document_title: List of Chief Justices of India

question_text: who is the present supreme court chief justice of india

text: List of Chief Justices of India

text: List of Chief Justices[edit]

text: Federal Court of India (1937-1950)[edit]

text: The Federal Court came into being on 1 September 1937. The seat of the court was the Chamber of Princes in the Parliament building in Delhi. It began with a Chief Justice and two puisne judges. The first Chief Justice was Sir Maurice Gwyer and the other two judges were Sir Shah Muhammad Sulaiman and M. R. Jayakar. It functioned until the establishment of the Supreme Court of India on 28 January 1950.

text:
Number
Name
Period of office
Length of term (days)
Bar
Appointed by

1
Sir Maurice Gwyer
000000001937-10-01-00001 October 1937
000000001943-04-25-000025 April 1943‡
2,032
Inner Temple
The Marquess of Linlithgow

Acting
Sir Srinivas Vardachariar
000000001943-04-25-000025 April 1943
000000001943-06-07-00007 June 1943
43

2
Sir Patrick Spens
000000001943-06-07-00007 June 1943
000000001947-08-14-000014 August 1947
1,529
Inner Temple

3
Sir H. J. Kania
000000001947-08-14-000014 August 1947
000000001950-01-26-000026 January 1950
896
Bombay High Court
The Viscount Mountbatten of Burma

text: ‡ – Date of Resignation

text: Supreme Court of India[edit]

text: Since the birth of the Republic of India on 26 January 1950, 45 people have served as the Chief Justice of India (CJI).[1] While H. J. Kania is the inaugural CJI, the current incumbent is Dipak Misra who was appointed as Chief Justice of India on 28 August 2017. Justice Y. V. Chandrachud is the longest serving Chief Justice (000000001978-02-01-0000February 1978 - 000000001985-07-01-0000July 1985).

text:
Number
Name
Period of office
Length of term (days)
Bar
Appointed by

1
H. J. Kania
000000001950-01-26-000026 January 1950
000000001951-11-06-00006 November 1951‡‡
649
Bombay High Court
Rajendra Prasad

2
M. Patanjali Sastri
000000001951-11-07-00007 November 1951
000000001954-01-03-00003 January 1954
788
Madras High Court

3
Mehr Chand Mahajan
000000001954-01-04-00004 January 1954
000000001954-12-22-000022 December 1954
352
Punjab and Haryana High Court

4
Bijan Kumar Mukherjea
000000001954-12-23-000023 December 1954
000000001956-01-31-000031 January 1956‡
404
Calcutta High Court

5
Sudhi Ranjan Das
000000001956-02-01-00001 February 1956
000000001959-09-30-000030 September 1959
1337
Calcutta High Court

6
Bhuvaneshwar Prasad Sinha
000000001959-10-01-00001 October 1959
000000001964-01-31-000031 January 1964
1583
Patna High Court

7
P. B. Gajendragadkar
000000001964-02-01-00001 February 1964
000000001966-03-15-000015 March 1966
773
Bombay High Court
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan

8
Amal Kumar Sarkar
000000001966-03-16-000016 March 1966
000000001966-06-29-000029 June 1966
105
Calcutta High Court

9
Koka Subba Rao
000000001966-06-30-000030 June 1966
000000001967-04-11-000011 April 1967‡
285
Madras High Court

10
Kailas Nath Wanchoo
000000001967-04-12-000012 April 1967
000000001968-02-24-000024 February 1968
318
Allahabad High Court

11
Mohammad Hidayatullah[2]
000000001968-02-25-000025 February 1968
000000001970-12-16-000016 December 1970
1025
Bombay High Court
Zakir Hussain

12
Jayantilal Chhotalal Shah
000000001970-12-17-000017 December 1970
000000001971-01-21-000021 January 1971
35
Bombay High Court
Varahagiri Venkata Giri

13
Sarv Mittra Sikri
000000001971-01-22-000022 January 1971
000000001973-04-25-000025 April 1973
824
Lahore High Court

14
Ajit Nath Ray
000000001973-04-26-000026 April 1973
000000001977-01-27-000027 January 1977
1372
Calcutta High Court

15
Mirza Hameedullah Beg
000000001977-01-28-000028 January 1977
000000001978-02-21-000021 February 1978
389
Allahabad High Court
Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed

16
Yeshwant Vishnu Chandrachud
000000001978-02-22-000022 February 1978
000000001985-07-11-000011 July 1985
2696
Bombay High Court
Neelam Sanjiva Reddy

17
Prafullachandra Natwarlal Bhagwati
000000001985-07-12-000012 July 1985
000000001986-12-20-000020 December 1986
526
Gujarat High Court
Gyani Zail Singh

18
Raghunandan Swarup Pathak
000000001986-12-21-000021 December 1986
000000001989-06-18-000018 June 1989‡
940
Allahabad High Court

19
Engalaguppe Seetharamiah Venkataramiah
000000001989-06-19-000019 June 1989
000000001989-12-17-000017 December 1989
181
Karnataka High Court
Ramaswamy Venkataraman

20
Sabyasachi Mukharji
000000001989-12-18-000018 December 1989
000000001990-09-25-000025 September 1990‡‡
281
Calcutta High Court

21
Ranganath Misra
000000001990-09-26-000026 September 1990
000000001991-11-24-000024 November 1991
424
Odisha High Court

22
Kamal Narain Singh
000000001991-11-25-000025 November 1991
000000001991-12-12-000012 December 1991
17
Allahabad High Court

23
Madhukar Hiralal Kania
000000001991-12-13-000013 December 1991
000000001992-11-17-000017 November 1992
340
Bombay High Court

24
Lalit Mohan Sharma
000000001992-11-18-000018 November 1992
000000001993-02-11-000011 February 1993
85
Patna High Court
Shankar Dayal Sharma

25
Manepalli Narayana Rao Venkatachaliah
000000001993-02-12-000012 February 1993
000000001994-10-24-000024 October 1994
619
Karnataka High Court

26
Aziz Mushabber Ahmadi
000000001994-10-25-000025 October 1994
000000001997-03-24-000024 March 1997
881
Gujarat High Court

27
Jagdish Sharan Verma
000000001997-03-25-000025 March 1997
000000001998-01-17-000017 January 1998
298
Madhya Pradesh High Court

28
Madan Mohan Punchhi
000000001998-01-18-000018 January 1998
000000001998-10-09-00009 October 1998
264
Punjab and Haryana High Court
Kocheril Raman Narayanan

29
Adarsh Sein Anand
000000001998-10-10-000010 October 1998
000000002001-10-31-000031 October 2001
1,117
Jammu and Kashmir High Court

30
Sam Piroj Bharucha
000000002001-11-01-00001 November 2001
000000002002-05-05-00005 May 2002
185
Bombay High Court

31
Bhupinder Nath Kirpal
000000002002-05-06-00006 May 2002
000000002002-11-07-00007 November 2002
185
Delhi High Court

32
Gopal Ballav Pattanaik
000000002002-11-08-00008 November 2002
000000002002-12-18-000018 December 2002
40
Odisha High Court
A. P. J. Abdul Kalam

33
V. N. Khare
000000002002-12-19-000019 December 2002
000000002004-05-01-00001 May 2004
499
Allahabad High Court

34
S. Rajendra Babu
000000002004-05-02-00002 May 2004
000000002004-05-31-000031 May 2004
29
Karnataka High Court

35
Ramesh Chandra Lahoti
000000002004-06-01-00001 June 2004
000000002005-10-31-000031 October 2005
517
Madhya Pradesh High Court

36
Yogesh Kumar Sabharwal
000000002005-11-01-00001 November 2005
000000002007-01-13-000013 January 2007
438
Delhi High Court

37
K. G. Balakrishnan
000000002007-01-14-000014 January 2007
000000002010-05-12-000012 May 2010
1,214
Kerala High Court

38
S. H. Kapadia
000000002010-05-12-000012 May 2010
000000002012-09-28-000028 September 2012
870
Bombay High Court
Pratibha Patil

39
Altamas Kabir
000000002012-09-29-000029 September 2012
000000002013-07-18-000018 July 2013
292
Calcutta High Court
Pranab Mukherjee

40
P. Sathasivam
000000002013-07-19-000019 July 2013
000000002014-04-26-000026 April 2014
281
Madras High Court

41
Rajendra Mal Lodha
000000002014-04-27-000027 April 2014
000000002014-09-27-000027 September 2014
153
Rajasthan High Court

42
H. L. Dattu
000000002014-09-28-000028 September 2014
000000002015-12-02-00002 December 2015
430
Karnataka High Court

43
T. S. Thakur
000000002015-12-03-00003 December 2015
000000002017-01-03-00003 January 2017
397
Jammu and Kashmir High Court

44
Jagdish Singh Khehar
000000002017-01-04-00004 January 2017
000000002017-08-27-000027 August 2017
236
Punjab and Haryana High Court

45
Dipak Misra
000000002017-08-28-000028 August 2017
Incumbent
19
Odisha High Court
Ram Nath Kovind

text: Notes[edit]

text:
‡ - Date of Resignation
‡‡ - Date of Death


document_title: List of Family Guy cast members

question_text: who plays the voice of lois on family guy

root

text: List of Family Guy cast members

text: Current cast[edit]

text: From seasons 1 to 4, Family Guy had four main cast members. Since season 5, there have been five main cast members. The casting of Meg Griffin changed after season 1.

tag: p

text: Seth MacFarlane[edit]

text: Seth MacFarlane voices four of the show's main characters: Peter Griffin, Brian Griffin, Stewie Griffin, and Glenn Quagmire.[1] MacFarlane chose to voice these characters himself, believing it would be easier to portray the voices he had already envisioned than for someone else to attempt it.[2] MacFarlane drew inspiration for the voice of Peter from a security guard he overheard talking while attending the Rhode Island School of Design.[3] Stewie's voice was based on the voice of English actor Rex Harrison,[4] especially his performance in the 1964 musical drama film My Fair Lady.[5] MacFarlane uses his own voice while portraying Brian.[2]

text: MacFarlane also provides the voices for various other recurring and one-time only characters, most prominently those of news anchor Tom Tucker, Lois' father Carter Pewterschmidt and Dr. Hartman.[6] He is the only voice to be in every episode.

text: Alex Borstein[edit]

text: Alex Borstein voices Lois Griffin, Asian correspondent Tricia Takanawa, Loretta Brown and Lois' mother Barbara Pewterschmidt.[7] Borstein was asked to provide a voice for the pilot while she was working on MADtv. She had not met MacFarlane or seen any of his artwork and said it was "really sight unseen".[8] At the time, Borstein performed in a stage show in Los Angeles, in which she played a redhead mother whose voice she had based on one of her cousins.[7][8] The voice was originally slower (and deeper for the original series), but when MacFarlane heard it, he replied "Make it a little less fucking annoying ... and speed it up, or every episode will last four hours."[7]

text: Mila Kunis[edit]

text: Mila Kunis is the voice of the character named Meg Griffin.[6] Kunis won the role after auditions and a slight rewrite of the character, in part due to her performance on That '70s Show.[9] MacFarlane called Kunis back after her first audition, instructing her to speak slower, and then told her to come back another time and enunciate more. Once she claimed that she had it under control, MacFarlane hired her.[9] Kunis described her character as "the scapegoat". She further explained, "Meg gets picked on a lot. But it's funny. It's like the middle child. She is constantly in the state of being an awkward 14-year-old, when you're kind of going through puberty and what-not. She's just in a perpetual mode of humiliation. And it's fun."[10]

text: Seth Green[edit]

text: Seth Green primarily plays Chris Griffin and Neil Goldman.[6][11] Green stated that he did an impression of the "Buffalo Bill" character from the thriller film The Silence of the Lambs during his audition.[12] His main inspiration for Chris' voice came from envisioning how "Buffalo Bill" would sound if he were speaking through a public address system at a McDonald's.[13]

text: Mike Henry[edit]

text: Mike Henry is the voice of Cleveland Brown, John Herbert The Pervert and other various characters. A Family Guy writer and producer, he began acting on the show as part of the recurring cast repertory (see below) but was promoted to main cast member in 2005. Since the cancellation of The Cleveland Show, he also voices Cleveland's step-son Rallo Tubbs on Family Guy.

text: Recurring cast[edit]

text: In addition to both its main cast and guest stars, Family Guy utilizes a deep bench of regularly appearing supporting voice actors. Some appear in nearly every episode each season, while others appear less frequently. Some of these actors specifically play recurring characters, while others mainly play background citizens of Quahog or characters in cutaway gags.

text: The current supporting cast repertory includes the following actors:

text:
Actor
Character(s)
No. of Episodes
(Out of 245 produced)
Notes

Benjamin, H. JonH. Jon Benjamin
Carl
14
Since 2005

Breckenridge, AlexandraAlexandra Breckenridge
Various
57
Since 2005. Currently voices most female “extras” not voiced by Alex Borstein.

Brennan, JohnnyJohnny Brennan
Goldman, MortMort Goldman, Horace the bartender
77

Callaghan, SteveSteve Callaghan
Various
37
Also the current showrunner and executive producer of Family Guy and former showrunner/EP of American Dad!. [14]

Garman, RalphRalph Garman
Various
138

Lakin, ChristineChristine Lakin
Kinney, JoyceJoyce Kinney
23
Since 2010.

LaMarr, PhilPhil LaMarr
Williams, OllieOllie Williams and the Quahog judge
56

MacFarlane, RachaelRachael MacFarlane
Olivia and various women
54
Formerly one of the most frequent female voices. She reduced her number of appearances per season after joining American Dad! in 2005 but still appears several times per season. Seth MacFarlane's sister.

Osment, EmilyEmily Osment
Various
14
Since 2012.

Richardson, Kevin MichaelKevin Michael Richardson
Jerome and Cleveland Jr.
30
Since 2009.

Sheridan, ChrisChris Sheridan
Various
33
Also a Family Guy writer.

Smith, DannyDanny Smith
Various, including Evil Monkey, Al Harrington and Ernie, the Giant Chicken
189
Also a Family Guy writer.

Sulkin, AlecAlec Sulkin
Christ, JesusJesus Christ and various others
147
Also a Family Guy writer.

Tatasciore, FredFred Tatasciore
Various
36

Tilly, JenniferJennifer Tilly
Swanson, BonnieBonnie Swanson
42
Has recurred as the Griffin's neighbor since the first season.

Viener, JohnJohn Viener
Various
182
Since 2005, he has been one of the most frequently heard male voices aside from Seth MacFarlane. Also a Family Guy writer.

Warburton, PatrickPatrick Warburton
Swanson, JoeJoe Swanson
163
Has appeared as the Griffins' neighbor since the first season, and usually appears in most episodes each season. Warburton is the most frequently appearing one-character actor in the supporting repertory.

Wingert, WallyWally Wingert
Various
41

tag: table

text: In addition to the above, the following actors were formerly regularly recurring voice actors in the series:

text:
Actor
Character(s)
No. of Episodes
Notes

Alan, LoriLori Alan
Simmons, DianeDiane Simmons
63
Left the show in season nine when her character was killed off. Was replaced in the series' context by Christine Lakin's Joyce Kinney

Alazraqui, CarlosCarlos Alazraqui
Weed, Mr.Mr. Weed
10
Peter's first boss, Mr. Weed, was killed off early in the series' run.

Barrymore, DrewDrew Barrymore
Russell, JillianJillian Russell
12
Played Jillian, Brian's former girlfriend. The character still appears in background roles

Cole, GaryGary Cole
Various
38
Cole appeared frequently in the earlier seasons, but still pops up now and then to play Meg and Chris' principal, Mr. Shepherd.

Hartman, ButchButch Hartman
Various
8

Henry, MikeMike Henry
Cleveland Brown, Herbert, Bruce, and various others

Was promoted to main cast in 2005. Also a Family Guy writer.

Hentemann, MarkMark Hentemann
Opie and various others
45
Recently left Family Guy to work on another Seth MacFarlane project. Also a Family Guy writer.

Fisher, CarrieCarrie Fisher
Angela
19
Has recurred as Peter's boss several times per season since 2005. Died in 2016.

Strong, TaraTara Strong
Various, as well as Meg's singing voice
21
Appeared frequently in the first four seasons. Returned briefly in 2010-2011 and again for one episode in 2014.

Sullivan, NicoleNicole Sullivan
Goldman, MurielMuriel Goldman
27
Muriel was killed off in season nine.

Whitman, MaeMae Whitman
Various
10
Was a recurring younger female voice for several seasons between 2007-2010.

Wild, WellesleyWellesley Wild
Various
14
No longer a recurring voice (since 2013). He was a producer, but left the show.

Wilhoit, LisaLisa Wilhoit
D'Amico, ConnieConnie D'Amico
15
Meg's bully Connie has not appeared in the series since 2013.

West, AdamAdam West
Mayor West, AdamAdam West
93
Played a warped version of himself as the mayor of Quahog. Died in 2017.

text: Recurring guest voices[edit]

text: The recurring guest voices include Adam Carolla as Death, Patrick Stewart as Susie Swanson, Scott Grimes as Kevin Swanson and Sanaa Lathan as Donna Tubbs Brown. Previous recurring guests included Phyllis Diller in three episodes as Peter's Mother, Thelma, and Charles Durning as Peter's father, Francis. Both characters have since died, but Durning returned once to play Francis as a ghost. Early in the show's run, Fred Willard and Jane Lynch had a recurring role as a family of nudists. James Woods as James Woods.

text: Casting changes[edit]

text:
Lacey Chabert voiced Meg for the first production season (14 episodes), but, because of a contractual agreement, was never credited.[15] Chabert left the series due to time constraints with her acting role in Party of Five, as well as schoolwork.[16]
Norm Macdonald voiced the character of Death in a second season episode of Family Guy. He was subsequently replaced by Adam Carolla in all other appearances.
Jon Cryer originally voiced Kevin Swanson in his first appearance, before the role was passed temporarily onto Seth MacFarlane. The character was written out of the series for several years, with Scott Grimes taking over the voice when the character returned.
Fairuza Balk was the original voice of high school bully Connie D'Amico until Lisa Wilhoit took over the character in the third season.

tag: ul

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text:
Year
Actor
Award
Category
Role
Result
Ref.

2000
Seth MacFarlane
Primetime Emmy Award
Outstanding Voice-Over Performance
Stewie Griffin
Won
[17]

2009
Seth MacFarlane
Primetime Emmy Award
Outstanding Voice-Over Performance
Peter Griffin
Won
[18]

2006
Seth MacFarlane
Annie Award
Best Voice Acting in an Animated Television Production
Stewie Griffin
Won
[19]

2007
Mila Kunis
Annie Award
Voice Acting in an Animated Television Production
Meg Griffin
Won
[20]


document_title: History of Rhode Island

question_text: what was the original purpose of the rhode island colony

text: History of Rhode Island

text: Pre-colonization[edit]

text: Indian inhabitants occupied most of the area now known as Rhode Island, including the Wampanoag, Narragansett, and Niantic tribes.[1] Many Indians were killed by diseases, possibly contracted through contact with European settlers and explorers (though no definitive source has been proven), and through warfare with other tribes and with European settlers. The Narragansett language died out for many years but was partially preserved in Roger Williams's A Key into the Languages of America (1643).[2]

text: Rhode Island Colony period: 1636–1776[edit]

text: In 1636, Roger Williams settled on land granted to him by the Narragansett tribe at the tip of Narragansett Bay after being banished from the Massachusetts Bay Colony for his religious views. He called the site "Providence Plantations" and declared it a place of religious freedom.

text: In 1638, Anne Hutchinson, William Coddington, John Clarke, Philip Sherman, and other religious dissidents settled on Rhode Island after conferring with Williams,[3] forming the settlement of Portsmouth which was governed by the Portsmouth Compact. The southern part of the island became the separate settlement of Newport after disagreements among the founders.

text: Dissident Samuel Gorton purchased Indian lands at Shawomet in 1642, precipitating a dispute with the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1644, Providence, Portsmouth, and Newport united for their common independence as the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, governed by an elected council and president. Gorton received a separate charter for his settlement in 1648, which he named Warwick after his patron.[4] The union of these four towns was strengthened by the Royal Charter of 1663. Critics at the time sometimes referred to the Colony as "Rogue's Island",[5] and Cotton Mather called it "the sewer of New England" because of the Colony's willingness to accept people who had been banished from Massachusetts Bay.[6]

text: In 1686, King James II ordered Rhode Island to submit to the Dominion of New England and its appointed governor Edmund Andros. This suspended the Colony's charter, but Rhode Island still managed to retain possession of it until Andros was deposed and the Dominion was dissolved.[7] William of Orange became King after the Glorious Revolution of 1688, and Rhode Island's independent government resumed under the 1663 charter, which was used as the state constitution until 1842.[8]

text: In 1693, William III and Mary II issued a patent extending Rhode Island's territory to three miles "east and northeast" of Narragansett Bay, conflicting with the claims of Plymouth Colony.[9] This resulted in several later transfers of territory between Rhode Island and Massachusetts.

text: Colonial relations with Indians[edit]

text: The early relationship between New Englanders and Indians was mostly peaceable. The largest tribes that lived near Rhode Island were the Wampanoags, Pequots, Narragansetts, and Nipmucks. Squanto was a member of the Wampanoag tribe who stayed with the Pilgrims in Plymouth Colony and taught them many valuable skills needed to survive in the area.

text: Roger Williams won the respect of his Colonial neighbors for his skill in keeping the powerful Narragansetts on friendly terms with the Colonists. In 1637, the Narragansetts formed an alliance with Rhode Island during the Pequot War. However, this peace did not last long, as the most traumatic event in 17th century Rhode Island was King Philip's War (1675–76). Metacomet, the chief of the Wampanoag Indians, was known as King Philip by the settlers of Portsmouth who had purchased their land from his father Massasoit. He led attacks around Narragansett Bay, despite Rhode Island's continued neutrality, and later these spread throughout New England. A force of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Plymouth militia under General Josiah Winslow invaded and destroyed the fortified Narragansett Indian village in the Great Swamp in southern Rhode Island on December 19, 1675.[10] The Narragansetts also invaded and burned down several of the Rhode Island settlements, including Providence, although they allowed the population to leave first. In one of the final actions of the war, troops from Connecticut led by Captain Benjamin Church hunted down and killed King Philip at Mount Hope.

text: Revolutionary era 1775–1790[edit]

text: Rhode Island was the first British colony in America to formally declare its independence, doing so on May 4, 1776, a full two months before the national Declaration of Independence.[11] Previously, Rhode Islanders attacked the British warship HMS Gaspee in 1772 as one of the first overt acts of rebellion in America. British naval forces under Captain James Wallace controlled Narragansett Bay for much of the Revolution, periodically raiding the islands and the mainland. The British raided Prudence Island for livestock and engaged in a skirmish with American forces, losing approximately a dozen soldiers. Newport remained a hotbed for Tory or Loyalist sympathizers who assisted the British forces. The state appointed General William West of Scituate to root out Tories in the winter of 1775–76. British forces eventually occupied Newport from 1777 to 1778, causing the colonial forces to flee to Bristol.

text: The Battle of Rhode Island was fought during the summer of 1778 and was an unsuccessful attempt to expel the British from Narragansett Bay, although few colonial casualties occurred. The Marquis de Lafayette called the action the "best fought" of the war. The following year, the British wanted to concentrate their forces in New York and consequently abandoned Newport.

text: In 1780, the French under Rochambeau landed in Newport and, for the rest of the war, Newport was the base of the French forces in the United States. The French soldiers behaved themselves so well that, in gratitude, the Rhode Island General Assembly repealed an old law banning Catholics from living in Rhode Island. The first Catholic mass in Rhode Island was said in Newport during this time.

text: Rhode Island was the last of the original 13 states to ratify the United States Constitution (May 29, 1790), only doing so after being threatened with having its exports taxed as a foreign nation. Rural resistance to the Constitution was strong in Rhode Island, and the anti-federalist Country Party controlled the General Assembly from 1786 to 1790. In 1788, anti-federalist politician and revolutionary general William West led an armed force of 1,000 men to Providence to oppose a July 4 celebration of the state ratifying the Constitution.[12] Civil war was narrowly averted by a compromise limiting the Fourth of July celebration.

text: Slavery in Rhode Island[edit]

text: Rhode Island was heavily involved in the slave trade during the post-Revolution era, prior to industrialization. In 1652, Rhode Island passed the first abolition law in the thirteen colonies, banning African slavery,[13] but the law was not enforced by the end of the 17th century. By 1774, the slave population of RI was 6.3%, nearly twice as high as any other New England colony. In the late 18th century, several Rhode Island merchant families began actively engaging in the triangle slave trade, most notably the Browns, for whom Brown University is named. In the years after the Revolution, Rhode Island merchants controlled between 60 and 90 percent of the American trade in African slaves.[14] In the 18th century, Rhode Island's economy depended largely upon the triangle trade, where Rhode Islanders distilled rum from molasses, sent the rum to Africa to trade for slaves, and then traded the slaves in the West Indies for more molasses.

text: Stephen Hopkins introduced a bill while serving in the Rhode Island Assembly in 1774 that prohibited the importation of slaves into the colony. This became one of the first anti-slavery laws in the United States. In February 1784, the Rhode Island Legislature passed a compromise measure for gradual emancipation of slaves within Rhode Island. All children of slaves born after March 1 were to be "apprentices," the girls to become free at 18, the boys at 21. By 1840, the census reported only five African Americans enslaved in Rhode Island.[14]

text: Despite the antislavery laws of 1774, 1784, and 1787, an international slave trade continued. In 1789, an Abolition Society was organized to secure enforcement of existing laws against the trade. Leading merchants continued to engage in the trade even after it became illegal, especially John Brown and George DeWolf. After 1770, slaving was never more than a minor aspect of Rhode Island's overall maritime trade.[15]

text: Rhode Island manufactured numerous textiles throughout the early 19th century using southern cotton cultivated with slave labor—as did all other American textile manufacturers of the time.[16] By the mid-19th century, many Rhode Islanders were active in the abolitionist movement, particularly Quakers in Newport and Providence such as Moses Brown.[17]

text: Industrial Revolution[edit]

text: In 1790, English immigrant Samuel Slater founded the first textile mill in the United States in Pawtucket, Rhode Island (Slater Mill) and became known as the father of the American industrial revolution. During the 19th century, Rhode Island became one of the most industrialized states in the United States with large numbers of textile factories. The state also had significant machine tool, silverware, and costume jewelry industries.[18]

text: Dorr Rebellion[edit]

text: The Industrial Revolution moved large numbers of workers into cities and attracted large numbers of immigrants from Ireland, and a permanently landless—and therefore voteless—class developed. By 1829, 60% of the state's white men were ineligible to vote. All efforts at reform failed in the face of rural control of the political system. In 1842, Thomas Dorr drafted a liberal constitution which he tried to ratify by popular referendum. However, conservative Governor Samuel Ward King opposed the constitution, leading to the Dorr Rebellion. The Rebellion gained little support and failed, and Dorr went to prison. The conservative elements relented, however, and allowed most American-born men to vote, but the conservative rural towns remained in control of the legislature.[19]

text: Civil War[edit]

text: During the American Civil War, Rhode Island furnished 25,236 fighting men to the Union armies, of which 1,685 died. These comprised 12 infantry regiments, three cavalry regiments, and an assortment of artillery and miscellaneous outfits. Rhode Island used its industrial capacity to supply the Union Army with the materials needed to win the war, along with the other northern states. Rhode Island's continued growth and modernization led to the creation of an urban mass transit system and improved health and sanitation programs. In 1866, Rhode Island abolished racial segregation throughout the state.[20] Governor William Sprague IV fought at the First Battle of Bull Run while a sitting governor, and Rhode Island general Ambrose Burnside emerged as one of the major heroes of the war.

text: The Gilded Age[edit]

text: The fifty or so years following the Civil War were a time of prosperity and affluence that author William G. McLoughlin called "Rhode Island's halcyon era."[21] Rhode Island was a center of the Gilded Age and provided a home (or summer home) to the many of the country's most prominent robber barons.[21] This was a time of incredible growth in textile mills and manufacturing, and saw a huge influx of immigrants to fill those jobs.[21] The state saw increased population growth and urbanization, even as the state denied the growing urban masses access to political power.[21] In politics, the state was dominated by Republicans allied with their mouthpiece newspaper, The Providence Journal.[21] The Journal's editor Henry B. Anthony and his later protege Nelson Aldrich, along with war hero Ambrose Burnside, all Republicans, dominated politics during this time. Aldrich, as US Senator, became known as the "General Manager of the United States," for his ability to set high tariffs to protect Rhode Island — and American — goods from foreign competition.[21]

text: In Newport, New York's wealthiest industrialists created a summer haven to socialize and build ostentatious grand mansions.[21] In Providence, Pawtucket, Central Falls, and Woonsocket, thousands of French-Canadian, Italian, Irish, and Portuguese immigrants arrived to fill jobs in the textile and manufacturing mills.[21] In response, the Know Nothing party, allied with the Republicans and the Providence Journal, sought to exclude these newcomers from the political process.[21] The constitution of 1843 denied the vote to the landless poor, and ensured that urban centers were disproportionately underrepresented in the state legislature.[21]

text: Around the start of the 20th century, Rhode Island had a booming economy, which fed the demand for immigration. During World War I, Rhode Island furnished 28,817 troops, of whom 612 died. After the war, the state was hit hard by the Spanish Influenza.[22]

text: In the 1920s and 30s, rural Rhode Island saw a surge in Ku Klux Klan membership, largely among the native-born white population, in reaction to the large waves of immigrants moving to the state. The Klan is believed to be responsible for burning the Watchman Industrial School in Scituate, Rhode Island, which was a school for African American children.[23]

text: Since 1929[edit]

text: In 1935, Governor Theodore Francis Green and Democratic majorities in the state House and Senate replaced a Republican dominance that had existed since the middle of the 19th century in what is termed the "Bloodless Revolution." The Rhode Island Democratic Party has dominated state politics ever since.[24][25] Since then, the Speaker of the House has always been a Democrat and one of the most powerful figures in government.

text: The Democratic Party presents itself as a coalition of labor unions, working class immigrants, intellectuals, college students, and the rising ethnic middle class. The Republican Party has been dominant in rural and suburban parts of the state, and has nominated occasional reform candidates who criticize the state's high taxes and excesses of Democratic domination. Cranston Mayors Edward D. DiPrete and Stephen Laffey, Governor Donald Carcieri of East Greenwich, and former Mayor Vincent A. "Buddy" Cianci of Providence ran as Republican reform candidates.

text: The state income tax was first enacted in 1971 as a temporary measure. Prior to 1971, there was no income tax in the state, but the temporary income tax soon became permanent. The tax burden in Rhode Island remains among the five highest in the United States, including sales, gasoline, property, cigarette, corporate, and capital gains taxes.[26][27]

text: Rhode Islanders have overwhelmingly supported and re-elected Democrats to positions of authority, where issues are promoted involving education, health care, and liberal causes. As of 2014[update] Rhode Island has heavily Democrat-controlled legislatures; both U.S. Senators and Congressmen, and all statewide offices are held by Democrats. The state has been carried by Democrat presidential candidates in every election since 1988.[28]

text: Population[edit]

text:
Historical population

Census
Pop.

%±

1790
68,825

—

1800
69,122

0.4%

1810
76,931

11.3%

1820
83,059

8.0%

1830
97,199

17.0%

1840
108,830

12.0%

1850
147,545

35.6%

1860
174,620

18.4%

1870
217,353

24.5%

1880
276,531

27.2%

1890
345,506

24.9%

1900
428,556

24.0%

1910
542,610

26.6%

1920
604,397

11.4%

1930
687,497

13.7%

2010
1,052,567

—


document_title: Bill & Ted's Bogus Journey

question_text: who plays death on bill and ted's bogus journey

question_tokens: who plays death on bill and ted 's bogus journey

text: Bill & Ted's Bogus Journey

text: Plot[edit]

text: The music of Bill and Ted's band, Wyld Stallyns, has created a utopian future society. Chuck De Nomolos, who detests this society, steals one of the time-traveling phone booths and sends two robots modeled after Bill and Ted back to the late 20th century to prevent Bill and Ted from winning the San Dimas Battle of the Bands. Rufus attempts to stop De Nomolos but seemingly becomes lost in the circuits of time.

text: In the present, two years after Bill and Ted first traveled through time, Wyld Stallyns is preparing for the contest. Though Bill and Ted's current fiancées and former 15th-century princesses Elizabeth and Joanna have become skilled musicians, Bill and Ted are still inept. Despite this, the organizer Ms. Wardroe assures them a slot in the contest as the final act. Bill's stepmother Missy divorces his father in favor of Ted's, who threatens Ted with military school should they fail the Battle of the Bands. Evil Bill and Evil Ted arrive and the robots eventually replace Bill and Ted, killing them by throwing the two over the side of a cliff at Vasquez Rocks. The robots behave rudely to the princesses and work to ruin the duo's fame.

text: Bill and Ted's souls are met by Death who challenges them in a game for their souls. Bill and Ted escape after giving Death a "melvin". They attempt to alert their families but their ethereal forms prove difficult, and at one point, are cast down into Hell at a séance held by Missy. In Hell, they are tormented by Satan, made to face their own fears, manifesting as Col Oates, the Easter Bunny, and Granny S. Preston, and realize their only escape is to take Death's offer. Taken to Death's chambers, the spirit gives them the option of what game to play. Bill and Ted, to Death's dismay, select modern games like Battleship, Clue and Twister,[5] easily beating Death. Death admits defeat and unwillingly becomes their servant. Bill and Ted recognize they need to locate the smartest person in the universe to help build robots to counter De Nomolos' evil robots. Death escorts the two to Heaven, and with God's help, are directed to an alien named Station who has the ability to split into two identical twins, and readily offers to help Bill and Ted.

text: Death brings them back to the mortal world, where it is the night of the Battle of the Bands. Bill and Ted take Station to a hardware store, and then race in their van back to the concert while Station constructs good robots. Just as the evil robots take the stage, Bill and Ted arrive, and Station's robots easily defeat the evil ones. De Nomolos appears in the time booth, ready to defeat Bill and Ted himself, and overrides the broadcasting equipment to send the video footage of this to everyone on the planet. The two recognize they can later go back in time to arrange events for De Nomolos to be trapped in the present, aided by Death and Station; though De Nomolos is apparently able to do the same, Bill and Ted gain the upper hand with the explanation that it is only the winners who get to go back, and De Nomolos is arrested by Ted's father. Ms. Wardroe reveals herself to be a disguised Rufus, having assured Bill and Ted's spot in the concert, and urges them to play.

text: As Bill and Ted reunite with their fiancées, they realize they are still terrible musicians, and the four use the time booth; though they return immediately, "an intense 16 months of guitar training plus a two week honeymoon" have passed for them, they have married the princesses and each is raising a young infant "Little Ted" and "Little Bill". They begin to perform a stunning rock ballad, joined by Death, Station, and the good robots. The worldwide broadcast set by De Nomolos continues, and Wyld Stallyns' music is played across the globe, creating harmony. Over the credits, it's shown through newspaper articles that the band, along with Death, go through many perks of fame before eventually taking their act to Mars.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Alex Winter as William "Bill" S. Preston, Esq./Evil Bill/Granny S. Preston, Esq.
Keanu Reeves as Ted "Theodore" Logan/Evil Ted
William Sadler as Death[6] (The Grim Reaper)/Englishman
Joss Ackland as Chuck De Nomolos
George Carlin as Rufus
Pam Grier as Ms. Wardroe
Annette Azcuy as Elizabeth
Sarah Trigger as Joanna
Hal Landon Jr. as Captain Logan, Ted's father
Amy Stock-Poynton as Missy, Bill's soon-to-be ex-stepmother
Ed Gale and Arturo Gil as Station
Tom Allard as Big Station
Frank Welker as the voices of Satan, The Easter Bunny and Station (uncredited)

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text: As was particularly common at the time, the soundtrack album focuses on the rock music heard throughout the film. An album of the |full orchestral score by David Newman would not become available until 2007.

text: The song Bill and Ted play for the battle of the bands is "Final Guitar Solo" by Steve Vai, which he wrote to help blend into "God Gave Rock 'N' Roll to You II" by Kiss, although they appear similar in appearance to Dusty Hill and Billy Gibbons from ZZ Top.

text: When Bill and Ted are asked "What is the meaning of life?" they reply with the lyrics from "Every Rose Has Its Thorn" by Poison.[citation needed]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Critical reception to the movie was mixed. Rotten Tomatoes, a review aggregator, reports that 54% of 48 surveyed critics gave Bogus Journey a positive review; the average rating was 6/10. The film's consensus states: "Bill & Ted's Bogus Journey has the same stars – and cheerfully wacky sense of humor – as its predecessor, but they prove a far less effective combination the second time around."[7]

text: Desson Howe of The Washington Post called it "an entertaining, surreal journey" that is "funnier and livelier than the original."[8] Janet Maslin of The New York Times called it "amusing but sloppy and overcomplicated".[9] Roger Ebert gave the film 3 out of a possible 4 stars, writing, "It's the kind of movie where you start out snickering in spite of yourself, and end up actually admiring the originality that went into creating this hallucinatory slapstick."[10] (Ebert did not see or review the first film.) Dave Kehr, then of the Chicago Tribune, also gave the film 3 stars. He stated that it is unusual for an Ingmar Bergman parody to show up in a teen comedy and referred to the film as a "genuine pleasure."[11] Gene Siskel, also of the Tribune, gave the film only 2½ stars, but did believe the second film to be better than the first.[11] Leonard Maltin also gave Bogus Journey 2½ stars, a half-star more than he gave to Excellent Adventure.[12] Variety wrote that the film has "a few triumphant moments, but not enough to sustain pic's running time."[13]

text: Marvel Comics adaptation[edit]

text: To coincide with the release of the movie, Marvel Comics released a one-shot comic book adaptation of the movie, hiring Evan Dorkin to adapt the screenplay and pencil the art. Like Archie Goodwin's adaptation of the first Star Wars film, Dorkin worked from the original script, which included many of the deleted scenes, and portrayed Death as the archetypal skeletal figure. Due to the popularity of the comic, Marvel commissioned a spin-off series, Bill & Ted's Excellent Comic Book, which kept the talents of Dorkin, DeStefano and Severin. The series ran for 12 issues, featuring original stories. The first arc features negative results from Death's decision to take a vacation.

text: Sequel[edit]

text: In 2010, Reeves indicated that Matheson and Solomon were working on a script for a third film,[14] confirming in April 2011 that a draft was complete.[15] Winter said in March 2012 that he and Reeves both like the finished script, which revisits the two characters after the changes of the past twenty years. Despite the script being finished and satisfied by both parties, no specific filming dates have been named.[16] In April 2016, Winter said that he hoped the film would begin production in 2017.[17] Reeves gave an update on the film in February 2017 and said a story has been written for the third film. “Basically, they’re supposed to write a song to save the world and they haven’t done that. The pressure of having to save the world, their marriages are falling apart, their kids are kind of mad at them, and then someone comes from the future and tells them if they don’t write the song it’s not just the world, it’s the universe. So they have to save the universe because time is breaking apart.”[18] On May 8, 2018, The Hollywood Reporter confirmed that a third film, Bill & Ted: Face the Music, was officially in pre-production with Dean Parisot directing. No release date has been announced yet.[19]


document_title: Plumbing

question_text: when did they start using pvc for plumbing

text: Plumbing

text: History

text:
Plumbing originated during ancient civilizations such as the Greek, Roman, Persian, Indian, and Chinese cities as they developed public baths and needed to provide potable water and wastewater removal, for larger numbers of people.[6] Standardized earthen plumbing pipes with broad flanges making use of asphalt for preventing leakages appeared in the urban settlements of the Indus Valley Civilization by 2700 BC.[7] The Romans used lead pipe inscriptions to prevent water theft.
The word  "plumber" dates from the Roman Empire.[8] The Latin for lead is plumbum.  Roman roofs used lead in conduits and drain pipes[9] and some were also covered with lead, lead was also used for piping and for making baths.[10]

text: Plumbing reached its early apex in ancient Rome, which saw the introduction of expansive systems of aqueducts, tile wastewater removal, and widespread use of lead pipes. With the Fall of Rome both water supply and sanitation stagnated—or regressed—for well over 1,000 years.  Improvement was very slow, with little effective progress made until the growth of modern densely populated cities in the 1800s. During this period, public health authorities began pressing for better waste disposal systems to be installed, to prevent or control epidemics of disease. Earlier, the waste disposal system had merely consisted of collecting waste and dumping it on the ground or into a river. Eventually the development of separate, underground water and sewage systems eliminated open sewage ditches and cesspools.

text: Most large cities today pipe solid wastes to sewage treatment plants in order to separate and partially purify the water, before emptying into streams or other bodies of water. For potable water use, galvanized iron piping was commonplace in the United States from the late 1800s until around 1960. After that period, copper piping took over, first soft copper with flared fittings, then with rigid copper tubing utilizing soldered fittings.

text: The use of lead for potable water declined sharply after World War II because of increased awareness of the dangers of lead poisoning. At this time, copper piping was introduced as a better and safer alternative to lead pipes.[11]

text: Systems

text: The major categories of plumbing systems or subsystems are:[12]

text:
potable cold and hot tap water supply
plumbing drainage venting
sewage systems and septic systems with or without hot water heat recycling and graywater recovery and treatment systems
Rainwater, surface, and subsurface water drainage[relevant?  – discuss]
fuel gas piping
hydronics, i.e. heating and cooling systems utilizing water to transport thermal energy, as in district heating systems, like for example the New York City steam system.

text: Water pipes

text: A water pipe is a pipe or tube, frequently made of plastic or metal,[a] that carries pressurized and treated fresh water to a building (as part of a municipal water system), as well as inside the building.

text: History

text: For many centuries, lead was the favoured material for water pipes, because its malleability made it practical to work into the desired shape. (Such use was so common that the word "plumbing" derives from plumbum, the Latin word for lead.) This was a source of lead-related health problems in the years before the health hazards of ingesting lead were fully understood; among these were stillbirths and high rates of infant mortality. Lead water pipes were still widely used in the early 20th century, and remain in many households. In addition, lead-tin alloy solder was commonly used to join copper pipes, but modern practice uses tin-antimony alloy solder instead, in order to eliminate lead hazards.[13]

text: Despite the Romans' common use of lead pipes, their aqueducts rarely poisoned people. Unlike other parts of the world where lead pipes cause poisoning, the Roman water had so much calcium in it that a layer of plaque prevented the water contacting the lead itself. What often causes confusion is the large amount of evidence of widespread lead poisoning, particularly amongst those who would have had easy access to piped water.[14] This was an unfortunate result of lead being used in cookware and as an additive to processed food and drink, for example as a preservative in wine.[15] Roman lead pipe inscriptions provided information on the owner to prevent water theft.

text: Wooden pipes were used in London and elsewhere during the 16th and 17th centuries. The pipes were hollowed-out logs, which were tapered at the end with a small hole in which the water would pass through.[16] The multiple pipes were then sealed together with hot animal fat.  They were often used in Montreal and Boston in the 1800s, and built-up wooden tubes were widely used in the USA during the 20th century. These pipes, used in place of corrugated iron or reinforced concrete pipes, were made of sections cut from short lengths of wood. Locking of adjacent rings with hardwood dowel pins produced a flexible structure. About 100,000 feet of these wooden pipes were installed during WW2 in drainage culverts, storm sewers and conduits, under highways and at army camps, naval stations, airfields and ordnance plants.

text: Cast iron and ductile iron pipe was long a lower-cost alternative to copper, before the advent of durable plastic materials but special non-conductive fittings must be used where transitions are to be made to other metallic pipes, except for terminal fittings, in order to avoid corrosion owing to electrochemical reactions between dissimilar metals (see galvanic cell).[17]

text: Bronze fittings and short pipe segments are commonly used in combination with various materials.[18]

text: Difference between pipes and tubes

text: The difference between pipes and tubes is simply in the way it is sized. PVC pipe for plumbing applications and galvanized steel pipe for instance, are measured in IPS (iron pipe size). Copper tube, CPVC, PeX and other tubing is measured nominally, which is basically an average diameter. These sizing schemes allow for universal adaptation of transitional fittings. For instance, 1/2" PeX tubing is the same size as 1/2" copper tubing. 1/2" PVC on the other hand is not the same size as 1/2" tubing, and therefore requires either a threaded male or female adapter to connect them.  When used in agricultural irrigation, the singular form "pipe" is often used as a plural.[19]

text: Pipe is available in rigid "joints", which come in various lengths depending on the material. Tubing, in particular copper, comes in rigid hard tempered "joints" or soft tempered (annealed) rolls. PeX and CPVC tubing also comes in rigid "joints" or flexible rolls. The temper of the copper, that is whether it is a rigid "joint" or flexible roll, does not affect the sizing.[19]

text: The thicknesses of the water pipe and tube walls can vary.  Pipe wall thickness is denoted by various schedules or for large bore polyethylene pipe in the UK by the Standard Dimension Ratio (SDR), defined as the ratio of the pipe diameter to its wall thickness. Pipe wall thickness increases with schedule, and is available in schedules 20, 40, 80, and higher in special cases. The schedule is largely determined by the operating pressure of the system, with higher pressures commanding greater thickness. Copper tubing is available in four wall thicknesses: type DWV (thinnest wall; only allowed as drain pipe per UPC), type 'M' (thin; typically only allowed as drain pipe by IPC code), type 'L' (thicker, standard duty for water lines and water service), and type 'K' (thickest, typically used underground between the main and the meter). Because piping and tubing are commodities, having a greater wall thickness implies higher initial cost. Thicker walled pipe generally implies greater durability and higher pressure tolerances.

text: Wall thickness does not affect pipe or tubing size.[20] 1/2" L copper has the same outer diameter as 1/2" K or M copper. The same applies to pipe schedules. As a result, a slight increase in pressure losses is realized due to a decrease in flowpath as wall thickness is increased. In other words, 1 foot of 1/2" L copper has slightly less volume than 1 foot of 1/2 M copper.[citation needed]

text: Materials

text: Water systems of ancient times relied on gravity for the supply of water, using pipes or channels usually made of clay, lead, bamboo, wood, or stone. Hollowed wooden logs wrapped in steel banding were used for plumbing pipes, particularly water mains. Logs were used for water distribution in England close to 500 years ago. US cities began using hollowed logs in the late 1700s through the 1800s.  Today, most plumbing supply pipe is made out of steel, copper, and plastic; most waste (also known as "soil")[21] out of steel, copper, plastic, and cast iron.[21]

text: The straight sections of plumbing systems are called "pipes" or "tubes". A pipe is typically formed via casting or welding, whereas a tube is made through extrusion. Pipe normally has thicker walls and may be threaded or welded, while tubing is thinner-walled and requires special joining techniques such as brazing, compression fitting, crimping, or for plastics, solvent welding.  These joining techniques are discussed in more detail in the piping and plumbing fittings article.

text: Steel

text: Galvanized steel potable water supply and distribution pipes are commonly found with nominal pipe sizes from 3⁄8 inch (9.5 mm) to 2 inches (51 mm). It is rarely used today for new construction residential plumbing. Steel pipe has National Pipe Thread (NPT) standard tapered male threads, which connect with female tapered threads on elbows, tees, couplers, valves, and other fittings. Galvanized steel (often known simply as "galv" or "iron" in the plumbing trade) is relatively expensive, and difficult to work with due to weight and requirement of a pipe threader.   It remains in common use for repair of existing "galv" systems and to satisfy building code non-combustibility requirements typically found in hotels, apartment buildings and other commercial applications. It is also extremely durable and resistant to mechanical abuse.  Black lacquered steel pipe is the most widely used pipe material for fire sprinklers and natural gas.

text: Most typical single family home systems won't require supply piping larger than 3⁄4 inch (19 mm) due to expense as well as steel piping's tendency to become obstructed from internal rusting and mineral deposits forming on the inside of the pipe over time once the internal galvanizing zinc coating has degraded. In potable water distribution service, galvanized steel pipe has a service life of about 30 to 50 years, although it is not uncommon for it to be less in geographic areas with corrosive water contaminants.

text: Copper

text: Copper pipe and tubing was widely used for domestic water systems in the latter half of the twentieth century. Demand for copper products has fallen due to the dramatic increase in the price of copper, resulting in increased demand for alternative products including PEX and stainless steel.

text: Plastic

text:
Plastic pipe is in wide use for domestic water supply and drain-waste-vent (DWV) pipe. Principal types include:
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) was produced experimentally in the 19th century but did not become practical to manufacture until 1926, when Waldo Semon of BF Goodrich Co. developed a method to plasticize PVC, making it easier to process. PVC pipe began to be manufactured in the 1940s and was in wide use for Drain-Waste-Vent piping during the reconstruction of Germany and Japan following WWII. In the 1950s, plastics manufacturers in Western Europe and Japan began producing acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) pipe. The method for producing cross-linked polyethylene (PEX) was also developed in the 1950s. Plastic supply pipes have become increasingly common, with a variety of materials and fittings employed.

text:
PVC/CPVC – rigid plastic pipes similar to PVC drain pipes but with thicker walls to deal with municipal water pressure, introduced around 1970. PVC stands for polyvinyl chloride, and it has become a common replacement for metal piping. PVC should be used only for cold water, or for venting. CPVC can be used for hot and cold potable water supply. Connections are made with primers and solvent cements as required by code.[22]
PP – The material is used primarily in housewares, food packaging, and clinical equipment,[23] but since the early 1970s has seen increasing use worldwide for both domestic hot and cold water. PP pipes are heat fused, being unsuitable for the use of glues, solvents, or mechanical fittings. PP pipe is often used in green building projects.[24]
PBT – flexible (usually gray or black) plastic pipe which is attached to barbed fittings and secured in place with a copper crimp ring. The primary manufacturer of PBT tubing and fittings was driven into bankruptcy by a class-action lawsuit over failures of this system.[citation needed]  However, PB and PBT tubing has since returned to the market and codes, typically first for "exposed locations" such as risers.
PEX – cross-linked polyethylene system with mechanically joined fittings employing barbs, and crimped steel or copper rings.
Polytanks – plastic polyethylene cisterns, underground water tanks, above ground water tanks, are usually made of linear polyethylene suitable as a potable water storage tank, provided in white, black or green.
Aqua – known as PEX-Al-PEX, for its PEX/aluminum sandwich, consisting of aluminum pipe sandwiched between layers of PEX, and connected with modified brass compression fittings. In 2005, a large number of these fittings were recalled.[further explanation needed]

text: Present-day water-supply systems use a network of high-pressure pumps, and pipes in buildings are now made of copper,[25] brass, plastic (particularly cross-linked polyethylene called PEX, which is estimated to be used in 60% of single-family homes[26]), or other nontoxic material. Due to its toxicity, most cities moved away from lead water-supply piping by the 1920s in the United States,[27] although lead pipes were approved by national plumbing codes into the 1980s,[28] and lead was used in plumbing solder for drinking water until it was banned in 1986.[27] Drain and vent lines are made of plastic, steel, cast-iron, or lead.[29][30]

text: Gallery

text:
Monument to water pipe in Mytishchi (Russia)

A specific water pipe made for use with pressure vessels. The pipe can sustain high pressure-water and is relatively small

Concrete water pipe

Connecting to an existing water line (white pipe) with a stainless steel tapping sleeve and valve (red). A concrete thrust block is being formed behind the new connection.

text: Components

text: In addition to lengths of pipe or tubing, pipe fittings are used in plumbing systems, such as valves, elbows, tees, and unions.[31] Pipe and fittings are held in place with pipe hangers and strapping.

text: Plumbing fixtures are exchangeable devices using water that can be connected to a building's plumbing system.  They are considered to be "fixtures", in that they are semi-permanent parts of buildings, not usually owned or maintained separately.  Plumbing fixtures are seen by and designed for the end-users.  Some examples of fixtures include water closets[32] (also known as toilets), urinals, bidets, showers, bathtubs, utility and kitchen sinks, drinking fountains, ice makers, humidifiers, air washers, fountains, and eye wash stations.

text: Sealants

text: Threaded pipe joints are sealed with thread seal tape or pipe dope. Many plumbing fixtures are sealed to their mounting surfaces with plumber's putty.[33]

text: Equipment and tools

text: Plumbing equipment includes devices often hidden behind walls or in utility spaces which are not seen by the general public. It includes water meters, pumps, expansion tanks,   back flow preventers, water filters, UV sterilization lights, water softeners, water heaters, heat exchangers, gauges, and control systems.

text: There are many tools a plumber needs to do a good plumbing job. While many simple plumbing tasks can be completed with a few common hand held tools, other more complex jobs require specialised tools, designed specifically to make the job easier.

text: Specialized plumbing tools include pipe wrenches, flaring pliers, pipe vise, pipe bending machine, pipe cutter, dies, and joining tools such as soldering torches and crimp tools.  New tools have been developed to help plumbers fix problems more efficiently. For example, plumbers use video cameras for inspections of hidden leaks or problems, they use hydro jets, and high pressure hydraulic pumps connected to steel cables for trench-less sewer line replacement.

text: Flooding from excessive rain or clogged sewers may require specialized equipment, such as a heavy duty pumper truck designed to vacuum raw sewage.[citation needed]

text: Problems

text:
Bacteria have been shown to live in "premises plumbing systems". The latter refers to the "pipes and fixtures within a building that transport water to taps after it is delivered by the utility".[34] Community water systems have been known for centuries to spread waterborne diseases like  typhoid and cholera, however "opportunistic premises plumbing pathogens" have been recognized only more recently; Legionella pneumophila discovered in 1976, Mycobacterium avium, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa are the most commonly tracked bacteria, which people with depressed immunity can inhale or ingest and may become infected with.[35]
These opportunistic pathogens can grow for example in faucets, shower heads, water heaters and along pipe walls. Reasons that favor their growth are "high surface-to-volume ratio, intermittent stagnation, low disinfectant residual, and warming cycles". A high surface-to-volume ratio, i.e. a relatively large surface area allows the bacteria to form a biofilm, which protects them from disinfection.[35]

text: Regulation

text: Much of the plumbing work in populated areas is regulated by government or quasi-government agencies due to the direct impact on the public's health, safety, and welfare. Plumbing installation and repair work on residences and other buildings generally must be done according to plumbing and building codes to protect the inhabitants of the buildings and to ensure safe, quality construction to future buyers. If permits are required for work, plumbing contractors typically secure them from the authorities on behalf of home or building owners.[citation needed]

text: In the United Kingdom the professional body is the Chartered Institute of Plumbing and Heating Engineering (educational charity status) and it is true that the trade still remains virtually ungoverned;[36] there are no systems in place to monitor or control the activities of unqualified plumbers or those home owners who choose to undertake installation and maintenance works themselves, despite the health and safety issues which arise from such works when they are undertaken incorrectly; see Health Aspects of Plumbing (HAP) published jointly by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the World Plumbing Council (WPC).[37][38] WPC has subsequently appointed a representative to the World Health Organization to take forward various projects related to Health Aspects of Plumbing.[39]

text: In the United States, plumbing codes and licensing are generally controlled by state and local governments. At the national level, the Environmental Protection Agency has set guidelines about what constitutes lead-free plumbing fittings and pipes, in order to comply with the Safe Drinking Water Act.[40]

text: Some widely used Standards in the United States are:[citation needed]

text:
ASME A112.6.3 – Floor and Trench Drains
ASME A112.6.4 – Roof, Deck, and Balcony Drains
ASME A112.18.1/CSA B125.1 – Plumbing Supply Fittings
ASME A112.19.1/CSA B45.2 – Enameled Cast Iron and Enameled Steel Plumbing Fixtures
ASME A112.19.2/CSA B45.1 – Ceramic Plumbing Fixtures


document_title: Diurnal motion

question_text: diurnal motion look like from the north pole

text: Diurnal motion

text: This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Diurnal motion (Latin: diurnus, lit. 'daily', from dies, lit. "day") is an astronomical term referring to the apparent daily motion of stars around Earth, or more precisely around the two celestial poles. It is caused by the Earth's rotation around its axis, so almost every star appears to move along a circular arc path called the diurnal circle. The time for one complete rotation is 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4.09 seconds (1 sidereal day). The first experimental demonstration of this motion was conducted by Léon Foucault.

text: Relative direction[edit]

text: The relative direction of diurnal motion in the Northern Celestial Hemisphere are as follows:

text:
Facing north, below Polaris: rightward, or eastward
Facing north, above Polaris: leftward, or westward
Facing south: rightward, or westward

text: Thus, northern circumpolar stars move counterclockwise around Polaris, the north pole star.

text: At the North Pole, the cardinal directions do not apply to diurnal motion. Within the circumpolar circle, all the stars move simply rightward, or looking directly overhead, counterclockwise around the zenith, where Polaris is.

text: Southern Celestial Hemisphere observers are to replace north with south, left with right, and Polaris with Sigma Octantis, sometimes called the south pole star. The circumpolar stars move clockwise around Sigma Octantis. East and west are not interchanged.

text: As seen from the Equator, the two celestial poles are on the horizon due north and south, and the motion is counterclockwise (i.e. leftward) around Polaris and clockwise (i.e. rightward) around Sigma Octantis. All motion is westward, except for the two fixed points.

text: Apparent speed[edit]

text: The daily arc path of an object on the celestial sphere, including the possible part below the horizon, has a length proportional to the cosine of the declination. Thus, the speed of the diurnal motion of a celestial object equals this cosine times 15° per hour, 15 arcminutes per minute, or 15 arcseconds per second.

text: Per a certain period of time, a given angular distance traveled by an object along or near the celestial equator may be compared to the angular diameter of one of the following objects:

text:
up to one Sun or Moon diameter (about 0.5° or 30') every 2 minutes
up to one diameter of the planet Venus in inferior conjunction (about 1' or 60") about every 4 seconds
2,000 diameters of the largest stars per second

text: Star trail and time-lapse photography capture diurnal motion blur. The apparent motion of stars near the celestial pole seems slower than that of stars closer to the celestial equator. Conversely, following the diurnal motion with the camera to eliminate its arcing effect on a long exposure, can best be done with an equatorial mount, which requires adjusting the right ascension only; a telescope may have a sidereal motor drive to do that automatically.