document_title: Friedel–Crafts reaction

question_text: in the friedel crafts acylation reaction aluminum chloride functions as a

text: Friedel–Crafts reaction

text: Friedel–Crafts alkylation[edit]

text:
Friedel-Crafts alkylation

Named after
Charles Friedel
James Crafts

Reaction type
Coupling reaction

Identifiers

Organic Chemistry Portal
friedel-crafts-alkylation

RSC ontology ID
RXNO:0000046

text: Friedel–Crafts alkylation involves the alkylation of an aromatic ring with an alkyl halide using a strong Lewis acid catalyst.[6] With anhydrous ferric chloride as a catalyst, the alkyl group attaches at the former site of the chloride ion. The general mechanism is shown below.[7]

text: This reaction suffers from the disadvantage that the product is more nucleophilic than the reactant. Consequenly, overalkylation occurs. Furthermore, the reaction is only very useful for tertiary carbon and secondary alkylating agents. Otherwise the incipient carbocation (R+) will undergo a carbocation rearrangement reaction.[7]

text: Steric hindrance can be exploited to limit the number of alkylations, as in the t-butylation of 1,4-dimethoxybenzene.[citation needed]

text: Alkylations are not limited to alkyl halides: Friedel–Crafts reactions are possible with any carbocationic intermediate such as those derived from alkenes and a protic acid, Lewis acid, enones, and epoxides. An example is the synthesis of neophyl chloride from benzene and methallyl chloride:[8]

text: In one study the electrophile is a bromonium ion derived from an alkene and NBS:[9]

text: In this reaction samarium(III) triflate is believed to activate the NBS halogen donor in halonium ion formation.

text: Friedel–Crafts dealkylation[edit]

text: Friedel–Crafts alkylation has been hypothesized to be reversible. In a reversed Friedel–Crafts reaction or Friedel–Crafts dealkylation, alkyl groups are removed in the presence of protons or other Lewis acid.[citation needed]

text: For example, in a multiple addition of ethyl bromide to benzene, ortho and para substitution is expected after the first monosubstitution step because an alkyl group is an activating group. However, the actual reaction product is 1,3,5-triethylbenzene with all alkyl groups as a meta substituent.[10] Thermodynamic reaction control makes sure that thermodynamically favored meta substitution with steric hindrance minimized takes prevalence over less favorable ortho and para substitution by chemical equilibration. The ultimate reaction product is thus the result of a series of alkylations and dealkylations.[citation needed]

text: Friedel–Crafts acylation[edit]

text:
Friedel-Crafts acylation

Named after
Charles Friedel
James Crafts

Reaction type
Coupling reaction

Identifiers

Organic Chemistry Portal
friedel-crafts-acylation

RSC ontology ID
RXNO:0000045

text: Friedel–Crafts acylation involves the acylation of aromatic rings. Typical acylating agents are acyl chlorides. Typical Lewis acid catalysts are acids and aluminium trichloride.. Friedel–Crafts acylation is also possible with acid anhydrides.[11] Reaction conditions are similar to the Friedel–Crafts alkylation. This reaction has several advantages over the alkylation reaction. Due to the electron-withdrawing effect of the carbonyl group, the ketone product is always less reactive than the original molecule, so multiple acylations do not occur. Also, there are no carbocation rearrangements, as the carbonium ion is stabilized by a resonance structure in which the positive charge is on the oxygen.[citation needed]

text: The viability of the Friedel–Crafts acylation depends on the stability of the acyl chloride reagent. Formyl chloride, for example, is too unstable to be isolated. Thus, synthesis of benzaldehyde via the Friedel–Crafts pathway requires that formyl chloride be synthesized in situ. This is accomplished via the Gattermann-Koch reaction, accomplished by treating benzene with carbon monoxide and hydrogen chloride under high pressure, catalyzed by a mixture of aluminium chloride and cuprous chloride.

text: Reaction mechanism[edit]

text: The reaction proceeds via generation of an acylium center:

text: The reaction is completed by deprotonation of the arenium ion by AlCl4−, regenerating the AlCl3 catalyst:

text: If desired, the resulting ketone can be subsequently reduced to the corresponding alkane substituent by either Wolff–Kishner reduction or Clemmensen reduction. The net result is the same as the Friedel–Crafts alkylation except that rearrangement is not possible.[12]

text: Friedel–Crafts hydroxyalkylation[edit]

text: Arenes react with certain aldehydes and ketones to form the hydroxyalkylated product for example in the reaction of the mesityl derivative of glyoxal with benzene[13] to form a benzoin with an alcohol rather than a carbonyl group:

text: Friedel–Crafts sulfonylation[edit]

text: Under Friedel–Crafts reaction conditions, arenes react with sulfonyl halides and sulfonic acid anhydrides affording sulfones. Commonly used catalysts include AlCl3, FeCl3, GaCl3, BF3, SbCl5, BiCl3 and Bi(OTf)3, among others.[14][15] Intramolecular Friedel–Crafts cyclization occurs with 2-phenyl-1-ethanesulfonyl chloride, 3-phenyl-1-propanesulfonyl chloride and 4-phenyl-1-butanesulfonyl chloride on heating in nitrobenzene with AlCl3.[16] Sulfenyl and sulfinyl chlorides also undergo Friedel–Crafts–type reactions, affording sulfides and sulfoxides, respectively.[17] Both aryl sulfinyl chlorides and diaryl sulfoxides can be prepared from arenes through reaction with thionyl chloride in the presence of catalysts such as BiCl3, Bi(OTf)3, LiClO4 or NaClO4.[18][19]

text: Scope and variations[edit]

text: This reaction is related to several classic named reactions:

text:
The acylated reaction product can be converted into the alkylated product via a Clemmensen reduction.[20][21][22]
The Gattermann–Koch reaction can be used to synthesize benzaldehyde from benzene.[23]
The Gatterman reaction describes arene reactions with hydrocyanic acid.[24]
The Houben–Hoesch reaction describes arene reactions with nitriles.[25][26]
A reaction modification with an aromatic phenyl ester as a reactant is called the Fries rearrangement.
In the Scholl reaction two arenes couple directly (sometimes called Friedel–Crafts arylation).[27][28]
In the Zincke–Suhl reaction p-cresol is alkylated to a cyclohexadienone with tetrachloromethane.[29]
In the Blanc chloromethylation a chloromethyl group is added to an arene with formaldehyde, hydrochloric acid and zinc chloride.[30][31]
The Bogert–Cook synthesis (1933) involves the dehydration and isomerization of 1-β-phenylethylcyclohexanol to the octahydro derivative of phenanthrene[32]

text:
The Darzens–Nenitzescu synthesis of ketones (1910, 1936) involves the acylation of cyclohexene with acetyl chloride to methylcyclohexenylketone.
In the related Nenitzescu reductive acylation (1936) a saturated hydrocarbon is added making it a reductive acylation to methylcyclohexylketone
The Nencki reaction (1881) is the ring acetylation of phenols with acids in the presence of zinc chloride.[33]
In a green chemistry variation aluminium chloride is replaced by graphite in an alkylation of p-xylene with 2-bromobutane. This variation will not work with primary halides from which less carbocation involvement is inferred.[34]

text: Dyes[edit]

text: Friedel–Crafts reactions have been used in the synthesis of several triarylmethane and xanthene dyes.[35] Examples are the synthesis of thymolphthalein (a pH indicator) from two equivalents of thymol and phthalic anhydride:

text: A reaction of phthalic anhydride with resorcinol in the presence of zinc chloride gives the fluorophore Fluorescein. Replacing resorcinol by N,N-diethylaminophenol in this reaction gives rhodamine B:

text: Haworth reactions[edit]

text: The Haworth reaction is a classic method for the synthesis of 1-tetralone.[36] In it benzene is reacted with succinic anhydride, the intermediate product is reduced and a second FC acylation takes place with addition of acid.[37]

text: In a related reaction, phenanthrene is synthesized from naphthalene and succinic anhydride in a series of steps.

text: Friedel–Crafts test for aromatic hydrocarbons[edit]

text: Reaction of chloroform with aromatic compounds using an aluminium chloride catalyst gives triarylmethanes, which are often brightly colored, as is the case in triarylmethane dyes. This is a bench test for aromatic compounds.[38]


document_title: Jason Voorhees

question_text: what happened to jason's face in friday the 13th

question_tokens: what happened to jason 's face in friday the 13th

root

text: Jason Voorhees

text: Appearances[edit]

text: Jason Voorhees first appears during a nightmare of the main character Alice (Adrienne King) in the original Friday the 13th film; he becomes the main antagonist of the series in its sequels. As well as the films, there have been books and comics that have either expanded the universe of Jason, or been based on a minor aspect of him.

tag: p

text: Films[edit]

text: Jason made his first cinematic appearance in the original Friday the 13th on May 9, 1980. In this film, Jason is portrayed in the memories of his mother, Mrs. Voorhees (Betsy Palmer), and as a hallucination of the film's protagonist, Alice (Adrienne King). Though the character makes no contemporary appearance onscreen, he propels the film's plot—Mrs. Voorhees, the cook at Camp Crystal Lake, seeks revenge for his death, which she blames on the camp counselors.[7] Jason's second appearance was in the sequel, Friday the 13th Part 2 (1981). Revealed to be alive, an adult Jason exacts revenge on Alice for decapitating his mother in the original film. Jason (Steven Dash and Warrington Gillette), returns to Crystal Lake, living there as a hermit and guarding it from all intruders. Five years later a group of teenagers arrive to set up a new camp, only to be murdered one by one by Jason, who wears a pillow case over his head to hide his face. Ginny (Amy Steel), the lone survivor, finds a cabin in the woods with a shrine built around the severed head of Mrs. Voorhees, and surrounded by mutilated corpses. Ginny fights back and slams a machete through Jason's shoulder. Jason is left for dead as Ginny is taken away in an ambulance.[8] In Friday the 13th Part III (1982), Jason (Richard Brooker) escapes to a nearby lake resort, Higgins Haven, to rest from his wounds. At the same time, Chris Higgins (Dana Kimmell) returns to the property with some friends. An unmasked and reclusive Jason kills anyone who wanders into the barn where he is hiding. Taking a hockey mask from a victim to hide his face, he leaves the barn to kill the rest of the group. Chris fends off Jason by slamming an axe into his head, but the night's events drive her into hysteria as the police take her away.[9]

text: Friday the 13th: The Final Chapter (1984) continues the story, with a presumed-dead Jason (Ted White) found by the police and taken to the morgue. Jason awakens at the morgue and kills an attendant and a nurse, and makes his way back to Crystal Lake. A group of teens renting a house there fall victim to Jason's rampage. Jason then seeks out Trish (Kimberly Beck) and Tommy Jarvis (Corey Feldman) next door. While Trish distracts Jason, Tommy kills him.[10] Friday the 13th: A New Beginning follows Tommy Jarvis (John Shepherd), who was committed to a mental hospital after the events of The Final Chapter, and has grown up constantly afraid that Jason (Tom Morga) will return. Jason's body was supposedly cremated after Tommy killed him. Roy Burns (Dick Wieand) uses Jason's persona to become a copycat killer at the halfway home to which Tommy was moved. Jason appears in the film only through Tommy's dreams and hallucinations.[11] In Friday the 13th Part VI: Jason Lives (1986), Tommy (Thom Mathews), who has run away from a mental institution, visits Jason's grave and learns that Jason's body was never actually cremated, but buried in a cemetery near Crystal Lake. While attempting to destroy his body, Tommy inadvertently resurrects Jason (C. J. Graham) via a piece of cemetery fence that acts as a lightning rod. Now possessing superhuman abilities, Jason returns to Crystal Lake, now renamed Forest Green, and begins his killing spree anew. Tommy eventually lures Jason back to the lake where he drowned as a child and chains him to a boulder on the lake floor, but almost dies in the process. Tommy's friend, Megan Garris, finishes Jason off by cutting his face with a boat propeller.[12]

text: Friday the 13th Part VII: The New Blood (1988) begins an undisclosed amount of time after Jason Lives. Jason (Kane Hodder) is freed from his chains by the telekinetic Tina Shepard (Lar Park Lincoln), who was attempting to resurrect her father. Jason begins killing those who occupy Crystal Lake, and after a battle with Tina, is dragged back to the bottom of the lake by an apparition of Tina's father.[13] Friday the 13th Part VIII: Jason Takes Manhattan (1989) sees Jason return from the grave, brought back to life via an underwater electrical cable. He follows a group of students on their senior class trip to Manhattan, boarding the Lazarus to wreak havoc. Upon reaching Manhattan, Jason kills all the survivors but Rennie (Jensen Daggett) and Sean (Scott Reeves); he chases them into the sewers, where he is submerged in toxic waste and dies.[14] Jason Goes to Hell: The Final Friday (1993) marked the second time Jason was officially killed according to studio canon. Through an unexplained resurrection, he returns to Crystal Lake, where he is hunted by the FBI. The FBI sets up a sting to kill Jason, which proves successful. Through mystical possession, however, Jason survives by passing his demon-infested heart from one being to the next. Though Jason does not physically appear throughout most of the film, it is learned he has a half-sister and a niece, and that he needs them to retrieve and reinhabit his body. After resurrecting it, Jason is stabbed by his niece Jessica Kimble (Kari Keegan) and dragged into Hell.[15]

text: Jason X (2001)[16] marked Kane Hodder's last performance as Jason. The film starts off in 2010; Jason has returned after another unexplained resurrection. Captured by the U.S. government in 2008, Jason is being experimented upon in a research facility, where it has been determined that he has regenerative capabilities and that cryonic suspension is the only possible solution to stop him, since numerous attempts to execute him have proved unsuccessful. Jason escapes, killing all but one of his captors, and slices through the cryo-chamber, spilling cryonics fluid into the room, freezing himself and the only other survivor, Rowan (Lexa Doig). A team of students 445 years later discover Jason's body. On the team's spacecraft, Jason thaws from his cryonic suspension and begins killing the crew. Along the way, he is enhanced by a regenerative nanotechnology process, which gives him an impenetrable metal body. Finally, he is ejected into space and falls to the planet Earth Two, burning in the atmosphere.[17]

text: Freddy vs. Jason (2003) is a crossover film in which Jason battles A Nightmare on Elm Street's villain Freddy Krueger (Robert Englund), a supernatural killer who murders people in their dreams. Krueger has grown weak, as people in his home town of Springwood have suppressed their fear of him. Freddy, who is impersonating Jason's mother (Paula Shaw), resurrects Jason (Ken Kirzinger) from Hell and sends him to Springwood to cause panic and fear. Jason accomplishes this, but refuses to stop killing. A battle ensues in both the dream world and Crystal Lake. The identity of the winner is left ambiguous, as Jason surfaces from the lake holding Freddy's severed head, which winks and laughs.[18]

text: In the 2009 Friday the 13th reboot, young Jason (Caleb Guss) witnesses his mother's (Nana Visitor) beheading as a child and follows in her footsteps, killing anyone who comes to Crystal Lake. The adult Jason (Derek Mears) kidnaps Whitney Miller (Amanda Righetti), a girl who looks like his mother, and holds her prisoner in his underground tunnels. Months later, Whitney's brother Clay (Jared Padalecki) comes to Crystal Lake and rescues her. Eventually, Whitney uses Jason's devotion to his mother against him, stabbing him with his own machete while he is distracted when she appears.[19]

text: Literature[edit]

text: Jason first appeared outside of film in the 1982 novelization of Friday the 13th Part 3 by Michael Avallone.[20] Avallone chose to use an alternate ending, which was filmed for Part 3 but never used, as the ending for his 1982 adaptation. In the alternate film ending, Chris, who is in the canoe, hears Rick's voice and immediately rushes back to the house. When she opens the door, Jason is standing there with a machete, and he decapitates her.[21] Jason next appears in print in the 1986 novelization of Jason Lives by Simon Hawke,[22] who also adapted the first three films in 1987 and 1988.[23][24][25] Jason Lives specifically introduced Elias Voorhees, Jason's father, a character that was slated to appear in the film but was cut by the studio. In the novel, instead of being cremated, Elias has Jason buried after his death.[26]

text: Jason made his comic book debut in the 1993 adaptation of Jason Goes to Hell, written by Andy Mangels. The three-issue series was a condensed version of the film, with a few added scenes that were never shot.[27] Jason made his first appearance outside of the direct adaptations in Satan's Six No. 4, published in 1993, which is a continuation of the events of Jason Goes to Hell.[28] In 1995, Nancy A. Collins wrote a three-issue, non-canonical miniseries involving a crossover between Jason and Leatherface. The story involves Jason stowing away aboard a train, after being released from Crystal Lake when the area is drained due to heavy toxic waste dumping. Jason meets Leatherface, who adopts him into his family after the two become friends. Eventually they turn on each other.[29] In 1994 four young adult novels were released under the title of Friday the 13th. They did not feature Jason explicitly, but revolve around people becoming possessed by Jason when they put on his mask.[30][31][32][33]

text: In 2003 and 2005, Black Flame published novelizations of Freddy vs. Jason and Jason X respectively.[34][35] In 2005 they began publishing a new series of novels; one set was published under the Jason X title, while the second set utilized the Friday the 13th title. The Jason X series consisted of four sequels to the novelization of the film. Jason X: The Experiment was the first published. In this novel, Jason is being used by the government, who are trying to use his indestructibility to create their own army of "super soldiers".[36] Planet of the Beast follows the efforts of Dr. Bardox and his crew as they try to clone the body of a comatose Jason, and shows their efforts to stay alive when Jason wakes from his coma.[37] Death Moon revolves around Jason crash-landing at Moon Camp Americana.[38] Jason is discovered below a prison site and unknowingly awakened in To The Third Power. Jason has a son in this book, conceived through a form of artificial insemination.[39]

text: On May 13, 2005, Avatar Press began releasing new Friday the 13th comics. The first, titled Friday the 13th, was written by Brian Pulido and illustrated by Mike Wolfer and Greg Waller. The story takes place after the events of Freddy vs. Jason, where siblings Miles and Laura Upland have inherited Camp Crystal Lake. Knowing that Jason caused the recent destruction, Laura, unknown to her brother, sets out to kill Jason using a paramilitary group, so that she and her brother can sell the property.[40] A three-issue miniseries titled Friday the 13th: Bloodbath was released in September 2005. Written by Brian Pulido and illustrated by Mike Wolfer and Andrew Dalhouse, the story involves a group of teenagers who come from Camp Tomorrow, a camp that sits on Crystal Lake, for work and a "party-filled weekend". The teenagers discover they share common family backgrounds, and soon awaken Jason, who hunts them.[41] Brian Pulido returned for a third time in October 2005 to write Jason X. Picking up after the events of the Jason X film, Über-Jason is now on Earth II where a biological engineer, Kristen, attempts to subdue Jason, in hopes that she can use his regenerative tissue to save her own life and the lives of those she loves.[42] In February 2006 Avatar published Friday the 13th: Jason vs. Jason X. Written and illustrated by Mike Wolfer, the story takes place after the events of the film Jason X. A salvage team discovers the spaceship Grendel and awakens a regenerated Jason Voorhees. The "original" Jason and Über-Jason are drawn to each other, resulting in a battle to the death.[43] In June 2006 a one-shot comic entitled Friday the 13th: Fearbook was released, written by Mike Wolfer with art by Sebastian Fiumara. The comic has Jason being captured and experimented upon by the Trent Organization; Jason escapes and seeks out Violet, the survivor of Friday the 13th: Bloodbath, who is being contained by the Trent Organization in their Crystal Lake headquarters.[44]

text: The Friday the 13th novella storyline was not connected to the Jason X series, and did not continue the stories set forth by the films, but furthered the character of Jason in its own way. Friday the 13th: Church of the Divine Psychopath has Jason resurrected by a religious cult.[45] Jason is stuck in Hell, when recently executed serial killer Wayne Sanchez persuades Jason to help him return to Earth in Friday the 13th: Hell Lake.[46] In Hate-Kill-Repeat, two religious serial killers attempt to find Jason at Crystal Lake, believing that the three of them share the same contempt for those that break the moral code.[47] In The Jason Strain, Jason is on an island with a group of convicts placed there by television executives running a reality game show.[48] The character of Pamela Voorhees returns from the grave in Carnival of Maniacs. Pamela is in search of Jason, who is now part of a traveling sideshow and about to be auctioned off to the highest bidder.[49]

text: In December 2006 DC Comics imprint Wildstorm began publishing new comic books about Jason Voorhees under the Friday the 13th moniker. The first set was a six-issue miniseries involving Jason's return to Camp Crystal Lake, which is being renovated by a group of teenagers in preparation for its reopening as a tourist attraction. The series depicts various paranormal phenomena occurring at Crystal Lake. Jason's actions in this storyline are driven by the vengeful spirits of a Native American tribe wiped out on the lake by fur traders sometime in the 19th century.[50][51] On July 11 and August 15, 2007, Wildstorm published a two-part special entitled Friday the 13th: Pamela's Tale. The two-issue comic book covers Pamela Voorhees' journey to Camp Crystal Lake and the story of her pregnancy with Jason as she recounts it to hitchhiker Annie, a camp counselor who was killed in the original film.[52] Wildstorm released another two-part special, entitled Friday the 13th: How I Spent My Summer Vacation, that was released on September 12 and October 10, 2007. The comic book provides new insight into the psychology of Jason Voorhees as he befriends a boy born with a skull deformity.[53] Wildstorm released a six-issue series called Freddy vs. Jason vs. Ash, starring the two killers and Ash from the Evil Dead series. In this story, Freddy uses the Necronomicon, which is in the Voorhees' basement, to escape from Jason's subconscious and "gain powers unlike anything he's had before". Freddy attempts to use Jason to retrieve the book, stating it will make him a real boy. Ash, who is working at the local S-Mart in Crystal Lake, learns of the book's existence and sets out to destroy it.[54] Wildstorm released another two-issue miniseries on January 9 and February 13, 2008, titled Friday the 13th: Bad Land, written and illustrated by Ron Marz and Mike Huddleston respectively. The miniseries features Jason stalking a trio of teenaged hikers taking shelter from a blizzard in Camp Crystal Lake.[55]

text: A sequel to Freddy vs. Jason vs. Ash, subtitled The Nightmare Warriors, was released by Wildstorm in 2009. Jason escapes from the bottom of Crystal Lake to resume his hunt for Ash, but is captured by the U.S. government. Freddy helps him escape and appoints him the general of his Deadite army, using the Necronomicon to heal his accumulated injuries and decomposition; it removes his natural deformities in the process. At the climax of the story, Jason battles his nemesis Tommy Jarvis and his great-niece Stephanie Kimble; Stephanie impales him before Tommy decapitates him with a shard of glass. Jason's soul is then absorbed by Freddy, who uses it to increase his own power.[56]

text: Concept and creation[edit]

text: Creating a monster[edit]

text: Initially created by Victor Miller, Jason's final design was a combined effort by Miller, Ron Kurz, and Tom Savini.[57] The name "Jason" is a combination of "Josh" and "Ian", Miller's two sons, and "Voorhees" was inspired by a girl that Miller knew at high school whose last name was Van Voorhees. Miller felt it was a "creepy-sounding name", which was perfect for his character.[57] Miller initially wrote Jason as a normal-looking child, but the crew behind the film decided he needed to be deformed. Victor Miller explained Jason was not meant to be a creature from the "Black Lagoon" in his script, and scripted Jason as a mentally disabled young boy; it was Savini who made Jason deformed.[58] Ron Kurz confirmed that Miller's version of Jason was that of a normal child, but claims that it was his idea to turn Jason into a "mongoloid creature", and have him "jump out of the lake at the end of the film".[57] Miller later agreed the ending would not have been as good if he looked like "Betsy Palmer at eight years old".[59] Miller wrote a scene where Alice dreams she is attacked in a canoe by Jason, and then she wakes up in a hospital bed. Miller's intention was to get as close to Carrie's ending as possible.[58] Savini believed having Jason pop out of the lake would be psychologically disturbing to the audience, and since Alice is supposed to be dreaming, the crew could get away with adding anything they wanted.[58]

text: When it came time to cast the role of Jason, Ari Lehman, who had received a part in Sean Cunningham's Manny's Orphans,[60] arrived to read for the character of Jack. Before he could get started, Cunningham walked in and offered him a different part: Jason. Without having read a single word, Cunningham just looked at Ari and said, "You're the right size, you've got it."[58] In the original Friday the 13th, Ari Lehman is seen only in a brief flashback as the surprise ending.[61] Subsequent actors who portrayed a young Jason include Timothy Burr Mirkovich in Jason Takes Manhattan and Spencer Stump in Freddy vs. Jason. The adult role of Jason Voorhees has been played by various actors, some not credited, others taking great pride in their parts. Due to the physical demands the adult character requires, and the lack of emotional depth depicted, many of the actors since have been stuntmen. The most well-known among them is Kane Hodder, who is cited as the best to play the role.[3][4]

text: Many ideas were suggested for the sequel to Friday the 13th, including making the title part of a serialized film series, where each succeeding film would be its own story and not related to any previous film under the Friday the 13th moniker.[61] It was Phil Scuderi, one of the producers for the original film, who suggested bringing Jason back for the sequel. The director Steve Miner felt it was the obvious direction to take the series, as he felt the audience wanted to know more about the child who attacked Alice in the lake. Miner decided to pretend as if Alice did not see the "real Jason" in her dream, and Jason had survived his drowning as a boy and had grown up.[61] After killing Jason in The Final Chapter, it was the director Joseph Zito's intention to leave the door open for the studio to make more films with Tommy Jarvis as the main antagonist. Screenwriter Barney Cohen felt Jarvis would become a substitute for Jason, but the idea was never fully developed in A New Beginning.[62] Director and co-screenwriter Danny Steinmann disliked the idea of Jason not being the killer, but decided to use Tommy's fear of Jason as the primary story.[62] This idea was immediately abandoned in Jason Lives, when A New Beginning did not spark the "creative success" the studio was looking for. Executive producer Frank Mancuso, Jr. wanted to bring Jason back, and he did not care how it was achieved.[63] In yet another alteration of the series' continuity, Tom McLoughlin chose to ignore the idea that Jason had survived his drowning, instead presenting him as always having been some sort of supernatural force.[5] Since A New Beginning, no sequel has attempted to replace Jason as the main antagonist. Miller, who has not seen any of the sequels, took issue with all of them because they made Jason the villain. Miller believes the best part of his screenplay was that it was about a mother avenging the senseless death of her son. Miller stated, "Jason was dead from the very beginning; he was a victim, not a villain."[64]

text: Men behind the mask[edit]

text:
"... So I go from lead role to no role. Needless to say, I was disappointed. But I said, 'What the hell?'"

—Steve Daskawisz, on losing screen credit[65]

tag: div

text: Jason Voorhees went from deceased child to full-grown man for Friday the 13th Part 2, and Warrington Gillette was hired to play the role. Gillette auditioned for the role of Paul; that role eventually went to John Furey. Under the belief that he had attended the Hollywood Stuntman's School, Gillette was offered the role of Jason Voorhees.[65] Initially Gillette was unsure about the character, but the idea of starring in his first film grew on Gillette,[66] and he also thought the role was amusing.[65] It became apparent Gillette could not perform the necessary stunts, so the stunt coordinator Cliff Cudney brought in Steve Daskawisz.[67] Daskawisz filmed all of the scenes except the opening sequence and the unmasking shot at the end; Gillette returned for the unmasking scenes. Gillette received credit for playing Jason, while Daskawisz was given credit as the stunt double. When Part 3 was released the following year, Daskawisz was credited as Jason for the reused footage from the climax of the film.[9] Initially, Daskawisz was asked to return to the role for Part 3, but it would have required him to pay for his own transportation and housing during filming. Having secured a part on Guiding Light, Daskawisz declined.[67]

text: Now wanting a "bigger and stronger-looking" Jason, one that was also "more athletic and powerful", Steve Miner hired former British trapeze artist Richard Brooker. After a simple conversation, Miner decided he was the right person for the job. Being new to the country, Brooker believed that "playing a psychopathic killer" was the best way into the movie business. Brooker became the first actor to wear Jason's now-signature hockey mask. According to Brooker, "It felt great with the mask on. It just felt like I really was Jason because I didn't have anything to wear before that."[68] For The Final Chapter, Joseph Zito brought his own spin to the character, one that required a "real hardcore stuntman"; Ted White was hired to perform the role.[69] White, who only took the job for the money, did "get into the Jason psychology" when he arrived on the set. White went so far as to not speak to any of the other actors for long stretches.[69] As filming continued, White's experience was not pleasant, and in one instance, he went to battle for co-star Judie Aronson, who played Samantha, when the director kept her naked in the lake for extended periods of time. Displeased with his experience from filming, White had his name removed from the credits.[70] As with Friday the 13th Part 2, there was confusion over who performed the role in A New Beginning, partly because Jason is not the literal antagonist in the film. When Ted White turned down the opportunity to return, Dick Wieand was cast.[71] Wieand is credited as Roy Burns, the film's actual murderer, but it was stuntman Tom Morga who performed in the few flashes of Jason, as well as portraying Roy in almost all of the masked scenes.[72] Wieand has been outspoken about his lack of enthusiasm over his role in the film. Feeling alienated during the shoot, Wieand spent most of his time in his trailer.[72] By comparison, Morga enjoyed his time as Jason and made sure he "really got into the character".[71]

text:
"It's like all of a sudden you get to put a baseball uniform on, and you're the pitcher in the ninth inning of the World Series. It's an incredible feeling."

—C. J. Graham, on his experience as Jason[73]

text: A nightclub manager in Glendale, C. J. Graham, was interviewed for the role of Jason in Jason Lives, but was initially passed over because he had no experience as a stuntman.[73] Dan Bradley was hired, but Paramount executives felt Bradley did not have the right physique to play the role, and Graham was hired to replace him.[74] Although Bradley was replaced early during filming, he can be seen in the paintball sequence of the film.[26] Graham opted to perform most of his own stunts, including the scene where Jason catches on fire while battling Tommy in the lake.[74] The rest of the cast spoke highly of Graham, remarking that he never complained during all the uncomfortable situations he was placed in. Graham had no intention of being an actor or a stuntman, but the idea of playing the "bad guy", and the opportunity to wear the prosthetics, intrigued him. Graham was not brought back to reprise the role, but has often been cited as speaking highly of his time in the part.[73]

text: Kane Hodder took over the role in The New Blood, and played Jason in the next four films. He previously worked alongside director John Carl Buechler on a film called Prison. Based on his experience working with Hodder, Buechler petitioned Frank Mancuso Jr. to hire him, but Mancuso was apprehensive about Hodder's limited size. Knowing he planned to use full body prosthetics, Buechler scheduled a test screening, the first in Friday the 13th history for the character, and Mancuso immediately gave Hodder approval upon seeing him.[75] It is Buechler's contention that Hodder gave Jason his first true personality, based on the emotions, specifically the rage, that Hodder would emit while acting the part.[75] According to Hodder, he wanted to "get in touch with Jason's thirst for revenge" and try to better understand his motivation to kill.[76] After viewing the previous films, Hodder decided that he would approach Jason as a more "quick and agile" individual than he had been portrayed in the previous sequels.[76] John Carl Buechler felt that Kane had "natural affinity for the role"—so much that Kane's appearance, when wearing the mask, would often terrify the cast, the crew, and in one incident a lone stranger that he came across on his walk back to his trailer.[76] Initially Frank Mancuso Jr. and Barbara Sachs planned to use a Canadian stuntperson for Jason Takes Manhattan. Hodder acted as his own voice, calling and requesting that he be allowed to reprise the role; the ultimate decision was left to director Rob Hedden, who intended to use Hodder, because he felt Hodder knew the lore of the series.[77] With Sean Cunningham's return as producer for Jason Goes to Hell, Hodder felt his chances of reprising the role were even better: Hodder had worked as Cunningham's stunt coordinator for years.[78] Regardless, Adam Marcus, the director for Jason Goes to Hell, always intended to hire Hodder for the role.[78] Jason X would mark Hodder's last performance as Jason, to date. Todd Farmer, who wrote the screenplay for Jason X, knew Hodder would play Jason from the beginning. Jim Isaac was a fan of Hodder's work on the previous films, so hiring him was an easy decision.[79]

text: New Line believed Freddy vs. Jason needed a fresh start, and choose a new actor for Jason. Cunningham disagreed with their decision, believing Hodder was the best choice for the role.[80] Hodder did receive the script for Freddy vs. Jason, and had a meeting with director Ronny Yu and New Line executives, but Matthew Barry and Yu felt the role should be recast to fit Yu's image of Jason.[80] According to Hodder, New Line failed to provide him with a reason for the recasting, but Yu has explained he wanted a slower, more deliberate Jason, and less of the aggressive movements that Hodder had used in the previous films.[81] Yu and development executive Jeff Katz recognized the outcry among fans over the replacement of Hodder as Jason, but stood by their choice in recasting.[80]

text: The role eventually went to Ken Kirzinger, a Canadian stuntman who worked on Jason Takes Manhattan. There are conflicting reports over the reason Kirzinger was cast. According to Yu, Kirzinger was hired because he was taller than Robert Englund, the actor who portrays Freddy Krueger. Kirzinger stands 6 feet 5 inches (1.96 m), compared to the 6 feet 3 inches (1.91 m) of Kane Hodder, and Yu wanted a much larger actor to tower over the 5-foot-10-inch (1.78 m) Englund. Kirzinger believes his experience on Part VIII helped him land the part, as Kirzinger doubled for Hodder on two scenes for the film,[80] but also believes he was simply sized up and handed the job.[81] Although he was hired by the creative crew, New Line did not officially cast Kirzinger until first seeing him on film. Kirzinger's first scene was Jason walking down Elm Street. New Line wanted a specific movement in Jason's walk; Kirzinger met their expectations and signed a contract with the studio.[80] However, concerns that test audiences were confused by the film's original ending caused the studio to reshoot the final scene. Actor Douglas Tait was brought in to film the new ending, as he was available for the reshoot and had been the production's second choice to portray the role of Jason during the original casting.[82]

text: For the 2009 remake, stuntman Derek Mears was hired to portray Jason Voorhees at the recommendation of makeup special effects supervisor Scott Stoddard.[83] Mears's pleasant demeanor had the studio worried about his ability to portray such a menacing character on screen, but Mears assured them he would be able to perform the role.[84] When Mears auditioned for the role he was asked why they should hire an actor over just another guy in a mask. As Mears explained, portraying Jason is similar to Greek mask work, where the mask and the actor are two separate entities, and, based on the scene, there will be various combinations of mask and actor in the performance.[85]

text: Design[edit]

text: The physical design of Jason Voorhees has gone through changes, some subtle and some radical. For Friday the 13th, the task of coming up with Jason's appearance was the responsibility of Tom Savini, whose design for Jason was inspired by someone Savini knew as a child whose eyes and ears did not line up straight.[58] The original design called for Jason to have hair, but Savini and his crew opted to make him bald,[57] so he would look like a "hydrocephalic, mongoloid pinhead", with a dome-shaped head.[58] Savini created a plaster mold of Ari Lehman's head and used that to create prosthetics for his face.[57] Lehman personally placed mud—from the bottom of the lake—all over his body to make himself appear "really slimy."[57]

text: For Part 2, Steve Miner asked Carl Fullerton, the make-up effects supervisor, to stick to Savini's original design, but Fullerton only had one day to design and sculpt a new head. Fullerton drew a rough sketch of what he believed Jason should look like, and had it approved by Miner.[65] Fullerton added long hair to the character. Gillette had to spend hours in a chair as they applied rubber forms all over his face, and had to keep one eye closed while the "droopy eye" application was in place. Gillette's eye was closed for twelve hours at a time while he was filming the final scenes of the film. False teeth created by a local dentist were used to distort Gillette's face.[65] Much of the basic concept of Fullerton's design was eliminated for Part 3. Miner wanted to use a combination of the designs from Tom Savini and Carl Fullerton, but as work progressed the design began to lean more and more toward Savini's concept.[86] Stan Winston was hired to create a design for Jason's head, but the eyes were level and Doug White, the make-up artist for Part 3, needed a droopy right eye. White did keep Winston's design for the back of the head, because the crew did not have the time to design an entirely new head for Jason.[86] The process of creating Jason's look was hard work for White, who had to constantly make alterations to Richard Brooker's face, even up to the last day of filming.[86]

text: The script for Part 3 called for Jason to wear a mask to cover his face, having worn a bag over his head in Part 2; what no one knew at the time was that the mask chosen would become a trademark for the character, and one instantly recognizable in popular culture in the years to come.[6] During production, Steve Miner called for a lighting check. None of the effects crew wanted to apply any make-up for the light check, so they decided to just throw a mask on Brooker. The film's 3D effects supervisor, Martin Jay Sadoff, was a hockey fan, and had a bag of hockey gear with him on the set. He pulled out a Detroit Red Wings goaltender mask for the test.[87] Miner loved the mask, but it was too small. Using a substance called VacuForm, Doug White enlarged the mask and created a new mold to work with. After White finished the molds, Terry Ballard placed red triangles on the mask to give it a unique appearance. Holes were punched into the mask and the markings were altered, making it different from Sadoff's mask.[87] There were two prosthetic face masks created for Richard Brooker to wear underneath the hockey mask. One mask was composed of approximately 11 different appliances and took about six hours to apply to Brooker's face; this mask was used for scenes where the hockey mask was removed. In the scenes where the hockey mask is over the face, a simple head mask was created. This one-piece mask would slip on over Brooker's head, exposing his face but not the rest of his head.[87]

text: Tom Savini agreed to return to make-up duties for The Final Chapter because he felt he should be the one to bring Jason full circle in terms of his look from child to man.[88] Savini used his design from the original Friday the 13th, with the same practice of application as before, but molded from Ted White's face. Since Jason is not the actual killer in A New Beginning, it was not necessary to do any major designing for Jason's look. Only a head mask to cover the top and back of the head, like the one Brooker wore while wearing the hockey mask, was needed for the film. Make-up artist Louis Lazzara, who cites A New Beginning as almost a direct sequel to The Final Chapter, did base his head-mask on Tom Savini's design for The Final Chapter.[89]

text: Friday the 13th Part VII: The New Blood sought to make Jason more of a "classic monster along the lines of Frankenstein."[90] From the beginning, Buechler tried to tie the previous films together by having Jason's appearance reflect that of the damage he received in the previous installments. Buechler wanted the motor boat damage from Jason Lives, and the axe and machete cuts Jason received in Part 3 and Part 4 to part of the design for The New Blood.[75] Since Jason had been submerged under water in the previous entry, the effects team wanted Jason to appear "rotted", with bones and ribs showing, and for Jason's features to have a more defined feel to them.[90] Howard Berger was inspired by Carl Fullerton's design in The New Blood, and wanted to incorporate the exposed flesh concept into his model for Jason Goes to Hell. Berger designed Jason's skin to overlap with the mask, to make it appear as if the skin and mask had fused and the mask could no longer be removed.[78] Gregory Nicotero and Berger sculpted a full-body, foam latex suit for Kane Hodder to wear under the costume. The idea was to reveal as much of Jason's skin as possible, because Nicotero and Berger knew the physical character would not be seen for most of the film.[78]

text: Stephen Dupuis was given the task of redesigning Jason for the tenth Friday the 13th film. One concept brought into the film was Jason's regenerative abilities.[17] Dupuis gave the character more hair and more of a natural flesh appearance to illustrate the constant regeneration the character goes through; Dupuis wanted a more "gothic" design for Jason, so he added chains and shackles, and made the hockey mask more angular.[79] Jim Isaac and the rest of his crew wanted to create an entirely new Jason at some point in the film. The idea was for the teens to completely destroy Jason's body, allowing the futuristic technology to bring him back to life.[79] What was referred to as Über-Jason was designed to have chunks of metal growing from his body, bonded by tendrils that grew into the metal, all pushing through a leather suit. The metal was created from VacuForm, the same material used to increase the size of the original hockey mask, and was attached by Velcro. The tendrils were made from silicone. All of the pieces were crafted onto one suit, including an entire head piece, which Hodder wore. The make-up effects team added zippers along the side of the suit, which allowed Hodder to enter and exit the suit within 15 minutes.[79]

text: By the time Freddy vs. Jason entered production there had been ten previous Friday the 13th films. Make-up effects artist Terezakis wanted to put his own mark on Jason's look—he wanted Jason to be less rotted and decomposed and more defined, so that the audience would see a new Jason, but still recognized the face. Terezakis tried to keep continuity with the previous films, but recognized that had he followed them too literally, then "Jason would have been reduced to a pile of goo."[80] Ronny Yu wanted everything surrounding the hockey mask to act as a frame, making the mask the focal point of each shot. To achieve this, Terezakis created a "pooled-blood look" for the character by painting the skin black, based on the idea the blood had pooled in the back of his head because he had been lying on his back for a long time. As with other make-up artists before him, Terezakis followed Savini's original skull design, and aged it appropriately.[80]

text: For the 2009 version of Friday the 13th, effects artist Scott Stoddard took inspiration from Carl Fullerton's design in Friday the 13th Part 2 and Tom Savini's work in Friday the 13th: The Final Chapter. Stoddard wanted to make sure that Jason appeared human and not like a monster. Stoddard's vision of Jason includes hair loss, skin rashes, and the traditional deformities in his face, but he attempted to craft Jason's look in a way that would allow for a more human side to be seen.[84] Stoddard took inspiration from the third and fourth films when designing Jason's hockey mask. The make-up artist managed to acquire an original set piece, which he studied and later sculpted. Although he had a model of one of the original masks, Stoddard did not want to replicate it in its entirety. As Stoddard explains, "Because I didn't want to take something that already existed, there were things I thought were great, but there were things I wanted to change a bit. Make it custom, but keep all the fundamental designs. Especially the markings on the forehead and cheeks. Age them down a bit, break them up." In the end, Stoddard crafted six versions of the mask, each with varying degrees of wear.[84]

text: Characteristics[edit]

text: In his original appearance, Jason was scripted as a mentally disabled young boy.[91] Since Friday the 13th, Jason Voorhees has been depicted as a non-verbal, indestructible, machete-wielding mass murderer.[92][93] Jason is primarily portrayed as being completely silent throughout the film series. Exceptions to this include flashbacks of Jason as a child, and a brief scene in Jason Takes Manhattan where the character cries out "Mommy, please don't let me drown!" in a child's voice before being submerged in toxic waste, and in Jason Goes To Hell where his spirit possesses other individuals.[58] Online magazine Salon's Andrew O'Hehir describes Jason as a "silent, expressionless...blank slate."[94] When discussing Jason psychologically, Sean S. Cunningham said, "...he doesn't have any personality. He's like a great white shark. You can't really defeat him. All you can hope for is to survive."[95] Since Friday the 13th Part VI: Jason Lives, Jason has been a "virtually indestructible" being. Tom McLoughlin, the film's director, felt it was silly that Jason had previously been just another guy in a mask, who would kill people left and right, but get "beaten up and knocked down by the heroine at the end". McLoughlin wanted Jason to be more of a "formidable, unstoppable monster".[26] In resurrecting Jason from the dead, McLoughlin also gave him the weakness of being rendered helpless if trapped beneath the waters of Crystal Lake; inspired by vampire lore, McLoughlin decided that Jason had in fact drowned as a child, and that returning him to his original resting place would immobilize him.[96] This weakness would be presented again in The New Blood, and the idea that Jason had drowned as a child was taken up by director Rob Hedden as a plot element in Jason Takes Manhattan.[58]

text: Many have given suggestions as Jason's motivation for killing. Ken Kirzinger refers to Jason as a "psychotic mama's boy gone horribly awry...very resilient. You can't kill him, but he feels pain, just not like everyone else."[97] Kirzinger goes on to say that Jason is a "psycho-savant", and believes his actions are based on pleasing his mother, and not anything personal.[80] Andrew O'Hehir has stated, "Coursing hormones act, of course, as smelling salts to prudish Jason, that ever-vigilant enforcer of William Bennett-style values."[94] Todd Farmer, writer for Jason X, wrote the scene where Jason wakes from cryonic hibernation just as two of the teenagers are having sex. Farmer liked the idea that sex acts triggered Jason back to life.[79] Whatever his motivations, Kane Hodder believes there is a limit to what he will do. According to Hodder, Jason might violently murder any person he comes across, but when Jason Takes Manhattan called for Hodder to kick the lead character's dog, Hodder refused, stating that, while Jason has no qualms against killing humans, he is not bad enough to hurt animals.[98] Another example from Jason Takes Manhattan, involves Jason being confronted by a street gang of young teenage boys one of whom threatens him with a knife, however Jason chooses not to kill them and instead scares them off by lifting up his mask and showing them his face. Likewise, director Tom McLoughlin chose not to have Jason harm any of the children he encounters in Jason Lives, stating that Jason would not kill a child, out of a sympathy for the plight of children generated by his own death as a child.[96]

text: In Jason Goes to Hell, director Adam Marcus decided to include a copy of the Necronomicon Ex-Mortis, from the Evil Dead franchise, in the Voorhees home as a way to insinuate that Jason was actually a "Deadite", a type of demonic being from that series. Marcus stated the book's placement was intended to imply that Pamela Voorhees had used it to resurrect Jason after his childhood drowning, resulting in his supernatural abilities: "This is why Jason isn't Jason. He’s Jason plus The Evil Dead... That, to me, is way more interesting as a mashup, and [Sam] Raimi loved it! It's not like I could tell New Line my plan to include The Evil Dead, because they don't own The Evil Dead. So it had to be an Easter egg, and I did focus on it. It absolutely is canon."[99] In an early draft of Freddy vs. Jason, it was decided that one of the villains needed a redeemable factor. Ronald D. Moore, co-writer of the first draft, explained that Jason was the easiest to make redeemable, because no one had previously ventured into the psychology surrounding the character. Moore saw the character as a "blank slate", and felt he was a character the audience could really root for.[100] Another draft, penned by Mark Protosevich, followed Moore's idea of Jason having a redeemable quality. In the draft, Jason protects a pregnant teenager named Rachel Daniels. Protosevich explained, "It gets into this whole idea of there being two kinds of monsters. Freddy is a figure of actual pure evil and Jason is more like a figure of vengeance who punishes people he feels do not deserve to live. Ultimately, the two of them clash and Jason becomes an honorable monster."[100] Writers Damian Shannon and Mark Swift, who wrote the final draft of the film, disagreed about making Jason a hero, although they drew comparisons between the fact that Freddy was a victimizer and Jason was a victim. They stated, "We did not want to make Jason any less scary. He's still a brutal killer ... We never wanted to put them in a situation where Jason is a hero ... They're both villains to be equally feared."[100] Brenna O'Brien, co-founder of Fridaythe13thfilms.com, saw the character as having sympathetic qualities. She stated, "[Jason] was a deformed child who almost drowned and then spent the rest of his childhood growing up alone in the woods. He saw his mother get murdered by a camp counselor in the first Friday the 13th, and so now he exacts his revenge on anyone who returns to Camp Crystal Lake. Teenage fans can identify with that sense of rejection and isolation, which you can't really get from other killers like Freddy Krueger and Michael Myers."[6]

text: As Jason went through some characterization changes in the 2009 film, Derek Mears likens him more to a combination of John Rambo, Tarzan, and the Abominable Snowman from Looney Tunes. To him, this Jason is similar to Rambo because he sets up the other characters to fall into his traps. Like Rambo, he is more calculated because he feels that he has been wronged and he is fighting back; he is meant to be more sympathetic in this film.[101] Fuller and Form contend that they did not want to make Jason too sympathetic to the audience. As Brad Fuller explains, "We do not want him to be sympathetic. Jason is not a comedic character, he is not sympathetic. He's a killing machine. Plain and simple."[102]

text: In 2005, California State University's Media Psychology Lab surveyed 1,166 people Americans aged from 16 to 91 on the psychological appeal of movie monsters. Many of the characteristics associated with Jason Voorhees were appealing to the participants. In the survey, Jason was considered to be an "unstoppable killing machine." Participants were impressed by the "cornucopic feats of slicing and dicing a seemingly endless number of adolescents and the occasional adult." Out of the ten monsters used in the survey—which included vampires, Freddy Krueger, Frankenstein's monster, Michael Myers, Godzilla, Chucky, Hannibal Lecter, King Kong, and the Alien—Jason scored the highest in all the categories involving killing variables. Further characteristics that appealed to the participants included Jason's "immortality, his apparent enjoyment of killing [and] his superhuman strength."[103]

text: In popular culture[edit]

text: Jason Voorhees is one of the leading cultural icons of American popular culture.[103][104][105] In 1992 Jason was awarded the MTV Lifetime Achievement Award.[106] He was the first of only three completely fictional characters to be presented the award; Godzilla (1996) and Chewbacca (1997) are the others.[107][108] Jason was named No. 26 in Wizard magazine's "100 greatest villains of all time".[109] Universal Studios theme parks, in collaboration with New Line Cinema, used the character for their Halloween Horror Nights event.[110]

text: The character has been produced and marketed as merchandise over the years. In 1988 Screamin' Toys produced a model kit where owners could build their own Jason statuette. The kit required the owner to cut and paint various parts in order to assemble the figure.[111] Six years later, Screamin' Toys issued a new model kit for Jason Goes to Hell. Both kits are now out of production.[112] McFarlane Toys released two toy lines, one in 1998 and the other in 2002. The first was a figure of Jason from Jason Goes to Hell,[113] and the other was of Über-Jason from Jason X.[114] Since McFarlane's last toy line in 2002, there has been a steady production of action figures, dolls, and statuettes. These include tie-ins with the film Freddy vs. Jason (2003).[115] In April 2010 Sideshow Toys released a polystone statue of Jason, based on the version appearing in the 2009 remake.[116]

text: Jason has made an appearance in five video games. He first appeared in a 1985 Commodore 64 game.[117] His next appearance was in 1989, when LJN, an American game company known for its games based on popular movies in the 1980s and early 1990s, released Friday the 13th on the Nintendo Entertainment System. The premise involved the gamer, who picks one of six camp counselors as their player, trying to save the campers from Jason, while battling various enemies throughout the game.[118] On October 13, 2006, a Friday the 13th game was released for mobile phones. The game puts the user in the persona of Jason as he battles the undead.[119] Jason also appears as a playable character in the fighting game Mortal Kombat X as a downloadable content bonus character.[120] A new Friday the 13th video game was released in 2017, which allows players to take control of Jason or camp counselors in a multiplayer format focused on Jason trying to kill the counselors before they can escape or time runs out.

text: The character has been referenced, or made cameo appearances, in various entertainment mediums. Outside of literature sources based on the character, Jason has been featured in a variety of magazines and comic strips. Cracked magazine has released several issues featuring parodies of Jason, and he has been featured on two of their covers.[109] Mad magazine has featured the character in almost a dozen stories. He has appeared twice in the comic strip Mother Goose and Grimm.[109] The Usagi Yojimbo antagonist Jei is based on Voorhees; his name, with the honorific "-san" attached, is in fact a pun on Voorhees' first name.[121]

text:
"...Shit, half the shit I say, I just make it up
To make you mad, so kiss my white naked ass
And if it's not a rapper that I'll make it as
I'mma be a fuckin' rapist in a Jason mask."

—Final verse to Eminem's "Criminal"[122]

text: Many musical artists have made references to Jason Voorhees. Inspired by his own experience, Ari Lehman founded a band called FIRSTJASON. Lehman's band is classified as horror punk, and is influenced by the sounds of the Dead Kennedys and The Misfits.[123] The band's name pays homage to Lehman's portrayal of Jason Voorhees in the original Friday the 13th. One of the band's songs is entitled "Jason is Watching".[123] In 1986, coinciding with the release of Jason Lives, Alice Cooper released "He's Back (The Man Behind the Mask)" from his album Constrictor. The song was written to "signal Jason's big return" to the cinema, as he had been almost entirely absent in the previous film.[124] Rapper Eminem has referenced Jason in several of his songs. The song "Criminal", from the album The Marshall Mathers LP, mentions Jason specifically, while songs "Amityville" and "Off the Wall"—the latter featured fellow rapper Redman—contain Harry Manfredini's music "ki, ki, ki ... ma, ma, ma" from the film series.[125] Eminem sometimes wears a hockey mask during concerts.[126] Other rap artists that have referenced Jason include Tupac Shakur, Dr. Dre, LL Cool J, and Insane Clown Posse.[125] In 1989, Puerto Rican rapper Vico C had a song titled "Viernes 13" which featured Jason in Puerto Rico.[127] The song was so popular in the island that Vico C wrote a second part titled "Viernes 13, Parte II".[128] VH1 issued an advertisement for their Vogue Fashion Awards which was labeled "Friday the 20th", and featured Jason's mask created out of rhinestone.[129]

text: Jason has been referenced or parodied in other films.[130] In the film Scream, directed by Freddy Krueger creator Wes Craven, actress Drew Barrymore's character is being stalked by a killer who calls her on her home phone. In order to survive, she must answer the man's trivia questions. One question is "name the killer in Friday the 13th." She incorrectly guesses Jason, who did not become the killer for the film series until Part 2. Writer Kevin Williamson claimed his inspiration for this scene came when he asked this question in a bar while a group was playing a movie trivia quiz game. He received a free drink, because nobody got the answer right.[131] In another Wes Craven film, Cursed, a wax sculpture of Jason, from Jason Goes to Hell, can be seen in a wax museum.[132] In 2014, Jason made a cameo appearance in the RadioShack Super Bowl XLVIII commercial "The '80s Called".[133]

text: Jason has also been referenced by several television shows.[134] The stop motion animated television show Robot Chicken features Jason in three of its comedy sketches. In episode seventeen, "Operation: Rich in Spirit", the mystery-solving teenagers from Scooby-Doo arrive at Camp Crystal Lake to investigate the Jason Voorhees murders, and are killed off one by one. Velma is the only survivor, and in typical Scooby-Doo fashion, she rips off Jason's mask to reveal his true identity: Old Man Phillips.[135] In episode nineteen, "That Hurts Me", Jason reappears, this time as a housemate of "Horror Movie Big Brother", alongside other famous slasher movie killers such as Michael Myers, Freddy Krueger, Leatherface, Pinhead, and Ghostface.[136] Three years later, in episode sixty-two, Jason is shown on the days before and after a typical Friday the 13th.[137] Jason is spoofed in the season five episode of Family Guy entitled "It Takes a Village Idiot, and I Married One". The so-called "Mr. Voorhees" explains to Asian reporter Trisha Takanawa how happy he is to see local wildlife return following the cleanup and rejuvenation of Lake Quahog. He reappears later in the episode as the manager of the "Britches and Hose" clothing store. As opposed to his monstrous personality in the films, Jason is depicted here as polite and articulate, albeit still a psychopath; he murders random swimmers and threatens to kill his employee if she screws up.[138] In an episode of The Simpsons, Jason appears in a Halloween episode sitting on the couch with Freddy Krueger waiting for the family to arrive. When Freddy asks where the family is, Jason responds, "Ehh, whaddya gonna do?" and turns the TV on.[139] He also appears in The Simpsons episode "Stop, or My Dog Will Shoot!", alongside Pinhead, menacing Bart in a fantasy sequence.[140] The South Park episodes "Imaginationland Episode II" and "III" feature Jason among an assortment of other villains and monsters as an inhabitant of the "bad side" of Imaginationland, a world populated by fictional characters. This version of Jason has an effeminate voice and describes the removal of Strawberry Shortcake's eyeball as "super hardcore".[141][142][143] Experimental pop artist Eric Millikin created a large mosaic portrait of Jason Voorhees out of Halloween candy and spiders as part of his "Totally Sweet" series in 2013.[144][145]


document_title: Ground rule double

question_text: when did the ground rule double go into effect

text: Ground rule double

text: A ground rule double is a baseball rule that awards of two bases from the time of pitch to all baserunners including the batter-runner, as a result of the ball leaving play after being hit fairly and leaving the field under a condition of the ground rules in effect at the field where the game is being played. An automatic double is the term used to refer to a fairly hit ball leaving the field in circumstances that do not merit a home run, as described in Major League Baseball (MLB) rules 5.05(a)(6) through 5.05(a)(9).[1] The automatic double (or rule-book double) is quite often mistakenly called a ground rule double.[2]

text: While Major League Baseball has a set of universal ground rules that apply at all ballparks, none of these rules provide for an award of two bases to a runner.  A true ground rule double thus is granted only when the ground rules of a specific park come into play—rules created to provide for unique playing conditions of that park.  For example, ground rules govern the situation when a batted ball is lodged in the ivy at Wrigley Field or the walkways at Tropicana Field.[3]

text: The far more commonly occurring automatic double results from the generally applicable MLB rules 5.05(a)(6) through 5.05(a)(9).  These rules govern how to treat the batter (and any runners on base) when a batted ball is hit fair but passes out of the field of play or becomes artificially obstructed while in the field of play.  For example, these rules cover balls that hit the ground in fair territory and land out of play, typically by bouncing over a fence or wall in the outfield. MLB rules also provide generically for the award of a double when a batted ball goes through or under a fence; and when it goes through or sticks in shrubbery or vines on the fence.

text: One of these MLB Rules (5.05(a)(9)) governs when fair fly balls are deflected into the stands by a fielder: for example, a fair fly ball deflected out of play by a fielder from a point within 250 feet of home plate is considered a double. This applied in an unusual play August 3, 2007 when Melky Cabrera of the New York Yankees hit a ball that ricocheted off Kansas City Royals pitcher Ryan Braun's foot and bounced into the stands in foul territory.[4]

text: When two bases are awarded by either ground rules or the automatic rule, any baserunners ahead of the batter are entitled to advance two bases from their positions at the time of pitch.  Only in the case of interference is the umpire vested with discretion to award more bases.  The ground rule or automatic double frequently results in a runner at first base who appears to have been able to score on the batted ball nevertheless being returned to third base when the ball goes out of play.

text: In the early years of baseball, all batted balls that cleared the fence after a bounce in fair territory or on a fly were counted as home runs. The rule was changed by the American League prior to the 1930 season and subsequently by the National League on December 12, 1930. Notably, the pre-1930 rule includes most of Babe Ruth's career. Early baseball statistics do not differentiate between home runs that cleared the fence on a bounce compared to those that did not. However, most baseball historians believe that Ruth likely missed out on more  home runs that did not count due to other differences in the rules in place during his career compared to the number of home runs he likely hit off bounces.[citation needed]


document_title: List of Prime Ministers of India

question_text: who was the prime minister of india in 1997

text: List of Prime Ministers of India

text: Key

text:
Colour key for party of the prime ministers
  Bharatiya Janata Party
  Indian National Congressdesignated Indian National Congress (I) 1977–1996[5]
  Janata Dal
  Janata Party
  Janata Party (Secular)
  Samajwadi Janata Party

Other key
№: Incumbent number
†  Assassinated or died in office
§  Returned to office after a previous term
RES  Resigned
NC  Resigned following a no-confidence motion

tag: table

text: Prime Ministers of India

text:
№

Name(birth–death)

Portrait

Prior Office

Party(Alliance)

Elected constituency

Term of office[6]

Appointed by

Lok Sabha[a]

1

Jawaharlal Nehru(1889–1964)

Vice President of Executive Council

Indian National Congress

Phulpur, Uttar Pradesh

15 August 1947

15 April
1952

16 years, 286 days

Lord Mountbatten

Constituent Assembly[b]

15 April 1952

17 April 1957

Rajendra Prasad

1st

17 April 1957

2 April 1962

2nd

2 April 1962

27 May1964[†]

3rd

–

Gulzarilal Nanda (acting) (1898–1998)

Minister of Labour and Employment

Indian National Congress

Sabarkantha, Gujarat

27 May1964

9 June1964

13 days

Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan

2

Lal Bahadur Shastri(1904–1966)

Minister of Home Affairs

Indian National Congress

Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh

9 June1964

11 January1966[†]

1 year, 216 days

–

Gulzarilal Nanda (acting)(1898–1998)

Minister of Home Affairs

Indian National Congress

Sabarkantha, Gujarat

11 January1966

24 January1966

13 days

3

Indira Gandhi(1917–1984)

Minister of Information and Broadcasting

Prime Minister
(Re-elected)

Indian National Congress

Rajya Sabha MP for Uttar Pradesh

Amethi, Uttar Pradesh

24 January1966

4 March 1967

11 years, 59 days

4 March 1967

15 March 1971

V. V. Giri

4th

15 March 1971

24 March1977

5th

4

Morarji Desai(1896–1995)

Minister of Finance and Deputy Prime Minister of India before he resigned in 1969

Janata Party

Surat, Gujarat

24 March1977

28 July1979[RES]

2 years, 126 days

B. D. Jatti
(acting President)

6th

5

Charan Singh(1902–1987)

Minister of Finance

Janata Party (Secular)with INC

Baghpat, Uttar Pradesh

28 July1979

14 January1980[RES]

170 days

Neelam Sanjiva Reddy

(3)

Indira Gandhi(1917–1984)

Former Prime Minister

Indian National Congress (I)

Medak, Andhra Pradesh

14 January1980[§]

31 October1984[†]

4 years, 291 days

7th

6

Rajiv Gandhi(1944–1991)

MP for Amethi

Indian National Congress (I)

Amethi, Uttar Pradesh

31 October1984

31 December 1984

5 years, 32 days

Zail Singh

31 December 1984

2 December1989

8th

7

Vishwanath Pratap Singh(1931–2008)

Minister of Defence

Janata Dal(National Front)

Fatehpur, Uttar Pradesh

2 December1989

10 November1990[NC]

343 days

R. Venkataraman

9th

8

Chandra Shekhar(1927–2007)

MP for Ballia

Samajwadi Janata Partywith INC

Ballia, Uttar Pradesh

10 November1990

21 June1991[c]

223 days

9

Pamulaparti Venkata Narasimha Rao(1921–2004)

Minister of External Affairs

Indian National Congress (I)

Nandyal, Andhra Pradesh

21 June1991

16 May1996

4 years, 330 days

10th

10

Atal Bihari Vajpayee(1924–2018)

Minister of External Affairs

Bharatiya Janata Party

Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

16 May1996

1 June1996[RES]

16 days

Shankar Dayal Sharma

11th

11

Haradanahalli Doddegowda Deve Gowda(born 1933)

Chief Minister of Karnataka

Janata Dal(United Front)

Rajya Sabha MP for Karnataka

1 June1996

21 April1997[RES]

324 days

12

Inder Kumar Gujral(1919–2012)

Minister of External Affairs

Janata Dal(United Front)

Rajya Sabha MP for Bihar

21 April1997

19 March1998

332 days

(10)

Atal Bihari Vajpayee(1924–2018)

Former Prime Minister

Bharatiya Janata Party(NDA)

Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

19 March1998[§]

10 October 1999

6 years, 64 days

K. R. Narayanan

12th

10 October 1999

22 May2004

13th

13

Manmohan Singh(born 1932)

Minister of Finance

Indian National Congress(UPA)

Rajya Sabha MP for Assam

22 May2004

22 May 2009

10 years, 4 days

A. P. J. Abdul Kalam

14th

22 May 2009

26 May2014

Pratibha Patil

15th

14

Narendra Modi(born 1950)

Chief Minister of Gujarat

Bharatiya Janata Party(NDA)

Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh

26 May2014[7]

Incumbent

4 years, 156 days

Pranab Mukherjee

16th

text:
Jump up ^ Although the Prime Minister can be a member of either house of the Parliament, they have to command the confidence of the Lok Sabha. Upon dissolution of the Lok Sabha, the outgoing PM remains in office until their successor is sworn-in.

Jump up ^  The Constituent Assembly of India consisted of 389 members elected in 1946 by the provincial assemblies by a single, transferable-vote system of proportional representation. The Assembly was replaced by the Provisional Parliament of India after adoption of the Constitution on 26 January 1950 until the first general elections.

Jump up ^ Chandra Shekhar officially resigned as Prime Minister on 13 March 1991, but he and his ministers continued in office until Rao succeeded him.

tag: ol


document_title: Pickup truck

question_text: when was the first extended cab truck made

text: Pickup truck

text: History[edit]

text: In the early days of automobile manufacturing, vehicles were sold as a chassis only, and third parties added bodies on top.[6] In 1913 the Galion Allsteel Body Company, an early developer of the pickup and dump truck, built and installed hauling boxes on slightly modified Ford Model T chassis,[7] and from 1917 on the Model TT. Seeking part of this market share, Dodge introduced a 3/4-ton pickup with cab and body constructed entirely of wood in 1924.[8] In 1925 Ford followed up with a Model T-based steel-bodied, half-ton with an adjustable tailgate and heavy-duty rear springs.[9] Billed as the "Ford Model T Runabout with Pickup Body," it sold for US$281. 34,000 were built. In 1928 it was replaced by the Model A which had a closed-cab, safety glass windshield, roll-up side windows and three-speed transmission. In 1931 Chevrolet produced its first factory-assembled pickup.[10] Ford Australia produced the first Australian "ute" in 1932.[11] During the Second World War, the United States government halted the production of privately owned pickup trucks.[10]

text: In the 1950s consumers began purchasing pickups for lifestyle rather than utilitarian reasons.[10] Car-like smooth-sided fenderless trucks were introduced, such as the Chevrolet Fleetside, the Chevrolet El Camino, the Dodge Sweptline and in 1957, Ford's purpose-built Styleside. Pickups began to feature comfort items like power options and air conditioning.[2] Trucks became more passenger oriented with the introduction of crew cabs in the Toyota Stout[12] and the Hino Briska, was introduced in 1962. Dodge followed with a crew cab in 1963,[13] Ford in 1965, and General Motors in 1973.[14]

text: In the U.S.A., the 1963 protectionist chicken tax distorted the light truck market in favor of American manufacturers, stopping the import of the Volkswagen Type 2,[15] and effectively "squeezed smaller Asian truck companies out of the American pickup market."[16] Over the intervening years, Detroit lobbied to protect the light-truck tariff,[15] thereby reducing pressure on Detroit to introduce vehicles that polluted less and that offered increased fuel economy.[15]

text: The US government's 1973 Corporate Average Fuel Economy policy sets higher fuel economy requirements for cars than pickups. CAFE led to the replacement of the station wagon by the minivan, the latter being in the truck category which allowed it compliance with less-strict emissions standards. Eventually, this same idea led to the promotion of the SUV.[17][18] Pickups, unhindered by the emissions controls regulations on cars, began to replace muscle cars as the performance vehicle of choice. The Dodge Warlock appeared in Dodge's "adult toys" line,[2] along with the Macho Power Wagon and Street Van. The gas guzzler tax, which taxed fuel-inefficient cars while exempting pickup trucks, further distorted the market in favour of pickups.

text: In the 1980s, the compact Mazda B-series, Isuzu Faster and Mitsubishi Forte appeared. Subsequently, American manufacturers built their own compact pickups for the domestic market: the Ford Ranger, and the Chevrolet S-10. Minivans make inroads into the pickups' market share.[2] In the 1990s Pickups' market share was further eroded by the popularity of sport utility vehicles.[2]

text: International markets[edit]

text: While the Ford F-150 has been the best-selling vehicle in the United States since 1982,[19] the Ford F-150, or indeed any full-size pickup truck is a rare sight in Europe, where high fuel prices and very narrow city roads make it difficult to use on a daily basis.[20] In America pickups are favored by a cultural attachment to the style, low fuel prices, and taxes and regulations that distort the market in favor of domestically built trucks.[15] As of 2016 the IRS offers tax breaks for "any vehicle equipped with a cargo area [...] of at least six feet in interior length that is not readily accessible from the passenger compartment".[21]

text: In Europe pickups represent less than one per cent of light vehicles sold,[22] the most popular being the Ford Ranger with 27,300 units sold in 2015.[23] Other models include the Renault Alaskan (a rebadged Nissan Navara), and the Toyota Hilux.

text: Full-size pickups and SUVs are an important source of revenue for GM, Ford, and FCA's Ram, accounting for more than two-thirds of their global pre-tax earnings, though the vehicles make up just 16 percent of North American vehicle production. The vehicles have a high profit margin and a high price, with 40 per cent of Ford F-150 selling for US$40,000 or more.[24]

text: The NOx law prevents pickups from being imported to Japan, but the Japanese Domestic Market Mitsubishi Triton is available. In China (where it is known by the English loanword as 皮卡车 pí kǎ chē) the Great Wall Wingle is manufactured domestically and exported to Australia.[25] In Thailand pickups manufactured for local sale and export include the Isuzu D-Max and the Mitsubishi Triton. In Latin and South America the Toyota Hilux, Ford Ranger, VW Amarok, Dodge Ram, Chevrolet S-10, D-20, and Montana are sold.

text: In South Africa pickups account for about 17 per cent of the passenger and light commercial vehicle sales, mostly the Toyota Hilux, Ford Ranger, and Isuzu KB (Isuzu D-Max).[26] The Volkswagen Amarok and Nissan Navara are also sold.

text: Design and features[edit]

text: In the US and less-so in Canada, nearly all new pickups are sold with automatic transmissions. The Cummins diesel-equipped Ram is the only full-size pickup truck available with a manual transmission. It has an ultra-low first-gear ratio for heavy hauling.[27] The Chevrolet Colorado, Nissan Frontier, and Toyota Tacoma are available with a clutch, Fords are automatic only.[28]

text: A regular cab has a single row of seats and a single set of doors, one on each side. Extended or super cab pickups add an extra space behind the main seat, sometimes including small seats. The first extended cab truck in the U.S. was called the Club Cab and introduced by Chrysler in 1973 on Dodge trucks. A crew cab, or double cab, seats five or six and has two full-size front-hinged doors on both sides. The first crew cab truck in the U.S. was made by International Harvester in 1957 and was later followed by Dodge in 1963, Ford in 1965 and Chevrolet in 1973.

text: Cab-over or cab forward designs have the cab sitting above the front axle. An early cab-forward drop-side pickup was the Volkswagen Transporter, introduced in 1952. This configuration is more common among European and Japanese manufacturers than in North America, since the style allows a longer cargo area for the same overall length. The design was more popular in North America in the 1950s and '60s, examples including the Chevrolet Corvair Rampside & Loadside, Dodge A-100 & A-108, Ford Econoline & Jeep FC-150 & FC-170.

text: The cargo bed can vary in size according to whether the vehicle is optimized for cargo utility or passenger comfort. Most have fixed side walls and a hinged tailgate. Cargo beds are normally found in two styles: step-side or fleet-side. A step-side bed has fenders which extend on the outside of the cargo area. A fleet-side bed has wheel-wells inside the bed. The first fleet-sided truck was the 1955 Chevrolet Cameo Carrier. Early trucks had wood plank beds, which were replaced by steel by the 1960s. Some European-style trucks use a drop-side bed with a flat tray with hinged panels rising up on the sides and the rear.

text: A pickup with four rear wheels instead of two is called a dually. A dually is able to carry much more weight over the rear axle and is often used for carrying heavy loads, campers or supporting 5th wheel trailers.

text: Vehicles similar to the pickup include:

text:
the coupé utility has a pickup truck like shape, but is car-sized. The South African term "bakkie" or the Australian term "ute" refer to a coupé utility.
the sport utility truck (SUT), a vehicle deriving from an SUV or crossover with four doors and an open bed. Examples include the Cadillac Escalade EXT, Chevrolet Avalanche, Ford Explorer Sport Trac, Honda Ridgeline, Hummer H2 SUT, SsangYong Actyon Sports, and Hummer H3T

tag: ul

text: In the American domestic market pickups are general categorized as:

text:
Compact: introduced in the United States in the 1960s, compact pickups have a smaller footprint, and may have four cylinder engines.
Full-size, or half ton: In the United States the best selling type is the full-sized, or half-ton. These carry the designation "1500" in the case of the Chevrolet Silverado, GMC Sierra, and Ram, and "150" in Ford's terminology.
Heavy duty: Heavier-duty pickups are designated 2500, 3500 (or F-250, F-350), and so on.

text: The terms half-ton and three-quarter-ton are a remnant from a time when the number referred to the maximum cargo capacity by weight.[29]

text: Uses for pickup trucks[edit]

text: While in the United States and Canada most pickup trucks are used primarily for passenger transport, agriculture, and commercial uses, pickups are also used in law enforcement, the military, fire services, and for pickup truck racing, a form of auto racing using modified versions of pickups mostly on oval tracks. Race pickup trucks are mechanically similar to coupé-shaped stock cars.

text: A monster truck is a vehicle styled after pickup trucks, but with extremely large wheels and suspension. They are used for competition and popular sports entertainment and in some cases they are featured alongside motocross races, mud bogging, tractor pulls and car-eating robots.

text: Equipping pickup trucks with camper shells provides a small living space for camping. Slide-in truck campers, on the other hand, give a pickup truck the amenities of a small motorhome, but still allow the operator the option of removal and independent use of the vehicle.[30]

text: Some diesel engined pickups are modified to produce more diesel exhaust and have been described as rolling coal. Changes are designed to produce visibly polluting sooty emissions and include the intentional removal of the particulate filter, as well as installing smoke switches and smoke stacks.[31] Modifications may cost from $2,000 to $5,000.[32][33]

text: In South Africa pickup trucks are used as patrol vehicles by the South African Police Service.[citation needed]

text: Modified pickups can be used as improvised, non-armoured combat vehicles called technicals.


document_title: American Society of Anesthesiologists

question_text: when was the american society of anesthesiologists founded

text: American Society of Anesthesiologists

text: History of ASA[edit]

text: Anesthesiology’s roots date back to the mid-19th century. On March 30, 1842, Crawford Long, M.D. administered the first ether anesthetic for surgery and operated to remove a tumor from a patient’s neck. After the surgery, the patient revealed that he felt nothing and was not aware the surgery was over until he awoke. This was the start of a specialty critical to modern medicine, anesthesiology.

text: In 1905, nine physicians (from Long Island, N.Y.) organized the first professional anesthesia society. In 1911, the Society expanded to 23 members and became the New York Society of Anesthetists. Over the next 25 years, involvement in anesthesia-related issues grew and attracted other interested physicians nationwide. In 1936, the Society changed its name to the American Society of Anesthetists. In 1945, the organization moved to become the American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA). In 1960, the ASA established an Executive Office in Park Ridge, Illinois to meet growing membership and patient-care demands.  In 2014, the ASA opened new headquarters in Schaumburg, Illinois.[1]

text: Membership in ASA[edit]

text: Membership is open to holders of Doctor of Medicine (M.D.) or Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (D.O.) degrees who are licensed practitioners and have successfully completed a training program in anesthesiology approved by the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME) or American Osteopathic Association (AOA).

text: The ASA also maintains an active resident component, medical student component  as well as anesthesiologist  assistant component. A non-physician providers of anesthesia care (nurse anesthetists, dentist, veterinarians, APRNs) can join as educational members.[2]

text: Governance[edit]

text: ASA is governed by its House of Delegates. The House of Delegates is composed of ASA delegates and directors (designated by geographic distribution), ASA officers, all past presidents, the Editor-in-Chief of the journal, the chairs of all sections, the chair of the ASA delegation to the American Medical Association House of Delegates and each member of the Resident Component Governing Council not to exceed five members and a non-voting member of the Medical Student component. The House of Delegates meets each year during the Society's Annual Meeting.

text: Meetings[edit]

text: Meetings are held annually and are based on scientific progress in the anesthesiology fields.

text: Publications[edit]

text: The Society publishes multiple academic resources within the following categories:

text:
Practice Management
Practice Parameters
Continuing Education
Patient Education
Patient Safety/Risk Management and Quality Improvement
Periodicals
ASA Newsletter
The Journal Anesthesiology''
Physician Booklets

text: Anesthesia Subspecialties[edit]

text: While all anesthesiologists complete a minimum of eight years of medical training after college, some anesthesiologists have additional training (called a fellowship) in a specific area of anesthesiology. The ABA offers specific  certifications in some of these areas. Anesthesiologists are not required to subspecialize, but many do focus on one area of care to further hone their expertise. These specialty areas include, but are not limited to:

text:
Ambulatory Anesthesia
Cardiac Anesthesia
Critical Care Anesthesia
Fundamentals of Anesthesia
Geriatric Anesthesia
Neuroanesthesia
Obstetric Anesthesia
Pain Medicine
Pediatric Anesthesia
Perioperative Anesthesia
Professional Issues
Regional and Acute Anesthesia