document_title: Three-point field goal

question_text: when did the nba have a 3 point line

question_tokens: when did the nba have a 3 point line

text: Three-point field goal

text: History[edit]

text: The three-point line was first tested at the collegiate level in a 1945 NCAA game between Columbia and Fordham but it was not kept as a rule. At the direction of Abe Saperstein, the American Basketball League became the first basketball league to institute the rule in 1961. Its three-point line was a radius of 25 feet (7.62 m) from the baskets, except along the sides.[2] The Eastern Professional Basketball League followed in its 1963–64 season.

text: The three-point shot later became popularized by the American Basketball Association (ABA), introduced in its inaugural 1967–68 season. ABA commissioner George Mikan stated the three-pointer "would give the smaller player a chance to score and open up the defense to make the game more enjoyable for the fans."[3] During the 1970s, the ABA used the three-point shot, along with the slam dunk, as a marketing tool to compete with the National Basketball Association (NBA).

text: In the 1979–80 season, after having tested it in the previous pre-season, the NBA adopted the three-point line despite the view of many that it was a gimmick.[4] Chris Ford of the Boston Celtics is widely credited with making the first three-point shot in NBA history on October 12, 1979, a game more noted for the debut of Larry Bird (and two new head coaches).[5][6] Rick Barry of the Houston Rockets, in his final season, also made one in the same game, and Kevin Grevey of the Washington Bullets made one that Friday night as well.[6][7]

text: The sport's international governing body, FIBA, introduced the three-point line in 1984, at 6.25 m (20 ft 6 in).

text: The NCAA's Southern Conference became the first collegiate conference to use the three-point rule, adopting a 22-foot (6.71 m) line for the 1980–81 season.[8][9] Ronnie Carr of Western Carolina University was the first to score a three-point field goal in college basketball history on November 29, 1980.[9][10][11] Over the following five years, NCAA conferences differed in their use of the rule and distance required for a three-pointer. The line was as close as 17 ft 9 in (5.41 m) in the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC), and as far away as 22 ft (6.71 m) in the Big Sky.[12][13][14]

text: Used only in conference play for several years, it was adopted by the NCAA in April 1986 for the 1986–87 season at 19 ft 9 in (6.02 m),[15] and was first used in the NCAA Tournament in 1987.[16] In the same 1986–87 season, the NCAA adopted the three-pointer in women's basketball on an experimental basis, using the same distance, and made its use mandatory beginning in 1987–88.[17]  In 2007, the NCAA lengthened the men's distance by a foot to 20 ft 9 in (6.32 m), effective with the 2008–09 season,[18] and the women's line was moved to match the men's in 2011–12.[17] American high schools, along with elementary and middle schools, adopted a 19 ft 9 in (6.02 m) line nationally in 1987, a year after the NCAA.[19] The NCAA used the FIBA three-point line (see below) in the National Invitation Tournament (NIT) in 2018.[20]

text: During the 1994–95, 1995–96, and 1996–97 seasons, the NBA attempted to address decreased scoring by shortening the distance of the line from 23 ft 9 in (7.24 m) (22 ft (6.71 m) at the corners) to a uniform 22 ft (6.71 m) around the basket. From the 1997–98 season on, the NBA reverted the line to its original distance of 23 ft 9 in (22 ft at the corners, with a 3 inch differential). Ray Allen is currently the NBA all-time leader in career made three-pointers with 2,973.[21]

text: In 2008, FIBA announced that the distance would be increased by 50 cm (19.69 in) to 6.75 m (22 ft 1 3⁄4 in), with the change being phased in beginning in October 2010. In December 2012, the WNBA announced that it would be using FIBA's distance, too, as of the 2013 season. The NBA has discussed adding a four-point line, according to president Rod Thorn.[22]

text: In the NBA, three-point field goals have become increasingly more frequent along the years, with effectiveness increasing slightly. The 1979-80 season had an average 2.2 three-point goals per game and 6.6 attempts (33% effectiveness). The 1989-90 season had an average 4.8 three-point goals per game and 13.7 attempts (35% effectiveness). The 2009-10 season had an average 6.4 three-point goals per game and 18.1 attempts (36% effectiveness). The 2016-17 season had an average 9.7 three-point goals per game and 27.0 attempts (36% effectiveness).[23]

text: Rule specifications[edit]

text:
A three-point line consists of an arc at a set radius measured from the point on the floor directly below the center of the basket, and two parallel lines equidistant from each sideline extending from the nearest end line to the point at which they intersect the arc. In the NBA and FIBA standard, the arc spans the width of the court until it is a specified minimum distance from each sideline. The three-point line then becomes parallel to the sidelines from those points to the baseline. The unusual formation of the three-point line at these levels allows players some space from which to attempt a three-point shot at the corners of the court; the arc would be less than 2 feet (0.61 m) from each sideline at the corners if it was a continuous arc. In the NCAA and American high school standards, the arc spans 180° around the basket, then becomes parallel to the sidelines from the plane of the basket center to the baseline (5 feet 3 inches or 1.60 metres).
The distance of the three-point line to the center of the hoop varies by level:

text:
Arc radius

Minimum distance from sidelines

National Basketball Association

23 feet 9 inches (7.24 m)

3 feet (0.91 m)

[24]

FIBA (also used by WNBA)

22 feet 2 inches (6.76 m)

4 feet 1 inch (1.24 m)

[25]

National Collegiate Athletic Association

20 feet 9 inches (6.32 m)

4 feet 3 inches (1.30 m)

[26]

American high school basketball

19 feet 9 inches (6.02 m)

5 feet 3 inches (1.60 m)

[27]

text: A player's feet must be completely behind the three-point line at the time of the shot or jump in order to make a three-point attempt; if the player's feet are on or in front of the line, it is a two-point attempt. A player is allowed to jump from outside the line and land inside the line to make a three-point attempt, as long as the ball is released in mid-air.

text: An official raises his/her arm with three fingers extended to signal the shot attempt. If the attempt is successful, he/she raises his/her other arm with all fingers fully extended in manner similar to a football official signifying successful field goal to indicate the three-point goal. The official must recognize it for it to count as three points. Instant replay has sometimes been used, depending on league rules. The NBA,[28] WNBA, FIBA and the NCAA specifically allow replay for this purpose. In NBA, FIBA, and WNBA games, video replay does not have to occur immediately following a shot; play can continue and the officials can adjust the scoring later in the game, after reviewing the video. However, in late game situations, play may be paused pending a review.

text: If a shooter is fouled while attempting a three-pointer and subsequently misses the shot, the shooter is awarded three free-throw attempts. If a player completes a three-pointer while being fouled, the player is awarded one free-throw for a possible 4-point play. Conceivably, if a player completed a three-pointer while being fouled, and that foul was ruled as either a Flagrant 1 or a Flagrant 2 foul, the player would be awarded two free throws for a possible 5-point play.

text: Related concepts[edit]

text: Major League Lacrosse features a two-point line which forms a 15-yard (14 m) arc around the front of the goal. Shots taken from behind this line count for two points, as opposed to the standard one point.

text: In gridiron football, a standard field goal is worth three points; various professional and semi-pro leagues have experimented with four-point field goals. NFL Europe and the Stars Football League adopted a rule similar to basketball's three-point line in which an additional point was awarded for longer field goals; in both leagues any field goal of 50 yards (46 m) or more was worth four points. The Arena Football League awards four points for any successful drop kicked field goal (like the three-point shot, the drop kick is more challenging than a standard place kick, as the bounce of the ball makes a kick less predictable, and arena football also uses narrower goal posts for all kicks than the outdoor game does).

text: During the existence of the World Hockey Association in the 1970s, there were proposals for two-point hockey goals for shots taken beyond an established distance (one proposal was a 44-foot (13.4m) arc, which would have intersected the faceoff circles), but this proposal gained little support and faded after the WHA merged with the NHL. It was widely believed that long-distance shots in hockey had little direct relation to skill (usually resulting more from goalies' vision being screened or obscured), plus with the lower scoring intrinsic to the sport a two-point goal was seen as disruptive of the structure of the game.

text: The Super Goal is a similar concept in Australian rules football, in which a 50-meter (55 yd) arc determines the value of a goal; within the arc, it is the usual 6 points, but 9 points are scored for a "super goal" scored from outside the arc. To date the super goal is only used in pre-season games and not in the season proper.[29]

text: The National Professional Soccer League II, which awarded two points for all goals except those on the power play, also used a three-point line, drawn 45 feet (14 m) from the goal. It has since been adopted by some other indoor soccer leagues.


document_title: Biblical judges

question_text: how many judges are there in the book of judges in the bible

root

text: Biblical judges

text: Role[edit]

text: This section uncritically uses texts from within a religion or faith system without referring to secondary sources  that critically analyze them. Please help improve this article by adding references to reliable secondary sources, with multiple points of view. (August 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: A cyclical pattern is regularly recounted in the Book of Judges to show the need for the various judges: apostasy of the Israelite people, hardship brought on as punishment from God, crying out to the Lord for rescue.[1][page needed]

tag: p

text: The story of the judges seems to describe successive individuals, each from a different tribe of Israel, described as chosen by God to rescue the people from their enemies and establish justice.

text: While judge is the closest literal translation of the Hebrew term used in the Masoretic text, the position as described is more one of unelected non-hereditary leadership[2] than that of legal pronouncement. However, Cyrus H. Gordon argued that they may have come from among the hereditary leaders of the fighting, landed and ruling aristocracy, like the kings (basileis) in Homer.[3] Coogan says that they were most likely tribal or local leaders, contrary to the Deuteronomistic historian's portrayal of them as leaders of all of Israel,[4] but Malamat pointed out that in the text, their authority is described as being recognized by local groups or tribes beyond their own.[5]

text: Historicity and timeline[edit]

text: The biblical scholar Kenneth Kitchen argues that, from the conquest of Canaan by Joshua until the formation of the first Kingdom of Israel and Judah (c. 1150–1025 BCE), the Israelite tribes may have formed a loose confederation. In this conception, no central government would have existed but in times of crisis, the people would have been led by ad hoc chieftains, known as judges (shoftim).[6][page needed] However, some scholars are uncertain whether such a role existed in ancient Israel.[7]

text: Working with the chronology in Judges, Payne points out that although the timescale of Judges is indicated by Jephthah's statement (Judges 11:26) that Israel had occupied the land for around 300 years, some of the judges overlapped one another. Noting that Deborah's victory has been confirmed as taking place in 1216 from archaeology undertaken at Hazor, he suggests that the period may have lasted from c. 1382 to c. 1063.[8]

text: Bill T. Arnold and H. G. M. Williamson wrote that if

text: all the figures given in Judges (years of oppression, years the judges led Israel, years of peace achieved by the judges) are treated as consecutive, then the total duration of the events described in Judges is 410 years. If we accept a date of 1000 BCE for the beginning of David's reign over all Israel, which puts the beginning of Eli's leadership of Israel at about 1100 BCE, then the judges period would begin no later than 1510 BCE – impossible even for those who date the conquest to the fifteenth century BCE[9]

text: There is also doubt among some scholars about any historicity of the Book of Judges.[10]

text: Judges mentioned in the Hebrew Bible[edit]

text: In the Hebrew Bible, Moses is described as a shofet over the Israelites and appoints others to whom cases were delegated in accordance with the advice of Jethro, his Midianite father-in-law.[11] The Book of Judges mentions twelve leaders who judged Israel: Othniel, Ehud, Shamgar, Deborah, Gideon, Tola, Jair, Jephthah, Ibzan, Elon, Abdon, and Samson. The First Book of Samuel mentions Eli and Samuel, as well as Joel and Abiah (two sons of Samuel). The First Book of Chronicles mentions Kenaniah and his sons. The Second Book of Chronicles mentions Amariah and Zebadiah (son of Ishmael).

text: The biblical text does not generally describe these leaders as "a judge", but says that they "judged Israel", using the verb שָׁפַט (š-f-t).[12][page needed] Thus, Othniel "judged Israel" (Judges 3:10), Tola "judged Israel twenty-three years" (Judges 10:2), and Jair judged Israel twenty-two years (Judges 10:3).


document_title: History of the automobile

question_text: when was the first car invented with a motor

question_tokens: when was the first car invented with a motor

text: History of the automobile

text: Power sources[edit]

text: The early history of the automobile was concentrated on the search for a reliable portable power unit to propel the vehicle.

text: Steam-powered wheeled vehicles[edit]

text: 17th and 18th centuries[edit]

text: Ferdinand Verbiest, a member of a Jesuit mission in China, built a steam-powered vehicle around 1672 as a toy for the Chinese Emperor. It was small scale and could not carry a driver but it was, quite possibly, the first working steam-powered vehicle ('auto-mobile').[3][4]

text: Steam-powered self-propelled vehicles large enough to transport people and cargo were first devised in the late 18th century. Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot demonstrated his fardier à vapeur ("steam dray"), an experimental steam-driven artillery tractor, in 1770 and 1771. As Cugnot's design proved to be impractical, his invention was not developed in his native France. The center of innovation shifted to Great Britain. By 1784, William Murdoch had built a working model of a steam carriage in Redruth [5] and in 1801 Richard Trevithick was running a full-sized vehicle on the roads in Camborne. The first automobile patent in the United States was granted to Oliver Evans in 1789.

text: 19th century[edit]

text: During the 19th century attempts were made to introduce practical steam powered vehicles. Innovations such as hand brakes, multi-speed transmissions and better steering developed. Some commercially successful vehicles provided mass transit until a backlash against these large vehicles resulted in the passage of legislation such as the United Kingdom Locomotive Act (1865), which required many self-propelled vehicles on public roads to be preceded by a man on foot waving a red flag and blowing a horn. This effectively halted road auto development in the UK for most of the rest of the 19th century; inventors and engineers shifted their efforts to improvements in railway locomotives. The law was not repealed until 1896, although the need for the red flag was removed in 1878.

text: In 1816, a professor at Prague Polytechnic, Josef Bozek, built an oil-fired steam car.[6]:p.27 Walter Hancock, builder and operator of London steam buses, in 1838 built a 2 seated car phaeton.[6]:p27

text: In 1867, Canadian jeweller Henry Seth Taylor demonstrated his 4-wheeled "steam buggy" at the Stanstead Fair in Stanstead, Quebec and again the following year.[7] The basis of the buggy, which he began building in 1865, was a high-wheeled carriage with bracing to support a two-cylinder steam engine mounted on the floor.[8]

text: One of the first "real" automobiles was produced by Frenchman Amédée Bollée in 1873, who built self-propelled steam road vehicles to transport groups of passengers.

text: The first carriage-sized automobile suitable for use on existing wagon roads in the United States was a steam-powered vehicle invented in 1871 by Dr. J.W. Carhart, a minister of the Methodist Episcopal Church, in Racine, Wisconsin.[1][9][self-published source] It induced the State of Wisconsin in 1875 to offer a $10,000 award to the first to produce a practical substitute for the use of horses and other animals. They stipulated that the vehicle would have to maintain an average speed of more than 5 miles per hour (8.0 km/h) over a 200-mile (320 km) course. The offer led to the first city to city automobile race in the United States, starting on 16 July 1878 in Green Bay, Wisconsin, and ending in Madison,Wisconsin, via Appleton, Oshkosh, Waupun, Watertown, Fort Atkinson, and Janesville. While seven vehicles were registered, only two started to compete: the entries from Green Bay and Oshkosh. The vehicle from Green Bay was faster, but broke down before completing the race. The Oshkosh finished the 201-mile (323 km) course in 33 hours and 27 minutes, and posted an average speed of six miles per hour. In 1879, the legislature awarded half the prize.[10][11][12]

text: 20th century[edit]

text: Steam-powered road vehicles, both cars and wagons, reached the peak of their development in the early 1930's with fast-steaming lightweight boilers and efficient engine designs. Internal combustion engines also developed greatly during WWI, becoming simpler to operate and more reliable. The development of the high-speed diesel engine from 1930 began to replace them for wagons, accelerated in the UK by tax changes making steam wagons uneconomic overnight. Although a few designers continued to advocate steam power, no significant developments in production steam cars took place after Doble in 1931.

text: Whether steam cars will ever be reborn in later technological eras remains to be seen. Magazines such as Light Steam Power continued to describe them into the 1980s. The 1950s saw interest in steam-turbine cars powered by small nuclear reactors[citation needed] (this was also true of aircraft), but the dangers inherent in nuclear fission technology soon killed these ideas.

text: Electric automobiles[edit]

text: In 1828, Ányos Jedlik, a Hungarian who invented an early type of electric motor, created a tiny model car powered by his new motor.[14] In 1834, Vermont blacksmith Thomas Davenport, the inventor of the first American DC electric motor, installed his motor in a small model car, which he operated on a short circular electrified track.[15] In 1835, Professor Sibrandus Stratingh of Groningen, the Netherlands and his assistant Christopher Becker created a small-scale electrical car, powered by non-rechargeable primary cells.[16] In 1838, Scotsman Robert Davidson built an electric locomotive that attained a speed of 4 miles per hour (6 km/h). In England, a patent was granted in 1840 for the use of tracks as conductors of electric current, and similar American patents were issued to Lilley and Colten in 1847.

text: Sources point to different creations as the first electric car. Between 1832 and 1839 (the exact year is uncertain) Robert Anderson of Scotland invented a crude electric carriage, powered by non-rechargeable primary cells. In November 1881, French inventor Gustave Trouvé demonstrated a working three-wheeled car powered by electricity at the International Exposition of Electricity, Paris.[17] But others regard the Flocken Elektrowagen of 1888 by German inventor Andreas Flocken as the first true electric car.[13]

text: Electric cars enjoyed popularity between the late 19th century and early 20th century, when electricity was among the preferred methods for automobile propulsion, providing a level of comfort and ease of operation that could not be achieved by the gasoline cars of the time. Advances in internal combustion technology, especially the electric starter, soon rendered this advantage moot; the greater range of gasoline cars, quicker refueling times, and growing petroleum infrastructure, along with the mass production of gasoline vehicles by companies such as the Ford Motor Company, which reduced prices of gasoline cars to less than half that of equivalent electric cars, led to a decline in the use of electric propulsion, effectively removing it from important markets such as the United States by the 1930s. However, in recent years, increased concerns over the environmental impact of gasoline cars, higher gasoline prices, improvements in battery technology, and the prospect of peak oil, have brought about renewed interest in electric cars, which are perceived to be more environmentally friendly and cheaper to maintain and run, despite high initial costs, after a failed reappearance in the late-1990s.

text: Internal combustion engines[edit]

text: Early attempts at making and using internal combustion engines were hampered by the lack of suitable fuels, particularly liquids, therefore the earliest engines used gas mixtures.

text: Early experimenters used gases. In 1806, Swiss engineer François Isaac de Rivaz built an engine powered by internal combustion of a hydrogen and oxygen mixture.[18] In 1826, Englishman Samuel Brown tested his hydrogen-fuelled internal combustion engine by using it to propel a vehicle up Shooter's Hill in south-east London. Belgian-born Etienne Lenoir's Hippomobile with a hydrogen-gas-fuelled one-cylinder internal combustion engine made a test drive from Paris to Joinville-le-Pont in 1860, covering some nine kilometres in about three hours.[19] A later version was propelled by coal gas. A Delamare-Deboutteville vehicle was patented and trialled in 1884.

text: About 1870, in Vienna, Austria (then the Austro-Hungarian Empire), inventor Siegfried Marcus put a liquid-fuelled internal combustion engine on a simple handcart which made him the first man to propel a vehicle by means of gasoline. Today, this car is known as "the first Marcus car". In 1883, Marcus secured a German patent for a low-voltage ignition system of the magneto type; this was his only automotive patent. This design was used for all further engines, and the four-seat "second Marcus car" of 1888/89. This ignition, in conjunction with the "rotating-brush carburetor", made the second car's design very innovative. His second car is on display at the Technical Museum in Vienna. During his lifetime he was honored as the originator of the motorcar but his place in history was all but erased by the Nazis during World War II. Because Marcus was of Jewish descent, the Nazi propaganda office ordered his work to be destroyed, his name expunged from future textbooks, and his public memorials removed, giving credit instead to Karl Benz.[20]

text: It is generally acknowledged[according to whom?] that the first really practical automobiles with petrol/gasoline-powered internal combustion engines were completed almost simultaneously by several German inventors working independently: Karl Benz built his first automobile in 1885 in Mannheim. Benz was granted a patent for his automobile on 29 January 1886,[21] and began the first production of automobiles in 1888, after Bertha Benz, his wife, had proved – with the first long-distance trip in August 1888, from Mannheim to Pforzheim and back – that the horseless coach was absolutely suitable for daily use. Since 2008 a Bertha Benz Memorial Route commemorates this event.[22]

text: Soon after, Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach in Stuttgart in 1889 designed a vehicle from scratch to be an automobile, rather than a horse-drawn carriage fitted with an engine. They also are usually credited with invention of the first motorcycle in 1886, but Italy's Enrico Bernardi of the University of Padua, in 1882, patented a 0.024 horsepower (17.9 W) 122 cc (7.4 cu in) one-cylinder petrol motor, fitting it into his son's tricycle, making it at least a candidate for the first automobile and first motorcycle;.[6]:p.26 Bernardi enlarged the tricycle in 1892 to carry two adults.[6]:p.26

text: The first four-wheeled petrol-driven automobile in Britain was built in Walthamstow by Frederick Bremer in 1892.[23] Another was made in Birmingham in 1895 by Frederick William Lanchester, who also patented the disc brake. The first electric starter was installed on an Arnold, an adaptation of the Benz Velo, built in Kent between 1895 and 1898.[6]:p.25

text: George F. Foss of Sherbrooke, Quebec built a single-cylinder gasoline car in 1896 which he drove for 4 years, ignoring city officials' warnings of arrest for his "mad antics."[7]

text: In all the turmoil, many early pioneers are nearly forgotten. In 1891, John William Lambert built a three-wheeler in Ohio City, Ohio, which was destroyed in a fire the same year, while Henry Nadig constructed a four-wheeler in Allentown, Pennsylvania. It is likely they were not the only ones.[6]:p.25

text: Eras of invention[edit]

text: Veteran era[edit]

text: The American George B. Selden filed for a patent on 8 May 1879. His application included not only the engine but its use in a 4-wheeled car. Selden filed a series of amendments to his application which stretched out the legal process, resulting in a delay of 16 years before the patent was granted on 5 November 1895.[24] This patent did more to hinder than encourage development of autos in the United States. Selden licensed his patent to most major American automakers, collecting a fee on every car they produced.

text: The first production of automobiles was by Karl Benz in 1888 in Germany and, under license from Benz, in France by Emile Roger. There were numerous others, including tricycle builders Rudolf Egg, Edward Butler, and Léon Bollée.[6]:p.20–23 Bollée, using a 650 cc (40 cu in) engine of his own design, enabled his driver, Jamin, to average 45 kilometres per hour (28.0 mph) in the 1897 Paris-Tourville rally.[6]:p.23 By 1900, mass production of automobiles had begun in France and the United States.

text: The first company formed exclusively to build automobiles was Panhard et Levassor in France, which also introduced the first four-cylinder engine.[6]:p.22 Formed in 1889, Panhard was quickly followed by Peugeot two years later. By the start of the 20th century, the automobile industry was beginning to take off in Western Europe, especially in France, where 30,204 were produced in 1903, representing 48.8% of world automobile production that year.[25]

text: In the United States, brothers Charles and Frank Duryea founded the Duryea Motor Wagon Company in 1893, becoming the first American automobile manufacturing company. The Autocar Company, founded in 1897, established a number of innovations still in use[26] and remains the oldest operating motor vehicle manufacturer in the United States. However, it was Ransom E. Olds and his Olds Motor Vehicle Company (later known as Oldsmobile) who would dominate this era with the introduction of the Oldsmobile Curved Dash. Its production line was running in 1901. The Thomas B. Jeffery Company developed the world's second mass-produced automobile, and 1,500 Ramblers were built and sold in its first year, representing one-sixth of all existing motorcars in the United States at the time.[27] Within a year, Cadillac (formed from the Henry Ford Company), Winton, and Ford were also producing cars in the thousands. The Studebaker brothers, having become the world's leading manufacturers of horse-drawn vehicles, made a transition to electric automobiles in 1902, and gasoline engines in 1904. They continued to build horse-drawn vehicles until 1919.[28]:p.90

text: The first motor car in Central Europe was produced by the Austro-Hungarian company Nesselsdorfer Wagenbau (later renamed to Tatra in today's Czech Republic) in 1897, the Präsident automobile.[29] In 1898, Louis Renault had a De Dion-Bouton modified, with fixed drive shaft and differential, making "perhaps the first hot rod in history" and bringing Renault and his brothers into the car industry.[30] Innovation was rapid and rampant, with no clear standards for basic vehicle architectures, body styles, construction materials, or controls, for example many veteran cars use a tiller, rather than a wheel for steering. During 1903, Rambler standardized on the steering wheel[31] and moved the driver's position to the left-hand side of the vehicle.[32] Chain drive was dominant over the drive shaft, and closed bodies were extremely rare. Drum brakes were introduced by Renault in 1902.[33] The next year, Dutch designer Jacobus Spijker built the first four-wheel drive racing car;[34] it never competed and it would be 1965 and the Jensen FF before four-wheel drive was used on a production car.[35]

text: Within a few years, a dizzying assortment of technologies were being used by hundreds of producers all over the western world. Steam, electricity, and petrol/gasoline-powered automobiles competed for decades, with petrol/gasoline internal combustion engines achieving dominance by the 1910s. Dual- and even quad-engine cars were designed, and engine displacement ranged to more than a dozen litres. Many modern advances, including gas/electric hybrids, multi-valve engines, overhead camshafts, and four-wheel drive, were attempted, and discarded at this time.

text: Innovation was not limited to the vehicles themselves. Increasing numbers of cars propelled the growth of the petroleum industry,[36] as well as the development of technology to produce gasoline (replacing kerosene and coal oil) and of improvements in heat-tolerant mineral oil lubricants (replacing vegetable and animal oils).[37]

text: There were social effects, also. Music would be made about cars, such as "In My Merry Oldsmobile" (a tradition that continues) while, in 1896, William Jennings Bryan would be the first presidential candidate to campaign in a car (a donated Mueller), in Decatur, Illinois.[38] Three years later, Jacob German would start a tradition for New York City cabdrivers when he sped down Lexington Avenue, at the "reckless" speed of 12 mph (19 km/h).[39] Also in 1899, Akron, Ohio, adopted the first self-propelled paddy wagon.[39]

text: By 1900, the early centers of national automotive industry developed in many countries, including Belgium (home to Vincke, which copied Benz; Germain, a pseudo-Panhard; and Linon and Nagant, both based on the Gobron-Brillié),[6]:p,25 Switzerland (led by Fritz Henriod, Rudolf Egg, Saurer, Johann Weber, and Lorenz Popp),[6]:p.25 Vagnfabrik AB in Sweden, Hammel (by A. F. Hammel and H. U. Johansen at Copenhagen, in Denmark, which only built one car, ca. 1886[6]:p.25), Irgens (starting in Bergen, Norway, in 1883, but without success),[6]:p.25–26 Italy (where FIAT started in 1899), and as far afield as Australia (where Pioneer set up shop in 1898, with an already archaic paraffin-fuelled centre-pivot-steered wagon).[6] Meanwhile, the export trade had begun, with Koch exporting cars and trucks from Paris to Tunisia, Egypt, Iran, and the Dutch East Indies.[6]:p25 Motor cars were also exported very early to British colonies and the first motor car was exported to India in 1897.

text:
Any woman can drive an electric automobile, any man can drive a steam, but neither man nor woman can drive a gasoline; it follows its own odorous will, and goes or goes not as it feels disposed.
—Arthur Jerome Eddy, early automobile enthusiast, 1902[40]

tag: div

text: Throughout the veteran car era, the automobile was seen more as a novelty than as a genuinely useful device. Breakdowns were frequent, fuel was difficult to obtain, roads suitable for traveling were scarce, and rapid innovation meant that a year-old car was nearly worthless. Major breakthroughs in proving the usefulness of the automobile came with the historic long-distance drive of Bertha Benz in 1888, when she traveled more than 80 kilometres (50 mi) from Mannheim to Pforzheim, to make people aware of the potential of the vehicles her husband, Karl Benz, manufactured, and after Horatio Nelson Jackson's successful transcontinental drive across the United States in 1903.

text: Brass or Edwardian era[edit]

text: This period lasted from roughly 1905 through to 1914 and the beginning of World War I. It is generally referred to as the Edwardian era, but in the United States is often known as the Brass era from the widespread use of brass in vehicles during this time.

text: Within the 15 years that make up this era, the various experimental designs and alternate power systems would be marginalised. Although the modern touring car had been invented earlier, it was not until Panhard et Levassor's Système Panhard was widely licensed and adopted that recognisable and standardised automobiles were created. This system specified front-engined, rear-wheel drive internal combustion engined cars with a sliding gear transmission. Traditional coach-style vehicles were rapidly abandoned, and buckboard runabouts lost favour with the introduction of tonneaus and other less-expensive touring bodies.

text: By 1906, steam car development had advanced, and they were among the fastest road vehicles in that period.[citation needed]

text: Throughout this era, development of automotive technology was rapid, due in part to hundreds of small manufacturers competing to gain the world's attention. Key developments included the electric ignition system (by dynamotor on the Arnold in 1898,[41] though Robert Bosch, 1903, tends to get the credit), independent suspension (actually conceived by Bollée in 1873),[41] and four-wheel brakes (by the Arrol-Johnston Company of Scotland in 1909).[6]:p27 Leaf springs were widely used for suspension, though many other systems were still in use, with angle steel taking over from armored wood as the frame material of choice. Transmissions and throttle controls were widely adopted, allowing a variety of cruising speeds, though vehicles generally still had discrete speed settings, rather than the infinitely variable system familiar in cars of later eras. Safety glass also made its debut, patented by John Wood in England in 1905.[33] (It would not become standard equipment until 1926, on a Rickenbacker.)[33]

text: Between 1907 and 1912 in the United States, the high-wheel motor buggy (resembling the horse buggy of before 1900) was in its heyday, with over seventy-five makers including Holsman (Chicago), IHC (Chicago), and Sears (which sold via catalog); the high-wheeler would be killed by the Model T.[6]:p.65 In 1912, Hupp (in the United States, supplied by Hale & Irwin) and BSA (in the UK) pioneered the use of all-steel bodies,[42] joined in 1914 by Dodge (who produced Model T bodies).[33] While it would be another two decades before all-steel bodies would be standard, the change would mean improved supplies of superior-quality wood for furniture makers.[6]

text: The 1908 New York to Paris Race was the first circumnavigation of the world by automobile. German, French, Italian and American teams began in New York City 12 February 1908 with three of the competitors ultimately reaching Paris. The US built Thomas Flyer with George Schuster (driver) won the race covering 22,000 miles in 169 days. Also in 1908, the first South American automobile was built in Peru, the Grieve.[43] In 1909, Rambler became the first car company to equip its cars with a spare tire that was mounted on a fifth wheel.[44]

text: Some examples of cars of the period included:[citation needed]

text:
1907 In Japan, the Hatsudoki Seizo Co. Ltd. is formed, which was later renamed in 1951 as Daihatsu Kōgyō Kabushiki-gaisha. Also in April 1907, the aforementioned Komanosuke Uchiyama produced the Takuri, the first entirely Japanese-made gasoline engine car.[45]
1908–1927 Ford Model T — the most widely produced and available 4-seater car of the era. It used a planetary transmission, and had a pedal-based control system. Ford T was proclaimed as the most influential car of the 20th century in the international Car of the Century awards.
1909 Morgan Runabout – a very popular cyclecar, cyclecars were sold in far greater quantities than 4-seater cars in this period[46]
1910 Mercer Raceabout — regarded as one of the first sports cars, the Raceabout expressed the exuberance of the driving public, as did the similarly conceived American Underslung and Hispano-Suiza Alphonso.
1910–1920 Bugatti Type 13 — a notable racing and touring model with advanced engineering and design. Similar models were the Types 15, 17, 22, and 23.
1914–1917, the Kaishinsha Motor Works operated by Masujiro Hashimoto in Tokyo, while importing, assembling and selling British cars, also manufactured seven units of a two-cylinder, 10-horsepower “all-Japanese” car called Dattogo. Kaishinsha was the first automobile manufacturing business in Japan.[45]
1917 Japanese company Mitsubishi builds the Mitsubishi Model A, all hand built in limited numbers for Japanese executives.

tag: ul

text: Vintage era[edit]

text: The vintage era lasted from the end of World War I (1918), through to the Wall Street Crash at the end of 1929. During this period the front-engined car came to dominate with closed bodies and standardised controls becoming the norm. In 1919, 90% of cars sold were open; by 1929, 90% were closed.[6]:p.7 Development of the internal combustion engine continued at a rapid pace, with multi-valve and overhead camshaft engines produced at the high end, and V8, V12, and even V16 engines conceived for the ultra-rich. Also in 1919, hydraulic brakes were invented by Malcolm Loughead (co-founder of Lockheed); they were adopted by Duesenberg for their 1921 Model A.[33] Three years later, Hermann Rieseler of Vulcan Motor invented the first automatic transmission, which had two-speed planetary gearbox, torque converter, and lockup clutch; it never entered production.[33] (Its like would only become an available option in 1940.)[33] Just at the end of the vintage era, tempered glass (now standard equipment in side windows) was invented in France.[33] In this era the revolutionary ponton design of cars without fully articulated fenders, running boards and other non-compact ledge elements was introduced in small series but mass production of such cars was started much later (after WWII).

text: American auto companies in the 1920s expected they would soon sell six million cars a year, but did not do so until 1955. Numerous companies disappeared.[47] Between 1922 and 1925, the number of U.S. passenger car builders decreased from 175 to 70. H. A. Tarantous, managing editor of "MoToR Member Society of Automotive Engineers", in a New York Times article from 1925, suggested many were unable to raise production and cope with falling prices (due to assembly line production), especially for low-priced cars. The new pyroxylin-based paints, eight cylinder engine, four wheel brakes, and balloon tires as the biggest trends for 1925.[48]

text: Examples of period vehicles:[citation needed]

text:
1922–1939 Austin 7 — one of the most widely copied vehicles ever, serving as a template for cars around the world, from BMW to Nissan.
1922–1931 Lancia Lambda — very advanced car for the time, first car to feature a load-bearing monocoque and independent front suspension.[citation needed]
1924–1929 Bugatti Type 35 — one of the most successful racing cars of all time, with over 1,000 victories in five years.[citation needed]
1925–1928 Hanomag 2 / 10 PS — early example of ponton styling.
1927–1931 Ford Model A (1927-1931) — after keeping the brass era Model T in production for too long, Ford broke from the past by restarting its model series with the 1927 Model A. More than 4 million were produced, making it the best-selling model of the era. The Ford Model A was a prototype for the beginning of Soviet mass car production (GAZ A).
1930 Cadillac V-16 — developed at the height of the vintage era, the V16-powered Cadillac would join Bugatti's Royale as the most legendary ultra-luxury cars of the era.

text: Pre-war era[edit]

text: The pre-war part of the classic era began with the Great Depression in 1930, and ended with the recovery after World War II, commonly placed at 1946. It was in this period that integrated fenders and fully closed bodies began to dominate sales, with the new saloon/sedan body style even incorporating a trunk or boot at the rear for storage. The old open-top runabouts, phaetons, and touring cars were largely phased out by the end of the classic era as wings, running boards, and headlights were gradually integrated with the body of the car.

text: By the 1930s, most of the mechanical technology used in today's automobiles had been invented, although some things were later "re-invented", and credited to someone else. For example, front-wheel drive was re-introduced by André Citroën with the launch of the Traction Avant in 1934, though it had appeared several years earlier in road cars made by Alvis and Cord, and in racing cars by Miller (and may have appeared as early as 1897). In the same vein, independent suspension was originally conceived by Amédée Bollée in 1873, but not put in production until appearing on the low-volume Mercedes-Benz 380 in 1933, which prodded American makers to use it more widely.[41] In 1930, the number of auto manufacturers declined sharply as the industry consolidated and matured, thanks in part to the effects of the Great Depression.

text: Exemplary pre-war automobiles:[citation needed]

text:
1932–1939 Alvis Speed 20 — the first with all-synchromesh gearbox[citation needed]
1932–1948 Ford V-8 (Model B) — introduction of the flathead V8 in mainstream vehicles
1934–1938 Tatra 77 — first serial-produced car with aerodynamical design
1934–1940 Bugatti Type 57 — a singular refined automobile for the wealthy
1934–1956 Citroën Traction Avant — the first mass-produced front-wheel drive car, built with monocoque chassis
1936–1955 MG T series — sports cars
1938–2003 Volkswagen Beetle — a design that was produced for over 60 years with over 20 million units assembled in several counties
1936–1939 Rolls-Royce Phantom III — V12 engine

text: Post-war era[edit]

text: A major change in automobile design since World War II was the popularity of ponton style, in which running boards were eliminated and fenders were incorporated into the body. Among the first representatives of the style were the Soviet GAZ-M20 Pobeda (1946), British Standard Vanguard (1947), United States Studebaker Champion and Kaiser (1946), as well as the low-production Czech luxury Tatra T600 Tatraplan (1946) and the Italian Cisitalia 220 sports car (1947).

text: Automobile design and production finally emerged from the military orientation and other shadow of war in 1949, the year that in the United States saw the introduction of high-compression V8 engines and modern bodies from General Motors' Oldsmobile and Cadillac brands. Hudson introduced the "step-down" design with the 1948 Commodore, which placed the passenger compartment down inside the perimeter of the frame, that was one of the first new-design postwar cars made and featured trend-setting slab-side styling.[49] The unibody/strut-suspended 1951 Ford Consul joined the 1948 Morris Minor and 1949 Rover P4 in the automobile market in the United Kingdom. In Italy, Enzo Ferrari was beginning his 250 series, just as Lancia introduced the revolutionary V6-powered Aurelia.

text: Throughout the 1950s, engine power and vehicle speeds rose, designs became more integrated and artful, and automobiles were marketed internationally. Alec Issigonis' Mini and Fiat's 500 diminutive cars were introduced in Europe, while the similar kei car class became popular in Japan. The Volkswagen Beetle continued production after Hitler and began exports to other nations, including the United States. At the same time, Nash introduced the Nash Rambler, the first successful modern compact car made in the United States,[50] while the standard models produced by the "Big Three" domestic automakers grew ever larger in size, featuring increasing amounts of chrome trim, and luxury was exemplified by the Cadillac Eldorado Brougham. The markets in Europe expanded with new small-sized automobiles, as well as expensive grand tourers (GT), like the Ferrari America.

text: The market changed in the 1960s, as the United States "Big Three" automakers began facing competition from imported cars, the European makers adopted advanced technologies and Japan emerged as a car-producing nation. Japanese companies began to export some of their more popular selling cars in Japan internationally, such as the Toyota Corolla, Toyota Corona, Nissan Sunny, and Nissan Bluebird in the mid-1960s. The success of American Motors' compact-sized Rambler models spurred GM and Ford to introduce their own downsized cars in 1960.[51] Performance engines became a focus of marketing by United States automakers, exemplified by the era's muscle cars. In 1964, the Ford Mustang developed a new market segment, the pony car. New models to compete with the Mustang included the Chevrolet Camaro, AMC Javelin, and Plymouth Barracuda. Captive imports and badge engineering increased in the United States and the UK as amalgamated groups such as the British Motor Corporation consolidated the market. BMC's space-saving and trend-setting transverse engined, front-wheel-drive, independent suspension and monocoque bodied Mini, which first appeared in 1959, was marketed under the Austin and Morris names, until Mini became a marque in its own right in 1969.[52] Competition increased, with Studebaker, a pioneering automaker, shutting down, and the trend for consolidation reached Italy where niche makers like Maserati, Ferrari, and Lancia were acquired by larger companies. By the end of the decade, the number of automobile marques had been greatly reduced.

text: Technology developments included the widespread use of independent suspensions, wider application of fuel injection, and an increasing focus on safety in automotive design. Innovations during the 1960s included NSU's Wankel engine, the gas turbine, and the turbocharger. Of these, only the last endured, pioneered by General Motors, and adopted by BMW and Saab, later seeing mass-market use during the 1980s by Chrysler. Mazda continued developing its Wankel engine, in spite of problems in longevity, emissions, and fuel economy. Other Wankel licensees, including Mercedes-Benz and GM, never put their designs into production because of engineering and manufacturing problems, as well as the lessons from the 1973 oil crisis.

text: The 1970s were turbulent years for automakers and buyers with major events reshaping the industry such as the 1973 oil crisis, stricter automobile emissions control and safety requirements, increasing exports by the Japanese and European automakers, as well as growth in inflation and the stagnant economic conditions in many nations. Smaller-sized grew in popularity. The United States saw the establishment of the subcompact segment with the introduction of the AMC Gremlin, followed by the Chevrolet Vega and Ford Pinto. The station wagons (estate, break, kombi, universal) body design was popular, as well as increasing sales of non-commercial all-wheel drive off-road vehicles.

text: To the end of the 20th century, the United States Big Three (GM, Ford, and Chrysler) partially lost their leading position, Japan became for a while the world's leader of car production and cars began to be mass manufactured in new Asian, East European, and other countries.

text: Notable exemplary post-war cars:[citation needed]

text:
1946–1958 GAZ-M20 Pobeda — Soviet car with full ponton design
1947–1958 Standard Vanguard — British mass-market car with full ponton design
1948–1971 Morris Minor – an early post-war car exported around the world
1953–1971 Chevrolet Bel Air and 1953–2002 Cadillac Eldorado Brougham – first generations were representative of tailfin design
1955–1976 Citroën DS — aerodynamic design and innovative technology, awarded third place as Car of the 20th Century
1959–2000 Mini — a radical and innovative small car that was manufactured for four decades; awarded second place as Car of the 20th Century
1960-1990 Volkswagen Brasília
1961–1975 Jaguar E-type — a classic sports car design
1963–1989 Porsche 911 – a sports car was awarded fifth place as Car of the 20th Century
1964–present Ford Mustang — the pony car that became one of the best-selling cars of the era
1966–end of the 20th century Fiat 124 — an Italian car that was produced under license in many other counties including the Soviet Union
1966–1971 Subaru 1000 – one of the first Japanese built sedans using a boxer engine, front wheel drive and introducing the "double offset joint" drive shaft to the front wheels
1967 NSU Ro 80 — the basic wedge profile of this design was emulated in subsequent decades,[53] unlike its Wankel engine
late 1960s-early 1980s Gurgel BR-800
late 1960s-early 1980s Gurgel Supermini
1969 Datsun 240Z — Japanese sports car[54]
1977- present Lada Niva — the first mass-produced full-time all-wheel drive car

text: Modern era[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The modern era is normally defined as the 25 years preceding the current year.[citation needed] The modern era has been one of increasing standardisation, platform sharing, computer-aided design, to reduce costs and development time and increasing use of electronic for both engine management and entertainment systems.

text: Some particular contemporary developments are the proliferation of front- and all-wheel drive, the adoption of the diesel engine, and the ubiquity of fuel injection. Most modern passenger cars are front-wheel-drive monocoque/unibody designs, with transversely mounted engines.

text: Body styles have changed as well in the modern era. Three types, the hatchback, sedan, and sport utility vehicle, dominate today's market.[citation needed] All originally emphasised practicality, but have mutated into today's high-powered luxury crossover SUV, sports wagon[ and two-volume Large MPV. The rise of pickup trucks in the United States and SUVs worldwide has changed the face of motoring with these "trucks" coming to command more than half of the world automobile market.[citation needed] There was also the introduction of the MPV class (smaller non-commercial passenger minivans), among the first of which were the French Renault Espace and the Chrysler minivan versions in the United States

text: The modern era has also seen rapidly improving fuel efficiency and engine output. The automobile emissions concerns have been eased with computerised engine management systems.

text: The economic crisis of 2008 cut almost a third of light vehicle sales from Chrysler, Toyota, Ford, and Nissan. It also subtracted about a fourth of Honda's sales and about a seventh of sales from General Motors.[55]

text: Since 2009, China has become the world's largest car manufacturer with production greater than Japan, the United States, and all of Europe. Besides large growth of car production in Asian and other countries, there has been growth in transnational corporate groups, with the production of transnational automobiles sharing the same platforms as well as badge engineering or re-badging to suit different markets and consumer segments.

text: Since the end of the 20th century, several award competitions for cars and trucks have become widely known, such as European Car of the Year, Car of the Year Japan, North American Car of the Year, World Car of the Year, Truck of the Year, and International Car of the Year. Also, a Car of the Century award was held in which in the US the Ford Model T was named as most influential car of the 20th century.[citation needed]

text: Exemplary modern cars:[citation needed]

text:
1966–present Toyota Corolla – a Japanese saloon/sedan that has become the best-selling nameplate of all time, with over 40 million sold across 11 generations through July 2013.[56]
1966–1992 Oldsmobile Toronado – Introduced electronic anti-lock braking system,[57] and airbag [58] First modern-era American car with front wheel drive.
1973–present Mercedes-Benz S-Class – Seat belt pretensioner, and electronic traction control system
1975–present BMW 3 Series – the 3 Series has been on Car and Driver magazine's annual Ten Best list 17 times
1977–present Honda Accord saloon/sedan — a Japanese sedan that became popular in the United States
1983–present Chrysler minivans – the two-box minivan design nearly pushed the station wagon out of the market
1984–present Renault Espace — first mass one-volume car of non-commercial MPV class
1986–present Ford Taurus — this mid-sized front-wheel drive sedan dominated the United States market in the late-1980s
1997–present Toyota Prius, launched in the Japanese market and became the best known hybrid electric vehicle and also the world's top selling hybrid.[59]
1998–present Ford Focus — one of the most popular hatchbacks and Ford's best selling world car
2008–present Tata Nano — an inexpensive (₹100,000, ≈ $2200), rear-engined, four-passenger city car aimed primarily at the Indian domestic market
2008–2012 Tesla Roadster — first highway-capable all-electric vehicle in serial production for sale in the United States in the modern era. Sold about 2,500 units worldwide.
2008–2013 BYD F3DM – first highway-capable series production plug-in hybrid, launched in China in December 2008, sold over 2,300 units.[60][61]
2009–present, Mitsubishi i-MiEV – first highway-capable series production all-electric car, launched in Japan in July 2009 for fleet customers, and in April 2010 for retail customers. Rebadged versions of the i MiEV are sold in Europe by PSA Peugeot Citroën (PSA) as the Peugeot iOn and Citroën C-Zero.[62][63]
2010–present, Nissan Leaf and Chevrolet Volt — all-electric car and plug-in hybrid correspondingly, launched in December 2010, are the world's top selling mass production vehicles of their kind.[64] As of early December 2015, global Volt sales totaled over 100,000.[65] Nissan Leaf global sales achieved the 300,000 unit milestone in January 2018, making the Leaf the world's all-time best-selling highway-capable electric car in history.[66]
2012–present, Tesla Model S – Plug-in electric vehicle was ranked as the world's best selling plug-in electric vehicle in 2015.[67] It was also named car of the century by Car and Driver.[68]


document_title: Law of agency

question_text: who has authority to act on behalf of a company

text: Law of agency

text: Concepts[edit]

text: The reciprocal rights and liabilities between a principal and an agent reflect commercial and legal realities. A business owner often relies on an employee or another person to conduct a business. In the case of a corporation, since a corporation can only act through Natural person agents. The principal is bound by the contract entered into by the agent, so long as the agent performs within the scope of the agency.

text: A third party may rely in good faith on the representation by a person who identifies himself as an agent for another. It is not always cost effective to check whether someone who is represented as having the authority to act for another actually has such authority. If it is subsequently found that the alleged agent was acting without necessary authority, the agent will generally be held liable.

text: Brief statement of legal principles[edit]

text: There are three broad classes of agent:[citation needed]

text:
Universal agents hold broad authority to act on behalf of the principal, e.g. they may hold a power of attorney (also known as a mandate in civil law jurisdictions) or have a professional relationship, say, as lawyer and client.
General agents hold a more limited authority to conduct a series of transactions over a continuous period of time; and
Special agents are authorized to conduct either only a single transaction or a specified series of transactions over a limited period of time.

tag: ol

text: Authority[edit]

text: An agent who acts within the scope of authority conferred by his or her principal binds the principal in the obligations he or she creates against third parties. There are essentially three kinds of authority recognized in the law: actual authority (whether express or implied), apparent authority, and ratified authority (explained here).

text: Actual authority[edit]

text: Actual authority can be of two kinds. Either the principal may have expressly conferred authority on the agent, or authority may be implied. Authority arises by consensual agreement, and whether it exists is a question of fact. An agent, as a general rule, is only entitled to indemnity from the principal if he or she has acted within the scope of her actual authority, and may be in breach of contract, and liable to a third party for breach of the implied warranty of authority. In tort, a claimant may not recover from the principal unless the agent is acting within the scope of employment.

text: Express actual authority[edit]

text: Express actual authority means an agent has been expressly told he or she may act on behalf of a principal.

text: Implied actual authority[edit]

text: Implied actual authority, also called "usual authority", is authority an agent has by virtue of being reasonably necessary to carry out his express authority. As such, it can be inferred by virtue of a position held by an agent. For example, partners have authority to bind the other partners in the firm, their liability being joint and several, and in a corporation, all executives and senior employees with decision-making authority by virtue of their position have authority to bind the corporation. Other forms of implied actual authority include customary authority. This is where customs of a trade imply the agent to have certain powers. In wool buying industries it is customary for traders to purchase in their own names.[3] Also incidental authority, where an agent is supposed to have any authority to complete other tasks which are necessary and incidental to completing the express actual authority. This must be no more than necessary[4]

text: Apparent authority[edit]

text: Apparent authority (also called "ostensible authority") exists where the principal's words or conduct would lead a reasonable person in the third party's position to believe that the agent was authorized to act, even if the principal and the purported agent had never discussed such a relationship. For example, where one person appoints a person to a position which carries with it agency-like powers, those who know of the appointment are entitled to assume that there is apparent authority to do the things ordinarily entrusted to one occupying such a position. If a principal creates the impression that an agent is authorized but there is no actual authority, third parties are protected so long as they have acted reasonably. This is sometimes termed "agency by estoppel" or the "doctrine of holding out", where the principal will be estopped from denying the grant of authority if third parties have changed their positions to their detriment in reliance on the representations made.[5]

text: Rama Corporation Ltd v Proved Tin and General Investments Ltd [1952] 2 QB 147, Slade J, "Ostensible or apparent authority... is merely a form of estoppel, indeed, it has been termed agency by estoppel and you cannot call in aid an estoppel unless you have three ingredients: (i) a representation, (ii) reliance on the representation, and (iii) an alteration of your position resulting from such reliance."

text: Watteau v Fenwick in the UK[edit]

text: In the case of Watteau v Fenwick,[6] Lord Coleridge CJ on the Queen's Bench concurred with an opinion by Wills J that a third party could hold personally liable a principal who he did not know about when he sold cigars to an agent that was acting outside of its authority. Wills J held that "the principal is liable for all the acts of the agent which are within the authority usually confided to an agent of that character, notwithstanding limitations, as between the principal and the agent, put upon that authority." This decision is heavily criticised and doubted,[7] though not entirely overruled in the UK. It is sometimes referred to as "usual authority" (though not in the sense used by Lord Denning MR in Hely-Hutchinson, where it is synonymous with "implied actual authority"). It has been explained as a form of apparent authority, or "inherent agency power".

text: Authority by virtue of a position held to deter fraud and other harms that may befall individuals dealing with agents, there is a concept of Inherent Agency power, which is power derived solely by virtue of the agency relation.[8] For example, partners have apparent authority to bind the other partners in the firm, their liability being joint and several (see below), and in a corporation, all executives and senior employees with decision-making authority by virtue of their declared position have apparent authority to bind the corporation.

text: Even if the agent does act without authority, the principal may ratify the transaction and accept liability on the transactions as negotiated. This may be express or implied from the principal's behavior, e.g. if the agent has purported to act in a number of situations and the principal has knowingly acquiesced, the failure to notify all concerned of the agent's lack of authority is an implied ratification to those transactions and an implied grant of authority for future transactions of a similar nature.

text: Liability[edit]

text: Liability of agent to third party[edit]

text: If the agent has actual or apparent authority, the agent will not be liable for acts performed within the scope of such authority, so long as the relationship of the agency and the identity of the principal have been disclosed. When the agency is undisclosed or partially disclosed, however, both the agent and the principal are liable. Where the principal is not bound because the agent has no actual or apparent authority, the purported agent is liable to the third party for breach of the implied warranty of.

text: Liability of agent to principal[edit]

text: If the agent has acted without actual authority, but the principal is nevertheless bound because the agent had apparent authority, the agent is liable to indemnify the principal for any resulting loss or damage.

text: Liability of principal to agent[edit]

text: If the agent has acted within the scope of the actual authority given, the principal must indemnify the agent for payments made during the course of the relationship whether the expenditure was expressly authorized or merely necessary in promoting the principal's business.

text: Duties[edit]

text: An agent owes the principal a number of duties. These include:

text:
a duty to undertake the task or tasks specified by the terms of the agency;
a duty to discharge his duties with care and due diligence;

text: An agent must not accept any new obligations that are inconsistent with the duties owed to the principal. An agent can represent the interests of more than one principal, conflicting or potentially conflicting, only after full disclosure and consent of the principal. An agent must not usurp an opportunity from the principal by taking it for himself or passing it on to a third party.

text: In return, the principal must make a full disclosure of all information relevant to the transactions that the agent is authorized to negotiate.

text: Termination[edit]

text: Mutual agreement also through the principal responding his authority. Through renouncing when agent hm self stop being an agent.when principal revoke.

text: The internal agency relationship may be dissolved by agreement. Under sections 201 to 210 of the Indian Contract Act 1872, an agency may come to an end in a variety of ways:

text:
Withdrawal by the agent – however, the principal cannot revoke an agency coupled with interest to the prejudice of such interest. An agency is coupled with interest when the agent himself has an interest in the subject-matter of the agency, e.g., where the goods are consigned by an upcountry constituent to a commission agent for sale, with poor to recoup himself from the sale proceeds, the advances made by him to the principal against the security of the goods; in such a case, the principal cannot revoke the agent’s authority till the goods are actually sold and debts satisfied, nor is the agency terminated by death or insanity (illustrations to s. 201);
By the agent renouncing the business of agency;
By discharge of the contractual agency obligations.

text: Alternatively, agency may be terminated by operation of law:

text:
By the death of either party;
By the insanity of either party;
By the bankruptcy (insolvency) of either party;

text: The principal also cannot revoke the agent’s authority after it has been partly exercised, so as to bind the principal (s. 204), though he can always do so, before such authority has been so exercised (s. 203). Further, under s. 205, if the agency is for a fixed period, the principal cannot terminate the agency before the time expired, except for sufficient cause. If he does, he is liable to compensate the agent for the loss caused to him thereby. The same rules apply where the agent, renounces an agency for a fixed period. Notice in this connection that want of skill, continuous disobedience of lawful orders, and rude or insulting behavior has been held to be sufficient cause for dismissal of an agent. Further, reasonable notice has to be given by one party to the other; otherwise, damage resulting from want of such notice, will have to be paid (s. 206). Under s. 207, the revocation or renunciation of an agency may be made expressly or implicitly by conduct. The termination does not take effect as regards the agent, till it becomes known to him and as regards third party, till the termination is known to them (s. 208).

text: When an agent’s authority is terminated, it operates as a termination of subagent also (s. 210).[9]

text: Partnerships and Companies[edit]

text: This has become a more difficult area as states are not consistent on the nature of a partnership. Some states opt for the partnership as no more than an aggregate of the natural persons who have joined the firm. Others treat the partnership as a business entity and, like a corporation, vest the partnership with a separate legal personality. Hence, for example, in English law, a partner is the agent of the other partners whereas, in Scots law where there is a separate personality, a partner is the agent of the partnership. This form of agency is inherent in the status of a partner and does not arise out of a contract of agency with a principal. The English Partnership Act 1890 provides that a partner who acts within the scope of his actual authority (express or implied) will bind the partnership when he does anything in the ordinary course of carrying on partnership business. Even if that implied authority has been revoked or limited, the partner will have apparent authority unless the third party knows that the authority has been compromised. Hence, if the partnership wishes to limit any partner's authority, it must give express notice of the limitation to the world. However, there would be little substantive difference if English law was amended:[10] partners will bind the partnership rather than their fellow partners individually. For these purposes, the knowledge of the partner acting will be imputed to the other partners or the firm if a separate personality. The other partners or the firm are the principal and third parties are entitled to assume that the principal has been informed of all relevant information. This causes problems when one partner acts fraudulently or negligently and causes loss to clients of the firm. In most states, a distinction is drawn between knowledge of the firm's general business activities and the confidential affairs as they affect one client. Thus, there is no imputation if the partner is acting against the interests of the firm as a fraud. There is more likely to be liability in tort if the partnership benefited by receiving fee income for the work negligently performed, even if only as an aspect of the standard provisions of vicarious liability. Whether the injured party wishes to sue the partnership or the individual partners is usually a matter for the plaintiff since, in most jurisdictions, their liability is joint and several.

text: Agency relationships[edit]

text: Agency relationships are common in many professional areas.

text:
employment.
financial advice (insurance agency, stock brokerage, accountancy)
contract negotiation and promotion (business management) such as for publishing, fashion model, music, movies, theatre, show business, and sport.

text: An agent in commercial law (also referred to as a manager) is a person who is authorized to act on behalf of another (called the principal or client) to create a legal relationship with a third party.

text: Agency relationship in a real estate transaction[edit]

text: Real estate transactions refer to real estate brokerage, and mortgage brokerage. In real estate brokerage, the buyers or sellers are the principals themselves and the broker or his salesperson who represents each principal is his agent.

text: Applications in jurisdictions[edit]

text: In English law[edit]

text: Agency law in the United Kingdom is a component of UK commercial law, and forms a core set of rules necessary for the smooth functioning of business. Agency law is primarily governed by the Common law and to a lesser extent by statutory instruments.

text: In 1986, the European Communities enacted Directive 86/653/EEC on self-employed commercial agents. In the UK, this was implemented into national law in the Commercial Agents Regulations 1993.[11] Thus, agent and principals in a commercial agency relationship are subject both to the Common law and the Commercial Agents Regulations.

text: The Commercial Agents Regulations require agents to act “dutifully and in good faith” in performing their activities (Reg. 3); co-extensively, principals are required principals to act “dutifully and in good faith” in their “relations” with their commercial agents (Reg 4). Though there is no statutory definition of this obligation to act “dutifully and in good faith”, it has been suggested that it requires principals and agents to act "with honesty, openness and regard for the interests of the other party to the transaction". Two "normative precepts"[12] assist in concretising this standard of conduct:

text: "Firstly, expressing honesty and openness, commercial agents and principals must mutually co-operate in the performance of their agreement. Conduct in good faith requires that each party proactively take action to assist the other in the realisation of their bargain, as opposed to mere abstention from obstructive behaviour. However, whether a party has acted in good faith must not be determined by reference to a moral or metaphysical notion of co-operation; this assessment must be based on an objective appraisal of the actual commercial agency relationship. Accordingly, the intensity of the required co-operation will vary, depending on the terms of the contract and the pertinent commercial practices.

text: Secondly, commercial agents and principals must not exploit asymmetries in their agency relationship in such a manner that frustrates the legitimate expectations of the other party. In this respect, whether a conduct is in breach of the Obligation must be appraised holistically, considering all aspects of the relationship; material facts will include the contractual and commercial leverage of each party, their objective intentions as enshrined in the contract, and the business practices of the sector in question. Nevertheless, the starting axiom of this investigation must be that these are commercial relationships in which professionals are expected to be self-reliant and must be free to pursue their self-interest. Critically, this will not be an estimation aimed at achieving ontological fairness, a just bargain or equilibrium between the giving and receiving of commercial agents and principals".[13]


document_title: 50 First Dates

question_text: who plays the brother in fifty first dates

text: 50 First Dates

text: Plot[edit]

text: Henry Roth is a veterinarian at Sea Life Park on the island of Oahu, Hawaii. He has a reputation of womanizing female tourists and does not display any interest in committing to a serious relationship. Henry's closest friends are Ula, a marijuana-smoking Islander; his assistant Alexa, whose gender is unclear; Willy, his pet African penguin; and Jocko, a walrus.

text: One day Henry’s boat breaks down while he is sailing around Oahu. He goes to the Hukilau Café to wait for the Coast Guard. There he sees a young woman named Lucy Whitmore, who makes architectural art with her waffles. Henry thinks she is a local, which prevents him from introducing himself, but the next day he comes back. Lucy and he hit it off instantly and she asks him to meet her again tomorrow morning.

text: However, when Henry goes back to the café the following day, Lucy does not have any recollection of ever meeting him. The restaurant owner Sue explains to Henry that the year before, Lucy and her father Marlin went up to the North Shore to pick a pineapple for his birthday. On the way back, they had a serious car accident that left Lucy with anterograde amnesia and she wakes up every morning thinking it is Sunday, October 13, of last year.

text: To spare Lucy the heartbreak of reliving the accident every day, Marlin and Doug, Lucy's lisping steroid-addicted brother, re-enact Marlin's birthday by following a script, including putting out the Sunday newspaper, refilling Lucy's shampoo bottles, re-watching the same Minnesota Vikings game, and re-watching the movie The Sixth Sense where Marlin and Doug halfheartedly say, "Wow. Didn't see that coming," during the famous plot-twist.

text: Despite Sue's warning, Henry invites Lucy to have breakfast with him. Eventually she does, but it ends poorly when Henry unintentionally hurts Lucy’s feelings. He follows her home to apologize where Marlin and Doug instruct Henry to leave Lucy alone. Henry begins concocting ways to run into Lucy on the following days, such as pretending to have car trouble, creating a fake road block, or by having Ula beat him up. Eventually, Marlin and Doug figure this out due to Lucy singing The Beach Boys' "Wouldn't It Be Nice" on the days when she meets Henry.

text: One day, as Henry is about to sit with Lucy at breakfast, she notices a police officer writing her a ticket for her expired plates. Lucy attempts to argue that they are not yet expired, and takes a newspaper to prove herself, but sees that the date on all the newspapers is not October 13 as she thought. Lucy rushes home, and Marlin and Doug are forced to admit their ruse when she confronts them (and presumably not for the first time; when Marlin sees Lucy's frantic behavior as her truck pulls up to the house, he immediately realizes what happened and loudly announces to Doug that Lucy "had a bad day").

text: Henry comes up with an idea to make a video explaining to Lucy her accident and their relationship. Although Lucy is upset over understanding about her accident and memory loss, Henry believes that she is more upset realizing her life is a lie every day. Because of this, Henry, Marlin and Doug show Lucy the tape every morning and help her spend her days by picking up where the tape says she left off. She spends more time with Henry and goes to see some of her old friends. Lucy decides to erase Henry completely from her life after learning of his decision not to take a sailing trip to Bristol Bay to study walruses, something he has been planning for the past 10 years. Although Henry would rather spend that year making Lucy fall in love with him every day rather than go on the sailing trip, Lucy is convinced she is a burden on him and is preventing Henry from really living his life. Henry reluctantly helps Lucy destroy her journal entries of their relationship.

text: A few weeks later, Henry is preparing to leave for his sailing trip. Before he departs, Marlin tells him that Lucy is now living at the brain institute and teaching an art class. He also tells him that she sings. Then he gives Henry a Beach Boys CD. Listening to the CD, Henry becomes emotional and curses Marlin for giving him the CD and causing him to miss Lucy. He then remembers that Marlin once told him that Lucy only sings after she meets him. Concluding that Lucy remembers him, he returns home. Henry rushes to the brain institute where Lucy now resides and asks if she knows who he is. Lucy says she does not know him but shows him the pictures she has painted of him, saying she dreams about him every night.

text: Some time later, Lucy wakes up and plays a video tape marked "Good Morning Lucy." It again informs her of her accident, but ends with her and Henry’s wedding. On the tape, Henry says to put a jacket on and come have breakfast when she is ready. Lucy then sees that she is on Henry’s boat, which finally made it to Alaska. She goes up on deck and meets Marlin, Henry and their daughter, Nicole.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Adam Sandler as Henry Roth, a marine veterinarian with a talent for wooing women and a fear of commitment
Drew Barrymore as Lucy Whitmore, Henry's love interest with short-term memory loss
Rob Schneider as Ula, Henry's marijuana-smoking, native Hawaiian assistant and best friend; he is unhappily married to an overweight native woman and has five young, athletically talented children
Sean Astin as Doug Whitmore, Lucy's older brother, a lisping, steroid-dependent bodybuilder
Blake Clark as Marlin Whitmore, Lucy's widowed father, a professional fisherman
Lusia Strus as Alexa, Henry's ambiguously gendered assistant
Dan Aykroyd as Dr. Joseph Keats, a physician specializing in brain disorders
Amy Hill as Sue, the Hukilau café manager and friend of Lucy and her late mother
Pomaika'i Brown as Nick, the Hukilau café chef.
Allen Covert as Ten-Second Tom, a hospital patient with severe memory impairment (reprised as 220 Tom in Blended)
Missi Pyle as Noreen, a tax attorney Henry meets at a bar but then tries to fix up with Alexa
Maya Rudolph as Stacy, pregnant friend of Lucy's at beach party
Kevin James as Factory worker
Lynn Collins as Linda
Joshua Seth (uncredited) as a painter
Greg Cipes (uncredited) as a painter
Dee Bradley Baker (uncredited) as a man at the restaurant
Scott Menville (uncredited) as a man at the restaurant
Jessica DiCicco (uncredited) as a teenager at the zoo

text: Production[edit]

text: The film was originally titled "50 First Kisses".[2] Drew Barrymore, who knew of the original script, wrote a letter to Sandler and suggested it as their next film together. In 2014, Barrymore said it had been more of a drama and was re-written by Sandler and they reworked it into more of a comedy.[3]

text: Locations[edit]

text: Most of the film was shot on location in Kaneohe, Kaʻaʻawa, Wahiawā, Makapuʻu, and Waimānalo, Oahu, as well as in Kāne'ohe Bay. Due to the high cost of filming outside of the studio zone, some interior scenes (such as inside the Whitmore residence) were shot on sets in Los Angeles carefully decorated to look like they were in Hawaii.[4]

text: The walrus tank is actually in Six Flags Discovery Kingdom in Vallejo, California, and the golf course is the Ocean Trails Golf Club in Rancho Palos Verdes, California.

text: Critical reception [edit]

text: The film received mixed reviews from critics. Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 48% based on 172 reviews, and the site's consensus states [that the] "Gross-out humor overwhelms the easy chemistry between Adam Sandler and Drew Barrymore, who bring some energy and yucks to this tale of a girl with short-term memory loss and the guy who tries to get her to love him."[5]

text: Critics who enjoyed the film (such as The New York Times reviewer A.O. Scott) praised the uplifting story while lamenting the seemingly excessive and incongruous amount of crude humor and drug references.[6] Roger Ebert gave it three out of four stars, saying "The movie is sort of an experiment for Sandler. He reveals the warm side of his personality, and leaves behind the hostility, anger and gross-out humor... The movie doesn't have the complexity and depth of Groundhog Day... but as entertainment it's ingratiating and lovable."[7]

text: Sandler and Barrymore won the award for Best On-Screen Team at the MTV Movie Awards. The two actors, who had previously worked together in the popular film The Wedding Singer, are said to regard 50 First Dates as one of their favorite personal efforts.[citation needed]

text: Fictional medical condition[edit]

text: In an article in the BMJ on depictions of amnesia in film, clinical neuropsychologist Sallie Baxendale writes that 50 First Dates "maintains a venerable movie tradition of portraying an amnesic syndrome that bears no relation to any known neurological or psychiatric condition".[8]

text: In 2010, researchers described a woman who developed the kind of memory impairment after she was involved in a car accident. She described that her memory was normal for events on the same day and that overnight memories for the previous day were lost. However, a neuropsychological test did reveal some improvement in recall for tasks which she had, unknowingly, performed the previous day. Though the woman claimed not to have seen 50 First Dates prior to her 2005 accident (but has watched it several times since), she stated that Drew Barrymore was her favorite actress, leading researchers to conclude that her condition might have been influenced by some knowledge of the film's plot, and its impact upon her understanding of amnesia.[9] Similarly, in the Truman Show delusion, patients believe that they are living inside a reality television show, as in the 1998 film The Truman Show.

text: In July 2015, two people were discovered to be afflicted with a form of anterograde amnesia that resembles the one depicted in the movie. One is a man in the UK, originally from Germany. He wakes up every day thinking it is March 14, 2005, because that is the day he underwent anesthesia for a dental procedure which led to this condition as a rare, unexplained complication (however, his anterograde amnesia, like that of others with the condition, causes him to forget facts not daily, but within 90 minutes).[10] The other is a woman who reportedly believes every day is October 15, 2014. She used to be a pub manager and was visiting Kettering General Hospital for a kickboxing injury when she slipped and hit her head on a metal pole.[11][12]

text: Ten-Second Tom's ten-second memory is similar to the second-to-second consciousness of Clive Wearing, a British man whose long- and short-term memory centers were destroyed from a viral infection of the brain caused by the herpes virus.

text: Real world application[edit]

text: The Hebrew Home of Riverdale, New York has started an experimental program in which residents with early dementia watch a video every morning in which they see comforting messages and reminders from family members that they may still know. After April 2015, the program may include more residents. Robert Abrams of NewYork–Presbyterian Hospital considered this idea "both innovative and thoughtful." Charlotte Dell, director of social services for the home, said the program was inspired by 50 First Dates.[13]

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text:
50 First Dates: Love songs from the Original Motion Picture

Soundtrack album by Various Artists

Released
February 3, 2004 (2004-02-03)

Genre
Ska, reggae, new wave

Length
49:37

Label
Maverick

Producer
Nick Hexum

text: The soundtrack contains cover versions of songs that were originally recorded in the 1980s. This includes mostly reggae covers, due to their emphasized upbeat that gives a tropical or Hawaiian feel. It was a moderate commercial hit, reaching #30 on the Billboard 200 and #1 on the Top Soundtracks chart and Top Reggae Albums chart in the United States.

text: Despite being prominently featured in the film, neither Israel Kamakawiwoʻole's "Somewhere Over the Rainbow"/"What a Wonderful World" nor The Beach Boys' "Wouldn't It Be Nice" were included on the soundtrack.

text: The soundtrack was produced by 311's frontman, Nick Hexum. 311 provided a cover of The Cure's Lovesong for the soundtrack. It is heard over the film's end credits.

text:
No.
Title
Writer(s)
Artist
Length

1.
"Hold Me Now" (Thompson Twins)
Tom Bailey, Alannah Currie, Joe Leeway
Wayne Wonder
4:12

2.
"Lovesong" (The Cure)
Robert Smith, Simon Gallup, Porl Thompson, Boris Williams, Roger O'Donnell
311
3:28

3.
"Lips Like Sugar" (Echo & the Bunnymen)
Will Sergeant, Ian McCulloch, Les Pattinson
Seal featuring Mikey Dread
5:00

4.
"Your Love (L.O.V.E. Reggae Mix)" (The Outfield)
John Spinks
Wyclef Jean featuring Eve
4:13

5.
"Drive" (The Cars)
Ric Ocasek
Ziggy Marley of Ziggy Marley and the Melody Makers
4:26

6.
"True" (Spandau Ballet)
Gary Kemp
will.i.am & Fergie of The Black Eyed Peas
4:24

7.
"Slave to Love" (Roxy Music)
Ferry
Elan Atias
3:55

8.
"Every Breath You Take" (The Police)
Sting
UB40
3:55

9.
"The Ghost in You" (The Psychedelic Furs)
Richard Butler, Tim Butler
Mark McGrath of Sugar Ray
3:01

10.
"Friday I'm in Love" (The Cure)
Smith, Gallup, Thompson, Williams, Perry Bamonte
Dryden Mitchell of Alien Ant Farm
3:21

11.
"Breakfast in Bed" (Dusty Springfield)
Eddie Hinton, Donnie Fritts
Nicole Scherzinger of The Pussycat Dolls
3:36

12.
"I Melt With You" (Modern English)
Robbie Grey, Gary McDowell, Stephen Walker, Michael Conroy, Richard Brown
Jason Mraz
3:36

13.
"Forgetful Lucy"
Sandler, Allen Covert, Tim Herlihy
Adam Sandler
1:51

Total length:
49:37

text:
The Beach Boys – "Wouldn't It Be Nice"
The Cure – "Boys Don't Cry"
The English Beat – "Hands Off She's Mine"
The Flaming Lips – "Do You Realize??"
Wyclef Jean – "Baby"
Israel Kamakawiwo'ole – "Somewhere Over the Rainbow"/"What a Wonderful World" medley (Originally recorded by Judy Garland/Louis Armstrong)
The Maile Serenaders – "My Sweet Sweet"
The Makaha Sons of Ni'Ihau – "Aloha Ka Manini"
Manfred Mann – "Blinded by the Light"
Bob Marley & The Wailers – "Could You Be Loved" and "Is This Love"
Paul McCartney & Linda McCartney – "Another Day"
No Doubt – "Underneath It All"
O-Shen – "Throw Away The Gun"
Harve Presnell – "They Call the Wind Mariah"
Leon Redbone & Ringo Starr – "My Little Grass Shack In Kealakekua, Hawaii"
Adam Sandler and Rob Schneider – "Ula's Luau Song"
Snoop Dogg – "From tha Chuuuch to da Palace"
311 – "Amber" and "Rub A Dub"
Toots & the Maytals – "Pressure Drop"
The Ventures – "Hawaii Five-O"
Patty and Mildred Hill – "Happy Birthday to You"


document_title: 1936 NFL Draft

question_text: who was the first person drafted in the nfl

text: 1936 NFL Draft

text:
1936 NFL Draft

General Information

Date(s)
February 8, 1936

Location
Ritz-Carlton Hotel
in Philadelphia, PA

Overview

81 total selections  in 9 rounds

First selection
Jay Berwanger, HB
Philadelphia Eagles

Last selection
Phil Flanagan, G
New York Giants

Most selections (9)
each team selected nine players

Fewest selections (9)
each team selected nine players

Hall of Famers
4

NFL Drafts
1937 →

text: The 1936 National Football League Draft was the first draft of the National Football League (NFL). It took place on February 8, 1936, at the Ritz-Carlton Hotel in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania[1][2][3] The draft was instituted in an effort to equalize strength amongst the league's teams. The last place team from the previous season would get the first selection, and the process would continue in reverse order of the standings. Under this structure the Philadelphia Eagles, who finished 1935 at 2–9, would select first.[4]

text: This was the only draft to have nine rounds; the number increased to ten for the 1937 draft. The first player ever drafted, Jay Berwanger, who had previously been awarded the initial Heisman Trophy, never played in the NFL. His rights were traded by the Philadelphia Eagles to the Chicago Bears, as the Eagles felt they would be unable to meet Berwanger's reported demand of $1000 per game.[4] The Eagles received tackle Art Buss from the Bears in exchange for Berwanger's rights.[5] George Halas was unable to convince Berwanger to sign with the Bears. Riley Smith, the second pick, was the first player drafted to play in the NFL.

text: Breakdown of players selected[edit]

text: The following is the breakdown of the 81 players selected:

text:
28 Backs
15 Ends
14 Tackles

12 Guards
6 Centers
4 Fullbacks

2 Blocking backs
1 Tailback
1 Wingback

text: Player selections[edit]

text:
Jump to round: 2 • 3 • 4 • 5 • 6 • 7 • 8 • 9

†
= Pro Bowler[6]

‡
= Hall of Famer[7]

Positions key

B
Back

BB
Blocking back

C
Center

E
End
FB
Fullback
G
Guard

T
Tackle
TB
Tailback
WB
Wingback

text:
Rnd.
Pick #
NFL team
Player
Pos.
College
Conf.
Notes

1
1
Philadelphia Eagles
Berwanger, JayJay Berwanger
HB
Chicago

First winner of the Heisman Trophy award in 1935[8]

1
2
Boston Redskins
Smith, RileyRiley Smith
QB
Alabama
SEC

1
3
Pittsburgh Pirates
Shakespeare, BillBill Shakespeare
B
Notre Dame
Ind.

1
4
Brooklyn Dodgers
Crayne, DickDick Crayne
FB
Iowa
Big Ten

1
5
Chicago Cardinals
Lawrence, JimJim Lawrence †
WB
Texas Christian
SWC

1
6
Chicago Bears
Stydahar, JoeJoe Stydahar†
T
West Virginia
Ind.

1
7
Green Bay Packers
Letlow, RussRuss Letlow †
G
San Francisco (CA)
Ind. (Div. II)

1
8
Detroit Lions
Wagner, SidSid Wagner
G
Michigan State
Ind.

1
9
New York Giants
Lewis, Art "Pappy"Art "Pappy" Lewis
T
Ohio
Buckeye

2
10
Philadelphia Eagles
McCauley, JohnJohn McCauley
B
Rice
SWC

2
11
Boston Redskins
Topping, KeithKeith Topping
E
Stanford
PCC

2
12
Pittsburgh Pirates
Barnum, LenLen Barnum
B
West Virginia Wesleyan
WVIAC

2
13
Brooklyn Dodgers
LeVoir, Vernal "Babe"Vernal "Babe" LeVoir
B
Minnesota
Big Ten

2
14
Chicago Bears
Michaels, EdEd Michaels
G
Villanova
Ind.

2
15
Chicago Cardinals
Jones, GomerGomer Jones
C
Ohio State
Big Ten

2
16
Green Bay Packers
Wheeler, J.W. "Dub"J.W. "Dub" Wheeler
T
Oklahoma
MVIAA

2
17
Detroit Lions
Cheshire, ChuckChuck Cheshire
B
UCLA
PCC

2
18
New York Giants
Leemans, Alphonse "Tuffy"Alphonse "Tuffy" Leemans†
FB
George Washington
Ind.

3
19
Philadelphia Eagles
Muller, WesWes Muller
C
Stanford
PCC

3
20
Boston Redskins
Smith, EdEd Smith
BB
NYU
Ind.

3
21
Pittsburgh Pirates
Grayson, BobbyBobby Grayson
B
Stanford
PCC

3
22
Brooklyn Dodgers
Jorgensen, WagnerWagner Jorgensen
C
St. Mary's (CA)
Ind.

3
23
Chicago Cardinals
Erdelatz, EddieEddie Erdelatz
E
St. Mary's (CA)
Ind.

3
24
Chicago Bears
Roscoe, GeorgeGeorge Roscoe
B
Minnesota
Big Ten

3
25
Green Bay Packers
Scherer, BernieBernie Scherer
E
Nebraska
MVIAA

3
26
Detroit Lions
Pilney, AndyAndy Pilney
B
Notre Dame
Ind.

3
27
New York Giants
Loebs, Frank "Butch"Frank "Butch" Loebs
E
Purdue
Big Ten

4
28
Philadelphia Eagles
Wallace, BillBill Wallace
B
Rice
SWC

4
29
Boston Redskins
Tangora, PaulPaul Tangora
G
Northwestern
Big Ten

4
30
Pittsburgh Pirates
Spain, TrumanTruman Spain
T
SMU
SWC

4
31
Brooklyn Dodgers
Bryant, Paul "Bear"Paul "Bear" Bryant
E
Alabama
SEC

4
32
Chicago Bears
Allman, BobBob Allman
E
Michigan State
Ind.

4
33
Chicago Cardinals
Brett, EdEd Brett
E
Washington State University
PCC

4
34
Green Bay Packers
Ward, TheronTheron Ward
B
Idaho
PCC

4
35
Detroit Lions
Beise, SheldonSheldon Beise
B
Minnesota
Big Ten

4
36
New York Giants
Rose, GeneGene Rose
E
Tennessee
SEC

5
37
Philadelphia Eagles
Shuford, HarryHarry Shuford
B
SMU
SWC

5
38
Boston Redskins
Groseclose, WilsonWilson Groseclose
T
Texas Christian
SWC

5
39
Pittsburgh Pirates
Sandefur, DickDick Sandefur
FB
Purdue
Big Ten

5
40
Brooklyn Dodgers
Wilson, BobBob Wilson
TB
SMU
SWC

5
41
Chicago Cardinals
Riordan, StanStan Riordan
E
Oregon
PCC

5
42
Chicago Bears
Oech, VernVern Oech
G
Minnesota
Big Ten

5
43
Green Bay Packers
Lester, DarrellDarrell Lester
C
Texas Christian
SWC

5
44
Detroit Lions
Francis, KavanaughKavanaugh Francis
C
Alabama
SEC

5
45
New York Giants
Jontos, EdEd Jontos
G
Syracuse
Ind.

6
46
Philadelphia Eagles
Barabas, AlAl Barabas
B
Columbia
Ind.

6
47
Boston Redskins
Lutz, LarryLarry Lutz
T
California
PCC

6
48
Pittsburgh Pirates
Orr, MauriceMaurice Orr
T
SMU
SWC

6
49
Brooklyn Dodgers
Maniaci, JoeJoe Maniaci †
B
Fordham
Ind.

6
50
Chicago Bears
Christofferson, TedTed Christofferson
B
Washington State
PCC

6
51
Chicago Cardinals
Antonini, EttoreEttore Antonini
E
Indiana
Big Ten

6
52
Green Bay Packers
Reynolds, BobBob Reynolds
T
Stanford
PCC

6
53
Detroit Lions
Mickal, AbeAbe Mickal
B
LSU
SEC

6
54
New York Giants
Durner, GusGus Durner
T
Duke
SoCon

7
55
Philadelphia Eagles
Weller, JacJac Weller
G
Princeton
Ind.

7
56
Boston Redskins
Irwin, DonDon Irwin
FB
Colgate
Ind.

7
57
Pittsburgh Pirates
Peters, MartyMarty Peters
E
Notre Dame
Ind.

7
58
Brooklyn Dodgers
Schreiber, HerbHerb Schreiber
B
St. Mary's (CA)
Ind.

7
59
Chicago Cardinals
Dennis, TackTack Dennis
B
Tulsa
MVC

7
60
Chicago Bears
Smith, DickDick Smith
T
Minnesota
Big Ten

7
61
Green Bay Packers
Fromhart, WallyWally Fromhart
B
Notre Dame
Ind.

7
62
Detroit Lions
Wasicek, CharlesCharles Wasicek
T
Colgate
Ind.

7
63
New York Giants
Peeples, BobBob Peeples
T
Marquette
Ind.

8
64
Philadelphia Eagles
Constable, PepperPepper Constable
B
Princeton
Ind.

8
65
Boston Redskins
Millner, WayneWayne Millner
E
Notre Dame
Ind.

8
66
Pittsburgh Pirates
Karpowich, EdEd Karpowich
T
Catholic University

8
67
Brooklyn Dodgers
Hamilton, Bob "Bones"Bob "Bones" Hamilton
B
Stanford
PCC

8
68
Chicago Bears
Sylvester, JohnJohn Sylvester
E
Rice
SWC

8
69
Chicago Cardinals
Carter, RossRoss Carter
G
Oregon
PCC

8
70
Green Bay Packers
Cruice, WallyWally Cruice
B
Northwestern
Big Ten

8
71
Detroit Lions
Rennebohm, DaleDale Rennebohm
C
Minnesota
Big Ten

8
72
New York Giants
Heekin, DaleDale Heekin
B
Ohio State
Big Ten

9
73
Philadelphia Eagles
Pauk, PaulPaul Pauk
B
Princeton
Ind.

9
74
Boston Redskins
Saunders, MarcelMarcel Saunders
G
Loyola (CA)
Ind.

9
75
Pittsburgh Pirates
Meglen, JoeJoe Meglen
B
Georgetown
Ind.

9
76
Brooklyn Dodgers
Moscrip, Jim "Monk"Jim "Monk" Moscrip
E
Stanford
PCC

9
77
Chicago Cardinals
Larsen, NielsNiels Larsen
T
Stanford
PCC

9
78
Chicago Bears
Fortmann, DanDan Fortmann†
G
Colgate
Ind.

9
79
Green Bay Packers
Wetsel, J. C.J. C. Wetsel
G
SMU
SWC

9
80
Detroit Lions
Train, Bob "Choo Choo"Bob "Choo Choo" Train
E
Yale
Ind.

9
81
New York Giants
Flanagan, PhilPhil Flanagan
G
Holy Cross
Ind.

text: Hall of Famers[edit]

text: Dan Fortmann, guard from Colgate taken 9th round 78th overall by the Chicago Bears.

text: Joe Stydahar, tackle from West Virginia taken 1st round 6th overall by the Chicago Bears.

text: Wayne Millner, end from Notre Dame taken 8th round 65th overall by the Boston Redskins.

text: Alphonse "Tuffy" Leemans, back from George Washington University taken 2nd Round 18th overall by the New York Giants.

text: Notable undrafted players[edit]

text:
†
= Pro Bowler[6] -->

text:
Original NFL team
Player
Pos.
College
Conf.
Notes

Chicago Bears
Nolting, RayRay Nolting
RB
Cincinnati
Buckeye

Philadelphia Eagles
Smukler, DavidDavid Smukler
FB
Temple
Ind.


document_title: Twenty-First Army (Japan)

question_text: what year did the japanese get to foshan and the rest of guangdong province

text: Twenty-First Army (Japan)

text: History[edit]

text: The Japanese 21st Army was formed on September 19, 1938 under the Imperial General Headquarters. It was transferred to the control of the China Expeditionary Army on September 23, 1939 and assigned the primary role in the Canton Operation (the invasion of Guangdong Province in southern China), together with the Imperial Japanese Navy’s 5th Fleet.

text: On October 12, the 18th and 104th Divisions landed, followed by command units the following day. By October 21, the provincial capital of Guangzhou was under Japanese control. The IJA 5th Division continued to advance up the Pearl River and by November 5 had taken the city of Foshan. By the end of November, the entire province was under Japanese control.

text: The Japanese 21st Army was disbanded on February 9, 1940. Its command staff joined the staff of the Japanese Southern China Area Army, and its divisions were reassigned to other areas.

text: List of Commanders[edit]

text: Commanding officer[edit]

text:
Name
From
To

1
General Motoo Furushō
8 September 1938
9 November 1938

2
General Rikichi Andō
9 November 1938
10 February 1940

text: Chief of Staff[edit]

text:
Name
From
To

1
Lieutenant General Hisaichi Tanaka
8 September 1938
1 August 1939

2
Lieutenant General Yuitsu Tsuchihashi
1 August 1939
1 December 1939

3
Major General Hiroshi Konpon
1 December 1939
10 February 1940

text: Organization (as of February 9, 1940)[edit]

text: 21st Army

text:
5th Infantry Division

9th Infantry Brigade

11th Infantry Regiment
41st Infantry Regiment

21st Infantry Brigade

21st Infantry Regiment
42nd Infantry Regiment

5th Mountain Artillery Regiment
5th Cavalry Regiment
5th Engineer Regiment
5th Transport Regiment

18th Infantry Division

23rd Infantry Brigade

55th Infantry Regiment
56th Infantry Regiment

35th Infantry Brigade

114th Infantry Regiment
124th Infantry Regiment

22nd Cavalry Battalion
18th Mountain Artillery Regiment
12th Military Engineer Regiment
12th Transport Regiment

38th Infantry Division

228th Infantry Regiment
229th Infantry Regiment
230th Infantry Regiment

104th Infantry Division

107th Infantry Brigade

108th Infantry Regiment
170th Infantry Regiment

132nd Infantry Brigade

137th Infantry Regiment
161st Infantry Regiment

104th Field Artillery Regiment
104th Cavalry Regiment
104th Engineer Regiment
104th Transport Regiment

106th Infantry Division
111th Mountain Artillery Regiment
10th Independent Mountain Artillery Regiment
15th Independent Military Engineer Regiment