document_title: Reserve Bank of India

question_text: what is the cash reserve ratio in india

question_tokens: what is the cash reserve ratio in india

text: Reserve Bank of India

text: Preamble[edit]

text: The Preamble of the Reserve Bank of India describes the basic functions of the Reserve Bank as:

text: "to regulate the issue of Bank notes and keeping of reserves with a view to securing monetary stability in India and generally to operate the currency and credit system of the country to its advantage; to have a modern monetary policy framework to meet the challenge of an increasingly complex economy, to maintain price stability while keeping in mind the objective of growth."

text: History[edit]

text: The Reserve Bank of India was founded on 1 April 1935 to respond to economic troubles after the First World War.[11] The Reserve Bank of India was conceptualized based on the guidelines presented by the Central Legislative Assembly which passed these guidelines as the RBI Act 1934.[12] RBI was conceptualized as per the guidelines, working style and outlook presented by Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar in his book titled “The Problem of the Rupee – Its origin and its solution” and presented to the Hilton Young Commission. The bank was set up based on the recommendations of the 1926 Royal Commission on Indian Currency and Finance, also known as the Hilton–Young Commission.[13] The original choice for the seal of RBI was The East India Company Double Mohur, with the sketch of the Lion and Palm Tree. However, it was decided to replace the lion with the tiger, the national animal of India. The Preamble of the RBI describes its basic functions to regulate the issue of bank notes, keep reserves to secure monetary stability in India, and generally to operate the currency and credit system in the best interests of the country.[14] The Central Office of the RBI was established in Calcutta (now Kolkata) but was moved to Bombay (now Mumbai) in 1937. The RBI also acted as Burma's (now Myanmar) central bank until April 1947 (except during the years of Japanese occupation (1942–45)), even though Burma seceded from the Indian Union in 1937. After the Partition of India in 1947, the bank served as the central bank for Pakistan until June 1948 when the State Bank of Pakistan commenced operations. Though set up as a shareholders’ bank, the RBI has been fully owned by the Government of India since its nationalization in 1949.[15]RBI has monopoly of note issue.

text: In the 1950s, the Indian government, under its first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, developed a centrally planned economic policy that focused on the agricultural sector. The administration nationalized commercial banks[16] and established, based on the Banking Companies Act of 1949 (later called the Banking Regulation Act), a central bank regulation as part of the RBI. Furthermore, the central bank was ordered to support economic plan with loans.[17]

text: As a result of bank crashes, the RBI was requested to establish and monitor a deposit insurance system. Meant to restore the trust in the national bank system, it was initialized on 7 December 1961. The Indian government founded funds to promote the economy, and used the slogan "Developing Banking". The government of India restructured the national bank market and nationalized a lot of institutes. As a result, the RBI had to play the central part in controlling and supporting this public banking sector.

text: In 1969, Indira Gandhi-headed government nationalized 14 major commercial banks. Upon Gandhi's return to India in 1980 a further 6 banks were nationalized.[13] The regulation of the economy and especially the financial sector was reinforced by the Government of India in the 1970s and 1980s.[18] The central bank became the central player and increased its policies a lot for a lot of tasks like interests, reserve ratio and visible deposits.[19] These measures aimed at better economic development and had a huge effect on the company policy of the institutes. The banks lent money in selected sectors, like agri-business and small trade companies.[20]

text: The branch was forced to establish two new offices in the country for every newly established office in a town.[21] The oil crises in 1973 resulted in increasing inflation, and the RBI restricted monetary policy to reduce the effects.[22]

text: A lot of committees analysed the Indian economy between 1985 and 1991. Their results had an effect on the RBI. The Board for Industrial and Financial Reconstruction, the Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research and the Security & Exchange Board of India investigated the national economy as a whole, and the security and exchange board proposed better methods for more effective markets and the protection of investor interests. The Indian financial market was a leading example for so-called "financial repression" (Mackinnon and Shaw).[23] The Discount and Finance House of India began its operations in the monetary market in April 1988; the National Housing Bank, founded in July 1988, was forced to invest in the property market and a new financial law improved the versatility of direct deposit by more security measures and liberalisation.[24]

text: 1991–2000 the new century[edit]

text: The national economy contracted in July 1991 as the Indian rupee was devalued.[25] The currency lost 18% relative to the US dollar, and the Narsimham Committee advised restructuring the financial sector by a temporal reduced reserve ratio as well as the statutory liquidity ratio. New guidelines were published in 1993 to establish a private banking sector. This turning point was meant to reinforce the market and was often called neo-liberal.[26] The central bank deregulated bank interests and some sectors of the financial market like the trust and property markets.[27] This first phase was a success and the central government forced a diversity liberalisation to diversify owner structures in 1998.[28]

text: The National Stock Exchange of India took the trade on in June 1994 and the RBI allowed nationalized banks in July to interact with the capital market to reinforce their capital base. The central bank founded a subsidiary company—the Bharatiya Reserve Bank Note Mudran Private Limited—on 3 February 1995 to produce banknotes.[29]

text: Since 2000[edit]

text: The Foreign Exchange Management Act from 1999 came into force in June 2000. It should improve the item in 2004–2005 (National Electronic Fund Transfer).[30] The Security Printing & Minting Corporation of India Ltd., a merger of nine institutions, was founded in 2006 and produces banknotes and coins.[31]

text: The national economy's growth rate came down to 5.8% in the last quarter of 2008–2009[32] and the central bank promotes the economic development.[33]

text: Structure[edit]

text: The Central Board of Directors is the main committee of the Central Bank. The Government of India appoints the directors for a 4-year term. The Board consists of a Governor, and not more than 4 Deputy Governors, 4[34] Directors to represent the regional boards, 2 from the Ministry of Finance and 10 other directors from various fields. RBI wants to create a post of Chief Operating Officer (COO) and re-allocate work between the five of them(4 Deputy Governor and COO).[35][36]

text: The bank is headed by the Governor and the post is currently held by economist Urjit Patel. There are 4 Deputy Governors BP Kanungo,[37] S S Mundra, N S Vishwanathan and Viral Acharya.[38] Two of the four Deputy Governors are traditionally from RBI ranks and are selected from the Bank's Executive Directors. One is nominated from among the Chairpersons of public sector banks and the other is an economist. An Indian Administrative Service officer can also be appointed as Deputy Governor of RBI and later as the Governor of RBI as with the case of Y. Venugopal Reddy. Other persons forming part of the central board of directors of the RBI are Dr. Nachiket Mor, Y C Deveshwar, Prof Damodar Acharya, Ajay Tyagi and Anjuly Duggal.

text: Uma Shankar, chief general manager (CGM) in charge of the Reserve Bank of India's financial inclusion and development department has taken over as executive director (ED) in the central bank. [39]

text: Branches and support bodies[edit]

text: The RBI has four zonal offices at Chennai, Delhi, Kolkata and Mumbai.[40] It has 20 regional offices and 11 sub-offices. Regional offices are located in Ahmedabad, Bangalore, Bhopal, Bhubaneswar, Chandigarh, Chennai, Delhi, Guwahati, Hyderabad, Jaipur, Jammu, Kanpur, Kochi, Kolkata, Dewas, Lucknow, Mumbai, Nagpur, Patna, dehradoon and Thiruvananthapuram and sub-offices are located in Agartala, Aizawal, Dehradun, Gangtok, Imphal, Panaji, Raipur, Ranchi, Shillong, Shimla and Srinagar.[41]

text: The RBI has four regional representations: North in New Delhi, South in Chennai, East in Kolkata and West in Mumbai. The representations are formed by five members, appointed for four years by the central government and with the advice of the Central Board of Directors serve as a forum for regional banks and to deal with delegated tasks from the Central Board.[42]

text: It has two training colleges for its officers, viz. Reserve Bank Staff College, Chennai and College of Agricultural Banking, Pune. There are three autonomous institutions run by RBI namely National Institute of Bank Management (NIBM), Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research (IGIDR), Institute for Development and Research in Banking Technology (IDRBT).[43] There are also four Zonal Training Centres at Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata and New Delhi.

text: The Board of Financial Supervision (BFS), formed in November 1994, serves as a CCBD committee to control the financial institutions. It has four members, appointed for two years, and takes measures to strength the role of statutory auditors in the financial sector, external monitoring and internal controlling systems. The Tarapore committee was set up by the Reserve Bank of India under the chairmanship of former RBI deputy governor S.S.Tarapore to "lay the road map" to capital account convertibility. The five-member committee recommended a three-year time frame for complete convertibility by 1999–2000.

text: On 8 December 2017, Surekha Marandi, Executive Director (ED) of Reserve Bank of India, said RBI will open an office in the north-eastern state of Arunachal Pradesh[44]

text: Main functions[edit]

text: Financial Supervision[edit]

text: The primary objective of BFS is to undertake consolidated supervision of the financial sector comprising commercial banks, financial institutions and non-banking finance companies.

text: The Board is constituted by co-opting four Directors from the Central Board as members for a term of two years and is chaired by the Governor. The Deputy Governors of the Reserve Bank are ex-officio members. One Deputy Governor, usually, the Deputy Governor in charge of banking regulation and supervision, is nominated as the Vice-Chairman of the Board. The Board is required to meet normally once every month. It considers inspection reports and other supervisory issues placed before it by the supervisory departments.

text: BFS through the Audit Sub-Committee also aims at upgrading the quality of the statutory audit and internal audit functions in banks and financial institutions. The audit sub-committee includes Deputy Governor as the chairman and two Directors of the Central Board as members. The BFS oversees the functioning of Department of Banking Supervision (DBS), Department of Non-Banking Supervision (DNBS) and Financial Institutions Division (FID) and gives directions on the regulatory and supervisory issues.

text: Regulator and supervisor of the financial system[edit]

text: The institution is also the regulator and supervisor of the financial system and prescribes broad parameters of banking operations within which the country's banking and financial system functions. Its objectives are to maintain public confidence in the system, protect depositors' interest and provide cost-effective banking services to the public. The Banking Ombudsman Scheme has been formulated by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) for effective addressing of complaints by bank customers. The RBI controls the monetary supply, monitors economic indicators like the gross domestic product and has to decide the design of the rupee banknotes as well as coins.[46]

text: Managing foreign exchange[edit]

text: The central bank manages to reach different goals of the Foreign Exchange Management Act, 1999. Their objective is to facilitate external trade and payment and promote orderly development and maintenance of foreign exchange market in India.

text: Issue of currency and other Functions[edit]

text: The bank issues and exchanges currency notes and coins and destroys the same when they are not fit for circulation. All the money issued by the central bank is it's monetary liability, that is central bank is obliged to back the currency with assets of equal value, to enhance public confidence in paper currency. The objectives are to issue bank notes and give public adequate supply of the same, to maintain the currency and credit system of the country to utilize it in its best advantage, and to maintain the reserves. RBI maintains the economic structure of the country so that it can achieve the objective of price stability as well as economic development because both objectives are diverse in themselves. For printing of notes, the Security Printing and Minting Corporation of India Limited (SPMCIL), a wholly owned company of the Government of India, has set up printing presses at Nashik, Maharashtra and Dewas, Madhya Pradesh. The Bharatiya Reserve Bank Note Mudran Private Limited (BRBNMPL), also has set up printing presses in Mysore in Karnataka and Salboni in West Bengal. In all, there are four printing presses.[47] And for the minting of coins, SPMCIL has four mints at Mumbai, Noida (UP), Kolkata and Hyderabad for coin production.[48] Commercial banks create credit. It is the duty of the RBI to control the credit through the CRR, bank rate and open market operations. As banker's bank, the RBI facilitates the clearing of cheques between the commercial banks and helps the inter-bank transfer of funds. It can grant financial accommodation to schedule banks. It acts as the lender of the last resort by providing emergency advances to the banks. It supervises the functioning of the commercial banks and takes action against it if the need arises. The RBI also advices the banks on various matters for example Corporate Social Responsibility.

text: Detection of fake currency[edit]

text: In order to curb the fake currency menace, RBI has launched a website to raise awareness among masses about fake notes in the market. www.paisaboltahai.rbi.org.in provides information about identifying fake currency.[49]

text: On 22 January 2014; RBI gave a press release stating that after 31 March 2014, it will completely withdraw from circulation all banknotes issued prior to 2005. From 1 April 2014, the public will be required to approach banks for exchanging these notes. Banks will provide exchange facility for these notes until further communication. The Reserve Bank has also clarified that the notes issued before 2005 will continue to be legal tender. This would mean that banks are required to exchange the notes for their customers as well as for non-customers. From 1 July 2014, however, to exchange more than 15 pieces of `500 and `1000 notes, non-customers will have to furnish proof of identity and residence as well as show aadhar to the bank branch in which she/he wants to exchange the notes.

text: This move from the Reserve Bank is expected to unearth black money held in cash. As the new currency notes have added security features, they would help in curbing the menace of fake currency.[50]

text: Developmental role[edit]

text: The central bank has to perform a wide range of promotional functions to support national objectives and industries.[17] The RBI faces a lot of inter-sectoral and local inflation-related problems. Some of these problems are results of the dominant part of the public sector.[51]

text: Related functions[edit]

text: The RBI is also a banker to the government and performs merchant banking function for the central and the state governments. It also acts as their banker. The National Housing Bank (NHB) was established in 1988 to promote private real estate acquisition.[52] The institution maintains banking accounts of all scheduled banks, too. RBI on 7 August 2012 said that Indian banking system is resilient enough to face the stress caused by the drought-like situation because of poor monsoon this year.[53]

text: Demonetisation[edit]

text: On 8 November 2016, the Government of India announced the demonetisation of all ₹500 (US$7.70) and ₹1,000 (US$15) banknotes of the Mahatma Gandhi Series on the recommendation of the Reserve Bank of India (RBI).[54] The government claimed that the action would curtail the shadow economy and crack down on the use of illicit and counterfeit cash to fund illegal activity and terrorism.[55][56]

text: Policy Rates and Reserve Ratios[edit]

text:
Policy Rates, Reserve Ratios, Lending and Deposit Rates as of February 2018

Policy Rates

Bank Rate
6.25%

Repo Rate
6.0%

Reverse Repo Rate
5.75%

Marginal Standing Facility Rate
6.25%

Reserve Ratios

Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR)
4%

Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR)
19.5%

Lending and Deposit Rates

Base Rate
8.65%–9.45%

MCLR (overnight)
7.65%–8.05%

Savings Deposit Rate
3.5%–4%

Term Deposit Rate for > 1year
6%–6.75%

text: Repo Rate[edit]

text: Repo (Repurchase) rate also known as the benchmark interest rate is the rate at which the RBI lends money to the banks for a short-term (max. 90 days). When the repo rate increases, borrowing from RBI becomes more expensive. If RBI wants to make it more expensive for the banks to borrow money, it increases the repo rate similarly, if it wants to make it cheaper for banks to borrow money it reduces the repo rate. If the repo rate is increased, banks can't carry out their business at a profit whereas the very opposite happens when the repo rate is cut down. Generally, repo rates are cut down whenever the country needs to progress in banking and economy. Currently, the new RBI Governor Sri Urjit Patel has cut the previous Repo rate to 6.00% for facilitation of India's economy.

text: in its fifth bi-monthly Monetary policy review on 6 December 2017, RBI unchanged Repo Rate and kept at 6 %.

text: Reverse Repo Rate (RRR)[edit]

text: Reverse Repo rate is the short term borrowing rate at which RBI borrows money from banks. The Reserve bank uses this tool when it feels there is too much money floating in the banking system. An increase in the reverse repo rate means that the banks will get a higher rate of interest from RBI. As a result, banks prefer to lend their money to RBI which is always safe instead of lending it to others (people, companies etc.) which is always risky.

text: Repo Rate signifies the rate at which liquidity is injected into the banking system by RBI, whereas Reverse Repo rate signifies the rate at which the central bank absorbs liquidity from the banks. Currently, Reverse Repo Rate is pegged to be 0.25% below Repo Rate.

text: Statutory liquidity ratio (SLR)[edit]

text: Apart from the CRR, banks are required to maintain liquid assets in the form of gold, cash and approved securities. Higher liquidity ratio forces commercial banks to maintain a larger proportion of their resources in liquid form and thus reduces their capacity to grant loans and advances, thus it is an anti-inflationary impact. A higher liquidity ratio diverts thebank funds from loans and advances to investment in government and approved securities. In well-developed economies, central banks use open market operations—buying and selling of eligible securities by the central bank in the money market—to influence the volume of cash reserves with commercial banks and thus influence the volume of loans and advances they can make to the commercial and industrial sectors. In the open money market, government securities are traded at market-related rates of interest. The RBI is resorting more to open market operations in the more recent years. Generally, RBI uses

text:
Minimum margins for lending against specific securities.
Ceiling on the amounts of credit for certain purposes.
The discriminatory rate of interest charged on certain types of advances.

tag: ol

text: Direct credit controls in India are of three types:

text:
Part of the interest rate structure, i.e., on small savings and provident funds, are administratively set.
Banks are mandatory required to keep 19.50% of their NDTL (Net Demand and Time Liabilities) in the form of liquid assets.
Banks are required to lend to the priority sectors to the extent of 40% of their advances.

text: Publications[edit]

text: A report titled "Trend and Progress of Banking In India" is published annually, as required by the Banking Regulation Act of 1949. The report sums up trends and developments throughout the financial sector.[57] Starting in April 2014, the Reserve Bank of India publishes bi-monthly policy updates.[58]

text: Further reading[edit]

text:
S. L. N. Simha. History of the Reserve Bank of India, Volume 1: 1935–1951. RBI. 1970. ISBN 81-7596-247-X. (2005 reprint PDF)
G. Balachandran. The Reserve Bank of India, 1951–1967. Oxford University Press. 1998. ISBN 0-19-564468-9. (PDF)
A. Vasudevan et al. The Reserve Bank of India, Volume 3: 1967–1981. RBI. 2005. ISBN 81-7596-299-2. (PDF)
Cecil Kisch: Review "The Monetary Policy of the Reserve Bank of India" by K. N. Raj. In: The Economic Journal. Vol. 59, No. 235 (Sep., 1949), pp. 436–438.
Findlay G. Shirras: The Reserve Bank of India. In The Economic Journal. Vol. 44, No. 174 (Jun., 1934), pp. 258–274.
Narenda Jadhav, Partha Ray, Dhritidyuti Bose, Indranil Sen Gupta: The Reserve Bank of India’s Balance Sheet: Analytics and Dynamics of Evolution, November 2004.


document_title: Pyramid of Djoser

question_text: who was the first step pyramid built for

root

text: Pyramid of Djoser

text: Djoser[edit]

text: Djoser was the first or second king of the 3rd Dynasty (ca. 2667 to 2648 BC) of the Egyptian Old Kingdom (ca. 2686 to 2125 BC).[2] He is believed to have ruled for 19 years or, if the 19 years were biennial taxation years, 38 years.[5] He reigned long enough to allow the grandiose plan for his pyramid to be realized in his lifetime.[6]

tag: p

text: Djoser is best known for his innovative tomb, which dominates the Saqqara landscape.[5] In this tomb he is referred to by his Horus name Netjeriykhet; Djoser is a name given by New Kingdom visitors thousands of years later. Djoser’s step pyramid is astounding in its departure from previous architecture. It sets several important precedents, perhaps the most important of which is its status as the first monumental structure made of stone. The social implications of such a large and carefully sculpted stone structure are staggering.[7] The process of building such a structure would be far more labor-intensive than previous monuments of mud-brick. This suggests that the state, and therefore the royal government had a new level of control of resources, both material and human. Also, from this point on, kings of the Old Kingdom are buried in the North, rather than at Abydos. Furthermore, although the plan of Djoser’s pyramid complex is different than later complexes, many elements persist and the step pyramid sets the stage for later pyramids of the 4th, 5th, and 6th Dynasties, including the great pyramids of Giza. Finally, another intriguing first is the identification of the architect Imhotep, who is credited with the design and construction of the complex.[6]

text: Precedents[edit]

text: Djoser’s Pyramid draws ideas from several precedents. The most relevant precedent is found at Saqqara mastaba 3038. The substructure lay in a 4m deep rectangular pit, and had mudbrick walls rising to 6 m. Three sides were extended and built out to create eight shallow steps rising at an angle of 49°. This would have been an elongated step pyramid if the remaining side had not been left uncovered. In another parallel to Djoser’s complex, to complete this mastaba complex a niched enclosure wall was erected.[7]

text: Overview[edit]

text: Djoser’s Step Pyramid complex has several structures pivotal to its function in both life and the afterlife. Several are discussed below with attention paid to function and form. The pyramid was not simply a grave in ancient Egypt. Its purpose was to facilitate a successful afterlife for the king so that he could be eternally reborn. The symbolism of the step pyramid form, which did not survive the 3rd Dynasty, is unknown, but it has been suggested that it may be a monumental symbol of the crown, especially the royal mortuary cult, since seven small step pyramids (not tombs) were built in the provinces.[6] Another well accepted theory is that it facilitated the king’s ascension to join the eternal North Star.[8]

text: The main excavator of the Step Pyramid was Jean-Philippe Lauer, a French architect who reconstructed key portions of the complex. The complex covers 15ha and is about 2.5 times as large as the Old Kingdom town of Heirakonpolis.[6] Several features of the complex differ from those of later Old Kingdom pyramids. The pyramid temple is situated at the north side of the pyramid, whereas in later pyramids it is on the east side. Also, the Djoser complex is built on a North-South axis whereas later complexes utilize an East-West axis. Furthermore, the Djoser complex has one niched enclosure wall, whereas later pyramids have two enclosure walls with the outside one being smooth and the inside one sometimes niched.[7]

text: Enclosure wall[edit]

text: The Djoser complex is surrounded by a wall of light Tura limestone 10.5m high.[9] The wall design recalls the appearance of 1st Dynasty tombs, with the distinctive paneled construction known as the palace façade, which imitates bound bundles of reeds.[10] The overall structure imitates mudbrick.[7] The wall is interrupted by 14 doors, however only one entrance, in the south corner of the east façade, is functional for the living. This arrangement resembles Early Dynastic funerary enclosures at Abydos in which the entrance was on the east side.[11] The remaining doors are known as false doors, and were meant for the king’s use in the afterlife. They functioned as portals through which the king’s ka could pass between life and the afterlife. The functional door at the southeast end of the complex leads to a narrow passageway that connects to the roofed colonnade.[9]

text: Great Trench[edit]

text: Outside the enclosure wall, Djoser’s complex is completely surrounded by a trench dug in the underlying rock. The trench measures 750 m long and 40 m wide and is a rectangle on a North-South axis. The walls of the trench were originally decorated with niches and its function seems to have been to make entry into the complex more difficult.[12]

text: Roofed colonnade entrance[edit]

text: The roofed colonnade led from the enclosure wall to the south of the complex.[6] A passageway with a limestone ceiling constructed to look as though it was made from whole tree trunks led to a massive stone imitation of two open doors. Beyond this portal was a hall with twenty pairs of limestone columns composed of drum shaped segments built to look like bundles of plant stems and reaching a height of 6.6 m.[6] The columns were not free-standing, but were attached to the wall by masonry projections. Between the columns on both sides of the hall were small chambers, which some Egyptologists propose may have been for each of the provinces of Upper and Lower Egypt.[12] At the end of the colonnade was the transverse hypostyle room with eight columns connected in pairs by blocks of limestone.[10] This led to the South Court.[5]

text: South Court[edit]

text: The South Court is a large court between the South Tomb and the pyramid. Within the court are curved stones thought to be territorial markers associated with the Heb-sed festival, an important ritual completed by Egyptian kings (typically after 30 years on the throne) to renew their powers.[6] These would have allowed Djoser to claim control over all of Egypt,[6] while its presence in the funerary complex would allow Djoser to continue to benefit from the ritual in the afterlife.[11] At the southern end of the court was a platform approached by steps. It has been suggested that this was a platform for the double throne. This fits into the theory proposed by Barry Kemp, and generally accepted by many, that suggests the whole step pyramid complex symbolizes the royal palace enclosure and allows the king to eternally perform the rituals associated with kingship.[11] At the very south of the South Court lay the South Tomb.

text: South Tomb[edit]

text: The South Tomb has been likened to the satellite pyramids of later Dynasties, and has been proposed to house the ka in the afterlife. Another proposal is that it may have held the canopic jar with the king’s organs, but this does not follow later trends where the canopic jar is found in the same place as the body. These proposals stem from the fact that the granite burial vault is much too small to have facilitated an actual burial.[7]

text: The substructure of the South Tomb is entered through a tunnel-like corridor with a staircase that descends about 30m before opening up into the pink granite burial chamber. The staircase then continues west and leads to a gallery that imitates the blue chambers below the step pyramid.[12]

text: Current evidence suggests that the South Tomb was finished before the pyramid. The symbolic king’s inner palace, decorated in blue faience, is much more complete than that of the pyramid. Three chambers of this substructure are decorated in blue faience to imitate reed-mat facades, just like the pyramid.[7] One room is decorated with three finely niche reliefs of the king, one depicting him running the Heb-sed.[6] Importantly, Egyptian builders chose to employ their most skilled artisans and depict their finest art in the darkest, most inaccessible place in the complex. This highlights the fact that this impressive craftsmanship was not meant for the benefit of the living but was meant to ensure the king had all the tools necessary for a successful afterlife.[7]

text: Step Pyramid[edit]

text: The superstructure of the Step Pyramid is six steps and was built in six stages, as might be expected with an experimental structure. The pyramid began as a square mastaba (this designation as a mastaba is contended for several reasons) (M1) which was gradually enlarged, first evenly on all four sides (M2) and later just on the east side (M3).[10] The mastaba was built up in two stages, first to form a four-stepped structure (P1) and then to form a six-stepped structure (P2), which now had a rectangular base on an east–west axis. The fact that the initial mastaba was square has led many to believe that the monument was never meant to be a mastaba, as no other known mastabas had ever been square.[12] When the builders began to transform the mastaba into the four step pyramid, they made a major shift in construction. Like in the construction of the mastaba, they built a crude core of rough stones and then cased them in fine limestone with packing in between. The major difference is that in mastaba construction they laid horizontal courses, but for the pyramid layers, they built in accretion layers that leaned inwards, while using blocks that were both bigger and higher quality.[7] Much of the rock for the pyramid was likely quarried from the construction of the great trench.[13] It is widely accepted that ramps would have been used to raise heavy stone to construct the pyramid, and many plausible models have been suggested.[14] For transport, apparatuses like rollers were used in which the heavy stone could be placed and then rolled.[8]

text: Pyramid substructure[edit]

text: Under the step pyramid is a labyrinth of tunneled chambers and galleries that total nearly 6 km in length and connect to a central shaft 7 m square and 28 m deep.[12] These spaces provide room for the king’s burial, the burial of family members, and the storage of goods and offerings. The entrance to the 28 m shaft was built on the north side of the pyramid, a trend that would remain throughout the Old Kingdom. The sides of the underground passages are limestone inlaid with blue faience tile to replicate reed matting. These “palace façade” walls are further decorated by panels decorated in low relief that show the king participating in the Heb-sed.[13] Together these chambers constitute the funerary apartment that mimicked the palace and would serve as the living place of the royal ka. On the east side of the pyramid eleven shafts 32 m deep were constructed and annexed to horizontal tunnels for the royal harem (The existence of this "harem" is debated).[10] These were incorporated into the preexisting substructure as it expanded eastward. In the storerooms along here over 40,000 stone vessels were found, many of which predate Djoser.[6] These would have served Djoser’s visceral needs in the afterlife. An extensive network of underground galleries was located to the north, west and south of the central burial chamber and crude horizontal magazines were carved into these.[7]

text: Burial chamber[edit]

text: The burial chamber was a vault constructed of four courses of well-dressed granite. It had one opening, which was sealed with a 3.5 ton block after the burial.[5] No body was recovered as the tomb had been extensively robbed. Lauer believes that a burial chamber of alabaster existed before the one of granite. He found interesting evidence of limestone blocks with five pointed stars in low relief that were likely on the ceiling, indicating the first occurrence of what would become a tradition.[7] The king sought to associate himself with the eternal North Stars that never set so as to ensure his rebirth and eternity.[11]

text: North Temple and Serdab Court[edit]

text: The northern (funerary/mortuary) temple was on the north side of the pyramid and faced the north stars, which the king wished to join in eternity. This structure provided a place in which the daily rituals and offerings to the dead could be performed, and was the cult center for the king. To the east of the temple is the serdab, which is a small enclosed structure that housed the ka statue. The king’s ka inhabited the ka statue, in order to benefit from daily ceremonies like the opening of the mouth, a ceremony that allowed him to breathe and eat, and the burning of incense. He witnessed these ceremonies through two small eye holes cut in the north wall of the serdab.[11] This temple appeared on the north side of the pyramid throughout the Third Dynasty, as the king wished to go north to become one of the eternal stars in the North Sky that never set.[12] In the Fourth Dynasty, when there was a religious shift to an emphasis on rebirth and eternity achieved through the sun, the temple was moved to the east side of the pyramid, where the sun rises, so that through association the king may be reborn every day.[12]

text: Heb-sed Court[edit]

text: The Heb-sed court is rectangular and parallel to the South Courtyard. It was meant to provide a space in which the king could perform the Heb-sed ritual in the afterlife.[7] Flanking the east and west sides of the court are the remains of two groups of chapels, many of which are dummy buildings, of three different architectural styles. At the north and south ends there are three chapels with flat roofs and no columns.[10] The remaining chapels on the west side are decorated with fluted columns and capitals flanked by leaves.[12] Each of the chapels has a sanctuary accessed by a roofless passage with walls that depict false doors and latches. Some of these buildings have niches for statues. Egyptologists believe that these buildings were related to the important double coronation of the king during the Heb-sed.[10]


document_title: List of Academy Award records

question_text: who holds the record for winning the most academy awards

text: List of Academy Award records

text: Most awards[edit]

text:
Most awards won by a single film

Three films have won 11 Academy Awards:

Ben-Hur (1959) – 15 categories available for nomination; nominated for 12
Titanic (1997) – 17 categories available for nomination; nominated for 14
The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003) – 17 categories available for nomination; nominated for 11

Most nominations received by a single film

Three films have received 14 nominations:

All About Eve (1950) – 16 categories available for nomination; won 6 awards
Titanic (1997) – 17 categories available for nomination; won 11 awards
La La Land (2016) – 17 categories available for nomination; won 6 awards

Largest sweep (winning awards in every nominated category)

The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003) won all 11 categories for which it was nominated: Best Picture, Director, Adapted Screenplay, Original Score, Original Song, Sound Mixing, Art Direction, Makeup, Costume Design, Film Editing, and Visual Effects

Most awards won by an individual

Walt Disney won 22 Oscars.

Most awards won by a woman

Edith Head won eight Oscars, all for Costume Design

Most nominations in a single year / Most awards in a single year

In 1954, Walt Disney won four awards out of six nominations, both records. He won Best Documentary, Features for The Living Desert; Best Documentary, Short Subjects for The Alaskan Eskimo; Best Short Subject, Cartoons for Toot Whistle Plunk and Boom; and Best Short Subject, Two-reel for Bear Country. He had two additional nominations in Best Short Subject, Cartoons for Rugged Bear; and Best Short Subject, Two-reel for Ben and Me.

Most awards won by a person who is still living

Visual Effects Supervisor Dennis Muren has won nine Academy Awards – six competitive awards, two "Special Achievement" awards, and one "Technical Achievement" award

Most competitive awards won by a person who is still living

Composer Alan Menken has won eight competitive Academy Awards

Acting

Katharine Hepburn won four awards, all for Best Actress

Directing

John Ford won the most directing awards, with four

Cinematography

The highest number of Academy Awards won by a cinematographer is four:

Joseph Ruttenberg, in 1938, 1942, 1956, and 1958
Leon Shamroy, in 1942, 1944, 1945, and 1963

Art Direction

Cedric Gibbons, who designed the Oscar statuette, won 11 awards out of a total of 39 nominations.[1]

Makeup

Rick Baker won seven Academy Awards (all for Best Makeup)

Most awards won by a country for Best Foreign Language Film

Italy won 14 awards in this category and received in total 32 nominations

Most nominations received by a country for Best Foreign Language Film

France received 40 nominations and won the award 12 times

Most awards won by a foreign-language film

Two foreign-language films have won four Academy Awards:

Fanny and Alexander (1982) won Best Foreign Language Film, Best Cinematography, Best Art Direction, and Best Costume Design
Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (2000) won Best Foreign Language Film, Best Art Direction, Best Original Score, and Best Cinematography

Most nominations received by a foreign-language film

Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (2000) received ten nominations: Best Foreign Language Film, Best Picture, Best Director, Best Adapted Screenplay, Best Original Song, Best Costume Design, Best Art Direction, Best Film Editing, Best Original Score, and Best Cinematography

tag: ul

text: Awards for debut acting or directing performances on film[edit]

text: The following individuals won Academy Awards for their film debut acting performances:

text:
Best Actor

None

Best Actress

Shirley Booth (Come Back, Little Sheba, 1952)
Julie Andrews (Mary Poppins, 1964)
Barbra Streisand (Funny Girl, 1968)
Marlee Matlin (Children of a Lesser God, 1986)

Best Supporting Actor

Harold Russell (The Best Years of Our Lives, 1946)
Timothy Hutton (Ordinary People, 1980)
Haing S. Ngor (The Killing Fields, 1984)

Best Supporting Actress

Gale Sondergaard (Anthony Adverse, 1936)
Katina Paxinou (For Whom the Bell Tolls, 1943)
Mercedes McCambridge (All the King's Men, 1949)
Eva Marie Saint (On the Waterfront, 1954)
Jo Van Fleet (East of Eden, 1955)
Tatum O'Neal (Paper Moon, 1973)
Anna Paquin (The Piano, 1993)
Jennifer Hudson (Dreamgirls, 2006)
Lupita Nyong'o (12 Years a Slave, 2013) [2][3][4]

Academy Juvenile Award

Claude Jarman Jr. (The Yearling, 1946)
Vincent Winter (The Little Kidnappers, 1954) [2][3][5]

text: The following individuals won Academy Awards for their film debut direction.

text:
Best Director

Delbert Mann (Marty, 1955)
Jerome Robbins (West Side Story, 1961)
Robert Redford (Ordinary People, 1980)
James L. Brooks (Terms of Endearment, 1983)
Kevin Costner (Dances with Wolves, 1990)
Sam Mendes (American Beauty, 1999) [2][3][6]

text: Big Five winners[edit]

text: Three films have received the Big Five Academy Awards: Best Picture, Director, Actor, Actress, and Screenplay (Original or Adapted).[7][8][9]

text:
It Happened One Night (1934)
One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (1975)
The Silence of the Lambs (1991)

text: Most consecutive awards[edit]

text:
Any awards

Walt Disney was awarded a record of 10 awards in the eight consecutive years from 1931/32 through 1939. Eight (listed below) are for Short Subject (Cartoon), and two were Special Awards: one for the creation of Mickey Mouse, and one recognizing the innovation of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs.

Best Actress

Two actresses have won two consecutive awards:

Luise Rainer (The Great Ziegfeld, 1936 and The Good Earth, 1937)
Katharine Hepburn (Guess Who's Coming to Dinner, 1967 and The Lion in Winter, 1968)

Best Actor

Two actors have won two consecutive awards:

Spencer Tracy – Captains Courageous (1937) and Boys Town (1938)
Tom Hanks – Philadelphia (1993) and Forrest Gump (1994) [7][10]

Best Director

Three directors have won two consecutive awards:

John Ford – The Grapes of Wrath (1940) and How Green Was My Valley (1941)
Joseph L. Mankiewicz – A Letter to Three Wives (1949) and All About Eve (1950) [7][11]
Alejandro G. Iñárritu – Birdman or (The Unexpected Virtue of Ignorance) (2014) and The Revenant (2015)

Best Supporting Actor

Jason Robards won two consecutive awards for All the President's Men in 1976 and Julia in 1977[12][13]

Best Supporting Actress

No consecutive winner for Best Supporting Actress

Best Picture

David O. Selznick produced two consecutive Best Picture winners Gone with the Wind in 1939 and Rebecca in 1940. (He himself was not awarded the Oscars as at the time the statuette went to the studio instead of the producer.)

Best Original Screenplay

No consecutive winner for Best Original Screenplay

Best Adapted Screenplay

Joseph L. Mankiewicz won two consecutive adapted screenplay awards for A Letter to Three Wives in 1949 and All About Eve in 1950
Robert Bolt won for Doctor Zhivago in 1965 and A Man for All Seasons in 1966

Best Cinematography

Emmanuel Lubezki has won three consecutive awards for Gravity in 2013, Birdman or (The Unexpected Virtue of Ignorance) in 2014 and The Revenant in 2015

Best Art Direction

Robert Stromberg won for Avatar in 2009 and Alice In Wonderland in 2010

Best Film Editing

Angus Wall and Kirk Baxter won for The Social Network in 2010 and The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo in 2011

Best Original Score

Roger Edens won three consecutive awards for composing the scores for Easter Parade (1948), On the Town (1949), and Annie Get Your Gun (1950)

Best Original Song

Three composers have won two consecutive awards for best original song, but under different award names:

Henry Mancini (music) and Johnny Mercer (lyrics) shared the awards for Best Music (Song) for "Moon River" from Breakfast at Tiffany's in 1961 and "Days of Wine and Roses" from Days of Wine and Roses in 1962
Alan Menken (music) won twice consecutively for Best Music (Original Song) for "Beauty and the Beast" from Beauty and the Beast (lyrics by Howard Ashman) in 1991 and "A Whole New World" from Aladdin (lyrics by Tim Rice) in 1992

Best Visual Effects

Jim Rygiel and Randall William Cook won 3 consecutive visual effects Oscars for The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring, The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers, and The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King in 2001, 2002, and 2003 respectively.

Best Sound Mixing

Thomas Moulton won three consecutive awards for The Snake Pit in 1948, Twelve O'Clock High in 1949, and All About Eve in 1950.

Best Costume Design

Edith Head won three consecutive awards for The Heiress in 1949, All About Eve in 1950, and A Place in the Sun in 1951.

Best Short Subject (Cartoon)

Walt Disney won eight consecutive awards for Flowers and Trees in 1931/32, Three Little Pigs in 1932/33, The Tortoise and the Hare in 1934, Three Orphan Kittens in 1935, The Country Cousin in 1936, The Old Mill in 1937, Ferdinand the Bull in 1938, and The Ugly Duckling in 1939

Best Short Subject (Two-Reel)

Walt Disney won four consecutive awards for In Beaver Valley in 1950, Nature's Half Acre in 1951, Water Birds in 1952, and Bear Country in 1953

Best Documentary (Feature)

Walt Disney won two consecutive awards for The Living Desert in 1953 and The Vanishing Prairie in 1954

text: Academy Award firsts[edit]

text:
First woman to win Best Picture

Julia Phillips for The Sting (1973)

First woman to win Best Director

Kathryn Bigelow for The Hurt Locker (2009)

First woman to win Best Animated Feature

Brenda Chapman for Brave (2012)

First woman to receive an Honorary Award

6 year old Shirley Temple received a Special Award in 1934
Greta Garbo received an Honorary Award in 1954

First foreign-language film to be nominated for Best Picture

Grand Illusion (1937), in French

First science fiction film to be nominated for Best Picture

A Clockwork Orange (1971)

First horror film to be nominated for Best Picture

The Exorcist (1973)

First animated film to be nominated for Best Picture

Beauty and the Beast (1991)

First fantasy film to win Best Picture

The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003)

First 3-D films to be nominated for Best Picture

Avatar and Up (2009)

First film with an entirely non-white cast to win Best Picture

Slumdog Millionaire (2008)

First film with an all-black cast to win Best Picture

Moonlight (2016)

First animated film to be nominated for Best Foreign Language Film

Waltz with Bashir (2008), representing Israel

First animated film to be nominated for Best Original Screenplay and for a Best Screenplay award in general

Toy Story (1995)

First animated film to be nominated for Best Adapted Screenplay

Shrek (2001)

First actress to be nominated for a performance in a 3-D film

Sandra Bullock for Gravity (2013)

First actor to be nominated for a performance in a 3-D film

Matt Damon for The Martian (2015)

First film to receive the most nominations of its year without receiving a Best Picture nomination

Dreamgirls (2006), with eight nominations

First X-rated film to win Best Picture

Midnight Cowboy (1969). It was also the first X-rated film to be nominated for Best Picture and the only one to date to have won it.

First actor to receive ten nominations for acting

Jack Nicholson received his tenth nomination (for Best Actor and Best Supporting Actor) for the film A Few Good Men (1992)

First actress to receive ten nominations for acting

Bette Davis received her tenth official nomination (all for Best Actress) for the film What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? (1962)

First actress to receive twenty nominations for acting

Meryl Streep received her twentieth nomination (for Best Actress and Best Supporting Actress) for the film Florence Foster Jenkins (2016)

First posthumous nomination for acting

Jeanne Eagels, nominated for Best Actress for The Letter (1929)

First posthumous nomination for a male actor

James Dean, nominated for Best Actor for East of Eden (1955)

First posthumous win for acting

Peter Finch won Best Actor for Network (1976)

First actress to be nominated for performing in a language other than English

Melina Mercouri was nominated for Best Actress for Never on Sunday (1960), performing in Greek

First actor to be nominated for performing in a language other than English

Marcello Mastroianni was nominated for Best Actor for Divorce, Italian Style (1962), performing in Italian

First actress to win for performing in a language other than English

Sophia Loren won Best Actress for Two Women (1961), performing in Italian

First actor to win for performing in a language other than English

Robert De Niro won Best Supporting Actor for The Godfather Part II (1974), performing in Italian

First actress to win for performing in a sign language

Marlee Matlin won Best Actress for Children of a Lesser God (1986), performing in American Sign Language

First French actress to be nominated for performing in the French language

Anouk Aimée was nominated for Best Actress for A Man and a Woman (1966)

First French actress to win for performing in the French language

Marion Cotillard won Best Actress for La Vie en rose (2007). She's the only one to date to have won it.

First Nordic actress to be nominated for acting

Greta Garbo (from Sweden) was nominated for Best Actress for Anna Christie (1930)

First Nordic actor to be nominated for acting

Max von Sydow (from Sweden) was nominated for Best Actor for Pelle the Conqueror (1988)

First Nordic actress to win for acting

Ingrid Bergman (from Sweden) won Best Actress for Gaslight (1944)

First actor from Africa to be nominated for acting

Basil Rathbone (from South Africa), nominated for Best Supporting Actor for Romeo and Juliet (1936)

First actress from Africa to win for acting

Charlize Theron (from South Africa), won Best Actress for Monster (2003)

First actress from Asia to win for acting

Miyoshi Umeki (from Japan), won Best Supporting Actress for Sayonara (1957)

First Asian (and non-Caucasian) to win Best Director

Ang Lee (from Taiwan) for Brokeback Mountain (2005)

First Australian actress to win Best Actress

Nicole Kidman for The Hours (2002) – Born in the U.S.

First Australian actor to win Best Actor

Peter Finch for Network (1976)

First French actress to win Best Actress

Claudette Colbert for It Happened One Night (1934)

First French actor to win Best Actor

Jean Dujardin for The Artist (2011)

First Italian actress to win Best Actress

Anna Magnani for The Rose Tattoo (1955)

First Italian actor to win Best Actor

Roberto Benigni for Life Is Beautiful (1998)

First German actress to win Best Actress

Luise Rainer for The Great Ziegfeld (1937)

First German actor to win Best Actor

Emil Jannings (born in Switzerland) for The Way of All Flesh (1927) and The Last Command (1928)

First Austrian actor to win twice for acting

Christoph Waltz won Best Supporting Actor for Inglorious Basterds (2009) and Django Unchained (2012)

First persons from India to win in any music category

A. R. Rahman won Best Original Score and Best Original Song ("Jai Ho") for Slumdog Millionaire (2008)
Gulzar also won Best Original Song ("Jai Ho") for Slumdog Millionaire (2008)

First Middle Eastern/North African actor to be nominated for acting

Omar Sharif, nominated for Best Supporting Actor for Lawrence of Arabia (1962)

First Middle Eastern movie to win Best Foreign Language Film

A Separation (2011), representing Iran

First foreign actress to be nominated twice for Best Actress for foreign-language films without the films receiving a Best Foreign Language Film nomination

Marion Cotillard (from France) won Best Actress for La Vie en Rose (2007) and was nominated for Two Days, One Night (2014)

First black filmmaker to win Best Picture

Steve McQueen won for producing 12 Years a Slave (2013)

First black filmmaker to be nominated for Best Director

John Singleton for Boyz n the Hood (1991)

First black actress to win for acting

Hattie McDaniel won Best Supporting Actress for Gone with the Wind (1939)

First black actor to win for acting

Sidney Poitier won Best Actor for Lilies of the Field (1963)

First black actress to win Best Actress

Halle Berry for Monster's Ball (2001)

First black actress to win for film acting debut

Jennifer Hudson won Best Supporting Actress for Dreamgirls (2006)

First year in which two black actors/actresses won for acting

74th Academy Awards (in 2002, for 2001): Denzel Washington won Best Actor for Training Day; Halle Berry won Best Actress for Monster's Ball

First black African actor to be nominated for acting

Djimon Hounsou (born in Benin, U.S.-Benin dual citizen), nominated for Best Supporting Actor for In America (2003)

First black writer to win for screenwriting

Geoffrey S. Fletcher won Best Adapted Screenplay for Precious: Based on the Novel "Push" by Sapphire (2009)

First African American to receive an Honorary Award

James Baskett received a Special Award for his portrayal of Uncle Remus in Song of the South (1946)

First Latin American director to win Best Director

Alfonso Cuarón from Mexico won for Gravity in 2014

First Latin American actress to be nominated for Best Actress

Fernanda Montenegro from Brazil was nominated for Best Actress for Central Station (1998)

First Latin American actor to win Best Actor

José Ferrer from Puerto Rico won for Cyrano de Bergerac in 1950

First Muslim actor to win in an acting category

Mahershala Ali for Moonlight in 2016

First child actor to receive an Academy Award nomination [14]

Jackie Cooper, age 9, was nominated for Best Actor for Skippy (1931)

First short film to win an Academy Award outside of the Short Film categories

The Red Balloon (1956) for Best Original Screenplay

text: Age-related records[edit]

text:
Youngest winner of an acting award

Tatum O'Neal, age 10 (Best Supporting Actress, Paper Moon, 1973)

Youngest nominee for an acting award

Justin Henry, age 8 (Best Supporting Actor, Kramer vs. Kramer, 1979)

Youngest female winner of a lead acting award

Marlee Matlin, age 21 (Best Actress, Children of a Lesser God, 1986)

Youngest male winner of a lead acting award

Adrien Brody, age 29 (Best Actor, The Pianist, 2002)

Youngest male nominee for a lead acting award

Jackie Cooper, age 9 (Best Actor, Skippy, 1931)

Youngest female nominee for a lead acting award

Quvenzhané Wallis, age 9 (Best Actress, Beasts of the Southern Wild, 2012) [15][16] (also first person born in the 21st century to be nominated for an Academy Award)

Youngest winner of an Oscar

Shirley Temple, age 6, who was awarded the inaugural (now retired) non-competitive Academy Juvenile Award in 1934

Youngest winner of Best Director

Damien Chazelle, age 32 (La La Land, 2016)

Youngest nominee for Best Director

John Singleton, age 24 (Boyz n the Hood, 1991)

Oldest winner of Best Director

Clint Eastwood, age 74 (Million Dollar Baby, 2004)

Oldest nominee for Best Director

John Huston, age 79 (Prizzi's Honor, 1985)

Oldest winner of an acting award

Christopher Plummer, age 82 (Best Supporting Actor, Beginners, 2011)

Oldest woman to win best Actress Award

Jessica Tandy, age 80 (Best Actress, Driving Miss Daisy, 1989)

Oldest man to win Best Actor Award

Henry Fonda, age 76 (Best Actor, On Golden Pond, 1981)

Oldest nominee for an acting award

Gloria Stuart, age 87 (Best Supporting Actress, Titanic, 1997)

Oldest nominee for a lead acting award

Emmanuelle Riva, age 85 (Best Actress, Amour, 2012) [15][16]

Oldest competitive Oscar winner

Ennio Morricone, age 87 (Best Original Score, The Hateful Eight, 2015)[17][18]

text: Youngest multiple nominees for an acting award (best actor or best supporting actor)

text:
Nomination
Name
Age
Film
Year
Date of Birth
Date of Nomination

2nd
Mineo, SalSal Mineo
7003805300000000000♠22 years, 17 days
Exodus
1960
000000001939-01-10-0000January 10, 1939
000000001961-01-27-0000January 27, 1961

3rd
Brando, MarlonMarlon Brando
7004109100000000000♠29 years, 318 days
Julius Caesar
1953
000000001924-04-03-0000April 3, 1924
000000001954-02-15-0000February 15, 1954

4th
Marlon Brando
7004112720000000000♠30 years, 315 days
On the Waterfront
1954
000000001924-04-03-0000April 3, 1924
000000001955-02-12-0000February 12, 1955

5th
Marlon Brando
7004123740000000000♠33 years, 321 days
Sayonara
1957
000000001924-04-03-0000April 3, 1924
000000001958-02-18-0000February 18, 1958

6th
Burton, RichardRichard Burton
7004161690000000000♠44 years, 98 days
Anne of the Thousand Days
1969
000000001925-11-10-0000November 10, 1925
000000001970-02-16-0000February 16, 1970

7th
Nicholson, JackJack Nicholson
7004171010000000000♠46 years, 300 days
Terms of Endearment
1983
000000001937-04-22-0000April 22, 1937
000000001984-02-16-0000February 16, 1984

8th
Jack Nicholson
7004178210000000000♠48 years, 289 days
Prizzi's Honor
1985
000000001937-04-22-0000April 22, 1937
000000001986-02-05-0000February 5, 1986

9th
Jack Nicholson
7004185630000000000♠50 years, 301 days
Ironweed
1987
000000001937-04-22-0000April 22, 1937
000000001988-02-17-0000February 17, 1988

10th
Jack Nicholson
7004203910000000000♠55 years, 302 days
A Few Good Men
1992
000000001937-04-22-0000April 22, 1937
000000001993-02-18-0000February 18, 1993

tag: table

text: Youngest multiple nominees for an acting award (best actress or best supporting actress)

text:
Nomination
Name
Age
Film
Year
Date of Birth
Date of Nomination

2nd
Lansbury, AngelaAngela Lansbury
7003740800000000000♠20 years, 103 days
The Picture of Dorian Gray
1945
000000001925-10-16-0000October 16, 1925
000000001946-01-27-0000January 27, 1946

3rd
Lawrence, JenniferJennifer Lawrence
7003855500000000000♠23 years, 154 days
American Hustle
2013
000000001990-08-15-0000August 15, 1990
000000002014-01-16-0000January 16, 2014

4th
Lawrence, JenniferJennifer Lawrence
7003928300000000000♠25 years, 152 days
Joy
2015
000000001990-08-15-0000August 15, 1990
000000002016-01-14-0000January 14, 2016

5th
Winslet, KateKate Winslet
7004114330000000000♠31 years, 110 days
Little Children
2006
000000001975-10-05-0000October 5, 1975
000000002007-01-23-0000January 23, 2007

6th
Winslet, KateKate Winslet
7004121630000000000♠33 years, 109 days
The Reader
2008
000000001975-10-05-0000October 5, 1975
000000002009-01-22-0000January 22, 2009

7th
Davis, BetteBette Davis
7004134530000000000♠36 years, 304 days
Mr. Skeffington
1944
000000001908-04-05-0000April 5, 1908
000000001945-02-03-0000February 3, 1945

8th
Streep, MerylMeryl Streep
7004144830000000000♠39 years, 238 days
A Cry in the Dark
1988
000000001949-06-22-0000June 22, 1949
000000001989-02-15-0000February 15, 1989

9th
Meryl Streep
7004152110000000000♠41 years, 236 days
Postcards from the Edge
1990
000000001949-06-22-0000June 22, 1949
000000001991-02-13-0000February 13, 1991

10th
Meryl Streep
7004170370000000000♠46 years, 236 days
The Bridges of Madison County
1995
000000001949-06-22-0000June 22, 1949
000000001996-02-13-0000February 13, 1996

text: Film records[edit]

text:
Most nominations for a single film

Three films received 14 nominations:

All About Eve (1950)
Titanic (1997)
La La Land (2016)

Most Oscars without winning Best Picture

Cabaret won 8 awards (1972)

Most nominations without winning Best Picture

La La Land (2016) with 14 nominations

Most nominations without any wins

Two films received 11 nominations without winning any awards:

The Turning Point (1977)
The Color Purple (1985)

Most nominations without a Best Picture nomination

They Shoot Horses, Don't They? (1969) with 9 nominations

Most Oscars without a nomination for Best Picture

The Bad and the Beautiful (1952) with 5 wins

Fewest nominations for a Best Picture winner

Grand Hotel (1932) received only the Best Picture nomination.

Nominations in the most different technical categories

Five films have been nominated in all 7 technical categories (Cinematography, Costume Design, Film Editing, Production Design/Art Direction, Sound Editing, Sound Mixing, and Visual Effects):

Titanic (1997)
Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World (2003)
Hugo (2011)
Mad Max: Fury Road (2015)
The Revenant (2015)

Most nominations without a major nomination (Picture, Director, Acting and Screenplay)

These 6 films got 6 nominations with no major nominations:

The Rains Came (1939)
Hans Christian Andersen (1952)
It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World (1963)
Empire of the Sun (1987)
Who Framed Roger Rabbit (1988) (note: received 7 nominations when you include a "special achievement")
Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991)

Best picture nominees that won every nomination except Best Picture

These 14 films were nominated for Best Picture and won in every category they were nominated for except Best Picture:

Bad Girl (1931), 2/3
The Private Life of Henry VIII (1932), 1/2
Naughty Marietta (1935), 1/2
The Story of Louis Pasteur (1936), 3/4
The Adventures of Robin Hood (1938), 3/4
Miracle on 34th Street (1947), 3/4
The Treasure of the Sierra Madre (1948), 3/4
A Letter to Three Wives (1949), 2/3
King Solomon's Mines (1950), 2/3
Three Coins in the Fountain (1954), 2/3
Jaws (1975), 3/4
Traffic (2000), 4/5
The Blind Side (2009), 1/2
Selma (2014), 1/2

Films nominated for Best Picture with no other major nominations

These 28 films were nominated for Best Picture but had no other major nominations (this does not include films that were only nominated for Best Picture and nothing else):

Wings (1927), 2 nominations (winner)
42nd Street (1933), 2 nominations
A Farewell to Arms (1933), 4 nominations
Cleopatra (1934), 5 nominations
Flirtation Walk (1934), 2 nominations
The Gay Divorcee (1934), 5 nominations
Imitation of Life (1934), 3 nominations
The White Parade (1934), 2 nominations
David Copperfield (1935), 3 nominations
Les Misérables (1935), 4 nominations
A Midsummer Night's Dream (1935), 4 nominations (note: really had 2, but 2 more were write in noms)
Naughty Marietta (1935), 2 nominations
Top Hat (1935), 4 nominations
A Tale of Two Cities (1936), 2 nominations
The Adventures of Robin Hood (1938), 4 nominations
Of Mice and Men (1939), 4 nominations
The Wizard of Oz (1939), 6 nominations
King Solomon's Mines (1950), 3 nominations
Decision Before Dawn (1951), 2 nominations
Three Coins in the Fountain (1954), 3 nominations
The Music Man (1962), 6 nominations
Doctor Dolittle (1967), 9 nominations
Hello, Dolly! (1969), 7 nominations
Jaws (1975), 4 nominations
Beauty and the Beast (1991), 6 nominations
The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (2002), 6 nominations
War Horse (2011), 6 nominations
Selma (2014), 2 nominations

Stories made into multiple Best Picture nominees

6 sets of Best Picture nominees share either original source material or were revised versions of the same story (* =winner):

Cleopatra (1934), Cleopatra (1963)
Mutiny on the Bounty (1935)*, Mutiny on the Bounty (1962)
Romeo and Juliet (1936), West Side Story (1960)*, Romeo and Juliet (1968). (The plot of another Best Picture winner, Shakespeare in Love, revolves around the original production of Romeo and Juliet)
Les Misérables (1935), Les Misérables (2012)
Pygmalion (1938), My Fair Lady (1964)*
Here Comes Mr. Jordan (1941), Heaven Can Wait (1978)

text: Acting records[edit]

text:
Most awards for leading actress

Katharine Hepburn with 4 awards (1933, 1967, *1968, 1981) (*Tied with Barbra Streisand.)

Most awards for leading actor

Daniel Day-Lewis with 3 awards (1989, 2007, 2012)

Most awards for supporting actor

Walter Brennan with 3 awards (1936, 1938, 1940)

Most consecutive leading actress nominations

Two actresses have been nominated 5 years in a row:

Bette Davis (1938–1942)
Greer Garson (1941–1945)

Most consecutive leading actor nominations

Marlon Brando with four nominations (1951 to 1954)

Actress with most total nominations for acting

Meryl Streep with 20 nominations

Actor with most total nominations for acting

Jack Nicholson with 12 nominations

Most acting nominations without an award

Peter O'Toole with 8 nominations (He received an Honorary Award in 2002)

Most nominations for an actor performing in a foreign language

Marcello Mastroianni with 3 nominations. He was nominated for Best Actor for Divorce, Italian Style (1962); A Special Day (1977) and Dark Eyes (1987), performing in Italian

Longest gap between first and second award

Helen Hayes won in 1932 for The Sin of Madelon Claudet and in 1971 for Airport, a 39-year gap

Longest time span between first and last nomination and between first and last award

Katharine Hepburn: 48 years from Morning Glory (1933, in the 1932/33 awards) until On Golden Pond (1981)

Most acting nominations before first award

Both Geraldine Page and Al Pacino won on their 8th nomination

Most posthumous nominations

James Dean with 2 (1955 for East of Eden and 1956 for Giant)

Shortest performance to win an acting Oscar

Beatrice Straight in Network (1976) – 5 minutes and 2 seconds

Shortest performance to win a lead acting Oscar

Patricia Neal in Hud (1963) – 21 minutes and 51 seconds [19]

Shortest performance to be nominated for an acting Oscar

Hermione Baddeley in Room at the Top (1959) – 2 minutes and 19 seconds

Shortest performance to be nominated for a lead acting Oscar

Spencer Tracy in San Francisco (1936) – 14 minutes and 58 seconds

Longest performance to win an acting Oscar

Vivien Leigh in Gone with the Wind (1939) – 2 hours, 23 minutes and 32 seconds

Longest performance to win a supporting acting Oscar

Tatum O'Neal in Paper Moon (1973) – 1 hour, 6 minutes and 58 seconds

Longest performance to be nominated for an acting Oscar

Vivien Leigh in Gone with the Wind (1939) – 2 hours, 23 minutes and 32 seconds

Longest performance to be nominated for a supporting acting Oscar

Frank Finlay in Othello (1965) – 1 hour, 30 minutes and 43 seconds

Most awards by a black actor

Denzel Washington with 2, winning Best Supporting Actor for Glory (1989) and Best Actor for Training Day (2001)

Most awards for one acting performance

Harold Russell played Homer Parish in The Best Years of Our Lives in 1946. For this role he received 2 Oscars, one for Best Supporting and an honorary award for being an inspiration to all returning veterans.

Most nominations for one acting performance

Barry Fitzgerald was nominated as Best Actor and won for Best Supporting Actor for his role as Father Fitzgibbon in 1944's Going My Way

text: Miscellaneous records[edit]

text:
Most nominations in different decades Six decades – John Williams, Elmer Bernstein[citation needed]
Only people to win both a Nobel Prize and an Oscar

George Bernard Shaw: Won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1925, and an Oscar for Best Adapted Screenplay in 1938 for the film Pygmalion
Bob Dylan: Won an Oscar for Best Original Song for the song "Things Have Changed" from Wonder Boys in 2000, and the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2016.

Only woman to win Best Actress and Best Original Song

Barbra Streisand: Best Actress (joint) for Funny Girl (1968); Best Original Song for the Love Theme ("Evergreen") from A Star Is Born (1976)

Only person to win an Academy Award for acting and writing

Emma Thompson

Only person nominated for Acting, Writing, Producing, and Directing the same film

Warren Beatty was nominated in the four categories for Heaven Can Wait (1978), and again for Reds (1981).

Only actor to win an Academy Award for portraying a real Academy Award winner

Cate Blanchett won Best Supporting Actress for portraying Katharine Hepburn in The Aviator

Only actor to win an Academy Award for portraying a fictional Academy Award nominee

Maggie Smith won Best Supporting Actress in California Suite

Most total nominations without a win

Greg P. Russell has earned 16 nominations in the Best Sound Mixing category. (This does not include his nomination at the 89th Academy Awards for 13 Hours: The Secret Soldiers of Benghazi, which was revoked the day before the ceremony.)[20]

Most total nominations before receiving an award

Film composer Victor Young was nominated 21 times without winning. He was often nominated multiple times in one year; twice, four times at the same Oscars. He won posthumously for Around the World in 80 Days, alongside yet another nomination (also posthumous).
Sound re-recording mixer Kevin O'Connell comes in at a close second, with 20 unsuccessful nominations from 1983 until 2016, when he finally won for Hacksaw Ridge.

Most nominations for a person

Walt Disney with 59

Most nominations for a living person

Film composer John Williams with 50

Most nominated woman

Edith Head with 35

Highest "perfect score"

Sound editor Mark Berger has four nominations and four wins

Most nominations for directing

William Wyler with 12 nominations

Most wins for producing

Three producers received 3 awards:

Sam Spiegel
Saul Zaentz
Darryl F. Zanuck

Most nominations for producing

Scott Rudin with 9 nominations
Steven Spielberg with 9 nominations

Most nominations for directing in a single year

Two people have received 2 nominations for Best Director in the same year:

Michael Curtiz for Angels with Dirty Faces and Four Daughters in 1938
Steven Soderbergh for Erin Brockovich and Traffic in 2000

Most Best Picture awards for a film series

The Godfather series with 2 (for The Godfather and The Godfather Part II)

Most nominations and awards for a film series

The Middle-earth series with 17 competitive wins out of 37 nominations (for The Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit). Additionally, The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey received an Academy Scientific and Technical Award, which brings the total number of Oscars received by the series to 18.[21]

Most nominations for Best Original Screenplay

Woody Allen with 16 nominations and 3 wins

Longest time between the release of a film and winning an Oscar

Limelight (1952) is the only film to have won an award twenty years after its official release. Since it was not released in Los Angeles County until 1972, it was not eligible for any Academy Awards until that time.

Most posthumous award wins

William A. Horning won in 1958 for Best Art Direction for Gigi, and for Best Art Direction for Ben-Hur in 1959

Most posthumous award nominations

Howard Ashman with four

Lowest-grossing film to win Best Picture

Cimarron with $1,380,000

Longest film to win Best Picture

Gone with the Wind, 224 minutes (238 with overture, entr'acte, and exit music)

Longest film to win an award

O.J.: Made in America (2016), 467 minutes (Academy Award for Best Documentary)
The longest fictional film to win an award was War and Peace (1968), 431 minutes (Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film)

Shortest film to win Best Picture

Marty, 90 minutes

Most acting awards for a character

Portrayals of Vito Corleone won:

Best Actor for Marlon Brando in The Godfather
Best Supporting Actor for Robert De Niro in The Godfather Part II

Most nominations for a character

3 portrayals of Queen Elizabeth I of England earned nominations for:

Cate Blanchett in Elizabeth and Elizabeth: The Golden Age (Best Actress)
Judi Dench in Shakespeare in Love (winner, Best Supporting Actress)

3 Portrayals of King Henry VIII of England earned nominations for:

Charles Laughton in The Private Life of Henry VIII (winner, Best Actor)
Robert Shaw in A Man for All Seasons (Best Supporting Actor)
Richard Burton in Anne of the Thousand Days (Best Actor)

21 other characters have been nominated twice – (*) = winning portrayal:

Abraham Lincoln – Raymond Massey, Daniel Day-Lewis (*)
Arthur Chipping – Robert Donat (*), Peter O'Toole
Cyrano de Bergerac – Jose Ferrer (*), Gerard Depardieu
Esther Blodgett – Janet Gaynor, Judy Garland
"Fast Eddie" Felson – Paul Newman (*)
Father Chuck O'Malley – Bing Crosby (*)
Father Fitzgibbons – Barry Fitzgerald (*) – nominated for Best Actor and Best Supporting Actor for the same performance in Going My Way
Henry Higgins – Leslie Howard, Rex Harrison (*)
Howard Hughes – Jason Robards, Leonardo DiCaprio
Iris Murdoch – Judi Dench, Kate Winslet – portrayals of the same character at different ages in the same film (Iris)
Joe Pendleton – Robert Montgomery, Warren Beatty
King Henry II of England – Peter O'Toole
King Henry V of England – Laurence Olivier, Kenneth Branagh
Leslie Crosbie – Jeanne Eagels, Bette Davis
Max Corkle – James Gleason, Jack Warden
Michael Corleone – Al Pacino
Norman Maine – Fredric March, James Mason
Richard Nixon – Anthony Hopkins, Frank Langella
Rocky Balboa – Sylvester Stallone
Rooster Cogburn – John Wayne (*), Jeff Bridges
Rose DeWitt Bukater – Kate Winslet and Gloria Stuart – portray of the same character at different ages in the same film (Titanic)
Vito Corleone – Marlon Brando (*), Robert DeNiro (*)

Most Honorary Awards

Bob Hope received 5 honorary awards – 2 Special, 2 Honorary, and the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award.[22]

text: Oscar speeches[edit]

text:
Longest speech

The longest Oscar speech was that given by Greer Garson at the 15th Academy Awards after she was named Best Actress for 1942 for Mrs. Miniver. Her speech ran for nearly six minutes.[23] It was shortly after this incident that the Academy set forty-five seconds as the allotted time for an acceptance speech and began to cut the winners off after this time limit. When presenting the Best Actor award at the 24th Academy Awards, Garson quipped, "I think I have ten minutes left over from a highly emotional speech I made a few years ago. I'd be glad to give it to them."

Shortest speech

The shortest Oscar speech was that given by Patty Duke at the 35th Academy Awards after she was named Best Supporting Actress for 1962 for The Miracle Worker. Duke, age 16, was the youngest person at that time to receive an Academy Award in a competitive category. Her acceptance speech was, simply, two words – "Thank you" – after which she walked off the stage.[24]

text: Tied winners[edit]

text: There have been six two-way ties:

text:
1931/32: Best Actor – Wallace Beery (The Champ) and Fredric March (Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde)
1949: Best Documentary Short – A Chance to Live and So Much for So Little
1968: Best Actress – Katharine Hepburn (The Lion in Winter) and Barbra Streisand (Funny Girl)
1986: Best Documentary – Artie Shaw: Time Is All You've Got and Down and Out in America
1994: Best Short Film (Live Action) – Franz Kafka's It's a Wonderful Life and Trevor
2012: Best Sound Editing – Paul N. J. Ottosson (Zero Dark Thirty) and Per Hallberg and Karen Baker Landers (Skyfall)


document_title: Congregation of Christian Brothers

question_text: when did the pope give final approval for the congregation of the christian brothers

text: Congregation of Christian Brothers

text: History[edit]

text: Formation[edit]

text: At the turn of the nineteenth century, Waterford merchant Edmund Rice considered travelling to Rome to join a religious institute, possibly the Augustinians. Instead, with the support of Dr. Thomas Hussey, Catholic bishop of the Diocese of Waterford and Lismore, he decided to found a religious community dedicated to teaching disadvantaged youth.[2]

text: The first school, on Waterford's New Street, was a converted stable and opened in 1802, with a second school opening in Stephen Street soon after to cater for increasing enrollment. Two men from his hometown of Callan, Thomas Grosvenor and Patrick Finn, soon arrived to aid Rice in his makeshift schools, with the intention of living the life of lay brothers. In the same year, Rice used proceeds from the sale of his victualling business to begin building a community house and school on land provided by the diocese. Bishop Hussey opened the new complex, christened “Mount Sion” on June 7, 1803, and pupils were transferred to the new school building the following year.[3] The reputation of the school spread and across the next few years several men sought to become “Michaels”.

text: On 15 August 1808 seven men, including Edmund Rice, took religious promises under Bishop John Power of Waterford. Following the example of Nano Nagle's Presentation Sisters, they were called "Presentation Brothers".[4] This was one of the first congregations of men to be founded in Ireland and one of the few founded in the Church by a layman.

text: Houses were soon opened in Carrick-on-Suir, Dungarvan, and in 1811, in Cork. In 1812 the Archbishop of Dublin established a community in the nation's capital and by 1907 there were ten communities in Dublin, with pupils in excess of 6,000. The schools included primary, secondary and technical schools, along with orphanages and a school for the deaf. A community was founded in Limerick in 1816, followed by establishments in several of Ireland's principal towns.

text: The Holy See formally established the congregation in 1820. This, too, was an unusual event, since the Christian Brothers were the first Irish congregation of men approved by a charter from Rome.

text: Some brothers in Cork chose to remain under the original Presentation rule and continued to be known as Presentation Brothers, a separate congregation but also recognising Edmund Rice as its Founder.

text: Expansion[edit]

text: The congregation of Irish Christian Brothers spread to Liverpool and other parts of England. These new ventures were not always immediately successful. Two brothers had been sent to Gibraltar to establish an institute in 1835. However, despite initial successes they left in August 1837 on account of disagreements with the local priests.[5] In 1878 the Brothers returned to the then Crown colony of Gibraltar. The school eventually flourished supplying education to the twentieth century. The "Line Wall College" was noted in 1930 for the education that it supplied to "well to do" children.[6]

text: Similarly, a mission to Sydney, Australia in 1842 failed within a couple of years.[7] Brother Ambrose Treacy established a presence in Melbourne, Australia in 1868, in 1875 in Brisbane, Australia and in 1876 a school was commenced in Dunedin, New Zealand. In 1875 a school was opened in St. John’s, Newfoundland. In 1886 the Pope requested that they consider setting up in India, and a province of the congregation was established there.

text: In 1900 came the invitation to establish houses in Rome, and in 1906 schools were established in New York City.[2] In 1940 Iona College was founded in New York, as a Higher Education College,[8] facilitating poorer high school graduates to progress to a College education.

text: In 1955 Stella Maris College (Montevideo) in Uruguay was established. In 1972 the alumni rugby team was travelling in Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571 when it crashed in the Andes, stranding survivors in freezing conditions with little food and no heat for 72 days; 16 of the 45 people on the aircraft survived.

text: In 1967, the Christian Brothers had a membership of about 5,000, teaching in around 600 schools.[9]

text: The Christian Brothers teacher training center has become the Marino Institute for Education which has trained lay teachers since 1972 and has offered degrees validated by the University of Dublin since 1974. In 2012 Trinity College Dublin became a co-trustee with the Brothers of the Institute.[10]

text: The Brothers' schools include primary, secondary and technical schools, orphanages and schools for the deaf. A number of these technical schools originally taught poor children trades such as carpentry and building skills for which they could progress to gain apprenticeships and employment. As the National School system and vocational schools developed in the Irish Republic, the Irish Christian Brothers became more concentrated on secondary education.

text: Contraction[edit]

text: As of 2013, the Christian Brothers were living in 280 houses, and numbered 1,149, including one priest.[11]

text: In 2008 it was reported that not more than ten Christian Brothers were teaching in Irish schools, with the expectation that there would soon be none. This was contrasted with the mid-1960s, when over 1,000 Brothers worked in schools, with no shortage of new recruits.[12]

text: Organizational structure of the Christian Brothers[edit]

text: Geographically, the Christian Brothers are divided into several provinces that encompass every inhabited continent. The brothers within each province work under the direction of a Province Leadership Team. In turn, the entire Congregation operates under the leadership of a Congregation Leadership Team that is based in Rome (and led by the Congregation Leader). These provincial and congregational teams are elected on a six-year basis at Congregation chapters.

text: Restructuring has taken place in the congregation to account for the changing needs, in particular the declining number of brothers in the developed world. The three provinces of North America (Canada, Eastern American, and Western American Province) restructured into the Edmund Rice Christian Brothers North America on 1 July 2005.[13] The provinces that cover Ireland, England and the Congregational Leadership Team in Rome combined into a single European province on May 5, 2007,[14] while the five provinces covering Australia, New Zealand and Papua New Guinea combined into one Oceania province on October 1, 2007,[15] The English Province is a registered charity.[16] The Dublin Headquarters are in the grounds of Marino Institute of Education, Claremont, Griffith Avenue, Dublin 9, Ireland.

text: A special community within this new European province will be based in Geneva, Switzerland, working to establish an NGO known as Edmund Rice International. The purpose of such an organisation is to gain what is known as a "general consultative status" with the United Nations. "This position allows groups the opportunity to challenge systemic injustice and to engage in advocacy work with policy makers on behalf of people who are made poor." As well as including Christian Brothers from provinces all over the world, members of the Presentation Brothers will also have a presence within this community.[17]

text: Edmund Rice Development is a faith-based non-governmental organisation with charity status in Ireland. Based in Dublin, Edmund Rice Development was established in 2009, to formalise the fundraising efforts of the developing world projects for the Christian Brothers globally and received its charitable status in 2009. Funding raised by the charity is directed mainly to nine countries in Africa, where The Christian Brothers work on mission in development: Ghana, Kenya, Liberia, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Sudan, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Additional funds are also raised for similar work in South America (Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay, Peru and Uruguay) and India.

text: List of Superiors General[edit]

text: The following is a list of the Superiors General of the Congregation of Christian Brothers.[11][18] In recent times, "Congregational Leader" has been the title used.

text:
Blessed Br. Edmund Ignatius Rice, C.F.C. (1820 – 1838)
Br. Michael Paul Riordan, C.F.C. (1838 – 1862)
Br. James Aloysius Hoare, C.F.C. (1862 – 1880)
Br. Richard Anthony Maxwell, C.F.C. (1880 - 1900)[19]
Br. Michael Titus Moylan, C.F.C. (1900 - 1905)[20]
Br. Calasanctius Whitty, C.F.C.(1905 - 1920)
Br. Jerome Hennessey C.F.C (1920 - 1930)
Br. Joseph Pius Noonan, C.F.C. (1930 - 1950)
Br. Edward Ferdinand Clancy C.F.C (1950 - 1966)[21]
Br. Arthur Austin Loftus (1966 - 1972)
Br. Justin Linus Kelty, C.F.C. (1972 – 1978)
Br. Gerald Gabriel McHugh, C.F.C. (1978 – 1990)
Br. Jerome Colm Keating, C.F.C. (1990 – 1997)
Br. Edmund Michael Garvey, C.F.C. (1997 – 2002)
Br. Philip Pinto, C.F.C. (2002 – 2014)
Br. Hugh O'Neill, CFC (2014 – present)

text: Irish nationalism[edit]

text: The Irish Christian Brothers were strong supporters of Irish nationalism, the Irish language revival and Irish sports. In most of their schools in Ireland Gaelic football and hurling were encouraged as opposed to other sports and there were even examples of boys being punished for playing soccer. Conor Cruise O'Brien called them "the most indefatigable and explicit carriers" of the Catholic nation idea.[22]

text: Sexual abuse of children[edit]

text: In the late 20th and early 21st century many cases were exposed of continuing emotional, physical and sexual abuse of children in the Christian Brothers' care over many decades. Cases emerged in Ireland, Canada, the United States, Australia and the United Kingdom.

text: Australia[edit]

text: The Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse documented Christian Brothers activities in Australia and in particular in Ballarat. Twenty-two per cent of Christian Brothers across Australia have been alleged sexual predators since 1950, according to the royal commission. The commissioners concluded the Christian Brothers "completely failed … to protect the most vulnerable children in their care", and that senior brothers, including Brother Paul Nangle Ballarat's highest Brother in the 1970's, had deliberately misled police in more recent statements about their knowledge of abuse.[23][24] One school, Christian Brothers' St Alipius boys school in Ballarat East, was staffed almost entirely by paedophiles.[25] Brother Robert Best, Brother Edward Dowlan, Brother Gerald Leo Fitzgerald, Brother Stephen Farrell have been indicated as sexually abusing children in the royal commission, parliamentary inquiries and in court cases.

text: Convicted sex-offenders in Australia include Brother Robert Best, who taught at Catholic primary and secondary schools in Ballarat, Box Hill and Geelong (all in Victoria, Australia) between the 1960s and 1980s. He was convicted by a jury after pleading guilty to more than 40 child sex offences against dozens of students, some as young as eight years old.[26] Robert Best was sentenced to fourteen years and nine months jail on August 8, 2011. Many of his victims were in court for the sentencing and shouted at him as he was led away.[27] Brother Edward Dowlan (Ted Bales) pleaded guilty to 33 counts of indecently assaulting boys under the age of 16 and one count of gross indecency between 1971 and 1986.[28] The judge found that he had preyed on vulnerable boys as young as eight years old over a 14-year period at six different schools from the first year he became a Christian Brother in 1971. Dowlan has been jailed twice first in 1996 for six-and-a-half years and then again in 2015.[29]

text: In May 2013 the Christian Brothers admitted to Victoria's parliamentary inquiry into child abuse that they did what they could to defend members accused of sexual assault against children. They admitted to hiring a private investigator to follow one of Brother Robert Best's victims. They spent nearly A$1 million defending Best, and hundreds of thousands to defend other members also accused of rape.[30][31]

text: In December 2014 a royal commission found that "Christian Brothers leaders knew of allegations of sexual abuse of children at four WA orphanages and failed to manage the homes to prevent the systemic ill-treatment for decades."[32][33] The minutes of the meeting of the Christian Brothers Provincials with their lawyers on 7 December 1993 showed that the meeting was not focused on settling the proceedings; the concern was the cost, and there was no sentiment of recognising the suffering of the survivors.[34]

text: During the 2016 Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse in Ballarat it was found that 853 children, average age 13, had been sexually abused by one or more Christian Brothers.[35] Child abuse complaints were made against 281 Christian Brothers, and the Congregation had paid A$37.3 million in compensation.[36] During the Ballarat Case Study of the Royal Commission it was found that Glynis McNeight, a private investigator, was paid for by the Christian Brothers through a retained law firm, Doyle Considine solicitors, pursued victims and their families sexually abused by Brother Edward Dowlan.[37][38][39] McNeight's report was tabled[40] which contained strategy to manipulate witnesses such as a victim could be “easily be torn down in the witness box" and "The person himself is a very nervous, excitable type who will reduce to tears and bad language easily".[41]  The report also documents a Senior Constable, Blair Smith, trying to protect victims from harassment from the investigator.[42][43] Blair Smith was also one of the first detectives to properly investigate a Christian brother in Victoria was Blair Smith, whose work in the early 1990s led to the conviction of Edward Dowlan, he said that the Christian Brothers is "run like a Mafia organisation."[44] Smith said "the Christian Brother file, I think about it every day of my life."[45] The Royal Commission also showed that the Christian Brothers knew of abuse from Brothers but did not tell police[46] and spent almost $1.5 Million defending paedophile Brother Robert Best, Edward Dowlan and Stephen Farrell.[47] The Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse found that Gerald Leo Fitzgerald a Christian Brother was moved moved to new locations with continued access to children after allegations had been made.[48] Brother Fitzgerald's victims were exclusively boys, with an average age of eight years old.[49] One victim described the type of behaviour of Fitzgerald to the Commission: "...Brother Fitzgerald was his grade 3 teacher in 1974. He said that at the end of school every Friday Brother Fitzgerald would line up his students and kiss them goodbye. He kissed some with his tongue."[50] He died in 1987 before any charges were laid against him and is buried at the shared Christian Brothers plot.[51]

text: The Royal Commissions final report of Catholic Church authorities in Ballarat was released on the 6th of December.[52] The report found that 56 Christian Brothers had claims of sexual abuse made against them in Ballarat and that there “was a complete failure by the Christian Brothers to protect the most vulnerable children in their care”.[53] The Commissioners found that in one instances after a complaint was made to Brother Nangle about Brother Dowlan (who was later jailed for sexual abuse[54]) was putting his hands down students’ pants a student was required to apologise to the school assembly for “spreading lies”.[55][56]

text: The response to complaints of sexual abuse was "grossly inadequate" and that Christian Brothers were moved after an allegation had been made.[57] The Report found:

text: Often, the Christian Brother in question was allowed to remain in the position he held where the allegations arose, with continuing access to children.

text: On many occasions, the Brother was moved to a new location after a complaint or allegation was made about his conduct. In some cases, the reason given for the move was to conceal the true reason for it and to protect the reputation of the Christian Brothers and avoid scandal and embarrassment.[58][56]

text: Ireland and the UK[edit]

text: England[edit]

text: In December 2012 the Christian Brothers school St Ambrose College, Altrincham, Greater Manchester, was implicated in a child sex abuse case involving teaching staff carrying out acts of abuse both on and off school grounds.[59][60]

text: Ireland[edit]

text: The Congregation of the Christian Brothers published full-page advertisements in newspapers in Ireland in March 1998, apologizing to former pupils who had been ill-treated whilst in their care. This advertising campaign expressed "deep regret" on behalf of the Christian Brothers and listed telephone lines which former pupils could ring if they needed help.[61] In 2003 the Congregation brought a case against the Commission to Inquire into Child Abuse seeking to prevent the Commission from naming brothers accused of child abuse. This case was lost in the High Court, but the congregation appealed to the Supreme Court. The appeal was dropped when the Commission agreed not to name brothers.[62] In May 2009 a report was issued by an independent government commission on child abuse committed on thousands of children in residential care institutions run by various religious institutes for the Irish state.[63] This report found that sexual abuse of boys in institutions run by the Brothers was common. In response, the Irish ecclesiastical province issued a pledge to pay 161 million euros toward a fund set up to compensate male and female victims of such abuse in both their institutions and those run by other religious institutes. As of 2013[update] the Christian Brothers in Ireland continued to seek out-of-court settlement for historical claims initiated by survivors of sexual assault by Brothers committed in day schools managed by the order in Ireland. Towards Healing was set up by CORI to offer therapy to survivors of clerical abuse; it is a Catholic organisation about whose independence there has been controversy. The Christian brothers in Ireland used the services of the L&P group[64] to set up an education trust, its intent being disputed by the liquidator of the Christian Brothers organisation in Canada, representing victims claiming reparations. As of December 2001[update] the liquidator was preparing to investigate an Irish-registered company in his search for tens of millions of pounds of the organisation’s assets.[65]

text: Scotland[edit]

text: In 2016 Fr. John Farrell, Retired priest of the Diocese of Motherwell, the last Head teacher at St Ninian's Orphanage, Falkland, Fife, was sentenced to five years imprisonment. His colleague Paul Kelly, a retired teacher from Portsmouth, was given ten years, both were convicted of the physical and sexual abuse of boys between the years 1979 and 1983. More than 100 charges involving 35 boys were made. The orphanage closed in 1983.[66]

text: Canada[edit]

text: In 1987 men came forward to say that when they were being raised in Mount Cashel Orphanage in St. John's Newfoundland, from the 1950s until the 1970s, they had suffered physical, sexual, and emotional abuse, and that when the Archdiocese became aware of the abuse, it removed brothers who were guilty of these acts, but took no other immediate action. Both the St. John's Archdiocese through the Canadian Conference of Catholic Bishops as well as the Congregation of Christian Brothers have since enacted policies aimed at the prevention of child sexual abuse.[67][68]

text: United States[edit]

text: Christian Brother Robert Brouillette, who had taught at St. Laurence High School, was arrested in April 1998 in Joliet, Illinois, for indecent solicitation of a child.[69] He was convicted in March 2000 of 10 charges related to child pornography.[70] In 2002 a civil lawsuit was filed in Cook County, Illinois, against Brouillette for sexual assault against a 21-year-old man.[71]

text: In 2013 the Edmund Rice Christian Brothers North American Province, known as Irish Christian Brothers, paid US$16.5 million to 400 victims of child sexual abuse across the US, and agreed to enforce a zero-tolerance policy for brothers accused of abuse. This followed the Brothers filing for bankruptcy in April 2011 following rising legal costs, leading to a reorganization settlement between creditors and the order according to the US Chapter 11 bankruptcy code.[72]

text: Publications[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The Christian brothers composed and published a number of text books on several subjects, many in the Irish language, which were used by their schools.

text: Textbooks[edit]

text:
Irish History Reader, Christian Brothers, M. H. Gill & Son, 1905.
Graiméar na Gaeidhilge, Na Bráithre Críostaí, 1907.
Matamaitic na hArdteistiméireachta Na Bráithre Críostaí, 1967.
Leaving Certificate Chemistry, Christian Brothers Congregation, Folens, Dublin, 1970?.[73]
Leaving Certificate Physics [translated from the Irish], Christian Brothers Congregation, Folens, Dublin, 1973.

text: Our Boys[edit]

text: Our Boys was a magazine for boys by Christian Brothers and the Educational Company of Ireland, published from September 1914 until the 1990s. It was based on British Boys Own adventure comics, with illustrated strips and adventure stories in English and Irish. It had an overt Catholic and Irish Nationalist outlook, featuring Irish Legends, GAA figures, the Missions and Catholic juvenile organisations. Illustrator Gerrit van Gelderen contributed to the magazine.[74]

text: Notable Christian Brothers[edit]

text:
John Philip Holland – inventor of the motor-powered submarine
Paul Francis Keaney – Australian educator
Joseph G. McKenna – American educator
Paul Nunan – Australian educator
Blessed Edmund Ignatius Rice – founder of the Christian Brothers and the Presentation Brothers
Michael Paul Riordan – Irish early Christian Brother and second Superior General of the congregation
Patrick Ambrose Treacy – Australian educator and leader of the first Australian community of Christian Brothers.
Brother Robert Cataldus (Cal) Whiting --- Australian Christian Brother who served Indian children, irrespective of their religion, during his entire life.

text: Former pupils[edit]

text: In popular culture[edit]

text:
The television miniseries The Boys of St. Vincent is a fictional story based on real events of sexual abuse that took place at Mount Cashel Orphanage in St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador, an orphanage run by the Christian Brothers.[75]
The play The Christian Brothers, first performed in 1975 and written by Ron Blair, is a one-man show depicting a Christian Brother teaching at a Catholic school in Australia in the 1950s, focusing much on the Brother's use of corporal punishment.[76]