document_title: Indentured servitude in the Americas

question_text: when did indentured servitude end in the us

text: Indentured servitude in the Americas

text: North America[edit]

text: Between one-half and two-thirds of European immigrants to the Thirteen Colonies between the 1630s and the American Revolution came under indentures.[5] The practice was sufficiently common that the Habeas Corpus Act 1679, in part, prevented imprisonments overseas; it also made provisions for those with existing transportation contracts and those "praying to be transported" in lieu of remaining in prison upon conviction.[12] In any case, while half the European immigrants to the Thirteen Colonies had been indentured servants, at any one time they were outnumbered by workers who had never been indentured, or whose indenture had expired. Free wage labour was more common for Europeans in the colonies.[13] Indentured persons were numerically important mostly in the region from Virginia north to New Jersey. Other colonies saw far fewer of them. The total number of European immigrants to all 13 colonies before 1775 was about 500,000; of these 55,000 were involuntary prisoners. Of the 450,000 or so European arrivals who came voluntarily, Tomlins estimates that 48% were indentured.[14] About 75% were under the age of 25. The age of legal adulthood for men was 24 years; those over 24 generally came on contracts lasting about 3 years.[1] Regarding the children who came, Gary Nash reports that, "many of the servants were actually nephews, nieces, cousins and children of friends of emigrating Englishmen, who paid their passage in return for their labour once in America."[15]

text: Farmers, merchants, and shopkeepers in the British colonies found it very difficult to hire free workers, primarily because it was easy for potential workers to set up their own farms.[16] Consequently, a common solution was to transport a young worker from Britain or a German state, who would work for several years to pay off the debt of their travel costs. During the indenture period the servants were not paid cash wages, but were provided with food, accommodation, clothing and training. The indenture document specified how many years the servant would be required to work, after which they would be free. Terms of indenture ranged from one to seven years with typical terms of four or five years.[2] In southern New England, a variant form of indentured servitude, which controlled the labour of Native Americans through an exploitative debt-peonage system, developed in the late 17th century and continued through to the period of the American Revolution.

text: Not all European servants came willingly. Several instances of kidnapping for transportation to the Americas are recorded, though these were often indentured in the same way as their willing counterparts. An illustrative example is that of Peter Williamson (1730–1799). As historian Richard Hofstadter pointed out, "Although efforts were made to regulate or check their activities, and they diminished in importance in the eighteenth century, it remains true that a certain small part of the white colonial population of America was brought by force, and a much larger portion came in response to deceit and misrepresentation on the part of the spirits [recruiting agents]."[6]

text: Many white immigrants arrived in colonial America as indentured servants, usually as young men and women from Britain or Germany, under the age of 21. Typically, the father of a teenager would sign the legal papers, and work out an arrangement with a ship captain, who would not charge the father any money.[17] The captain would transport the indentured servants to the American colonies, and sell their legal papers to someone who needed workers. At the end of the indenture, the young person was given a new suit of clothes and was free to leave. Many immediately set out to begin their own farms, while others used their newly acquired skills to pursue a trade.[18][19][20] A few became sufficiently prosperous that they were eventually able to acquire indentured servants of their own.[21]

text: Given the high death rate, many servants did not live to the end of their terms.[2] In the 18th and early 19th century, numerous Europeans, mostly from outside the British Isles, traveled to the colonies as redemptioners, a particularly harsh form of indenture.[22]

text: Indentured servants were a separate category from bound apprentices. The latter were American-born children, usually orphans or from an impoverished family who could not care for them. They were under the control of courts and were bound out to work as an apprentice until a certain age. Two famous bound apprentices were Benjamin Franklin who illegally fled his apprenticeship to his brother, and Andrew Johnson, who later became President of the United States.[23]

text: George Washington used indentured servants;[24] in April 1775, he offered a reward for the return of two runaway white servants.[25]

text: Development[edit]

text: Indentured servitude in the Americas was first used by the Virginia Company in the early seventeenth century as a method for collateralising the debt finance for transporting people to its newfound British colonies.

text: Before the rise of indentured servitude, a large demand for labour existed in the colonies to help build settlements, farm crops and serve as tradesmen, but many labourers in Europe could not afford the transatlantic crossing, which could cost roughly half a worker’s annual wage.[3]

text: European financial institutions could not easily lend to the workers since there was no effective way to enforce a loan from across the Atlantic, rendering labour immobile via the Atlantic because of capital market imperfections.[3]

text: To address this imperfection, the Virginia Company would allow labourers to borrow against their future earnings at the Virginia Company for a fixed number of years in order to raise sufficient capital to pay for their voyage. Evidence shows this practice was in use by 1609, only two years after the founding of the Virginia Company's original Jamestown settlement.[26] However, this practice created a financial risk for the Virginia Company. If workers died or refused to work, the investment would be lost.[26]

text: By 1620, the Virginia Company switched to selling contracts of "one hundred servants to be disposed amongst the old Planters" as soon as the servants reached the colonies.[27] This minimised risk on its investment to the 2–3 months of transatlantic voyage. As the system gained in popularity, individual farmers and tradesmen would eventually begin investing in indentured servants as well.[28]

text: In the 18th century, wages in Great Britain were low because of a surplus of labour. The average monetary wage was about 50 shillings (£2.50, equivalent to £338 in 2015)[29] a year for a plowman, and 40 shillings (£2) a year for an ordinary unskilled worker. Ships' captains negotiated prices for transporting and feeding a passenger on the seven- or eight-week journey across the ocean, averaging about £5 to £7, the equivalent of years of work back in England.[30][31]

text: Still, demand for indentured labour remained relatively low until the adoption of staple crops, such as sugarcane in the West Indies or tobacco in the American South.[32] With economies largely based on these crops, the West Indies and American South would see the vast majority of indentured labour.[33]

text: Author and historian Richard Hofstadter has written:

text: The most unenviable situation was that of servants on Southern plantations, living alongside but never with Negro slaves, both groups doing much the same work, often under the supervision of a relentless overseer… Even as late as 1770, William Eddis, the English surveyor of customs at Annapolis, thought that the Maryland Negroes were better off than "the Europeans, over whom the rigid planter exercises an inflexible severity." The Negroes, Eddis thought, were a lifelong property so were treated with a certain care, but the whites were "strained to the utmost to perform their allotted labour."[34]

text: Over time the market for indentured servitude developed, with length of contracts showing close correlations to indicators of health and productivity. Tall, strong, healthy, literate or skilled servants would often serve shorter terms than less productive or more sickly servants.[35][36] Similarly, destinations with harsh working climates such as the West Indies would come to offer shorter contracts compared to the more hospitable colonies.[32]

text: The majority of indentured servants ended up in the American South, where cash crops necessitated labour-intensive farming. As the Northern colonies moved toward industrialisation, they got significantly less indentured immigration.[37] For example, 96.28% of English emigrants to Virginia and Maryland from 1773 to 1776 were indentured servants. During the same time period, only 1.85% of English emigrants to New England were indentured.[38]

text: Legal documents[edit]

text: An indenture was a legal contract enforced by the courts. One indenture reads as follows:[39]

text: This INDENTURE Witnesseth that James Best a Labourer doth Voluntarily put himself Servant to Captain Stephen Jones Master of the Snow Sally to serve the said Stephen Jones and his Assigns, for and during the full Space, Time and Term of three Years from the first Day of the said James’ arrival in Philadelphia in AMERICA, during which Time or Term the said Master or his Assigns shall and will find and supply the said James with sufficient Meat, Drink, Apparel, Lodging and all other necessaries befitting such a Servant, and at the end and expiration of said Term, the said James to be made Free, and receive according to the Custom of the Country. Provided nevertheless, and these Presents are on this Condition, that if the said James shall pay the said Stephen Jones or his Assigns 15 Pounds British in twenty one Days after his arrival he shall be Free, and the above Indenture and every Clause therein, absolutely Void and of no Effect. In Witness whereof the said Parties have hereunto interchangeably put their Hands and Seals the 6th Day of July in the Year of our Lord, One Thousand Seven Hundred and Seventy Three in the Presence of the Right Worshipful Mayor of the City of London. (signatures)

text: When the ship arrived, the captain would often advertise in a newspaper that indentured servants were for sale:[40]

text: Just imported, on board the Snow Sally, Captain Stephen Jones, Master, from England, A number of healthy, stout English and Welsh Servants and Redemptioners, and a few Palatines [Germans], amongst whom are the following tradesmen, viz. Blacksmiths, watch-makers, coppersmiths, taylors, shoemakers, ship-carpenters and caulkers, weavers, cabinet-makers, ship-joiners, nailers, engravers, copperplate printers, plasterers, bricklayers, sawyers and painters. Also schoolmasters, clerks and book-keepers, farmers and labourers, and some lively smart boys, fit for various other employments, whose times are to be disposed of. Enquire of the Captain on board the vessel, off Walnut-street wharff, or of MEASE and CALDWELL.

text: When a buyer was found, the sale would be recorded at the city court. The Philadelphia Mayor’s Court Indenture Book, page 742, for September 18, 1773 has the following entry:[41]

text: James Best, who was under Indenture of Redemption to Captain Stephen Jones now cancelled in consideration of £ 15, paid for his Passage from London bound a servant to David Rittenhouse of the City of Philadelphia & assigns three years to be found all necessaries.

text: Restrictions[edit]

text: Indentures could not marry without the permission of their owner, were subject to physical punishment (like many young ordinary servants), and saw their obligation to labour enforced by the courts. To ensure uninterrupted work by the female servants, the law lengthened the term of their indenture if they became pregnant. But unlike slaves, servants were guaranteed to be eventually released from bondage. At the end of their term they received a payment known as "freedom dues" and become free members of society.[42] One could buy and sell indentured servants' contracts, and the right to their labour would change hands, but not the person as a piece of property.

text: Both male and female labourers could be subject to violence, occasionally even resulting in death. Richard Hofstadter notes that, as slaves arrived in greater numbers after 1700, white labourers in Virginia became a "privileged stratum, assigned to lighter work and more skilled tasks".[34] He also notes that "Runaways were regularly advertised in the newspapers, rewards were offered, and both sheriffs and the general public were enlisted to secure their return. ... The standard penalty in the North, not always rigorously enforced, was extra service of twice the time the master had lost, though whipping was also common."[34]

text: Redemptioner profile[edit]

text: Indentured servitude was a method of increasing the number of colonists, especially in the English and later British colonies. Voluntary migration and convict labour only provided so many people, and since the journey across the Atlantic was dangerous, other means of encouraging settlement were necessary. Contract-labourers became an important group of people and so numerous that the United States Constitution counted them specifically in appointing representatives:

text: Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective Numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to Service for a Term of Years....[43]

text: Displaced from their land and unable to find work in the cities, many of these people signed contracts of indenture and took passage to the Americas. In Massachusetts, religious instruction in the Puritan way of life was often part of the condition of indenture, and people tended to live in towns.

text: The labour-intensive cash crop of tobacco was farmed in the American South by indentured labourers in the 17th and 18th centuries.[44] Indentured servitude was not the same as the apprenticeship system by which skilled trades were taught, but similarities do exist between the two, since both require a set period of work. The majority of Virginians were Anglican, not Puritan, and while religion did play a large role in everyday lives, the culture was more commercially based. In the Chesapeake and North Carolina, tobacco constituted a major percentage of the total agricultural output. (In the Deep South (mainly Georgia and South Carolina), cotton and rice plantations dominated.) In the lower Atlantic colonies where tobacco was the main cash crop, the majority of labour that indentured servants performed was related to field work. In this situation, social isolation could increase the possibilities for both direct and indirect abuse, as could lengthy, demanding labour in the tobacco fields.

text: The system was still widely practiced in the 1780s, picking up immediately after a hiatus during the American Revolution. Fernand Braudel (The Perspective of the World 1984, pp 405f) instances a 1783 report on "the import trade from Ireland" and its large profits to a ship owner or a captain, who:

text: "puts his conditions to the emigrants in Dublin or some other Irish port. Those who can pay for their passage—usually about 100 or 80 [livres tournois]—arrive in America free to take any engagement that suits them. Those who cannot pay are carried at the expense of the shipowner, who in order to recoup his money, advertises on arrival that he has imported artisans, labourers and domestic servants and that he has agreed with them on his own account to hire their services for a period normally of three, four, or five years for men and women and 6 or 7 years for children."

text: In modern terms, the shipowner was acting as a contractor, hiring out his labourers. Such circumstances affected the treatment a captain gave his valuable human cargo. After indentures were forbidden, the passage had to be prepaid, giving rise to the inhumane conditions of Irish 'coffin ships' in the second half of the 19th century.[45]

text: Southern New England Native Americans and indenture[edit]

text:
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text: Starting in the late 17th century, in southern New England and parts of Long Island, Native Americans were increasingly pulled into an exploitative debt-peonage system designed to control and assimilate Native American people into the dominant culture as well as channel their labour into the market-based Atlantic economy.[46] Following King Philip's War (1675–1676) most Native Americans in the region were resigned to reservations or lived in increasingly marginal enclaves on the edges of colonial towns. Due to restricted access to resources, land loss, and changes to the environment caused by European settlement, many Native Americans, especially coastal groups, could no longer practice traditional subsistence activities and therefore became increasingly dependent on European trade goods—cloth, tools, guns, alcohol, and increasingly, food. Merchants trading these items to Native Americans often inflated the cost and, based on a predatory lending scheme, advanced them credit for these purchases, knowing full well most Native Americans would not be able to repay the debts. Eventually when debts mounted, Native Americans were hauled into court by their creditors. When they could not pay either their lands, or more commonly their labour, was seized to settle the debt. Native American debtors were then indentured to their creditors for terms ranging from a few months to sometimes years. Rare cases exist when Native Americans were indentured for a decade or more and a few were enslaved for life (this was quite rare however).[7] Many Native Americans experienced repeated indentures over the course of their lifetimes, amounting to a phenomenon of 'serial indenture' or debt peonage—multiple short indentures alternating with brief periods of 'freedom.' The 'time' Native American servants owed could be sold or willed to heirs if a creditor died.

text: Assessing how many Native Americans experienced indenture is difficult as exact Native American populations during the colonial period are unknown. However, Historian John Sainsbury was able to document that by the mid-18th century about a third of all Native Americans in Rhode Island were indentured servants living and working in white households. Also, the Massachusetts state archives contains numerous petitions, written from the 1730s to 1760s from Native American tribes in their jurisdiction complaining about abuses in the indenture system and predatory lending by whites. Statutes were eventually passed attempting to regulate practices. Colonial military records do provide some data on Native American indenture as well. Enlistment records from 1704 to 1726 show that almost two-thirds of Native Americans who joined the army were indentured at the time of their enlistment. Records from 1748 to 1760 show a decline in this rate, but still show almost a third of Native American recruits being bound to white masters at the time of their enlistment. One Connecticut regiment raised in 1746 during King George's War (containing 980 men total) contained 139 Native American men. Almost half of them had signed their wages over to white creditors before being deployed.[47]

text: While many Native American men, women and children became servants in New England households, the labour of many adult men was funneled into the whaling industry on Long Island, Rhode Island, Cape Cod and the islands of Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket, as well as the coast of eastern Connecticut. These whaling indentures were somewhat distinct from normal indenture contracts, and stipulated that Native Americans serve not as servants in white households but instead as crew members on a certain number of whaling voyages or 'seasons' of whaling (typically November through April). Throughout most of the colonial period indentured or heavily indebted Native American whalers were the primary labour force in the early whaling industry. They remained an important source of labour into the Revolutionary and early national era, but as their numbers dwindled and the industry expanded exponentially, they made up a decreasingly small proportion of the labour force.[48]

text: Decline[edit]

text: Indentured servitude appeared in the Americas in the 1620s and remained in use as late as 1917.[8] The causes behind its decline are a contentious domain in economic history.

text: The end of debtors' prisons may have created a limited commitment pitfall in which indentured servants could agree to contracts with ship captains and then refuse to sell themselves once they arrived in the colonies. Increased lobbying from immigrant aid societies led to increased regulation of the indentured labour market, further increasing the difficulty of enforcing contracts. With less ability to enforce the contracts, demand for indentured servants may have fallen. However, most debtor prisons were still in service when indentured servitude disappeared and many regulations on indentured servitude were put in place well before the disappearance.[50]

text: A rise in European per-capita income compared to passage fare during the nineteenth century may also explain the disappearance of indentured servitude. While passage from England to the colonies in 1668 would cost roughly 51 percent of English per-capita income, that ratio would decrease to between 20 and 30 percent by 1841.[51] This increase in relative income may have been further supplemented by a demonstrated increase in savings among European labourers, meaning European emigrants would have the capital on hand to pay for their own passage. With no need for transit capital, fewer labourers would have become indentured, and the supply of indentured servants would have decreased.[52][53]

text: Labour substitutions may have led employers away from indentured servants and towards slaves or paid employees. In many places, African slaves became cheaper for unskilled and then eventually skilled labour, and most farmhand positions previously filled by indentured servants were ultimately filled by slaves.[54] Wage labourers may have been more productive, since employers were more willing to terminate waged employment. In comparison, firing an indentured servant would mean a loss on the original capital investment spent purchasing the servant’s contract.[55] Either substitution would lead to a decrease in demand for indentured servitude. An additional problem for employers was that, compared to African slaves, European indentured servants who ran away could not always be easily distinguished from the general white population, so they were more difficult to re-capture.

text: Indentured servitude's decline for white servants was also largely a result of changing attitudes that accrued over the 18th century and culminated in the early 19th century. Over the 18th century, the penal sanctions that were used against all workers were slowly going away from colonial codes, leaving indentured servants the only adult white labour subject to penal sanctions (with the notable exception of seaman, whose contracts could be criminally enforced up to the 20th century). These penal sanctions for indentured labourers continued in the United States until the 1830s, and by this point treatment of European labourers under contract became the same as the treatment of wage labourers (however, this change in treatment didn't apply to workers of color). This change in treatment can be attributed to a number of factors, such as the growing identification of white indented labour with slavery at a time when slavery was coming under attack in the Northern states, the growing radicalism of workers influenced with the rhetoric of the American Revolution, and the expansion of suffrage in many states which empowered workers politically. Penal sanctions, previously considered perfectly in line with free labour, became in the 19th century a way to transform ordinary labour into "contracts of slavery."[56]

text: Labor market dynamics[edit]

text: Given the rapid expansion of colonial export industries in the 17th and 18th Century, natural population growth and immigration were unable to meet the increasing demand for workers. As a result, the cost of indentured servants rose substantially. In the Chesapeake Bay, for example, the cost of indentures rose as much as 60% in the 1680s.[57] The increase in the price of indentures did not however act as an incentive for European workers to emigrate for they were not affected by the price at which they were sold in American ports. As a result, the companies that generated indentures disrupted the price signaling effect and thus the supply of immigrants did not expand sufficiently to meet demand. Some actors in the market attempted to generate incentives for workers by shortening the length of indenture contracts based on the productivity of the prospective emigrant.[58] Some American firms also opted to incentivize workers by paying small wages or by negotiating early expiration of indentures.[59] The rising cost of indentured labour and its inelastic supply pushed American producers towards other forms of labour. Slaves were substantially cheaper and the supply of them was more abundant for it was not constrained by the slaves’ willingness to emigrate. Additionally, slave traders were directly incentivised by the price mechanism to expand “production” (in the form of raiding expeditions), so supply was relatively elastic. Slavery thus was better able to satisfy labour demands in colonies requiring large quantities of unskilled workers (for example plantation colonies in the Caribbean). Indentures however prevailed in colonies that required skilled workers (in which the cost of training a slave was higher than the price differential between a slave and an indentured servant). Alison Smith and Abbott E Smith’s analysis of London port records shows how destination of indentured emigrants shifted from the West Indies towards New England as early as the 1660s,[60] supporting the theory that indentured servitude might have declined in some regions because of labour market dynamics.

text: Affordability of immigration[edit]

text: The rise in the affordability of immigration reduced emigrants’ need for external financing in the form of indentures. David Galenson’s analysis on affordability shows that the cost of immigration from Britain to the United States over the course of the 18th Century dropped from 50% of per capita income to less than 10%.[clarification needed] This is attributable to higher levels of real income in Europe (a result of economic growth in the 18th Century) and to a sharp decline in transportation costs.[61] Innovation had a strong impact on the ease and cost of passenger transportation, reducing the need of indentures. The railroad made non-port cities a much cheaper destination for immigrants. The steamboat was not necessarily cheaper than older sailing technologies, but it made transatlantic travel much easier and comfortable, an attractive factor for high-income classes (that could easily afford immigration without indentures).[62] The British Navy’s efforts against piracy also reduced transportation costs. Safer seas implied smaller crews (for there was no need to man weapons on board) and also reduced insurance costs (ships were at lower risk of being captured). The composition of immigrants also shifted from single males towards entire families. Single males usually left their homes with little if any savings. Instead, families generally liquidated assets in Europe to finance their venture.[63][64]

text: Impact of American Revolution[edit]

text: The American Revolution severely limited immigration to the United States. Economic historians differ however on the long-term impact of the Revolution. Sharon Salinger argues that the economic crisis that followed the war made long-term labour contracts unattractive. His analysis of Philadelphia’s population shows how the percentage of bound citizens fell from 17% to 6.4% over the course of the war.[65] William Miller posits a more moderate theory, stating “the Revolution (…) wrought disturbances upon white servitude. But these were temporary rather than lasting”.[66] David Galenson supports this theory by proposing that British indentures never recovered, but Europeans from other nationalities replaced them.[67]

text: Legal deterrence[edit]

text: A number of acts passed by both the American and the British governments fostered the decline of indentures. The English Passenger Vessels Act of 1803, which regulated travel conditions aboard ships, attempted to make transportation more expensive in order to stop emigration. The American abolition of imprisonment of debtors by federal law (passed in 1833) made prosecution of runaway servants more difficult, increasing the risk of indenture contract purchases.[citation needed]

text: In the 19th century, most indentures of this nature occurred in the old Northwest Territory. The permissibility of such indentures centered on the interpretation of "involuntary servitude" per the 1787 Northwest Ordinance, which declared:

text: "There shall be neither slavery nor involuntary servitude in the territory otherwise than in the punishment of crimes, whereof the Party shall have been duly convicted."[56]

text: The permissibility (or not) of penal sanctions in labour became an issue of "fundamental law", in which it was questioned whether those sanctions or specific performance enforcements turned indentured servitude into "involuntary servitude". At the time when the Northwest Ordinance was constructed, white adult servants were still being imported into the United States, and thus, historically, it seems likely that the Ordinance's framers considered indenture to be a form of "voluntary" servitude. In essence, this means the indentured servant chose to work for someone who bought them something.[56]

text: The Territory of Hawaii was the last place in the United States to widely use indentures, as by 1900 the practice had been abolished in the rest of the country and replaced by alternatives such as the credit-ticket system used to transport Chinese laborers.[68] Prior to U.S. annexation, indentures were widely used to transport Japanese contract workers to Hawaii for plantation work. In the Organic Act of 1900, the U.S. prohibited further use of indentures in the territory and voided all such existing contracts, thus ending the practice.[11][69]

text: Caribbean[edit]

text: A half million Europeans went as indentured servants to the Caribbean (primarily the south Caribbean, Trinidad and Tobago, French Guiana, and Suriname) before 1840.[70][71] Most were young men, with dreams of owning their own land or striking it rich quick, who would essentially sell years of their labour in exchange for passage to the islands. However, forceful indenture also provided part of the servants: contemporaries report that youngsters were sometimes tricked into servitude in order to be exploited in the colonies.[72]

text: The landowners on the islands would pay for a servant’s passage and then provide the servant with food, clothes, shelter and instruction during the agreed term. The servant would then be required to work in the landowner’s field for a term of bondage (usually four to seven years). During this term of bondage the servant had a status similar to a son of the master. For example, the servant was not allowed to marry without the master’s permission. Servants could own personal property. They could also complain to a local magistrate about mistreatment that exceeded community norms. However, a servant's contract could be sold or given away by his master.

text: After the servant’s term was complete he became independent and was paid “freedom dues”. These payments could take the form of land which would give the servant the opportunity to become an independent farmer or a free labourer. As free men with little money they became a political force that stood in opposition to the rich planters.[73]

text: Indentured servitude was a common part of the social landscape in England and Ireland during the 17th century. During the 17th century, British and Irish went to Barbados as both masters and as indentured servants. Some went as prisoners.[74] During the Wars of the Three Kingdoms many Scottish and Irish prisoners of war were sold as indentured labourers to the colonies.[75] There were also reports of kidnappings of youngsters to work as servants.

text: After 1660, fewer indentured servants came from Europe to the Caribbean. Newly freed servant farmers, given 25–50 acres of land, were unable to make a living because profitable sugar plantations needed to cover hundreds of acres. However, profit could still be made through the tobacco trade, which was what these small 25-acre farms did to live comfortably. The landowners’ reputation as cruel masters became a deterrent to the potential indentured servant. In the 17th century, the islands became known as death traps, as between 33 and 50 percent of indentured servants died before they were freed, many from yellow fever, malaria and other diseases.[9]

text: When slavery ended in the British Empire in 1833, plantation owners turned to indentured servitude for inexpensive labour. These servants arrived from across the globe; the majority came from India where many indentured labourers came from to work in colonies requiring manual labour. As a result, today Indo-Caribbeans form a majority in Guyana, a plurality in Trinidad and Tobago and Suriname, and a substantial minority in Jamaica, Grenada, Barbados, St Lucia and other Caribbean islands.[10][76] The British government finally ended indentures in the Caribbean in 1917 by prohibiting the further transportation of persons from India for purposes of servitude for debt.[11]


document_title: Dance India Dance

question_text: who won dance india dance season 6 2018

question_tokens: who won dance india dance season 6 2018

root

text: Dance India Dance

text: Format[edit]

text: Selection process[edit]

text: The selection process can be further broken down into two distinct stages: the Open Auditions and a second phase referred to as the Mega Auditions.

tag: p

text: The Open Auditions take place in 5–6 major Indian cities and are typically open to anyone aged 15–30 at the time of their audition. The cities in which auditions are held varies from season to season but some, such as New Delhi, Mumbai and Kolkata have featured in almost every season. During this stage, dancers perform a brief routine (typically individually) before three masters. The masters will then make an on-the-spot decision as to whether the dancer demonstrated enough ability.[3] If the dancer impressed the masters with his/her dancing abilities, masters will award a Hat called Taqdeer Ki Topi (Hat of Destiny), moving them instantly one step forward in the competition.[4]

text: The second stage of the selection process, the Mega Auditions, is a several-day-long process in which the 100 hopefuls are tested for overall well-rounded dance ability, stamina, and their ability to perform under pressure. The dancers are put through a battery of rounds which test their ability to pick up various dance styles (typically some of the more well-represented genres that will later be prominent in the competition phase, such as Hip hop, Bollywood, Jazz, Bharat Natyam, Kathak, Mohiniyattam, Odissi and Contemporary). At the end of this process, only the top 36 competitors will be chosen. The top 36 are then again asked to give solo performances, after which 18 are chosen in the final auditions. Then, those top 18 get divided into 3 teams which are named according to the 3 masters of the show such as, Mudassar Ki Mandali, Marzi Ke Mastane and Mini Ke Masterblasters. Each team containing 6 dancers then competes in the show, learning new skills throughout the journey.[5]

text: Judges[edit]

text: Grand Master Mithun Chakraborty has been being the head judge of the series. When any contestant performs an extra-ordinary performance, Grand Master gives him/her a salute. It's called Grand Salute and it is the highest respect for any contestant here. Every season, 3 Indian choreographers (who are called Masters) choreograph the contestants and judge them too with Grand Master. First three seasons was judged by 3 regular judges Master Geeta Kapoor, Master Terence Lewis & Master Remo D'Souza with Grand Master. Then the judges were changed season by season from season 4. When any contestant performs a perfect act, the judges give him/her a special speech which is as respect for the contestant.

text: List of the judges:

text:
Rank
Name
Team
Duration
Seasons
Special speech
Best
achievement

Grand Master
(head judge)
Mithun Chakraborty
-
2009-18
All[note 2]
Kya baat, kya baat, kya baat.
-

Master
(judge)
Geeta Kapoor
Geeta Ki Gang
2009-12
1, 2, 3
Stupendo-fantabulous fantastical.
1st in season 3

Terence Lewis
Terence Ki Toli
Chummeshwari performance.
1st in season 2

Remo D'Souza
Remo Ke Rangeelay
That's what I call a performance.
1st in season 1

Mudassar Khan
Mudassar Ki Mandali
2013-18
4, 5, 6
Chik chik boom fire.
1st in season 4

Feroz Khan
Feroz Ki Fauz
2013-14
4
Ferocious performance.
3rd in season 4

Shruti Merchant
Shruti Ke Shandar
Jumbari jiri jiri jam jatak performance.
2nd in season 4

Punit Pathak
Punit Ke Panthers
2015
5
Chamu performance.
1st in season 5

Gaiti Siddiqui
Gaiti Ke Gangsters
K.I.L.L.E.R performance.
2nd in season 5

Marzi Pestonji
Marzi Ke Mastane
2017-18
6
N/A[note 3]
2nd in season 6

Mini Pradhan
Mini Ke Masterblasters
Tod diya, phod diya.[note 4]
1st in season 6

tag: table

text: Season details[edit]

text: Series table:

text:
Season
Duration
No. of
weeks
No. of
episodes
Finalists
Presenters

Winner
Runner-up
Third place
Fourth place
Fifth place
Male
Female

1
30 January -
30 May 2009
18
35
Salman Khan
Alisha Singh
Siddhesh Pai
Jai Kumar Nair
N/A[note 5]
Jay Bhanushali
Saumya Tandon

2
18 December 2009 -
23 April 2010
19
37
Shakti Mohan
Dharmesh Yelande
Punit Pathak
Binny Sharma

3
24 December 2011 -
21 April 2012
18
35
Rajasmita Kar
Pradeep Gurung
Raghav Juyal
Sanam Johar
Mohena Singh

4
26 October 2013 -
22 February 2014
18
34
Shyam Yadav
Manan Sachdeva
Biki Das
Sumedh Mudgalkar
N/A[note 5]
Ishita Sharma

5
27 June -
10 October 2015
16
31
Proneeta Swargiary
Nirmal Tamang
Sahil Adanaya
Kaushik Mandal
Ashish Vashistha
N/A[note 6]

6
4 November 2017 -
18 February 2018
16
31
Sanket Gaonkar
Sachin Sharma
Piyush Gurbhele
Nainika Anasuru
Shivam Wankhede
Sahil Khattar
Amruta Khanvilkar

text: Season 1[edit]

text:
Dance India Dance

Season 1

Broadcast from
30 January (2009-01-30) – 30 May 2009 (2009-05-30)

Judges
Mithun Chakraborty (head judge)
Geeta Kapoor
Terence Lewis
Remo D'Souza

Host(s)
Jay Bhanushali
Saumya Tandon

Broadcaster
Zee TV

No. of episodes
35

Winner

Salman Khan

Origin
Mumbai

Runner-up

Alisha Singh

Chronology

2009
▶

text: First season was started on 30 January 2009. This season was hosted by Jay Bhanushali and Saumya Tandon. The grand finale was aired on 30 May 2009 and winner was Salman Yusuff Khan.

text: Masters:

text:
Remo D'Souza, his team was named Remo Ke Rangeelay.
Terence Lewis, his team was named Terence Ki Toli.
Geeta Kapoor, her team was named Geeta Ki Gang.

tag: ul

text: Top 12 Contestants:

text: Remo Ke Rangeelay:

text:
Salman Yusuff Khan
Prince R. Gupta
Khushboo Purohit
Mangesh Mondal
Bhavana Purohit
Rakhee Sharma

text: Terence Ki Toli:

text:
Alisha Singh
Jai Kumar Nair
Mayuresh Wadkar
Vrushali Chavan

text: Geeta Ki Gang:

text:
Siddhesh Pai
Sunita Gogoi

text: Finalists:

text:
Salman Yusuff Khan (from Remo Ke Rangeelay) was the winner.
Alisha Singh (from Terence Ki Toli) was 1st runner-up.
Siddhesh Pai (from Geeta Ki Gang) was 2nd runner-up.
Jai Kumar Nair (from Terence Ki Toli) was 3rd runner-up.

tag: ol

text: Season 2[edit]

text:
Dance India Dance

Season 2

Broadcast from
18 December 2009 (2009-12-18) – 23 April 2010 (2010-04-23)

Judges
Mithun Chakraborty (head judge)
Geeta Kapoor
Terence Lewis
Remo D'Souza

Host(s)
Jay Bhanushali
Saumya Tandon

Broadcaster
Zee TV

No. of episodes
37

Website
"Dance India Dance Season 2".

Winner

Shakti Mohan

Origin
Mumbai

Runner-up

Dharmesh Yelande

Chronology

◀
2009-10
▶

text: Second season was started on 18 December 2009. This season was also hosted by Jay Bhanushali and Saumya Tandon. The grand finale was aired on 23 April 2010 and winner was Shakti Mohan.[6]

text: Masters:

text: Top 12 Contestants:

text: Remo Ke Rangeelay:

text:
Punit Pathak
Saajan Singh
Nikkitasha Marwaha
Shashank Dogra

text: Terence Ki Toli:

text:
Shakti Mohan
Amarjeet Singh
Jack Gill
Kruti Mahesh

text: Geeta Ki Gang:

text:
Dharmesh Yelande
Binny Sharma
Amrita Moitra
Kishore Aman

text: Finalists:

text:
Shakti Mohan (from Terence Ki Toli) was the winner.
Dharmesh Yelande (from Geeta Ki Gang) was 1st runner-up.
Punit Pathak (from Remo Ke Rangeelay) was 2nd runner-up.
Binny Sharma (from Geeta Ki Gang) was 3rd runner-up.

text: Season 3[edit]

text:
Dance India Dance

Season 3

Broadcast from
24 December 2011 (2011-12-24) – 21 April 2012 (2012-04-21)

Judges
Mithun Chakraborty (head judge)
Geeta Kapoor
Terence Lewis
Remo D'Souza

Host(s)
Jay Bhanushali
Saumya Tandon

Broadcaster
Zee TV

No. of episodes
35

Website
"Dance India Dance Season 3".

Winner

Rajasmita Kar

Origin
Bhubaneswar

Runner-up

Pradeep Gurung

Chronology

◀
2011-12
▶

text: Third season was started on 24 December 2011. This season was also hosted by Jay Bhanushali and Saumya Tandon. The grand finale was aired on 21 April 2012 and winner was Rajasmita Kar.[7]

text: Masters:

text: Top 13 Contestants:

text: Remo Ke Rangeelay:

text:
Sanam Johar
Mohena Singh
Vaibhav Ghuge

text: Terence Ki Toli:

text:
Pradeep Gurung
Raghav Juyal
Neerav Balvecha
Sneha Gupta
Piyali Saha
Varoon

text: Geeta Ki Gang:

text:
Rajasmita Kar
Abheek Banerjee
Paul Marshal
Urvashi Gandhi

text: Finalists:

text:
Rajasmita Kar (from Geeta Ki Gang) was the winner.
Pradeep Gurung (from Terence Ki Toli) was 1st runner-up.
Raghav Juyal (from Terence Ki Toli) was 2nd runner-up.
Sanam Johar (from Remo Ke Rangeelay) was 3rd runner-up.
Mohena Singh (from Remo Ke Rangeelay) was 4th runner-up.

text: Season 4[edit]

text:
Dance India Dance

Season 4

Broadcast from
26 October 2013 (2013-10-26) – 22 February 2014 (2014-02-22)

Judges
Mithun Chakraborty (head judge)
Mudassar Khan
Feroz Khan
Shruti Merchant

Host(s)
Jay Bhanushali
Ishita Sharma

Broadcaster
Zee TV

No. of episodes
34

Website
"Dance India Dance Season 4".

Winner

Shyam Yadav

Origin
Mumbai

Runner-up

Manan Sachdeva

Chronology

◀
2013-14
▶

text: Fourth season was started on 26 October 2013. This season was hosted by Jay Bhanushali and Ishita Sharma. The grand finale was aired on 22 February 2014 and winner was Shyam Yadav.[8]

text: Masters:

text:
Mudassar Khan, his team was named Mudassar Ki Mandali.
Shruti Merchant, her team was named Shruti Ke Shandar.
Feroz Khan, his team was named Feroz Ki Fauj.

text: Top 10 Contestants:

text: Mudassar Ki Mandali:

text:
Shyam Yadav
Swarali Karulkar
Dhiraj Bakshi

text: Shruti Ke Shandar:

text:
Manan Sachdeva
Sumedh Mudgalkar
Shrishti Jain
Suniketa Bore

text: Feroz Ki Fauj:

text:
Biki Das
Arundhati Garnaik
Ashutosh Pawar

text: Finalists:

text:
Shyam Yadav (from Mudassar Ki Mandali) was the winner.
Manan Sachdeva (from Shruti Ke Shandar) was 1st runner-up.
Biki Das (from Firoz Ki Fauj) was 2nd runner-up.
Sumedh Mudgalkar (from Shruti Ke Shandar) was 3rd runner-up.

text: Season 5[edit]

text:
Dance India Dance

Season 5

Broadcast from
27 June (2015-06-27) – 10 October 2015 (2015-10-10)

Judges
Mithun Chakraborty (head judge)
Mudassar Khan
Punit Pathak
Gaiti Siddiqui

Host(s)
Jay Bhanushali

Broadcaster
Zee TV

No. of episodes
31

Website
"Dance India Dance Season 5".

Winner

Proneeta Swargiary

Origin
Delhi

Runner-up

Nirmal Tamang

Chronology

◀
2015
▶

text: Fifth season was started on 27 June 2015. This season was hosted by Jay Bhanushali. The grand finale was aired on 10 October 2015 and winner was Proneeta Swargiary.[9]

text: Masters:

text:
Mudassar Khan, his team was named Mudassar Ki Mandali.
Punit Pathak, his team was named Punit Ke Panthers.
Gaiti Siddiqui, her team was named Gaiti Ke Gangsters.

text: Top 11 Contestants:

text: Mudassar Ki Mandali:

text:
Kaushik Mandal
Saddam Hussain Sheikh
Anuradha Iyengar
Vicky Alhat

text: Punit Ke Panthers:

text:
Proneeta Swargiary
Ashish Vashistha
Sally Sheikh
Pankaj Thapa

text: Gaiti Ke Gangsters:

text:
Nirmal Tamang
Sahil Adanaya
Anila Rajan

text: Finalists:

text:
Proneeta Swargiary (from Punit Ke Panthers) was the winner.
Nirmal Tamang (from Gaiti Ke Gangsters) was 1st runner-up.
Sahil Adanaya (from Gaiti Ke Gangsters) was 2nd runner-up.
Kaushik Mandal (from Mudassar Ki Mandali) was 3rd runner-up.
Ashish Vashistha (from Punit Ke Panthers) was 4th runner-up.

text: Season 6[edit]

text:
Dance India Dance

Season 6

Broadcast from
4 November 2017 (2017-11-04) – 18 February 2018 (2018-02-18)

Judges
Mithun Chakraborty (head judge)
Mudassar Khan
Marzi Pestonji
Mini Pradhan

Host(s)
Amruta Khanvilkar
Sahil Khattar

Broadcaster
Zee TV

No. of episodes
31

Website
"Dance India Dance - 2017".

Winner

Sanket Gaonkar

Origin
Ankola

Runner-up

Sachin Sharma

Chronology

◀
2017-18

text: Sixth season is being aired from 4 November 2017. This season is being hosted by Amruta Khanvilkar and Sahil Khattar.[10]

text: Masters:

text:
Mudassar Khan, his team is named Mudassar Ki Mandali.
Marzi Pestonji, his team is named Marzi Ke Mastane.
Mini Pradhan, her team is named Mini Ke Masterblasters.

text: Top Contestants:

text: Mudassar Ki Mandali:

text:
Shivam Wankhede (Jalgaon)
Paramdeep Singh (Eliminated)
Alphons Chetty (Eliminated)
Daphisha Kharbani (Eliminated)
Ria Chatterjee (Eliminated)
Deepak (Eliminated)

text: Marzi Ke Mastane:

text:
Sachin Sharma (Faridabad)
Kalpita Kachroo (Eliminated)
punyakar upadhyay (Eliminated)
shwetha warrier (Eliminated)
shweta sharda (Eliminated)
Rahul Burman (Eliminated)

text: Mini Ke Masterblasters:

text:
Sanket Gaonkar (Ankola)
Piyush Gurbhele (Nagpur)
Nainika Anasuru (Jharsuguda) (Odisha) (Wildcard Entry)
Sujan Marpa (Eliminated)
Deepak Hulsure (Wildcard Entry) (Eliminated)
Sonal Vichare (Eliminated)
Mitesh Roy (Eliminated)
Sarang Roy (Eliminated)

text: Top 5 Finalists:

text:
Sanket Gaonkar (Ankola)
Piyush Gurbhele (Nagpur)
Nainika Anasuru (Jharsuguda) (Odisha) (Wildcard Entry)
Sachin Sharma (Faridabad)
Shivam Wankhede (Jalgaon)

text: Sanket Gaonkar (from Mini Ke Masterblasters) is the winner

text: Sachin Sharma (from Marzi Ke Mastane) is first runner up

text: Piyush Gurbhele (from Mini Ke Masterblasters) is second runner up

text: Nainika Anasuru (from Mini Ke Masterblasters) is third runner up

text: Shivam Wankhede (from Mudassar Ki Mandali) is fourth runner up

text: Spin-offs[edit]

text: Li'l Masters[edit]

text:
Dance India Dance Li'l Masters

Also known as
DID Li'l Masters

Genre
Reality

Presented by

Manish Paul
Jay Bhanushali

Judges

Mithun Chakraborty (head judge)
Farah Khan
Sandip Soparrkar
Geeta Kapoor
Marzi Pestonji
Ahmed Khan
Siddharth Anand
Chitrangada Singh

Opening theme
"D.I.D. Little Masters"

Country of origin
India

Original language(s)
Hindi

No. of seasons
4

Production

Camera setup
Multi-camera

Running time
1 hour

Release

Original network
Zee TV

Original release
30 April 2010 (2010-04-30) – present

External links

Website

text: The first season of DID L'il Masters was judged by Farah Khan and Sandip Soparrkar. The four skippers and their teams were: Dharmesh ke Dhinchak, Jai ke Jhatang-Fatang, Vrushali ke Dhum-Dhadake and Amrita ke Aflatoon. Jeetumoni Kalita from Dharmesh ke Dhinchak was declared winner of the first season of Dance India Dance L'il Masters. Atul Banmoria was the 1st runner-up and Vaishnavi Patil was the 2nd runner-up , Sonik Chauhan from Delhi got the best performer award from Finalist and Tiyash Saha (Wild Card Entry) from Kolkata (Neerav ke Rockstars) got the 5th position and most entertaining participant of the Season , Ritika and Pallavi got 6th position.

text: DID L'il Masters 2 was judged by Master Geeta and Master Marzi. The four skippers and their teams were Prince ke Paltan, Raghav ke Rockstars, Kruti ke Krackers and Neerav ke Ninjas. 5 contestants, Jeet, Om, Faisal, Rohan and Saumya entered the grand finale. Faisal Khan, from Prince ke Paltan, was declared as the winner of the second season.[11][12] Om Chetry, Rohan Parkale and Saumya Rai came second, third and fourth respectively.

text: The third season began broadcasting on 1 March 2014.[13][14] Geeta Kapoor, Ahmad Khan and Mudassar Khan were judges, along with Sanam Johar, Raghav Crockroaz Juyal/ Omkar Shinde, Rahul Shetty and Paul Marshal Cardoz and Swarali Karulkar, as skippers.[15][16][17][18] The teams were Raghav/Omkar ke Rockstar, Sanam ke Superheroes, Rahul and Paul ke Rapchik Punters and Swarali ke Sparklers. Teriya Magar from Nepal was declared the winner,[19] and Anushka Chetry became the 1st runner-up. Sadhwin Shetty was the 2nd runner-up.

text: DID Li'l Masters returned with its 4th season after 4 years. It began broadcasting on 3rd March 2018. Marzi Pestonji, Chitrangnda Singh and Siddharth Anand are the judges along with Vaishnavi Patil, Jitumoni Kalita, Tanay Malhara and Bir Radha Sherpa as the skippers. The teams are Vaishnavi Ke Veer, Jitumoni ke Janbaaz, Tanay ke Tigers and Bir ke Baahubali.

text: Dance India Dance L'il Masters North America Edition - Auditions were conducted in April 2014 with over 10,000 contestants auditioning from all across the US, Canada and Europe. Out of them 10 contestants were chosen and were flown to Mumbai, India to compete in the finals. The winner was Akhil and the second winner was Avantika Vandanapu

text: Doubles[edit]

text: The shows consisted of 12 finalist couples. The Grand Finale was scheduled for filming 7 April 2011 at the Andheri Sports Complex for broadcast on 9 April 2011.[20] Amit and Falon were voted the winners of the season.

text: Super Moms[edit]

text: Mithu Chowdhury from Kolkata was declared the winner of Dance India Dance Super Moms 2013 Season, and Cecille Rodrigues from Goa was the 1st runner-up, and Shraddha Shah Raj from Surat was the 2nd runner-up.[21]

text: The second season started in March 2015.[22] Harpreet Khatri who hails from Mumbai was announced the winner of Dance India Dance Super Moms Season 2 in 2015. Season 2 was anchored by popular TV actor Karan Wahi. Season 2 was judged by Geeta Kapoor, Govinda, and Terence Lewis.

text: Special shows[edit]

text: Dance Ke Superstars[edit]

text: Dance Ke Superstars featured contestants from the first two seasons to compete against each other. The show was judged by choreographers Remo D'Souza and Shiamak Davar, and featured a guest judge every week. Team Jalwa, the Season 2 DID contestants, won the series.

text: Dance Ke Superkids[edit]

text: Dance ke Superkids- Battle of the Baaps! featured contestants from the first two seasons of DID L'iL Masters. It was judged by Geeta Kapoor, Farah Khan and Marzi Pestonji and hosted by Jay Bhanushali and Shreya Acharya.[23][24] Team Yahoo, also known as DID L'il Masters Season 2, was led by Captain Raghav Juyal and choreographers: Kruti Mahesh and Prince Gupta. They won the competition with Faisal Khan, Soumya Rai, Rohan Parkale, Om Chetri, Jeet Das, Shalini Moitra and Tanay Malhara dancing their way to victory. Team Wakao, also known as DID L'il Masters Season 1, was led by Captain Dharmesh Yelande and choreographers: Mayuresh Vadkar and Vrushali Chavan; with dancing contestants: Jeetumoni Kalita, Vatsal Vithlani, Ruturaj Mahalim, Vaishnavi Patil, Atul Banmoria, Anurag Sarmah and Khyati Patel. The team fell just short of victory but thoroughly celebrated their time on the show all the same.

text: Dance Ka Tashan[edit]

text: DID Dance Ka Tashan featured contestants from Dance India Dance Super Moms competing against contestants from Dance India Dance L'il Masters 2. The show aired in November 2013 and was judged by choreographer Ahmed Khan and Geeta Kapoor and hosted by TV actor Rithvik Dhanjani and India's Best Dramebaaz, Nihar. The show was won by Team Todu, the DID L'il Masters Season 2 contestants, Faisal, Soumya, Rohan, Om, Shalini, Deep, Tanay, Jeet and Shreya.

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ DID changed style of the regular logo for season 6.
Jump up ^ Grand Master Mithun Da is the permanent head judge of DID.
Jump up ^ Master Marzi stands on table to showing respect for a perfect performance.
Jump up ^ Master Mini's full speech is Tod diya, phod diya, marod diya aur sabko peechey chhod diya.
^ Jump up to: a b There were 4 finalists in season 1, season 2 & season 4
Jump up ^ There was no female host in season 5. Jay Bhanushali hosted alone that season.


document_title: Morse code

question_text: what letter in morse code is four dots

question_tokens: what letter in morse code is four dots

text: Morse code

text: Development and history

text: Beginning in 1836, the American artist Samuel F. B. Morse, the American physicist Joseph Henry, and Alfred Vail developed an electrical telegraph system. This system sent pulses of electric current along wires which controlled an electromagnet that was located at the receiving end of the telegraph system. A code was needed to transmit natural language using only these pulses, and the silence between them. Around 1837, Morse, therefore, developed an early forerunner to the modern International Morse code. Around the same time, Carl Friedrich Gauss and Wilhelm Eduard Weber (1833) as well as Carl August von Steinheil (1837) had already used codes with varying word lengths for their telegraphs. Since around 1800, European experimenters had been making progress with earlier battery-powered signaling systems in emitting oxygen and hydrogen bubbles through liquid, flipping magnetic semaphore flags, tripping alarms across long distances over wire, and other techniques. The numerous ingenious experimental encoding designs they devised and demonstrated were telegraphic precursors to practical applications.[2]

text: In 1837, William Cooke and Charles Wheatstone in England began using an electrical telegraph that also used electromagnets in its receivers. However, in contrast with any system of making sounds of clicks, their system used pointing needles that rotated above alphabetical charts to indicate the letters that were being sent. In 1841, Cooke and Wheatstone built a telegraph that printed the letters from a wheel of typefaces struck by a hammer. This machine was based on their 1840 telegraph and worked well; however, they failed to find customers for this system and only two examples were ever built.[3]

text: On the other hand, the three Americans' system for telegraphy, which was first used in about 1844, was designed to make indentations on a paper tape when electric currents were received. Morse's original telegraph receiver used a mechanical clockwork to move a paper tape. When an electrical current was received, an electromagnet engaged an armature that pushed a stylus onto the moving paper tape, making an indentation on the tape. When the current was interrupted, a spring retracted the stylus, and that portion of the moving tape remained unmarked.

text: The Morse code was developed so that operators could translate the indentations marked on the paper tape into text messages. In his earliest code, Morse had planned to transmit only numerals, and to use a codebook to look up each word according to the number which had been sent. However, the code was soon expanded by Alfred Vail in 1840 to include letters and special characters, so it could be used more generally. Vail estimated the frequency of use of letters in the English language by counting the movable type he found in the type-cases of a local newspaper in Morristown.[4]  The shorter marks were called "dots", and the longer ones "dashes", and the letters most commonly used were assigned the shorter sequences of dots and dashes. This code was used since 1844 and became known as Morse landline code or American Morse code.

text: In the original Morse telegraphs, the receiver's armature made a clicking noise as it moved in and out of position to mark the paper tape. The telegraph operators soon learned that they could translate the clicks directly into dots and dashes, and write these down by hand, thus making the paper tape unnecessary. When Morse code was adapted to radio communication, the dots and dashes were sent as short and long tone pulses. It was later found that people become more proficient at receiving Morse code when it is taught as a language that is heard, instead of one read from a page.[5]

text: To reflect the sounds of Morse code receivers, the operators began to vocalize a dot as "dit", and a dash as "dah". Dots which are not the final element of a character became vocalized as "di". For example, the letter "c" was then vocalized as "dah-di-dah-dit".[6][7] Morse code was sometimes facetiously known as "iddy-umpty", and a dash as "umpty", leading to the word "umpteen".[8]

text: The Morse code, as it is used internationally today, was derived from a much refined proposal which became known as "Hamburg alphabet" by Friedrich Clemens Gerke in 1848. It was adopted by the Deutsch-Österreichischer Telegraphenverein (German-Austrian Telegraph Society) in 1851. This finally led to the International Morse code in 1865.

text: In the 1890s, Morse code began to be used extensively for early radio communication, before it was possible to transmit voice. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, most high-speed international communication used Morse code on telegraph lines, undersea cables and radio circuits. In aviation, Morse code in radio systems started to be used on a regular basis in the 1920s. Although previous transmitters were bulky and the spark gap system of transmission was difficult to use, there had been some earlier attempts. In 1910, the US Navy experimented with sending Morse from an airplane.[9] That same year, a radio on the airship America had been instrumental in coordinating the rescue of its crew.[10] Zeppelin airships equipped with radio were used for bombing and naval scouting during World War I,[11] and ground-based radio direction finders were used for airship navigation.[11] Allied airships and military aircraft also made some use of radiotelegraphy. However, there was little aeronautical radio in general use during World War I, and in the 1920s, there was no radio system used by such important flights as that of Charles Lindbergh from New York to Paris in 1927. Once he and the Spirit of St. Louis were off the ground, Lindbergh was truly alone and incommunicado. On the other hand, when the first airplane flight was made from California to Australia in 1928 on the Southern Cross, one of its four crewmen was its radio operator who communicated with ground stations via radio telegraph.

text: Beginning in the 1930s, both civilian and military pilots were required to be able to use Morse code, both for use with early communications systems and for identification of navigational beacons which transmitted continuous two- or three-letter identifiers in Morse code. Aeronautical charts show the identifier of each navigational aid next to its location on the map.

text: Radiotelegraphy using Morse code was vital during World War II, especially in carrying messages between the warships and the naval bases of the belligerents. Long-range ship-to-ship communication was by radio telegraphy, using encrypted messages because the voice radio systems on ships then were quite limited in both their range and their security. Radiotelegraphy was also extensively used by warplanes, especially by long-range patrol planes that were sent out by those navies to scout for enemy warships, cargo ships, and troop ships.

text: In addition, rapidly moving armies in the field could not have fought effectively without radiotelegraphy because they moved more rapidly than telegraph and telephone lines could be erected. This was seen especially in the blitzkrieg offensives of the Nazi German Wehrmacht in Poland, Belgium, France (in 1940), the Soviet Union, and in North Africa; by the British Army in North Africa, Italy, and the Netherlands; and by the U.S. Army in France and Belgium (in 1944), and in southern Germany in 1945.

text: Morse code was used as an international standard for maritime distress until 1999 when it was replaced by the Global Maritime Distress Safety System. When the French Navy ceased using Morse code on January 31, 1997, the final message transmitted was "Calling all. This is our last cry before our eternal silence."[12] In the United States the final commercial Morse code transmission was on July 12, 1999, signing off with Samuel Morse's original 1844 message, "What hath God wrought", and the prosign "SK".[13]

text: As of 2015, the United States Air Force still trains ten people a year in Morse.[14]  The United States Coast Guard has ceased all use of Morse code on the radio, and no longer monitors any radio frequencies for Morse code transmissions, including the international medium frequency (MF) distress frequency of 500 kHz.[15] However, the Federal Communications Commission still grants commercial radiotelegraph operator licenses to applicants who pass its code and written tests.[16] Licensees have reactivated the old California coastal Morse station KPH and regularly transmit from the site under either this Call sign or as KSM. Similarly, a few US Museum ship stations are operated by Morse enthusiasts.[17]

text: User proficiency

text: Morse code speed is measured in words per minute (wpm) or characters per minute (cpm). Characters have differing lengths because they contain differing numbers of dots and dashes.  Consequently, words also have different lengths in terms of dot duration, even when they contain the same number of characters.  For this reason, a standard word is helpful to measure operator transmission speed. "PARIS" and "CODEX" are two such standard words.[18] Operators skilled in Morse code can often understand ("copy") code in their heads at rates in excess of 40 wpm.

text: In addition to knowing, understanding, and being able to copy the standard written alpha-numeric and punctuation characters or symbols at high speeds, skilled high speed operators must also be fully knowledgeable of all of the special unwritten Morse code symbols for the standard Prosigns for Morse code and the meanings of these special procedural signals in standard Morse code communications protocol.

text: International contests in code copying are still occasionally held. In July 1939 at a contest in Asheville, North Carolina in the United States Ted R. McElroy set a still-standing record for Morse copying, 75.2 wpm.[19] William Pierpont N0HFF also notes that some operators may have passed 100 wpm.[19] By this time, they are "hearing" phrases and sentences rather than words. The fastest speed ever sent by a straight key was achieved in 1942 by Harry Turner W9YZE (d. 1992) who reached 35 wpm in a demonstration at a U.S. Army base.  To accurately compare code copying speed records of different eras it is useful to keep in mind that different standard words (50 dot durations versus 60 dot durations) and different interword gaps (5 dot durations versus 7 dot durations) may have been used when determining such speed records.  For example, speeds run with the CODEX standard word and the PARIS standard may differ by up to 20%.

text: Today among amateur operators there are several organizations that recognize high-speed code ability, one group consisting of those who can copy Morse at 60 wpm.[20]  Also, Certificates of Code Proficiency are issued by several amateur radio societies, including the American Radio Relay League.  Their basic award starts at 10 wpm with endorsements as high as 40 wpm, and are available to anyone who can copy the transmitted text.  Members of the Boy Scouts of America may put a Morse interpreter's strip on their uniforms if they meet the standards for translating code at 5 wpm.

text: International Morse Code

text: Morse code has been in use for more than 160 years—longer than any other electrical coding system. What is called Morse code today is actually somewhat different from what was originally developed by Vail and Morse. The Modern International Morse code, or continental code, was created by Friedrich Clemens Gerke in 1848 and initially used for telegraphy between Hamburg and Cuxhaven in Germany. Gerke changed nearly half of the alphabet and all of the numerals, providing the foundation for the modern form of the code. After some minor changes, International Morse Code was standardized at the International Telegraphy Congress in 1865 in Paris and was later made the standard by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). Morse's original code specification, largely limited to use in the United States and Canada, became known as American Morse code or railroad code. American Morse code is now seldom used except in historical re-enactments.

text: Aviation

text: In aviation, pilots use radio navigation aids. To ensure that the stations the pilots are using are serviceable, the stations transmit a  set of identification letters (usually a two-to-five-letter version of the station name) in Morse code. Station identification letters are shown on air navigation charts. For example, the VOR-DME based at Vilo Acuña Airport in Cayo Largo del Sur, Cuba is coded as "UCL", and UCL in Morse code is transmitted on its radio frequency. In some countries, during periods of maintenance, the facility may radiate a T-E-S-T code (▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄)  or the code may be removed which tells pilots and navigators that the station is unreliable.  In Canada, the identification is removed entirely to signify the navigation aid is not to be used.[21][22]  In the aviation service, Morse is typically sent at a very slow speed of about 5 words per minute.  In the U.S., pilots do not actually have to know Morse to identify the transmitter because the dot/dash sequence is written out next to the transmitter's symbol on aeronautical charts.  Some modern navigation receivers automatically translate the code into displayed letters.

text: Amateur radio

text: International Morse code today is most popular among amateur radio operators, in the mode commonly referred to as "continuous wave" or "CW". (This name was chosen to distinguish it from the damped wave emissions from spark transmitters, not because the transmission is continuous.) Other keying methods are available in radio telegraphy, such as frequency shift keying.

text: The original amateur radio operators used Morse code exclusively since voice-capable radio transmitters did not become commonly available until around 1920. Until 2003, the International Telecommunication Union mandated Morse code proficiency as part of the amateur radio licensing procedure worldwide. However, the World Radiocommunication Conference of 2003 made the Morse code requirement for amateur radio licensing optional.[24] Many countries subsequently removed the Morse requirement from their licence requirements.[25]

text: Until 1991, a demonstration of the ability to send and receive Morse code at a minimum of five words per minute (wpm) was required to receive an amateur radio license for use in the United States from the Federal Communications Commission. Demonstration of this ability was still required for the privilege to use the HF bands. Until 2000, proficiency at the 20 wpm level was required to receive the highest level of amateur license (Amateur Extra Class); effective April 15, 2000, the FCC reduced the Extra Class requirement to five wpm.[26] Finally, effective on February 23, 2007, the FCC eliminated the Morse code proficiency requirements from all amateur radio licenses.

text: While voice and data transmissions are limited to specific amateur radio bands under U.S. rules, Morse code is permitted on all amateur bands—LF, MF, HF, VHF, and UHF. In some countries, certain portions of the amateur radio bands are reserved for transmission of Morse code signals only.

text: The relatively limited speed at which Morse code can be sent led to the development of an extensive number of abbreviations to speed communication. These include prosigns, Q codes, and a set of Morse code abbreviations for typical message components. For example, CQ is broadcast to be interpreted as "seek you" (I'd like to converse with anyone who can hear my signal). OM (old man), YL (young lady) and XYL ("ex-YL" – wife) are common abbreviations. YL or OM is used by an operator when referring to the other operator, XYL or OM is used by an operator when referring to his or her spouse. QTH is "location" ("My QTH" is "My location"). The use of abbreviations for common terms permits conversation even when the operators speak different languages.

text: Although the traditional telegraph key (straight key) is still used by some amateurs, the use of mechanical semi-automatic keyers (known as "bugs") and of fully automatic electronic keyers is prevalent today. Software is also frequently employed to produce and decode Morse code radio signals.

text: Many amateur radio repeaters identify with Morse, even though they are used for voice communications.

text: Other uses

text: Through May 2013, the First, Second, and Third Class (commercial) Radiotelegraph Licenses using code tests based upon the CODEX standard word were still being issued in the United States by the Federal Communications Commission.  The First Class license required 20 WPM code group and 25 WPM text code proficiency, the others 16 WPM code group test (five letter blocks sent as simulation of receiving encrypted text) and 20 WPM code text (plain language) test.  It was also necessary to pass written tests on operating practice and electronics theory.  A unique additional demand for the First Class was a requirement of a year of experience for operators of shipboard and coast stations using Morse.  This allowed the holder to be chief operator on board a passenger ship.  However, since 1999 the use of satellite and very high-frequency maritime communications systems (GMDSS) has made them obsolete.  (By that point meeting experience requirement for the First was very difficult.)  Currently, only one class of license, the Radiotelegraph Operator License, is issued.  This is granted either when the tests are passed or as the Second and First are renewed and become this lifetime license.  For new applicants, it requires passing a written examination on electronic theory and radiotelegraphy practices, as well as 16 WPM codegroup and 20 WPM text tests.  However, the code exams are currently waived for holders of Amateur Extra Class licenses who obtained their operating privileges under the old 20 WPM test requirement.

text: Radio navigation aids such as VORs and NDBs for aeronautical use broadcast identifying information in the form of Morse Code, though many VOR stations now also provide voice identification.[27] Warships, including those of the U.S. Navy, have long used signal lamps to exchange messages in Morse code. Modern use continues, in part, as a way to communicate while maintaining radio silence.

text: ATIS (Automatic Transmitter Identification System) uses Morse code to identify uplink sources of analog satellite transmissions.

text: Applications for the general public

text: An important application is signalling for help through SOS, "▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄". This can be sent many ways: keying a radio on and off, flashing a mirror, toggling a flashlight, and similar methods.  SOS is not three separate characters, rather, it is a prosign SOS, and is keyed without gaps between characters.[28]

text: Some Nokia mobile phones offer an option to alert the user of an incoming text message with the Morse tone "▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄" (representing SMS or Short Message Service).[29]  In addition, applications are now available for mobile phones that enable short messages to be input in Morse Code.[30]

text: Morse code as an assistive technology

text: Morse code has been employed as an assistive technology, helping people with a variety of disabilities to communicate. Morse can be sent by persons with severe motion disabilities, as long as they have some minimal motor control. An original solution to the problem that caretakers have to learn to decode has been an electronic typewriter with the codes written on the keys. Codes were sung by users; see the voice typewriter employing morse or votem, Newell and Nabarro, 1968.

text: Morse code can also be translated by computer and used in a speaking communication aid. In some cases, this means alternately blowing into and sucking on a plastic tube ("sip-and-puff" interface). An important advantage of Morse code over row column scanning is that once learned, it does not require looking at a display. Also, it appears faster than scanning.

text: In one case reported in the radio amateur magazine QST,[31] an old shipboard radio operator who had a stroke and lost the ability to speak or write could communicate with his physician (a radio amateur) by blinking his eyes in Morse. Two examples of communication in intensive care units were also published in QST, [32][33]  Another example occurred in 1966 when prisoner of war Jeremiah Denton, brought on television by his North Vietnamese captors, Morse-blinked the word TORTURE. In these two cases, interpreters were available to understand those series of eye-blinks.

text: Representation, timing, and speeds

text:
A sample Morse code transmission

The text "Welcome to Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia that anyone can edit." sent as Morse code at 13 wpm.
Problems playing this file? See media help.

text:
Morse code A through Z

"A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z" in Morse code at 8 wpm.
Problems playing this file? See media help.

text: This section includes inline links to audio files. If you have trouble playing the files, see Wikipedia Media help.

text: International Morse code is composed of five elements:[1]

text:
short mark, dot or "dit" (▄▄▄▄): "dot duration" is one time unit long
longer mark, dash or "dah" (▄▄▄▄▄▄): three time units long
inter-element gap between the dots and dashes within a character: one dot duration or one unit long
short gap (between letters): three time units long
medium gap (between words): seven time units long

text: Transmission

text: Morse code can be transmitted in a number of ways: originally as electrical pulses along a telegraph wire, but also as an audio tone, a radio signal with short and long tones, or as a mechanical, audible, or visual signal (e.g. a flashing light) using devices like an Aldis lamp or a heliograph, a common flashlight, or even a car horn.  Some mine rescues have used pulling on a rope - a short pull for a dot and a long pull for a dash.

text: Morse code is transmitted using just two states (on and off). Historians have called it the first digital code. Morse code may be represented as a binary code, and that is what telegraph operators do when transmitting messages. Working from the above ITU definition and further defining a bit as a dot time, a Morse code sequence may be made from a combination of the following five-bit strings:

text:
short mark, dot or "dit" (▄▄▄▄): 1
longer mark, dash or "dah" (▄▄▄▄▄▄): 111
intra-character gap (between the dots and dashes within a character): 0
short gap (between letters): 000
medium gap (between words): 0000000

text: Note that the marks and gaps alternate: dots and dashes are always separated by one of the gaps, and that the gaps are always separated by a dot or a dash.

text: Morse messages are generally transmitted by a hand-operated device such as a telegraph key, so there are variations introduced by the skill of the sender and receiver — more experienced operators can send and receive at faster speeds. In addition, individual operators differ slightly, for example, using slightly longer or shorter dashes or gaps, perhaps only for particular characters. This is called their "fist", and experienced operators can recognize specific individuals by it alone.  A good operator who sends clearly and is easy to copy is said to have a "good fist".  A "poor fist" is a characteristic of sloppy or hard to copy Morse code.

text: Cable code

text: The very long time constants of 19th and early 20th century submarine communications cables required a different form of Morse signalling. Instead of keying a voltage on and off for varying times, the dits and dahs were represented by two polarities of voltage impressed on the cable, for a uniform time.[34]

text: Timing

text: Below is an illustration of timing conventions. The phrase "MORSE CODE", in Morse code format, would normally be written something like this, where – represents dahs and · represents dits:

text: Next is the exact conventional timing for this phrase, with = representing "signal on", and . representing "signal off", each for the time length of exactly one dit:

text: Spoken representation

text: Morse code is often spoken or written with "dah" for dashes, "dit" for dots located at the end of a character, and "di" for dots located at the beginning or internally within the character. Thus, the following Morse code sequence:

text: is orally:

text: Dah-dah       dah-dah-dah       di-dah-dit       di-di-dit dit,       Dah-di-dah-dit       dah-dah-dah       dah-di-dit dit.

text: There is little point in learning to read written Morse as above; rather, the sounds of all of the letters and symbols need to be learned, for both sending and receiving.

text: Speed in words per minute

text: All Morse code elements depend on the dot length. A dash is the length of 3 dots, and spacings are specified in number of dot lengths. An unambiguous method of specifying the transmission speed is to specify the dot duration as, for example, 50 milliseconds.

text: Specifying the dot duration is, however, not the common practice. Usually, speeds are stated in words per minute. That introduces ambiguity because words have different numbers of characters, and characters have different dot lengths.  It is not immediately clear how a specific word rate determines the dot duration in milliseconds.

text: Some method to standardize the transformation of a word rate to a dot duration is useful.  A simple way to do this is to choose a dot duration that would send a typical word the desired number of times in one minute.  If, for example, the operator wanted a character speed of 13 words per minute, the operator would choose a dot rate that would send the typical word 13 times in exactly one minute.

text: The typical word thus determines the dot length.  It is common to assume that a word is 5 characters long.  There are two common typical words: "PARIS" and "CODEX".  PARIS mimics a word rate that is typical of natural language words and reflects the benefits of Morse code's shorter code durations for common characters such as "e" and "t".  CODEX offers a word rate that is typical of 5-letter code groups (sequences of random letters). Using the word PARIS as a standard, the number of dot units is 50 and a simple calculation shows that the dot length at 20 words per minute is 60 milliseconds.  Using the word CODEX with 60 dot units, the dot length at 20 words per minute is 50 milliseconds.

text: Because Morse code is usually sent by hand, it is unlikely that an operator could be that precise with the dot length, and the individual characteristics and preferences of the operators usually override the standards.

text: For commercial radiotelegraph licenses in the United States, the Federal Communications Commission specifies tests for Morse code proficiency in words per minute and in code groups per minute.[35] The Commission specifies that a word is 5 characters long.  The Commission specifies Morse code test elements at 16 code groups per minute, 20 words per minute, 20 code groups per minute, and 25 words per minute.[36] The word per minute rate would be close to the PARIS standard, and the code groups per minute would be close to the CODEX standard.

text: While the Federal Communications Commission no longer requires Morse code for amateur radio licenses, the old requirements were similar to the requirements for commercial radiotelegraph licenses.[37]

text: A difference between amateur radio licenses and commercial radiotelegraph licenses is that commercial operators must be able to receive code groups of random characters along with plain language text.  For each class of license, the code group speed requirement is slower than the plain language text requirement. For example, for the Radiotelegraph Operator License, the examinee must pass a 20 word per minute plain text test and a 16 word per minute code group test.[16]

text: Based upon a 50 dot duration standard word such as PARIS, the time for one dot duration or one unit can be computed by the formula:

text: Where: T is the unit time, or dot duration in milliseconds, and W is the speed in wpm.

text: High-speed telegraphy contests are held; according to the Guinness Book of Records in June 2005 at the International Amateur Radio Union's 6th World Championship in High Speed Telegraphy in Primorsko, Bulgaria, Andrei Bindasov of Belarus transmitted 230 morse code marks of mixed text in one minute.[38]

text: Farnsworth speed

text: Sometimes, especially while teaching Morse code, the timing rules above are changed so two different speeds are used: a character speed and a text speed. The character speed is how fast each individual letter is sent.  The text speed is how fast the entire message is sent.  For example, individual characters may be sent at a 13 words-per-minute rate, but the intercharacter and interword gaps may be lengthened so the word rate is only 5 words per minute.

text: Using different character and text speeds is, in fact, a common practice, and is used in the Farnsworth method of learning Morse code.

text: Alternative display of common characters in International Morse code

text: Some methods of teaching Morse code use a dichotomic search table.

text: Link budget issues

text: Morse Code cannot be treated as a classical radioteletype (RTTY) signal when it comes to calculating a link margin or a link budget for the simple reason of it possessing variable length dots and dashes as well as variant timing between letters and words. For the purposes of Information Theory and Channel Coding comparisons, the word PARIS is used to determine Morse Code's properties because it has an even number of dots and dashes.

text: Morse Code, when transmitted essentially, creates an AM signal (even in on/off keying mode), assumptions about signal can be made with respect to similarly timed RTTY signalling. Because Morse code transmissions employ an on-off keyed radio signal, it requires less complex transmission equipment than other forms of radio communication.

text: Morse code also requires less signal bandwidth than voice communication, typically 100–150 Hz, compared to the roughly 2400 Hz used by single-sideband voice, although at a lower data rate.

text: Morse code is usually heard at the receiver as a medium-pitched on/off audio tone (600–1000 Hz), so transmissions are easier to copy than voice through the noise on congested frequencies, and it can be used in very high noise / low signal environments. The transmitted power is concentrated into a limited bandwidth so narrow receiver filters can be used to suppress interference from adjacent frequencies. The audio tone is usually created by use of a beat frequency oscillator.

text: The narrow signal bandwidth also takes advantage of the natural aural selectivity of the human brain, further enhancing weak signal readability. This efficiency makes CW extremely useful for DX (distance) transmissions, as well as for low-power transmissions (commonly called "QRP operation", from the Q-code for "reduce power").

text: The ARRL has a readability standard for robot encoders called ARRL Farnsworth Spacing[39] that is supposed to have higher readability for both robot and human decoders. Some programs like WinMorse[40] have implemented the standard.

text: Learning methods

text: People learning Morse code using the Farnsworth method are taught to send and receive letters and other symbols at their full target speed, that is with normal relative timing of the dots, dashes, and spaces within each symbol for that speed. The Farnsworth method is named for Donald R. "Russ" Farnsworth, also known by his call sign, W6TTB. However, initially exaggerated spaces between symbols and words are used, to give "thinking time" to make the sound "shape" of the letters and symbols easier to learn. The spacing can then be reduced with practice and familiarity.

text: Another popular teaching method is the Koch method, named after German psychologist Ludwig Koch, which uses the full target speed from the outset but begins with just two characters. Once strings containing those two characters can be copied with 90% accuracy, an additional character is added, and so on until the full character set is mastered.

text: In North America, many thousands of individuals have increased their code recognition speed (after initial memorization of the characters) by listening to the regularly scheduled code practice transmissions broadcast by W1AW, the American Radio Relay League's headquarters station.[citation needed]

text: Mnemonics

text: Visual mnemonic charts have been devised over the ages. Baden-Powell included one in the Girl Guides handbook[41] in 1918.

text: In the United Kingdom, many people learned the Morse code by means of a series of words or phrases that have the same rhythm as a Morse character. For instance, "Q" in Morse is dah-dah-di-dah, which can be memorized by the phrase "God save the Queen", and the Morse for "F" is di-di-dah-dit, which can be memorized as "Did she like it."

text: A well-known Morse code rhythm from the Second World War period derives from Beethoven's Fifth Symphony, the opening phrase of which was regularly played at the beginning of BBC broadcasts. The timing of the notes corresponds to the Morse for "V", di-di-di-dah, understood as "V for Victory" (as well as the Roman numeral for the number five).[42][43]

text: Letters, numbers, punctuation, prosigns for Morse code and non-English variants

text:
Category
Character
Code

Letters
A, a

▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄

Letters
B, b

▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄

Letters
C, c

− · − ·

Letters
D, d

 − · ·

Letters
E, e

 ·

Letters
F, f

· · − ·

Letters
G, g

− − ·

Letters
H, h

· · · ·

Letters
I, i

· ·

Letters
J, j

· − − −

Letters
K, kProsign for "Invitation to transmit"

− · −

Letters
L, l

· − · ·

Letters
M, m

− −

Letters
N, n

− ·

Letters
O, o

− − −

Letters
P, p

 · − − ·

Letters
Q, q

 − − · −

Letters
R, r

 · − ·

Letters
S, s

 · · ·

Letters
T, t

 −

Letters
U, u

 · · −

Letters
V, v

 · · · −

Letters
W, w

 · − −

Letters
X, x

 − · · −

Letters
Y, y

 − · − −

Letters
Z, z

 − − · ·

Numbers
0

 − − − − −

Numbers
1

· − − − −

Numbers
2

· · − − −

Numbers
3

· · · − −

Numbers
4

· · · · −

Numbers
5

· · · · ·

Numbers
6

− · · · ·

Numbers
7

− − · · ·

Numbers
8

− − − · ·

Numbers
9

− − − − ·

Punctuation
Period [.]

· − · − · −

Punctuation
Comma [,]

− − · · − −

Punctuation
Question Mark [?]

· · − − · ·

Punctuation
Apostrophe [']

· − − − − ·

Punctuation
Exclamation Point [!] KW digraph Not in ITU-R recommendation

− · − · − −

Punctuation
Slash/Fraction Bar [/]

 − · · − ·

Punctuation
 Parenthesis (Open)

− · − − ·

Punctuation
 Parenthesis (Close)

− · − − · −

Punctuation
 Ampersand (or "Wait") [&] AS digraphProsign for "WAIT"

· − · · ·

Punctuation
 Colon [:]

− − − · · ·

Punctuation
 Semicolon [;]   Not in ITU-R ITU-R M.1172 or ITU-R M.1677-1

− · − · − ·

Punctuation
 Double Dash [=]

− · · · −

Punctuation
 Plus sign [+]

· − · − ·

Punctuation
Hyphen,  Minus Sign [-]

− · · · · −

Punctuation
Underscore [_]  Not in ITU-R ITU-R M.1172 or ITU-R M.1677-1

· · − − · −

Punctuation
Quotation mark ["]

· − · · − ·

Punctuation
Dollar sign [$]  SX digraph Not in ITU-R ITU-R M.1172 or ITU-R M.1677-1

· · · − · · −

Punctuation
At Sign [@]   AC digraph

· − − · − ·

Prosigns
End of work

· · · − · −

Prosigns
Error

· · · · · · · ·

Prosigns
Invitation to Transmit  Also used for K

− · −

Prosigns
Starting Signal

− · − · −

Prosigns
New Page Signal  AR digraphMessage separatorSingle-line display may use printed "+"

· − · − ·

Prosigns
Understood  Also used for Ŝ

· · · − ·

Prosigns
Wait  also used for Ampersand [&]

· − · · ·

Non-English extensions
À, à  Shared by À, Å

· − − · −

Non-English extensions
Ä, ä  Shared by Ä, Æ, Ą

· − · −

Non-English Extensions
Å, å  Shared by À, Å

· − − · −

Non-English extensions
Ą, ą  Shared by Ä, Æ, Ą

· − · −

Non-English extensions
Æ, æ  Shared by Ä, Æ, Ą

· − · −

Non-English extensions
Ć, ć  Shared by Ć, Ĉ, Ç

− · − · ·

Non-English extensions
Ĉ, ĉ  Shared by Ć, Ĉ, Ç

− · − · ·

Non-English Extensions
Ç, ç  Shared by Ć, Ĉ, Ç

− · − · ·

Non-English extensions
CH, ch  Shared by CH, Ĥ, Š

− − − −

Non-English extensions
Đ, đ  Shared by Đ, É, ĘNot to be confused with Eth (Ð, ð)(É is the only accented character included in ITU-R recommendation)

· · − · ·

Non-English extensions
Ð, ð   Not to be confused with D with stroke (Đ, đ)

· · − − ·

Non-English extensions
É, é  Shared by Đ, É, Ę (É is the only accented character included in ITU-R recommendation)

· · − · ·

Non-English extensions
È, è  Shared by È, Ł

· − · · −

Non-English extensions
Ę, ę  Shared by Đ, É, Ę (É is the only accented character included in ITU-R recommendation)

· · − · ·

Non-English extensions
Ĝ, ĝ

− − · − ·

Non-English extensions
Ĥ, ĥ  Shared by CH, Ĥ, Š

− − − −

Non-English extensions
Ĵ, ĵ

· − − − ·

Non-English extensions
Ł, ł  Shared by È, Ł

· − · · −

Non-English extensions
Ń, ń  Shared by Ń, Ñ

− − · − −

Non-English extensions
Ñ, ñ  Shared by Ń, Ñ

− − · − −

Non-English extensions
Ó, ó  Shared by Ó, Ö, Ø

− − − ·

Non-English extensions
Ö, ö  Shared by Ó, Ö, Ø

− − − ·

Non-English extensions
Ø, ø   Shared by Ó, Ö, Ø

− − − ·

Non-English extensions
Ś, ś

· · · − · · ·

Non-English extensions
Ŝ, ŝ  Prosign for "Understood"

· · · − ·

Non-English extensions
Š, š  Shared by CH, Ĥ, Š

− − − −

Non-English extensions
Þ, þ

· − − · ·

Non-English extensions
Ü, ü  Shared by Ü, Ŭ

· · − −

Non-English extensions
Ŭ, ŭ   Shared by Ü, Ŭ

· · − −

Non-English extensions
Ź, ź

− − · · − ·

Non-English extensions
Ż, ż

− − · · −

text: Prosigns

text: Prosigns for Morse code are special (usually) unwritten procedural signals or symbols that are used to indicate changes in communications protocol status or white space text formatting actions.

text: Symbol representations

text: The symbols !, $ and & are not defined inside the ITU recommendation on Morse code, but conventions for them exist. The @ symbol was formally added in 2004.

text: There is no standard representation for the exclamation mark (!), although the KW digraph (▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄) was proposed in the 1980s by the Heathkit Company (a vendor of assembly kits for amateur radio equipment).

text: While Morse code translation software prefers the Heathkit version, on-air use is not yet universal as some amateur radio operators in North America and the Caribbean continue to prefer the older MN digraph (▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄) carried over from American landline telegraphy code.

text:
The ITU has never codified formal Morse Code representations for currencies as the ISO 4217 Currency Codes are preferred for transmission.
The $ sign code was represented in the Phillips Code, a huge collection of abbreviations used on land line telegraphy, as SX.

text: The representation of the & sign given above, often shown as AS, is also the Morse prosign for wait. In addition, the American landline representation of an ampersand was similar to "ES" (▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄) and hams have carried over this usage as a synonym for "and" (WX HR COLD ES RAINY, "the weather here is cold & rainy").

text:
On May 24, 2004 — the 160th anniversary of the first public Morse telegraph transmission — the Radiocommunication Bureau of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU-R) formally added the @ ("commercial at" or "commat") character to the official Morse character set, using the sequence denoted by the AC digraph (▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄).
This sequence was reportedly chosen to represent "A[T] C[OMMERCIAL]" or a letter "a" inside a swirl represented by a "C".[44] The new character facilitates sending email addresses by Morse code and is notable since it is the first official addition to the Morse set of characters since World War I.

text: Non-Latin extensions

text: For Chinese, Chinese telegraph code is used to map Chinese characters to four-digit codes and send these digits out using standard Morse code. Korean Morse code uses the SKATS mapping, originally developed to allow Korean to be typed on western typewriters. SKATS maps hangul characters to arbitrary letters of the Latin script and has no relationship to pronunciation in Korean. For Russian and Bulgarian, Russian Morse code is used to map the Cyrillic characters to four-element codes. Many of the characters are encoded the same way (A, O, E, I, T, M, N, R, K, etc.). Bulgarian alphabet contains 30 characters, which exactly match all possible combinations of 1, 2, 3, and 4 dots and dashes. Russian requires 1 extra character, "Ы"  which is encoded with 5 elements.

text: Unusual variants

text: During early World War I (1914–1916), Germany briefly experimented with 'dotty' and 'dashy' Morse, in essence adding a dot or a dash at the end of each Morse symbol. Each one was quickly broken by Allied SIGINT, and standard Morse was restored by Spring 1916. Only a small percentage of Western Front (North Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea) traffic was in 'dotty' or 'dashy' Morse during the entire war. In popular culture, this is mostly remembered in the book The Codebreakers by Kahn and in the national archives of the UK and Australia (whose SIGINT operators copied most of this Morse variant). Kahn's cited sources come from the popular press and wireless magazines of the time.[45]

text: Other forms of 'Fractional Morse' or 'Fractionated Morse' have emerged.[46]

text: Decoding software

text: Decoding software for Morse code ranges from software-defined wide-band radio receivers coupled to the Reverse Beacon Network,[47] which decodes signals and detects CQ messages on ham bands, to smartphone applications.[48]