document_title: A Dog's Purpose (film)

question_text: who was the voice of bailey in a dogs purpose

root

text: A Dog's Purpose (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: In the 1950s, a feral puppy named Toby is whisked away to the dog pound and quickly euthanized, wondering if "fun" truly is life's purpose.

tag: p

text: His strong spirit is reborn and reincarnated as a newborn Retriever puppy in 1961, Toby leaves his cage at a puppy mill and is found by two garbage men who plan to sell him for their own profit. They leave to drink and Toby is spotted locked inside their pick-up truck by a young boy named Ethan and his mother, who rescue him from the brink of death by heatstroke. After they convince Ethan's father, the dog is allowed to stay and renamed Bailey.

text: Bailey and Ethan bond quickly, especially over the summer when the family visits Ethan's maternal grandparents' farm, and Bailey now believes Ethan alone is his purpose. Years pass and after several attempts at advancing in his job failed, Ethan's father has become a deadbeat alcoholic, though teenage Ethan still tries to respect him - inviting him to a football game now that he has been named starting quarterback.

text: Over the summer, Ethan goes to a fair with Bailey and meets Hannah, who he quickly begins dating, with Bailey referring to her as "part of the pack". Ethan and Hannah spend their summer happy together though their senior years are upcoming, but they plan to go to the same school; popular Ethan getting a football scholarship and Hannah following him on an academic one. When he goes home one night though, Ethan's father is drunk and shouting at Ethan's mother. He turns on Ethan then and when his mother tries to keep them separated, he shoves her to the ground. Ethan orders his father to leave and never come back, and becomes "the leader of the pack."

text: Later, at a game watched by scouts, Ethan is offered a full 4-year scholarship to Michigan State, but that night a vindictive classmate named Todd throws a lit firecracker into Ethan's house as a prank, which unintentionally results in a house fire. Bailey alerts Ethan, who goes to save his mother. Unable to get out of the door, they head out through his mother's bedroom window upstair. Ethan first lowers her with her sheets to the neighbors below, then Bailey — but when trying to jump himself, Ethan badly fractures his leg, ending his dreams of an athletic scholarship. Bailey attacks Todd, who is apprehended by the police. Instead Ethan must go to an agricultural school where he will learn to take over his grandparents' farm. Falling into depression, self-pity and bitterness, he grudgingly breaks off his romance with Hannah before leaving for college. Sometime afterwards, an aged Bailey slowly expires at the veterinarian's office after sharing an eleventh-hour teary goodbye with Ethan.

text: Bailey reincarnates into another dog life, a female German Shepherd Police dog named Ellie, sometime in the late 1970s/early 1980s, while possessing full memories and experiences of his past lives. Ellie is partnered with a widowed officer named Carlos from the Chicago Police Department, and works hard at "showing" and "finding", now seeing the job as life's purpose. The two form a close relationship which ends after Ellie jumps into a rushing river and saves a kidnapped girl from drowning, and is then fatally shot during a struggle with the armed kidnapper who was a moment away from killing an unsuspecting Carlos.

text: Reborn again in the mid-1980s as a Pembroke Welsh Corgi, he forms a bond with an Atlanta college student named Maya who names him Tino. Maya is lonely, which Tino, having bonded closely with the girl, realizes, and makes his purpose to find her some happiness. She starts a relationship with another classmate named Al who she begins seeing after Tino falls for Al's dog, a black and white Landseer named Roxie, and allows her to open up to him. Maya and Al marry and have 3 children who all love the Corgi. In love with Roxie (though she does not seem to reciprocate the romance), Tino is permanently heartbroken when one day she does not return from the vet. As he lies dying of old age in the late 1990s, Tino thanks Maya for giving him one of his best lives.

text: Bailey is again reborn and reincarnated, this time, as a St. Bernard-Australian Shepherd mix, sometime during the next decade, only to be taken in by an abusive and neglectful urban couple who name him Waffles. Waffles is eventually dumped in an abandoned lot and reluctantly sets off in search of a new life. Walking past a dog park and remembering how long it had been since he played, Waffles meets a dog and her human who hold a familiar scent to him, though he knows neither of them. He gradually makes his way to the country area where he spent summers as Bailey without even realizing at first where he is headed. He joyfully reunites with his old master Ethan, who is now somewhere in his 50s, living a lonely life and apparently broken in spirit at his Grandparents' old farm, which he now owns and runs. Ethan, of course, initially has no idea who this wandering dog really is and hands him over to the local animal shelter. But he soon has a change of heart and reclaims him, naming him Buddy. Buddy, sensing that he has finally found the true purpose of life that has long evaded him, finds a way to reunite Ethan with a widowed Hannah, and they eventually get married.

text: Buddy finally convinces Ethan that he is his beloved childhood pet by performing some tricks and responding to key phrases that were known only to the two of them all those many, many long years ago.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Josh Gad as the voice of Toby, Bailey, Ellie, Tino, Waffles and Buddy.
Dennis Quaid as Ethan Montgomery (adult)[8]

KJ Apa as teenage Ethan Montgomery[8]
Bryce Gheisar as eight-year old Ethan Montgomery

Juliet Rylance as Elizabeth Montgomery, Ethan's mother.[8]
Peggy Lipton as Hannah (adult)[8]

Britt Robertson as young Hannah[8]

John Ortiz as Carlos Ruiz
Kirby Howell-Baptiste as Maya
Pooch Hall as Al[9]
Luke Kirby as Jim Montgomery, Ethan's father
Michael Bofshever as Bill, Ethan's grandfather
Gabrielle Rose as Fran, Ethan's grandmother
Logan Miller as Todd, the vindictive classmate

tag: ul

text: Production[edit]

text: In 2015, DreamWorks acquired the film rights for Cameron's novel.[10] On May 8, 2015, it was announced Lasse Hallström would direct the film.[11] On August 5, 2015, Britt Robertson and Dennis Quaid joined the cast.[8] On September 18, 2015, Pooch Hall was cast in the film.[9] On October 15, 2015, Bradley Cooper joined the cast to play the dog's inner voice.[12] He was eventually replaced by Josh Gad.[13] Principal photography began on August 17, 2015.[14]

text: Release[edit]

text: In December 2015, the film switched from a DreamWorks Pictures release to under the Amblin Entertainment banner as per Amblin Partners' newly enacted branded strategy.[15] The film was released by Universal Pictures on January 27, 2017.[16] Universal also distributed it overseas, except for countries where Mister Smith Entertainment handled international sales.

text: Box office[edit]

text: A Dog's Purpose has grossed $64.3 million in the United States and Canada and $130.2 million in other territories for a worldwide gross of $194.5 million, against a production budget of $22 million.[3]

text: In North America was released alongside Resident Evil: The Final Chapter and Gold, and was projected to gross $18–22 million from 3,050 theaters in its opening weekend, slightly lower than initial $27 million tracking had the film debuting to before boycotts against the film were called for.[4] It made $466,000 from Thursday night previews and $5.3 million on its first day. It ended up debuting to $18.2 million, finishing second at the box office behind the second weekend of Universal's own Split.[17] The film dropped 40.6% in its second weekend, grossing $10.8 million and finishing third at the box office.[18]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 30% based on 121 reviews, and an average rating of 4.7/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "A Dog's Purpose offers an awkward blend of sugary sentiment and canine suffering that tugs at animal-loving audiences' heartstrings with shameless abandon."[19] On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating, the film has a score 43 out of 100, based on 32 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[20] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale.[21]

text: Home media[edit]

text: A Dog's Purpose was released on digital HD on April 18, 2017, and was followed by a release on Blu-ray and DVD on May 2, 2017, from Universal Studios Home Entertainment.[22][23] The film topped the home video sales chart for the week ending on May 7, 2017.[24]

text: Animal abuse allegations[edit]

text: Initial reaction[edit]

text: On January 18, 2017, a video surfaced on TMZ showing footage taken from the set of the film, which shows a German Shepherd named Hercules being dragged and dipped into rushing water while visibly resisting.[25] After a cut in the video, the next clip shows the dog being submerged in the water at the other end of the tank while a voice on set can be heard shouting "CUT IT!", and various people are then seen rushing towards the dog.[26] The American Humane Association, which ensures that animals are not harmed in entertainment productions, announced that its representative on set had been suspended over the incident, and that the incident is under further investigation.[27][28] PETA called for a boycott of the film.[29] Actor Josh Gad, who voices the dog in the movie, was not on set during the making of the film, but stated that he was "shaken and sad to see any animal put in a situation against its will".[30] Due to the release of the video, Universal Pictures cancelled the film's scheduled January 19 Los Angeles premiere.[31]

text: Director Lasse Hallström stated on Twitter that he "did not witness" the actions in the video, and was "very disturbed" by the footage.[32]

text: Validity of the video[edit]

text: Amblin Entertainment released a statement in regards to the incident, saying that "on the day of the shoot, Hercules did not want to perform the stunt portrayed on the tape so the Amblin production team did not proceed with filming that shot", and that "Hercules is happy and healthy".[33]

text: Dennis Quaid also came out against the TMZ video, stating that the video did not tell the whole story, saying:

text: My experience is that the animals were treated great. There was no animal abuse. That video that someone took and sold for money and held on to for a year and a half until right before the film's coming out, does not tell the whole story. First of all, it's been edited and manipulated. And I think it's a scam, to tell you the truth. What they (the viewers of the video) saw was completely out of context. It was edited...and all of the footage I saw, the dog was going into the water happily and had to be restrained, actually, from going into the water many times during that day.

text: Quaid also said that the video was shot

text: towards the end of the day and I would not say, in real context, that the dog was frightened. The dog was acting like a dog who was kind of tired of taking a bath and was ready to get out. And, in fact, that's what happened. They took the dog out.[34]

text: On February 4, 2017, the American Humane Association reported that an independent third-party animal-cruelty expert had concluded that safety measures on the set of the film were in place and the video had been deliberately edited to mislead the public.[5]

text: The film was released with AHAD approval number 06202.


document_title: Human head

question_text: what is the average weight of human head

text: Human head

text: Structure[edit]

text: The human head consists of a fleshy outer portion surrounding the bony skull, within which sits the brain. The head rests on the neck, and is provided bony support for movement by the seven cervical vertebrae.

text: The face is the anterior part of the head, containing the sensory organs the eyes, nose and mouth. The cheeks, on either side of the mouth, provide a fleshy border to the oral cavity. To either side of the head sit the ears.

text: Blood supply[edit]

text: The head receives blood supply through the internal and external carotid arteries. These supply the area outside the skull (external carotid artery) and inside of the skull (internal carotid artery). The area inside the skull also receives blood supply from the vertebral arteries, which travel up through the cervical vertebrae.

text: Nerve supply[edit]

text: The twelve pairs of cranial nerves provide the majority of nervous control to the head. The sensation to the face is provided by the branches of the trigeminal nerve, a cranial nerve. The sensation to other portions of the head is provided by the cervical nerves.

text: Modern texts are in agreement about which areas of the skin are served by which nerves, but there are minor variations in some of the details. The borders designated by the diagrams in the 1918 edition of Gray's Anatomy, provided below, are similar but not identical to those generally accepted today.

text: The cutaneous innervation of the head is as follows:

text:
Ophthalmic nerve (green)
Maxillary nerve (pink)
Mandibular nerve (yellow)
Cervical plexus (purple)
Dorsal rami of cervical nerves (blue)

text: Function[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (March 2014)

tag: table

text: The head contains sensory organs: two eyes, two ears, a nose and inside the mouth a tongue. It also houses the brain.

text: Society and culture[edit]

text: For humans, the head and particularly the face are the main distinguishing feature between different people, due to their easily discernible features such as hair and eye color, nose, eye and mouth shapes and wrinkles. The human head typically weighs between 5 and 11 pounds (2.3 and 5.0 kg). Human faces are easily differentiable to us due to our brains' predispositions toward discriminating human facial forms. When observing a relatively unfamiliar species, all faces seem nearly identical, and human infants are biologically programmed to recognize subtle differences in anthropic facial features.[citation needed]

text: People who are more intelligent than normal are sometimes depicted in cartoons as having bigger heads, as a way of notionally indicating that they have a "larger brain"; in science fiction, an extraterrestrial having a big head is often symbolic of high intelligence. Outside this symbolic depiction, however, advances in neurobiology have shown that the functional diversity of the brain means that a difference in overall brain size is only slighty to moderately correlated to differences in overall intelligence between two humans.[1]

text: The head is a source for many metaphors and metonymies in human language, including referring to things typically near the human head ( "the head of the bed"), things physically similar to the way a head is arranged spatially to a body ("the head of the table"), metaphorically ("the head of the class/FBI") and things that represent some characteristic we associate with the head, such as intelligence ("there are a lot of good heads in this company").[2]

text: Ancient Greeks had a method for evaluating sexual attractiveness based on the Golden ratio, part of which included measurements of the head.[citation needed]

text: Clothing[edit]

text: In many cultures, covering the head is seen as a sign of respect. Often, some or all of the head must be covered and veiled when entering holy places, or places of prayer. For many centuries, women in Europe, the Middle East, and South Asia have covered their hair as a sign of modesty. This trend has changed drastically in Europe in the 20th century, although is still observed in other parts of the world. In addition, a number of religious paths require men to wear specific head clothing—such as the Islamic Taqiyah_(cap), Jewish yarmulke, or the Sikh turban; or Muslim women, who cover their hair, ears, and neck with a scarf.

text: People may cover the head for other reasons.  A hat is a piece of clothing covering just the top of the head. This may be part of a uniform, such as a police uniform, a protective device such as a hard hat, a covering for warmth, or a fashion accessory.

text: Different headpieces can also signify status, origin, religious/spiritual beliefs, social grouping, team affiliation, occupation, or fashion choices.

text: Anthropometry[edit]

text: While numerous charts detailing head sizes in infants and children exist, most do not measure average head circumference past the age of 21. Reference charts for adult head circumference also generally feature homogeneous samples and fail to take height and weight into account.[3]

text: One study in the United States estimated the average human head circumference to be 55 centimetres (21 3⁄4 in) in females and 57 centimetres (22 1⁄2 in) in males.[4][dubious  – discuss] A British study by Newcastle University showed an average size of 55.2 cm for females and 57.2 cm for males with average size varying proportionally with height [5]

text: Macrocephaly can be an indicator of increased risk for some types of cancer in individuals who carry the genetic mutation that causes Cowden syndrome. For adults, this means refers to head sizes greater than 58 centimeters in men or greater than 57 centimeters in women.[6][7]

text: Average head sizes[edit]

text:
Measurement

Image

Description

Gender

Percentile (centimetres)

1st

5th

50th

95th

99th

Head breadth

1

The maximum breadth of the head, usually above and behind the ears.

Men

13.9

14.3

15.2

16.1

16.5

Women

13.3

13.7

14.4

15.0

15.8

Interpupilliary breadth

2

The distance between the centres of the pupils of the eyes, while looking straight ahead.

Men

5.7

5.9

6.5

7.1

7.4

Women

5.5

5.7

6.0

6.9

7.0

Face breadth (bzygomatic)

3

The breadth of the face, measured across the most lateral projections of the cheek bones (zygomatic arches).

Men

12.8

13.2

12.2

13.3

13.7

Women

12.1

12.3

12.8

14.0

15.4

Face length (menton-sellion)

4

The vertical distance from the tip of the chin (menton) to the deepest point of the nasal root depression between the eyes (sellion).

Men

10.8

11.2

12.2

13.3

13.7

Women

10.1

10.4

11.3

12.4

12.9

Biocular breadth

5

The distance from the outer corners of the eyes (right and left ectocanthi).

Men

11.0

11.3

12.2

13.1

13.6

Women

10.8

11.1

11.6

12.9

13.3

Bitragion breadth

6

The breadth of the head from the right tragion to the left. Tragion is the cartilaginous notch at the front of the ear.

Men

13.1

13.5

14.5

15.5

15.9

Women

12.5

12.8

13.3

14.3

15.0

Glabella toback of head

7

The horizontal distance from the most anterior point of the forehead between the brow-ridges (glabella) to the back of the head.

Men

18.3

18.8

20.0

21.1

21.7

Women

17.5

18.0

19.1

20.2

20.7

Menton toback of head

8

The horizontal distance from the tip of the chin (menton) to the back of the head.

Men

15.7

16.5

18.2

20.0

20.7

Women

15.2

15.8

17.3

18.9

19.6

Sellion totop of head

9

The vertical distance from the nasal root depression between the eyes (sellion) to the level of the top of the head.

Men

9.7

10.1

11.2

12.4

12.9

Women

9.0

9.5

10.5

11.7

12.2

Stomion to top of head

10

The vertical distance from the midpoint of the lips (stomion) to the level of the top of the head, measured with a headboard.

Men

16.9

17.4

18.6

19.9

20.6

Women

15.7

16.3

17.5

18.8

19.4

Sellion to back of head

11

The horizontal distance from the nasal root depression between the eyes (sellion), to the back of the head, measured with a headboard.

Men

18.0

18.5

19.7

20.9

21.4

Women

17.4

17.8

18.9

20.0

20.5

Pronasale toback of head

12

The horizontal distance from the tip of the nose (pronasale) to the back of the head.

Men

20.0

20.5

22.0

23.2

23.9

Women

19.2

19.7

21.0

22.2

22.8

Head length

13

The maximum length of the head; measured from the most anterior point of the forehead between the brow ridges (glabella) to the back of the head (occiput).

Men

18.0

18.5

19.7

20.9

21.3

Women

17.2

17.6

18.7

19.8

20.2

Menton totop of head

14

The vertical distance from the bottom of the chin (menton) to the top of the head.

Men

21.2

21.8

23.2

24.7

25.5

Women

19.8

20.4

21.8

23.2

23.8

Mention-crinion length

15

The vertical distance from the bottom of the chin (menton) to the midpoint of the hairline (crinion).

Men

16.6

17.4

19.1

20.9

21.6

Women

15.5

16.1

17.7

19.2

19.9

Menton-subnasale length

16

The distance from the bottom of the chin (menton) to the base of the nasal septum (subnasale).

Men

6.1

6.5

7.3

8.3

8.7

Women

5.7

6.0

6.5

7.8

8.3


document_title: Human microbiota

question_text: where is the most bacteria found in the human body

text: Human microbiota

text: Terminology[edit]

text: Though widely known as flora or microflora, this is a misnomer in technical terms, since the word root flora pertains to plants, and biota refers to the total collection of organisms in a particular ecosystem. Recently, the more appropriate term microbiota is applied, though its use has not eclipsed the entrenched use and recognition of flora with regard to bacteria and other microorganisms. Both terms are being used in different literature.[6]

text: Relative numbers[edit]

text: As of 2014, it was often reported in popular media and in the scientific literature that there are about 10 times as many microbial cells in the human body as there are human cells; this figure was based on estimates that the human microbiome includes around 100 trillion bacterial cells and that an adult human typically has around 10 trillion human cells.[2] In 2014, the American Academy of Microbiology published a FAQ that emphasized that the number of microbial cells and the number of human cells are both estimates, and noted that recent research had arrived at a new estimate of the number of human cells – approximately 37.2 trillion, meaning that the ratio of microbial-to-human cells, if the original estimate of 100 trillion bacterial cells is correct, is closer to 3:1.[2][3] In 2016, another group published a new estimate of the ratio being roughly 1:1 (1.3:1, with "an uncertainty of 25% and a variation of 53% over the population of standard 70-kg males").[4][5]

text: Study[edit]

text: The problem of elucidating the human microbiome is essentially identifying the members of a microbial community which includes bacteria, eukaryotes, and viruses.[10] This is done primarily using DNA-based studies, though RNA, protein and metabolite based studies are also performed.[10][11] DNA-based microbiome studies typically can be categorized as either targeted amplicon studies or more recently shotgun metagenomic studies. The former focuses on specific known marker genes and is primarily informative taxonomically, while the latter is an entire metagenomic approach which can also be used to study the functional potential of the community.[10] One of the challenges that is present in human microbiome studies but not in other metagenomic studies is to avoid including the host DNA in the study.[12]

text: Aside from simply elucidating the composition of the human microbiome, one of the major questions involving the human microbiome is whether there is a "core", that is, whether there is a subset of the community that is shared among most humans.[13][14] If there is a core, then it would be possible to associate certain community compositions with disease states, which is one of the goals of the Human Microbiome Project. It is known that the human microbiome is highly variable both within a single subject and between different individuals. For example, the gut microbiota of humans is markedly dissimilar between individuals, a phenomenon which is also observed in mice.[6]

text: On 13 June 2012, a major milestone of the Human Microbiome Project (HMP) was announced by the NIH director Francis Collins.[9] The announcement was accompanied with a series of coordinated articles published in Nature[15][16] and several journals in the Public Library of Science (PLoS) on the same day. By mapping the normal microbial make-up of healthy humans using genome sequencing techniques, the researchers of the HMP have created a reference database and the boundaries of normal microbial variation in humans. From 242 healthy U.S. volunteers, more than 5,000 samples were collected from tissues from 15 (men) to 18 (women) body sites such as mouth, nose, skin, lower intestine (stool), and vagina. All the DNA, human and microbial, were analyzed with DNA sequencing machines. The microbial genome data were extracted by identifying the bacterial specific ribosomal RNA, 16S rRNA. The researchers calculated that more than 10,000 microbial species occupy the human ecosystem and they have identified 81 – 99% of the genera.

text: Types[edit]

text: Bacteria[edit]

text: Populations of microbes (such as bacteria and yeasts) inhabit the skin and mucosal surfaces in various parts of the body. Their role forms part of normal, healthy human physiology, however if microbe numbers grow beyond their typical ranges (often due to a compromised immune system) or if microbes populate (such as through poor hygiene or injury) areas of the body normally not colonized or sterile (such as the blood, or the lower respiratory tract, or the abdominal cavity), disease can result (causing, respectively, bacteremia/sepsis, pneumonia, and peritonitis).

text: The Human Microbiome Project found that individuals host thousands of bacterial types, different body sites having their own distinctive communities. Skin and vaginal sites showed smaller diversity than the mouth and gut, these showing the greatest richness. The bacterial makeup for a given site on a body varies from person to person, not only in type, but also in abundance. Bacteria of the same species found throughout the mouth are of multiple subtypes, preferring to inhabit distinctly different locations in the mouth. Even the enterotypes in the human gut, previously thought to be well understood, are from a broad spectrum of communities with blurred taxon boundaries.[17][18]

text: It is estimated that 500 to 1,000 species of bacteria live in the human gut but belong to just a few phyla: Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes dominate but there are also Proteobacteria, Verrumicrobia, Actinobacteria, Fusobacteria and Cyanobacteria.[19]

text: A number of types of bacteria, such as Actinomyces viscosus and A. naeslundii, live in the mouth, where they are part of a sticky substance called plaque. If this is not removed by brushing, it hardens into calculus (also called tartar). The same bacteria also secrete acids that dissolve tooth enamel, causing tooth decay.

text: The vaginal microflora consist mostly of various lactobacillus species. It was long thought that the most common of these species was Lactobacillus acidophilus, but it has later been shown that L. iners is in fact most common, followed by L. crispatus. Other lactobacilli found in the vagina are L. jensenii, L. delbruekii and L. gasseri. Disturbance of the vaginal flora can lead to infections such as bacterial vaginosis or candidiasis ("yeast infection").

text: Archaea[edit]

text: Archaea are present in the human gut, but, in contrast to the enormous variety of bacteria in this organ, the numbers of archaeal species are much more limited.[20] The dominant group are the methanogens, particularly Methanobrevibacter smithii and Methanosphaera stadtmanae.[21] However, colonization by methanogens is variable, and only about 50% of humans have easily detectable populations of these organisms.[22]

text: As of 2007, no clear examples of archaeal pathogens were known,[23][24] although a relationship has been proposed between the presence of some methanogens and human periodontal disease.[25]

text: Fungi[edit]

text: Fungi, in particular yeasts, are present in the human gut.[26][27][28][29] The best-studied of these are Candida species due to their ability to become pathogenic in immunocompromised and even in healthy hosts.[27][28][29] Yeasts are also present on the skin,[26] such as Malassezia species, where they consume oils secreted from the sebaceous glands.[30][31]

text: Viruses[edit]

text: Viruses, especially bacterial viruses (bacteriophages), colonize various body sites. These colonized sites include the skin,[32] gut,[33] lungs,[34] and oral cavity.[35] Virus communities have been associated with some diseases, and do not simply reflect the bacterial communities.[36][37][38]

text: Anatomical areas[edit]

text: Skin[edit]

text: A study of twenty skin sites on each of ten healthy humans found 205 identified genera in nineteen bacterial phyla, with most sequences assigned to four phyla: Actinobacteria (51.8%), Firmicutes (24.4%), Proteobacteria (16.5%), and Bacteroidetes (6.3%).[39] A large number of fungal genera are present on healthy human skin, with some variability by region of the body; however, during pathological conditions, certain genera tend to dominate in the affected region.[26] For example, Malassezia is dominant in atopic dermatitis and Acremonium is dominant on dandruff-afflicted scalps.[26]

text: The skin acts as a barrier to deter the invasion of pathogenic microbes. The human skin contains microbes that reside either in or on the skin and can be residential or transient. Resident microorganism types vary in relation to skin type on the human body. A majority of microbes reside on superficial cells on the skin or prefer to associate with glands. These glands such as oil or sweat glands provide the microbes with water, amino acids, and fatty acids. In addition, resident bacteria that associated with oil glands are often Gram-positive and can be pathogenic.[1]

text: Conjunctiva[edit]

text: A small number of bacteria and fungi are normally present in the conjunctiva.[26][40] Classes of bacteria include Gram-positive cocci (e.g., Staphylococcus and Streptococcus) and Gram-negative rods and cocci (e.g., Haemophilus and Neisseria) are present.[40] Fungal genera include Candida, Aspergillus, and Penicillium.[26] The lachrymal glands continuously secrete, keeping the conjunctiva moist, while intermittent blinking lubricates the conjunctiva and washes away foreign material. Tears contain bactericides such as lysozyme, so that microorganisms have difficulty in surviving the lysozyme and settling on the epithelial surfaces.

text: Gut[edit]

text:
Tryptophan metabolism by human gastrointestinal microbiota (v · t · e)

This diagram shows the biosynthesis of bioactive compounds (indole and certain derivatives) from tryptophan by bacteria in the gut.[41] Indole is produced from tryptophan by bacteria that express tryptophanase.[41] Clostridium sporogenes metabolizes indole into 3-indolepropionic acid (IPA),[42] a highly potent neuroprotective antioxidant that scavenges hydroxyl radicals.[41][43][44] In the intestine, IPA binds to pregnane X receptors (PXR) in intestinal cells, thereby facilitating mucosal homeostasis and barrier function.[41] Following absorption from the intestine and distribution to the brain, IPA confers a neuroprotective effect against cerebral ischemia and Alzheimer’s disease.[41] Lactobacillus species metabolize tryptophan into indole-3-aldehyde (I3A) which acts on the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) in intestinal immune cells, in turn increasing interleukin-22 (IL-22) production.[41] Indole itself acts as a glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) secretagogue in intestinal L cells and as a ligand for AhR.[41] Indole can also be metabolized by the liver into indoxyl sulfate, a compound that is toxic in high concentrations and associated with vascular disease and renal dysfunction.[41] AST-120 (activated charcoal), an intestinal sorbent that is taken by mouth, adsorbs indole, in turn decreasing the concentration of indoxyl sulfate in blood plasma.[41]

text: The gut flora has the largest numbers of bacteria and the greatest number of species compared to other areas of the body.[6] In humans the gut flora is established at one to two years after birth, and by that time the intestinal epithelium and the intestinal mucosal barrier that it secretes have co-developed in a way that is tolerant to, and even supportive of, the gut flora and that also provides a barrier to pathogenic organisms.[19][45]

text: The relationship between some gut flora and humans is not merely commensal (a non-harmful coexistence), but rather a mutualistic relationship.[1] Some human gut microorganisms benefit the host by fermentating dietary fiber into short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), such as acetic acid and butyric acid, which are then absorbed by the host.[6][46] Intestinal bacteria also play a role in synthesizing vitamin B and vitamin K as well as metabolizing bile acids, sterols, and xenobiotics.[1][46] The systemic importance of the SCFAs and other compounds they produce are like hormones and the gut flora itself appears to function like an endocrine organ,[46] and dysregulation of the gut flora has been correlated with a host of inflammatory and autoimmune conditions.[6][47]

text: The composition of human gut flora changes over time, when the diet changes, and as overall health changes.[6][47] A systematic review of 15 human randomized controlled trials from July 2016 found that certain commercially available strains of probiotic bacteria from the Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus genera (B. longum, B. breve, B. infantis, L. helveticus, L. rhamnosus, L. plantarum, and L. casei), when taken by mouth in daily doses of 109–1010 colony forming units (CFU) for 1–2 months, possess treatment efficacy (i.e., improved behavioral outcomes) in certain central nervous system disorders – including anxiety, depression, autism spectrum disorder, and obsessive–compulsive disorder – and improved certain aspects of memory.[48]

text: Vagina[edit]

text: Vaginal microbiota refers to those species and genera that colonize the lower reproductive tract of women. These organisms play an important role in protecting against infections and maintaining vaginal health.[49] The most abundant vaginal microorganisms found in premenopausal women are from the genus Lactobacillus, which suppress pathogens by producing hydrogen peroxide and lactic acid.[28][49][50] Bacterial species composition and ratios vary depending on the stage of the menstrual cycle.[51][52][needs update] Ethnicity also influences vaginal flora. The occurrence of hydrogen peroxide-producing lactobacilli is lower in African American women and vaginal pH is higher.[53] Other influential factors such as sexual intercourse and antibiotics have been linked to the loss of lactobacilli.[50] Moreover, studies have found that sexual intercourse with a condom does appear to change lactobacilli levels, and does increase the level of Escherichia coli within the vaginal flora.[50] Changes in the normal, healthy vaginal microbiota is an indication of infections, such as candidiasis or bacterial vaginosis.[50] Candida albicans inhibits the growth of Lactobacillus species, while Lactobacillus species which produce hydrogen peroxide inhibit the growth and virulence of Candida albicans in both the vagina and the gut.[26][28][29]

text: Fungal genera that have been detected in the vagina include Candida, Pichia, Eurotium, Alternaria, Rhodotorula, and Cladosporium, among others.[26]

text: Placenta[edit]

text: Until recently the placenta was considered to be a sterile organ but commensal, nonpathogenic bacterial species and genera have been identified that reside in the placental tissue.[54][55][56]

text: Uterus[edit]

text: Until recently, the upper reproductive tract of women was considered to be a sterile environment. A variety of microorganisms inhabit the uterus of healthy, asymptomatic women of reproductive age. The microbiome of the uterus differs significantly from that of the vagina and gastrointestinal tract.[57]

text: Oral cavity[edit]

text: The environment present in the human mouth allows the growth of characteristic microorganisms found there. It provides a source of water and nutrients, as well as a moderate temperature.[1] Resident microbes of the mouth adhere to the teeth and gums to resist mechanical flushing from the mouth to stomach where acid-sensitive microbes are destroyed by hydrochloric acid.[1][28]

text: Anaerobic bacteria in the oral cavity include: Actinomyces, Arachnia, Bacteroides, Bifidobacterium, Eubacterium, Fusobacterium, Lactobacillus, Leptotrichia, Peptococcus, Peptostreptococcus, Propionibacterium, Selenomonas, Treponema, and Veillonella.[58][needs update] Genera of fungi that are frequently found in the mouth include Candida, Cladosporium, Aspergillus, Fusarium, Glomus, Alternaria, Penicillium, and Cryptococcus, among others.[26] Bacteria accumulate on both the hard and soft oral tissues in biofilms. Bacterial adhesion is particularly important for oral bacteria.

text: Oral bacteria have evolved mechanisms to sense their environment and evade or modify the host. Bacteria occupy the ecological niche provided by both the tooth surface and gingival epithelium. However, a highly efficient innate host defense system constantly monitors the bacterial colonization and prevents bacterial invasion of local tissues. A dynamic equilibrium exists between dental plaque bacteria and the innate host defense system.[59] Of particular interest is the role of oral microorganisms in the two major dental diseases: dental caries and periodontal disease.[59] Additionally, research has correlated poor oral heath and the resulting ability of the oral microbiota to invade the body to affect cardiac health as well as cognitive function.[60]

text: Lung[edit]

text: Much like the oral cavity, the upper and lower respiratory system possess mechanical deterrents to remove microbes. Goblet cells produce mucous which traps microbes and moves them out of the respiratory system via continuously moving ciliated epithelial cells.[1] In addition, a bactericidal effect is generated by nasal mucus which contains the enzyme lysozyme.[1] The upper and lower respiratory tract appears to have its own set of microbiota.[61] Pulmonary bacterial microbiota belong to 9 major bacterial genera: Prevotella, Sphingomonas, Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter, Fusobacterium, Megasphaera, Veillonella, Staphylococcus, and Streptococcus. Some of the bacteria considered "normal biota" in the respiratory tract can cause serious disease especially in immunocompromised individuals; these include Streptococcus pyogenes, Haemophilus influenzae, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Neisseria meningitidis, and Staphylococcus aureus.[citation needed] Fungal genera that compose the pulmonary mycobiome include Candida, Malassezia, Neosartorya, Saccharomyces, and Aspergillus, among others.[26]

text: Unusual distributions of bacterial and fungal genera in the respiratory tract is observed in people with cystic fibrosis.[26][62] Their bacterial flora often contains antibiotic-resistant and slow-growing bacteria, and the frequency of these pathogens changes in relation to age.[62]

text: Disease[edit]

text: A symbiotic relationship between the gut microbiota and different bacteria may influence an individual's immune response.[63]

text: Cancer[edit]

text: Although cancer is generally a disease of host genetics and environmental factors, microorganisms are implicated in some 20% of human cancers.[64] Particularly for potential factors in colon cancer, bacterial density is one million times higher than in the small intestine, and approximately 12-fold more cancers occur in the colon compared to the small intestine, possibly establishing a pathogenic role for microbiota in colon and rectal cancers.[65] Microbial density may be used as a prognostic tool in assessment of colorectal cancers.[65]

text: The microbiota may affect carcinogenesis in three broad ways: (i) altering the balance of tumor cell proliferation and death, (ii) regulating immune system function, and (iii) influencing metabolism of host-produced factors, foods and pharmaceuticals.[64] Tumors arising at boundary surfaces, such as the skin, oropharynx and respiratory, digestive and urogenital tracts, harbor a microbiota. Substantial microbe presence at a tumor site does not establish association or causal links. Instead, microbes may find tumor oxygen tension or nutrient profile supportive. Decreased populations of specific microbes or induced oxidative stress may also increase risks.[64][65] Of the around 1030 microbes on earth, ten are designated by the International Agency for Research on Cancer as human carcinogens.[64] Microbes may secrete proteins or other factors directly drive cell proliferation in the host, or may up- or down-regulate the host immune system including driving acute or chronic inflammation in ways that contribute to carcinogenesis.[64]

text: Concerning the relationship of immune function and development of inflammation, mucosal surface barriers are subject to environmental risks and must rapidly repair to maintain homeostasis. Compromised host or microbiota resiliency also reduce resistance to malignancy, possibly inducing inflammation and cancer. Once barriers are breached, microbes can elicit proinflammatory or immunosuppressive programs through various pathways.[64] For example, cancer-associated microbes appear to activate NF-κΒ signaling within the tumor microenviroment. Other pattern recognition receptors, such as nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain–like receptor (NLR) family members NOD-2, NLRP3, NLRP6 and NLRP12, may play a role in mediating colorectal cancer.[64] Likewise Helicobacter pylori appears to increase the risk of gastric cancer, due to its driving a chronic inflammatory response in the stomach.[64][65]

text: Inflammatory bowel disease[edit]

text: Inflammatory bowel disease consists of two different diseases: ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease and both of these diseases present with disruptions in the gut microbiota (also known as dysbiosis). This dysbiosis presents itself in the form of decreased microbial diversity in the gut,[66][67] and is correlated to defects in host genes that changes the innate immune response in individuals.[66]

text: Human immunodeficiency virus[edit]

text: The HIV disease progression influences the composition and function of the gut microbiota, with notable differences between HIV-negative, HIV-positive, and post-ART HIV-positive populations.[citation needed] HIV decreases the integrity of the gut epithelial barrier function by affecting tight junctions. This breakdown allows for translocation across the gut epithelium, which is thought to contribute to increases in inflammation seen in people with HIV.[68]

text: Vaginal microbiota plays a role in the infectivity of HIV, with an increased risk of infection and transmission when the woman has bacterial vaginosis, a condition characterized by an abnormal balance of vaginal bacteria.[69] The enhanced infectivity is seen with the increase in pro-inflammatory cytokines and CCR5 + CD4+ cells in the vagina. However, a decrease in infectivity is seen with increased levels of vaginal Lactobacillus, which promotes an anti-inflammatory condition.[68]

text: Research[edit]

text: Diabetic foot ulcers develop their own, distinctive microbiota.[70] Periodontal disease and urinary tract infections are often linked to bacteria, such as Helicobacter pylori and Chlamydia pneumonia), numerous viral agents (Cytomegalo-virus, herpes simplex virus type-2, HIV), and parasites (Plasmodium spp. and Toxoplasma gondii).[71]

text: Environmental health[edit]

text: Studies in 2009 questioned whether the decline in biota (including microfauna) as a result of human intervention might impede human health, hospital safety procedures, food product design, and treatments of disease.[72]


document_title: Melbourne Metro Rail Project

question_text: when will the melbourne metro tunnel be finished

text: Melbourne Metro Rail Project

text: History[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The need for an overhaul of the existing commuter rail network was first discussed in the early 2000s as unprecedented population growth began to place significant pressure on existing rail infrastructure and constraints on the inner core of the network as it approached capacity. A plan to create a London Underground style "tube" system for Melbourne was first proposed in 2005 running between the inner-north and linking up to the south-eastern suburbs via the CBD and St Kilda Road.[7]

text: By 2008 the Brumby Government, as part of the now defunct Victorian Transport Plan, envisaged a two-stage project known as Melbourne Metro 1 and Melbourne Metro 2. The 17 km twin rail tunnels would have run from Footscray station to Domain Interchange via the CBD (Stage 1), costing approximately $4.5 billion, with the second stage running from Domain to Caulfield. Combined, this plan would link the Sunbury and Dandenong lines, freeing up capacity within the existing City Loop to add more services.

text: In 2012, the newly elected Baillieu Government combined the two projects, significantly shortening the route and adding a station at Arden Street in North Melbourne to allow for urban renewal. The project was known as the Melbourne Metro Rail Project. This allowed for the benefits of both projects with a simplified scope as submitted to Infrastructure Australia for Federal Government funding approval. The envisaged project would allow for five underground stations, with interchanges at Melbourne Central and Flinders Street, with funding provisionally allocated by the Federal and State governments to further develop a business plan and subsequent early construction works. In 2012, the Department of Transport commenced geotechnical drillings and route investigations.

text: By May 2013, with a newly installed Premier, the project was significantly reworked and renamed the Melbourne Rail Link under Premier Denis Napthine. The line would run from Southern Cross station to South Yarra station, with stations at Fishermans Bend (to be known as Montague Station) and Domain Interchange, with significant modifications made to the City Loop to allow for bi-directional running. Stations at Parkville and the northern and southern ends of the CBD were scrapped in favour of avoiding years of disruption along Swanston Street. Coupled with the project was the long-awaited plan to build a heavy rail link to Melbourne Airport, which would be subsequently incorporated into the newly reworked project. By this time, the project completion date had been extended to 2026 with no additional Federal Government funding allocation. Some $820 million had been provisionally allocated by the State Government for commencement of pre-construction works.

text: In November 2014, the newly elected Andrews Government dumped the Melbourne Rail Link and revived the original Melbourne Metro Rail Project, committing $300 million in the first year of government to commence detailed pre-construction planning and procurement. In February 2015, Premier Daniel Andrews announced the creation of the Melbourne Metro Rail Authority to oversee planning and procurement of the project with $40 million fast-tracked prior to the release of the budget. In April 2015, the route for the project was announced which would provide new underground stations at the Domain Interchange (on St Kilda and Domain Roads), and the Parkville university/hospital precinct (near Grattan Street and Royal Parade), as well as a station in North Melbourne. The route would run via Swanston Street with interchange opportunities at Melbourne Central and Flinders Street stations and connect the Sunbury line with the Cranbourne and Pakenham lines. The State Government redirected the $3 billion credit facility previously allocated to the axed East West Link road project to the Melbourne Metro Rail Project.

text: With the election of the Andrews Government in November 2014, the project was positioned as a priority for ongoing future development and eventual construction.

text: On 18 February 2015, Premier Daniel Andrews announced $40 million had been allocated to commence detailed planning works, community consultation, route design and development of a refreshed business case. The balance, some $260 million, is to be delivered in the May 2015/16 Victorian State Budget.[8] It was revealed that a line of credit facility, originally proposed for the now-cancelled East West Link, would be used to provide up to $3 billion in funding for the project, over the forward estimates.

text: Andrews announced in April 2015 that $1.5 billion would be allocated in the upcoming 2015/16 State Budget for the full cost of pre-construction works, geo technical drilling, land and property acquisition and detailed route investigations.[9] This is on top of a previously announced $300 million earlier in the year. Furthermore, some 150 bore holes will be drilled along the route across Melbourne to investigate soil and ground composition, including the Yarra River.[10]

text: In October 2015 the government announced it had abandoned earlier plans to run the tunnel just metres beneath Swanston Street and above the existing City Loop tunnels and instead place parts of the project 40 metres underground between CBD North and CBD South stations. The decision was made to reduce disruption to trams and traders on Swanston Street and avoid removing critical utilities, such as telecommunication lines, from beneath the street.[11] The government said it would compulsorily acquire the properties of 63 households and 31 businesses at several locations on the tunnel route.[12]

text: In January 2016 soil testing and drilling began in the Yarra River.[13] In February 2016, CPB Contractors, a John Holland/KBR consortium and a Lend Lease/Coleman Rail consortium were shortlisted to bid for the early works.[14]

text: In June 2016, John Holland was awarded a $324 million contract which includes the excavation of 35 metre deep open shafts adjacent to Swanston Street to enable the underground construction of the two new city stations, and the relocation of up to 100 subterranean utilities. Utility relocations started in July 2016.[15][16]

text: In August 2016, three consortia were shortlisted to bid for the main contract:[17]

text:
Continuum Victoria: Acciona Infrastructure, Ferrovial Agroman, Honeywell, Downer Rail & Plenary Group
Moving Melbourne Together: Pacific Partnerships, CPB Contractors, Ghella, Salini Impregilo, Serco & Macquarie Capital
Cross Yarra Partnership: Lend Lease, John Holland, Bouygues & Capella Capital

text: In January 2017 works commenced in Melbourne's CBD to build shafts to allow the insertion of tunnelling equipment, and to build the new CBD North station. The works in the CBD have seen the closure of sections for Franklin Street and A'Beckett street for up to five years. Works also commenced along St Kilda Rd to prepare for the construction of both the tunnel and the Domain station.[1]

text: In July 2017 the Victorian Government announced the Cross Yarra Partnership (CYP) as preferred bidder for the $A 6bn Melbourne Metro Tunnel and stations public-private partnership. The consortium led by Lend Lease Engineering, John Holland, Bouygues Construction and Capella Capital has been chosen to build the 9km long tunnel and five new underground stations.

text: Construction for the project commenced in 2017 and is targeted for completion by 2026.

text: Project description[edit]

text: The project will consist of two 9-kilometre rail tunnels between South Kensington and South Yarra via the CBD with five new underground stations, to be known as North Melbourne, Parkville, State Library, Town Hall and Anzac. The line will run from the north-west to the south-east and combine the Sunbury line with the Cranbourne/Pakenham line.

text: While the rail tunnel is the centrepiece of the project, further works will also be carried out on the Craigieburn and Upfield lines and complement existing projects underway on the Dandenong line, to create four 'metro-style' lines which each run independent of each other. This includes the provision of high speed signalling, level crossing removals, track and station improvements and additional train stabling facilities. In addition, High Capacity Metro Trains will be procured to add further capacity to the network.

text: Intended benefits[edit]

text: This article contains content that is written like an advertisement. Please help improve it by removing promotional content and inappropriate external links, and by adding encyclopedic content written from a neutral point of view. (August 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Improve network capacity[edit]

text: The primary aim of the project is to increase capacity within the inner core of the metropolitan network, as well as improving reliability and efficiency when linking up two of Melbourne's busiest train lines, the Sunbury and Cranbourne/Pakenham lines. It is estimated that once complete, the project will allow for an additional 20,000 passengers during peak periods and provide for additional points of interchange with existing light and heavy rail transport.[18]

text: Relieve Swanston Street tram services[edit]

text: With the proposed route expected to run directly under Swanston Street and towards the south-eastern suburbs, the project will provide much needed relief to existing and overcrowded tram services that run from St Kilda Road into the CBD. Currently, St Kilda Road is the busiest tram thoroughfare in the world, with up to 10 tram routes running into the CBD via Swanston Street. The Melbourne Metro is expected to relieve this pressure by allowing commuters to catch the train into the Domain Interchange and CBD from either the north-west or south-eastern suburbs, avoiding already congested tram routes. In particular, many of the existing tram routes that run through St Kilda Road terminate at Melbourne University, which will be more easily accessible from the nearby Parkville station when the Melbourne Metro is complete.

text: Allow for further network expansion[edit]

text: In 2012, Public Transport Victoria, the body charged with planning and coordination of public transport services in Victoria, released the Metropolitan Network Development Plan. It emphasised the need for the project as a precursor for other heavy rail expansion projects, given current limitations on existing inner city infrastructure to cope with additional services running into the inner part of the network. In particular rail lines to Doncaster, Melbourne Airport and Rowville require additional inner core capacity to enable services to run on those lines into the CBD.

text: Jobs[edit]

text: The project is expected to employ up to 3,500 people during peak construction.[18]

text: Criticism[edit]

text: Increase existing capacity[edit]

text: The need for a new tunnel to increase capacity has been subject to criticism that capacity on the existing network is under utilised or hamstrung by operational inefficiencies. Paul Mees in 2008[19] noted that the claim the new tunnel would allow 40 extra trains per hour through the city should be compared to an increase of 56 trains per hour by increasing line capacity to 24 trains per hour per line (80% of the theoretical 30 trains per hour allowed by the current signalling system), reducing dwell times and other efficiencies such as terminating some trains at Flinders Street station rather than Southern Cross station. Mees also criticised the proposal for absorbing rail investment at the expense of extending the network at its periphery. Other proposals have also been suggested for some relatively minor alterations to the City Loop to allow different groupings of the lines without any new stations.

text: Critics have also argued that by implementing High Capacity Signalling (HCS) across the network, additional services would be able to run on existing infrastructure, by reducing headway between trains allowing more services to run. In March 2015, the State Government announced a trial of HCS would commence on the Sandringham line, with a view to expand it across the network once successful trials were complete.

text: Lack of interchange at South Yarra[edit]

text: The current scope of the project has ruled out integration with South Yarra station, meaning it will be bypassed by trains using the new tunnel. This would prevent passengers using the tunnel transferring from the Dandenong and Frankston lines to the Sandringham line. Pressure from the State Opposition and the Greens to include the station in the tunnel's design have gone unheeded.[20] The Melbourne Metro Rail Authority has defended the plan, saying the economic case for integration is poor, requiring the building of a new hub and the acquisition of 114 properties including part of The Jam Factory at a cost of an extra $1 billion; a business case estimate indicates a return of only 20c for every dollar spent on the station.[21] Integration of South Yarra station into the project has been the subject of lobbying as a requirement for federal funding.

text: Cost and funding[edit]

text: A significant point of contention has been the relative cost of the project and the capacity of the State to afford up to $11 billion. The previous Abbott Federal Government has specifically ruled out funding urban rail projects across the country, limiting funding options for the Melbourne Metro project and placing pressure on the State Government to fund the project with a mix of debt and private business investment. While funding allocated by the Abbott Government for the now-scrapped East West Link was specifically ruled out for use on urban rail projects in Melbourne,[22] the new Turnbull government has removed this condition.[23]

text: Federal funding options for the project can be realised through the Abbott Government's 'Asset Recycling Program', which matches 15% of the cost of any State Government asset that is sold to be used for infrastructure projects. The sale of the Port of Melbourne by the Andrews Government could provide additional funding to the Melbourne Metro project once sold, including an indirect contribution by the Federal Government.[24]

text: Swanston Street & CBD disruption[edit]

text: Concerns existed over expected disruption along the Swanston Street corridor, with former Premier Denis Napthine controversially describing the alignment of the tunnel as akin to the Berlin Wall, which would "tear the city in half for up to two years".[25] However, changes to engineering and construction plans indicate that tunneling, rather than the 'cut and cover' method of construction, will be employed. Minimal disruption for trams, pedestrians and traders along Swanston Street is thus expected.[26]

text: Stations[edit]

text: North Melbourne[edit]

text: North Melbourne station is the first of the five new stations to be constructed. The station, to be built near the intersection of Arden and Laurens Streets in North Melbourne, is planned to allow for urban renewal of the formerly industrial suburb. The station is expected to serve some 25,000 residents once complete. The existing North Melbourne station will be renamed West Melbourne.

text: Parkville[edit]

text: Parkville station is to be located on the intersection of Grattan Street and Royal Parade in Parkville, in proximity to the Royal Melbourne Hospital and Melbourne University. The station, to be located underground, will relieve pressure on north-south tram routes and the congested 401 bus service between North Melbourne station and the university/hospital precinct. New tram stops are to be constructed as part of the project allowing for seamless tram and train interchanges. The station will service the busy hospital and research precinct, including the Victorian Comprehensive Cancer Centre. The station is expected to service 60,000 passengers each day in 2031.

text: State Library[edit]

text: State Library station is to be located underground on the intersection of Swanston and La Trobe Streets in the Melbourne CBD above the existing Melbourne Central station. This will allow for interchange opportunities between stations and existing lines and relieve pressure on Swanston Street tram routes. The station will service the northern end of the CBD, as well as the State Library of Victoria and RMIT University. The line will continue underneath Swanston Street running below the existing City Loop tunnels. The station will serve up to 40,000 passengers once complete.

text: Town Hall[edit]

text: Town Hall station is to be located underground on the corner of Swanston and Flinders Streets, with direct connections to Flinders Street station, adding further relief to tram services and servicing the southern end of the CBD. The station will be within proximity to St Paul's Cathedral, the Arts Precinct, Southbank and Federation Square and have exits on Collins Street. The line will proceed south running below the Yarra River and the Burnley and Domain tunnels. The station is expected to serve some 55,000 passengers during peak periods.

text: Anzac[edit]

text: Anzac station is to be located underground on St Kilda Road and Park Streets adjacent to the Domain Interchange, with interchange opportunities with existing St Kilda Road tram services. The station will service the Shrine of Remembrance, the busy St Kilda Road office precinct, the Royal Botanic Gardens and Melbourne Grammar School. The station is expected to serve approximately 14,500 passengers during peak periods. The southern portal for the tunnel is to be located to the south of South Yarra station.


document_title: List of the busiest airports in the United States

question_text: what's the busiest airport in the us

question_tokens: what 's the busiest airport in the us

text: Busiest US airports by total passenger boardings[edit]

text: The FAA uses passenger boarding for a full calendar year to determine Airport Improvement Program (AIP) entitlements.[1]

text: The term hub is used by the FAA to identify very busy commercial service airports. For instance, large hubs are those airports that each account for at least one percent of total U.S. passenger enplanements. Medium hubs are defined as airports that each account for between 0.25 percent and one percent of the total passenger enplanements. According to preliminary FAA data, in 2014 there were 30 large hubs and 30 medium hubs.

text:
Rank
(2016)
Airports (large hubs)
IATA
Code
Major city served
State
2017
2016[2]
2015[3]
2014[4]
2013[5]
2012[6]
2011[7]
2010[8]
2009[9]
2008[9]
2007[10]
2006[11]
2005[12]

1
Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport
ATL
Atlanta
GA
51,916,451
50,476,272
49,340,732
46,604,273
45,308,407
45,798,809
44,414,121
43,130,585
42,280,868
43,236,665
43,236,665
41,352,038
42,402,653

2
Los Angeles International Airport
LAX
Los Angeles
CA
42,459,545
39,635,691
36,351,226
34,314,197
32,425,892
31,326,268
30,528,737
28,857,755
27,439,897
28,861,477
30,113,985
29,357,327
29,372,272

3
O'Hare International Airport
ORD
Chicago
IL

37,499,201
36,305,668
33,686,811
32,317,835
32,171,743
31,892,301
32,171,831
31,135,732
33,683,991
36,521,585
36,825,097
36,720,005

4
Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport
DFW
Dallas/Fort Worth
TX
33,528,927
31,274,875
31,589,832
30,766,940
29,038,128
28,022,877
27,518,358
27,100,656
26,663,984
27,219,985
28,482,417
28,627,749
28,079,147

5
John F. Kennedy International Airport
JFK
New York
NY

29,224,554
27,717,503
26,244,928
25,036,358
24,520,943
23,664,830
22,934,047
22,710,272
23,620,948
23,401,351
21,071,501
20,260,359

6
Denver International Airport
DEN
Denver
CO
30,714,011
28,246,269
26,280,043
26,000,591
25,496,885
25,799,832
25,667,499
25,241,962
24,013,669
24,287,939
20,796,173
20,591,909
20,315,544

7
San Francisco International Airport
SFO
San Francisco
CA
27,862,429
25,706,994
24,190,549
22,756,008
21,704,626
21,284,224
20,038,679
19,359,003
18,467,908
18,135,827
17,280,328
16,236,592
16,070,133

8
McCarran International Airport
LAS
Las Vegas
NV
24,248,814
22,665,289
21,824,231
20,551,016
19,946,179
19,941,173
19,854,759
18,996,738
19,445,952
21,024,443
22,537,950
22,028,521
21,402,676

9
Charlotte Douglas International Airport
CLT
Charlotte
NC

21,955,996
21,913,156
21,542,277
21,346,601
20,032,426
19,022,535
18,629,181
18,165,476
19,291,428
16,884,780
14,949,568
14,109,608

10
Seattle–Tacoma International Airport
SEA
Seattle/Tacoma
WA
23,518,824
22,940,997
21,231,781
18,781,489
17,450,425
16,625,787
16,425,732
15,406,243
15,273,092
15,839,504
15,419,116
14,703,928
14,359,530

11
Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport
PHX
Phoenix
AZ
22,016,714
20,896,229
21,351,445
20,344,867
19,525,109
19,556,189
19,750,306
18,907,171
18,559,647
19,450,576
20,767,144
20,479,291
19,032,196

12
Miami International Airport
MIA
Miami
FL
21,747,189
20,796,994
20,986,341
19,468,523
19,420,089
18,987,488
18,342,158
17,017,654
16,187,768
16,377,488
16,194,162
15,664,791
15,092,763

13
Orlando International Airport
MCO
Orlando
FL
22,215,929
20,283,479
18,759,938
17,278,608
16,884,524
17,159,425
17,250,415
17,017,491
16,371,016
17,288,480
17,614,679
16,807,856
16,592,133

14
George Bush Intercontinental Airport
IAH
Houston
TX
20,367,204
20,839,251
20,595,874
19,772,054
18,952,840
19,038,958
19,306,660
19,528,631
19,290,239
20,030,898
24,117,623
22,822,111
20,799,886

15
Newark Liberty International Airport
EWR
Newark
NJ

19,834,792
18,684,765
17,680,826
17,546,506
17,035,098
16,814,092
16,571,754
16,659,441
17,599,578
18,163,652
17,804,107
16,444,959

16
Minneapolis–Saint Paul International Airport
MSP
Minneapolis/St. Paul
MN
19,002,544
18,109,982
17,634,252
16,972,678
16,280,835
15,943,751
15,895,653
15,512,487
15,551,206
16,369,324
16,962,563
17,192,410
17,971,771

17
Logan International Airport
BOS
Boston
MA

17,749,202
16,290,323
15,425,869
14,810,153
14,293,675
14,171,476
13,561,814
12,566,797
12,820,489
13,783,297
13,544,552
13,214,923

18
Detroit Metropolitan Airport
DTW
Detroit
MI

16,826,287
16,255,507
15,775,941
15,683,523
15,599,877
15,716,865
15,643,890
15,211,402
16,998,174
17,495,135
17,483,468
17,580,363

19
Philadelphia International Airport
PHL
Philadelphia
PA
14,760,585
14,521,408
15,101,318
14,747,112
14,727,945
14,587,631
14,883,180
14,951,254
15,002,961
15,586,852
15,656,653
15,390,848
15,376,569

20
LaGuardia Airport
LGA
New York
NY

14,706,123
14,319,924
13,415,797
13,372,269
12,818,717
11,989,227
12,001,501
11,084,300
11,567,586
12,529,890
12,925,697
13,014,314

21
Fort Lauderdale–Hollywood International Airport
FLL
Fort Lauderdale
FL
16,216,686
14,263,202
13,061,607
11,987,607
11,538,140
11,445,101
11,332,466
10,829,810
10,258,118
11,020,091
11,079,250
10,204,579
10,729,468

22
Baltimore–Washington International Airport
BWI
Baltimore/Washington, D.C.
MD
13,214,185
12,340,183
11,738,828
11,022,200
11,132,731
11,183,965
11,067,317
10,848,633
10,338,950
10,215,225
10,487,789
10,297,607
9,829,432

23
Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport
DCA
Washington, D.C.
VA
11,966,354
11,372,460
11,242,375
10,057,794
9,838,034
9,462,206
9,053,004
8,736,804
8,490,288
8,704,466
9,038,174
8,973,410
8,623,907

24
Salt Lake City International Airport
SLC
Salt Lake City
UT
12,098,835
11,141,970
10,634,519
10,139,065
9,668,048
9,579,836
9,701,756
9,910,493
9,903,821
9,993,198
10,560,906
10,289,129
10,601,918

25
Midway International Airport
MDW
Chicago
IL

11,044,353
10,830,783
10,318,311
9,915,646
9,431,796
9,134,576
8,518,957
8,253,620
8,021,383
9,132,836
8,915,292
8,383,698

26
Washington Dulles International Airport
IAD
Washington, D.C.
VA
11,407,107
10,596,883
10,363,918
10,415,948
10,570,993
10,785,683
11,043,829
11,276,481
11,132,098
11,348,775
11,789,441
11,045,217
13,032,502

27
San Diego International Airport
SAN
San Diego
CA
11,107,078
10,340,164
9,985,739
9,333,152
8,878,772
8,686,592
8,465,683
8,430,509
8,453,854
9,007,617
9,138,116
8,724,442
8,628,648

28
Daniel K. Inouye International Airport
HNL
Honolulu
HI

9,656,340
9,479,083
9,463,000
9,466,995
9,210,270
8,643,494
8,740,077
8,739,389
9,013,440
10,393,929
9,855,838
9,784,404

29
Tampa International Airport
TPA
Tampa
FL
9,830,583
9,194,576
9,150,414
8,531,561
8,267,752
8,216,153
8,174,194
8,137,222
8,263,294
8,871,917
9,306,036
9,187,865
9,297,643

30
Portland International Airport
PDX
Portland
OR
9,538,472
9,071,154
8,340,234
7,878,760
7,452,603
7,142,620
6,808,486
6,582,227
6,430,119
7,090,526
7,281,057
6,956,712
6,798,976

text:
Rank
(2016)
Airports (Medium Hubs)
IATA
Code
City Served
State
2017
2016
2015[2]
2014[1]

31
Dallas Love Field
DAL
Dallas
TX
7,876,769
7,554,596
7,040,921
4,522,341

32
St. Louis Lambert International Airport
STL
St. Louis
MO
7,372,805
6,988,151
6,239,231
6,108,758

33
Nashville International Airport
BNA
Nashville
TN
7,015,119
6,338,517
5,708,852
5,396,958

34
William P. Hobby Airport
HOU
Houston
TX
6,741,870
6,285,181
5,937,944
5,800,726

35
Austin-Bergstrom International Airport
AUS
Austin
TX
6,973,115
6,095,545
5,797,547
5,219,982

36
Oakland International Airport
OAK
Oakland
CA
6,530,308
5,934,639
5,506,672
5,069,257

37
Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport
MSY
New Orleans
LA
6,005,527
5,569,705
5,329,696
4,870,569

38
Raleigh-Durham International Airport
RDU
Raleigh/Durham
NC
5,851,004
5,401,714
4,954,717
4,673,869

39
Kansas City International Airport
MCI
Kansas City
MO
5,744,918
5,391,557
5,135,127
4,982,722

40
Norman Y. Mineta San José International Airport
SJC
San Jose
CA
6,225,148
5,377,433
4,885,690
4,621,003

41
John Wayne Airport
SNA
Santa Ana
CA
5,195,047
5,243,852
4,945,175
4,584,147

42
Sacramento International Airport
SMF
Sacramento
CA
5,460,526
5,066,042
4,816,440
4,384,616

43
Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport
SJU
San Juan
PR

4,395,635
4,218,785
4,150,828

44
San Antonio International Airport
SAT
San Antonio
TX
4,521,611
4,309,761
4,091,389
4,046,856

45
Southwest Florida International Airport
RSW
Fort Myers
FL
4,461,304
4,277,214
4,159,212
3,942,387

46
Indianapolis International Airport
IND
Indianapolis
IN
4,376,432
4,239,828
3,889,567
3,605,908

47
Cleveland Hopkins International Airport
CLE
Cleveland
OH

4,120,014
3,916,914
3,686,315

48
Pittsburgh International Airport
PIT
Pittsburgh
PA

4,030,996
3,890,677
3,827,860

49
John Glenn Columbus International Airport
CMH
Columbus
OH
3,765,007
3,620,419
3,312,496
3,115,501

50
General Mitchell International Airport
MKE
Milwaukee
WI
3,121,910
3,401,595
3,229,876
3,228,607

51
Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport
CVG
Cincinnati/Covington
OH/KY
3,926,158
3,384,196
3,036,697
2,874,684

52
Kahului Airport
OGG
Kahului
HI

3,347,342
3,220,753
3,019,338

53
Palm Beach International Airport
PBI
West Palm Beach
FL
3,166,532
3,135,027
3,113,485
2,926,242

54
Bradley International Airport
BDL
Hartford
CT
3,214,976
3,025,166
2,926,047
2,913,380

55
Jacksonville International Airport
JAX
Jacksonville
FL

2,799,363
2,716,465
2,589,198

56
Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport
ANC
Anchorage
AK

2,553,353
2,525,876
2,381,826

57
Albuquerque International Sunport
ABQ
Albuquerque
NM
2,483,861
2,398,030
2,323,850
2,354,184

58
Buffalo Niagara International Airport
BUF
Buffalo
NY

2,324,599
2,331,545
2,378,469

59
Eppley Airfield
OMA
Omaha
NE
2,303,223
2,171,520
2,046,155
2,020,354

60
Hollywood Burbank Airport
BUR
Burbank
CA
2,365,361
2,069,853
1,972,531
1,931,948

text: 45 busiest US airports by total passenger traffic (2015)[edit]

text: Listed according to data compiled by Airports Council International North America, and ranked according to total passengers during 2015.[13]

text: This list has the same 99 airports as the FAA list, but the order is slightly different. The FAA ranks by passengers boarding. ACI ranks by sum of boarding, disembarking, and flying through without leaving airplane. The statistics are slightly more than twice as high.

text:
Rank
Airport name
Location
IATA
Code
Traffic
Aircraft

Passengers
 % chg.
2014/15
Movements
 % chg.
2014/15

1
Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport
Atlanta, Georgia
ATL
101,491,106
05.5
882,497
01.6

2
Chicago O'Hare International Airport
Chicago, Illinois
ORD
76,949,504
09.8
875,136
00.8

3
Los Angeles International Airport
Los Angeles, California
LAX
74,937,004
06.0
655,564
03.0

4
Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport
Dallas–Fort Worth Metroplex, Texas
DFW
64,074,762
00.3
681,261
00.2

5
John F. Kennedy International Airport
New York, New York
JFK
56,827,154
06.8
438,897
03.7

6
Denver International Airport
Denver, Colorado
DEN
54,014,502
01.0
541,213
04.3

7
San Francisco International Airport
San Francisco, California
SFO
50,057,887
06.2
429,815
00.4

8
McCarran International Airport
Las Vegas, Nevada
LAS
45,443,900
05.8
530,330
01.5

9
Charlotte Douglas International Airport
Charlotte, North Carolina
CLT
44,876,627
01.3
543,944
00.2

10
Miami International Airport
Miami, Florida
MIA
44,350,247
08.3
412,915
02.5

11
Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport
Phoenix, Arizona
PHX
44,003,840
04.5
440,411
02.3

12
George Bush Intercontinental Airport
Houston, Texas
IAH
43,023,224
04.3
502,844
01.2

13
Seattle–Tacoma International Airport
SeaTac, Washington
SEA
42,340,537
012.9
381,408
012

14
Orlando International Airport
Orlando, Florida
MCO
38,727,749
08.4
308,169
06.1

15
Newark Liberty International Airport
Newark, New Jersey
EWR
37,494,704
05.3
415,534
05.1

16
Minneapolis–Saint Paul International Airport
Minneapolis–Saint Paul, Minnesota
MSP
36,582,854
04.1
404,612
01.9

17
Logan International Airport
Boston, Massachusetts
BOS
33,515,905
05.9
372,930
02.5

18
Detroit Metropolitan Airport
Romulus, Michigan
DTW
33,440,112
02.8
379,376
03.4

19
Philadelphia International Airport
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
PHL
31,444,403
02.3
411,368
01.9

20
LaGuardia Airport
New York, New York
LGA
28,437,668
05.5
360,274
00.3

21
Fort Lauderdale–Hollywood International Airport
Fort Lauderdale, Florida
FLL
26,941,671
09.3
278,002
07.6

22
Baltimore–Washington International Airport
Linthicum, Maryland
BWI
23,823,532
06.8
246,454
00.5

23
Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport
Arlington, Virginia
DCA
23,012,191
010.7
292,781
03.4

24
Chicago Midway International Airport
Chicago, Illinois
MDW
22,221,499
04.9
253,519
01.7

25
Salt Lake City International Airport
Salt Lake City, Utah
SLC
22,152,498
04.8
311,857
04.0

26
Washington Dulles International Airport
Dulles, Virginia
IAD
21,498,902
00.4
269,070
07.0

27
San Diego International Airport
San Diego, California
SAN
20,081,258
07.1
194,215
01.3

28
Daniel K. Inouye International Airport
Honolulu, Hawaii
HNL
19,869,707
01.5
312,655
00.5

29
Tampa International Airport
Tampa, Florida
TPA
18,815,425
07.2
189,865
03.2

30
Portland International Airport
Portland, Oregon
PDX
16,850,952
05.9
218,021
00.8

31
Dallas Love Field
Dallas, Texas
DAL
14,497,498
054.0
216,099
018.1

32
Lambert–St. Louis International Airport
St. Louis, Missouri
STL
12,752,331
03.0
185,865
01.1

33
William P. Hobby Airport
Houston, Texas
HOU
12,163,344
01.8
200,587
04.7

34
Austin–Bergstrom International Airport
Austin, Texas
AUS
11,897,959
011.0
191,193
04.8

35
Nashville International Airport
Nashville, Tennessee
BNA
11,673,633
05.7
184,421
04.6

36
Oakland International Airport
Oakland, California
OAK
11,205,063
08.4
215,750
05.9

37
Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport
New Orleans, Louisiana
MSY
10,868,827
09.3
N/A
N/A

38
Kansas City International Airport
Kansas City, Missouri
MCI
10,472,461
03.0
N/A
N/A

39
John Wayne Airport
Santa Ana, California
SNA
10,180,258
08.5
260,689
03.2

40
Raleigh–Durham International Airport
Morrisville, North Carolina
RDU
9,943,331
04.2
N/A
N/A

41
Norman Y. Mineta San José International Airport
San Jose, California
SJC
9,799,427
04.4
N/A
N/A

42
Sacramento International Airport
Sacramento, California
SMF
9,609,880
07.1
N/A
N/A

43
San Antonio International Airport
San Antonio, Texas
SAT
8,507,459
01.6
N/A
N/A

44
Southwest Florida International Airport
Fort Myers, Florida
RSW
8,371,801
05.0
N/A
N/A

45
Pittsburgh International Airport
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
PIT
8,988,016
01.6
N/A
N/A

text: 20 busiest US airports by international passenger traffic (2016)[edit]

text: Listed according to data compiled by the Office of Aviation Analysis, part of the United States Department of Transportation, and ranked according to total international passengers during 2016.[14]

text:
Rank
Airport Name
Location
IATA
Code
Traffic

Passengers
 % chg.
2016/15

1
John F. Kennedy International Airport
New York City, New York
JFK
31,305,193
06.3%

2
Los Angeles International Airport
Los Angeles, California
LAX
22,177,994
010.1%

3
Miami International Airport
Miami, Florida
MIA
19,688,934
02.0%

4
O'Hare International Airport
Chicago, Illinois
ORD
11,917,782
03.8%

5
San Francisco International Airport
San Mateo County, California
SFO
11,835,425
07.6%

6
Newark Liberty International Airport
Newark, New Jersey
EWR
11,757,112
01.5%

7
Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport
Atlanta, Georgia
ATL
11,194,192
03.8%

8
George Bush Intercontinental Airport
Houston, Texas
IAH
10,780,277
02.1%

9
Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport
Dallas–Fort Worth Metroplex, Texas
DFW
7,821,342
03.1%

10
Washington Dulles International Airport
Dulles, Virginia
IAD
7,117,880
01.6%

11
Logan International Airport
Boston, Massachusetts
BOS
5,842,669
016.4%

12
Fort Lauderdale-Hollywood International Airport
Broward County, Florida
FLL
5,642,557
09.3%

13
Orlando International Airport
Orlando, Florida
MCO
5,417,295
08.8%

14
Daniel K. Inouye International Airport
Honolulu, Hawaii
HNL
5,084,453
01.6%

15
Seattle-Tacoma International Airport
SeaTac, Washington
SEA
4,626,762
06.3%

16
Philadelphia International Airport
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
PHL
3,685,920
08.0%

17
McCarran International Airport
Paradise, Nevada
LAS
3,497,658
02.7%

18
Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport
Romulus, Michigan
DTW
3,263,216
00.3%

19
Charlotte Douglas International Airport
Charlotte, North Carolina
CLT
2,967,941
00.4%

20
Antonio B. Won Pat International Airport
Barrigada and Tamuning, Guam
GUM
2,953,930
03.1%

text: 10 busiest airports in the US by total cargo throughput (2015)[edit]

text: Listed according to data compiled by the Federal Aviation Administration for the United States, and ranked according to total cargo throughput in pounds during 2015.[15]

text:
Rank
Airport Name
Location
IATA
Code
Cargo

Ibs.
 % chg.
2015/14

1
Memphis International Airport
Memphis, Tennessee
MEM
22,679,195,919
0-0.42%

2
Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport
Anchorage, Alaska
ANC
17,139,250,601
08.01%

3
Louisville International Airport
Louisville, Kentucky
SDF
12,057,543,654
04.23%

4
O'Hare International Airport
Chicago, Illinois
ORD
9,063,649,529
020.19%

5
Miami International Airport
Miami, Florida
MIA
7,630,761,702
06.09%

6
Los Angeles International Airport
Los Angeles, California
LAX
6,585,460,219
053.24%

7
Indianapolis International Airport
Indianapolis, Indiana
IND
5,324,737,760
0-0.58%

8
Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport
Hebron, Kentucky
CVG
4,019,745,706
010.30%

9
Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport
Dallas-Fort Worth Metroplex, Texas
DFW
3,328,784,075
05.99%

10
John F. Kennedy International Airport
New York, New York
JFK
3,255,916,985
02.68%


document_title: List of cocktails named after New York City boroughs

question_text: whiskey based drink named for a new york city borough

text: Bronx[edit]

text: Named after the borough of The Bronx, a Bronx consists of gin, vermouth, and orange juice. It was formerly listed as an IBA official cocktail and was ranked as the third most famous cocktail in the world in 1934. A pre-Prohibition cocktail, the Bronx appears in the 1908 book, The World's Drinks and How to Mix Them.[2] Some accounts say the Bronx originated in Philadelphia and was later popularized in New York. Others say that it was invented by a bartender in the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel. According to Alcoholics Anonymous founder, Bill W., the first drink he ever had was a Bronx cocktail, after which he became an alcoholic.

text: Brooklyn[edit]

text: Named after the borough of Brooklyn, a Brooklyn consists of rye, dry vermouth, maraschino liqueur, and Amer Picon. In this regard, it is similar to a Manhattan, but with a specific type of bitters (instead of the several that can be used in a Manhattan) and the notable addition of maraschino.

text: The Brooklyn was popular in the early 20th century and largely fell into obscurity after Prohibition. It began to regain popularity at the end of the 20th century.[3]

text: Manhattan[edit]

text: Named after the borough of Manhattan, a Manhattan is a cocktail composed of whiskey, sweet vermouth, and bitters, typically served in a cocktail glass. Of the five drinks, it is the only one considered one of "the unforgettables" on the IBA list of official cocktails. It is also listed as one of the six basic drinks in The Fine Art of Mixing Drinks.

text: The Manhattan is said to have originated at a banquet hosted by Lady Randolph Churchill at the Manhattan Club in the late 19th century.[4]

text: Queens[edit]

text: Named after the borough of Queens, a Queens consists of gin, vermouth, and pineapple juice. The drink dates back to 1930, appearing in Harry Craddock's Savoy Cocktail Book.[5]

text: Staten Island[edit]

text: Staten Island is the only borough without a cocktail that bears its name directly. A Staten Island Ferry is named after the ferry that carries passengers between the boroughs of Manhattan and Staten Island.

text: It consists of Malibu rum and pineapple juice,[6] resembling a piña colada. Its tropical flavoring is a satire on the fact that Staten Island is an island though far removed from the tropics.