document_title: The Fox and the Hound

question_text: what happens at the end of fox and hound

text: The Fox and the Hound

text: Plot

text: After a young red fox is orphaned, Big Mama the owl, with the help of her friends Dinky the finch and Boomer the woodpecker, arranges for him to be adopted by a kindly farmer named Widow Tweed. Tweed names him Tod, because he reminds her of a toddler. Meanwhile, her neighbor, a hunter named Amos Slade, brings home a young hound puppy named Copper and introduces him to his hunting dog Chief. One day, Tod and Copper meet and become playmates, vowing to remain "friends forever". Slade grows frustrated at Copper for constantly wandering off to play, and places him on a leash. While playing with Copper outside his doghouse, Tod awakens Chief. Slade and Chief chase Tod until they are stopped by Tweed. After an argument, Slade threatens to kill Tod if he trespasses on his farm again. Hunting season comes and Slade takes his dogs into the wilderness for the interim. Meanwhile, Big Mama, Dinky and Boomer attempt to explain to Tod that his friendship with Copper can no longer continue, as they are natural enemies, but Tod naively refuses to believe them, hoping that he and Copper will remain friends forever.

text: As months pass, Tod and Copper both reach adulthood. Copper has become an experienced hunting dog, while Tod has grown up into a handsome fox. On the night of Copper's return, Tod sneaks over to visit him. Copper explains that while he still values Tod as a friend, he is now a hunting dog and things are different. Their conversation awakens Chief, who alerts Slade. In the ensuing chase Copper catches Tod. Against better judgement, Copper lets Tod go and diverts Chief and Slade. Tod tries escaping on a railroad track, but is caught and pursued by Chief as a train suddenly passes by them. Tod ducks under the train, but Chief is struck by the train and falls into a river below, breaking his leg. Angered by this, Copper and Slade blame Tod for the accident and vow vengeance. Tweed, realizing that Tod is no longer safe with her, takes him on a drive and leaves him at a game preserve.

text: Tod's first night alone in the woods proves disastrous, inadvertently trespassing into an irritable old badger's den. Thankfully, a friendly porcupine offers Tod shelter. That same night, Slade and Copper plan revenge on Tod. The next morning, Big Mama finds Tod and introduces him to a female fox named Vixey. Wanting to impress her, Tod tries to catch a fish, but fails due to not having survival skills. Vixey and the other animals laugh at him, but Big Mama straightens the matter by directing Tod to be himself. The two foxes reconcile and Vixey helps Tod adapt to life in the forest.

text: Meanwhile, Slade and Copper trespass into the preserve to hunt Tod. As Tod manages to escape Slade's leghold traps, Copper and Slade pursue both foxes. They hide in their burrow while Slade tries trapping them by setting fire to the other end of the burrow. The foxes narrowly escape without getting burned as Slade and Copper chase them up the top of a hill until they reach a waterfall. There, Slade and Copper close in for the kill, but a large bear suddenly emerges from the bushes and attacks Slade. Slade trips and falls into one of his own traps, dropping his gun slightly out of reach. Copper tries fighting the bear but is no match for it. Not willing to let his old friend die, Tod intervenes and fights off the bear until they both fall down the waterfall.

text: With the bear gone, a bewildered Copper approaches Tod as he lies exhausted near the bank of a waterfall-created lake. When Slade appears, Copper positions himself in front of Tod to prevent Slade from shooting him, refusing to move away. Slade lowers his gun and leaves with Copper. The former friends share one last smile before parting. At home, Tweed nurses Slade back to health while the dogs rest. Copper, before resting, smiles as he remembers the day when he first met Tod. On a hill, Vixey joins Tod as they look down on the homes of Slade and Tweed.

text: Cast

text:
Mickey Rooney as Tod
Kurt Russell as Copper
Pearl Bailey as Big Mama
Jack Albertson as Amos Slade
Sandy Duncan as Vixey
Jeanette Nolan as Widow Tweed
Pat Buttram as Chief
John Fiedler as The Porcupine
John McIntire as The Badger
Dick Bakalyan as Dinky
Paul Winchell as Boomer
Keith Coogan as Young Tod
Corey Feldman as Young Copper

text: Production

text: Development

text: Wolfgang Reitherman read the original novel and found it particularly touching because one of his sons had once owned a pet fox years before. He decided it would make for a good animated feature. Thus the film began production in spring 1977.[4][3] Reitherman, Art Stevens, and Ron Miller quarreled over key sections of the film with Miller supporting the younger Stevens. Miller instructed Reitherman to surrender reins over the junior personnel,[5] but Reitherman resisted due to a lack of trust in the young animators.[6] Thinking the film had a weak second act, Reitherman decided to add a musical sequence of two swooping cranes voiced by Phil Harris and Charo who would sing a silly song titled "Scoobie-Doobie Doobie Doo, Let Your Body Turn Goo". Live-action reference footage was shot of Charo in a sweaty pink leotard, but the scene was strongly disliked by studio personnel who felt the song was a distraction from the main plot with Stevens stating "We can't let that sequence in the movie! It's totally out of place!"[7] Stevens notified studio management and after many story conferences, the scene was removed. Reitherman later walked into Stevens's office, slumped in a chair, and said, "I dunno, Art, maybe this is a young man’s medium." He later moved onto to undeveloped projects such as Catfish Bend and died in a car accident in 1985.[8]

text: Animation

text: By late 1978, Frank Thomas, Ollie Johnston, and Cliff Nordberg had completed their animation. Thomas had animated scenes of Tod and Cooper using dialogue Larry Clemmons had written and recorded with the child actors.[9] This project would mark the last film to have the involvement of the Disney's Nine Old Men who had retired early during production,[10] and animation was turned over the next generation of directors and animators, which included John Lasseter, John Musker, Ron Clements, Glen Keane, Tim Burton, Brad Bird, Henry Selick, Chris Buck, and Mark Dindal, all of whom would finalize the animation and complete the film's production. These animators had moved through the in-house animation training program, and would play an important role in the Disney Renaissance of the 1980s and 1990s.[11]

text: However, the transition between the old guard and the new resulted in arguments over how to handle the film. Reitherman had his own ideas on the designs and layouts that should be used, but the newer team backed Stevens. Animator Don Bluth animated several scenes including of Widow Tweed milking her cow, Abigail, while his team worked on the rest of the sequence, and when Tweed fires at Amos Slade's automobile. Nevertheless, he declared Disney's work "stale" and on his 42nd birthday, September 13, 1979, Bluth, along with Gary Goldman and John Pomeroy, entered Ron Miller's office and turned in their resignation. Following their resignations, thirteen animators followed suit in their resignations. Though Bluth and his team had animated substantial scenes, they asked not to receive screen credit.[10] With 17% of the animators now gone,[3] Miller ordered all of the resigning animators off the studio lot by noon of that same day and would later push the release of The Fox and the Hound from Christmas 1980 to summer 1981. New animators were hired and promoted to fill the ranks. To compensate for the lack of experience of the new animators, much of the quality control would rely upon a corp of veteran assistant animators.[12][13] Four years after production started, the film was finished with approximately 360,000 drawings, 110,000 painted cels and 1,100 painted backgrounds making up the finished product. A total of 180 people, including 24 animators, worked on the film.[3]

text: Writing

text: In an earlier version of the film, Chief was slated to die the same as in the novel. However, the scene was modified to have Chief survive with a cast on his back paw. Animator Ron Clements, who had briefly transitioned into the story department, protested that "Chief has to die. The picture doesn't work if he just breaks his leg. Copper doesn't have motivation to hate the fox." Likewise, younger members of the story team pleaded with Stevens to have Chief killed. Stevens countered that "Geez, we never killed a main character in a Disney film and we're not starting now!" The younger crew members took the problem to upper management who would also back Stevens.[14] Ollie Johnston's test animation of Chief stomping around the house with his leg in a cast was eventually kept, and Randy Cartwright re-animated the scene where Copper finds Chief's body and had him animate Chief's eyes opening and closing so the audience knew that he was not dead.[13]

text: Casting

text: Early into production, the principal characters such as young Tod and Copper, Big Mama, and Amos Slade had already been cast. The supporting characters were cast by Disney voice regulars including Pat Buttram for Chief, Paul Winchell for Boomer, and Mickey Rooney for adult Tod who had just finished filming Pete's Dragon. Jeanette Nolan was the second choice for Widow Tweed after Helen Hayes turned down the part.[15] The last role to be cast was for adult Cooper. Jackie Cooper had auditioned for the role, but left the project when he demanded more money than the studio was willing to pay. While filming the Elvis television movie, former Disney child actor Kurt Russell was cast following a reading that had impressed the filmmakers, and completed his dialogue in two recording sessions.[16]

text: Soundtrack

text:
The Fox and the Hound

Soundtrack album by Various artists

Released
1981

Recorded
1980-1981

Genre
Children's, Classical

Label
Walt Disney

text: The soundtrack album for the film was released in 1981 by Walt Disney Records.[17] It contains songs written by Stan Fidel, Jim Stafford, and Jeffrey Patch.[18]

text: Track listing

text:
No.
Title
Writer(s)
Performer(s)
Length

1.
"Best of Friends"
Stan Fidel
Pearl Bailey

2.
"Lack of Education"
Jim Stafford
Pearl Bailey

3.
"A Huntin' Man"
Jim Stafford
Jack Albertson

4.
"Appreciate the Lady"
Jim Stafford
Pearl Bailey

5.
"Goodbye May Seem Forever"
Jeffrey Patch
Jeanette Nolan and Chorus

text: Release

text: Home media

text: The Fox and the Hound was first released on North American VHS on March 4, 1994 as the last video of the "Walt Disney Classics" collection (it was not included in the "Walt Disney Masterpiece Collection") and in the UK in 1995. On May 2, 2000, it was released to Region 1 DVD for the first time under the "Walt Disney Gold Classic Collection".[19] A 25th anniversary special edition DVD was released on October 10, 2006.[20]

text: The Fox and the Hound was released on Blu-ray Disc on August 9, 2011 to commemorate the film's 30th anniversary. The film was released in a 3-disc Blu-ray/DVD Combo pack alongside its direct-to video followup The Fox and the Hound 2 in a 2-movie Collection Edition. Featuring a new digital restoration, the Blu-ray transfer presents the film for the first time in 1.66:1 widescreen and also features 5.1 DTS-HD Master Audio. The Fox and the Hound 2 is presented in 1.78:1 widescreen and features the same sound as the first film.[21] A DVD-only edition was also released on the same day.[21]

text: Reception

text: Critical reaction

text: In The Animated Movie Guide, Jerry Beck considered the film "average", though he praises the voice work of Pearl Bailey as Big Mama, and the extreme dedication to detail shown by animator Glen Keane in crafting the fight scene between Copper, Tod, and the bear.[22] In The Disney Films, Leonard Maltin also notes that the fight scene between Copper, Tod, and the bear received great praise in the animation world. Maltin felt the film relied too much on "formula cuteness, formula comedy relief, and even formula characterizations".[23] Overall, he considered the film "charming" stating that it is "warm, and brimming with personable characters" and that it "approaches the old Disney magic at times."[24]

text: Craig Butler from All Movie Guide stated that the film was a "warm and amusing, if slightly dull, entry in the Disney animated canon." He also called it "conventional and generally predictable" with problems in pacing. However, he praised the film's climax and animation, as well as the ending. His final remark is that "Two of the directors, Richard Rich and Ted Berman, would next direct The Black Cauldron, a less successful but more ambitious project."[25] Richard Corliss of Time, praised the film for an intelligent story about prejudice. He argued that the film shows that biased attitudes can poison even the deepest relationships, and the film's bittersweet ending delivers a powerful and important moral message to audiences.[26]

text: Roger Ebert of the Chicago Times also praised the film, saying that "for all of its familiar qualities, this movie marks something of a departure for the Disney studio, and its movement is in an interesting direction. The Fox and the Hound is one of those relatively rare Disney animated features that contains a useful lesson for its younger audiences. It's not just cute animals and frightening adventures and a happy ending; it's also a rather thoughtful meditation on how society determines our behavior."[27] TV Guide gave the film four out of five stars, saying that "The animation here is better than average (veteran Disney animators Wolfgang Reitherman and Art Stevens supervised the talents of a new crop of artists that developed during a 10-year program at the studio), though not quite up to the quality of Disney Studios in its heyday. Still, this film has a lot of "heart" and is wonderful entertainment for both kids and their parents. Listen for a number of favorites among the voices."[28]

text: Michael Scheinfeld of Common Sense Media gave the film's quality a rating of 4 out of 5 stars, stating that the film "develops into a thoughtful examination of friendship and includes some mature themes, especially loss."[29]

text: The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported that the film received a 69% approval rating with an average rating of 6.6/10 based on 26 reviews. The website's consensus states that "The Fox and the Hound is a likeable, charming, unassuming effort that manages to transcend its thin, predictable plot".[30]

text: Box office

text: In its original release, The Fox and the Hound grossed $39.9 million in domestic grosses. Its distributor rentals were reported to be $14.2 million while its international rentals grossed $43 million.[31] The film was re-released theatrically on March 25, 1988,[3] where it grossed $23.5 million.[32] The Fox and the Hound has had a lifetime gross of $63.5 million across its original release and reissue.[33]

text: Accolades

text: The film was awarded a Golden Screen Award (German: Goldene Leinwand) in 1982. In the same year, it was also nominated for a Young Artist Award and the Saturn Award for Best Fantasy Film.[34]

text:
Year
Ceremony
Award
Result

1982
10th Saturn Awards[35]
Best Fantasy Film
Nominated

1982 Golden Screen Awards[34]

Won

5th Youth in Film Awards[34][36]
Best Motion Picture - Fantasy or Comedy - Family Enjoyment
Nominated

text: Legacy

text: As well as adaptations of the film itself, comic strips featuring the characters also appeared in stories unconnected to the film. Examples include The Lost Fawn, in which Copper uses his sense of smell to help Tod find a fawn who has gone astray;[37] The Chase, in which Copper must safeguard a sleepwalking Chief;[38] and Feathered Friends, in which the birds Dinky and Boomer have to go to desperate lengths to save one of Widow Tweed's chickens from a wolf.[39]

text: A comic adaptation of the film, drawn by Richard Moore, was published in newspapers as part of Disney's Treasury of Classic Tales.[40] A comic-book titled The Fox and the Hound followed, with new adventures of the characters. Since 1981 and up to 2007, a few Fox and the Hound Disney comics stories were produced in Italy, Netherlands, Brazil, France, and the United States.[41]

text: Followup

text: A direct-to-video followup, The Fox and the Hound 2, was released to DVD on December 12, 2006. The film takes place during the youth of Tod and Copper, before the events of the later half of the first film. The story-line involves Copper being tempted to join a band of singing stray dogs, thus threatening his friendship with Tod. The film was critically panned, with critics calling it a pale imitation of its predecessor.


document_title: Bailee Madison

question_text: what role does bailee madison play in the fosters

root

text: Bailee Madison

text: Life and career[edit]

text: Madison was born in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, the youngest of seven children. She has four brothers and two sisters. Her older sister, Kaitlin Riley, is also an actress. Her mother is Patricia Riley.[1] She began her career when she was two weeks old in an Office Depot commercial. Since then, she has appeared in several national commercials for major companies including Disney, SeaWorld, and Cadillac. She also serves as a national youth spokesperson for the childhood-cancer charity Alex's Lemonade Stand Foundation.[2][3]

tag: p

text: She made her major motion picture debut in the movie Lonely Hearts, in which she plays Rainelle, a girl thrown into the midst of a world of crime. Madison also has a significant role in the Disney movie Bridge to Terabithia, based on the children's book. She plays May Belle Aarons, the younger sister of the lead male character played by Josh Hutcherson. She also appears in the independent film Look as Megan, a girl who is being watched and followed by a kidnapper.

text: Madison had a small role in Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles during the season 1 finale "What He Beheld" as a girl who becomes part of a short-lived hostage situation. In the DVD extras it is said that they thought about changing the role slightly because of its violent nature, but she insisted that they not. Madison appeared in Nickelodeon's made-for-TV movie, The Last Day of Summer. She plays a girl who helps a friend during a difficult time. Another Nickelodeon production she had a role in was the television Christmas special Merry Christmas, Drake & Josh. She played a girl who lived with a foster family.

text: Madison is seen in a featured supporting role in the 2009 film, Brothers as Isabelle Cahill, the older daughter of Captain Sam Cahill (Tobey Maguire) and Grace Cahill (Natalie Portman). For her portrayal in the movie, she was nominated for both a Saturn Award and a BFCA Critics' Choice Award. In 2010, Madison was in the movie Letters to God, where she portrayed Samantha Perryfield, best friend of the lead character who is fighting cancer.

text: She is seen in Conviction playing the younger version of Hilary Swank's character, Betty Anne Waters. She can be seen in the episode "Locum" from Law & Order: Special Victims Unit as Mackenzie Burton, a girl who was adopted and feels like she is only filling the place of her parents' older daughter who was abducted years ago. She appeared in three episodes of the children's horror series, R.L. Stine's The Haunting Hour.

text: In 2011, Madison had a recurring role in the Disney Channel Original Series Wizards Of Waverly Place as Maxine, the girl form of Max Russo. She also appeared in Just Go with It, alongside Adam Sandler and Jennifer Aniston, as Maggie Murphy, a young girl who wants to become an actress. Madison can be seen in the drama film, An Invisible Sign as the younger version of Jessica Alba's character Mona Gray. She starred in her first leading role in the horror film, Don't Be Afraid of the Dark, alongside Katie Holmes and Guy Pearce where she portrayed Sally Hurst, a lonely withdrawn child who is sent to live with her father and his new girlfriend.

text: In 2012, Madison appeared in the Hallmark film A Taste of Romance alongside Teri Polo and James Patrick Stuart. She also had a guest role as the younger version of Ginnifer Goodwin's character Snow White in the TV series Once Upon A Time. She also could be seen as the main character in the film Cowgirls n' Angels where she played the feisty and rebellious Ida Clayton who has fantasies of finding her father, a rodeo rider. Madison appeared in another Hallmark film entitled Smart Cookie as Daisy, an eager girl hoping to prove herself as a Girl Scout. In December, she appeared in the family comedy film Parental Guidance, alongside Billy Crystal and Bette Midler.

text: In 2013, Madison began playing Hillary on the TV sitcom Trophy Wife, replacing Gianna LePera who played the character in the pilot.[4] In 2014, she began playing the recurring role of Sophia Quinn in the ABC Family drama The Fosters. In 2015, she began playing Grace Russell, the daughter of Cassie Nightingale, in the Hallmark series Good Witch.[5]

text: Bailee Madison’s career also includes voice over work (or voice acting) with Breathe Bible. [6]

text: Community involvement[edit]

text: Madison has served as the national youth spokesperson for Alex's Lemonade Stand Foundation since 2010, an organization that encourages kids to fundraise and spread awareness of pediatric cancer by running their own lemonade stands.[7]

text: Filmography[edit]

text: Film[edit]

text:
Year
Title
Role
Notes

2006
Lonely Hearts
Rainelle Downing

2007
Bridge to Terabithia[8]
May Belle Aarons

2007
Look
Megan

2008
Phoebe in Wonderland
Olivia Lichten

2009
Brothers
Isabelle Cahill

2010
An Invisible Sign[9]
Young Mona Gray

2010
Conviction
Young Betty Anne Waters

2010
Letters to God
Samantha Perryfield

2011
Just Go With It
Maggie Murphy (Kiki Dee)

2011
Don't Be Afraid of the Dark
Sally Hurst

2011
25 Hill
Kate Slater
Cameo appearance

2012
Parental Guidance
Harper Simmons

2012
Monica
Monica
Voice role; animated short

2012
Cowgirls 'n Angels
Ida Clayton
[10]

2013
The Magic Bracelet
Ashley
Short film

2016
Annabelle Hooper and the Ghosts of Nantucket
Annabelle Hooper

2016
The Night Before Halloween
Megan

2017
A Cowgirl's Story
Dusty Rhodes
Also producer

2018
Strangers: Prey at Night
Kinsey

tag: table

text: Television[edit]

text:
Year
Title
Role
Notes

2007
CSI: NY
Rose Duncan
Episode: "Boo"

2007
House
Lucy
Episode: "Act Your Age"

2007
Unfabulous
Young Addie Singer
2 episodes

2007
Cory in the House
Maya
2 episodes

2007
Saving Sarah Cain
Hannah Cottrell
Movie

2007
The Last Day of Summer[11]
Maxine
Movie

2008
Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles
Little Girl
Episode: "What He Beheld"

2008
Merry Christmas, Drake & Josh[12]
Mary Alice Johansson
Movie

2010
Law & Order: Special Victims Unit
Mackenzie Burton
Episode: "Locum"

2010
Hubworld
Herself
[13]

2010, 2012
R.L. Stine's The Haunting Hour
Lilly Carbo / Jenny / Becky
4 episodes

2011
Wizards of Waverly Place[14]
Maxine Russo
6 episodes (Season 4)

2011
Chase
Zoe
Episode: "Father Figure"

2011
Powers
Calista
Pilot[15]

2012
A Taste of Romance
Hannah Callahan
Movie

2012
Smart Cookies
Daisy
Movie[7]

2012–13, 2016
Once Upon a Time
Young Snow White
4 episodes

2013
Holliston
Bailee
Episode "Rock the Cradle"

2013
Half
Riley Young
Movie

2013
Pete's Christmas
Katie
Movie

2013–2014
Trophy Wife
Hillary Harrison
Series regular (21 episodes)

2014–present
The Fosters
Sophia Quinn
Recurring in season 2 onward

2014
Northpole
Clementine
Movie

2015–present
Good Witch[16]
Grace Russell
Series regular (30 episodes)

2015
Northpole: Open for Christmas
Clementine
Movie

2015
Mulaney
Ruby
Episode: "Ruby"

2015
Good Witch Halloween
Grace Russell
Hallmark movie

2016
Date with Love
Heidi Watts
Hallmark movie

2016
Holiday Joy
Joy Hockstatter
Movie

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text:
Year
Association
Category
Nominated work
Result
Ref.

2008
Young Artist Awards
Best Performance in a Feature Film Young Actress Age Ten or Younger
Bridge to Terabithia
Won
[17]

Best Performance in a Feature Film – Young Ensemble Cast
Won
[17]

Best Performance in a TV Series Guest Starring Young Actress
House
Nominated
[17]

Best Performance in a TV Movie, Miniseries or Special – Supporting Young Actress
The Last Day of Summer
Won
[17]

Movieguide Awards
Most Inspirational Television Acting
Saving Sarah Cain
Won
[18]

2010
BFCA Critics' Choice Awards
Best Young Actress
Brothers
Nominated
[19]

Saturn Awards
Best Performance by a Younger Actor
Nominated
[20]

2011
Young Artist Awards
Best Performance in a Feature Film (Leading Young Actress Ten and Under)
An Invisible Sign
Nominated
[21]

Youth Rock Awards
Rockin' Child Performer (TV/ Film)
Don't Be Afraid of the Dark
Nominated
[22]

2012
Fangoria Chainsaw Awards
Best Actress
Nominated
[23]

Young Artist Awards
Best Performance in a Feature Film – Supporting Young Actress
Just Go With It
Nominated
[24]

2013
Best Performance in a Feature Film – Young Ensemble Cast
Parental Guidance
Nominated
[25]


document_title: Great Lakes

question_text: how many great lakes are there in ontario

question_tokens: how many great lakes are there in ontario

text: Great Lakes

text: Geography[edit]

text: Though the five lakes lie in separate basins, they form a single, naturally interconnected body of fresh water, within the Great Lakes Basin. They form a chain connecting the east-central interior of North America to the Atlantic Ocean. From the interior to the outlet at the Saint Lawrence River, water flows from Superior to Huron and Michigan, southward to Erie, and finally northward to Lake Ontario. The lakes drain a large watershed via many rivers, and are studded with approximately 35,000 islands.[13] There are also several thousand smaller lakes, often called "inland lakes," within the basin.[14] The surface area of the five primary lakes combined is roughly equal to the size of the United Kingdom, while the surface area of the entire basin (the lakes and the land they drain) is about the size of the UK and France combined.[15] Lake Michigan is the only one of the Great Lakes that is located entirely within the United States; the others form a water boundary between the United States and Canada. The lakes are divided among the jurisdictions of the Canadian province of Ontario and the U.S. states of Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York. Both Ontario and Michigan include in their boundaries portions of four of the lakes: Ontario does not border Lake Michigan, and Michigan does not border Lake Ontario. New York and Wisconsin's jurisdictions extend into two lakes, and each of the remaining states into one of the lakes.

text: Bathymetry[edit]

text:
Lake Erie

Lake Huron

Lake Michigan

Lake Ontario

Lake Superior

Surface area[5]

9,910 sq mi (25,700 km2)

23,000 sq mi (60,000 km2)

22,300 sq mi (58,000 km2)

7,340 sq mi (19,000 km2)

31,700 sq mi (82,000 km2)

Water volume[5]

116 cu mi (480 km3)

850 cu mi (3,500 km3)

1,180 cu mi (4,900 km3)

393 cu mi (1,640 km3)

2,900 cu mi (12,000 km3)

Elevation[16]

571 ft (174 m)

577 ft (176 m)

577 ft (176 m)

246 ft (75 m)

600.0 ft (182.9 m)

Average depth[15]

62 ft (19 m)

195 ft (59 m)

279 ft (85 m)

283 ft (86 m)

483 ft (147 m)

Maximum depth[17]

210 ft (64 m)

748 ft (228 m)

925 ft (282 m)

804 ft (245 m)

1,333 ft (406 m)

Major settlements[18]

Buffalo, NYErie, PACleveland, OHLorain, OHToledo, OHSandusky, OH

Alpena, MIBay City, MIOwen Sound, ONPort Huron, MISarnia, ON

Chicago, ILGary, INGreen Bay, WISheboygan, WIMilwaukee, WIKenosha, WIRacine, WIMuskegon, MITraverse City, MI

Hamilton, ONKingston, ONMississauga, ONOshawa, ONRochester, NYToronto, ON

Duluth, MNMarquette, MISault Ste. Marie, MISault Ste. Marie, ONSuperior, WIThunder Bay, ON

text:
Relative elevations, average depths, maximum depths, and volumes of the Great Lakes.

Notes:

The area of each rectangle is proportionate to the volume of each lake. All measurements at Low Water Datum.

Source:

EPA[16]

text: As the surfaces of Lakes Superior, Huron, Michigan, and Erie are all approximately the same elevation above sea level, while Lake Ontario is significantly lower, and because the Niagara Escarpment precludes all natural navigation, the four upper lakes are commonly called the "upper great lakes". This designation, however, is not universal. Those living on the shore of Lake Superior often refer to all the other lakes as "the lower lakes", because they are farther south. Sailors of bulk freighters transferring cargoes from Lake Superior and northern Lake Michigan and Lake Huron to ports on Lake Erie or Ontario commonly refer to the latter as the lower lakes and Lakes Michigan, Huron, and Superior as the upper lakes. This corresponds to thinking of Lakes Erie and Ontario as "down south" and the others as "up north". Vessels sailing north on Lake Michigan are considered "upbound" even though they are sailing toward its effluent current.[25]

text: Primary connecting waterways[edit]

text:
The Chicago River and Calumet River systems connect the Great Lakes Basin to the Mississippi River System through man-made alterations and canals.
The St. Marys River, including the Soo Locks, connects Lake Superior to Lake Huron.
The Straits of Mackinac connect Lake Michigan to Lake Huron (which are hydrologically one).
The St. Clair River connects Lake Huron to Lake St. Clair.
The Detroit River connects Lake St. Clair to Lake Erie.
The Niagara River, including Niagara Falls, connects Lake Erie to Lake Ontario.
The Welland Canal, bypassing the Falls, connects Lake Erie to Lake Ontario.
The Saint Lawrence River and the Saint Lawrence Seaway connect Lake Ontario to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, which connects to the Atlantic Ocean.

tag: ul

text: Lake Michigan–Huron[edit]

text: Lakes Huron and Michigan are sometimes considered a single lake, called Lake Michigan–Huron, because they are one hydrological body of water connected by the Straits of Mackinac.[26] The straits are 5 miles (8 km) wide[15] and 120 feet (37 m) deep; the water levels – currently at 577 feet (176 m) – rise and fall together,[27] and the flow between Michigan and Huron frequently reverses direction.

text: Other significant bodies of water[edit]

text:
Lake Nipigon, connected to Lake Superior by the Nipigon River, is surrounded by sill-like formations of mafic and ultramafic igneous rock hundreds of meters high. The lake lies in the Nipigon Embayment, a failed arm of the triple junction (centered beneath Lake Superior) in the Midcontinent Rift System event, estimated at 1,109 million years ago.
Green Bay is an arm of Lake Michigan, located along the south coast of the Upper Peninsula of Michigan and the east coast of Wisconsin. It is separated from the rest of the lake by the Door Peninsula in Wisconsin, the Garden Peninsula in Michigan, and the chain of islands between them, all of which were formed by the Niagara Escarpment.
Lake Winnebago, connected to Green Bay by the Fox River, serves as part of the Fox–Wisconsin Waterway and is part of a larger system of lakes in Wisconsin known as the Winnebago Pool.
Grand Traverse Bay is an arm of Lake Michigan located on Michigan's west coast, being one of the largest natural harbors in the Great Lakes. The bay has one large peninsula[28] and one major island known as Power Island. Its name is derived from Jacques Marquette's crossing of the bay from Norwood to Northport which he called La Grande Traversee.[29]
Georgian Bay is an arm of Lake Huron, extending northeast from the lake entirely within Ontario. The bay, along with its narrow westerly extensions of the North Channel and Mississagi Strait, is separated from the rest of the lake by the Bruce Peninsula, Manitoulin Island, and Cockburn Island, all of which were also formed by the Niagara Escarpment.
Lake Nipissing, connected to Georgian Bay by the French River, contains two volcanic pipes, which are the Manitou Islands and Callander Bay.[30] These pipes were formed by a violent, supersonic eruption of deep-origin. The lake lies in the Ottawa-Bonnechere Graben, a Mesozoic rift valley that formed 175 million years ago.
Lake Simcoe, connected to Georgian Bay by the Severn River, serves as part of the Trent–Severn Waterway, a canal route traversing Southern Ontario between Lakes Ontario and Huron.
Lake St. Clair, connected with Lake Huron to its north by the St. Clair River and with Lake Erie to its south by the Detroit River. Although it is 17 times smaller in area than Lake Ontario and only rarely included in the listings of the Great Lakes,[31][32] proposals for its official recognition as a Great Lake are occasionally made, which would affect its inclusion in scientific research projects, etc., designated as related to "The Great Lakes".[33]

text: Islands[edit]

text: Dispersed throughout the Great Lakes are approximately 35,000 islands.[13] The largest among them is Manitoulin Island in Lake Huron, the largest island in any inland body of water in the world.[34] The second-largest island is Isle Royale in Lake Superior.[35] Both of these islands are large enough to contain multiple lakes themselves—for instance, Manitoulin Island's Lake Manitou is the world's largest lake located on a freshwater island.[36] Some of these lakes even have their own islands, like Treasure Island in Lake Mindemoya in Manitoulin Island

text: Peninsulas[edit]

text: The Great Lakes also have several peninsulas between them, including the Door Peninsula the Peninsulas of Michigan and the Ontario Peninsula. Some of these peninsulas even contain smaller peninsulas, like the Keweenaw Peninsula, the Thumb Peninsula, the Bruce Peninsula, and the Niagara Peninsula. Population centers on the peninsulas include Grand Rapids, Michigan, Detroit, Michigan, London, Ontario, Hamilton, Ontario, and Toronto, Ontario.

text: Shipping connection to the ocean[edit]

text: The Saint Lawrence Seaway and Great Lakes Waterway make the Great Lakes accessible to ocean-going vessels.[37] However, shifts in shipping to wider ocean-going container ships—which do not fit through the locks on these routes—have limited container shipping on the lakes. Most Great Lakes trade is of bulk material, and bulk freighters of Seawaymax-size or less can move throughout the entire lakes and out to the Atlantic.[38] Larger ships are confined to working in the lakes themselves. Only barges can access the Illinois Waterway system providing access to the Gulf of Mexico via the Mississippi River. Despite their vast size, large sections of the Great Lakes freeze over in winter, interrupting most shipping from January to March. Some icebreakers ply the lakes, keeping the shipping lanes open through other periods of ice on the lakes.

text: The Great Lakes are also connected by canal to the Gulf of Mexico by way of the Illinois River (from the Chicago River) and the Mississippi River. An alternate track is via the Illinois River (from Chicago), to the Mississippi, up the Ohio, and then through the Tennessee–Tombigbee Waterway (a combination of a series of rivers and lakes and canals), to Mobile Bay and the Gulf. Commercial tug-and-barge traffic on these waterways is heavy.[39]

text: Pleasure boats can also enter or exit the Great Lakes by way of the Erie Canal and Hudson River in New York. The Erie Canal connects to the Great Lakes at the east end of Lake Erie (at Buffalo, New York) and at the south side of Lake Ontario (at Oswego, New York).

text: Water levels[edit]

text: In 2009, the lakes contained 84% of the surface freshwater of North America;[40] if the water were evenly distributed over the entire continent's land area, it would reach a depth of 1.5 meters (5 feet).[15] The source of water levels in the lakes is tied to what was left by melting glaciers when the lakes took their present form. Annually, only about 1% is "new" water originating from rivers, precipitation, and groundwater springs that drain into the lakes. Historically, evaporation has been balanced by drainage, making the level of the lakes constant.[15] While the lake levels have been preserved, intensive human population growth only began in the region in the 20th century and continues today.[15] At least two human water use activities have been identified as having the potential to affect the lakes' levels: diversion (the transfer of water to other watersheds) and consumption (substantially done today by the use of lake water to power and cool electric generation plants, resulting in evaporation).[41]

text: The water level of Lake Michigan–Huron had remained fairly constant over the 20th century,[42] but has nevertheless dropped more than 6 feet from the record high in 1986 to the low of 2013.[43] One newspaper reported that the long-term average level has gone down about 20 inches because of dredging and subsequent erosion in the St. Clair River. Lake Michigan–Huron hit all-time record low levels in 2013; according to the US Army Corps of Engineers, the previous record low had been set in 1964.[43] By April 2015 the water level had recovered to 7 inches (17.5 cm) more than the "long term monthly average".[44]

text: Name origins[edit]

text: Statistics[edit]

text: The Great Lakes contain 21% of the world's surface fresh water: 5,472 cubic miles (22,810 km3), or 6.0×1015 U.S. gallons, that is 6 quadrillion U.S gallons, (2.3×1016 liters). This is enough water to cover the 48 contiguous U.S. states to a uniform depth of 9.5 feet (2.9 m). Although the lakes contain a large percentage of the world's fresh water, the Great Lakes supply only a small portion of U.S. drinking water on a national basis.[51]

text: The total surface area of the lakes is approximately 94,250 square miles (244,100 km2)—nearly the same size as the United Kingdom, and larger than the U.S. states of New York, New Jersey, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Vermont, and New Hampshire combined.[52]

text: The Great Lakes coast measures approximately 10,500 miles (16,900 km);[15] however, the length of a coastline is impossible to measure exactly and is not a well-defined measure (see Coastline paradox). Of the total 10,500 miles (16,900 km) of shoreline, Canada borders approximately 5,200 miles (8,400 km), while the remaining 5,300 miles (8,500 km) are bordered by the United States. Michigan has the longest shoreline of the United States, bordering roughly 3,288 miles (5,292 km) of shoreline, followed by Wisconsin (820 miles (1,320 km)), New York (473 miles (761 km)), and Ohio (312 miles (502 km)).[53] Traversing the shoreline of all the lakes would cover a distance roughly equivalent to travelling half-way around the world at the equator.[15]

text: Geology[edit]

text: It has been estimated that the foundational geology that created the conditions shaping the present day upper Great Lakes was laid from 1.1 to 1.2 billion years ago,[15][54] when two previously fused tectonic plates split apart and created the Midcontinent Rift, which crossed the Great Lakes Tectonic Zone. A valley was formed providing a basin that eventually became modern day Lake Superior. When a second fault line, the Saint Lawrence rift, formed approximately 570 million years ago,[15] the basis for Lakes Ontario and Erie were created, along with what would become the Saint Lawrence River.

text: The Great Lakes are estimated to have been formed at the end of the last glacial period (the Wisconsin glaciation ended 10,000 to 12,000 years ago), when the Laurentide Ice Sheet receded.[11] The retreat of the ice sheet left behind a large amount of meltwater (see Lake Algonquin, Lake Chicago, Glacial Lake Iroquois, and Champlain Sea) that filled up the basins that the glaciers had carved, thus creating the Great Lakes as we know them today.[55] Because of the uneven nature of glacier erosion, some higher hills became Great Lakes islands. The Niagara Escarpment follows the contour of the Great Lakes between New York and Wisconsin. Land below the glaciers "rebounded" as it was uncovered.[56] Since the glaciers covered some areas longer than others, this glacial rebound occurred at different rates.

text: A notable modern phenomenon is the formation of ice volcanoes over the lakes during wintertime. Storm-generated waves carve the lakes' ice sheet and create conical mounds through the eruption of water and slush. The process is only well-documented in the Great Lakes, and has been credited with sparing the southern shorelines from worse rocky erosion.[57]

text: Climate[edit]

text:
The Great Lakes have a humid continental climate,
Köppen climate classification Dfa (in southern areas) and Dfb (in northern parts)[58] with varying influences from air masses from other regions including dry, cold Arctic systems, mild Pacific air masses from the West, and warm, wet tropical systems from the south and the Gulf of Mexico.[59] The lakes themselves also have a moderating effect on the climate; they can also increase precipitation totals and produce lake effect snowfall.[58]

text: Lake effect[edit]

text: The most well-known winter effect of the Great Lakes on regional weather is the lake effect in snowfall, which is sometimes very localized. Even late in winter, the lakes often have no icepack in the middle. The prevailing winds from the west pick up the air and moisture from the lake surface, which is slightly warmer in relation to the cold surface winds above. As the slightly warmer, moist air passes over the colder land surface, the moisture often produces concentrated, heavy snowfall that sets up in bands or "streamers". This is similar to the effect of warmer air dropping snow as it passes over mountain ranges. During freezing weather with high winds, the "snow belts" receive regular snow fall from this localized weather pattern, especially along the eastern shores of the lakes. Snow belts are found in Wisconsin, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York, United States; and Ontario, Canada.

text: The lakes also moderate seasonal temperatures to some degree, but not with as large an influence as do large oceans; they absorb heat and cool the air in summer, then slowly radiate that heat in autumn. They protect against frost during transitional weather, and keep the summertime temperatures cooler than further inland. This effect can be very localized and overridden by offshore wind patterns. This temperature buffering produces areas known as "fruit belts", where fruit can be produced that is typically grown much farther south. For instance, Western Michigan has apple and cherry orchards, and vineyards cultivated adjacent to the lake shore as far north as the Grand Traverse Bay and Nottawasaga Bay in central Ontario. The eastern shore of Lake Michigan and the southern shore of Lake Erie have many successful wineries because of the moderating effect, as does the Niagara Peninsula between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. A similar phenomenon allows wineries to flourish in the Finger Lakes region of New York, as well as in Prince Edward County, Ontario on Lake Ontario's northeast shore. Related to the lake effect is the regular occurrence of fog over medium-sized areas, particularly along the shorelines of the lakes. This is most noticeable along Lake Superior's shores.

text: The Great Lakes have been observed to help intensify storms, such as Hurricane Hazel in 1954, and the 2011 Goderich, Ontario tornado, which moved onshore as a tornadic waterspout. In 1996 a rare tropical or subtropical storm was observed forming in Lake Huron, dubbed the 1996 Lake Huron cyclone. Rather large severe thunderstorms covering wide areas are well known in the Great Lakes during mid-summer; these Mesoscale convective complexs or MCCs[60] can cause damage to wide swaths of forest and shatter glass in city buildings. These storms mainly occur during the night, and the systems sometimes have small embedded tornadoes, but more often straight-line winds accompanied by intense lightning.

text: Ecology[edit]

text: Historically, the Great Lakes, in addition to their lake ecology, were surrounded by various forest ecoregions (except in a relatively small area of southeast Lake Michigan where savanna or prairie occasionally intruded). Logging, urbanization, and agriculture uses have changed that relationship. In the early 21st century, Lake Superior's shores are 91% forested, Lake Huron 68%, Lake Ontario 49%, Lake Michigan 41%, and Lake Erie, where logging and urbanization has been most extensive, 21%. Some of these forests are second or third growth (i.e. they have been logged before, changing their composition). At least 13 wildlife species are documented as becoming extinct since the arrival of Europeans, and many more are threatened or endangered.[15] Meanwhile, exotic and invasive species have also been introduced.

text: Fauna[edit]

text: The organisms living on the bottom of shallow waters are similar to those found in smaller lakes. The deep waters, however, contain organisms found only in deep, cold lakes of the northern latitudes.  These include the delicate opossum shrimp (order mysida), the deepwater scud (a crustacean of the order amphipoda), two types of copepods, and the deepwater sculpin (a spiny, large-headed fish).[62]

text: The Great Lakes are an important source of fishing. Early European settlers were astounded by both the variety and quantity of fish; there were 150 different species in the Great Lakes.[15] Throughout history, fish populations were the early indicator of the condition of the Lakes and have remained one of the key indicators even in the current era of sophisticated analyses and measuring instruments. According to the bi-national (U.S. and Canadian) resource book, The Great Lakes: An Environmental Atlas and Resource Book: "The largest Great Lakes fish harvests were recorded in 1889 and 1899 at some 67,000 tonnes (66,000 long tons; 74,000 short tons) [147 million pounds]."[63]

text: By 1801, the New York Legislature found it necessary to pass regulations curtailing obstructions to the natural migrations of Atlantic salmon from Lake Erie into their spawning channels. In the early 19th century, the government of Upper Canada found it necessary to introduce similar legislation prohibiting the use of weirs and nets at the mouths of Lake Ontario's tributaries. Other protective legislation was passed, as well, but enforcement remained difficult.[64]

text: On both sides of the Canada–United States border, the proliferation of dams and impoundments have multiplied, necessitating more regulatory efforts. Concerns by the mid-19th century included obstructions in the rivers which prevented salmon and lake sturgeon from reaching their spawning grounds. The Wisconsin Fisheries Commission noted a reduction of roughly 25% in general fish harvests by 1875. The states have removed dams from rivers where necessary.[clarification needed][65]

text: Overfishing has been cited as a possible reason for a decrease in population of various whitefish, important because of their culinary desirability and, hence, economic consequence. Moreover, between 1879 and 1899, reported whitefish harvests declined from some 24.3 million pounds (11 million kg) to just over 9 million pounds (4 million kg).[66] By 1900, commercial fishermen on Lake Michigan were hauling in an average of 41 million pounds of fish annually.[67] By 1938, Wisconsin's commercial fishing operations were motorized and mechanized, generating jobs for more than 2,000 workers, and hauling 14 million pounds per year.[67] The population of giant freshwater mussels was eliminated as the mussels were harvested for use as buttons by early Great Lakes entrepreneurs.[66] Since 2000, the invasive quagga mussel has smothered the bottom of Lake Michigan almost from shore to shore, and their numbers are estimated at 900 trillion.[67]

text: The influx of parasitic lamprey populations after the development of the Erie Canal and the much later Welland Canal led to the two federal governments of the US and Canada working on joint proposals to control it. By the mid-1950s, the lake trout populations of Lakes Michigan and Huron were reduced, with the lamprey deemed largely to blame. This led to the launch of the bi-national Great Lakes Fishery Commission.

text: The Great Lakes: An Environmental Atlas and Resource Book (1972) noted: "Only pockets remain of the once large commercial fishery."[63] But, water quality improvements realized during the 1970s and 1980s, combined with successful salmonid stocking programs, have enabled the growth of a large recreational fishery.[68] The last commercial fisherman left Milwaukee in 2011 because of overfishing and anthropogenic changes to the biosphere.[67]

text: Since the 19th century an estimated 160 new species have found their way into the Great Lakes ecosystem; many have become invasive; the overseas ship ballast and ship hull parasitism are causing severe economic and ecological impacts.[69][70] According to the Inland Seas Education Association, on average a new species enters the Great Lakes every eight months.[70]

text: Introductions into the Great Lakes include the zebra mussel, which was first discovered in 1988, and quagga mussel in 1989. The mollusks are efficient filter feeders, competing with native mussels and reducing available food and spawning grounds for fish. In addition, the mussels may be a nuisance to industries by clogging pipes. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service estimates that the economic impact of the zebra mussel could be about $5 billion over the next decade.[71]

text: The alewife first entered the system west of Lake Ontario via 19th-century canals. By the 1960s, the small silver fish had become a familiar nuisance to beach goers across Lakes Michigan, Huron, and Erie. Periodic mass dieoffs result in vast numbers of the fish washing up on shore; estimates by various governments have placed the percentage of Lake Michigan's biomass, which was made up of alewives in the early 1960s, as high as 90%. In the late 1960s, the various state and federal governments began stocking several species of salmonids, including the native lake trout as well as non-native chinook and coho salmon; by the 1980s, alewife populations had dropped drastically.[72] The ruffe, a small percid fish from Eurasia, became the most abundant fish species in Lake Superior's Saint Louis River within five years of its detection in 1986. Its range, which has expanded to Lake Huron, poses a significant threat to the lower lake fishery.[73] Five years after first being observed in the St. Clair River, the round goby can now be found in all of the Great Lakes. The goby is considered undesirable for several reasons: it preys upon bottom-feeding fish, overruns optimal habitat, spawns multiple times a season, and can survive poor water quality conditions.[74]

text: Several species of exotic water fleas have accidentally been introduced into the Great Lakes, such as the spiny waterflea, Bythotrephes longimanus, and the fishhook waterflea, Cercopagis pengoi, potentially having an effect on the zooplankton population. Several species of crayfish have also been introduced that may contend with native crayfish populations. More recently an electric fence has been set up across the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal in order to keep several species of invasive Asian carp out of the area. These fast-growing planktivorous fish have heavily colonized the Mississippi and Illinois river systems.[75] The sea lamprey, which has been particularly damaging to the native lake trout population, is another example of a marine invasive species in the Great Lakes.[76] Invasive species, particularly zebra and quagga mussels, may be at least partially responsible for the collapse of the deepwater demersal fish community in Lake Huron,[77] as well as drastic unprecedented changes in the zooplankton community of the lake.[78]

text: Flora[edit]

text: See also: Flora of the Great Lakes region, and Index: Trees of the Great Lakes region.

text: Native habitats and ecoregions in the Great Lakes region include:

text:
Eastern forest-boreal transition
Eastern Great Lakes lowland forests
Southern Great Lakes forests
Central forest-grasslands transition
Upper Midwest forest-savanna transition
Western Great Lakes forests
Central Canadian Shield forests
Laurentian Mixed Forest Province
Beech-maple forest
Habitats of the Indiana Dunes

text: Plant lists include:

text:
List of Michigan flowers
List of Minnesota wild flowers
List of Minnesota trees

text: Logging

text: Logging of the extensive forests in the Great Lakes region removed riparian and adjacent tree cover over rivers and streams, which provide shade, moderating water temperatures in fish spawning grounds. Removal of trees also destabilized the soil, with greater volumes washed into stream beds causing siltation of gravel beds, and more frequent flooding.

text: Running cut logs down the tributary rivers into the Great Lakes also dislocated sediments. In 1884, the New York Fish Commission determined that the dumping of sawmill waste (chips and sawdust) had impacted fish populations.[79]

text: Pollution[edit]

text: The first U.S. Clean Water Act, passed by a Congressional override after being vetoed by US President Richard Nixon in 1972, was a key piece of legislation,[80] along with the bi-national Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement signed by Canada and the U.S. A variety of steps taken to process industrial and municipal pollution discharges into the system greatly improved water quality by the 1980s, and Lake Erie in particular is significantly cleaner.[81] Discharge of toxic substances has been sharply reduced. Federal and state regulations control substances like PCBs. The first of 43 "Great Lakes Areas of Concern" to be formally "de-listed" due to successful cleanup was Ontario's Collingwood Harbour in 1994; Ontario's Severn Sound followed in 2003.[82] Presque Isle Bay in Pennsylvania is formally listed as in recovery, as is Ontario's Spanish Harbour. Dozens of other Areas of Concern have received partial cleanups such as the Rouge River (Michigan) and Waukegan Harbor (Illinois).[83]

text: Phosphate detergents were historically a major source of nutrient to the Great Lakes algae blooms in particular in the warmer and shallower portions of the system such as Lake Erie, Saginaw Bay, Green Bay, and the southernmost portion of Lake Michigan. By the mid-1980s, most jurisdictions bordering the Great Lakes had controlled phosphate detergents,[84] resulting in sharp reductions in the frequency and extent of the blooms.[citation needed]

text: In 2013, news of a garbage patch of plastic pollution in the lakes was reported.[85]

text: Mercury[edit]

text: Until 1970, mercury was not listed as a harmful chemical, according to the United States Federal Water Quality Administration. Within the past ten years mercury has become more apparent in water tests. Mercury compounds have been used in paper mills to prevent slime from forming during their production, and chemical companies have used mercury to separate chlorine from brine solutions. Studies conducted by the Environmental Protection Agency have shown that when the mercury comes in contact with many of the bacteria and compounds in the fresh water, it forms the compound methyl mercury, which has a much greater impact on human health than elemental mercury due to a higher propensity for absorption. This form of mercury is not detrimental to a majority of fish types, but is very detrimental to people and other wildlife animals who consume the fish. Mercury has been known for health related problems such as birth defects in humans and animals, and the near extinction of eagles in the Great Lakes region.[86]

text: Sewage[edit]

text: The amount of raw sewage dumped into the waters was the primary focus of both the first Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement and federal laws passed in both countries during the 1970s. Implementation of secondary treatment of municipal sewage by major cities greatly reduced the routine discharge of untreated sewage during the 1970s and 1980s.[87] The International Joint Commission in 2009 summarized the change: "Since the early 1970s, the level of treatment to reduce pollution from waste water discharges to the Great Lakes has improved considerably. This is a result of significant expenditures to date on both infrastructure and technology, and robust regulatory systems that have proven to be, on the whole, quite effective."[88] The commission reported that all urban sewage treatment systems on the U.S. side of the lakes had implemented secondary treatment, as had all on the Canadian side except for five small systems.[citation needed]

text: However contrary to federal laws in both countries, those treatment system upgrades have not yet eliminated Combined sewer Overflow events.[citation needed] This describes when older sewerage systems, which combine storm water with sewage into single sewers heading to the treatment plant, are temporarily overwhelmed by heavy rainstorms. Local sewage treatment authorities then must release untreated effluent, a mix of rainwater and sewage, into local water bodies. While enormous public investments such as the Deep Tunnel projects in Chicago and Milwaukee have greatly reduced the frequency and volume of these events, they have not been eliminated. The number of such overflow events in Ontario, for example, is flat according to the International Joint Commission.[88] Reports about this issue on the U.S. side highlight five large municipal systems (those of Detroit, Cleveland, Buffalo, Milwaukee and Gary) as being the largest current periodic sources of untreated discharges into the Great Lakes.[89]

text: History[edit]

text: Several Native American tribes inhabited the region since at least 10,000 BC, after the end of the Wisconsin glaciation.[citation needed] The peoples of the Great Lakes traded with the Hopewell culture from around 1000 AD, as copper nuggets have been extracted from the region, and fashioned into ornaments and weapons in the mounds of Southern Ohio. The brigantine Le Griffon, which was commissioned by René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, was built at Cayuga Creek, near the southern end of the Niagara River, and became the first known sailing ship to travel the upper Great Lakes on August 7, 1679.[90]

text: The Rush–Bagot Treaty signed in 1818, after the War of 1812 and the later Treaty of Washington eventually led to a complete disarmament of naval vessels in the Great Lakes. Nonetheless, both nations maintain coast guard vessels in the Great Lakes.

text: During settlement, the Great Lakes and its rivers were the only practical means of moving people and freight. Barges from middle North America were able to reach the Atlantic Ocean from the Great Lakes when the Welland canal opened in 1824 and the later Erie Canal opened in 1825.[91] By 1848, with the opening of the Illinois and Michigan Canal at Chicago, direct access to the Mississippi River was possible from the lakes.[92] With these two canals an all-inland water route was provided between New York City and New Orleans.

text:
The main business of many of the passenger lines in the 19th century was transporting immigrants. Many of the larger cities owe their existence to their position on the lakes as a freight destination as well as for being a magnet for immigrants. After railroads and surface roads developed, the freight and passenger businesses dwindled and, except for ferries and a few foreign cruise ships, has now vanished.
The immigration routes still have an effect today. Immigrants often formed their own communities and some areas have a pronounced ethnicity, such as Dutch, German, Polish, Finnish, and many others. Since many immigrants settled for a time in New England before moving westward, many areas on the U.S. side of the Great Lakes also have a New England feel, especially in home styles and accent.

text: Since general freight these days is transported by railroads and trucks, domestic ships mostly move bulk cargoes, such as iron ore, coal and limestone for the steel industry. The domestic bulk freight developed because of the nearby mines. It was more economical to transport the ingredients for steel to centralized plants rather than try to make steel on the spot. Grain exports are also a major cargo on the lakes.

text: In the 19th century and early 20th centuries, iron and other ores such as copper were shipped south on (downbound ships), and supplies, food, and coal were shipped north (upbound). Because of the location of the coal fields in Pennsylvania and West Virginia, and the general northeast track of the Appalachian Mountains, railroads naturally developed shipping routes that went due north to ports such as Erie, Pennsylvania and Ashtabula, Ohio.

text: Because the lake maritime community largely developed independently, it has some distinctive vocabulary. Ships, no matter the size, are called boats. When the sailing ships gave way to steamships, they were called steamboats—the same term used on the Mississippi. The ships also have a distinctive design (see Lake freighter). Ships that primarily trade on the lakes are known as lakers. Foreign boats are known as salties. One of the more common sights on the lakes has been since about 1950 the 1,000‑by‑105-foot (305-by-32-meter), 78,850-long-ton (80,120-metric-ton) self-unloader. This is a laker with a conveyor belt system that can unload itself by swinging a crane over the side.[93] Today, the Great Lakes fleet is much smaller in numbers than it once was because of the increased use of overland freight, and a few larger ships replacing many small ones.

text: During World War II, the risk of submarine attacks against coastal training facilities motivated the United States Navy to operate two aircraft carriers on the Great Lakes, USS Sable (IX-81) and USS Wolverine (IX-64). Both served as training ships to qualify naval aviators in carrier landing and takeoff.[94] Lake Champlain briefly became the sixth Great Lake of the United States on March 6, 1998, when President Clinton signed Senate Bill 927. This bill, which reauthorized the National Sea Grant Program, contained a line declaring Lake Champlain to be a Great Lake. Not coincidentally, this status allows neighboring states to apply for additional federal research and education funds allocated to these national resources.[95] Following a small uproar, the Senate voted to revoke the designation on March 24 (although New York and Vermont universities would continue to receive funds to monitor and study the lake).[96]

text: In the early years of the 21st century, water levels in the Great Lakes were a concern.[97] Researchers at the Mowat Centre said that low levels could cost $19bn by 2050.[98]

text: Economy[edit]

text: Shipping[edit]

text: Except when the water is frozen during winter, more than 100 lake freighters operate continuously on the Great Lakes,[99] which remain a major water transport corridor for bulk goods. The Great Lakes Waterway connects all the lakes; the smaller Saint Lawrence Seaway connects the lakes to the Atlantic oceans. Some lake freighters are too large to use the Seaway, and only operate on the Waterway and lakes.

text: In 2002, 162 million net tons of dry bulk  cargo were moved on the Lakes. This was, in order of volume: iron ore, grain and potash.[100] The iron ore and much of the stone and coal are used in the steel industry. There is also some shipping of liquid and containerized cargo but most container ships cannot pass the locks on the Saint Lawrence Seaway because the ships are too wide.

text: Only four bridges are on the Great Lakes other than Lake Ontario because of the cost of building structures high enough for ships to pass under. The Blue Water Bridge is, for example, more than 150 feet high and more than a mile long.[99]

text: Drinking water and compact[edit]

text: The Great Lakes are used to supply drinking water to tens of millions of people in bordering areas. This valuable resource is collectively administered by the state and provincial governments adjacent to the lakes, who have agreed to the Great Lakes Compact to regulate water supply and use.

text: Recreation[edit]

text: Tourism and recreation are major industries on the Great Lakes.[101] A few small cruise ships operate on the Great Lakes including a couple of sailing ships. Sport fishing, commercial fishing, and Native American fishing represent a U.S.$4 billion a year industry with salmon, whitefish, smelt, lake trout, bass and walleye being major catches. Many other water sports are practiced on the lakes such as yachting, sea kayaking, diving, kitesurfing, powerboating, and lake surfing.

text: The Great Lakes Circle Tour is a designated scenic road system connecting all of the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence River.[102]

text: Great Lakes passenger steamers[edit]

text: From 1844 through 1857, palace steamers carried passengers and cargo around the Great Lakes.[103] In the first half of the 20th century large luxurious passenger steamers sailed the lakes in opulence.[104] The Detroit and Cleveland Navigation Company had several vessels at the time and hired workers from all walks of life to help operate these vessels.[105] Several ferries currently operate on the Great Lakes to carry passengers to various islands, including Isle Royale, Drummond Island, Pelee Island, Mackinac Island, Beaver Island, Bois Blanc Island (Ontario), Bois Blanc Island (Michigan), Kelleys Island, South Bass Island, North Manitou Island, South Manitou Island, Harsens Island, Manitoulin Island, and the Toronto Islands. As of 2007, four car ferry services cross the Great Lakes, two on Lake Michigan: a steamer from Ludington, Michigan, to Manitowoc, Wisconsin, and a high speed catamaran from Milwaukee to Muskegon, Michigan, one on Lake Erie: a boat from Kingsville, Ontario, or Leamington, Ontario, to Pelee Island, Ontario, then onto Sandusky, Ohio, and one on Lake Huron: the M.S. Chi-Cheemaun [106] runs between Tobermory and South Baymouth, Manitoulin Island, operated by the Owen Sound Transportation Company. An international ferry across Lake Ontario Rochester, New York, to Toronto ran during 2004 and 2005, but is no longer in operation.

text: Shipwrecks[edit]

text: The large size of the Great Lakes increases the risk of water travel; storms and reefs are common threats. The lakes are prone to sudden and severe storms, in particular in the autumn, from late October until early December. Hundreds of ships have met their end on the lakes. The greatest concentration of shipwrecks lies near Thunder Bay (Michigan), beneath Lake Huron, near the point where eastbound and westbound shipping lanes converge.

text: The Lake Superior shipwreck coast from Grand Marais, Michigan, to Whitefish Point became known as the "Graveyard of the Great Lakes". More vessels have been lost in the Whitefish Point area than any other part of Lake Superior.[107] The Whitefish Point Underwater Preserve serves as an underwater museum to protect the many shipwrecks in this area.

text: The first ship to sink in Lake Michigan was Le Griffon, also the first ship to sail the Great Lakes. Caught in a 1679 storm while trading furs between Green Bay and Michilimacinac, she was lost with all hands aboard.[108] Its wreck may have been found in 2004,[109] but a wreck subsequently discovered in a different location was also claimed in 2014 to be Le Griffon.[110]

text: The largest and last major freighter wrecked on the lakes was the SS Edmund Fitzgerald, which sank on November 10, 1975, just over 17 miles (30 km) offshore from Whitefish Point on Lake Superior. The largest loss of life in a shipwreck out on the lakes may have been that of Lady Elgin, wrecked in 1860 with the loss of around 400 lives on Lake Michigan. In an incident at a Chicago dock in 1915, the SS Eastland rolled over while loading passengers, killing 841.

text: In August 2007, the Great Lakes Shipwreck Historical Society announced that it had found the wreckage of Cyprus, a 420-foot (130 m) long, century-old ore carrier. Cyprus sank during a Lake Superior storm on October 11, 1907, during its second voyage while hauling iron ore from Superior, Wisconsin, to Buffalo, New York. The entire crew of 23 drowned, except one, Charles Pitz, who floated on a life raft for almost seven hours.[111]

text: In June 2008, deep sea divers in Lake Ontario found the wreck of the 1780 Royal Navy warship HMS Ontario in what has been described as an "archaeological miracle".[112] There are no plans to raise her as the site is being treated as a war grave.

text: In June 2010, L.R. Doty was found in Lake Michigan by an exploration diving team led by dive boat Captain Jitka Hanakova from her boat the Molly V.[113] The ship sank in October 1898, probably attempting to rescue a small schooner, Olive Jeanette, during a terrible storm.

text: Still missing are the two last warships to sink in the Great Lakes, the French minesweepers, Inkerman and Cerisoles, which vanished in Lake Superior during a blizzard in 1918. 78 lives were lost making it the largest loss of life in Lake Superior and the greatest unexplained loss of life in the Great Lakes.

text: Related articles

text:
List of shipwrecks in the Great Lakes
Index: Shipwrecks in the Great Lakes
Great Storms of the North American Great Lakes
Great Lakes Storm of 1913

text: Legislation[edit]

text: In 1872, a treaty gave access to the St. Lawrence River to the United States, and access to Lake Michigan to the Dominion of Canada.[114]  The International Joint Commission was established in 1909 to help prevent and resolve disputes relating to the use and quality of boundary waters, and to advise Canada and the United States on questions related to water resources. Concerns over diversion of Lake water are of concern to both Americans and Canadians. Some water is diverted through the Chicago River to operate the Illinois Waterway but the flow is limited by treaty. Possible schemes for bottled water plants and diversion to dry regions of the continent raise concerns. Under the U.S. "Water Resources Development Act",[115] diversion of water from the Great Lakes Basin requires the approval of all eight Great Lakes governors through the Great Lakes Commission, which rarely occurs. International treaties regulate large diversions.

text: In 1998, the Canadian company Nova Group won approval from the Province of Ontario to withdraw 158,000,000 U.S. gallons (600,000 m3) of Lake Superior water annually to ship by tanker to Asian countries. Public outcry forced the company to abandon the plan before it began. Since that time, the eight Great Lakes Governors and the Premiers of Ontario and Quebec have negotiated the Great Lakes-Saint Lawrence River Basin Sustainable Water Resources Agreement[116] and the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence River Basin Water Resources Compact[117] that would prevent most future diversion proposals and all long-distance ones. The agreements strengthen protection against abusive water withdrawal practices within the Great Lakes basin. On December 13, 2005, the Governors and Premiers signed these two agreements, the first of which is between all ten jurisdictions. It is somewhat more detailed and protective, though its legal strength has not yet been tested in court. The second, the Great Lakes Compact, has been approved by the state legislatures of all eight states that border the Great Lakes as well as the U.S. Congress, and was signed into law by President George W. Bush on October 3, 2008.[118]

text: The Great Lakes Restoration Initiative, described as "the largest investment in the Great Lakes in two decades,"[119] was funded at $475 million in the U.S. federal government's Fiscal Year 2011 budget, and $300 million in the Fiscal Year 2012 budget. Through the program a coalition of federal agencies is making grants to local and state entities for toxics cleanups, wetlands and coastline restoration projects, and invasive species-related projects.

text: Coast Guard live fire exercises[edit]

text: In 2006, the United States Coast Guard (USCG) proposed a plan to designate 34 areas in the Great Lakes, at least 5 mi (8 km) offshore, as permanent safety zones for live fire machine gun practice. In August 2006, the plan was published in the Federal Register. The USCG reserved the right to hold target practice whenever the weather allowed with a two-hour notice. These firing ranges would be open to the public when not in use. In response to requests from the public, the Coast Guard held a series of public meetings in nine U.S. cities to solicit comment. During these meetings many people voiced concerns about the plan and its impact on the environment.[120] On December 18, 2006, the Coast Guard announced its decision to withdraw the entire proposal.[121] Officials said they would look into alternative ammunition, modifying the proposed zones and have more public dialogue before proposing a new plan.[122]