document_title: List of professional sports leagues by revenue

question_text: what brings in more money nba or nfl

question_tokens: what brings in more money nba or nfl

text: The following is a list of sports competitions by revenue.

text: In this table, the "Season" column refers to the league season for which financial data is available and referenced, which is usually not the most recently completed season of competition. Revenues are listed in millions of euros.

text:
League

Sport

Country(ies)

Season

Teams[a]

Revenue  (€ mil)

Rev. / team(€ mil)

Ref.

National Football League
American football
 United States
2016
32
7004107000000000000♠10,700
7002333100000000000♠333.1
[1][2]

Major League Baseball
Baseball
 United States Canada
2017
30
7003768300000000000♠7,683

7002256100000000000♠256.1
[3]

National Basketball Association
Basketball
 United States Canada
2016–17
30
7003594000000000000♠5,940

7002198000000000000♠198
[4]

Premier League
Association football
 England Wales
2016-17
20
7003529700000000000♠5,297
7002264890000099999♠264.9
[5]

National Hockey League
Ice hockey
 United States Canada

2016–17
30 [b]
7003370000000000000♠3,700
7002123300000000000♠123.3
[1]

Bundesliga
Association football
 Germany
2016–17
18
7003337500000000000♠3,375
7002187500000000000♠187.5
[6][7]

La Liga
Association football
 Spain
2016–17
20
7003336300000000000♠3,363
7002168200000000000♠168.2
[8]

Serie A
Association football
 Italy
2016–17
20
7003226700000000000♠2,267
7002113400000000000♠113.4
[9]

UEFA Champions League
Association football
Europe
2016–17
32
7003208940000000000♠2,089.4
7001653000000000000♠65.3
[10]

Formula One

Auto racing

 International

2017

10

7003183000000000000♠1,830

7002166400000000000♠166.4

[11]

Ligue 1
Association football
 France Monaco
2016–17
20
7003164400000000000♠1,644
7001822000000000000♠82.2
[12]

Campeonato Brasileiro
Association football
 Brazil
2016
20
7003129800000000000♠1,298
7001649000000000000♠64.9
[13]

Nippon Professional Baseball
Baseball
 Japan
2012
12
7003125300000000000♠1,253
7002104000000000000♠104
[14]

Chinese Super League
Association football
 China
2016
16
7002945000000000000♠945
7001590000000000000♠59
[15]

J1 League
Association football
 Japan
2017
18
7002860000000000000♠860
7001480000000000000♠48
[16]

Major League Soccer
Association football
 United States Canada
2017
22 [c]
7002851000000000000♠851
7001387000000000000♠38.7
[17][18]

EFL Championship
Association football
 England Wales
2016–17
24
7002842000000000000♠842 [d]
7001351000000000000♠35.1
[5]

Kontinental Hockey League
Ice hockey
 Russia

2016–17
29
7002820000000000000♠820
7001283000000000000♠28.3
[19]

Australian Football League
Australian rules football
 Australia
2017
18
7002754000000000000♠754
7001419000000000000♠41.9
[20] [21]

Süper Lig
Association football
 Turkey
2016–17
18
7002734000000000000♠734
7001408009999900000♠40.8
[5]

Russian Premier League
Association football
 Russia
2016–17
16
7002701000000000000♠701
7001438000000000000♠43.8
[5]

NASCAR
Auto racing
 United States
2017
20
7002660800000000000♠660.8
7001330000000000000♠33.0
[22]

2. Bundesliga
Association football
 Germany
2016–17
18
7002635000000000000♠635
7001353009999900000♠35.3
[7]

Korea Professional Baseball
Baseball
 South Korea
2014
10
7002563000000000000♠563
7001560000000000000♠56
[23]

K League
Association football
 South Korea
2014
12
7002509000000000000♠509
7001260000000000000♠26
[24]

Liga MX
Association football
 Mexico
–
18
7002509000000000000♠509
7001280000000000000♠28
[25]

Indian Premier League
Twenty20 cricket
 India
2016
8
7002480000000000000♠480 [e]
7001426000000000000♠42.6
[26]

Eredivisie
Association football
 Netherlands
2016–17
18
7002451000000000000♠451
7001251000000000000♠25.1
[5]

Primeira Liga
Association football
 Portugal
2016–17
18
7002366000000000000♠366
7001203000000000000♠20.3
[5]

Belgian Pro League [f]
Association football
 Belgium
2015–16
16
7002359000000000000♠359
7001224400000000000♠22.44
[27]

Top 14
Rugby union football
 France
2016–17
14
7002339700000000000♠339.7
7001243000000000000♠24.3
[28]

Primera División Argentina
Association football
 Argentina
–
20
7002338000000000000♠338
7001170000000000000♠17
[25]

Segunda División
Association football
 Spain
2016–17
22
7002299700000000000♠299.7
7001136000000000000♠13.6
[8]

Serie B
Association football
 Italy
2011–12
22
7002276000000000000♠276
7001125000000000000♠12.5
[29]

J2 League
Association football
 Japan
2015
22
7002262000000000000♠262
7001119000000000000♠11.9
[30]

Saudi Professional League
Association football
 Saudi Arabia
2016–17
14
7002254610000000000♠254.61[unreliable source?]
7001182000000000000♠18.2
[31]

English Premiership
Rugby union football
 England
2015–16
12
7002251400000000000♠251.4 [g]
7001209500000000000♠20.95
[32]

National Rugby League
Rugby league football
 Australia New Zealand
2015
16
7002241000000000000♠241
7001140000000000000♠14.0
[33]

Swiss Super League
Association football
  Switzerland Liechtenstein[h]
2015–16
10
7002227000000000000♠227
7001227000000000000♠22.70
[27]

Ligue 2
Association football
 France
2016–17
20
7002219000000000000♠219
7001110000000000000♠11.0
[12]

Scottish Premiership
Association football
 Scotland
2016–17
12
7002211000000000000♠211
7001176000000000000♠17.6
[5]

Canadian Football League
Canadian football
 Canada
2015
9
7002200000000000000♠200
7001220000000000000♠22
[34]

Swedish Hockey League
Ice hockey
 Sweden
2016–17
14
7002186000000000000♠186
7001133000000000000♠13.3
[35]

Danish Superliga
Association football
 Denmark
2016–17
14
7002184000000000000♠184
7001131000000000000♠13.1
[5]

Austrian Football Bundesliga
Association football
 Austria
2016–17
10
7002176000000000000♠176
7001176000000000000♠17.6
[5]

Categoria Primera A
Association football
 Colombia
–
18
7002176000000000000♠176
7001100000000000000♠10
[25]

EFL League One
Association football
 England
2016–17
24
7002171000000000000♠171 [i]
7000710000000000000♠7.1
[5]

National League
Ice hockey
  Switzerland
2013–14
12
7002167000000000000♠167
7001139000000000000♠13.9
[36]

Allsvenskan
Association football
 Sweden
2017
16
7002162000000000000♠162
7001101000000000000♠10.1
[5]

3. Liga
Association football
 Germany
2016–17
20
7002155000000000000♠155
7000860000000000000♠8.6
[37]

Tippeligaen [j]
Association football
 Norway
2016
16
7002146000000000000♠146
7000913000000000000♠9.13
[27]

Superleague Greece
Association football
 Greece
2015–16
16
7002142000000000000♠142
7000888000000000000♠8.88
[27]

Ekstraklasa
Association football
 Poland
2016–17
16
7002129000000000000♠129
7000810000000000000♠8.1
[5]

Deutsche Eishockey Liga
Ice hockey
 Germany
2016–17
14
7002117000000000000♠117
7000840000000000000♠8.4
[38]

Chilean Primera Division
Association football
 Chile
–
18
7002113000000000000♠113
7000630000000000000♠6.3
[25]

South African Premier Division
Association football
 South Africa
–
16
7002111000000000000♠111
7000690000000000000♠6.9
[39]

Basketball Bundesliga
Basketball
 Germany
2016–17
18
7002110000000000000♠110
7000610000000000000♠6.1
[40]

EFL League Two
Association football
 England Wales
2016–17
24
7002106000000000000♠106 [k]
7000440000000000000♠4.4
[5]

Kazakhstan Premier League
Association football
 Kazakhstan
2016
12
7002105000000000000♠105
7000875000000000000♠8.75
[27]

Handball-Bundesliga
Handball
 Germany
2016–17
18
7002103000000000000♠103
7000570000000000000♠5.7
[41]

Rugby Pro D2
Rugby union football
 France
2016–17
16
7001997000000000000♠99.7
7000620000000000000♠6.2
[42]

B1 League

Basketball

 Japan

2016–17

18

96.4

5.3

[43]

Egyptian Premier League
Association football
 Egypt
–
20
7001950000000000000♠95
7000470000000000000♠4.7
[44]

Ukrainian Premier League
Association football
 Ukraine
2015–16
14
7001940000000000000♠94
7000671000000000000♠6.71
[27]

SM-liiga
Ice hockey
 Finland
2016–17
15
7001940000000000000♠94
7000630000000000000♠6.3
[45]

Israeli Premier League
Association football
 Israel
2015–16
14
7001910000000000000♠91
7000650000000000000♠6.50
[27]

Mexican Pacific League
Baseball
 Mexico
2012–13
8
7001720000000000000♠72
7000900000000000000♠9
[46]

Czech First League
Association football
 Czech Republic
2015–16
16
7001710000000000000♠71
7000444000000000000♠4.44
[27]

A-League
Association football
 Australia New Zealand
2012–13
10
7001630000000000000♠63
7000630000000000000♠6.3
[47]

Eerste Divisie
Association football
 Netherlands
2014–15
20
7001610000000000000♠61
7000310000000000000♠3.1
[48]

Hungary First League
Association football
 Hungary
2015–16
12
7001600000000000000♠60
7000500000000000000♠5.00
[27]

Super League
Rugby league football
 England France
2015
12
7001600000000000000♠60
7000500000000000000♠5.0
[49]

Liga I
Association football
 Romania
2015–16
14
7001580000000000000♠58
7000414009999999999♠4.14
[27]

Chinese Basketball Association
Basketball
 China
2012–13
17
7001530000000000000♠53
7000310000000000000♠3.1
[50]

Indian Super League
Association football
 India
2017-18
10
7001500000000000000♠50
7000500000000000000♠5
[51]

Croatian First Football League
Association football
 Croatia
2015–16
10
7001470000000000000♠47
7000470000000000000♠4.70
[27]

Cypriot First Division
Association football
 Cyprus
2015–16
14
7001460000000000000♠46
7000329000000000000♠3.29
[27]

A Group
Association football
 Bulgaria
2015–16
10
7001410000000000000♠41
7000410009999999999♠4.10
[27]

J3 League

Association football

 Japan

2015

12

7001350000000000000♠35

7000290000000000000♠2.9

[52]

Belarusian Premier League
Association football
 Belarus
2016
16
7001350000000000000♠35
7000219000000000000♠2.19
[27]

Azerbaijan Premier League
Association football
 Azerbaijan
2015–16
10
7001320000000000000♠32
7000320000000000000♠3.20
[27]

Liga ACB
Basketball
 Spain Andorra
2016–17
18
7001300000000000000♠30
7000170000000000000♠1.7
[53]

Slovak Super Liga
Association football
 Slovakia
2015–16
12
7001300000000000000♠30
7000250000000000000♠2.50
[27]

B2 League

Basketball

 Japan

2016–17

18

28.3

1.6

[43]

Veikkausliiga
Association football
 Finland
2016
12
7001240000000000000♠24
7000200000000000000♠2.00
[27]

Mexican League

Baseball

 Mexico

2016

16

7001230000000000000♠23

7000150000000000000♠1.5

[54]

Serbian SuperLiga
Association football
 Serbia
2015–16
16
7001200000000000000♠20
7000125000000000000♠1.25
[27]

text:
Jump up ^ Number of teams in the season referenced in this table. Due to league expansion and contraction, does not necessarily match the number of current teams.

Jump up ^ The NHL expanded to 31 teams starting with the 2017–18 season.

Jump up ^ MLS expanded to 23 teams starting with the 2018 season.

Jump up ^ Cited revenue was £720 million; approximate average exchange rate of €1.17 per £1 for 2016–17 season used here.

Jump up ^ Cited revenue was USD 378.78 million; approximate average exchange rate of USD 0.9 per EUR 1 for 2016 season used here.

Jump up ^ Renamed as Belgian First Division A effective with the 2016–17 season.

Jump up ^ Cited revenue was £187.9 million; approximate average exchange rate of €1.33773 per £1 for 2015–16 season used here.[27]

Jump up ^ During the 2015–16 season cited in this table, the Super League included FC Vaduz, based in Liechtenstein (whose football clubs all play in the Swiss league system). Vaduz were relegated at the end of the 2016–17 season, making the Super League once again an all-Swiss circuit.

Jump up ^ Cited revenue was £146 million; approximate average exchange rate of €1.17 per £1 for 2016–17 season used here.

Jump up ^ Renamed Eliteserien effective with the 2017 season.

Jump up ^ Cited revenue was £91 million; approximate average exchange rate of €1.17 per £1 for 2016–17 season used here.


document_title: The Watsons Go to Birmingham – 1963

question_text: where is rufus from in the watsons go to birmingham

root

text: The Watsons Go to Birmingham – 1963

text: Background and setting[edit]

text: The book takes place from approximately January to October 1963, a turbulent time during the Civil Rights Movement. The Watson family is fictional, but the characters are based on members of the author's family, including himself, and many of the events in the first half of the book are based on events from the author's childhood.

tag: p

text: Events later in the story center on the historic 1963 16th Street Baptist Church bombing in Birmingham, soon after the civil rights protests had gained negotiation with white city leaders for integration. KKK members bombed the church on September 15, 1963, killing four girls and injuring many more. In the novel, the incident is depicted as occurring a bit earlier than the historical date, allowing the Watson family to still be on summer vacation in Birmingham when it took place.

text: The bombing was a catalyst for increased activity in the Civil Rights Movement and work on voter registration in Mississippi, during Freedom Summer of 1964.

text: Plot[edit]

text: The novel is a first-person account narrarated by Kenny Watson, who lives in Flint, Michigan with his parents, Daniel and Wilona Watson, his older brother Byron, and younger sister Joetta. The opening chapters establish Kenny as a very bright and shy 4th grader who has difficulty making true friends until Rufus Fry arrives in town from Arkansas. Rufus is also bullied by the students at Clark Elementary for his "country" clothes and accent, making Kenny reluctant to befriend him at first, but they are soon inseparable. Kenny is alternatively bullied and protected by his 13 year old brother Byron, whom he calls "an official teenage juvenile delinquent". Byron has been retained twice because he often skips school and is still in 6th grade. He invents a series of "fantastic adventures" which constantly get him into trouble and include playing with matches in the house, abusing his parent's credit at the corner grocery store to buy himself treats, and getting a "conk" hairstyle against his parents' orders.

text: Daniel and Wilona eventually become so frustrated with their inability to "straighten out" Byron that they decide to send him to Birmingham, Alabama to live with Grandma Sands (Wilona's mother) for at least the summer and possibly an entire year. As soon as the school year concludes, the Watsons ready their car ("the Brown Bomber") and embark on a roadtrip from Flint to Birmingham to deliver Byron. Kenny had been looking forward to the "battle royal" between his grandma and Byron, but is disappointed when just a few sharp words from the "old, old" lady have Byron speaking respectfully and generally behaving himself, causing Kenny to seek out his own "adventures". Grandma Sands had warned the children to avoid a particular local swimming hole because of a dangerous "whirlpool", which Kenny misheard as "Wool Pooh" due to her thick Alabama accent. Kenny wants to swim there anyway, and is frustrated when Byron and Joetta refuse to go along. Ignoring the warnings of both Grandma Sands and Byron, Kenny jumps into the seemingly tranquil pool and edges deeper and deeper water until he loses his footing and almost drowns. Remembering his grandmother's words, he imagines that a strange monster he thinks is the mysterious "Wool Pooh" swam up from below to grab his ankle and pull him under. Byron returns and jumps in to save Kenny just in time. He later insists that there was nothing else in the water, but Kenny is convinced that the Wool Pooh actually exists.

text: Shortly afterwards, a bomb goes off at a nearby church where Joetta is attending Sunday school. (This was the 16th Street Baptist Church bombing, a real historical event.) Kenny wanders into the still-smoking church in the immediate aftermath looking for his sister, but instead sees the Wool Pooh in the smoke clinging to a torn girl's shoe that looks like Joetta's. In shock, he walks back to Grandma Sands' house without anyone noticing that he had been at the church, and he's again shocked and confused to find Joetta already there. She claims that it was Kenny who had called her away from the church and led her home, and she does not even know that a bombing had taken place right after she'd left Sunday school.

text: As soon as they realize that Joetta is safe, the Watsons decide to immediately return home to Flint, trying to avoid explaining the full implications of what has happened to the children. Kenny is unable to process the events in Birmingham and avoids his family and friends over the ensuing weeks, instead spending many hours hiding behind the sofa. Byron eventually coaxes him out and gets Kenny to talk about what happened, which finally brings a flood of tears from Kenny. Encouraging his little brother to "keep on stepping", Byron explains that although the world is not perfect, he has to keep moving on.

text: Characters[edit]

text: Kenneth Bernard "Kenny" Watson - The main character and narrator of the story, the younger of the two sons of the Watsons. Kenny is ten years old. He is an excellent/intelligent student with many capability, which makes him the target of bullying at Clark Elementary School.

text: Wilona Sands Watson - Usually called "Momma". She's the wife of Daniel and the mother of the three children. A native of Birmingham, she slips into a thick Southern accent when mad or excited, and she complains about Flint's harsh winters. She is strict and overprotective but loves her kids.

text: Daniel Watson - The husband of Wilona and father of the three children. He's known for having a good sense of humor and is referred to as "Dad".

text: Byron "Daddy Cool" Watson - Older brother of Kenny and Joey. He is considered the "God" of Clark Elementary School. He bullies smaller kids along with his best friend Buphead. He is known for being a terrible student and is also known for breaking the rules and being a rebel. Byron is thirteen.

text: Joetta "Joey" Watson - Younger sister of Byron and Kenny. She follows the rules and is very religious. Joey has a special relationship with Byron. She is five.

text: Buphead - Byron's best friend, who is also an "official delinquent," helps Byron bully many kids, including Kenny, although Byron and Buphead stand up for Kenny and Rufus when they're being bullied by Larry.

text: Grandma Sands - Grandmother of Kenny, Byron, and Joey, mother of Wilona, and mother-in-law of Daniel. She is supposed to be very strict. Seen by Wilona, Kenny, Byron, Joey, and Daniel when they arrived in Birmingham. Laughs like an evil witch. Grandma Sands walks with a cane due to having a stroke. Her husband died before the book began.

text: Rufus Fry - Kenny's new best friend and Cody's big brother. His family moves to Flint from the South. He and his little brother Cody befriend Kenny.

text: Cody Fry - Rufus's little brother. Rufus and Cody come from a poor Southern African-American family.

text: Lawrence "Larry" Dunn - the school bully in Kenny and Rufus's class, until Byron teaches him a lesson for stealing Kenny's winter gloves.

text: Mr. Robert - a dear friend of Grandma Sands. Mr. Robert started helping Grandma Sands out around the house after her husband died. It's hinted that Grandma Sands has a crush on Mr. Robert.

text: Mrs. Davidson - is the religious next-door neighbor of the Watsons. Joey goes to church with Mrs. Davidson three times a week. Sometimes Wilona makes Kenny go to Sunday School with Joey.

text: LJ Jones - a former playmate of Kenny who stole lots of Kenny's toy dinosaurs.

text: Author information[edit]

text: The Watsons Go to Birmingham – 1963 was Christopher Paul Curtis' first novel, earning him a Newbery Honor, a Coretta Scott King (wife of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.) Honor, and the Golden Kite Award. Curtis also wrote the Newbery Award-winning novel Bud, Not Buddy; Elijah of Buxton, and The Mighty Miss Malone.[1][2]

text: Adaptations[edit]

text: In 2013, a television film based on the book premiered on the Hallmark Channel, starring Anika Noni Rose, Wood Harris, Latanya Richardson, Skai Jackson and David Alan Grier. The movie adapted the story by condensing and trimming events and characters from Flint in the first half of the novel and adding new scenes showing Kenny and Byron helping local youths organize Civil Rights events in Birmingham.


document_title: Mughal Empire

question_text: when did the mughal empire reach its peak

question_tokens: when did the mughal empire reach its peak

text: Mughal Empire

text: Name

text: Contemporaries referred to the empire founded by Babur as the Timurid empire,[38] which reflected the heritage of his dynasty, and this was the term preferred by the Mughals themselves.[39]

text: The Mughal designation for their own dynasty was Gurkani (Persian: گورکانیان, Gūrkāniyān, meaning "sons-in-law").[8] The use of Mughal derived from the Arabic and Persian corruption of Mongol, and it emphasised the Mongol origins of the Timurid dynasty.[37] The term gained currency during the 19th century, but remains disputed by Indologists.[40] Similar terms had been used to refer to the empire, including "Mogul" and "Moghul".[10][41] Nevertheless, Babur's ancestors were sharply distinguished from the classical Mongols insofar as they were oriented towards Persian rather than Turco-Mongol culture.[42]

text: Another name for the empire was Hindustan, which was documented in the Ain-i-Akbari, and which has been described as the closest to an official name for the empire.[43] In the west, the term "Mughal" was used for the emperor, and by extension, the empire as a whole.[44]

text: History

text: Babur and Humayun (1526–1556)

text: The Mughal Empire was founded by Babur (reigned 1526–1530), a Central Asian ruler who was descended from the Turco-Mongol conqueror Timur (the founder of the Timurid Empire) on his father's side and from Chagatai, the second son of the Mongol ruler Genghis Khan, on his mother's side.[45] Ousted from his ancestral domains in Central Asia, Babur turned to India to satisfy his ambitions. He established himself in Kabul and then pushed steadily southward into India from Afghanistan through the Khyber Pass.[45] Babur's forces occupied much of northern India after his victory at Panipat in 1526.[45] The preoccupation with wars and military campaigns, however, did not allow the new emperor to consolidate the gains he had made in India.[45]

text: The instability of the empire became evident under his son, Humayun (reigned 1530–1556), who was driven out of India and into Persia by rebels.[45] The Sur Empire (1540–1555), founded by Sher Shah Suri (reigned 1540–1545), briefly interrupted Mughal rule. Humayun's exile in Persia established diplomatic ties between the Safavid and Mughal Courts, and led to increasing Persian cultural influence in the Mughal Empire. The restoration of Mughal rule began after Humayun's triumphant return from Persia in 1555, but he died from a fatal accident shortly afterwards.[45]

text: Akbar to Aurangzeb (1556–1707)

text: Akbar the Great (reigned 1556–1605) was born Jalal-ud-din Muhammad[46] in the Rajput Umarkot Fort,[47] to Humayun and his wife Hamida Banu Begum, a Persian princess.[48] Akbar succeeded to the throne under a regent, Bairam Khan, who helped consolidate the Mughal Empire in India.[45] Through warfare and diplomacy, Akbar was able to extend the empire in all directions and controlled almost the entire Indian subcontinent north of the Godavari River. He created a new class of nobility loyal to him from the military aristocracy of India's social groups, implemented a modern government, and supported cultural developments.[45] At the same time, Akbar intensified trade with European trading companies. India developed a strong and stable economy, leading to commercial expansion and economic development. Akbar allowed free expression of religion, and attempted to resolve socio-political and cultural differences in his empire by establishing a new religion, Din-i-Ilahi, with strong characteristics of a ruler cult.[45] He left his successors an internally stable state, which was in the midst of its golden age, but before long signs of political weakness would emerge.[45]

text: Jahangir (born Salim,[49] reigned 1605–1627) was born to Akbar and his wife Mariam-uz-Zamani, an Indian Rajput princess.[50] Jahangir ruled the empire at its peak, but he was addicted to opium, neglected the affairs of the state, and came under the influence of rival court cliques.[45] Shah Jahan (reigned 1628–1658) was born to Jahangir and his wife Jagat Gosaini, a Rajput princess.[49] During the reign of Shah Jahan, the culture and splendour of the luxurious Mughal court reached its zenith as exemplified by the Taj Mahal.[45] The maintenance of the court, at this time, began to cost more than the revenue.[45]

text: Shah Jahan's eldest son, the liberal Dara Shikoh, became regent in 1658, as a result of his father's illness. However, a younger son, Aurangzeb (reigned 1658–1707), allied with the Islamic orthodoxy against his brother, who championed a syncretistic Hindu-Muslim culture, and ascended to the throne. Aurangzeb defeated Dara in 1659 and had him executed.[45] Although Shah Jahan fully recovered from his illness, Aurangzeb declared him incompetent to rule and had him imprisoned. During Aurangzeb's reign, the empire gained political strength once more.[45] Aurangzeb expanded the empire to include almost the whole of South Asia, but at his death in 1707, many parts of the empire were in open revolt.[45] Aurangzeb is considered India's most controversial king,[51] with some historians arguing his religious conservatism and intolerance undermined the stability of Mughal society,[45] while other historians question this, noting that he built Hindu temples,[52] employed significantly more Hindus in his imperial bureaucracy than his predecessors did, opposed bigotry against Hindus and Shia Muslims,[53] and married Hindu Rajput princess Nawab Bai.[49]

text: Decline (1707–1857)

text: Aurangzeb's son, Shah Alam, repealed the religious policies of his father, and attempted to reform the administration. However, after his death in 1712, the Mughal dynasty sank into chaos and violent feuds. In 1719 alone, four emperors successively ascended the throne.[45]

text: During the reign of Muhammad Shah (reigned 1719–1748), the empire began to break up, and vast tracts of central India passed from Mughal to Maratha hands. The far-off Indian campaign of Nadir Shah, who had priorly reestablished Iranian suzerainty over most of West Asia, the Caucasus, and Central Asia, culminated with the Sack of Delhi and shattered the remnants of Mughal power and prestige.[45] Many of the empire's elites now sought to control their own affairs, and broke away to form independent kingdoms.[45] But, according to Sugata Bose and Ayesha Jalal, the Mughal Emperor continued to be the highest manifestation of sovereignty. Not only the Muslim gentry, but the Maratha, Hindu, and Sikh leaders took part in ceremonial acknowledgements of the emperor as the sovereign of India.[54]

text: The Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II (1759–1806) made futile attempts to reverse the Mughal decline but ultimately had to seek the protection of the Emir of Afghanistan, Ahmed Shah Abdali, which led to the Third Battle of Panipat between the Maratha Empire and the Afghans led by Abdali in 1761. In 1771, the Marathas recaptured Delhi from Afghan control and in 1784 they officially became the protectors of the emperor in Delhi,[55] a state of affairs that continued further until after the Third Anglo-Maratha War. Thereafter, the British East India Company became the protectors of the Mughal dynasty in Delhi.[54] The British East India Company took control of the former Mughal province of Bengal-Bihar in 1793 after it abolished local rule (Nizamat) that lasted until 1858, marking the beginning of British colonial era over the Indian Subcontinent. By 1857 a considerable part of former Mughal India was under the East India Company's control. After a crushing defeat in the war of 1857–1858 which he nominally led, the last Mughal, Bahadur Shah Zafar, was deposed by the British East India Company and exiled in 1858. Through the Government of India Act 1858 the British Crown assumed direct control of East India Company-held territories in India in the form of the new British Raj. In 1876 the British Queen Victoria assumed the title of Empress of India.

text: Causes of decline

text: Historians have offered numerous explanations for the rapid collapse of the Mughal Empire between 1707 and 1720, after a century of growth and prosperity. In fiscal terms the throne lost the revenues needed to pay its chief officers, the emirs (nobles) and their entourages. The emperor lost authority, as the widely scattered imperial officers lost confidence in the central authorities, and made their own deals with local men of influence. The imperial army, bogged down in long, futile wars against the more aggressive Marathas lost its fighting spirit. Finally came a series of violent political feuds over control of the throne. After the execution of emperor Farrukhsiyar in 1719, local Mughal successor states took power in region after region.[56]

text: Contemporary chroniclers bewailed the decay they witnessed, a theme picked up by the first British historians who wanted to underscore the need for a British-led rejuvenation.[57]

text: Modern views on the decline

text: Since the 1970s historians have taken multiple approaches to the decline, with little consensus on which factor was dominant. The psychological interpretations emphasise depravity in high places, excessive luxury, and increasingly narrow views that left the rulers unprepared for an external challenge. A Marxist school (led by Irfan Habib and based at Aligarh Muslim University) emphasises excessive exploitation of the peasantry by the rich, which stripped away the will and the means to support the regime.[58] Karen Leonard has focused on the failure of the regime to work with Hindu bankers, whose financial support was increasingly needed; the bankers then helped the Maratha and the British.[59] In a religious interpretation, some scholars argue that the Hindu powers revolted against the rule of a Muslim dynasty.[60] Finally, other scholars argue that the very prosperity of the Empire inspired the provinces to achieve a high degree of independence, thus weakening the imperial court.[61]

text: Jeffrey G. Williamson has argued that the Indian economy went through deindustrialization in the latter half of the 18th century as an indirect outcome of the collapse of the Mughal Empire, with British rule later causing further deindustrialization.[62] According to Williamson, the decline of the Mughal Empire led to a decline in agricultural productivity, which drove up food prices, then nominal wages, and then textile prices, which led to India losing a share of the world textile market to Britain even before it had superior factory technology.[63] Indian textiles, however, still maintained a competitive advantage over British textiles up until the 19th century.[64]

text: Administrative divisions

text: Subah (Urdu: صوبہ) was the term for a province in the Mughal Empire. The word is derived from Arabic. The governor of a Subah was known as a subahdar (sometimes also referred to as a "Subah"[65]), which later became subedar to refer to an officer in the Indian Army. The subahs were established by padshah (emperor) Akbar during his administrative reforms of 1572–1580; initially they numbered 12, but his conquests expanded the number of subahs to 15 by the end of his reign. Subahs were divided into Sarkars, or districts. Sarkars were further divided into Parganas or Mahals. His successors, most notably Aurangzeb, expanded the number of subahs further through their conquests. As the empire began to dissolve in the early 18th century, many subahs became effectively independent, or were conquered by the Marathas or the British.

text: The original twelve subahs created as a result of administrative reform by Akbar:

text:
Agra Subah
Ajmer subah
Awadh Subah
Bengal Subah
Bihar Subah
Delhi Subah
Gujarat Subah
Kabul Subah
Illahabad Subah
Lahore Subah
Malwa Subah
Multan Subah

tag: ul

text: Economy

text: The Indian economy was large and prosperous under the Mughal Empire.[66] During the Mughal era, the gross domestic product (GDP) of India in 1600 was estimated at about 22.4% of the world economy, the second largest in the world, behind only Ming China but larger than Europe. By 1700, the GDP of Mughal India had risen to 24.4% of the world economy, the largest in the world, larger than both Qing China and Western Europe.[67] Mughal India was the world leader in manufacturing,[33] producing about 25% of the world's industrial output up until the 18th century.[35] India's GDP growth increased under the Mughal Empire, with India's GDP having a faster growth rate during the Mughal era than in the 1,500 years prior to the Mughal era.[67] Mughal India's economy has been described as a form of proto-industrialization, like that of 18th-century Western Europe prior to the Industrial Revolution.[32]

text: The Mughals were responsible for building an extensive road system, creating a uniform currency, and the unification of the country.[68] The empire had an extensive road network, which was vital to the economic infrastructure, built by a public works department set up by the Mughals which designed, constructed and maintained roads linking towns and cities across the empire, making trade easier to conduct.[66]

text: Coinage

text: The Mughals adopted and standardized the rupee (rupiya, or silver) and dam (copper) currencies introduced by Sur Emperor Sher Shah Suri during his brief rule.[69] The currency was initially 48 dams to a single rupee in the beginning of Akbar's reign, before it later became 38 dams to a rupee in the 1580s, with the dam's value rising further in the 17th century as a result of new industrial uses for copper, such as in bronze cannons and brass utensils. The dam was initially the most common coin in Akbar's time, before being replaced by the rupee as the most common coin in succeeding reigns.[7] The dam's value was later worth 30 to a rupee towards the end of Jahangir's reign, and then 16 to a rupee by the 1660s.[70] The Mughals minted coins with high purity, never dropping below 96%, and without debasement until the 1720s.[71]

text: Despite India having its own stocks of gold and silver, the Mughals produced minimal gold of their own, but mostly minted coins from imported bullion, as a result of the empire's strong export-driven economy, with global demand for Indian agricultural and industrial products drawing a steady stream of precious metals into India.[7] Around 80% of Mughal India's imports were bullion, mostly silver,[72] with major sources of imported bullion including the New World and Japan,[71] which in turn imported large quantities of textiles and silk from the Bengal Subah province.[73]

text: Labour

text: The Mughal Empire's workforce in the early 17th century consisted of about 64% in the primary sector (including agriculture) and 36% in the secondary and tertiary sectors, including over 11% in the secondary sector (manufacturing) and about 25% in the tertiary sector (service).[74] Mughal India's workforce had a higher percentage in the non-primary sector than Europe's workforce did at the time; agriculture accounted for 65–90% of Europe's workforce in 1700, and 65–75% in 1750, including 65% of England's workforce in 1750.[75] In terms of contributions to the Mughal economy, in the late 16th century, the primary sector contributed 52.4%, the secondary sector 18.2% and the tertiary sector 29.4%; the secondary sector contributed a higher percentage than in early 20th-century British India, where the secondary sector only contributed 11.2% to the economy.[76] In terms of urban-rural divide, 18% of Mughal India's labour force were urban and 82% were rural, contributing 52% and 48% to the economy, respectively.[77]

text: Real wages and living standards in 18th-century Mughal Bengal and South India were higher than in Britain, which in turn had the highest living standards in Europe.[78][62] According to economic historian Paul Bairoch, India as well as China had a higher GNP per capita than Europe up until the late 18th century,[79][80] before Western European per-capita income pulled ahead after 1800.[81] Mughal India also had a higher per-capita income in the late 16th century than British India did in the early 20th century.[76] However, in a system where wealth was hoarded by elites, wages were depressed for manual labour,[82] though no less than labour wages in Europe at the time.[78] In Mughal India, there was a generally tolerant attitude towards manual labourers, with some religious cults in northern India proudly asserting a high status for manual labour. While slavery also existed, it was limited largely to household servants.[82]

text: Agriculture

text: Indian agricultural production increased under the Mughal Empire.[66] A variety of crops were grown, including food crops such as wheat, rice, and barley, and non-food cash crops such as cotton, indigo and opium. By the mid-17th century, Indian cultivators begun to extensively grow two new crops from the Americas, maize and tobacco.[66]

text: The Mughal administration emphasized agrarian reform, which began under the non-Mughal emperor Sher Shah Suri, the work of which Akbar adopted and furthered with more reforms. The civil administration was organized in a hierarchical manner on the basis of merit, with promotions based on performance.[3] The Mughal government funded the building of irrigation systems across the empire, which produced much higher crop yields and increased the net revenue base, leading to increased agricultural production.[66]

text: A major Mughal reform introduced by Akbar was a new land revenue system called zabt. He replaced the tribute system, previously common in India and used by Tokugawa Japan at the time, with a monetary tax system based on a uniform currency.[83] The revenue system was biased in favour of higher value cash crops such as cotton, indigo, sugar cane, tree-crops, and opium, providing state incentives to grow cash crops, in addition to rising market demand.[84] Under the zabt system, the Mughals also conducted extensive cadastral surveying to assess the area of land under plow cultivation, with the Mughal state encouraging greater land cultivation by offering tax-free periods to those who brought new land under cultivation.[85]

text: Mughal agriculture was in some ways advanced compared to European agriculture at the time, exemplified by the common use of the seed drill among Indian peasants before its adoption in Europe.[86] While the average peasant across the world was only skilled in growing very few crops, the average Indian peasant was skilled in growing a wide variety of food and non-food crops, increasing their productivity.[87] Indian peasants were also quick to adapt to profitable new crops, such as maize and tobacco from the New World being rapidly adopted and widely cultivated across Mughal India between 1600 and 1650. Bengali farmers rapidly learned techniques of mulberry cultivation and sericulture, establishing Bengal Subah as a major silk-producing region of the world.[84] Sugar mills appeared in India shortly before the Mughal era. Evidence for the use of a draw bar for sugar-milling appears at Delhi in 1540, but may also date back earlier, and was mainly used in the northern Indian subcontinent. Geared sugar rolling mills first appeared in Mughal India, using the principle of rollers as well as worm gearing, by the 17th century.[88]

text: According to evidence cited by the economic historians Immanuel Wallerstein, Irfan Habib, Percival Spear, and Ashok Desai, per-capita agricultural output and standards of consumption in 17th-century Mughal India were higher than in 17th-century Europe and early 20th-century British India.[89] The increased agricultural productivity led to lower food prices. In turn, this benefited the Indian textile industry. Compared to Britain, the price of grain was about one-half in South India and one-third in Bengal, in terms of silver coinage. This resulted in lower silver coin prices for Indian textiles, giving them a price advantage in global markets.[78]

text: Industrial manufacturing

text: Up until the 18th century, Mughal India was the most important center of manufacturing in international trade.[33] Up until 1750, India produced about 25% of the world's industrial output.[62] Manufactured goods and cash crops from the Mughal Empire were sold throughout the world. Key industries included textiles, shipbuilding, and steel. Processed products included cotton textiles, yarns, thread, silk, jute products, metalware, and foods such as sugar, oils and butter.[66] The growth of manufacturing industries in the Indian subcontinent during the Mughal era in the 17th–18th centuries has been referred to as a form of proto-industrialization, similar to 18th-century Western Europe prior to the Industrial Revolution.[32]

text: In early modern Europe, there was significant demand for products from Mughal India, particularly cotton textiles, as well as goods such as spices, peppers, indigo, silks, and saltpeter (for use in munitions).[66] European fashion, for example, became increasingly dependent on Mughal Indian textiles and silks. From the late 17th century to the early 18th century, Mughal India accounted for 95% of British imports from Asia, and the Bengal Subah province alone accounted for 40% of Dutch imports from Asia.[90] In contrast, there was very little demand for European goods in Mughal India, which was largely self-sufficient, thus Europeans had very little to offer, except for some woolens, unprocessed metals and a few luxury items. The trade imbalance caused Europeans to export large quantities of gold and silver to Mughal India in order to pay for South Asian imports.[66] Indian goods, especially those from Bengal, were also exported in large quantities to other Asian markets, such as Indonesia and Japan.[73]

text: Textile industry

text: The largest manufacturing industry in the Mughal Empire was textile manufacturing, particularly cotton textile manufacturing, which included the production of piece goods, calicos, and muslins, available unbleached and in a variety of colours. The cotton textile industry was responsible for a large part of the empire's international trade.[66] India had a 25% share of the global textile trade in the early 18th century.[91] Indian cotton textiles were the most important manufactured goods in world trade in the 18th century, consumed across the world from the Americas to Japan.[33] By the early 18th century, Mughal Indian textiles were clothing people across the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, Europe, the Americas, Africa, and the Middle East.[63] The most important center of cotton production was the Bengal province, particularly around its capital city of Dhaka.[92]

text: Bengal accounted for more than 50% of textiles and around 80% of silks imported by the Dutch from Asia,[90] Bengali silk and cotton textiles were exported in large quantities to Europe, Indonesia, and Japan,[73] and Bengali muslin textiles from Dhaka were sold in Central Asia, where they were known as "daka" textiles.[92] Indian textiles dominated the Indian Ocean trade for centuries, were sold in the Atlantic Ocean trade, and had a 38% share of the West African trade in the early 18th century, while Indian calicos were a major force in Europe, and Indian textiles accounted for 20% of total English trade with Southern Europe in the early 18th century.[62]

text: The worm gear roller cotton gin, which was invented in India during the early Delhi Sultanate era of the 13th–14th centuries, came into use in the Mughal Empire some time around the 16th century,[88] and is still used in India through to the present day.[93] Another innovation, the incorporation of the crank handle in the cotton gin, first appeared in India some time during the late Delhi Sultanate or the early Mughal Empire.[94] The production of cotton, which may have largely been spun in the villages and then taken to towns in the form of yarn to be woven into cloth textiles, was advanced by the diffusion of the spinning wheel across India shortly before the Mughal era, lowering the costs of yarn and helping to increase demand for cotton. The diffusion of the spinning wheel, and the incorporation of the worm gear and crank handle into the roller cotton gin, led to greatly expanded Indian cotton textile production during the Mughal era.[95]

text: It was reported that, with an Indian cotton gin, which is half machine and half tool, one man and one woman could clean 28 pounds of cotton per day. With a modified Forbes version, one man and a boy could produce 250 pounds per day. If oxen were used to power 16 of these machines, and a few people's labour was used to feed them, they could produce as much work as 750 people did formerly.[96]

text: Shipbuilding industry

text: Mughal India had a large shipbuilding industry, which was also largely centered in the Bengal province. In terms of shipbuilding tonnage during the 16th–18th centuries, the annual output of Bengal alone totaled around 2,232,500 tons, larger than the combined output of the Dutch (450,000–550,000 tons), the British (340,000 tons), and North America (23,061 tons).[97]

text: The Mughals maintained a small fleet for carrying pilgrims to Mecca, and imported Arabian horses in Surat. Debal in Sindh was mostly autonomous. The Mughals also maintained various river fleets of Dhows, which transported soldiers over rivers and fought rebels. Among its admirals were Yahya Saleh, Munnawar Khan, and Muhammad Saleh Kamboh. The Mughals also protected the Siddis of Janjira. Its sailors were renowned and often voyaged to China and the East African Swahili Coast, together with some Mughal subjects carrying out private-sector trade.

text: Indian shipbuilding, particularly in Bengal, was advanced compared to European shipbuilding at the time, with Indians selling ships to European firms. Ship-repairing, for example, was very advanced in Bengal, where European shippers visited to repair vessels.[97] An important innovation in shipbuilding was the introduction of a flushed deck design in Bengal rice ships, resulting in hulls that were stronger and less prone to leak than the structurally weak hulls of traditional European ships built with a stepped deck design. The British East India Company later duplicated the flushed deck and hull designs of Bengal rice ships in the 1760s, leading to significant improvements in seaworthiness and navigation for European ships during the Industrial Revolution.[98]

text: Bengal Subah

text: The Bengal Subah province was especially prosperous from the time of its takeover by the Mughals in 1590 until the British East India Company seized control in 1757.[99] It was the Mughal Empire's wealthiest province,[100] and the economic powerhouse of the Mughal Empire, generating 50% of the empire's GDP.[101] Domestically, much of India depended on Bengali products such as rice, silks and cotton textiles. Overseas, Europeans depended on Bengali products such as cotton textiles, silks and opium; Bengal accounted for 40% of Dutch imports from Asia, for example, including more than 50% of textiles and around 80% of silks.[90] From Bengal, saltpeter was also shipped to Europe, opium was sold in Indonesia, raw silk was exported to Japan and the Netherlands, and cotton and silk textiles were exported to Europe, Indonesia and Japan.[73]

text: Bengal was described as the Paradise of Nations by Mughal emperors.[102] The Mughals introduced agrarian reforms, including the modern Bengali calendar.[103] The calendar played a vital role in developing and organising harvests, tax collection and Bengali culture in general, including the New Year and Autumn festivals. The province was a leading producer of grains, salt, pearls, fruits, liquors and wines, precious metals and ornaments.[104] Its handloom industry flourished under royal warrants, making the region a hub of the worldwide muslin trade, which peaked in the 17th and 18th centuries. The provincial capital Dhaka became the commercial capital of the empire. The Mughals expanded cultivated land in the Bengal delta under the leadership of Sufis, which consolidated the foundation of Bengali Muslim society.[105]

text: After 150 years of rule by Mughal viceroys, Bengal gained semi-independence as a dominion under the Nawab of Bengal in 1717. The Nawabs permitted European companies to set up trading posts across the region, including firms from Britain, France, the Netherlands, Denmark, Portugal and Austria-Hungary. An Armenian community dominated banking and shipping in major cities and towns. The Europeans regarded Bengal as the richest place for trade.[104] By the late 18th century, the British displaced the Mughal ruling class in Bengal.

text: Demographics

text: Population

text: India's population growth accelerated under the Mughal Empire, with an unprecedented economic and demographic upsurge which boosted the Indian population by 60%[106] to 253% in 200 years during 1500–1700.[107] The Indian population had a faster growth during the Mughal era than at any known point in Indian history prior to the Mughal era.[106][67] The increased population growth rate was stimulated by Mughal agrarian reforms that intensified agricultural production.[84] By the time of Aurangzeb's reign, there were a total of 455,698 villages in the Mughal Empire.[108]

text: The following table gives population estimates for the Mughal Empire, compared to the total population of India, including the regions of modern Pakistan and Bangladesh, and compared to the world population:

text:
Year

Mughal Empire  population

Total Indian  population

% of Indian  population

World  population

% of world  population

1500

—

100,000,000[106]

—

425,000,000[109]

—

1600

115,000,000[108]

130,000,000[106]

89

579,000,000[109]

20

1700

158,400,000[6]

160,000,000[106]

99

679,000,000[109]

23

tag: table

text: Urbanization

text: Cities and towns boomed under the Mughal Empire, which had a relatively high degree of urbanization for its time, with 15% of its population living in urban centres.[36] This was higher than the percentage of the urban population in contemporary Europe at the time and higher than that of British India in the 19th century;[36] the level of urbanization in Europe did not reach 15% until the 19th century.[110]

text: Under Akbar's reign in 1600, the Mughal Empire's urban population was up to 17 million people, 15% of the empire's total population. This was larger the entire urban population in Europe at the time, and even a century later in 1700, the urban population of England, Scotland and Wales did not exceed 13% of its total population,[108] while British India had an urban population that was under 13% of its total population in 1800 and 9.3% in 1881, a decline from the earlier Mughal era.[111] By 1700, Mughal India had an urban population of 23 million people, larger than British India's urban population of 22.3 million in 1871.[112]

text: The historian Nizamuddin Ahmad (1551–1621) reported that, under Akbar's reign, there were 120 large cities and 3200 townships.[36] A number of cities in India had a population between a quarter-million and half-million people,[36] with larger cities including Agra (in Agra Subah) with up to 800,000 people, Lahore (in Lahore Subah) with up to 700,000 people,[113] Dhaka (in Bengal Subah) with over 1 million people,[114] and Delhi (in Delhi Subah) with over 600,000 people.[115]

text: Cities acted as markets for the sale of goods, and provided homes for a variety of merchants, traders, shopkeepers, artisans, moneylenders, weavers, craftspeople, officials, and religious figures.[66] However, a number of cities were military and political centres, rather than manufacturing or commerce centres.[116]

text: Culture

text: Mughal influence can be seen in cultural contributions such as:

text:
Centralized, imperialistic government that brought together many smaller kingdoms[117]
Persian art and culture amalgamated with Indian art and culture[17]
Revival of old trade routes to Arab and Turkic lands
The development of Mughlai cuisine[118]
The development of Urdu, and by extension Hindustani. [119]
Landscape and Mughal gardening
Mughal architecture evolved with the influence of Indian architecture, and in turn influenced the local architecture, most conspicuously in the palaces built by Rajputs and Sikh rulers.
The Pehlwani style of Indian wrestling was developed in the Mughal Empire, combining Indian malla-yuddha with Persian varzesh-e bastani.[120][121]

text: The Mughals built Maktab schools in every province under their authority, where youth were taught the Quran and Islamic law such as the Fatawa-i-Alamgiri in their indigenous languages.

text: Art and architecture

text: The Mughals made a major contribution to the Indian subcontinent with development of their unique architecture. Many monuments were built during the Mughal era by the Muslim emperors, especially Shah Jahan, including the Taj Mahal, a UNESCO World Heritage Site known to be one of the finer examples of Mughal architecture. Other World Heritage Sites include Humayun's Tomb, Fatehpur Sikri, the Red Fort, the Agra Fort, and the Lahore Fort.

text: The palaces, tombs, and forts built by the dynasty stand today in Agra, Aurangabad, Delhi, Dhaka, Fatehpur Sikri, Jaipur, Lahore, Kabul, Sheikhupura, and many other cities of India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Bangladesh.[122] With few memories of Central Asia, Babur's descendants absorbed traits and customs of South Asia[19] and became more or less naturalized.

text: Although the land the Mughals once ruled has separated into what is now India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Afghanistan, their influence can still be seen widely today. Tombs of the emperors are spread throughout India, Afghanistan,[123] and Pakistan.

text: The Mughal artistic tradition was eclectic, borrowing from the European Renaissance as well as from Persian and Indian sources. Kumar concludes, "The Mughal painters borrowed individual motifs and certain naturalistic effects from Renaissance and Mannerist painting, but their structuring principle was derived from Indian and Persian traditions."[124]

text: Language

text: Although Persian was the dominant and "official" language of the empire, the language of the elite was a Persianised form of Hindustani called Urdu. The language was written in a type of Perso-Arabic script known as Nastaliq, and with literary conventions and specialised vocabulary borrowed from Persian, Arabic and Turkic; the dialect was eventually given its own name of Urdu.[125] Modern Hindi, which uses Sanskrit-based vocabulary along with Perso-Arabic loan words is mutually intelligible with Urdu.[125]

text: Military

text: Gunpowder warfare

text: Mughal India was one of the three Islamic Gunpowder Empires, along with the Ottoman Empire and Safavid Persia.[37][126][127] By the time he was invited by Lodi governor of Lahore, Daulat Khan, to support his rebellion against Lodi Sultan Ibrahim Khan, Babur was familiar with gunpowder firearms and field artillery, and a method for deploying them.  Babur had employed Ottoman expert Ustad Ali Quli, who showed Babur the standard Ottoman formation—artillery and firearm-equipped infantry protected by wagons in the center and the mounted archers on both wings. Babur used this formation at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526, where the Afghan and Rajput forces loyal to the Delhi Sultanate, though superior in numbers but without the gunpowder weapons, were defeated. The decisive victory of the Timurid forces is one reason opponents rarely met Mughal princes in pitched battle over the course of the empire's history.[128] In India, guns made of bronze were recovered from Calicut (1504) and Diu (1533).[129]

text: Fathullah Shirazi (c. 1582), a Persian polymath and mechanical engineer who worked for Akbar, developed an early multi gun shot. As opposed to the polybolos and repeating crossbows used earlier in ancient Greece and China, respectively, Shirazi's rapid-firing gun had multiple gun barrels that fired hand cannons loaded with gunpowder. It may be considered a version of a volley gun.[130]

text: By the 17th century, Indians were manufacturing a diverse variety of firearms; large guns in particular, became visible in Tanjore, Dacca, Bijapur and Murshidabad.[131] Gujarāt supplied Europe saltpeter for use in gunpowder warfare during the 17th century,[132] and Mughal Bengal and Mālwa also participated in saltpeter production.[132] The Dutch, French, Portuguese and English used Chāpra as a center of saltpeter refining.[133]

text: Rocketry and explosives

text: In the 16th century, Akbar was the first to initiate and use metal cylinder rockets known as bans, particularly against war elephants, during the Battle of Sanbal.[134] In 1657, the Mughal Army used rockets during the Siege of Bidar.[135] Prince Aurangzeb's forces discharged rockets and grenades while scaling the walls. Sidi Marjan was mortally wounded when a rocket struck his large gunpowder depot, and after twenty-seven days of hard fighting Bidar was captured by the victorious Mughals.[135]

text: In A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder, James Riddick Partington described Indian rockets and explosive mines:[129]

text: The Indian war rockets were formidable weapons before such rockets were used in Europe. They had bam-boo rods, a rocket-body lashed to the rod, and iron points. They were directed at the target and fired by lighting the fuse, but the trajectory was rather erratic. The use of mines and counter-mines with explosive charges of gunpowder is mentioned for the times of Akbar and Jahāngir.

text: Later, the Mysorean rockets were upgraded versions of Mughal rockets used during the Siege of Jinji by the progeny of the Nawab of Arcot. Hyder Ali's father Fatah Muhammad the constable at Budikote, commanded a corps consisting of 50 rocketmen (Cushoon) for the Nawab of Arcot. Hyder Ali realised the importance of rockets and introduced advanced versions of metal cylinder rockets. These rockets turned fortunes in favour of the Sultanate of Mysore during the Second Anglo-Mysore War, particularly during the Battle of Pollilur. In turn, the Mysorean rockets were the basis for the Congreve rockets, which Britain deployed in the Napoleonic Wars against France and the War of 1812 against the United States.[136]

text: Science

text: Astronomy

text: While there appears to have been little concern for theoretical astronomy, Mughal astronomers  made advances in observational astronomy and produced nearly a hundred Zij treatises. Humayun built a personal observatory near Delhi; Jahangir and Shah Jahan were also intending to build observatories, but were unable to do so. The astronomical instruments and observational techniques used at the Mughal observatories were mainly derived from Islamic astronomy.[137][138] In the 17th century, the Mughal Empire saw a synthesis between Islamic and Hindu astronomy, where Islamic observational instruments were combined with Hindu computational techniques.[137][138]

text: During the decline of the Mughal Empire, the Hindu king Jai Singh II of Amber continued the work of Mughal astronomy. In the early 18th century, he built several large observatories called Yantra Mandirs, in order to rival Ulugh Beg's Samarkand observatory, and in order to improve on the earlier Hindu computations in the Siddhantas and Islamic observations in Zij-i-Sultani. The instruments he used were influenced by Islamic astronomy, while the computational techniques were derived from Hindu astronomy.[137][138]

text: Chemistry

text: Sake Dean Mahomed had learned much of Mughal chemistry and understood the techniques used to produce various alkali and soaps to produce shampoo. He was also a notable writer who described the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II and the cities of Allahabad and Delhi in rich detail and also made note of the glories of the Mughal Empire.

text: In Britain, Sake Dean Mahomed was appointed as shampooing surgeon to both Kings George IV and William IV.[139]

text: Metallurgy

text: One of the most remarkable astronomical instruments invented in Mughal India is the seamless celestial globe. It was invented in Kashmir by Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in 998 AH (1589–90 CE), and twenty other such globes were later produced in Lahore and Kashmir during the Mughal Empire. Before they were rediscovered in the 1980s, it was believed by modern metallurgists to be technically impossible to produce metal globes without any seams.[140]


document_title: Web server

question_text: what is an example of a web server

question_tokens: what is an example of a web server

text: Web server

text: Overview[edit]

text: The primary function of a web server is to store, process and deliver web pages to clients. The communication between client and server takes place using the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). Pages delivered are most frequently HTML documents, which may include images, style sheets and scripts in addition to the text content.

text: A user agent, commonly a web browser or web crawler, initiates communication by making a request for a specific resource using HTTP and the server responds with the content of that resource or an error message if unable to do so. The resource is typically a real file on the server's secondary storage, but this is not necessarily the case and depends on how the web server is implemented.

text: While the primary function is to serve content, a full implementation of HTTP also includes ways of receiving content from clients. This feature is used for submitting web forms, including uploading of files.

text: Many generic web servers also support server-side scripting using Active Server Pages (ASP), PHP, or other scripting languages. This means that the behaviour of the web server can be scripted in separate files, while the actual server software remains unchanged. Usually, this function is used to generate HTML documents dynamically ("on-the-fly") as opposed to returning static documents. The former is primarily used for retrieving or modifying information from databases. The latter is typically much faster and more easily cached but cannot deliver dynamic content.

text: Web servers are not only used for serving the World Wide Web. They can also be found embedded in devices such as printers, routers, webcams and serving only a local network. The web server may then be used as a part of a system for monitoring or administering the device in question. This usually means that no additional software has to be installed on the client computer since only a web browser is required (which now is included with most operating systems).

text: History[edit]

text: In 1989 Sir Tim Berners-Lee proposed a new project to his employer CERN, with the goal of easing the exchange of information between scientists by using a hypertext system. The project resulted in Berners-Lee writing two programs in 1990:

text:
A browser called WorldWideWeb
The world's first web server, later known as CERN httpd, which ran on NeXTSTEP

text: Between 1991 and 1994, the simplicity and effectiveness of early technologies used to surf and exchange data through the World Wide Web helped to port them to many different operating systems and spread their use among scientific organizations and universities, and subsequently to the industry.

text: In 1994 Berners-Lee decided to constitute the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) to regulate the further development of the many technologies involved (HTTP, HTML, etc.) through a standardization process.

text: Path translation[edit]

text: Web servers are able to map the path component of a Uniform Resource Locator (URL) into:

text:
A local file system resource (for static requests)
An internal or external program name (for dynamic requests)

text: For a static request the URL path specified by the client is relative to the web server's root directory.

text: Consider the following URL as it would be requested by a client:

text: The client's user agent will translate it into a connection to www.example.com with the following HTTP 1.1 request:

text: The web server on www.example.com will append the given path to the path of its root directory. On an Apache server, this is commonly /home/www (on Unix machines, usually /var/www). The result is the local file system resource:

text: The web server then reads the file, if it exists, and sends a response to the client's web browser. The response will describe the content of the file and contain the file itself or an error message will return saying that the file does not exist or is unavailable.

text: Kernel-mode and user-mode web servers[edit]

text: A web server can be either incorporated into the OS kernel, or in user space (like other regular applications).

text: Web servers that run in user-mode have to ask the system for permission to use more memory or more CPU resources. Not only do these requests to the kernel take time, but they are not always satisfied because the system reserves resources for its own usage and has the responsibility to share hardware resources with all the other running applications. Executing in user mode can also mean useless buffer copies which are another handicap for user-mode web servers.

text: Load limits[edit]

text: A web server (program) has defined load limits, because it can handle only a limited number of concurrent client connections (usually between 2 and 80,000, by default between 500 and 1,000) per IP address (and TCP port) and it can serve only a certain maximum number of requests per second (RPS, also known as queries per second or QPS) depending on:

text:
its own settings,
the HTTP request type,
whether the content is static or dynamic,
whether the content is cached, and
the hardware and software limitations of the OS of the computer on which the web server runs.

text: When a web server is near to or over its limit, it becomes unresponsive.

text: Causes of overload[edit]

text: At any time web servers can be overloaded due to:

text:
Excess legitimate web traffic. Thousands or even millions of clients connecting to the web site in a short interval, e.g., Slashdot effect;
Distributed Denial of Service attacks. A denial-of-service attack (DoS attack) or distributed denial-of-service attack (DDoS attack) is an attempt to make a computer or network resource unavailable to its intended users;
Computer worms that sometimes cause abnormal traffic because of millions of infected computers (not coordinated among them)
XSS viruses can cause high traffic because of millions of infected browsers or web servers;
Internet bots Traffic not filtered/limited on large web sites with very few resources (bandwidth, etc.);
Internet (network) slowdowns, so that client requests are served more slowly and the number of connections increases so much that server limits are reached;
Web servers (computers) partial unavailability. This can happen because of required or urgent maintenance or upgrade, hardware or software failures, back-end (e.g., database) failures, etc.; in these cases the remaining web servers get too much traffic and become overloaded.

text: Symptoms of overload[edit]

text: The symptoms of an overloaded web server are:

text:
Requests are served with (possibly long) delays (from 1 second to a few hundred seconds).
The web server returns an HTTP error code, such as 500, 502, 503, 504, 408, or even 404, which is inappropriate for an overload condition.
The web server refuses or resets (interrupts) TCP connections before it returns any content.
In very rare cases, the web server returns only a part of the requested content. This behavior can be considered a bug, even if it usually arises as a symptom of overload.

text: Anti-overload techniques[edit]

text: To partially overcome above average load limits and to prevent overload, most popular web sites use common techniques like:

text:
Managing network traffic, by using:
Firewalls to block unwanted traffic coming from bad IP sources or having bad patterns
HTTP traffic managers to drop, redirect or rewrite requests having bad HTTP patterns
Bandwidth management and traffic shaping, in order to smooth down peaks in network usage
Deploying web cache techniques
Using different domain names to serve different (static and dynamic) content by separate web servers, e.g.:
http://images.example.com
http://www.example.com
Using different domain names or computers to separate big files from small and medium-sized files; the idea is to be able to fully cache small and medium-sized files and to efficiently serve big or huge (over 10 - 1000 MB) files by using different settings
Using many internet servers (programs) per computer, each one bound to its own network card and IP address
Using many internet servers (computers) that are grouped together behind a load balancer so that they act or are seen as one big web server
Adding more hardware resources (i.e. RAM, disks) to each computer
Tuning OS parameters for hardware capabilities and usage
Using more efficient computer programs for web servers, etc.
Using other workarounds, especially if dynamic content is involved

text: Market share[edit]

text: July 2018[edit]

text:
Below are the latest statistics of the market share of all sites of the top web servers on the Internet by W3Techs
Usage of Web Servers for Websites.

text:
Product
Vendor
Percent

Apache
Apache
45.9%

nginx
NGINX, Inc.
39.0%

IIS
Microsoft
9.5%

LiteSpeed Web Server
LiteSpeed Technologies
3.4%

GWS
Google
1.0%

text: All other web servers are used by less than 1% of the websites.

text: February 2017[edit]

text:
Below are the latest statistics of the market share of all sites of the top web servers on the Internet by Netcraft
February 2017 Web Server Survey.

text:
Product
Vendor
January 2017
Percent
February 2017
Percent
Change
Chart color

IIS
Microsoft
821,905,283
45.66%
773,552,454
43.16%
-2.50
red

Apache
Apache
387,211,503
21.51%
374,297,080
20.89%
-0.63
black

nginx
NGINX, Inc.
317,398,317
17.63%
348,025,788
19.42%
1.79
green

GWS
Google
17,933,762
1.00%
18,438,702
1.03%
0.03
blue

text: February 2016[edit]

text:
Below are the latest statistics of the market share of all sites of the top web servers on the Internet by Netcraft
February 2016 Web Server Survey.

text:
Product
Vendor
January 2016
Percent
February 2016
Percent
Change
Chart color

Apache
Apache
304,271,061
33.56%
306,292,557
32.80%
0.76
black

IIS
Microsoft
262,471,886
28.95%
278,593,041
29.83%
0.88
red

nginx
NGINX, Inc.
141,443,630
15.60%
137,459,391
16.61%
-0.88
green

GWS
Google
20,799,087
2.29%
20,640,058
2.21%
-0.08
blue

text: Apache, IIS and Nginx are the most used web servers on the Internet.