of the Supreme Court is received.[11]

text: The President may also remove the Chairman or any other member of the commission if he/she:

text:
is adjudged an insolvent; or
engages during his term of office in any paid employment outside the duties of his office; or
is, in the opinion of the President, unfit to continue in office by reason of infirmity of mind or body.

tag: ul

text: If the Chairman or any other member cannot hold an office of profit or otherwise he shall be deemed to be guilty of misbehaviour.[11]

text: Functions[edit]

text: As per Art. 320, it shall be the duty of the Union Public Service Commissions to conduct examinations for appointments to the services of the Union. It shall also assist two or more States, if requested so, in framing and operating schemes of joint recruitment for any services.[11]

text: The Union Public Service Commission shall be consulted:

text:
on all matters relating to

methods of recruitment to civil services and for civil posts
making appointments to civil services and posts
making promotions and transfers from one service to another
the suitability of candidates for such appointments, promotions or transfers

on all disciplinary matters against a civil servant serving in a civil capacity, including memorials or petitions relating to such matters.
on any claim by or in respect of a person who is serving or has served in a civil capacity, that any costs incurred by him in defending legal proceedings instituted against him in respect of acts done or purporting to be done in the execution of his duty should be paid out of the Consolidated Fund of India.
on any claim for the award of a pension in respect of injuries sustained by a person while serving in a civil capacity, and any question as to the amount of such award.

text: It shall be the duty of a Union Public Service Commission to advise on any matter referred to them; provided that the President has not made any regulations specifying the matters in which it shall not be necessary for Union Public Service Commission to be consulted.[11]

text: Expenses[edit]

text: As per Art. 322, the expenses of the Union Public Service Commission, including any salaries, allowances and pensions payable to or in respect of the members or staff of the Commission, shall be charged on the Consolidated Fund of India.[11]

text: Extension of functions[edit]

text: As per Art. 321, an Act made by Parliament may provide for the exercise of additional functions by the Union Public Service Commission w.r.t. services of the Union.[11]

text: Reporting[edit]

text: As per Art. 323, it shall be the duty of the Union Commission to annually present a report to the President of the work done by the Commission. On receipt of such report, the President shall present a copy before each House of Parliament; together with a memorandum, if any, explaining the reasons where the advice of the Commission was not accepted by him.[11]

text: Organisational structure[edit]

text: The Commission consists of a chairman and other members appointed by The President of India. Usually, the Commission consists of 9 to 11 members including the chairman.[12] Every member holds office for a term of six years or until he attains the age of sixty-five years, whichever is earlier.

text: The terms and conditions of service of chairman and members of the Commission are governed by the Union Public Service Commission (Members) Regulations, 1969.[13]

text: The chairman and any other member of the Commission can submit his resignation at any time to the President of India. He may be removed from his office by the President of India on the ground of misbehaviour (only if an inquiry of such misbehaviour is made and upheld by Supreme Court) or if he is adjudged insolvent, or engages during his term of office in any paid employment outside the duties of his office, or in the opinion of the President unfit to continue in office by reason of infirmity of mind or body.

text: Secretariat[edit]

text: The Commission is serviced by a Secretariat headed by a Secretary with four Additional Secretaries, a number of Joint Secretaries, Deputy Secretaries and other supporting staff.[14] The secretariat, for administrative purpose, is further divided into divisions, each undertaking a specific responsibility:[15]

text:
Administration: Administers the Secretariat as well as looks after personal matters of Chairman/Members and other Officers/Staff of the Commission.[16]
All India Services: Recruitment to All India Services is done either by direct recruitment (through Competitive Examinations) or by promotion from the State Service. The AIS Branch handles the promotions of State Service officers to the IAS, IPS and IFS. It also handles policy matters relating to All India Services and amendments in the 'Promotion Regulations' of respective services.[17]
Appointments: It carry out appointments to central services based on Promotion(based on proposals from various Ministries/Departments/Union Territories and from certain local bodies) and by the means of Deputation and Absorption.[18]
Examination: It carries out merit-based selection and recommendation of candidates, through various examinations, to Group A and Group B Services of the Government of India.[19]
General: Primarily deals with day-to-day housekeeping works for Commission, like, arrangements and facilitation for conduction of Examinations by the UPSC, printing Annual Report etc.[20]
Recruitment: This branch carries out Direct Recruitment(out of the 3 possible mechanisms of : 'direct recruitment', 'recruitment by promotion' and 'recruitment by transfer and permanent absorption') by selection to all Group `A’ and certain Group `B’ posts of the services of the Union (including some Union Territories). These recruitment are done either by selection(interview) or through competitive examination.[21]
Recruitment Rules: The Commission is mandated under Art. 320 of the Constitution of India, read along the UPSC (Exemption from Consultation) Regulations, 1958, to advise on framing and amending of Recruitment and Service Rules for various Group A and Group B posts in the Government of India, and certain autonomous organizations like EPFO, ESIC, DJB, NDMC & Municipal Corporations(s) of Delhi. This Branch carries out this responsibility by facilitating the Ministries / Departments / UT Administrations / Autonomous Organisations in this regard.[22]
Services I: Handles disciplinary cases received from various Ministries/Departments and State Governments for advice of the Commission, as required under Article 320 (3)(c).
Services II: Handles all other cases that 'Services I' branch doesn't. It compiles the Annual Report. Also, it coordinates visits of foreign delegations, correspondence with foreign countries and hosting of international events concerning Public Service Commissions, including the SAARC Member States.

text: Present members[edit]

text: As of 28 June 2017[update], the commission has 9 members including the chairman, who are:[23]

text:
David R. Syiemlieh (Chairman)
Vinay Mittal
Chhatar Singh
Arvind Saxena
Pradeep Kumar Joshi (Dr.)
Bhim Sain Bassi
A.S. Bhonsle
Sujata Mehta
Manoj Soni (Dr.)[24]

text: List of all chairmen[edit]

text: Following is the list of chairmen of UPSC:[25]

text:
List of UPSC Chairmen (since inception)[hide]

Chairman
Term
Background

From
To

Sir Ross Barker
000000001926-10-01-0000October 1926
000000001932-08-01-0000August 1932

Sir David Petrie
000000001932-08-01-0000August 1932
000000001936-01-01-00001936

Sir Eyre Gorden
000000001937-01-01-00001937
000000001942-01-01-00001942

Sir F. W. Robertson
000000001942-01-01-00001942
000000001947-01-01-00001947

H. K. Kripalani
000000001947-04-01-0000April 1947
000000001949-01-01-0000January 1949

R. N. Banerjee
000000001949-01-01-0000January 1949
000000001955-05-01-0000May 1955

N. Govindarajan
000000001955-05-01-0000May 1955
000000001955-12-01-0000December 1955

V. S. Hejmadi
000000001955-12-01-0000December 1955
000000001961-12-01-0000December 1961

B. N. Jha
000000001961-12-01-0000December 1961
000000001967-02-01-0000February 1967

K. R. Damle
000000001967-04-01-0000April 1967
000000001971-03-01-0000March 1971

R.C.S. Sarkar
000000001971-05-01-0000May 1971
000000001973-02-01-0000February 1973
Academician, West Bengal Civil Services Officer

A. R. Kidwai
000000001973-02-01-0000February 1973
000000001979-02-01-0000February 1979

M. L. Shahare
000000001979-02-01-0000February 1979
000000001985-02-01-0000February 1985

H. K. L. Capoor
000000001985-02-01-0000February 1985
000000001990-03-01-0000March 1990

J. P. Gupta
000000001990-03-01-0000March 1990
000000001992-06-01-0000June 1992

R. M. Bathew (Kharbuli)
000000001992-09-01-0000September 1992
000000001996-08-01-0000August 1996

S. J. S. Chhatwal
000000001996-08-01-0000August 1996
000000001996-09-01-0000September 1996

J. M. Qureshi
000000001996-09-01-0000September 1996
000000001998-12-01-0000December 1998

Lt. Gen. Surinder Nath
000000001998-12-01-0000December 1998
000000002002-06-01-0000June 2002

P. C. Hota
000000002002-06-01-0000June 2002
000000002003-09-01-0000September 2003

Mata Prasad
000000002003-09-01-0000September 2003
000000002005-01-01-0000January 2005
Indian Administrative Service of 1962 Batch

S. R. Hashim
000000002005-01-01-0000January 2005
000000002006-04-01-0000April 2006

D. P. Agrawal
000000002008-08-01-0000August 2008
000000002014-08-01-0000August 2014
Academician

Rajni Razdan
000000002014-08-01-0000August 2014[26]
000000002014-11-01-0000November 2014
Indian Administrative Service Officer of 1973 Batch

Deepak Gupta
000000002014-11-01-0000November 2014
000000002016-09-01-0000September 2016

Alka Sirohi
000000002016-09-21-0000September 21, 2016
000000002017-01-03-0000January 3, 2017

David R. Syiemlieh
000000002017-01-04-0000January 4, 2017
- today -
Academician

text: Functions[edit]

text: As mentioned in Article 320 of the Constitution of India, the Commission shall be consulted on all matters relating to recruitment to civil services and posts in India. The Commission carries out its functions through the Secretariat, further divided in divisions. Details and work of each division is mentions above in the 'Secretariat' section of this article. In a nutshell, the Commission perform following tasks:[27]

text:
Conduct examinations for appointment to the services of the Union.
Recruitment (Direct) by selection through interviews.
Appointment of Department officers on promotion, deputation and through absorption.
Framing and amendment of Recruitment Rules for various services and posts under the Government.
Disciplinary cases relating to different Civil Services.
On any matter referred to the UPSC, they can directly Advice the Government by the President of India.

text: Recruitment[edit]

text: UPSC is India's central recruiting agency. It is mandated by the Constitution of India for recruitment to Central and All India Services of the Republic of India. It carries out this task through 4 modes:[9]

text:
Direct Recruitment
Promotion
Deputation/absorption
Composite Method (Deputation + Promotion)

text: Direct recruitment[edit]

text: Conducted broadly by following two methods-[21][9]

text:
Competitive Examination
Selection

text: Candidates can apply for these exams and interviews through a separate portal which is the only means(offline) for applying to these posts.

text: Competitive examinations[edit]

text: The Commission conducts examinations on biannual/annual/biennial basis throughout India for appointment to various Civil/Defence services/posts. The notifications for these examinations are published in the Gazette of India and Employment News/Rozgar Samachar. A shorter version of notification is also published in major Indian newspapers including regional language newspapers. Copies of the notifications are also sent to all Employment Exchanges and Universities, etc

text: UPSC conducts following examinations:[28][29]

text:
Civil Services Examination (CSE)
Engineering Services Examination (ESE)
Combined Medical Services Examination (CMSE)
Combined Defence Services Examination (CDSE)
National Defence Academy Examination (NDA)
Naval Academy Examination
Special Class Railway Apprentice (SCRA)
Indian Forest Service Examination
Indian Economic Service Examination
Indian Statistical Service Examination
Combined Geo-scientist and Geologist Examination
Central Armed Police Forces (Assistant Commandant) Examination (CAPF)
Section Officers/Stenographers (Grade-B/Grade-I) Departmental Competitive Examination

text: The examinations conducted for Civil Services have a success rate of 0.1%–0.3%.

text: Selection[edit]

text: The Commission has the responsibility of direct recruitment at various levels by the method of "selection" to Group "A" Posts and selected Group "B" Posts in the Central Government.

text: Vacancies are advertised in Employment News, and other major newspapers of India. Applicants are then short-listed through computerized 'Preliminary Scrutiny' software via a rational criteria. Higher qualifications and experience than that is prescribed in the notification may be the criteria. The short-listed candidates are then called for an interview. In case of a large number of candidates apply for a post or if it is not quite possible to short-list candidates on the basis of qualifications and/or experience, a 'Recruitment Test' may be conducted to shortlist the candidates.

text: These candidates are subjected to 'Interview Boards' which are presided over by Members of the Commission, assisted by eminent experts drawn from fields for which recruitment is being done.

text: Finally, the Commission approves the Interview-Board's Report and recommendation is sent to the concerned Ministry/Department that had sought candidates for the concerned post(s).[9][21]

text: Promotion[edit]

text: The Chairman or a Member of the Commission presides over the Departmental Promotion Committee Meetings for carrying out following promotions:

text:
From Group "B" to Group "A"
From one grade to another within Group "A", where promotion is to be made by Selection.

text: The Commission also performs promotions from State Civil/Police/Forest Services to All India Services through a "Selection Committee" presided over by the Chairman or a Member of the Commission in terms of the respective "IAS/IPS/IFS/Promotion Regulations" and selection of Non-State Civil Service Officers for appointment to the IAS under "IAS(Appointment by Selection) Regulations, 1997".[9][17]

text: Deputation/absorption[edit]

text: The Recruitment Rules for a number of posts provide for appointment by Deputation (including short term contract) and Absorption. If the post under consideration consists of Central and State Government officers, prior consultation with the Commission is required for selection of the officer. If the post under consideration consists of not only Central/State Government officers, but also include officers from non-Government Institutions, the selection shall be made in consultation with the Union Public Service Commission only.[9][18]

text: Museum[edit]

text: In November 2016, UPSC opened a museum for showcasing its possession of archival material including original pamphlets, documents, reports and various other records.[30][31] The 1st section displays various artifacts related to early administration in ancient and medieval India, and phases of growth of administration in modern India. It also provides information regarding civil services in China, USA, France, Japan and Bhutan. The 2nd section displays artifacts related to UPSC itself and the various examinations it had conducted. The 3rd section displays various reports of various committees appointed for suggesting improvements to quality of UPSC and Civil Services in India.[30][32]

text: The museum is located in the premises of UPSC Dholpur House and is open 10 am - 2 pm (Monday to Saturday). Entry is free and photography is allowed inside it.[32][31]

text: Limitations[edit]

text: Although the commission is granted its charter by Constitution itself, its scope is limited in following matters:[33]

text:
It cannot be consulted while making reservations of appointments to services or posts in favour of backward classes(SC-ST and others).
It shall not be consulted for selection for chairmanships or memberships of commissions or tribunals, and posts of highest diplomatic nature.
Almost all of group C and group D central services are fulfilled by the Staff Selection Commission, and not UPSC.
It is not consulted in the case of temporary selection or officiating appointment to a post if the person appointed is not likely to hold the post for more than one year.

text: As per Art 320, the president can also regulate or limit jurisdiction of UPSC w.r.t. any post, service or other matter relating to Central and All India Services. But all such regulations by the president shall be presented before Parliament within 14 days, and the parliament may amend or repeal them.[33]

text: The Supreme Court has too held that if the government fails to consult UPSC in the matters ascribed under Art 320, does not invalidate the decision of the government. Thus rendering this provision of constitution as only advisory and not binding.[34] Nonetheless, the government still remains answerable to parliament for deviating from the advice of the commission; thereby checking indiscriminate use of this provision by the government.[33][34]

text: With the formation of Department of Personnel and Training, UPSC is no longer concerned with the classification of services, pay and service conditions, cadre management, training etc, limiting its role to that of a recruiting agency. The formation of Central Vigilance Commission in 1964 also affected role of UPSC in disciplinary matters.

text: Criticism[edit]

text: Transparency and public oversight[edit]

text: UPSC, along with other State Public Service Commissions,[35] has came under public criticism for lack of transparency and accountability in its recruitment procedures. UPSC never discloses answer sheets and marking scheme for the examinations and interviews conducted by it.[36]

text: Gender issue in application form[edit]

text: While the notification of UPSC claims "Government strives to have a workforce which reflects gender balance and women candidates are encouraged to apply",[37] the application form available online doesn't have the option for "others" under the category of sex. This was highlighted through an RTI appeal filed by a Madurai-based 23-year-transgender, S. Swapna.[38]

text: Transgender S. Swapna and the gender activist Gopi Shankar Madurai[39] staged the protest in Madurai collectorate on 7 October 2013 demanding reservation and to permit alternate genders to appear for examinations conducted by TNPSC, UPSC, SSC and Bank Exams. Later, Swapna successfully moved the Madras High Court in 2013 seeking permission to write the TNPSC Group II exam as a woman candidate.[40]


document_title: United States ten-dollar bill

question_text: when was the first 10 dollar bill made

question_tokens: when was the first 10 dollar bill made

text: United States ten-dollar bill

text: Large size note history[edit]

text: (approximately 7.4218 × 3.125 in ≅ 189 × 79 mm)

text:
1861: The first $10 bill was issued as a Demand Note with a small portrait of Abraham Lincoln on the left side of the obverse and an allegorical figure representing art on the right.
1862: The first $10 United States Note was issued with a face design similar to the 1861 Demand Note; the reverse, however, was somewhat revised. The Roman numeral "X" may represent the origin of the slang term "sawbuck" to mean a $10 bill.
1863: Interest Bearing Notes, featuring a portrait of Salmon P. Chase and vignette of liberty, were issued that could be redeemed one year after the date printed on the bill for $10 plus 5% interest. The notes could also be spent for exactly $10.
1864: Compound Interest Treasury Notes, with a face design similar to the 1863 Interest Bearing Note, were issued that grew in face value 6% compounded semi-annually. It is unknown if the note could actually be spent for $10 plus interest.
1869: A new $10 United States Note was issued with a portrait of Daniel Webster on the left and an allegorical representation of Pocahontas being presented to the Royal Court of England on the right side of the obverse. This note is nicknamed a "jackass note" because the eagle on the front looks like a donkey when the note is turned upside down.
1870: National Gold Bank Notes, featuring a vignette of Benjamin Franklin flying a kite on the left and liberty and an eagle on the right, were issued specifically for payment in gold coin by participating national banks. The back of the bill featured a vignette of U.S. gold coins.

text:
1875: The 1869 United States Note was revised. The blue and green tinting that was present on the obverse was removed and the design on the reverse was completely changed.
1878: The first $10 silver certificate was issued with a portrait of Robert Morris on the left side of the obverse. The reverse, unlike any other federally issued note, was printed in black ink and featured the word SILVER in large block letters.
1879: Refunding Certificates were issued that paid 4% interest annually.
1886: A new $10 silver certificate with a portrait of Thomas A. Hendricks was issued.
1890: Ten-dollar Treasury or "Coin Notes" were issued and given for government purchases of silver bullion from the silver mining industry. The note featured a portrait of General Philip Sheridan. The reverse featured an ornate design that took up almost the entire note.
1891: The reverse of the 1890 Treasury Note was redesigned because the treasury felt that it was too "busy" which would make it too easy to counterfeit.

text:
1901: The famous United States Note featuring portraits of Meriwether Lewis on the left, William Clark on the right, and an American bison which is sometimes erroneously noted as being Black Diamond, the Bison which was depicted on the reverse of the Indian Head Nickel. This United States Note was the only one to mention the legal provision that authorized its issuance. The reverse featured an allegorical figure representing Columbia between two Roman-styled pillars.
1907: Congress officially ended the interest paid on Refunding Certificates, forever making their face value $21.30.
1907: The first $10 gold certificate with a portrait of Michael Hillegas on the front and orange-colored back was issued.
1914: The first $10 Federal Reserve Note was issued with a portrait of Andrew Jackson on the obverse and vignettes of farming and industry on the reverse. The note initially had a red treasury seal and serial numbers; however, they were changed to blue.

text:
1915: Federal Reserve Bank Notes (not to be confused with Federal Reserve Notes) were issued by 4 individual Federal Reserve banks. The obverse was similar to the 1914 Federal Reserve notes except for large wording in the middle of the bill and a portrait with no border on the left side of the bill. Each note was an obligation of the issuing bank and could only be redeemed at the corresponding bank.
1918: The 1915 Federal Reserve Bank Note was re-issued under series of 1918 by 4 Federal Reserve banks.
1923: The $10 United States Note was redesigned with a portrait of Andrew Jackson. Some of the design aspects of this note, such as the bottom border and numeral 10 overprinted with the word TEN, were transferred over to the series of 1928 $10 bill.

text: Small size note history[edit]

text: (6.14 × 2.61 in ≅ 156 × 66 mm)

text:
1929: Under the Series of 1928, all U.S. currency was changed to its current size. All variations of the $10 bill would carry the same portrait of Alexander Hamilton, same border design on the obverse, and the same reverse with a vignette of the U.S. Treasury building. The $10 bill was issued as a Federal Reserve Note with a green seal and serial numbers and as a gold certificate with a golden seal and serial numbers. The car parked outside of the Treasury Department building is based on a number of different cars manufactured at the time and was the creation of the Bureau designer who developed the artwork that served as a model for the engraving, because government agencies were prohibited from endorsing any specific manufacturer or product, according to a bureau of engraving and printing pamphlet.[5] The tiny building to the right rear of the treasury building is the American Security and Trust Company Building, which for some years advertised itself as "right on the money".[6][7]
1933: As an emergency response to the Great Depression, additional money was pumped into the American economy through Federal Reserve Bank Notes. This was the only small-sized $10 bill that had a different border design on the obverse. The serial numbers and seal on it were brown.
1933: The first small sized $10 silver certificates were issued with a blue seal and serial numbers. The obverse had a similar design style to the 1928 $1 Silver Certificates; however, phrasing on the $10 bill was different from the $1 bill. This issue, with the series date of 1933, was not widely released into general circulation. Surviving examples of these notes usually sell for $10,000 to $30,000 in the numismatic community depending on the condition of the paper.
1934: The redeemable in gold clause was removed from Federal Reserve Notes due to the U.S. withdrawing from the gold standard.
1934: The $10 Silver Certificate was redesigned with a blue numeral 10 on the left side of the obverse and the treasury seal printed over the gray word TEN on the right. Phrasing on the certificate was changed to reflect the Silver Purchase Act of 1934.
1942: Special World War II currency was issued. HAWAII was overprinted on the front and back of the $10 Federal Reserve Note, and the seal and serial numbers were changed to brown. This was done so that the currency could be declared worthless in case of Japanese invasion. A $10 Silver Certificate was printed with a yellow instead of blue treasury seal; these notes were given to U.S. troops in North Africa. These notes, too, could be declared worthless if seized by the enemy.
1950: Many minor aspects on the obverse of the $10 Federal Reserve Note were changed. Most noticeably, the treasury seal, gray word TEN, and the Federal Reserve Seal were made smaller, the words WASHINGTON, D.C. were added between them and the serial number; also, the Federal Reserve seal had spikes added around it.
1953: The $10 silver certificate had several design changes analogous to the 1950 Federal Reserve Note design changes; also, the blue numeral 10 on the left side of the bill was changed to gray.
1963: WILL PAY TO THE BEARER ON DEMAND was removed from the obverse and IN GOD WE TRUST was added to the reverse of the $10 Federal Reserve Notes. Also, the obligation was shortened to its current wording, THIS NOTE IS LEGAL TENDER FOR ALL DEBTS, PUBLIC AND PRIVATE.
1969: The $10 bill began using the new treasury seal with wording in English that simply says, "The Department of the Treasury," instead of Latin "THESAUR. AMER. SEPTENT. SIGIL.," "Seal of the Treasury of North America."
1981: During production of Series 1977A, a few star notes from the Richmond FRB were made on experimental Natick paper, in the only experimental note series not involving the $1 bill.
1992: The first modern anti-counterfeiting measures were introduced with microscopic printing around Hamilton's portrait and a plastic security strip on the left side of the bill. Even though the notes read Series 1990, the first bills were printed in July 1992.[8]
May 24, 2000: To combat evolving counterfeiting, a new $10 bill was issued under series 1999 whose design was similar in style to the $100, $50, $20, and $5 bills that had all undergone previous design changes. The major changes were a revised portrait of Hamilton and a revised vignette of the U.S. Treasury building, now facing front. The plastic security strip reads "USA TEN" and now glows orange under a black light. Like the new $5, the bills were first printed in December 1999.[9]
March 2, 2006: In addition to design changes introduced in 2000, the obverse features red background images of the Statue of Liberty's torch, the phrase WE THE PEOPLE from the United States Constitution, a smaller metallic representation of the Statue of Liberty's torch, orange and yellow background color, a borderless portrait of Hamilton, and to the left of Hamilton small yellow 10s whose zeros form the EURion constellation. The reverse features small yellow EURion 10s and have the fine lines removed from around the vignette of the United States Treasury building. These notes were issued in series 2004A with Cabral-Snow signatures. The first notes were printed in July 2005.[10]

text: Rejected redesign and new 2020 bill[edit]

text: On June 17, 2015, Treasury Secretary Jack Lew announced that a woman's portrait would be featured on a redesigned ten-dollar bill by 2020. The Department of Treasury was seeking the public's input on who should appear on the new bill during the design phase.[11]

text: Removal of Hamilton was controversial. Many believed that Hamilton, as the first Secretary of the Treasury, should remain on U.S. Currency in some form, all the while acknowledging that U.S. Currency was long overdue to feature a female historical figure – names that had been raised included Eleanor Roosevelt, Harriet Tubman, Susan B. Anthony and Rosa Parks. This led to the Treasury Department stating that Hamilton would remain on the bill in some way. The $10 bill was chosen because it was scheduled for a regular security redesign, a years-long process.[12] The redesigned ten-dollar bill will be the first U.S. note to incorporate tactile features to assist those with visual disabilities.[13]

text: On April 20, 2016, it was announced that Alexander Hamilton would remain the primary face on the $10 bill, due in part to the sudden popularity of the first Treasury Secretary after the success of the Broadway musical Hamilton. It was simultaneously announced that Harriet Tubman's likeness would appear on the $20 bill while Andrew Jackson would now appear on the reverse with the White House.[14]

text: The design for the reverse of the 2020 $10 bill will feature the heroines of the Women's Suffrage Movement in the United States, including Susan B. Anthony, Alice Paul, Sojourner Truth, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott, and the participants of the 1913 Woman Suffrage Procession who marched in Washington D.C. in favor of full voting rights for American women.[15]