document_title: Common Sense (pamphlet)

question_text: where was thomas paine's common sense written

question_tokens: where was thomas paine 's common sense written

text: Common Sense (pamphlet)

text: Publication history[edit]

text: Thomas Paine arrived in the American colonies in November 1774, shortly before the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Though the colonies and Great Britain had commenced hostilities against one another, the thought of independence was not initially entertained. Writing of his early experiences in the colonies in 1778, Paine "found the disposition of the people such, that they might have been led by a thread and governed by a reed. Their attachment to Britain was obstinate, and it was, at that time, a kind of treason to speak against it. Their ideas of grievance operated without resentment, and their single object was reconciliation."[7] Paine quickly engrained himself in the Philadelphia newspaper business, and began writing Common Sense in late 1775 under the working title of Plain Truth. Though it began as a series of letters to be published in various Philadelphia papers, it grew too long and unwieldy to publish as letters, leading Paine to select the pamphlet form.[8] Benjamin Rush recommended the publisher Robert Bell, promising Paine that, where other printers might balk at the content of the pamphlet, Bell would not hesitate nor delay its printing. Bell zealously promoted the pamphlet in Philadelphia's papers, and demand grew so high as to require a second printing.[9] Paine, overjoyed with its success, endeavored to collect his share of the profits and donate them to purchase mittens for General Montgomery's troops, then encamped in frigid Quebec.[10]  However, when Paine's chosen intermediaries audited Bell's accounts, they found that the pamphlet actually had made zero profits. Incensed, Paine ordered Bell not to proceed on a second edition, as he had planned several appendices to add to Common Sense. Bell ignored this and began advertising a "new edition". While Bell believed this advertisement would convince Paine to retain his services, it had the opposite effect. Paine secured the assistance of the Bradford brothers, publishers of the Pennsylvania Evening Post, and released his new edition, featuring several appendices and additional writings.[11] Bell began working on a second edition. This set off a month-long public debate between Bell and the still-anonymous Paine, conducted within the pages and advertisements of the Pennsylvania Evening Post, with each party charging the other with duplicity and fraud. Both Paine and Bell published several more editions through the end of their public squabble.[citation needed]

text: The publicity generated by the initial success and compounded by the publishing disagreements no doubt propelled the pamphlet to incredible sales and circulation. Common Sense sold almost 100,000 copies in 1776,[12] and according to Paine, 120,000 copies were sold in the first three months. One biographer estimates that 500,000 copies sold in the first year (in both America and Europe – predominantly France and Britain), and another writes that Paine's pamphlet went through twenty-five published editions in the first year alone.[6][13]

text: Aside from the printed pamphlet itself, there were many handwritten summaries and whole copies circulated. Paine also granted publishing rights to nearly every imprint which requested them, including several international editions.[14] It was immensely popular in France, where it was published without its diatribes against monarchy.[15] At least one newspaper printed the entire pamphlet; the Connecticut Courant did so in its issue of February 19, 1776.[16] Writing in 1956, Richard Gimbel estimated, in terms of circulation and impact, that an "equivalent sale today, based on the present population of the United States, would be more than six-and-one-half million copies within the short space of three months".[14]

text: For nearly three months, Paine managed to maintain his anonymity, even during Bell's potent newspaper polemics. His name did not become officially connected with the independence controversy until March 30, 1776.[17] Paine never did recoup the profits he felt due to him from Bell's first edition. Ultimately, he lost money on the Bradford printing as well, and because he decided to repudiate his copyright, never did profit from Common Sense.[citation needed]

text: Sections[edit]

text: The first and subsequent editions divided the pamphlet into four sections.

text: I. Of the Origin and Design of Government in General, With Concise Remarks on the English Constitution[edit]

text: In his first section, Paine related common Enlightenment theories of the state of nature, in order to establish a foundation for republican government. Paine began this section by making a distinction between society and government, arguing that government is a "necessary evil". He illustrated the power of society to create and maintain happiness in man through the example of a few isolated people that find it easier to live together rather than apart, creating society. As society continues to grow, a government becomes necessary to prevent the natural evil Paine saw in man. In order to promote civil society through laws and account for the impossibility of all people meeting centrally to make laws, representation and therefore elections become necessary. As this model was clearly intended to mirror the situation of the colonists at the time of publication, Paine went on to consider the Constitution of the United Kingdom.

text: Paine found two tyrannies in the English constitution; monarchical and aristocratic tyranny, in the king and peers, who rule by heredity and contribute nothing to the people. Paine criticized the English constitution by examining the relationship between the king, the peers, and the commons.

text: II. Of Monarchy and Hereditary Succession[edit]

text: In the second section Paine considers monarchy first from a biblical perspective, then from a historical perspective. He begins by arguing that all men are equal at creation and, therefore, the distinction between kings and subjects is a false one. Paine then examines some of the problems that kings and monarchies have caused in the past and concludes:

text: In England a king hath little more to do than to make war and give away places; which in plain terms, is to impoverish the nation and set it together by the ears. A pretty business indeed for a man to be allowed eight hundred thousand sterling a year for, and worshipped into the bargain! Of more worth is one honest man to society and in the sight of God, than all the crowned ruffians that ever lived.

text: In this section, Paine also attacks one type of "mixed state" – the constitutional monarchy promoted by John Locke in which the powers of government are separated between a Parliament or Congress that makes the laws, and a monarch who executes them. The constitutional monarchy, according to Locke, would limit the powers of the king sufficiently to ensure that the realm would remain lawful rather than easily becoming tyrannical. According to Paine, however, such limits are insufficient. In the mixed state, power will tend to concentrate into the hands of the monarch, permitting him eventually to transcend any limitations placed upon him. Paine questions why the supporters of the mixed state, since they concede that the power of the monarch is dangerous, wish to include a monarch in their scheme of government in the first place.

text: III. Thoughts on the Present State of American Affairs[edit]

text: In the third section Paine examines the hostilities between England and the American colonies and argues that the best course of action is independence. Paine proposes a Continental Charter (or Charter of the United Colonies) that would be an American Magna Carta. Paine writes that a Continental Charter "should come from some intermediate body between the Congress and the people" and outlines a Continental Conference that could draft a Continental Charter.[19] Each colony would hold elections for five representatives. These five would be accompanied by two members of the assembly of colonies, for a total of seven representatives from each colony in the Continental Conference. The Continental Conference would then meet and draft a Continental Charter that would secure "freedom and property to all men, and… the free exercise of religion".[19] The Continental Charter would also outline a new national government, which Paine thought would take the form of a Congress.

text: Paine suggested that a congress may be created in the following way: each colony should be divided in districts; each district would "send a proper number of delegates to Congress".[19] Paine thought that each colony should send at least 30 delegates to Congress, and that the total number of delegates in Congress should be at least 390. The Congress would meet annually, and elect a president.  Each colony would be put into a lottery; the president would be elected, by the whole congress, from the delegation of the colony that was selected in the lottery. After a colony was selected, it would be removed from subsequent lotteries until all of the colonies had been selected, at which point the lottery would start anew. Electing a president or passing a law would require three-fifths of the congress.

text: IV. On the Present Ability of America, With Some Miscellaneous Reflections[edit]

text: The fourth section of the pamphlet includes Paine's optimistic view of America's military potential at the time of the revolution. For example, he spends pages describing how colonial shipyards, by using the large amounts of lumber available in the country, could quickly create a navy that could rival the Royal Navy.

text: Impact[edit]

text:
Due to heavy advertisement by both Bell and Paine, and the immense publicity created by their publishing quarrel, Common Sense was an immediate sensation not only in Philadelphia but also across the Thirteen Colonies. Early "reviewers" (mainly letter excerpts published anonymously in colonial newspapers) touted the clear and rational case for independence put forth by Paine. One Marylander wrote to the Pennsylvania Evening Post on February 6, 1776, that "if you know the author of COMMON SENSE, tell him he has done wonders and worked miracles. His stile [sic] is plain and nervous; his facts are true; his reasoning, just and conclusive".
[20]  The author went on to claim that the pamphlet was highly persuasive in swaying people towards independence. This mass appeal, one later reviewer noted, was due to Paine's dramatic calls for popular support of revolution, "giv[ing] liberty to every individual to contribute materials for that great building, the grand charter of American Liberty".[21] Paine's vision of a radical democracy, unlike the checked and balanced nation later favored by conservatives like John Adams, was highly attractive to the popular audience which read and reread Common Sense. In the months leading up to the Declaration of Independence, many more reviewers noted that these two main themes—direct and passionate style and calls for individual empowerment—were decisive in swaying the Colonists from reconciliation to rebellion. The pamphlet was also highly successful because of a brilliant marketing tactic planned by Paine. He and Bell timed the first edition to be published at around the same time as a proclamation on the colonies by King George III, hoping to contrast the strong, monarchical message with the heavily anti-monarchical Common Sense.[9]  Luckily, the speech and the first advertisement of the pamphlet appeared on the same day within the pages of the Pennsylvania Evening Post.[22]

text: While Paine focused his style and address towards the common people, the arguments he made touched on prescient debates of morals, government, and the mechanisms of democracy.[23] This gave Common Sense a "second life" in the very public call-and-response nature of newspaper debates made by intellectual men of letters throughout Philadelphia. Paine's formulation of "war for an idea" led to, as Eric Foner describes it, "a torrent of letters, pamphlets, and broadsides on independence and the meaning of republican government ... attacking or defending, or extending and refining Paine's ideas".[24][25]

text: John Adams, who would succeed George Washington to become the new nation's second president, in his Thoughts on Government wrote that Paine's ideal sketched in Common Sense was "so democratical, without any restraint or even an attempt at any equilibrium or counter poise, that it must produce confusion and every evil work".[26] Others, such the writer calling himself "Cato", denounced Paine as dangerous and his ideas as violent.[27] Paine was also an active and willing participant in what would become essentially a six month publicity tour for independence. Writing as "The Forester", he responded to Cato and other critics in the pages of Philadelphian papers with passion, declaring again in sweeping language that their conflict was not only with Great Britain, but with the tyranny inevitably resulting from monarchical rule.[28]

text: Later scholars have assessed Common Sense's influence in several ways. Some, like A. Owen Aldridge, emphasize that Common Sense could hardly be said to embody a particular ideology, and that "even Paine himself may not have been cognizant of the ultimate source of many of his concepts", making the point that much of the pamphlet's value came as a result of the context in which it was published.[29] Eric Foner wrote that the pamphlet touched a radical populace at the height of their radicalism, which culminated in Pennsylvania with a new constitution aligned along Paine's principles.[30] Many have noted that Paine's skills were chiefly in persuasion and propaganda, and that no matter the content of his ideas, the fervor of his conviction and the various tools he employed on his readers (e.g. asserting his Christianity when he in fact was a Deist), that Common Sense was bound for success.[31]  Still others emphasized the uniqueness of Paine's vision, with Craig Nelson calling him a "pragmatic utopian", who deemphasized economic arguments in favor of moralistic ones, thus giving credence to the Common Sense-as-propaganda argument.[32]

text: Each of these arguments is in some way true, and together they portray Common Sense as an impressive piece of propaganda advocating a distinct and timely action and set of principles. Coupling this with the immense publicity and readership created by both the publishing dispute and the newspaper debates establishes Common Sense as an important stepping stone towards independence.[citation needed]


document_title: Gregg Sulkin

question_text: who does gregg sulkin play in wizards of waverly place

root

text: Gregg Sulkin

text: Early life[edit]

text: Sulkin was born in Westminster, London. He is Jewish and had his Bar Mitzvah at the Western Wall in Jerusalem.[3][4][5][6] He attended Highgate School in North London.[7]

tag: p

text: Career[edit]

text: Sulkin made his acting debut in the 2002 mini-series Doctor Zhivago. He subsequently starred in the comedy Sixty Six,[8] as Bernie Rubens, alongside Helena Bonham Carter, Eddie Marsan and Catherine Tate.[9] Sulkin also played the role of JJ in the Disney Channel comedy, As the Bell Rings,[8] worked on a CBBC children sci-fi show The Sarah Jane Adventures (spin-off of Doctor Who), playing Adam in series 3 two-episode story The Mad Woman in the Attic.

text: Sulkin was on Disney Channel's Pass the Plate as Gregg from the UK. He had a recurring guest role on the Disney Channel series Wizards of Waverly Place, where he played Alex's love interest Mason Greyback he reprised his role in 4 episodes of season 3 and returned to the series in its fourth season,[10] and through to its finale.[11] Sulkin has also landed a role in the thriller The Heavy.[12]

text: In 2010, he went to New Zealand making a Disney Channel film Avalon High, which premiered on 12 November 2010.[13][14] In an interview with Kyle Martino, aired on Soccer Talk Live on the Fox Soccer Channel in the US, Sulkin announced that he was a fan of Arsenal. Sulkin was on the Disney Channel's Friends for Change Games and was on the Yellow Team.[15] He reprised his role as Mason Greyback in The Wizards Return : Alex vs. Alex on Friday, 15 March on Disney Channel.

text: In 2012, Sulkin starred in the American teen drama series Pretty Little Liars as a recurring character, Wesley Fitzgerald, brother of Ezra Fitz. In February 2013, it was announced that Sulkin would play Julian Fineman in FOX's television adaptation of Lauren Oliver's young adult novel, Delirium. On 8 May, it was reported that Fox has decided not to pick up Delirium.[16] Since 2014, Sulkin has starred in the MTV comedy Faking It. Sulkin portrays Liam Booker. Sulkin defeated Victoria Justice on 30 July 2015 episode of Spike TV's Lip Sync Battle, where he wore a wig and went shirtless to perform the hit Kelis song "Milkshake".[17]

text: Sulkin starred in the leading role of Sam Fuller in the horror-thriller film, Don't Hang Up which was released in theatres on 10 February 2017.[18][19]

text: Personal life[edit]

text: Sulkin dated Bella Thorne from 2015 to 2016.[20][21] He is also a fan of Arsenal F.C..[22]

text: Filmography[edit]

text:
Film roles

Year
Title
Role
Notes

2006
Sixty Six
Bernie Rubens

2009
The Heavy
Teen Two

2011
Camilla Dickinson
Frank Rowan

2012
White Frog
Randy Goldman

2013
Another Me
Drew

2014
Affluenza
Dylan Carson

2015
A Mouse Tale
The Dark Rodent
Voice role; direct-to-DVD

2015
Yak: The Giant King
Flapper
Voice role

2015
Anti-Social
Dee

2016
Don't Hang Up
Sam Fuller

2017
Status Update
Derek Lowe
Post-production

tag: table

text:
Television roles

Year
Title
Role
Notes

2002
Doctor Zhivago
Seryozha
Television miniseries (ITV)

2006
Pass the Plate
Himself

2006
Man on the Moon
Michael Aldrin
Television special (Channel 4)

2007–2008
As the Bell Rings
JJ
Main role

2009
The Sarah Jane Adventures
Adam
2 episodes

2010
Avalon High
Will Wagner
Disney Channel Original Movie

2010–2012
Wizards of Waverly Place
Mason Greyback
Recurring role (seasons 3–4); 15 episodes

2011
R. L. Stine's The Haunting Hour
Matt
Episode: "The Perfect Brother"

2011
Get the Look
Himself

2012
Melissa & Joey
Haskell Davis
3 episodes

2012
Pretty Little Liars
Wesley Fitzgerald
Recurring role; 4 episodes

2013
The Wizards Return: Alex vs. Alex
Mason Greyback
Television special (Disney Channel)

2013
Delirium
Julian Fineman
Unsold television pilot

2014
A Daughter's Nightmare
Ben Woods
Television movie (Lifetime)

2014–2016
Faking It
Liam Booker
Main role

2016
Life in Pieces
Jake
Episode: "Prank Assistant Gum Puppy"

2016
Young & Hungry
Rick
Episode: "Young & Assistant"

2017
Drink, Slay, Love
Jadrien
Television movie (Lifetime)[citation needed]

2017
Runaways
Chase Stein
Upcoming television series; main role

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text:
Year
Awards
Category
Recipient
Result
Refs

2015
Teen Choice Awards
Choice Summer TV Star: Male
Faking It
Nominated

2016
Teen Choice Awards
Choice Summer TV Star: Male
Faking It
Nominated


document_title: Nuclear fusion

question_text: energy released by the sun is a result of

question_tokens: energy released by the sun is a result of

text: Nuclear fusion

text: Process[edit]

text: The origin of the energy released in fusion of light elements is due to interplay of two opposing forces, the nuclear force which combines together protons and neutrons, and the Coulomb force, which causes protons to repel each other. The protons are positively charged and repel each other but they nonetheless stick together, demonstrating the existence of another force referred to as nuclear attraction.[2] Light nuclei (or nuclei smaller than iron and nickel), are sufficiently small and proton-poor allowing the nuclear force to overcome the repulsive Coulomb force. This is because the nucleus is sufficiently small that all nucleons feel the short-range attractive force at least as strongly as they feel the infinite-range Coulomb repulsion. Building up these nuclei from lighter nuclei by fusion thus releases the extra energy from the net attraction of these particles. For larger nuclei, however, no energy is released, since the nuclear force is short-range and cannot continue to act across still larger atomic nuclei. Thus, energy is no longer released when such nuclei are made by fusion; instead, energy is required as input to such processes.

text: Fusion reactions create the light elements that power the stars and produce virtually all elements in a process called nucleosynthesis.The Sun is a main-sequence star, and thus generates its energy by nuclear fusion of hydrogen nuclei into helium. In its core, the Sun fuses 610 million metric tons of hydrogen each second and gives helium 606 million metric tons. The fusion of lighter elements in stars releases energy and the mass that always accompanies it. For example, in the fusion of two hydrogen nuclei to form helium, 0.7% of the mass is carried away from the system in the form of kinetic energy of an alpha particle or other forms of energy, such as electromagnetic radiation.[3]

text: It takes considerable energy to force nuclei to fuse, even those of the lightest element, hydrogen. This is because all nuclei have a positive charge due to their protons, and as like charges repel, nuclei strongly resist being pushed close together. When accelerated to high enough speeds, nuclei can overcome this electrostatic repulsion and brought close enough such that the attractive nuclear force is greater than the repulsive Coulomb force. As the strong force grows very rapidly once beyond that critical distance, the fusing nucleons "fall" into one another and result is fusion and net energy produced. The fusion of lighter nuclei, which creates a heavier nucleus and often a free neutron or proton, generally releases more energy than it takes to force the nuclei together; this is an exothermic process that can produce self-sustaining reactions.

text: Energy released in most nuclear reactions is much larger than in chemical reactions, because the binding energy that holds a nucleus together is far greater than the energy that holds electrons to a nucleus. For example, the ionization energy gained by adding an electron to a hydrogen nucleus is 6982217896002232000♠13.6 eV—less than one-millionth of the 6988281983061712000♠17.6 MeV released in the deuterium–tritium (D–T) reaction shown in the adjacent diagram. The complete conversion of one gram of matter would release 9×1013 joules of energy. Fusion reactions have an energy density many times greater than nuclear fission; the reactions produce far greater energy per unit of mass even though individual fission reactions are generally much more energetic than individual fusion ones, which are themselves millions of times more energetic than chemical reactions. Only direct conversion of mass into energy, such as that caused by the annihilatory collision of matter and antimatter, is more energetic per unit of mass than nuclear fusion.

text: Research into controlled fusion, with the aim of producing fusion power for the production of electricity, has been conducted for over 60 years. It has experienced extreme scientific and technological difficulties, but has resulted in progress. At present, controlled fusion reactions have been unable to produce break-even (self-sustaining) controlled fusion.[4] The two most advanced approaches are magnetic confinement (toroid designs) and inertial confinement (laser designs).

text: Workable designs for a toroidal reactor that theoretically will deliver ten times more fusion energy than the amount needed to heat plasma to the required temperatures are in development (see ITER). The ITER facility is expected to finish its construction phase in 2019. It will start commissioning the reactor that same year and initiate plasma experiments in 2020, but is not expected to begin full deuterium-tritium fusion until 2027.[5]

text: The US National Ignition Facility, which uses laser-driven inertial confinement fusion, was designed with a goal of break-even fusion; the first large-scale laser target experiments were performed in June 2009 and ignition experiments began in early 2011.[6][7]

text: Nuclear fusion in stars[edit]

text: The most important fusion process in nature is the one that powers stars, stellar nucleosynthesis. In the 20th century, it was realized that the energy released from nuclear fusion reactions accounted for the longevity of the Sun and other stars as a source of heat and light. The fusion of nuclei in a star, starting from its initial hydrogen and helium abundance, provides that energy and synthesizes new nuclei as a byproduct of the fusion process. Different reaction chains are involved, depending on the mass of the star (and therefore the pressure and temperature in its core).

text: Around 1920, Arthur Eddington anticipated the discovery and mechanism of nuclear fusion processes in stars, in his paper The Internal Constitution of the Stars.[8][9] At that time, the source of stellar energy was a complete mystery; Eddington correctly speculated that the source was fusion of hydrogen into helium, liberating enormous energy according to Einstein's equation E = mc2. This was a particularly remarkable development since at that time fusion and thermonuclear energy, and even that stars are largely composed of hydrogen (see metallicity), had not yet been discovered.

text: The prime energy producer in the Sun, and similar size stars, is the fusion of hydrogen to form helium (the proton-proton chain reaction), which occurs at a solar-core temperature of 14 million kelvin. The net result is the fusion of four protons into one alpha particle, with the release of two positrons, two neutrinos (which changes two of the protons into neutrons), and energy. In heavier stars, the CNO cycle and other processes are more important. As a star uses up a substantial fraction of its hydrogen, it begins to synthesize heavier elements. The heaviest elements are synthesized by fusion that occurs as a more massive star undergoes a violent supernova at the end of its life, a process known as supernova nucleosynthesis.

text: Requirements[edit]

text: Details and supporting references on the material in this section can be found in textbooks on nuclear physics or nuclear fusion.[10]

text: A substantial energy barrier of electrostatic forces must be overcome before fusion can occur. At large distances, two naked nuclei repel one another because of the repulsive electrostatic force between their positively charged protons. If two nuclei can be brought close enough together, however, the electrostatic repulsion can be overcome by the quantum effect in which nuclei can tunnel through coulomb forces.

text: When a nucleon such as a proton or neutron is added to a nucleus, the nuclear force attracts it to all the other nucleons of the nucleus (if the atom is small enough), but primarily to its immediate neighbours due to the short range of the force. The nucleons in the interior of a nucleus have more neighboring nucleons than those on the surface. Since smaller nuclei have a larger surface area-to-volume ratio, the binding energy per nucleon due to the nuclear force generally increases with the size of the nucleus but approaches a limiting value corresponding to that of a nucleus with a diameter of about four nucleons. It is important to keep in mind that nucleons are quantum objects. So, for example, since two neutrons in a nucleus are identical to each other, the goal of distinguishing one from the other, such as which one is in the interior and which is on the surface, is in fact meaningless, and the inclusion of quantum mechanics is therefore necessary for proper calculations.

text: The electrostatic force, on the other hand, is an inverse-square force, so a proton added to a nucleus will feel an electrostatic repulsion from all the other protons in the nucleus. The electrostatic energy per nucleon due to the electrostatic force thus increases without limit as nuclei atomic number grows.

text: The net result of the opposing electrostatic and strong nuclear forces is that the binding energy per nucleon generally increases with increasing size, up to the elements iron and nickel, and then decreases for heavier nuclei. Eventually, the binding energy becomes negative and very heavy nuclei (all with more than 208 nucleons, corresponding to a diameter of about 6 nucleons) are not stable. The four most tightly bound nuclei, in decreasing order of binding energy per nucleon, are 62Ni, 58Fe, 56Fe, and 60Ni.[11] Even though the nickel isotope, 62Ni, is more stable, the iron isotope 56Fe is an order of magnitude more common. This is due to the fact that there is no easy way for stars to create 62Ni through the alpha process.

text: An exception to this general trend is the helium-4 nucleus, whose binding energy is higher than that of lithium, the next heaviest element. This is because protons and neutrons are fermions, which according to the Pauli exclusion principle cannot exist in the same nucleus in exactly the same state. Each proton or neutron's energy state in a nucleus can accommodate both a spin up particle and a spin down particle. Helium-4 has an anomalously large binding energy because its nucleus consists of two protons and two neutrons, so all four of its nucleons can be in the ground state. Any additional nucleons would have to go into higher energy states. Indeed, the helium-4 nucleus is so tightly bound that it is commonly treated as a single particle in nuclear physics, namely, the alpha particle.

text: The situation is similar if two nuclei are brought together. As they approach each other, all the protons in one nucleus repel all the protons in the other. Not until the two nuclei actually come close enough for long enough so the strong nuclear force can take over (by way of tunneling). Consequently, even when the final energy state is lower, there is a large energy barrier that must first be overcome. It is called the Coulomb barrier.

text: The Coulomb barrier is smallest for isotopes of hydrogen, as their nuclei contain only a single positive charge. A diproton is not stable, so neutrons must also be involved, ideally in such a way that a helium nucleus, with its extremely tight binding, is one of the products.

text: Using deuterium-tritium fuel, the resulting energy barrier is about 0.1 MeV. In comparison, the energy needed to remove an electron from hydrogen is 13.6 eV, about 7500 times less energy. The (intermediate) result of the fusion is an unstable 5He nucleus, which immediately ejects a neutron with 14.1 MeV. The recoil energy of the remaining 4He nucleus is 3.5 MeV, so the total energy liberated is 17.6 MeV. This is many times more than what was needed to overcome the energy barrier.

text: The reaction cross section σ is a measure of the probability of a fusion reaction as a function of the relative velocity of the two reactant nuclei. If the reactants have a distribution of velocities, e.g. a thermal distribution, then it is useful to perform an average over the distributions of the product of cross section and velocity. This average is called the 'reactivity', denoted <σv>. The reaction rate (fusions per volume per time) is <σv> times the product of the reactant number densities:

text:
If a species of nuclei is reacting with itself, such as the DD reaction, then the product

n

1

n

2

{\displaystyle n_{1}n_{2}}

 must be replaced by

(
1

/

2
)

n

2

{\displaystyle (1/2)n^{2}}

.

text:
⟨
σ
v
⟩

{\displaystyle \langle \sigma v\rangle }

 increases from virtually zero at room temperatures up to meaningful magnitudes at temperatures of 10–100 keV. At these temperatures, well above typical ionization energies (13.6 eV in the hydrogen case), the fusion reactants exist in a plasma state.

text:
The significance of

⟨
σ
v
⟩

{\displaystyle \langle \sigma v\rangle }

 as a function of temperature in a device with a particular energy confinement time is found by considering the Lawson criterion. This is an extremely challenging barrier to overcome on Earth, which explains why fusion research has taken many years to reach the current advanced technical state.[12]

text: Methods for achieving fusion[edit]

text: Thermonuclear fusion[edit]

text: If the matter is sufficiently heated (hence being plasma), the fusion reaction may occur due to collisions with extreme thermal kinetic energies of the particles. In the form of thermonuclear weapons, thermonuclear fusion is the only fusion technique so far to yield undeniably large amounts of useful fusion energy. Usable amounts of thermonuclear fusion energy released in a controlled manner have yet to be achieved. In nature, this is what produces energy in stars through stellar nucleosynthesis.

text: Inertial confinement fusion[edit]

text: Inertial confinement fusion (ICF) is a type of fusion energy research that attempts to initiate nuclear fusion reactions by heating and compressing a fuel target, typically in the form of a pellet that most often contains a mixture of deuterium and tritium.

text: Inertial electrostatic confinement[edit]

text: Inertial electrostatic confinement is a set of devices that use an electric field to heat ions to fusion conditions. The most well known is the fusor. Starting in 1999, a number of amateurs have been able to do amateur fusion using these homemade devices.[13][14][15][16][17] Other IEC devices include: the Polywell, MIX POPS[18] and Marble concepts.[19]

text: Beam-beam or beam-target fusion[edit]

text: If the energy to initiate the reaction comes from accelerating one of the nuclei, the process is called beam-target fusion; if both nuclei are accelerated, it is beam-beam fusion.

text: Accelerator-based light-ion fusion is a technique using particle accelerators to achieve particle kinetic energies sufficient to induce light-ion fusion reactions. Accelerating light ions is relatively easy, and can be done in an efficient manner—requiring only a vacuum tube, a pair of electrodes, and a high-voltage transformer; fusion can be observed with as little as 10 kV between the electrodes. The key problem with accelerator-based fusion (and with cold targets in general) is that fusion cross sections are many orders of magnitude lower than Coulomb interaction cross sections. Therefore, the vast majority of ions expend their energy emitting bremsstrahlung radiation and the ionization of atoms of the target. Devices referred to as sealed-tube neutron generators are particularly relevant to this discussion. These small devices are miniature particle accelerators filled with deuterium and tritium gas in an arrangement that allows ions of those nuclei to be accelerated against hydride targets, also containing deuterium and tritium, where fusion takes place, releasing a flux of neutrons. Hundreds of neutron generators are produced annually for use in the petroleum industry where they are used in measurement equipment for locating and mapping oil reserves.

text: Muon-catalyzed fusion[edit]

text: Muon-catalyzed fusion is a fusion process that occurs at ordinary temperatures. It was studied in detail by Steven Jones in the early 1980s. Net energy production from this reaction has been unsuccessful because of the high energy required to create muons, their short 2.2 µs half-life, and the high chance that a muon will bind to the new alpha particle and thus stop catalyzing fusion.[20]

text: Other principles[edit]

text: Some other confinement principles have been investigated.

text: Antimatter-initialized fusion uses small amounts of antimatter to trigger a tiny fusion explosion. This has been studied primarily in the context of making nuclear pulse propulsion, and pure fusion bombs feasible. This is not near becoming a practical power source, due to the cost of manufacturing antimatter alone.

text: Pyroelectric fusion was reported in April 2005 by a team at UCLA. The scientists used a pyroelectric crystal heated from −34 to 7 °C (−29 to 45 °F), combined with a tungsten needle to produce an electric field of about 25 gigavolts per meter to ionize and accelerate deuterium nuclei into an erbium deuteride target. At the estimated energy levels,[21] the D-D fusion reaction may occur, producing helium-3 and a 2.45 MeV neutron. Although it makes a useful neutron generator, the apparatus is not intended for power generation since it requires far more energy than it produces.[22][23][24][25]

text: Hybrid nuclear fusion-fission (hybrid nuclear power) is a proposed means of generating power by use of a combination of nuclear fusion and fission processes. The concept dates to the 1950s, and was briefly advocated by Hans Bethe during the 1970s, but largely remained unexplored until a revival of interest in 2009, due to the delays in the realization of pure fusion.[26] Project PACER, carried out at Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) in the mid-1970s, explored the possibility of a fusion power system that would involve exploding small hydrogen bombs (fusion bombs) inside an underground cavity. As an energy source, the system is the only fusion power system that could be demonstrated to work using existing technology. However it would also require a large, continuous supply of nuclear bombs, making the economics of such a system rather questionable.

text: Important reactions[edit]

text: Astrophysical reaction chains[edit]

text: At the temperatures and densities in stellar cores the rates of fusion reactions are notoriously slow. For example, at solar core temperature (T ≈ 15 MK) and density (160 g/cm3), the energy release rate is only 276 μW/cm3—about a quarter of the volumetric rate at which a resting human body generates heat.[27] Thus, reproduction of stellar core conditions in a lab for nuclear fusion power production is completely impractical. Because nuclear reaction rates depend on density as well as temperature and most fusion schemes operate at relatively low densities, those methods are strongly dependent on higher temperatures. The fusion rate as a function of temperature (exp(−E/kT)), leads to the need to achieve temperatures in terrestrial reactors 10–100 times higher temperatures than in stellar interiors: T ≈ 0.1–1.0×109 K.

text: Criteria and candidates for terrestrial reactions[edit]

text: In artificial fusion, the primary fuel is not constrained to be protons and higher temperatures can be used, so reactions with larger cross-sections are chosen. Another concern is the production of neutrons, which activate the reactor structure radiologically, but also have the advantages of allowing volumetric extraction of the fusion energy and tritium breeding. Reactions that release no neutrons are referred to as aneutronic.

text: To be a useful energy source, a fusion reaction must satisfy several criteria. It must:

text: Few reactions meet these criteria. The following are those with the largest cross sections:[28]

text:
(1)
2
1D
+
3
1T
→
4
2He
(
3.5 MeV
)
+
n0
(
14.1 MeV
)

(2i)
2
1D
+
2
1D
→
3
1T
(
1.01 MeV
)
+
p+
(
3.02 MeV
)

50%

(2ii)

→
3
2He
(
0.82 MeV
)
+
n0
(
2.45 MeV
)

50%

(3)
2
1D
+
3
2He
→
4
2He
(
3.6 MeV
)
+
p+
(
14.7 MeV
)

(4)
3
1T
+
3
1T
→
4
2He

+
2 n0

+
11.3 MeV

(5)
3
2He
+
3
2He
→
4
2He

+
2 p+

+
12.9 MeV

(6i)
3
2He
+
3
1T
→
4
2He

+
p+
+
n0

+
12.1 MeV

57%

(6ii)

→
4
2He
(
4.8 MeV
)
+
2
1D
(
9.5 MeV
)

43%

(7i)
2
1D
+
6
3Li
→
2 4
2He
+
22.4 MeV

(7ii)

→
3
2He
+
4
2He

+
n0

+
2.56 MeV

(7iii)

→
7
3Li
+
p+

+
5.0 MeV

(7iv)

→
7
4Be
+
n0

+
3.4 MeV

(8)
p+
+
6
3Li
→
4
2He
(
1.7 MeV
)
+
3
2He
(
2.3 MeV
)

(9)
3
2He
+
6
3Li
→
2 4
2He
+
p+

+
16.9 MeV

(10)
p+
+
11
5B
→
3 4
2He

+
8.7 MeV

text:
Nucleosynthesis

Stellar nucleosynthesis
Big Bang nucleosynthesis
Supernova nucleosynthesis
Cosmic ray spallation

Related topics

Astrophysics
Nuclear fusion

R-process
S-process

Nuclear fission

v
t
e

text: For reactions with two products, the energy is divided between them in inverse proportion to their masses, as shown. In most reactions with three products, the distribution of energy varies. For reactions that can result in more than one set of products, the branching ratios are given.

text:
Some reaction candidates can be eliminated at once. The D-6Li reaction has no advantage compared to p+-11
5B because it is roughly as difficult to burn but produces substantially more neutrons through 2
1D-2
1D side reactions. There is also a p+-7
3Li reaction, but the cross section is far too low, except possibly when Ti > 1 MeV, but at such high temperatures an endothermic, direct neutron-producing reaction also becomes very significant. Finally there is also a p+-9
4Be reaction, which is not only difficult to burn, but 9
4Be can be easily induced to split into two alpha particles and a neutron.

text: In addition to the fusion reactions, the following reactions with neutrons are important in order to "breed" tritium in "dry" fusion bombs and some proposed fusion reactors:

text:
n0
+
6
3Li
→
3
1T
+
4
2He + 4.784 MeV

n0
+
7
3Li
→
3
1T
+
4
2He + n0 – 2.467 MeV

text: The latter of the two equations was unknown when the U.S. conducted the Castle Bravo fusion bomb test in 1954. Being just the second fusion bomb ever tested (and the first to use lithium), the designers of the Castle Bravo "Shrimp" had understood the usefulness of Lithium-6 in tritium production, but had failed to recognize that Lithium-7 fission would greatly increase the yield of the bomb. While Li-7 has a small neutron cross-section for low neutron energies, it has a higher cross section above 5 MeV.[29] The 15 Mt yield was 150% greater than the predicted 6 Mt and caused unexpected exposure to fallout.

text: To evaluate the usefulness of these reactions, in addition to the reactants, the products, and the energy released, one needs to know something about the cross section. Any given fusion device has a maximum plasma pressure it can sustain, and an economical device would always operate near this maximum. Given this pressure, the largest fusion output is obtained when the temperature is chosen so that <σv>/T2 is a maximum. This is also the temperature at which the value of the triple product nTτ required for ignition is a minimum, since that required value is inversely proportional to <σv>/T2 (see Lawson criterion). (A plasma is "ignited" if the fusion reactions produce enough power to maintain the temperature without external heating.) This optimum temperature and the value of <σv>/T2 at that temperature is given for a few of these reactions in the following table.

text:
fuel
T [keV]
<σv>/T2 [m3/s/keV2]

2
1D-3
1T
13.6
1.24×10−24

2
1D-2
1D
15
1.28×10−26

2
1D-3
2He
58
2.24×10−26

p+-6
3Li
66
1.46×10−27

p+-11
5B
123
3.01×10−27

text:
Note that many of the reactions form chains. For instance, a reactor fueled with 3
1T and 3
2He creates some 2
1D, which is then possible to use in the 2
1D-3
2He reaction if the energies are "right". An elegant idea is to combine the reactions (8) and (9). The 3
2He from reaction (8) can react with 6
3Li in reaction (9) before completely thermalizing. This produces an energetic proton, which in turn undergoes reaction (8) before thermalizing. Detailed analysis shows that this idea would not work well,[citation needed] but it is a good example of a case where the usual assumption of a Maxwellian plasma is not appropriate.

text: Neutronicity, confinement requirement, and power density[edit]

text: Any of the reactions above can in principle be the basis of fusion power production. In addition to the temperature and cross section discussed above, we must consider the total energy of the fusion products Efus, the energy of the charged fusion products Ech, and the atomic number Z of the non-hydrogenic reactant.

text:
Specification of the 2
1D-2
1D reaction entails some difficulties, though. To begin with, one must average over the two branches (2i) and (2ii). More difficult is to decide how to treat the 3
1T and 3
2He products. 3
1T burns so well in a deuterium plasma that it is almost impossible to extract from the plasma. The 2
1D-3
2He reaction is optimized at a much higher temperature, so the burnup at the optimum 2
1D-2
1D temperature may be low. Therefore, it seems reasonable to assume the 3
1T but not the 3
2He gets burned up and adds its energy to the net reaction, which means the total reaction would be the sum of (2i), (2ii), and (1):

text:
For calculating the power of a reactor (in which the reaction rate is determined by the D-D step), we count the 2
1D-2
1D fusion energy per D-D reaction as Efus = (4.03 MeV + 17.6 MeV)×50% + (3.27 MeV)×50% = 12.5 MeV and the energy in charged particles as Ech = (4.03 MeV + 3.5 MeV)×50% + (0.82 MeV)×50% = 4.2 MeV. (Note: if the tritium ion reacts with a deuteron while it still has a large kinetic energy, then the kinetic energy of the helium-4 produced may be quite different from 3.5 MeV,[30] so this calculation of energy in charged particles is only an approximation of the average.) The amount of energy per deuteron consumed is 2/5 of this, or 5.0 MeV (a specific energy of about 225 million MJ per kilogram of deuterium).

text:
Another unique aspect of the 2
1D-2
1D reaction is that there is only one reactant, which must be taken into account when calculating the reaction rate.

text: With this choice, we tabulate parameters for four of the most important reactions

text:
fuel
Z
Efus [MeV]
Ech [MeV]
neutronicity

2
1D-3
1T
1
17.6
3.5
0.80

2
1D-2
1D
1
12.5
4.2
0.66

2
1D-3
2He
2
18.3
18.3
≈0.05

p+-11
5B
5
8.7
8.7
≈0.001

text: The last column is the neutronicity of the reaction, the fraction of the fusion energy released as neutrons. This is an important indicator of the magnitude of the problems associated with neutrons like radiation damage, biological shielding, remote handling, and safety. For the first two reactions it is calculated as (Efus-Ech)/Efus. For the last two reactions, where this calculation would give zero, the values quoted are rough estimates based on side reactions that produce neutrons in a plasma in thermal equilibrium.

text:
Of course, the reactants should also be mixed in the optimal proportions. This is the case when each reactant ion plus its associated electrons accounts for half the pressure. Assuming that the total pressure is fixed, this means that density of the non-hydrogenic ion is smaller than that of the hydrogenic ion by a factor 2/(Z+1). Therefore, the rate for these reactions is reduced by the same factor, on top of any differences in the values of <σv>/T2. On the other hand, because the 2
1D-2
1D reaction has only one reactant, its rate is twice as high as when the fuel is divided between two different hydrogenic species, thus creating a more efficient reaction.

text:
Thus there is a "penalty" of (2/(Z+1)) for non-hydrogenic fuels arising from the fact that they require more electrons, which take up pressure without participating in the fusion reaction. (It is usually a good assumption that the electron temperature will be nearly equal to the ion temperature. Some authors, however discuss the possibility that the electrons could be maintained substantially colder than the ions. In such a case, known as a "hot ion mode", the "penalty" would not apply.) There is at the same time a "bonus" of a factor 2 for 2
1D-2
1D because each ion can react with any of the other ions, not just a fraction of them.

text: We can now compare these reactions in the following table.

text:
fuel
<σv>/T2
penalty/bonus
reactivity
Lawson criterion
power density (W/m3/kPa2)
relation of power density

2
1D-3
1T
1.24×10−24
1
1
1
34
1

2
1D-2
1D
1.28×10−26
2
48
30
0.5
68

2
1D-3
2He
2.24×10−26
2/3
83
16
0.43
80

p+-6
3Li
1.46×10−27
1/2
1700

0.005
6800

p+-11
5B
3.01×10−27
1/3
1240
500
0.014
2500

text:
The maximum value of <σv>/T2 is taken from a previous table. The "penalty/bonus" factor is that related to a non-hydrogenic reactant or a single-species reaction. The values in the column "reactivity" are found by dividing 1.24×10−24 by the product of the second and third columns. It indicates the factor by which the other reactions occur more slowly than the 2
1D-3
1T reaction under comparable conditions. The column "Lawson criterion" weights these results with Ech and gives an indication of how much more difficult it is to achieve ignition with these reactions, relative to the difficulty for the 2
1D-3
1T reaction. The last column is labeled "power density" and weights the practical reactivity with Efus. It indicates how much lower the fusion power density of the other reactions is compared to the 2
1D-3
1T reaction and can be considered a measure of the economic potential.

text: Bremsstrahlung losses in quasineutral, isotropic plasmas[edit]

text: The ions undergoing fusion in many systems will essentially never occur alone but will be mixed with electrons that in aggregate neutralize the ions' bulk electrical charge and form a plasma. The electrons will generally have a temperature comparable to or greater than that of the ions, so they will collide with the ions and emit x-ray radiation of 10–30 keV energy, a process known as Bremsstrahlung.

text: The huge size of the Sun and stars means that the x-rays produced in this process will not escape and will deposit their energy back into the plasma. They are said to be opaque to x-rays. But any terrestrial fusion reactor will be optically thin for x-rays of this energy range. X-rays are difficult to reflect but they are effectively absorbed (and converted into heat) in less than mm thickness of stainless steel (which is part of a reactor's shield). This means the bremsstrahlung process is carrying energy out of the plasma, cooling it.

text: The ratio of fusion power produced to x-ray radiation lost to walls is an important figure of merit. This ratio is generally maximized at a much higher temperature than that which maximizes the power density (see the previous subsection). The following table shows estimates of the optimum temperature and the power ratio at that temperature for several reactions.

text:
fuel
Ti (keV)
Pfusion/PBremsstrahlung

2
1D-3
1T
50
140

2
1D-2
1D
500
2.9

2
1D-3
2He
100
5.3

3
2He-3
2He
1000
0.72

p+-6
3Li
800
0.21

p+-11
5B
300
0.57

text: The actual ratios of fusion to Bremsstrahlung power will likely be significantly lower for several reasons. For one, the calculation assumes that the energy of the fusion products is transmitted completely to the fuel ions, which then lose energy to the electrons by collisions, which in turn lose energy by Bremsstrahlung. However, because the fusion products move much faster than the fuel ions, they will give up a significant fraction of their energy directly to the electrons. Secondly, the ions in the plasma are assumed to be purely fuel ions. In practice, there will be a significant proportion of impurity ions, which will then lower the ratio. In particular, the fusion products themselves must remain in the plasma until they have given up their energy, and will remain some time after that in any proposed confinement scheme. Finally, all channels of energy loss other than Bremsstrahlung have been neglected. The last two factors are related. On theoretical and experimental grounds, particle and energy confinement seem to be closely related. In a confinement scheme that does a good job of retaining energy, fusion products will build up. If the fusion products are efficiently ejected, then energy confinement will be poor, too.

text:
The temperatures maximizing the fusion power compared to the Bremsstrahlung are in every case higher than the temperature that maximizes the power density and minimizes the required value of the fusion triple product. This will not change the optimum operating point for 2
1D-3
1T very much because the Bremsstrahlung fraction is low, but it will push the other fuels into regimes where the power density relative to 2
1D-3
1T is even lower and the required confinement even more difficult to achieve. For 2
1D-2
1D and 2
1D-3
2He, Bremsstrahlung losses will be a serious, possibly prohibitive problem. For 3
2He-3
2He, p+-6
3Li and p+-11
5B the Bremsstrahlung losses appear to make a fusion reactor using these fuels with a quasineutral, isotropic plasma impossible. Some ways out of this dilemma are considered—and rejected—in fundamental limitations on plasma fusion systems not in thermodynamic equilibrium.[31][32] This limitation does not apply to non-neutral and anisotropic plasmas; however, these have their own challenges to contend with.


document_title: Kray twins

question_text: where did the krays live in east london

question_tokens: where did the krays live in east london

text: Kray twins

text: Early life[edit]

text: Ronnie and Reggie Kray were born on 24 October 1933 in Hoxton, East London, to Charles David Kray (10 March 1907 – 8 March 1983), a scrap gold dealer,[4] and Violet Annie Lee (5 August 1909 – 4 August 1982). They were of English, Jewish, Irish and Romani Gypsy heritage.[5]

text: They were identical twins, Reggie being born 10 minutes before Ronnie. Their parents already had a six-year-old son, Charles James (9 July 1927 – 4 April 2000).[6] A sister, Violet (born 1929), died in infancy. When the twins were three years old, they contracted diphtheria. Ronnie almost died in 1942 from a head injury suffered in a fight with Reggie.[citation needed]

text: The twins first attended Wood Close School in Brick Lane, and then Daniel Street School.[7] In 1938, the Kray family moved from Stean Street in Hoxton, to 178 Vallance Road in Bethnal Green. At the beginning of the Second World War, 32-year-old Charles Kray was conscripted into the army, but he refused to go and went into hiding.[citation needed]

text: The influence of their maternal grandfather, Jimmy "Cannonball" Lee,[8] caused the brothers to take up amateur boxing, then a popular pastime for working class boys in the East End. Sibling rivalry spurred them on, and both achieved some success. They are said to have never lost a match before turning professional at age 19.[citation needed]

text: National service[edit]

text: The Kray twins were notorious for their gang and its violence, and narrowly avoided being sent to prison many times. Young men were conscripted for national service at this time, and they were called up to serve with the Royal Fusiliers in 1952. They reported, but attempted to leave after only a few minutes. The corporal in charge tried to stop them, but Ronnie punched him on the chin, leaving him seriously injured and the Krays walked back to the East End.[citation needed] They were arrested the next morning and were turned over to the army.[citation needed]

text: While absent without leave, they assaulted a police constable who tried to arrest them. They were among the last prisoners held at the Tower of London before being transferred to Shepton Mallet military prison in Somerset for a month to await court-martial. They were convicted and sent to the Buffs' Home Counties Brigade Depot jail in Canterbury, Kent.[citation needed]

text: Their behaviour in prison was so bad that they both received dishonourable discharges from the army. They tried to dominate the exercise area outside their one-man cells during their few weeks in prison, when their conviction was certain. They threw tantrums, emptied their latrine bucket over a sergeant, dumped a dixie (a large food and liquid container[9]) full of hot tea on another guard, handcuffed a guard to their prison bars with a pair of stolen cuffs and set their bedding on fire.[10]

text: They were moved to a communal cell where they assaulted their guard with a china vase and escaped. They were quickly recaptured and awaited transfer to civilian authority for crimes committed while at large; they spent their last night in Canterbury drinking cider, eating crisps and smoking cigarillos courtesy of the young national servicemen acting as their guards.[citation needed]

text: Criminal careers[edit]

text: Nightclub owners[edit]

text: Their criminal records and dishonourable discharges ended their boxing careers, and the brothers turned to crime full-time. They bought a run-down snooker club in Mile End where they started several protection rackets. By the end of the 1950s, the Krays were working for Jay Murray from Liverpool and were involved in hijacking, armed robbery and arson, through which they acquired other clubs and properties. In 1960, Ronnie Kray was imprisoned for 18 months for running a protection racket and related threats. While Ronnie was in prison, Peter Rachman, head of a violent landlord operation, gave Reggie a nightclub called Esmeralda's Barn on the Knightsbridge end of Wilton Place next to a bistro called Joan's Kitchen. The location is where the Berkeley Hotel now stands.[11]

text: This increased the Krays' influence in the West End by making them celebrities as well as criminals. They were assisted by a banker named Alan Cooper who wanted protection against the Krays' rivals, the Richardsons, based in South London.[12]

text: Celebrity status[edit]

text: In the 1960s, the Kray brothers were widely seen as prosperous and charming celebrity nightclub owners and were part of the Swinging London scene. A large part of their fame was due to their non-criminal activities as popular figures on the celebrity circuit, being photographed by David Bailey on more than one occasion and socialising with lords, MPs, socialites and show business characters, including actors George Raft, Judy Garland, Diana Dors and Barbara Windsor

text: They were the best years of our lives. They called them the swinging sixties. The Beatles and the Rolling Stones were rulers of pop music, Carnaby Street ruled the fashion world... and me and my brother ruled London. We were fucking untouchable...

text: Lord Boothby and Tom Driberg[edit]

text: The Krays also came to public attention in July 1964 when an exposé in the tabloid newspaper Sunday Mirror insinuated that Ron had conceived a sexual relationship with Robert, Lord Boothby, a Conservative politician,[14] at a time when being gay was still a criminal offence in the U.K. Although no names were printed in the piece, the twins threatened the journalists involved, and Boothby threatened to sue the newspaper with the help of Labour Party leader Harold Wilson's solicitor Arnold Goodman (Wilson wanted to protect the reputation of Labour MP Tom Driberg, a relatively open gay man known to associate with both Boothby and Ronnie Kray, just weeks ahead of a pending General Election which Labour was hoping to win). In the face of this, the newspaper backed down, sacking its editor, printing an apology and paying Boothby £40,000 in an out-of-court settlement.[15] Because of this, other newspapers were unwilling to expose the Krays' connections and criminal activities. Much later, Channel 4 established the truth of the allegations and released a documentary on the subject called The Gangster and the Pervert Peer (2009).[16]

text: The police investigated the Krays on several occasions, but the brothers' reputation for violence made witnesses afraid to testify. There was also a problem for both main political parties. The Conservative Party was unwilling to press the police to end the Krays' power for fear that the Boothby connection would again be publicised, and the Labour Party, in power from October 1964, but with a wafer-thin majority in the House of Commons and the prospect of another General Election needing to be called in the very near future, did not want Driberg's connections to Ronnie Kray (and his sexual predilections) to get into the public realm.[17][18]

text: George Cornell[edit]

text: Ronnie Kray shot and killed George Cornell, a member of the Richardsons (a rival gang), at the Blind Beggar pub in Whitechapel on 9 March 1966. The day before, there had been a shoot-out at Mr. Smith's, a nightclub in Catford, involving the Richardson gang and Richard Hart, an associate of the Krays, who was shot dead. This public shoot-out led to the arrest of nearly all the Richardson gang. Cornell, by chance, was not present at the club during the shoot-out and was not arrested. Whilst visiting the hospital to check up on his friends, he randomly chose to visit the Blind Beggar pub, only a mile away from where the Krays lived. Ronnie was drinking in another pub when he learned of Cornell's location. He went there with his driver "Scotch Jack" John Dickson and his assistant Ian Barrie. Ronnie went into the pub with Barrie, walked straight to Cornell and shot him in the head in public view. Barrie, confused by what happened, fired five shots in the air warning the public not to report what had happened to the police. Just before he was shot, Cornell remarked, "Well, look who's here." He died at 3:00am in hospital.[citation needed]

text: Ronnie Kray was already suffering from paranoid schizophrenia at the time of the killing.[19]

text: According to some sources, Ronnie killed Cornell because Cornell referred to Ronnie as a "fat poof" (a derogatory term for gay men) during a confrontation between the Krays and the Richardson gang at the Astor Club on Christmas Day 1965.

text: Richardson gang member "Mad" Frankie Fraser was tried for the murder of Richard Hart at Mr.Smith's, but was found not guilty. Richardson gang member Ray "the Belgian" Cullinane testified that he saw Cornell kicking Hart. Witnesses would not co-operate with the police in the murder case due to intimidation, and the trial ended inconclusively without pointing to any suspect in particular.[12]

text: Frank Mitchell[edit]

text: On 12 December 1966, the Krays helped Frank Mitchell, "the Mad Axeman",[12] to escape from Dartmoor Prison. Ronnie had befriended Mitchell while they served time together in Wandsworth Prison. Mitchell felt that the authorities should review his case for parole, so Ronnie thought that he would be doing him a favour by getting him out of Dartmoor, highlighting his case in the media and forcing the authorities to act.[citation needed]

text: Once Mitchell was out of Dartmoor, the Krays held him at a friend's flat in Barking Road, East Ham. He was a large man with a mental disorder, and he was difficult to control. He disappeared, but the Krays were acquitted of his murder.[12] Freddie Foreman, a friend of the Krays, claimed in his autobiography Respect that he shot Mitchell dead as a favour to the twins and disposed of his body at sea.[citation needed]

text: Jack "the Hat" McVitie[edit]

text: This section needs expansion with: specific details and removal of passive voice. See hidden editor's notes.. You can help by adding to it. (June 2016)

text: The Krays' criminal activities remained hidden behind their celebrity status and "legitimate" businesses. Reggie was allegedly encouraged by his brother in October 1967, four months after the suicide of his wife Frances, to kill Jack "the Hat" McVitie, a minor member of the Kray gang who had failed to fulfil a £1,000 contract, half of which was paid to him in advance, to kill Leslie Payne. McVitie was lured to a basement flat in Evering Road, Stoke Newington on the pretence of a party. Upon entering, he saw Ronnie Kray seated in the front room. As Ronnie approached him, he let loose a barrage of verbal abuse and cut him below his eye with a piece of broken glass. It is believed that an argument then broke out between the twins and McVitie. As the argument got more heated, Reggie Kray pointed a handgun at McVitie's head and pulled the trigger twice, but the gun failed to discharge.

text: McVitie was then held in a bearhug by the twins' cousin, Ronnie Hart, and Reggie Kray was handed a carving knife. He stabbed McVitie in the face and stomach, driving the blade into his neck while twisting the knife, not stopping even as McVitie lay on the floor dying. Reggie had committed a very public murder, against someone who many firm members felt did not deserve to die. In an interview in 2000, shortly after Reggie's death, Freddie Foreman revealed that McVitie had a reputation for leaving carnage behind him due to his habitual consumption of drugs and heavy drinking, and had in the past threatened to harm the twins and their family.[citation needed]

text: Tony and Chris Lambrianou and Ronnie Bender helped clear up the mess and tried to dispose of the body. With the body being too big to fit in the boot of the car, the body was wrapped in an eiderdown and put in the back seat of a car. Tony Lambrianou drove the car with the body and Chris Lambrianou and Bender followed behind. Crossing the Blackwall tunnel, Chris lost Tony's car, and spent up to fifteen minutes looking around Rotherhithe area. They eventually found Tony, outside St Mary's Church, where he had run out of fuel with McVitie's body still inside the car. With no alternative than to dump it in the churchyard, and attempt to plant a gang south of the River Thames, the body was left in the car and the three gangsters returned home. Bender then went on to phone Charlie Kray informing them that it had been dealt with. However, upon finding out where they had left McVitie's corpse, the twins were livid and desperately phoned Foreman, who was then running a pub in Southwark, to see if he could dispose of the body. With dawn breaking, Foreman found the car, broke into it and drove the body to Newhaven where, with the help of a trawlerman, the body was bound with chicken wire and dumped in the English Channel.[20]

text: This event started turning many people against the Krays, and some were prepared to testify to Scotland Yard as to what had happened, fearing that what happened to McVitie could easily happen to them. Leonard "Nipper" Read reopened his case against them.[citation needed]

text: Arrest and trial[edit]

text: Inspector Leonard "Nipper" Read of Scotland Yard was promoted to the Murder Squad and his first assignment was to bring down the Kray twins. It was not his first involvement with them. During the first half of 1964, Read had been investigating their activities, but publicity and official denials of Ron's relationship with Boothby made the evidence that he collected useless. Read went after the twins with renewed activity in 1967, but frequently came up against the East End "wall of silence" which discouraged anyone from providing information to the police.[21]

text: Nevertheless, by the end of 1967 Read had built up enough evidence against the Krays. Witness statements incriminated them, as did other evidence, but none made a convincing case on any one charge.

text: Early in 1968, the Krays employed Alan Bruce Cooper who sent Paul Elvey to Glasgow to buy explosives for a car bomb. Elvey was the radio engineer who put Radio Sutch on the air in 1964, later renamed Radio City. After police detained him in Scotland, he confessed to being involved in three murder attempts. The evidence was weakened by Cooper, who claimed that he was an agent for the US Treasury Department investigating links between the American Mafia and the Kray gang. The botched murders were his attempt to put the blame on the Krays. Cooper was being employed as a source by one of Read's superior officers, and Read tried using him as a trap for the Krays, but they avoided him.

text: Conviction and imprisonment[edit]

text: Eventually, a Scotland Yard conference decided to arrest the Krays on the evidence already collected, in the hope that other witnesses would be forthcoming once the Krays were in custody. On 8 May 1968,[22] the Krays and 15 other members of their "firm" were arrested. Exceptional circumstances were put in place so as to stop any possible co-operation against any of the accused. Nipper Read then secretly interviewed each of the defendants, and offered each firm member one chance to come onto the side of law and order. Whilst in prison, the Krays had come up with a plan, which included Scotch Jack Dickson to confess to the murder of Cornell, Ronnie Hart to take the McVitie and Albert Donoghue to stand for Mitchell.

text: Donoghue told the twins directly that he wasn't prepared to be cajoled into pleading guilty, to the anger of the twins. He then informed Read via his mother, who set up another interview in secret and Donoghue was the first to tell the police everything that he knew.

text: Ronnie Hart had initially not been arrested, and was not a name initially sought after by the police. With Donoghue's testimony, Hart was hunted down, found and arrested. Offering the same terms as the others arrested, Hart then told Read everything that had happened during McVitie's murder, although he did not know anything about what happened to the body. This was the first time that the police knew exactly who was involved, and offered them a solid case to prosecute the twins for McVitie's murder.

text: Although Read knew for certain that Ronnie Kray had murdered George Cornell in the Blind Beggar pub no one had been prepared to testify against the twins out of fear. Upon also finding out the twins intended to cajole him, 'Scotch Jack' Dickson also turned in everything he knew about Cornell's murder. Although not a witness to the actual murder he was an accessory, having driven Ronnie Kray and Ian Barrie to the pub. The police still needed an actual witness to the murder. They then managed to track down the barmaid who was working in the pub at the time, gave her a secret identity and she testified to seeing Ronnie killing Cornell.

text: Frank Mitchell's escape and disappearance was much harder to obtain evidence for, since the majority of those arrested were not involved with his planned escape and disappearance. Read decided to proceed with the case and have a separate trial for Mitchell once the twins had been convicted.

text: The twins' defence under their counsel John Platts-Mills, QC consisted of flat denials of all charges and discrediting witnesses by pointing out their criminal past. Justice Melford Stevenson said: "In my view, society has earned a rest from your activities."[23] In March 1969, both were sentenced to life imprisonment, with a non-parole period of 30 years for the murders of Cornell and McVitie, the longest sentences ever passed at the Old Bailey (Central Criminal Court, London) for murder. Their brother Charlie was imprisoned for ten years for his part in the murders.[24]

text: Later years[edit]

text: Ronnie and Reggie Kray were allowed to attend the funeral of their mother Violet on 11 August 1982 (she had died of cancer the week before), under tight security. However they were not allowed to attend the graveside, which was at Chingford Mount Cemetery in East London where she was interred in the Kray family plot. The funeral was attended by celebrities including Diana Dors and underworld figures known to the Krays, such as James Kemmery.[25] The twins did not ask to attend their father's funeral when he died in March 1983, to avoid the publicity that had surrounded their mother's funeral.

text: In 1985, officials at Broadmoor Hospital discovered a business card of Ron's, which prompted an investigation. It revealed that the twins – incarcerated at separate institutions – were operating a "lucrative bodyguard and 'protection' business for Hollywood stars", together with their older brother Charlie Kray and an accomplice not in prison. Documents released under Freedom of Information laws revealed that officials were concerned about this operation, called Krayleigh Enterprises, but believed that there was no legal basis to shut it down. Among their clients was Frank Sinatra, who for instance used the service by hiring 18 bodyguards on his visit to the 1985 Wimbledon Championships.[26]

text: Ronnie Kray was a Category A prisoner, denied almost all liberties and not allowed to mix with other prisoners. He was eventually certified insane in 1979[27] and lived the remainder of his life in Broadmoor Hospital in Crowthorne, Berkshire.[28] Reggie Kray was locked up in Maidstone Prison for 8 years (Category B). In 1997, he was transferred to the Category C Wayland Prison in Norfolk.[29]

text: Personal lives[edit]

text: Ronnie[edit]

text: In his book My Story and a comment to writer Robin McGibbon on The Kray Tapes, Ronnie states: "I'm bisexual, not gay. Bisexual." He also planned on marrying a woman named Monica in the 1960s whom he had dated for nearly three years. He called her "the most beautiful woman he had ever seen." This is mentioned in Reggie's book Born Fighter. Also, extracts are mentioned in Ron's own book My Story and Kate Kray's books Sorted; Murder, Madness and Marriage, and Free at Last.

text: Ronnie was arrested before he had the chance to marry Monica and, even though she married Ronnie's ex-boyfriend, 59 letters sent to her between May and December 1968 when he was imprisoned show Ronnie still had feelings for her, and his love for her was very clear. He referred to her as "my little angel" and "my little doll". She also still had feelings for Ronnie. These letters were auctioned in 2010.[30]

text: A letter, sent from prison in 1968, from Ronnie to his mother Violet also makes reference to Monica; "if they let me see Monica and put me with Reg, I could not ask for more." He went on to say, with spelling mistakes, "Monica is the only girl I have liked in my life. She is a luvely little person as you know. When you see her, tell her I am in luve with her more than ever."[31] Ronnie subsequently married twice, marrying Elaine Mildener in 1985 at Broadmoor chapel before the couple divorced in 1989, following which he married Kate Howard, whom he divorced in 1994.[19]

text: In an interview with author John Pearson, Ronnie indicated he identified with the 19th century soldier Gordon of Khartoum: "Gordon was like me, homosexual, and he met his death like a man. When it's time for me to go, I hope I do the same."[32]

text: Reggie[edit]

text: In 1997, Reggie married Roberta Jones[19] whom he met while still in prison. She was helping to publicise a film being made about Ronnie.[33]

text: Controversies[edit]

text: There was a long-running campaign, with some minor celebrity support, to have the twins released from prison, but successive Home Secretaries vetoed the idea, largely on the grounds that both Krays' prison records were marred by violence toward other inmates. The campaign gathered momentum after the release of a film based on their lives called The Krays (1990). Produced by Ray Burdis, it starred Spandau Ballet brothers Martin and Gary Kemp, who played the roles of Reggie and Ronnie respectively. Ronnie, Reggie and Charlie Kray received £255,000 for the film.[19]

text: Reggie wrote: "I seem to have walked a double path most of my life. Perhaps an extra step in one of those directions might have seen me celebrated rather than notorious."[34] Others point to Reggie's violent prison record when he was being detained separately from Ronnie and argue that in reality, the twins' temperaments were little different.

text: Reggie's marriage to Frances Shea (1944–67)[35] in 1965 lasted eight months when she left, although the marriage was never formally dissolved. An inquest came to the conclusion that she committed suicide,[36] but in 2002 an ex-lover of Reggie Kray's came forward to allege that Frances was actually murdered by a jealous Ronnie. Bradley Allardyce spent 3 years in Maidstone Prison with Reggie and explained, "I was sitting in my cell with Reg and it was one of those nights where we turned the lights down low and put some nice music on and sometimes he would reminisce. He would get really deep and open up to me. He suddenly broke down and said 'I'm going to tell you something I've only ever told two people and something I've carried around with me' – something that had been a black hole since the day he found out. He put his head on my shoulder and told me Ronnie killed Frances. He told Reggie what he had done two days after."[37]

text: A British television documentary, The Gangster and the Pervert Peer (2009), showed that Ronnie Kray was a man-on-man rapist. The programme also detailed his relationship with Conservative peer Bob Boothby as well as an ongoing Daily Mirror investigation into Lord Boothby's dealings with the Kray brothers.[38][39][40]

text: Deaths[edit]

text: Ronnie, still a patient in Broadmoor hospital, died of a heart attack on 17 March 1995 at the age of 61 at Wexham Park Hospital in Slough, Berkshire.[41]

text: During his incarceration, Reggie became a born-again Christian.[42] He was freed from Wayland on 26 August 2000 after serving more than the recommended 30 years that he was sentenced to in March 1969.[43] He was 66, and was released on compassionate grounds for having inoperable bladder cancer.[44] The final weeks of his life were spent with his wife Roberta, whom he had married while in Maidstone Prison in July 1997,[45] in a suite at the Townhouse Hotel at Norwich,[46] having left the Norfolk and Norwich Hospital on 22 September 2000.[47] On 1 October 2000, Reggie died in his sleep.[48] Ten days later, he was buried beside his brother Ronnie in Chingford Mount Cemetery.[49]

text: Older brother Charlie Kray was released from prison in 1975 after serving seven years,[50] but was sentenced again in 1997 for conspiracy to smuggle cocaine in an undercover drugs sting.[51] He died in prison of natural causes on 4 April 2000,[52] aged 73.[50]

text:
Ronnie and Reggie Kray's grave, Chingford

Charlie Kray's grave, Chingford

Violet Kray grave, mother of the Kray twins, Chingford

Frances Kray, Reggie's wife's grave, Chingford

tag: ul

text: In popular culture[edit]

text: Film[edit]

text:
The Krays (1990), film biopic starring Spandau Ballet's Gary Kemp as Ronnie and Martin Kemp as Reggie
The Rise of the Krays (2015) a low budget film starring Simon Cotton as Ronnie and Kevin Leslie as Reggie[19]
Legend (2015), a biopic starring Tom Hardy as both Ronnie and Reggie[53]
The Fall of the Krays (2016) a low budget sequel to the earlier 2015 film, again starring Simon Cotton as Ronnie and Kevin Leslie as Reggie [19]

text: In addition to films explicitly about the twins, James Fox met Ronnie whilst the twins were held at HM Prison Brixton as part of his research for his role in the 1970 film Performance, and Richard Burton visited Ronnie at Broadmoor as part of his preparation for his role as a violent gangster in the 1971 film Villain.[19]

text: Literature[edit]

text:
Gaines, J.H. (2012). The Krays Not Guilty Your Honour.  Biography
Pearson, John (1972). The Profession of Violence: The Rise and Fall of the Kray Twins.  Biography
Kray, Reggie; Kray, Ronnie (1988). Our Story.  autobiography
Kray, Reggie (1990). Born Fighter.  autobiography
Kray, Ronnie (1994). My Story.  autobiography
Kray, Reggie (2000). A Way of Life: Over Thirty Years of Blood, Sweat and Tears.  Autobiography of Reggie Kray

text: Music[edit]

text:
Ronnie Kray is mentioned in the Blur song "Charmless Man", in the line: "I think he'd like to have been Ronnie Kray".
Ray Davies repeats the line "...and don't forget the Kray twins" in his song "London", later adding, "very dangerous people those Kray twins".
The former singer of the Smiths and solo artist Morrissey mentions each Kray brother by name in his song "The Last of the Famous International Playboys" saying, "Reggie Kray do you know my name?" and "Ronnie Kray do you know my face?". It was reported that Morrissey sent a wreath to Reggie Kray's funeral in 2000.[54]
Renegade Soundwave released their first single, "Kray Twins", in 1986. They also recorded a video for the song. Lyrics reference the Blind Beggar pub.
The Libertines song "Up the Bracket" references the Kray twins as "two shadow men on the Valliance Road."
Lethal Bizzle mentions the Kray twins in his song London in the line "I'm a London boy like the Kray, Kray Kray" after which he repeats "Ronnie, Reggie" twice.

text: Television[edit]

text:
The television drama series Whitechapel includes a three episode mini-series which was first aired 11 October 2010. In this series twin brothers were portrayed as the alleged biological sons of Ronnie Kray.
Monty Python's Flying Circus parodied the brothers as the ridiculously violent gangsters Doug and Dinsdale Piranha, and chronicled their arrest at the hands of Police Superintendent/amateur actor Harry "Snapper" Organs.
The Kray twins were one of the subjects of the fourth episode of the UK version of the TV show Drunk History.
The Kray twins were one of the subjects of the third episode of the documentary Gangsters:Faces of the Underworld
The Kray twins were mentioned in The Inbetweeners episode, Camping Trip, when Jay Cartwright lies about how his dad can not pick them up, as he is playing a private poker tournament with the Krays and Danny Dyer
The Kray twins were mentioned by Jeremy Clarkson in The Grand Tour season 2, episode 6 in reference to owning a Jaguar 420G similar to the one Richard Hammond was driving in the episode's Colorado adventure. It was also mentioned that they were the reason the Italian mafia were prevented from establishing a foothold in London, England in the 1960s.

text: Theatre[edit]

text: Two plays were produced in the 1970s that were based on thinly-veiled versions of the Krays:

text:
Alpha Alpha, by Howard Barker in 1972[19]
England England, a musical by Snoo Wilson with music by Kevin Coyne and directed by Dusty Hughes in 1977, starring Bob Hoskins and Brian Hall in the lead roles.[19]


document_title: Melting point

question_text: which type of substance has the highest melting point

text: Melting point

text: Examples[edit]

text: For most substances, melting and freezing points are approximately equal. For example, the melting point and freezing point of mercury is 234.32 kelvins (−38.83 °C or −37.89 °F).[2] However, certain substances possess differing solid-liquid transition temperatures. For example, agar melts at 85 °C (185 °F) and solidifies from 31 °C (88 °F; 304 K); such direction dependence is known as hysteresis. The melting point of ice at 1 atmosphere of pressure is very close [3] to 0 °C (32 °F; 273 K); this is also known as the ice point. In the presence of nucleating substances, the freezing point of water is not always the same as the melting point. In the absence of nucleators water can exist as a supercooled liquid down to −48.3 °C (−55°F, 224.8 K) before freezing. The chemical element with the highest melting point is tungsten, at 3,414 °C (6,177 °F; 3,687 K);[4] this property makes tungsten excellent for use as filaments in light bulbs. The often-cited carbon does not melt at ambient pressure but sublimes at about 3,726.85 °C (6,740.33 °F; 4,000.00 K); a liquid phase only exists above pressures of 10 MPa (99 atm) and estimated 4,030–4,430 °C (7,290–8,010 °F; 4,300–4,700 K) (see carbon phase diagram). Tantalum hafnium carbide (Ta4HfC5) is a refractory compound with a very high melting point of 4215 K (3942 °C, 7128 °F).[5] At the other end of the scale, helium does not freeze at all at normal pressure even at temperatures close to absolute zero; pressure greater than twenty times of atmosphere of normal one is necessary.

text:
hideList of common chemicals

Chemical[I]

Density (g/cm3)

Melt (K) [6]

Boil (K)

Water @STP
1
273
373

Solder (Pb60Sn40)

456

Cocoa butter

307.2
-

Paraffin wax
0.9
310
643

Hydrogen
0.00008988
14.01
20.28

Helium
0.0001785
—[II]
4.22

Beryllium
1.85
1560
2742

Carbon
2.267
3800
4300

Nitrogen
0.0012506
63.15
77.36

Oxygen
0.001429
54.36
90.20

Sodium
0.971
370.87
1156

Magnesium
1.738
923
1363

Aluminium
2.698
933.47
2792

Sulfur
2.067
388.36
717.87

Chlorine
0.003214
171.6
239.11

Potassium
0.862
336.53
1032

Titanium
4.54
1941
3560

Iron
7.874
1811
3134

Nickel
8.912
1728
3186

Copper
8.96
1357.77
2835

Zinc
7.134
692.88
1180

Gallium
5.907
302.9146
2673

Silver
10.501
1234.93
2435

Cadmium
8.69
594.22
1040

Indium
7.31
429.75
2345

Iodine
4.93
386.85
457.4

Tantalum
16.654
3290
5731

Tungsten
19.25
3695
5828

Platinum
21.46
2041.4
4098

Gold
19.282
1337.33
3129

Mercury
13.5336
234.43
629.88

Lead
11.342
600.61
2022

Bismuth
9.807
544.7
1837

show
Notes

Jump up ^ Z is the standard symbol for atomic number; C is the standard symbol for heat capacity; and χ is the standard symbol for electronegativity on the Pauling scale.

Jump up ^ Helium does not solidify at a pressure of one atmosphere. Helium can only solidify at pressures above 25 atmospheres, which corresponds to a melting point of absolute zero.

text: Melting point measurements[edit]

text:
Many laboratory techniques exist for the determination of melting points.
A Kofler bench is a metal strip with a temperature gradient (range from room temperature to 300 °C). Any substance can be placed on a section of the strip, revealing its thermal behaviour at the temperature at that point. Differential scanning calorimetry gives information on melting point together with its enthalpy of fusion.

text: A basic melting point apparatus for the analysis of crystalline solids consists of an oil bath with a transparent window (most basic design: a Thiele tube) and a simple magnifier. The several grains of a solid are placed in a thin glass tube and partially immersed in the oil bath. The oil bath is heated (and stirred) and with the aid of the magnifier (and external light source) melting of the individual crystals at a certain temperature can be observed. In large/small devices, the sample is placed in a heating block, and optical detection is automated.

text: The measurement can also be made continuously with an operating process. For instance, oil refineries measure the freeze point of diesel fuel online, meaning that the sample is taken from the process and measured automatically. This allows for more frequent measurements as the sample does not have to be manually collected and taken to a remote laboratory.

text: Techniques for refractory materials[edit]

text: For refractory materials (e.g. platinum, tungsten, tantalum, some carbides and nitrides, etc.) the extremely high melting point (typically considered to be above, say, 1800°C) may be determined by heating the material in a black body furnace and measuring the black-body temperature with an optical pyrometer. For the highest melting materials, this may require extrapolation by several hundred degrees. The spectral radiance from an incandescent body is known to be a function of its temperature. An optical pyrometer matches the radiance of a body under study to the radiance of a source that has been previously calibrated as a function of temperature. In this way, the measurement of the absolute magnitude of the intensity of radiation is unnecessary. However, known temperatures must be used to determine the calibration of the pyrometer. For temperatures above the calibration range of the source, an extrapolation technique must be employed. This extrapolation is accomplished by using Planck's law of radiation. The constants in this equation are not known with sufficient accuracy, causing errors in the extrapolation to become larger at higher temperatures. However, standard techniques have been developed to perform this extrapolation.

text: Consider the case of using gold as the source (mp = 1063°C). In this technique, the current through the filament of the pyrometer is adjusted until the light intensity of the filament matches that of a black-body at the melting point of gold. This establishes the primary calibration temperature and can be expressed in terms of current through the pyrometer lamp. With the same current setting, the pyrometer is sighted on another black-body at a higher temperature. An absorbing medium of known transmission is inserted between the pyrometer and this black-body. The temperature of the black-body is then adjusted until a match exists between its intensity and that of the pyrometer filament. The true higher temperature of the black-body is then determined from Planck's Law. The absorbing medium is then removed and the current through the filament is adjusted to match the filament intensity to that of the black-body. This establishes a second calibration point for the pyrometer. This step is repeated to carry the calibration to higher temperatures. Now, temperatures and their corresponding pyrometer filament currents are known and a curve of temperature versus current can be drawn. This curve can then be extrapolated to very high temperatures.

text: In determining melting points of a refractory substance by this method, it is necessary to either have black body conditions or to know the emissivity of the material being measured. The containment of the high melting material in the liquid state may introduce experimental difficulties. Melting temperatures of some refractory metals have thus been measured by observing the radiation from a black body cavity in solid metal specimens that were much longer than they were wide. To form such a cavity, a hole is drilled perpendicular to the long axis at the center of a rod of the material. These rods are then heated by passing a very large current through them, and the radiation emitted from the hole is observed with an optical pyrometer. The point of melting is indicated by the darkening of the hole when the liquid phase appears, destroying the black body conditions. Today, containerless laser heating techniques, combined with fast pyrometers and spectro-pyrometers, are employed to allow for precise control of the time for which the sample is kept at extreme temperatures. Such experiments of sub-second duration address several of the challenges associated with more traditional melting point measurements made at very high temperatures, such as sample vaporization and reaction with the container.

text: Thermodynamics[edit]

text: For a solid to melt, heat is required to raise its temperature to the melting point. However, further heat needs to be supplied for the melting to take place: this is called the heat of fusion, and is an example of latent heat.

text: From a thermodynamics point of view, at the melting point the change in Gibbs free energy (ΔG) of the material is zero, but the enthalpy (H) and the entropy (S) of the material are increasing (ΔH, ΔS > 0). Melting phenomenon happens when the Gibbs free energy of the liquid becomes lower than the solid for that material. At various pressures this happens at a specific temperature. It can also be shown that:

text: Here T, ΔS and ΔH are respectively the temperature at the melting point, change of entropy of melting and the change of enthalpy of melting.

text: The melting point is sensitive to extremely large changes in pressure, but generally this sensitivity is orders of magnitude less than that for the boiling point, because the solid-liquid transition represents only a small change in volume.[7][8] If, as observed in most cases, a substance is more dense in the solid than in the liquid state, the melting point will increase with increases in pressure. Otherwise the reverse behavior occurs. Notably, this is the case of water, as illustrated graphically to the right, but also of Si, Ge, Ga, Bi. With extremely large changes in pressure, substantial changes to the melting point are observed. For example, the melting point of silicon at ambient pressure (0.1 MPa) is 1415 °C, but at pressures in excess of 10 GPa it decreases to 1000 °C.[9]

text: Melting points are often used to characterize organic and inorganic compounds and to ascertain their purity. The melting point of a pure substance is always higher and has a smaller range than the melting point of an impure substance or, more generally, of mixtures. The higher the quantity of other components, the lower the melting point and the broader will be the melting point range, often referred to as the "pasty range". The temperature at which melting begins for a mixture is known as the "solidus" while the temperature where melting is complete is called the "liquidus". Eutectics are special types of mixtures that behave like single phases. They melt sharply at a constant temperature to form a liquid of the same composition. Alternatively, on cooling a liquid with the eutectic composition will solidify as uniformly dispersed, small (fine-grained) mixed crystals with the same composition.

text:
In contrast to crystalline solids, glasses do not possess a melting point;
on heating they undergo a smooth glass transition into a viscous liquid.
Upon further heating, they gradually soften, which can be characterized by certain softening points.

text: Freezing-point depression[edit]

text: The freezing point of a solvent is depressed when another compound is added, meaning that a solution has a lower freezing point than a pure solvent. This phenomenon is used in technical applications to avoid freezing, for instance by adding salt or ethylene glycol to water.

text: Carnelley's rule[edit]

text: In organic chemistry, Carnelley's rule, established in 1882 by Thomas Carnelley, states that high molecular symmetry is associated with high melting point.[10] Carnelley based his rule on examination of 15,000 chemical compounds. For example, for three structural isomers with molecular formula C5H12 the melting point increases in the series isopentane −160 °C (113 K) n-pentane −129.8 °C (143 K) and neopentane −16.4 °C (256.8 K).[11] Likewise in xylenes and also dichlorobenzenes the melting point increases in the order meta, ortho and then para. Pyridine has a lower symmetry than benzene hence its lower melting point but the melting point again increases with diazine and triazines. Many cage-like compounds like adamantane and cubane with high symmetry have relatively high melting points.

text: A high melting point results from a high heat of fusion, a low entropy of fusion, or a combination of both. In highly symmetrical molecules the crystal phase is densely packed with many efficient intermolecular interactions resulting in a higher enthalpy change on melting.

text: Predicting the melting point of substances (Lindemann's criterion)[edit]

text: An attempt to predict the bulk melting point of crystalline materials was first made in 1910 by Frederick Lindemann.[12] The idea behind the theory was the observation that the average amplitude of thermal vibrations increases with increasing temperature. Melting initiates when the amplitude of vibration becomes large enough for adjacent atoms to partly occupy the same space. The Lindemann criterion states that melting is expected when the vibration root mean square amplitude exceeds a threshold value.

text: Assuming that all atoms in a crystal vibrate with the same frequency ν, the average thermal energy can be estimated using the equipartition theorem as[13]

text: where m is the atomic mass, ν is the frequency, u is the average vibration amplitude, kB is the Boltzmann constant, and T is the absolute temperature. If the threshold value of u2 is c2a2 where c is the Lindemann constant and a is the atomic spacing, then the melting point is estimated as

text: Several other expressions for the estimated melting temperature can be obtained depending on the estimate of the average thermal energy. Another commonly used expression for the Lindemann criterion is[14]

text: From the expression for the Debye frequency for ν, we have

text: where θD is the Debye temperature and h is the Planck constant. Values of c range from 0.15–0.3 for most materials.[15]

text: Melting point prediction[edit]

text: In February 2011, Alfa Aesar released over 10,000 melting points of compounds from their catalog as open data. This dataset has been used to create a random forest model for melting point prediction[16] which is now freely available.[17] Open melting point data are also available from Nature Precedings.[18] High quality data mined from patents and also models[19] developed with these data were published by Tetko et al.[20]


document_title: List of situation comedies without laugh tracks

question_text: what was the first sitcom without a laugh track

text: This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: In television, sitcoms generally use laugh tracks. However, there are some examples of this kind of works that do not use them, for different reasons, such as not wanting to induce laughter.

text: The following list includes television sitcoms that do not use laugh tracks, regardless of whether they are artificial (also known as canned) or obtained from an audience that reacts to the show on set as it is recorded.

text:
Year
Title
Distributor
Notes

2014―present
100 Things to Do Before High School
Nickelodeon

2006―2013
30 Rock
NBC

2003-2008
All Grown Up!
CBS Television Distribution
Animated sitcom

2003―2006
2013
2017
Arrested Development
Fox

1993―1997
2011
Beavis and Butthead
MTV
Animated sitcom

1969―1971
The Bill Cosby Show
NBC

2014―present
Black-ish
ABC

2014―present
Bojack Horseman
Netflix
Animated sitcom

2013―present
Brooklyn Nine-Nine
Fox

2009―2015
Community
NBC

2000―2011
Curb Your Enthusiasm
HBO

1991―1994
Dinosaurs
ABC

2012—2013
Don't Trust the B---- in Apartment 23
20th Television

2004―2007
Drawn Together
Comedy Central
Animated sitcom

2004―2011
Entourage
HBO

2011―present
Episodes
Showtime
BBC TWO

2015―present
Fresh Off the Boat
ABC

1999―2003
2008―2013
Futurama
Fox
Comedy Central
Animated sitcom

2007 — 2010
Gavin & Stacey
BBC Three
BBC One

2013―present
The Goldbergs
ABC

2015―2016
Grandfathered
Fox

2015―2016
The Grinder
Fox

2011―2013
Happy Endings
ABC

2005―present
It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia
FX
FXX

2014―present
Kirby Buckets
Disney XD

2005―2009
Life with Derek
Disney Channel

2001―2004
Lizzie McGuire
Disney Channel

2000―2006
Malcolm in the Middle
Fox

2009―present
The Middle
ABC

2012―present
The Mindy Project
Fox
Hulu

2009―present
Modern Family
ABC

2015—2016
The Muppets
ABC

2005―2009
My Name is Earl
NBC

2004―2007
Ned's Declassified School Survival Guide
Nickelodeon

2011―present
New Girl
Fox

2005―2013
The Office
NBC

2009―2015
Parks and Recreation
NBC

2012―present
People Just Do Nothing
BBC

2004―2006
Phil of the Future
Disney Channel

2013―present
Real Husbands of Hollywood
BET

2013―present
Rick and Morty
Adult Swim
Animated sitcom

1998―2000
The Royle Family
BBC Two
BBC One

2001―2010
Scrubs
NBC
ABC

1989―present
The Simpsons
Fox
Animated sitcom

1997―present
South Park
Comedy Central
Animated sitcom

2011―2014
Suburgatory
ABC

2015-present
Superstore
NBC

2015―present
Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt
Netflix

2012―present
Veep
HBO

2016―present
Walk the Prank
Disney XD

2012―present
Workaholics
Comedy Central

2009―2012
Zeke and Luther
Disney XD

2005―2008
Zoey 101
Nickelodeon