document_title: The Fellowship of the Ring

question_text: who helps frodo and his friends escape from the barrow-wight

text: The Fellowship of the Ring

text: Title and publication[edit]

text: Tolkien envisioned The Lord of the Rings as a single volume work divided into six sections he called "books" along with extensive appendices. The original publisher made the decision to split the work into three parts. It was also the publisher's decision to place the fifth and sixth books and the appendices into one volume under the title The Return of the King, in reference to Aragorn's assumption of the throne of Gondor. Tolkien indicated he would have preferred The War of the Ring as a title, as it gave away less of the story.[3]

text: Before the decision to publish The Lord of the Rings in three volumes was made, Tolkien had hoped to publish the novel in one volume, possibly also combined with The Silmarillion.[n 1] However, he had proposed titles for the individual six sections. Of the two books that comprise what became The Fellowship of the Ring the first was to be called The First Journey or The Ring Sets Out. The name of the second was The Journey of the Nine Companions or The Ring Goes South. The titles The Ring Sets Out and The Ring Goes South were used in the Millennium edition.

text: The title The Fellowship of the Ring refers to the group of chief protagonists.

text: Plot summary[edit]

text: The Prologue is meant partly to help people who have not read The Hobbit to understand the events of that book. It also contains other background information to set the stage for the novel.

text: Book I: The Ring Sets Out[edit]

text: The first chapter in the book begins in a light vein, following the tone of The Hobbit. Bilbo Baggins celebrates his 111th (or eleventy-first, as it is called in Hobbiton) birthday on the same day, 22 September, that his younger cousin and adopted heir Frodo Baggins celebrates his coming of age at thirty-three. At the birthday party, Bilbo departs from the Shire, the land of the Hobbits, for what he calls a permanent holiday. Bilbo does so by using the magic ring (that he had found on his journey) to disappear and is aided by Gandalf the Wizard with a flash and puff of smoke, leading many in the Shire to believe he has gone mad. He leaves Frodo his remaining belongings, including his home, Bag End, and the Ring. It becomes apparent that Bilbo has been strained over the past several years, and he is at first unwilling to give up the Ring, which concerns Gandalf.  Eventually, he gives up the Ring and appears to be relieved of a huge burden.  Gandalf leaves on his own business, warning Frodo to keep the Ring secret.

text: Over the next seventeen years, Gandalf periodically pays short visits to Bag End. One spring night, he arrives to enlighten Frodo about Bilbo's ring; it is the One Ring of Sauron the Dark Lord. He proves this by flinging the Ring into the fireplace, the heat of which causes the Ring to display Elf-writing in the language of Mordor. Sauron had forged the Ring to subdue and rule Middle-earth, but in the War of the Last Alliance, he had been defeated by Gil-galad the Elven King and Elendil, High King of Arnor and Gondor, though they themselves perished in the deed. Isildur, Elendil's son, cut the Ring from Sauron's finger. Sauron was overthrown, but the Ring itself was not destroyed as it should have been, for Isildur kept it for himself. Isildur was slain soon afterwards in the Battle of the Gladden Fields, and the Ring was lost in Great River Anduin. Thousands of years later, it was found by the hobbit Déagol; but Déagol was thereupon murdered by his friend Sméagol, who wanted the Ring for himself. Sméagol took the Ring and kept it for hundreds of years, and under its influence he became a wretched creature named Gollum. The Ring was found by Bilbo Baggins, as told in The Hobbit, and Bilbo left it behind for Frodo.  Frodo wonders why Bilbo did not kill the creature when he had the chance, but Gandalf reminds him that Bilbo's pity saved him in the end and did not make him like Gollum.

text: Gandalf tells how Sauron has risen again and has returned to his stronghold in Mordor and is bending all his power toward the hunting of the Ring. Gandalf speaks of the evil powers of the Ring and its ability to influence the bearer and those near him if it is worn for too long. Gandalf warns Frodo that the Ring is no longer safe in the Shire. He has learned through his investigations that Gollum had gone to Mordor, where he was captured and tortured until he revealed to Sauron that the Ring was in the keeping of a hobbit named Baggins from the Shire. Gandalf hopes Frodo can reach the elf-haven Rivendell, east of the Shire, where he believes Frodo and the Ring will be safe from Sauron, and where the Ring's fate can be decided. Samwise Gamgee, Frodo's gardener and friend, is discovered eavesdropping on the conversation. Out of loyalty to his master, Sam agrees to accompany Frodo on his journey.

text: Over the summer, Frodo makes plans to leave his home at Bag End, under the pretence that he is moving to the eastern end of the Shire (Buckland) to retire. Helping with the plans are Frodo's friends Sam, Peregrin Took (Pippin for short), Meriadoc Brandybuck (Merry), and Fredegar Bolger (Fatty), though Frodo does not tell them of the Ring or of his intention to leave the Shire. At midsummer, Gandalf leaves on pressing business, but promises to return before Frodo leaves.

text: Frodo's birthday and the date of his departure approach, but Gandalf does not appear, so Frodo decides to leave without him. Black Riders pursue Frodo's party. These turn out to be Nazgûl or Ringwraiths, "the most terrible servants of the Dark Lord" (men who have been corrupted by Sauron through the Nine Rings), who are searching for "Baggins" and the Ring. One of the Riders comes to the door of Sam's father, the Gaffer, the very evening before they depart. With the help of some elves led by Gildor and a hobbit named Farmer Maggot, the hobbits cross the Brandywine River and reach Crickhollow on the eastern border of the Shire. There Merry, Pippin, and Fatty reveal that they know of the Ring and of Frodo's plan to leave the Shire. Merry and Pippin decide to join Frodo and Sam, while Fatty stays behind as a decoy.

text: In hopes of eluding the Nazgûl, the hobbits travel through the Old Forest. There the group fall asleep by a willow-tree and wake up to realize that its roots are trying to strangle them, but luckily Tom Bombadil comes to their aid. They then go to the house of Bombadil and meet his wife Goldberry.  There they discover that the Ring has no power over Bombadil—he does not disappear while wearing it and can see Frodo even after he has vanished from his friends' sight. In the evening, Frodo has a dream about Gandalf standing on the pinnacle of a tower and then a vision of a rain curtain in front of a ship on which he is sailing. They then leave Bombadil's only to be captured by a barrow wight in the Barrow-downs, but they again escape with help from Tom and finally reach the gate of the village of Bree.

text: In Bree, the hobbits go to The Prancing Pony Inn, where Barliman Butterbur is the owner.  Frodo goes by the name of "Underhill" rather than Baggins. While visiting with other hobbits and men from Bree, Frodo makes eye contact with a mysterious-looking man in the corner.  The man then warns Frodo that Pippin is close to revealing who the hobbits really are, so Frodo begins to recite a poem that earns the applause of everyone in the inn.  When he recites it a second time, Frodo gets carried away and falls off the table and accidentally lets the Ring slip on his finger causing him to disappear. The incident causes a major commotion, and several rough-looking men leave the inn. Frodo reappears and said that he slipped away out of embarrassment, but few buy the explanation. The hobbits then retire from the common room only to find that they have been followed by the mysterious man, who goes by the name Strider, a Ranger. He claims to be a friend of Gandalf and warns that the Nazgûl are after them and only he can guide them to Rivendell.  Frodo doubts Strider until Butterbur comes in with a note from Gandalf to Frodo left some time earlier. Gandalf says to trust Strider and ask him his real name.  Without even being asked, Strider reveals his name as Aragorn son of Arathorn and is the heir of Isildur in the North. Merry then comes in and says he was waylaid by the Nazgûl. Strider has them spend the night in another room.

text: The Nazgûl then attack both the house at Crickhollow and the inn at Bree but do not find Frodo in either spot. The next morning, Frodo learns that their riding ponies have been driven off by the Nazgûl and their allies. They manage to secure one beast from one of the Nazgûl collaborators, Bill Ferny, one of the men of Bree. Curious because of all the events, the whole town turns out to see them off.  The hobbits and Strider make their way cross-country, through the Midgewater Marshes, to the hill of Weathertop, where they spot five of the Nazgûl on the road below. They then see evidence of a major fire fight and a stone that might indicate Gandalf got there ahead of them.

text: That night, five of the Nazgûl attack the travellers.  Frodo yields to the temptation and puts on the Ring, and see the Nazgûl in their full form.  He attempts to attack them, but the chief of the Nazgûl stabs Frodo in the shoulder with a cursed knife before Aragorn drives them off with torches. A splinter of the blade remains within the wound, causing Frodo to fall very ill as they travel to Rivendell. Aragorn warns them that, unless treated soon, Frodo will become a wraith like the Nazgûl himself. As the travellers near their destination, they meet Glorfindel, an elf-lord from Rivendell, who helps them reach the River Bruinen near Rivendell. But the Nazgûl, all nine now gathered together, ambush the party at the Ford of Bruinen. Glorfindel's horse outruns the pursuers and carries Frodo across the Ford. As the Nazgûl attempt to follow, a giant wave commanded by Elrond, the lord of Rivendell, sweeps them away and Frodo collapses.

text: Book II: The Ring Goes South[edit]

text: Book II opens in Rivendell at the house of Elrond. Frodo is healed by Elrond and discovers that Bilbo has been residing there. Bilbo asks to see the Ring again, but Frodo resists because of the Ring's power, which leads Bilbo to understand at last. Frodo also meets many notable figures, including Glóin—one of the dwarves who accompanied Bilbo on his journey to the Lonely Mountain—and Legolas, Prince of the Silvan Elves of Mirkwood. Frodo learns about the remaining dwarves, including Balin, Ori, and Óin who had not been heard from in some time.

text: Elrond convenes a Council, attended by Gandalf, Bilbo, Frodo, Aragorn and many others, including Boromir, son of Denethor, the Steward of Gondor. Glóin explains that Balin had led an expedition to reclaim the old dwarf kingdom of Moria, but they had not heard from him in years. Furthermore, Glóin tells the group that the Nazgûl had come to Dale and the Lonely Mountain looking for Bilbo and the Ring. Legolas then tells the council that Gollum had escaped from his captivity with the Elves and was also abroad and hunting for the Ring. Boromir then stands and relates the details of a dream he and his brother Faramir both received, telling them to seek "the Sword That Was Broken" and "Isildur's Bane" in Rivendell. Elrond then has Frodo bring out the Ring, which is revealed as "Isildur's Bane".

text: Gandalf explains that he had gone to Isengard, where the wizard Saruman, the chief of all wizards in Middle-earth, dwells, to seek help and counsel. However, Saruman had turned against them, desiring the Ring for himself. Saruman imprisoned Gandalf in his tower, Orthanc, rightly suspecting that Gandalf knew where the Ring was. Gandalf, however, did not yield and managed to escape from Orthanc. He learns that Saruman is not yet in Sauron's service, and is mustering his own force of Orcs.

text: As the Council of Elrond concludes, a plan is hatched to cast the One Ring into the fires of Mount Doom in Mordor, which will destroy the Ring and end Sauron's power for good. Boromir objects and argues for using the Ring to overcome Sauron and relieve Gondor, but Elrond says that the Ring cannot be used for good because of its intrinsic evil and its corrupting power even on those with the best intentions. Frodo offers to undertake this dangerous quest, and is thus chosen to be the Ring-bearer.

text: Frodo sets forth from Rivendell with eight companions: two Men, Aragorn and Boromir; Legolas; Gandalf; Gimli the Dwarf, the son of Glóin; and Frodo's three Hobbit companions. These Nine Walkers (called the Fellowship or, more properly, the Company of the Ring) are chosen to represent all the free races of Middle-earth and as a balance to the Nazgûl. They are also accompanied by Bill the Pony, whom Aragorn and the Hobbits acquired in Bree as a pack horse.

text: The Fellowship attempt to cross the Misty Mountains is foiled by heavy snow, and then they are attacked by a host of Wargs that have moved west of the Mountains to hunt for the Ring. Thus, they are forced to take a path under the mountains, through the mines of Moria, the ancient dwarf kingdom. There, they discover that Balin, Ori, and Óin were all killed by Orcs and other evil creatures that thwarted their attempt to retake Moria. Those same orcs then attack the travellers, and during the battle that ensues, Gandalf encounters a Balrog of Morgoth, an ancient demon of fire and shadow. Gandalf challenges the Balrog, but both fall into an abyss.

text: The remaining eight members of the Fellowship escape from Moria and head toward the elf-haven of Lothlórien, where they are given gifts from the rulers Celeborn and Galadriel that in many cases prove useful later during the Quest.

text: After leaving Lothlórien the Fellowship reach Amon Hen. There Frodo tries to decide the future course of the Fellowship. Boromir succumbs to the Ring's corruptive influence and tries to take it for himself, and Frodo ends up putting on the Ring to escape from Boromir. While the rest of the Fellowship scatters to hunt for Frodo, Frodo decides the Fellowship has to be broken, and he must depart secretly for Mordor alone to prevent the rest of his companions from becoming enslaved by the influence of the Ring. Sam insists on coming along, however, and they set off together to Mordor. The Fellowship is thus broken.

text: Members of the Company of the Ring[edit]

text: The Company was formed at Rivendell in late T.A. 3018 following the Council of Elrond. It was decided that it should be a relatively small group; the number was set at nine to symbolically oppose the nine Nazgûl. In order of announcement the members of the Fellowship, also known as the Nine Walkers, were:

text:
Member

Race

Age[n 2]

Frodo Baggins

Hobbit

50

Adopted heir of Bilbo and the Ring-bearer.

Samwise "Sam" Gamgee

Hobbit

38

Frodo's gardener; becomes Frodo's companion on the quest.

Gandalf the Grey

Istari

primeval

Wizard who leads the Fellowship until the Bridge of Khazad-dûm in Moria, where he falls in combat with a Balrog.

Legolas

Elf

500+[4]

Son of Thranduil, king of the Silvan Elves of Mirkwood. He came to inform Elrond of the escape of Gollum.

Gimli

Dwarf

139

Son of Glóin. He came to Rivendell from the Lonely Mountain with his father to seek advice on the disappearance of Balin, and to warn Bilbo that Sauron's agents are seeking him.

Aragorn "Strider"

Man

87

Chief Ranger of the North and heir of Isildur and Elendil; he had accompanied the hobbits from Bree to Rivendell.

Boromir

Man

40

Son and heir of Denethor II, Steward of Gondor. He came to Rivendell seeking the meaning of a prophetic dream.

Meriadoc "Merry" Brandybuck

Hobbit

36

Son and heir of the Master of Buckland, cousin to both Pippin and Frodo. He is particularly close to Pippin.

Peregrin "Pippin" Took

Hobbit

28

Son and heir of the Thain in Tookland, he is the youngest member of the group and cousin to both Merry and Frodo.

tag: table

text: The Company's pony, Bill, is described as a "member" of the group[5], but is never numbered among the nine.

text: In The Lord of the Rings, Tolkien speaks more often of "the Company" of the Ring rather than "the Fellowship", as reflected in the page references in Robert Foster's The Complete Guide to Middle-earth. The Jackson film adaptions have resulted in "the Fellowship" becoming the more familiar, if less correct term. The titles given by Tolkien himself to key parts of The Lord of the Rings are also doubtless influential: the first volume is entitled The Fellowship of the Ring, and its last chapter is 'The Breaking of the Fellowship'.

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (December 2010)

text: The poet W.H. Auden wrote a positive review in The New York Times, praising the excitement and saying "Tolkien's invention is unflagging, and, on the primitive level of wanting to know what happens next, The Fellowship of the Ring is at least as good as The Thirty-Nine Steps."[6] However, he noted that the light humour in the beginning was "not Tolkien's forte".[7] It was also favourably reviewed by nature writer Loren Eiseley. Literary critic Edmund Wilson titled his unflattering review Oo, those awful Orcs.[8]


document_title: You Belong to Me (1952 song)

question_text: who sang the original you belong to me

question_tokens: who sang the original you belong to me

root

text: You Belong to Me (1952 song)

text: Conception and composition[edit]

text: "You Belong to Me" is credited to  Pee Wee King, Chilton Price and Redd Stewart.

tag: p

text: Price, a songwriting librarian at WAVE Radio Louisville, had written the song in its virtual entirety as "Hurry Home to Me" envisioning the song as an American woman's plea to a sweetheart serving overseas in World War II. Afforded songwriting credit on the song mostly in exchange for their work in promoting it, King and Stewart did slightly adjust Price's composition musically and lyrically, shifting the focus from a wartime background "into a kind of universal song about separated lovers" and changing the title to "You Belong to Me". Price had previously had success with another hit which she had written, "Slow Poke", under a similar arrangement with the two men.[1][2]

text: History[edit]

text: This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The first 1952 recording of the song was by Joni James.  She had seen the sheet music in the Woods Building in Chicago and the lyrics attracted her.  She recorded the song in February, 1952, in Chicago and it was released in March on the local Sharp Records label. After she signed to MGM, it was reissued as her second single on that label on August 5, 1952, after Jo Stafford, Patti Page and Dean Martin had covered it.  James' version also was issued on M-G-M Records for national distribution.  The best-known early 1952 version of the song was recorded after James' recording by Sue Thompson on Mercury's country label as catalog number 6407.[3] It was soon covered by Patti Page, whose version was issued by Mercury as catalog number 5899, with "I Went to Your Wedding" (a bigger Patti Page hit, reaching No 1) on the flip side. It entered the Billboard chart on August 22, 1952, and lasted 12 weeks on the chart, peaking at No. 4.[4]

text: A cover version by Jo Stafford became the most popular version. Issued by Columbia Records as catalog number 39811, it was Stafford's biggest hit, topping the charts in both the United States and the United Kingdom (the first song by a female singer to top the UK Singles Chart).[5] It first entered the US chart on August 1, 1952 and remained there for 24 weeks.[4] In the UK, it appeared in the first ever UK chart of 14 November 1952 (then a top 12) and reached number 1 on 16 January 1953, being only the second record to top such chart,[5] remaining in the chart for a total of 19 weeks.[6] Another cover version, by Dean Martin, released by Capitol Records as catalog number 2165, was also in play at that time. This version first entered the chart on August 29, 1952, and remained on the chart for 10 weeks, reaching No. 12.[4] All the versions were combined in the rankings on the Cash Box charts, and the song reached No. 1 on those charts as well, lasting on the chart for more than half a year.

text: In 1958, the song crossed over into rock for the first time on the Capitol album Gene Vincent Rocks and the Blue Caps Roll. A later version of the song, by the Duprees, also made the Billboard Top 10, reaching No. 7 in 1962. It was recorded by many other pop vocalists, including Patsy Cline and Bing Crosby. A solo acoustic version was recorded by Bob Dylan for the 1992 album Good as I Been to You but was eventually left off as an out-take; the recording surfaced two years later in the soundtrack for the 1994 film Natural Born Killers.

text: A loop of Jo Stafford's introduction was used by Caviar in "The Good Times Are Over" repeatedly throughout the song.

text: The song has also appeared on many soundtracks. Vonda Shepard's cover was used frequently on the TV series Ally McBeal alongside romantic scenes of Ally McBeal and Billy Thomas. A version by Jason Wade was part of the soundtrack to the 2001 animated film Shrek. Singer Tori Amos also recorded the classic for the Julia Roberts film Mona Lisa Smile in 2003. Actress Rose McGowan sang it on the soundtrack for the Planet Terror segment of the 2007 film Grindhouse.

text: Mary Higgins Clark referenced the song throughout her novel of the same name, which was published by Pocket Books on April 1, 1999.

text: In the British film The Deep Blue Sea (released 2011), directed by Terence Davies, the drinkers in a London pub perform the song which later modulates into Jo Stafford's version.

text: The song was also featured in the 2013 video game BioShock Infinite as part of its Burial at Sea story add-on. In the game the song is performed by the lead character Elizabeth and sung by her voice actress, Courtnee Draper (with fellow actor Troy Baker, who had previously portrayed Booker DeWitt, in said game) providing accompanying Acoustic guitar; footage of Draper performing the song in the recording studio is shown during the game's end credits.


document_title: Body cavity

question_text: where is the thoracic cavity located in the body

text: Body cavity

text: Coelom[edit]

text: A coelom is a cavity lined by mesothelium, an epithelium derived from mesoderm. Organs formed inside a coelom can freely move, grow, and develop independently of the body wall while fluid cushions and protects them from shocks.

text: Arthropods and most molluscs have a reduced (but still true) coelom, usually the pericardial cavity and the gonocoel. Their principal body cavity is the hemocoel or haeomocoel of an open circulatory system, often derived from the blastocoel.

text: Mammalian embryos develop two cavities: the intraembryonic coelom and the extraembryonic coelom (or chorionic cavity). The intraembryonic coelom is lined by somatic and splanchnic lateral plate mesoderm, while the extraembryonic coelom is lined by extraembryonic mesoderm. The intraembryonic coelom is the only cavity that persists in the mammal at term, which is why its name is often contracted to simply coelomic cavity. Subdividing the coelomic cavity into compartments, for example, the pericardial cavity / pericardium, where the heart develops, simplifies discussion of the anatomies of complex animals.

text: Organisms can be also classified according to the type of body cavity they possess.[1]

text: Human body cavities[edit]

text: Anatomical structures are often described in terms of the cavity in which they reside. The body maintains its internal organization by means of membranes, sheaths, and other structures that separate compartments. The dorsal (posterior) cavity and the ventral (anterior) cavity are the largest body compartments. These cavities contain and protect delicate internal organs, and the ventral cavity allows for significant changes in the size and shape of the organs as they perform their functions. The lungs, heart, stomach, and intestines, for example, can expand and contract without distorting other tissues or disrupting the activity of nearby organs.[2]

text: The ventral cavity includes the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities and their subdivisions. The dorsal cavity includes the cranial and spinal cavities.[2]

text:
The cranial cavity is a large, bean-shaped cavity filling most of the upper skull where the brain is located.
The vertebral cavity is a very narrow, thread-like cavity running from the cranial cavity down the entire length of the spinal cord.

tag: ul

text:
Together the cranial cavity and vertebral cavity can be referred to as the dorsal body cavity.
In the posterior (dorsal) cavity, the cranial cavity houses the brain, and the spinal cavity (or vertebral cavity) encloses the spinal cord. Just as the brain and spinal cord make up a continuous, uninterrupted structure, the cranial and spinal cavities that house them are also continuous. The brain and spinal cord are protected by the bones of the skull and vertebral column and by cerebrospinal fluid, a colorless fluid produced by the brain, which cushions the brain and spinal cord within the posterior (dorsal) cavity.[2]

text: The thoracic cavity consists of three cavities that fill the interior area of the chest.

text:
The two pleural cavities are situated on both sides of the body, anterior to the spine and lateral to the breastbone.
The superior mediastinum is a wedge-shaped cavity located between the superior regions of the two thoracic cavities.
The pericardial cavity within the mediastinum is located at the center of the chest below the superior mediastinum. The pericardial cavity roughly outlines the shape of the heart.

text:
The diaphragm divides the thoracic and the abdominal cavities. The abdominal cavity occupies the entire lower half of the trunk, anterior to the spine. Just under the abdominal cavity, anterior to the buttocks, is the pelvic cavity. The pelvic cavity is funnel shaped and is located inferior and anterior to the abdominal cavity. Together the abdominal and pelvic cavity can be referred to as the abdominopelvic cavity while the thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic cavities together can be referred to as the ventral body cavity.[2]
Subdivisions of the Posterior (Dorsal) and Anterior (Ventral) Cavities
The anterior (ventral) cavity has two main subdivisions: the thoracic cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity. The thoracic cavity is the more superior subdivision of the anterior cavity, and it is enclosed by the rib cage. The thoracic cavity contains the lungs and the heart, which is located in the mediastinum. The diaphragm forms the floor of the thoracic cavity and separates it from the more inferior abdominopelvic cavity. The abdominopelvic cavity is the largest cavity in the body. Although no membrane physically divides the abdominopelvic cavity, it can be useful to distinguish between the abdominal cavity, the division that houses the digestive organs, and the pelvic cavity, the division that houses the organs of reproduction.[2]

text: The cavities include:[3]

text:
Dorsal body cavity
cranial cavity, enclosed by the skull and contains the brain
spinal canal, enclosed by the spine and contains the spinal cord.
Ventral body cavity
thoracic cavity, enclosed by the ribcage and contains the lungs and heart.
abdominopelvic cavity
abdominal cavity, enclosed by the ribcage and pelvis and contains the kidneys, ureters, stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.
pelvic cavity, enclosed by the pelvis and contains bladder, anus and reproductive system.

text:
Human body cavities and membranes

Name of cavity

Principal contents

Membranous lining

Dorsal body cavity

Cranial cavity

Brain

Meninges

Vertebral canal

Spinal cord

Meninges

Ventral body cavity

Thoracic cavity

Heart, Lungs

PericardiumPleural cavity

Abdominopelvic cavity

Abdominal cavity

Digestive organs, spleen, kidneys

Peritoneum

Pelvic cavity

Bladder, reproductive organs

Peritoneum

text: Development[edit]

text: At the end of the third week, the neural tube, which is a fold of one of the layers of the trilaminar germ disc, called the ectoderm, appears. This layer elevates and closes dorsally, while the gut tube rolls up and closes ventrally to create a “tube on top of a tube.” The mesoderm, which is another layer of the trilaminar germ disc, holds the tubes together and the lateral plate mesoderm, the middle layer of the germ disc, splits to form a visceral layer associated with the gut and a parietal layer, which along with the overlying ectoderm, forms the lateral body wall. The space between the visceral and parietal layers of lateral plate mesoderm is the primitive body cavity. When the lateral body wall folds, it moves ventrally and fuses at the midline. The body cavity closes, except in the region of the connecting stalk. Here, the gut tube maintains an attachment to the yolk sac. The yolk sac is a membranous sac attached to the embryo, which provides nutrients and functions as the circulatory system of the very early embryo.[4]

text: The lateral body wall folds, pulling the amnion in with it so that the amnion surrounds the embryo and extends over the connecting stalk, which becomes the umbilical cord, which connects the fetus with the placenta. If the ventral body wall fails to close, ventral body wall defects can result, such as ectopia cordis, a congenital malformation in which the heart is abnormally located outside the thorax. Another defect is gastroschisis, a congenital defect in the anterior abdominal wall through which the abdominal contents freely protrude. Another possibility is bladder exstrophy, in which part of the urinary bladder is present outside the body. In normal circumstances, the parietal mesoderm will form the parietal layer of serous membranes lining the outside (walls) of the peritoneal, pleural, and pericardial cavities. The visceral layer will form the visceral layer of the serous membranes covering the lungs, heart, and abdominal organs. These layers are continuous at the root of each organ as the organs lie in their respective cavities. The peritoneum, a serum membrane that forms the lining of the abdominal cavity, forms in the gut layers and in places mesenteries extend from the gut as double layers of peritoneum. Mesenteries provide a pathway for vessels, nerves, and lymphatics to the organs. Initially, the gut tube from the caudal end of the foregut to the end of the hindgut is suspended from the dorsal body wall by dorsal mesentery. Ventral mesentery, derived from the septum transversum, exists only in the region of the terminal part of the esophagus, the stomach, and the upper portion of the duodenum.[5]


document_title: Spartan Constitution

question_text: the spartan constitution contained which element(s) of government

question_tokens: the spartan constitution contained which element ( s ) of government

text: Spartan Constitution

text: The act of foundation[edit]

text: Great Rhetra[edit]

text: According to Plutarch,[1] Lycurgus (to whom is attributed the establishment of the severe reforms for which Sparta has become renowned, sometime in the 9th century BC) first sought counsel from the god Apollo by obtaining an oracle from Delphi regarding the formation of his government. The divine proclamation, which he received in this manner, is known as a "rhetra" and is given in part by Plutarch as follows:

text: Plutarch provides by way of explanation: "In these clauses, the "phylai" and the "obai" refer to divisions and distributions of the people into clans and phratries, or brotherhoods; by "archagetai" the kings are designated, and "appellazein" means to assemble the people, with a reference to Apollo, the Pythian god, who was the source and author of the polity. The Babyca is now called Cheimarrus, and the Cnacion Oenus; but Aristotle says that Cnacion is a river, and Babyca a bridge."[1]

text: Another version of the rhetra is given by H. Michell:[2]

text: That is to say that after the people had been divided according to their different tribes ("phyles" and "obes"), they would welcome the new Lycurgan reforms.

text: Laws of Lycurgus[edit]

text: The Spartans had no historical records, literature, or written laws, which were, according to tradition, expressly prohibited by an ordinance of Lycurgus, excluding the Great Rhetra.

text: Issuance of coinage was forbidden. Spartans were obliged to use iron obols (bars or spits), meant to encourage self-sufficiency and discourage avarice and the hoarding of wealth. A Spartan citizen in good standing was one who maintained his fighting skills, showed bravery in battle, ensured that his farms were productive, was married and had healthy children. Spartan women were the only Greek women to hold property rights on their own, and were required to practice sports before marriage. Although they had no formal political rights, they were expected to speak their minds boldly and their opinions were heard.

text: Structure of Spartan society and government[edit]

text: Spartan society can be represented by a three-layer pyramid ruled by the government.

text: Society[edit]

text: Spartiates[edit]

text: Not all inhabitants of the Spartan state were considered citizens (part of the demos). Only those who had successfully undertaken military training, called the agoge, were eligible. Usually, the only people eligible to receive the agoge were Spartiates—men who could trace their ancestry to the original inhabitants of the city—although there were two exceptions. Trophimoi ("foster sons") were foreign teenagers invited to study. This was meant as a supreme honor. The pro-Spartan Athenian magnate Xenophon sent his two sons to Sparta for their education as trophimoi. Alcibiades, being an Alcmaeonid and thus a member of a family with old and strong connections to Sparta, was admitted as a trophimos and famously excelled in the agoge as well as otherwise (he was rumoured to have seduced one of the two queen consorts with his exceptional looks). The other exception was that sons of helots could be enrolled as syntrophoi (comrades, literally "the ones fed, or reared, together") if a Spartiate formally adopted him and paid his way. If a syntrophos did exceptionally well in training, he might be sponsored to become a Spartiate himself. A free-born Spartan who had successfully completed the agoge became a "peer" (ὅμοιος, hómoios, literally "similar") with full civil rights at the age of 20, and remained one as long as he could contribute his equal share of grain to the common military mess in which he was obliged to dine every evening for as long as he was battle-worthy (usually until the age of 60). This was meant as assurance that every peer took good care of his estates and patrimony. Such hómoioi were also required to sleep in the barracks until the age of 30, regardless of whether they were married or not.

text: Perioeci[edit]

text: Others in the state were the perioeci, who can be described as civilians.

text: Helots[edit]

text: Helots were the state-owned serfs who made up 90 percent of the population. They were citizens of conquered states, such as Messenia who were conquered for their fertile land during the First Messenian War.

text: Government[edit]

text: The Doric state of Sparta, copying the Doric Cretans, instituted a mixed governmental state: it was composed of elements of monarchical, oligarchical, and democratic systems. Isocrates refers to the Spartans as "subject to an oligarchy at home, to a kingship on campaign" (iii. 24).

text: Dual Kingship[edit]

text: The state was ruled by two hereditary kings of the Agiad and the Eurypontid families, both descendants of Heracles and equal in authority so that one could not act against the power and political enactments of his colleague, though the Agiad king received greater honour by virtue of seniority of his family for being the "oldest extant" (Herod. vi. 5).

text: There are several legendary explanations for this unusual dual kingship, which differ only slightly; for example, that King Aristodemus had twin sons, who agreed to share the kingship, and this became perpetual. Modern scholars have advanced various theories to account for the anomaly. Some theorize that this system was created in order to prevent absolutism, and is paralleled by the analogous instance of the dual consuls of Rome. Others believe that it points to a compromise arrived at to end the struggle between two families or communities. Other theories suggest that this was an arrangement that was met when a community of villages combined to form the city of Sparta. Subsequently the two chiefs from the largest villages became kings. Another theory suggests that the two royal houses represent respectively the Spartan conquerors and their Achaean predecessors: those who hold this last view appeal to the words attributed by Herodotus (v. 72) to Cleomenes I: "I am no Dorian, but an Achaean"; although this is usually explained by the (equally legendary) descent of Aristodemus from Heracles. Either way, kingship in Sparta was hereditary and thus every king Sparta had was a descendant of the Agiad and the Eurypontid families. Accession was given to the male child who was first born after a king's accession.

text: The duties of the kings were primarily religious, judicial, and militaristic. They were the chief priests of the state, and performed certain sacrifices and also maintained communication with the Delphic sanctuary, which always exercised great authority in Spartan politics. In the time of Herodotus (about 450 BC), their judicial functions had been restricted to cases dealing with heiresses, adoptions and the public roads. Civil cases were decided by the ephors, and criminal jurisdiction had been passed to the ephors, as well as to a council of elders. By 500 BC the Spartans had become increasingly involved in the political affairs of the surrounding city-states, often putting their weight behind pro-Spartan candidates. Shortly before 500 BC, as described by Herodotus, such an action fueled a confrontation between Sparta and Athens, when the two kings, Demaratus and Cleomenes, took their troops to Athens. However, just before the heat of battle, King Demaratus changed his mind about attacking the Athenians and abandoned his co-king. For this reason, Demaratus was banished, and eventually found himself at the side of Persian King Xerxes for his invasion of Greece twenty years later (480 BC), after which the Spartans enacted a law demanding that one king remain behind in Sparta while the other commanded the troops in battle.

text: Aristotle describes the kingship at Sparta as "a kind of unlimited and perpetual generalship" (Pol. iii. I285a), Here also, however, the royal prerogatives were curtailed over time. Dating from the period of the Persian wars, the king lost the right to declare war, and was accompanied in the field by two ephors. He was supplanted also by the ephors in the control of foreign policy. Over time, the kings became mere figureheads except in their capacity as generals. Real power was transferred to the ephors and to the gerousia.

text: Ephors[edit]

text: The ephors, chosen by popular election from the whole body of citizens, represented a democratic element in the constitution.

text: After the ephors were introduced, they, together with the two kings, were the executive branch of the state.[3] Ephors themselves had more power than anyone in Sparta, although the fact that they only stayed in power for a single year reduced their ability to conflict with already established powers in the state. Since reelection was not possible, an ephor who abused his power, or confronted an established power center, would have to suffer retaliation. Although the five ephors were the only officials with regular legitimization by popular vote, in practice they were often the most conservative force in Spartan politics.

text: Gerousia[edit]

text: The difference with today's states is that Sparta had a special policy maker, the gerousia, a council consisting of 28 elders over the age of 60, elected for life and usually part of the royal households, and the two kings. High state policy decisions were discussed by this council who could then propose action alternatives to the demos.

text: Apella[edit]

text: The collective body of Spartan citizenry would select one of the alternatives by voting. Unlike most Greek poleis, the Spartan citizen assembly could neither set the agenda of issues to be decided, nor debate them, merely vote on the alternatives presented to them. Neither could foreign embassies or emissaries address the assembly; they had to present their case to the Gerousia, which would then consult with the Ephors. Sparta considered all discourse from outside as a potential threat and all other states as past, present, or future enemies, to be treated with caution in the very least, even when bound with alliance treaties.

text: Notes[edit]


document_title: List of English words of French origin

question_text: how did the word saxophone come into our language

text: List of English words of French origin

text: Historical context[edit]

text: Most of the French vocabulary now appearing in English was imported over the centuries following the Norman Conquest of 1066, when England came under the administration of Norman-speaking peoples. William the Conqueror invaded the island of Britain, distributing lands and property to the Normans. As a result, French became the language of culture and the administration. The majority of the population of England continued to use their Anglo-Saxon language, but it was influenced by the language of the ruling elite, resulting in doublets. Consider for example the words for the meats eaten by the Anglo-Norman nobility and the corresponding animals raised by the Anglo-Saxon peasants: beef / ox, mutton / sheep, veal / calf, pork / pig, or pairs of words pertaining to different registers of language: commence / start, continue / go on, disengage / withdraw, encounter / meet, vend / sell, purchase / buy, commerce / trade. Words of French origin often refer to more abstract or elaborate notions than their Anglo-Saxon equivalents (e.g. liberty / freedom, justice / fairness), and are therefore of less frequent use in everyday language. This may not, however, be the case for all English words of French origin. Consider, for example: able, car, chair, city, country, fine, fruit, journey, juice, just, part, people, real, stay, table, travel, use, very, and wait.

text: After the rise of Henry Plantagenet to the throne of England, other forms of dialectal French may have gained in influence to the detriment of Norman French (notably the variants of Anjou where the House of Plantagenet came from, and possibly Poitevin, the tongue of Eleanor of Aquitaine). With the English claim to the throne of France, the influence of the language in use at the royal court of France in Paris increased. The cultural influence of France remained strong in the following centuries and from the Renaissance onward borrowings were mainly made from Parisian French, which became the de facto standard language of France.

text: Notable fields of French influence[edit]

text: Feudalism[edit]

text: Norman rule of England had a lasting impact on British society. Words from Anglo-Norman or Old French include terms related to Chivalry (homage, liege, peasant, government, seigniorage, suzerain, vassal, villain) and other institutions (bailiff, chancellor, council, government, mayor, minister, parliament), the organisation of religion (abbey, clergy, cloister, diocese, friar, mass, parish, prayer, preach, priest, sacristy, vestment, vestry, vicar), the nobility (baron, count, dame, duke, marquis, prince, sir), and the art of war (armour, baldric, dungeon, hauberk, mail, portcullis, rampart, surcoat). Many of these words related to the feudal system or medieval warfare have a Germanic origin (mainly through Old Frankish) (see also French words of Germanic origin).

text: The Norman origin of the British monarchy is still visible in expressions like Prince Regent, heir apparent, Princess Royal where the adjective is placed after the noun, like in French.

text: Heraldry[edit]

text: The vocabulary of heraldry has been heavily influenced by French (blazon, or, argent, sable, gules, passant), for more details see tinctures, attitudes, and charges of heraldry.

text: Sometimes used in heraldry, some mythological beasts (cockatrice, dragon, griffin, hippogriff, phoenix) or exotic animals (lion, leopard, antelope, gazelle, giraffe, camel, zebu, elephant, baboon, macaque, mouflon, dolphin, ocelot, ostrich, chameleon) draw their name from French. It is also the case of some animals native of Europe (via Anglo-Norman: eagle, buzzard, falcon, squirrel, coney, rabbit, leveret, lizard, marten, ferret, salmon, viper).

text: Military[edit]

text: The vocabulary of warfare and the military include many words of French origin (battalion, dragoon, soldier, marine, grenadier, guard, officer, infantry, cavalry, army, artillery, corvette, musketeer, carabineer, pistol, fusilier, squad, squadron, platoon, brigade, corps, sortie, reconnaissance/reconnoitre, surrender, surveillance, rendezvous, espionage, volley, siege, terrain, troop, camouflage, logistics, matériel, accoutrements, bivouac, latrine, aide-de-camp, legionnaire, morale, esprit de corps, cordon sanitaire. See also military ranks: corporal, sergeant, lieutenant, captain, colonel, general, admiral. Many fencing terms are also from French.

text: Politics and economics[edit]

text: The political/economic lexicon include many words of French origin like money, treasury, exchequer, commerce, finance, tax, liberalism, capitalism, materialism, nationalism, plebiscite, coup d'état, regime, sovereignty, state, administration, federal, bureaucracy, constitution, jurisdiction, district.

text: Law[edit]

text: The judicial lexicon has also been heavily influenced by French (justice, judge, jury, attorney, court, case). (See also Law French).

text: Diplomacy[edit]

text: attaché, chargé d'affaires, envoy, embassy, chancery, diplomacy, démarche, communiqué, aide-mémoire, détente, entente, rapprochement, accord, treaty, alliance, passport, protocol.

text: Arts[edit]

text: art, music, dance, theatre, author, stage, paint, canvas, perform, harmony, melody, rhythm, trumpet, note, director, gallery, portrait, brush, pallet, montage, surrealism, impressionism, fauvism, cubism, symbolism, art nouveau, gouache, aquarelle, collage, render, frieze, grisaille …;

text: Architecture[edit]

text: aisle, arcade, arch, vault, voussoir, belfry, arc-boutant, buttress, bay, lintel, estrade, facade, balustrade, terrace, lunette, niche, pavilion, pilaster, porte cochère ;

text: Aviation and automobile engineering[edit]

text: France played a pioneering role in the fields of aviation (nacelle, empennage, fuselage, aileron, altimeter, canard, decalage, monocoque, turbine) and automobile engineering or design (chassis, piston, arbor, grille, tonneau, berline, sedan, limousine, cabriolet, coupé, convertible) ;

text: Cuisine[edit]

text: baba au rhum, beef, beef bourguignon, boudin, caramel, casserole, cassoulet, clafoutis, confit, consommé, cream, croissant, custard, foie gras, flognarde, fondant, fondue, gateau, gratin, marmalade, mayonnaise, meringue, mille-feuille, mustard, mutton, navarin, pâté, pastry, petit four, pork, ragout, roux, salad, sauce, sausage, soufflé, stew, terrine, trifle, veal …

text: Colours and Other Influences[edit]

text: Other influences include color names (ecru, mauve, beige, carmine, maroon, blue, orange, violet, vermilion, turquoise, lilac, perse, scarlet, cerise) ; vegetables or fruits (courgette, aubergine, cabbage, carrot, cherry, chestnut, cucumber, nutmeg, quince, spinach, lemon, orange, apricot); months of the year (January, March, May, July, November, December).

text: Terms coined by French people[edit]

text: Some of the French words that made their way into the English language were coined by French inventors, discoverers or pioneers, or scientists: cinema, television, helicopter, parachute, harmonium, bathyscaphe, lactose, lecithin, bacteriophage, chlorophyll, mastodon, pterodactyl, oxide, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, photography, stethoscope, thermometer, stratosphere, troposphere.

text: Named after French people[edit]

text: Some French words were named after French people (from their family name), especially in the fields of science (ampere, appertisation, baud, becquerel, braille, coulomb, curie, daguerreotype, pascal, pasteurise, vernier), botany and mineralogy (begonia, bougainvillea, clementine, magnolia, dolomite, nicotine), fashion and style or any other cultural aspect (lavalier, leotard, recamier, mansard, chauvinism, kir, praline, saxophone, silhouette, guillotine) .

text: Proper names[edit]

text: The names of certain cities in non-francophone regions/countries entered English with French spelling (Constance, Ypres, Bruges, Louvain, Turin, Milan, Plaisance, Florence, Rome, Naples, Syracuse, Vienna, Prague, Munich, Cologne, Aix-la-Chapelle, Seville, Constantinople.

text: In North America, the names of some of the Native American peoples or First Nations the French came in contact with first are from French (Sioux, Saulteaux, Iroquois, Nez Perce, Huron, Cheyenne, Algonquin). It is also the case of some place names such as Canada, Arkansas, Michigan, Illinois, Maine, Vermont, Des Moines, Detroit, Chicago and Baton Rouge.

text: Main patterns of influence[edit]

text: Some words from Old French have been imported again from Middle French or Modern French, but have generally taken a more restrictive or specialised meaning the second time. Consider for instance : chief / chef, luminary / luminaire, liquor / liqueur, castle / château, hostel / hotel, mask / masque, necessary / nécessaire, petty / petit, ticket / etiquette, troop / troupe, vanguard / avant-garde. Note that the word in French has kept the general meaning: e.g. château in French means castle and chef means chief. Even when not imported several times in different forms, loanwords from French generally have a more restrictive or specialised meaning than in French: e.g. legume (in Fr. légume means vegetable), gateau (in Fr. gâteau means cake).

text: In some cases, the English language has been more conservative than the French one with Old French words, at least in spelling if not in pronunciation: e.g. apostle (O.Fr. apostle / M.Fr. apôtre), castle (O.Fr. castel or chastel / M.Fr. château), forest (O.Fr. forest / M.Fr. forêt), vessel (O.Fr. vaissel / M.Fr. vaisseau). Other Old French words have even disappeared from Modern French: dandelion.

text: On the other hand, a move to restore the classical roots (Latin or Ancient Greek) occurred in the 16th and 17th centuries. Thus words from Old French saw their spelling re-Latinized. Although in most cases this did not affect their pronunciation (e.g. debt, doubt, indict, mayor), in some cases it did (e.g. abnormal, adventure, benefit). The ph transcription of words of Greek etymology was restored instead of the f. Thus fantosme became phantom, fesan became pheasant. This move occurred also in French, although less systematically (Old French farmacie became pharmacie ("pharmacy"), fenix became phénix ("phoenix"), but fantosme became fantôme ("phantom, ghost") and fesan became faisan ("pheasant").

text: Beside re-Latinization that blurred the French origin of some words (e.g. peradventure), other modifications in spelling have included folk etymology alterations (see belfry, crayfish, gillyflower, gingerbread, penthouse, pickaxe).

text: Furthermore, the spelling of some words was changed to keep the pronunciation as close to the original as possible (e.g. leaven), whereas in other cases the French spelling was kept and resulted in totally different pronunciation than French (e.g. leopard, levee). Terms that most recently entered the English language have kept French pronunciation and spelling (ambiance, aplomb, arbitrage, armoire, barrage, bonhomie, bourgeoisie, brochure, bureau, café, camaraderie, catalogue, chauffeur, collage, critique, debris, décor, dossier, élite, entourage, ennui, entrepreneur, espionage, expertise, exposé, financier, garage, genre, glacier, intrigue, liaison, lingerie, machine, mirage, montage, panache, penchant, plaque, promenade, repertoire, reservoir, sabotage, souvenir, terrain, tranche), though this may change with time (e.g. the initial h in hotel is not silent anymore, consider also the evolving pronunciation of herb, or garage). Expressions like femme fatale, bête noire and enfant terrible are still recognisably French.

text: Borrowings are not a one-way process (See Reborrowing), some words of French origin ultimately come from Old English (Anglo-Saxon words) : e.g. : bateau, chiffon, gourmet. While conversely English words of French origin made their way "back" into Modern French : budget, challenge, design, discount, fuel, gay, gin, humour, interview, jury, management, mess, pedigree, record, reporter, spleen, sport, squat, standard, suspense, tennis, ticket, toast, toboggan, tunnel, vintage.

text: A-C[edit]

text: D-I[edit]

text: J-R[edit]

text: S-Z[edit]


document_title: Grammy Award records

question_text: who won the most grammys of all time

question_tokens: who won the most grammys of all time

text: Grammy Award records

text: Awards[edit]

text: Most Grammys won[edit]

text: The record for the most Grammy Awards won in a lifetime is held by Georg Solti, a Hungarian-British conductor who conducted the Chicago Symphony Orchestra for twenty-two years. He has won a total of 31 competitive Grammy Awards out of 74 nominations and was awarded a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 1996.[1][2]

text:
Rank

Artist

Awards

1
Georg Solti
31

2
Alison Krauss
27

Quincy Jones

4
Pierre Boulez
26

5
Vladimir Horowitz
25

Stevie Wonder

7
John Williams
24

8
U2
22

Chick Corea

Beyoncé

11
Jay-Z
21

Kanye West

Vince Gill

14
Henry Mancini
20

Pat Metheny

Bruce Springsteen

Al Schmitt

text: Most Grammys won by a male artist[edit]

text: Georg Solti has won a total of 31 Grammy Awards.

text:
Rank

Artist

Awards

1
Georg Solti
31

2
Quincy Jones
27

3
Pierre Boulez
26

4
Vladimir Horowitz
25

Stevie Wonder

6
John Williams
24

7
Chick Corea
22

8
Kanye West
21

Vince Gill

Jay Z

11
Henry Mancini
20

Pat Metheny

Al Schmitt

Bruce Springsteen

15
Tony Bennett
18

Jimmy Sturr

Yo-Yo Ma

Paul McCartney

text: Most Grammys won by a female artist[edit]

text: Alison Krauss has, as a solo artist, collaborator and producer, won 27 Grammy Awards.[3]

text:
Rank

Artist

Awards

1
Alison Krauss[note 1]
27

2
Beyoncé[note 2]
22

3
Aretha Franklin
18

4
Adele
15

Alicia Keys

6
Ella Fitzgerald
13

Emmylou Harris

Leontyne Price

9
CeCe Winans
12

10
Shirley Caesar
11

11
Chaka Khan
10

Bonnie Raitt

Linda Ronstadt

Taylor Swift

15
Mary J. Blige
9

Natalie Cole

Sheryl Crow

Norah Jones

Rihanna

Hillary Scott[note 3]

text: Most Grammys won by a group[edit]

text: U2 holds the record for most Grammy Awards won by a group. They have won 22 awards.

text:
Rank

Artists

Awards

1
U2
22

2
Alison Krauss and Union Station
14

3
Dixie Chicks
13

4
Foo Fighters
12

5
Pat Metheny Group
10

6
The Manhattan Transfer
9

The Beatles

Emerson String Quartet

Asleep At The Wheel

10
Blackwood Brothers
8

Metallica

Santana

Take 6

14
Coldplay
7

Kentucky Thunder

Lady Antebellum

Simon & Garfunkel

Los Tigres del Norte

text: Most Grammys won by a producer[edit]

text: Quincy Jones with 27 awards holds the record for most Grammy Awards won by a producer (and eleven of those were awarded for production duties. Jones also received Grammys as an arranger and a performing artist). Some producers have also won awards as engineers, mixers and/or mastering engineers.

text:
Rank

Producer

Awards

1
Quincy Jones
27

2
Kanye West
21

3
David Foster
16

James Mallinson

David Frost

6
Steven Epstein
15

7
Phil Ramone
14

8
T Bone Burnett
13

Robert Woods

Jay David Saks

11
Arif Mardin
11

text: Most Grammys won by an engineer or mixer[edit]

text: Al Schmitt, with 20 awards, has won more Grammy Awards than any other engineer or mixer.

text: Youngest winners[edit]

text: The Peasall Sisters are the youngest Grammy winners, when they were credited artists on the O Brother, Where Art Thou? soundtrack, which won Album of the Year in 2002.[4] LeAnn Rimes is the youngest individual winner. She was 14 years old when she won her first two awards in 1997.  She was also the first Country artist to win the Best New Artist Grammy.

text:
Rank

Age

Artist

1
7 years
Leah Peasall

2
9 years
Hannah Peasall

3
13 years
Sarah Peasall

4
14 years, 182 days
LeAnn Rimes

5
14 years, 313 days
Luis Miguel

6
17 years, 81 days
Lorde

7
18 years, 105 days
Daya

8
18 years, 123 days
Monica

9
19 years, 67 days
Christina Aguilera

10
19 years, 112 days
LaTavia Roberson

text: Youngest artists to win Album of the Year[edit]

text: Taylor Swift is the youngest artist to win Album of the Year. She was 20 years old when she won in 2010 for her album Fearless.

text:
Rank

Age

Artist

1
20 years, 49 days
Taylor Swift

2
21 years, 242 days
Alanis Morissette

3
22 years, 18 days
Barbra Streisand

4
23 years, 274 days
Lauryn Hill

5
23 years, 283 days
Adele

6
23 years, 293 days
Stevie Wonder

7
23 years, 330 days
Norah Jones

text: Oldest winners[edit]

text: Pinetop Perkins is the oldest person to win a Grammy. In 2011 he was awarded Best Traditional Blues Album for Joined At The Hip at 97 years of age.

text:
Rank

Age

Artist

1
97 years, 221 days
Pinetop Perkins

2
95 years, 31 days
George Burns

3
91 years, 137 days
Jimmy Carter

4
90 years, 52 days
Elizabeth Cotten

5
90 years, 26 days
Betty White

text: Note: Sources vary on the birth year of Elizabeth Cotten, with some stating it as 1893, while others say 1895. The above information credits it as 1895. With either year, Cotten is the oldest female Grammy winner.

text: Most honored albums[edit]

text: Santana's Supernatural and U2's How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb hold the record for most honoured album having won nine awards. Supernatural won nine awards in 2000 and How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb won three awards in 2005 and won a further six in 2006 giving it a total of nine awards.

text:
Rank

Albums and artists

Awards

1

How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb — U2

9

Supernatural — Santana

3

Come Away With Me — Norah Jones

8

Genius Loves Company — Ray Charles

Thriller — Michael Jackson

6

All That You Can't Leave Behind — U2

7

Back on the Block — Quincy Jones

21 — Adele

9

24K Magic — Bruno Mars

6

Back To Black — Amy Winehouse

The Blueprint 3 — Jay Z

Bridge Over Troubled Water — Simon & Garfunkel

Raising Sand — Robert Plant & Alison Krauss

The Return of Roger Miller — Roger Miller

Taking the Long Way — Dixie Chicks

To Pimp a Butterfly — Kendrick Lamar

Toto IV — Toto

Unforgettable... with Love — Natalie Cole

Unplugged — Eric Clapton

text: Most Album of the Year wins[edit]

text: The record for most Album of the Year wins is four.

text: Tom Coyne, mastering engineer — 21 (2012), 1989 (2016), 25 (2017), 24K Magic (2018)

text: Three recording artists, four record producers, two mastering engineers and three engineer/mixers have won the award three times.

text:
Frank Sinatra, artist — Come Dance with Me! (1960), September of My Years (1966), A Man and His Music (1967)
Stevie Wonder, artist — Innervisions (1974), Fulfillingness' First Finale (1975), Songs in the Key of Life (1977)
Paul Simon, artist — Bridge over Troubled Water (1971), Still Crazy After All These Years (1976), Graceland (1987)
David Foster, producer — Unforgettable… with Love (1992), The Bodyguard: Original Soundtrack Album (1994), Falling into You (1997)
Phil Ramone, producer — Still Crazy After All These Years (1976), 52nd Street (1980), Genius Loves Company (2005)
Daniel Lanois, producer — The Joshua Tree (1988), Time Out of Mind (1998), How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb (2006)
Bob Ludwig, mastering engineer — Babel (2013), Random Access Memories (2014), Morning Phase (2015)
Tom Elmhirst, engineer/mixer — 21 (2012), Morning Phase (2015), 25 (2017)
Ryan Tedder, producer — 21 (2012), 1989 (2016), 25 (2017)
Serban Ghenea, engineer/mixer — 1989 (2016), 25 (2017), 24K Magic (2018)
John Hanes, engineer/mixer — 1989 (2016), 25 (2017), 24K Magic (2018)

text: Most Record of the Year wins[edit]

text: Tom Coyne won Record of the Year four consecutive times as a mastering engineer.

text: Most Grammys won for consecutive albums[edit]

text: Pat Metheny and his band the Pat Metheny Group have won 20 Grammy Awards in total, including seven consecutive awards for seven consecutive albums.[5] Metheny held the record for Grammy wins in the most different categories as of the 2005 Grammy Awards:

text:
Best Jazz Fusion Performance (1983, 1984, 1985, 1988, 1990)
Best Instrumental Composition (1991)
Best Contemporary Jazz Performance/Album (1993, 1994, 1996, 1999, 2003, 2005)
Best Jazz Instrumental Performance, Individual or Group (1998, 2000, 2013)
Best Rock Instrumental Performance (1999)
Best Jazz Instrumental Solo (2001)
Best New Age Album (2004, 2012)

text: Most consecutive Grammys won for the same category[edit]

text: Aretha Franklin holds the record for winning the most consecutive Grammys in the same category. She won the Grammy Award for Best Female R&B Vocal Performance every year from 1968 to 1975, for an eight-year winning streak. She also won in this category in 1982, 1986, and 1988, giving her 11 wins in the category.

text: After Franklin, Jimmy Sturr, Bill Cosby and John Williams are tied for second place for consecutive Grammy wins in the same category:

text: Sturr won six years in a row between 1987 and 1992 for Best Polka Album. He also won for three runs of four consecutive years (1996–1999, 2001–2004, and 2006–2009.) He won 18 out of the 24 Best Polka Album Grammys that were awarded since that category was added in 1985. The award was discontinued in 2009.

text: Cosby won six years in a row between 1965 and 1970 for Grammy Award for Best Comedy Album.

text: Williams won six years in a row between 1978 and 1983 for Grammy Award for Best Score Soundtrack for Visual Media.

text: Lenny Kravitz won the Best Male Rock Vocal Performance award four years in a row (1999, 2000, 2001, 2002).

text: Tom Coyne won Record of the Year four years in a row (2015–2018).

text: Artists who have won all four General Field awards[edit]

text: There have been only two artists who have won all four General Field awards. In 1981, Christopher Cross won Record, Album and Song of the Year as well as Best New Artist.[6] Adele is the second artist to win all four, and the first female to do so. In 2009, she won Best New Artist and in 2012 and 2017, she won Record, Album and Song of the Year.

text: Single ceremony[edit]

text: Most Grammys won in one night[edit]

text: The Record for Most Grammys won in one night is eight. Michael Jackson won eight in 1984 and Santana tied Jackson's record in 2000.[7]

text:
Rank

Artist(s)

Awards

1
Michael Jackson (1984)
8

Santana (2000)

3
Roger Miller (1966)
6

Paul Simon (1971)

Quincy Jones (1991)

Eric Clapton (1993)

Beyoncé (2010)

Adele (2012)

Bruno Mars (2018)

text: Most Grammys won by a male artist in one night[edit]

text: Michael Jackson won eight in 1984.

text:
Rank

Artist(s)

Awards

1
Michael Jackson (1984)
8

2
Roger Miller (1966)
6

Paul Simon (1971)

Quincy Jones (1991)

Eric Clapton (1993)

Bruno Mars (2018)

text: Most Grammys won by a female artist in one night[edit]

text: The record most Grammys won by a female artist in one night is six. Beyoncé and Adele each won six in 2010 and 2012, respectively.

text:
Rank

Artist

Awards

1
Beyoncé (2010)
6

Adele (2012)

3
Lauryn Hill (1999)
5

Alicia Keys (2002)

Norah Jones (2003)

Beyoncé (2004)

Amy Winehouse (2008)

Alison Krauss (2009)

Adele (2017)

text: Most Grammys won by a group in one night[edit]

text: In 2000, Santana was awarded a total of 8 awards. They won the awards for Record of the Year, Album of the Year, Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group With Vocals, Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals, Best Pop Instrumental Performance, Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group With Vocals, Best Rock Instrumental Performance and Best Rock Album.

text:
Rank

Artists

Awards

1
Santana (2000)
8

2
Simon & Garfunkel (1971)
5

U2 (2006)

Dixie Chicks (2007)

Lady Antebellum (2011)

Foo Fighters (2012)

text: Most Grammys won by a record producer in one night[edit]

text: The record for most awards won by a producer in one night is five. Rick Rubin won five awards in 2007 including Record of the Year, Album of the Year and Best Country Album for the Dixie Chicks, Best Rock Album for the Red Hot Chili Peppers as well as Producer of the Year, Non Classical.

text: Most Grammys won by an engineer or mixer in one night[edit]

text: The most Grammys won by an engineer or mixer in one night is six. At the 59th Annual Grammy Awards in 2017, Tom Elmhirst won Record of the Year, Album of the Year, Best Pop Vocal Album, Best Engineered Album Non Classical, Best Alternative Music Album and Best Rock Album for his work on Adele's '25', David Bowie's 'Blackstar' and Cage The Elephant's 'Tell Me I'm Pretty'.

text: Artist who has won all four General Field Awards at a single ceremony[edit]

text: Christopher Cross (1981) received all four General Field awards in one night. Cross won the Record of the Year ("Sailing"), Album of the Year ("Christopher Cross"), Song of the Year ("Sailing"), and Best New Artist Grammys in a single ceremony.[8]

text: Artists who have won Record, Album and Song of the Year in one night[edit]

text: The three biggest Grammy Awards are Record of the Year, Album of the Year and Song of the Year. Seven artists have won all three in one night. Adele is the only artist in Grammy history to accomplish this twice.

text:
Year

Artist

1971
Paul Simon

1972
Carole King

1981
Christopher Cross

1993
Eric Clapton

2007
Dixie Chicks

2012
Adele

2017

2018
Bruno Mars

text: Most Grammys won by an album in one night[edit]

text: The most awards awarded to an album in one night is nine. In 2000 Santana's Supernatural was awarded nine awards. It won Record of the Year, Album of the Year, Song of the Year, Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group With Vocals, Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals, Best Pop Instrumental Performance, Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group With Vocals, Best Rock Instrumental Performance and Best Rock Album.

text: Most posthumous Grammys won in one night[edit]

text: Ray Charles holds the record for most posthumous awards won in one night. He was awarded five Grammy Awards in 2005 including Album of the Year.

text: Nominations[edit]

text: Most Grammy nominations[edit]

text: Quincy Jones holds the record for the most Grammy nominations with 79.[9][10]

text:
Rank

Artist

Nominations

1

Quincy Jones

79

2

Paul McCartney[note 4]

78

3

Georg Solti

74

Stevie Wonder

Jay Z

6

Henry Mancini

72

7

Kanye West

68

8

Pierre Boulez

67

John Williams

10

Chick Corea

64

11

Leonard Bernstein

63

Beyoncé[note 5]

13

Jay David Saks

53

14

Thomas Z. Shepard

50

Bruce Springsteen

16

Willie Nelson

49

James Mallinson

Babyface

text: Most nominations in one night[edit]

text: Michael Jackson holds the record for most Grammy nominations in one night with 12 nominations.

text:
Rank

Artist

Nominations

Year

1
Michael Jackson
12
1984

2
Kendrick Lamar
11
2016

3
Lauryn Hill
10
1999

Kanye West
2005

Beyoncé
2010

Eminem
2011

7
Roger Miller
9
1966

Paul McCartney
1966

The Manhattan Transfer
1986

Jay Z
2014

Beyoncé
2017

text: Most nominations without winning[edit]

text: The record for most Grammy nominations without a win is 24, held by Morten Lindberg.

text:
Rank

Artist

Nominations

1
Morten Lindberg
24

2
Snoop Dogg
17

Brian McKnight

4
Joe Satriani
15

5
Toshiko Akiyoshi
14

Martina McBride

Dierks Bentley

Björk

9
Katy Perry
13

Nas

Spyro Gyra

Musiq Soulchild

13
Diana Ross
12

Alan Parsons

Busta Rhymes

Ledisi

Lenny Gomulka

Fred Hersch

Keith Jarrett

text: Most nominations in one night without winning[edit]

text:
Rank

Artist

Nominations

1
Paul McCartney (1966)

9

2
Kanye West (2017)
8

Rihanna (2017)

Jay-Z (2018)

5
Stevie Wonder (1983)
7

India.Arie (2002)

Kendrick Lamar (2014)

8
Henry Mancini (1959)
6

Thomas Z. Shepard (1970)

Mariah Carey (1996)

50 Cent (2006)

Bruno Mars (2012)

13
Robert M. Jones (1961)
5

Elvis Presley (1961)

Frank Sinatra (1961)

James Taylor (1971)

Eugene Ormandy (1971)

Paul McCartney (1983)

Sting (1986)

Jay David Saks (1986)

Leonard Bernstein (1989)

Joan Osborne (1996)

Avril Lavigne (2003)

50 Cent (2004)

Alicia Keys (2006)

Gwen Stefani (2006)

Prince (2007)

James Blunt (2007)

Jazmine Sullivan (2009)

B.o.B (2011)

Lil Wayne (2012)

Drake (2014, 2016)

Khalid (2018)

No I.D. (2018)

SZA (2018)

text: Grammy nominations in the most fields[edit]

text:
Rank

Artist

Number

Fields

1

Quincy Jones

15

Spoken word, arranging, music video/film, jazz, pop, rap, general field, r&b, children's, musical theatre, disco, composition, gospel/contemporary christian music, music for visual media and production, non-classical

2

Paul McCartney

11

General field, pop, arranging, rock, traditional, music for visual media, music video/film, spoken word, historical, alternative music and rap

3

David Foster

10

R&b, arranging, composition, music for visual media, production, music video/film, pop, traditional, musical theatre and general field

Bob Dylan

Country, general field, gospel/contemporary christian music, rock, music video/film, music for visual media, folk pop, american roots, and traditional

5

Jack White

9

Rock, general field, alternative, country, pop, package, music video/film, american roots and engineered album

Béla Fleck

Country, pop, jazz, american roots, world music, classical, folk, spoken word, composition and arranging

Janet Jackson

General field, pop, r&b, rock, arranging, rap, music video/film, dance and production, non-classical

8

Cyndi Lauper

8

Rock, pop, general field, music video/film, disco, arranging, american roots and musical theatre

Prince

General field, pop, r&b, rock, engineered album, music video/film, music for visual media and production, non-classical

Michael Jackson

General field, pop, r&b, rock, disco, children's, music video/film and production, non-classical

Danger Mouse

General field, pop, r&b, rock, rap, alternative, music video/film and production, non-classical

Herbie Hancock

General field, pop, r&b, rock, jazz, music video/film, music for visual media and composition

Lionel Richie

General field, pop, r&b, music for visual media, dance, arranging, gospel/contemporary christian music and production, non-classical

Justin Timberlake

General field, pop, r&b, country, rap, music for visual media, dance and music video/film

Stevie Wonder

General field, pop, r&b, arranging, composition, music for visual media, music video/film and production, non-classical

Beyoncé

General field, pop, r&b, rock, rap, music for visual media, surround sound and music video/film

Pharrell Williams

General field, pop, r&b, dance, rap, music for visual media, music video/film and production, non-classical

text: Artists who had been nominated for all four General Field awards in one night[edit]

text: Only ten artists have been nominated for all four General Field awards in one night.

text:
Year

Artist

1968
Bobbie Gentry

1981
Christopher Cross

1985
Cyndi Lauper

1989
Tracy Chapman

1991
Mariah Carey

1998
Paula Cole

2002
India.Arie

2008
Amy Winehouse

2013
Fun.

2015
Sam Smith

text: Youngest nominees[edit]

text: Leah Peasall of the Peasall sisters is the youngest ever Grammy nominee (and winner) as one of the credited artists on the O Brother, Where Art Thou? (soundtrack) in 2002.[4] Deleon Richards is the youngest performer to receive an individual nomination, for Best Soul/Gospel performance.[11]

text:
Rank

Age

Artist

1
7 years
Leah Peasall

2
8 years, 161 days
Deleon Richards

3
9 years
Hannah Peasall

4
12 years, 126 days
Zac Hanson

5
12 years, 155 days
Joey Alexander

6
12 years, 199 days
Michael Jackson

7
12 years, 273 days
Billy Gilman

8
13 years
Sarah Peasall

9
14 years, 45 days
Chris "Daddy Mac" Smith

10
14 years, 182 days
LeAnn Rimes

11
14 years, 197 days
Chris "Mac Daddy" Kelly

12
14 years, 313 days
Luis Miguel

13
14 years, 348 days
Taylor Hanson


document_title: U.S. history of alcohol minimum purchase age by state

question_text: when did drinking age in maryland change from 18 to 21

text: The alcohol laws of the United States regarding minimum age for purchase have changed over time.  This history is given in the table below.  Unless otherwise noted, if different alcohol categories have different minimum purchase ages, the age listed below is set at the lowest age given (e.g. if the purchase age is 18 for beer and 21 for wine or spirits, as was the case in several states, the age in the table will read as "18", not "21").  In addition, the purchase age is not necessarily the same as the minimum age for consumption of alcoholic beverages, although they have often been the same.

text:
As one can see in the table below, there has been much volatility in the states' drinking ages since the
repeal of Prohibition in 1933.  Shortly after the ratification of the 21st amendment in December, most states set their purchase ages at 21 since that was the voting age at the time. Most of these limits remained constant until the early 1970s.  From 1969 to 1976, some 30 states lowered their purchase ages, generally to 18. This was primarily because the voting age was lowered from 21 to 18 in 1971 with the 26th amendment. Many states started to lower their minimum drinking age in response, most of this occurring in 1972 or 1973.[1][2][3] Twelve states kept their purchase ages at 21 since repeal of Prohibition and never changed them.

text: From 1976 to 1983, several states voluntarily raised their purchase ages to 19 (or, less commonly, 20 or 21), in part to combat drunk driving fatalities.[citation needed] In 1984, Congress passed the National Minimum Drinking Age Act, which required states to raise their ages for purchase and public possession to 21 by October 1986 or lose 10% of their federal highway funds. By mid-1988, all 50 states and the District of Columbia had raised their purchase ages to 21 (but not Puerto Rico, Guam, or the Virgin Islands, see Additional Notes below). South Dakota and Wyoming were the final two states to comply with the age 21 mandate. The current drinking age of 21 remains a point of contention among many Americans, because of it being higher than the age of majority (18 in most states) and higher than the drinking ages of most other countries. The National Minimum Drinking Age Act is also seen as a congressional sidestep of the tenth amendment. Although debates have not been highly publicized, a few states have proposed legislation to lower their drinking age,[4] while Guam has raised its drinking age to 21 in July 2010.[5]

text:
State
Pre-Prohibition(prior to 1919)
Post-Prohibition(after 1933)
1970s / 26th Amendment(adopted in 1971)
1980s / Drinking Age Act of 1984
21st century

Alabama

Pre 1881:None1881:21 (none with consent of parent)[6]
21
1975:Lowered to 19[7]
1986:Raised to 21[8]
21  (no one underage is allowed consumption Section 28-1)

Alaska

?
21[7]
1970:Lowered to 19[9]
1984:Raised to 21 with grandfather clause (if born before January 1, 1965)[10][11]
21

Arizona

?
21[11]
1972:Lowered to 19[12]
1985:Raised to 21[8]
21

Arkansas

Pre 1925:None[7]1925:21[7]
21
21[13]
21[8]
21

California

Pre 1891:Regulated by municipality/county (common age was 16)[14][15][16]1891:18 (statewide)[17]
1933:21[7]
21
21[8]
21 (except small amounts for religious ceremonies)

Colorado

None[11]
1945:18: for beer21: for wine and liquor[7]
18[18]
Raised to 21 in 1987[8]
21

Connecticut

?
21[11]
1972:Lowered to 18[19]
1982:Raised to 191983:Raised to 201985:Raised to 21[20]
21 (exemptions: (1) a person over age eighteen who is an employee or permit holder under section 30-90a and who possesses alcoholic liquor in the course of such person's employment or business, (2) a minor who possesses alcoholic liquor on the order of a practicing physician, or (3) a minor who possesses alcoholic liquor while accompanied by a parent, guardian or spouse of the minor, who has attained the age of twenty-one. Nothing in this subsection shall be construed to burden a person's exercise of religion under section 3 of article first of the Constitution of the state in violation of subsection (a) of section 52-571b.[21]

Delaware

?
21[11]
1972:Lowered to 20
1984:Raised to 21[8]
21

District of Columbia

?
18: for beer and wine[11]21: for liquor[22][23]
18: for beer and wine[23]21: for liquor
1986:Raised to 21 with grandfather clause.[24][25]
21

Florida

?
18[7]
1980:19[26]
1985:Raised to 21 with grandfather clause[26]
21[27]

Georgia

?
21[11]
1972: Lowered to 18[12]
1984:Raised to 19[13]1985:Raised to 20[13]1986:Raised to 21[13]
21

Hawaii

?
21[7]
1972:Lowered to 18
1986:Raised to 21[8]
21

Idaho

?
20: for beer[28][29]21: for wine and liquor[11][30]
1972:Lowered to 19 (all)[31]
1987:Raised to 21 in 1987 (Apr 11) with grandfather clause[8][32]
21

Illinois

1872:Age of majority (none with written consent of parent)[33]
pre 1961: Age of majority      1961:  Raised to 21[34]
1973:Lowered to 19: for beer and wine21: for liquor[35]
1980:Raised to 21[36]
21

Indiana

?
Post-1934:21[7]
21[13]
21[8]
21

Iowa

?
21[7]
1972:Lowered to 19 in 1972 (Jul 1)1973:Lowered to 18 in 1973 (Jul 1)1978:Raised to 19 in 1978 (Jul 1)[37]
1986:Raised to 21 in 1986 (Jul 1) with grandfather clause.[13][37]
21

Kansas

?
1949:18: for beer and wine with less than 4% ABV21: for liquor[7]
18: for beer and wine with less than 4% ABV[13]21: for beer and wine with 4% ABV or more[13]21: for liquor[13][18]
1985:Raised to 21[8]
21 (However, anyone under 21 may consume cereal malt beverages with parental supervision on their own property)

Kentucky

?
1938:21[7]
21[13]
21[8]
21

Louisiana

?
As of 1948:18
18[18]
1987:Raised to 21 de jure in 1987,[8]but de facto age was still 18 until 1995 due to a sale loophole.1995:De facto age raised to 21 in 1995 when loophole was closed.[38]1996:In 1996, briefly lowered by Louisiana Supreme Court to 18 until it reversed its decision, raising to 21 three months later.[39]Other exceptions still remain.[40]
21 (Exceptions to state law include:[41]
For an established religious purpose;When a person under twenty-one years of age is accompanied by a parent, spouse, or legal guardian twenty-one years of age or older;For medical purposes when purchased as an over the counter medication, or when prescribed or administered by a licensed physician, pharmacist, dentist, nurse, hospital, or medical institution;In a private residence, which shall include a residential dwelling and up to twenty contiguous acres, on which the dwelling is located, owned by the same person who owns the dwelling;The sale, handling, transport, or service in dispensing of any alcoholic beverage pursuant to lawful ownership of an establishment or to lawful employment of a person under twenty-one years of age by a duly licensed manufacturer, wholesaler, or retailer of beverage alcohol.)

Maine

?
21[7]1969:Lowered to 20
1972:Lowered to 18[12]1977:Raised to 20[8][42]
1985:Raised to 21[8]
21

Maryland

?
21[7]
1974:Lowered to 18: for beer and wine21: for liquor[43][44]
1982:Raised to 21 with grandfather clause for those born June 30, 1964 or earlier[45][8][46]
21 (however anyone can drink when parents, spouses, teachers are present)

Massachusetts

?
21[11]
1973:Lowered to 181979:Raised to 20 in 1979 (Apr 16)[47][48][49]
Raised to 21 in 1985[8]
21

Michigan

?
21[7]
1972:Lowered to 18 in 1972 (Jan 1)[50]
1978:Raised to 19 in 1978 (Dec 3)[51][52]1978:Raised to 21 in 1978 (Dec 21), 18 days later.[8]First state to raise age to 21 since it was lowered
21

Minnesota

?
21[11]
1973:Lowered to 18 (June 1)1976:Raised to 19 (Sept 1)[53]First state to raise age after lowering.

1986:Raised to 21[54]
21

Mississippi

?
1966:18: for beer and wine21: for liquor[7](alcohol not legalized until 1966)
18[18]
Raised to 21 in 1986[8]
21

Missouri

?
1945:21[7]
21
21[8]
21

Montana

?
21[11]
1971:Lowered to 19[55]1973:Lowered to 18[56][57]1979:Raised to 19
1987:Raised to 21[8][58]
21

Nebraska

?
21[59]1969:Lowered to 20
1972:Lowered to 19[59]
1980:Raised to 20[13]1985:Raised to 21[13]
21

Nevada

?
1933:21[7]
21
21[8]
21

New Hampshire

?
21[11]
1973:Lowered to 18[60]1979:Raised to 20
1985:Raised to 21[8][20]
21

New Jersey

Before 1880:NonePost-1880:18 (penalties only against businesses)[61][62][63]
21[citation needed]
1973:Lowered to 18[12]
1980:Raised to 191983:Raised to 21[8][64]
21

New Mexico

?
1934:21[7]
21[13]
21[8]
21

New York

21
18[65]
18
1982:Raised to 19 in 1982 (Dec)1985:Raised to 21 in 1985 (Dec)[20][66][67]
21

North Carolina

?
18[11]
18: for beer and wine[18] 21: for liquor
1983:19: for beer and wine 21: for liquor1986:Raised to 21 in 1986 (Sep 1)[8][25]
21

North Dakota

?
1936:21[7]
21[13]
21[68]
21

Ohio

?
1935:18: for 3.2% ABW beer21: for beer stronger than 3.2% ABW, wine and liquor[69]
18: for 3.2% ABW beer21: for beer stronger than 3.2% ABW, wine and liquor
1982 (Aug. 19 to Oct. 1):19: for 3.2% ABW beer[13]21: for beer stronger than 3.2% ABW, wine and liquor[13]1982 (From Oct. 1):19: beer21: wine and liquor[70]1988:21[13]
21 (However, anyone can drink with parents or legal-age spouse)

Oklahoma

?
Men:21Women:18: 3.2% ABW beer21: for beer stronger than 3.2% ABW, wine and liquor[71]
1976:Lowered to 18 (for 3.2% ABW beer) for both sexes in 1976 (Dec)[72]Last state to lower the drinking age.
1983:Raised to 21[11][73]
21

Oregon

?
1933:21[7]
21
21[8]
21

Pennsylvania

?
1935:21[7]
21
21[8][52]
21

Rhode Island

?
21[11]
1970:Lowered to 18[12][74]
1980:Raised to 191981:Raised to 201984:Raised to 21[20]
21

South Carolina

21[75]
1935:18: for beer and wine21: for liquor[7]
18: for beer and wine[18]21: for liquor
1984:19: for beer and wine[7]21: for liquor1986:Raised to 21[8]
21

South Dakota

?
1934:21 (all)1939:Lowered to 18: for 3.2% beerRaised to 19: for 3.2% beer[76]
1972:18: for beer and wine21: for liquor
1984:19: for beer and wine21: for liquor[8]1988:Raised to 21[58]
21

Tennessee

Pre 1881:None1881:21[77]
21[7]1964:Lowered to 18[7]
1979:Raised to 19
1984:Raised to 21[8]
21

Texas

Pre 1909:21None (with written permission of parent or guardian)Post 1909:21[78][79]
21[7]
1973:Lowered to 18[80]
1981:Raised to 19[81]1986:Raised to 21 in 1986 (Sep 1)[8][25]
21

Utah

?
1935:21[7]
21[13]
21[8]
21

Vermont

?
21[7]
1971:Lowered to 18[82][83]
1986:Raised to 21[20][83]
21

Virginia

?
21[84]
1974:Lowered to 18: for beer and wine(21: for liquor remained)[84]
1981:Raised to 19 for off-premises consumption1983:Raised to 19 (all beer)1985:Raised to 21[84]
21

Washington

Age of majoritysince 1877[85]
21[citation needed]
21
21[8]
21

West Virginia

?
18: for beer and wine 21: for liquor[11]
1972:Lowered to 18 (all)[86]
1983:Raised to 19(& 21 for non-residents)[8][42]1986:Raised to 21[8]
21

Wisconsin

1839–1866:18: for wine and liquorNone: for beerPost-1866:21 (all)[87]
18: for beer21: for wine and spirits1957:21: for residents of bordering states with age limit 21.[88]1963:Raised to 21 (off-premises beer sales, remained 18 for on-premises).[88]
1972:Lowered to 18 (all) in 1972 (Mar)[88]1977:Border state restriction lifted.[88]
1984:Raised to 191986:Raised to 21 (September 1, 1986)[88]
21 (however anyone can drink when parents, spouses, teachers are present)[citation needed]

Wyoming

?
21[7]
1973:Lowered to 19
1988:Raised to 21 in 1988 (Jul 1)[89][90]Last state to raise de jure drinking age to 21
21

American Samoa

?
?
?
21?
21[91]

Northern Mariana Islands

–
–
?
21?
21[92]

Puerto Rico

?
18
18
Kept at 18despite highway fundingpenalty under Drinking Age Act.
18[93]

Virgin Islands

?
?
?
18
18[94]

Guam

?
21?
18
18
Raised to 21 in 2010[5]

text: Additional notes[edit]

text:
Contrary to popular belief, since the National Minimum Drinking Age Act of 1984, not all states specifically prohibit minors' and young adults' consumption of alcohol in private settings.  That is because the federal law is concerned only with purchase and public possession, not private consumption, and contains several exceptions. As of January 1, 2007, 14 states and the District of Columbia ban underage consumption outright, 19 states do not specifically ban underage consumption outright, and 17 states have family member or location exceptions to their underage consumption laws. Federal law explicitly provides for religious, medical, employment and private club possession exceptions; as of 2005, 31 states have family member or location exceptions to their underage possession laws.[40]
In the 1960s the age for buying or drinking beer and wine in the District of Columbia (Washington, D.C.) was 18; the age for hard liquor was 21.[22][23] Residents from Virginia and Maryland would often drive to D.C. to obtain alcohol. In Louisiana, the 1987 law raising the age from 18 to 21 was deliberately written solely to comply with the National Minimum Drinking Age Act of 1984 to avoid losing highway funding, while still allowing 18- to 20-year-olds to drink as before.  Not only did it still allow 18- to 20-year-olds to consume in private, it contained a major loophole allowing bars and stores to sell alcohol to 18- to 20-year-olds without penalty (despite purchase being technically illegal) which meant that the de facto age was still 18.[38] In other words, the drinking age was 21 only on paper. This loophole was closed in 1995, but in 1996 the Louisiana Supreme Court declared a drinking age of 21 unconstitutional.[38]  That briefly lowered the de jure purchase age to 18, causing an uproar which prompted the Louisiana Supreme Court to reverse its decision, raising the age to 21 three months later.[39] Other exceptions still remain to this day, including drinking in a private residence,[40] and Louisiana still has some of the most liberal general alcohol laws of any state.
Some states were "dry" well before national Prohibition was enacted in 1919, in some cases since achieving statehood.  Also, some states did not become fully "wet" until several years after the repeal of Prohibition in 1933 (e.g. Mississippi in 1966).  Since 1966, all states and territories of the USA have been "wet", but dry counties and towns still exist in some states.


document_title: That '70s Show (season 6)

question_text: that 70s show donna thinks she's pregnant

question_tokens: that 70s show donna thinks she 's pregnant

text: That '70s Show (season 6)

text: Cast[edit]

text: Main cast[edit]

text:
Topher Grace as Eric Forman
Mila Kunis as Jackie Burkhart
Ashton Kutcher as Michael Kelso
Danny Masterson as Steven Hyde
Laura Prepon as Donna Pinciotti
Wilmer Valderrama as Fez
Debra Jo Rupp as Kitty Forman
Kurtwood Smith as Red Forman
Don Stark as Bob Pinciotti

text: Special guest[edit]

text:
Seth Green as Mitch Miller
Estella Warren as Raquel
Shannon Elizabeth as Brooke
Alyson Hannigan as Suzy Simpson
Rachel Bilson as Christy
Luke Wilson as Casey Kelso
Morgan Fairchild as Carolyn

text: Special guest appearance[edit]

text:
Jim Gaffigan as Roy
Billy Dee Williams as Pastor Dan
Tanya Roberts as Midge Pinciotti

text: Special appearance[edit]

text: Brooke Shields as Pamela Burkhart

text: Recurring[edit]

text:
Christina Moore as Laurie Forman
James Avery as Officer Kennedy
Jim Rash as Fenton

text: Guest[edit]

text:
Dan Castellaneta as Agent Armstrong
Ashley Drane as Julie

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
Prod.
code

129
1
"The Kids are Alright"
David Trainer
Jeff Filgo & Jackie Filgo
October 29, 2003 (2003-10-29)
601

After Red's heart attack, Kitty has to take extra hospital shifts to support the family, worrying Eric, which he believes is a way to guilt him into not going to Madison with Donna. Jackie finally decides on Hyde over Kelso, but finds out the one she chooses already has another girl.

130
2
"Join Together"
David Trainer
Dean Batali
November 5, 2003 (2003-11-05)
602

Hyde is still giving Jackie the cold shoulder, so Kelso decides to help get them back together. Eric depresses Donna about the last things they can do before she goes to Madison, just to have sex, and Kitty throws away all of Red's beer as a precaution to a future heart attack.

131
3
"The Magic Bus"
David Trainer
Rob Deshotel
November 12, 2003 (2003-11-12)
603

It's Eric's 18th birthday and Donna is ready to leave for Madison. At the same time, he wonders why his "surprise birthday party" isn't being arranged by Kitty who has other plans in mind with Red.

132
4
"The Acid Queen"
David Trainer
Mark Hudis
November 19, 2003 (2003-11-19)
604

Kelso tries to convince the gang he did it with Brooke, a former senior in high school when the gang were sophomores, during a Molly Hatchet concert, but she denies it. Jackie becomes jealous after Hyde admits Brooke is attractive, but he doesn't know how to lie righteously to her, and Kelso finds out Brooke's pregnant.

133
5
"I'm Free"
David Trainer
Gregg Mettler
November 26, 2003 (2003-11-26)
605

In order to get past an INS investigator (Dan Castellaneta) on Fez and Laurie's marital status, Fez must live with the Formans to avoid deportation. Meanwhile, Brooke tells Kelso he's off the hook, but Kelso feels he has a responsibility to support her.

134
6
"We're Not Gonna Take It"
David Trainer
Dave Schiff
December 3, 2003 (2003-12-03)
606

Kelso and Eric vie for a waiter job at Hyde's workplace and Red wants Fez and Laurie to get a divorce, until mysterious gifts suddenly arrive at the Formans' door. Donna and Jackie send fudge to a depressed Bob, disguised as secret admirers, to make him happy.

135
7
"Christmas"
David Trainer
Philip Stark
December 17, 2003 (2003-12-17)
607

Jackie brings the gang to a high school Christmas dance in order for her to get back at the cheerleading squad for kicking her out. Eric forgets to visit Donna at the radio station while he, Hyde, and Fez are treated as celebrities at the dance, while Kelso wants to spend the night with Brooke at the library. Meanwhile, Red works in the local mall as Santa Claus, but Bob wants the job too.

136
8
"I'm a Boy"
David Trainer
Kristin Newman
January 7, 2004 (2004-01-07)
608

Eric decides to lounge around at home and become obese, never leaving the comfort of his bed again. Kelso wants to start a serious relationship with Brooke, so he invites her, Hyde, and Jackie to go on a double date. Meanwhile, Fez drives Red around because of his heart attack and gets irritated.
Note: First episode of the series where the license plate shows the year is 1979.

137
9
"Young Man Blues"
David Trainer
Bryan Moore & Chris Peterson
January 14, 2004 (2004-01-14)
609

Kelso starts his first day as a cadet at the police academy, while Red teaches Eric to do housework, including plumbing and fixing the lawnmower. Jackie enrolls in a Big Sister program, but Donna bets she can't do a good enough job as a big sister.

138
10
"A Legal Matter"
David Trainer
Alan Dybner
February 4, 2004 (2004-02-04)
610

Fez needs to take an exam to become an American citizen, so Red educates him about American history. Kelso thinks he is the academy's "stooge" and asks Eric and Hyde to help him break into the station to locate his file for verification.

139
11
"I Can See for Miles"
David Trainer
Sarah McLaughlin
February 11, 2004 (2004-02-11)
611

After Kelso vandalizes one of Eric's belongings, Eric and Donna steal his van and travel to their planned wedding location. With his van gone, Kelso needs to find a way to take Brooke to a doctor's appointment, while Jackie redecorates Hyde's room, much to his discomfort, and Red is displeased when Bob gives him a pair of shoes.

140
12
"Sally Simpson"
David Trainer
Dean Batali
February 18, 2004 (2004-02-18)
612

Fez falls for Suzy (Alyson Hannigan), one of Kelso's classmates at the police academy, however, her feelings lie on Kelso, which may cause his and Fez's friendship to break. A therapist wants to know the origin of Red's stress and Kitty believes the fault lies directly on her.

141
13
"Won't Get Fooled Again"
David Trainer
Rob Deshotel
February 25, 2004 (2004-02-25)
613

Donna thinks she is pregnant, having missed a day from taking her birth control pills, which angers Red and Bob. After their dispute for Suzy, Kelso and Fez cease their friendship, but she tries to make amends for the both of them.

142
14
"Baby Don't You Do It"
David Trainer
Mark Hudis
March 3, 2004 (2004-03-03)
614

Due to the false pregnancy scare, Eric and Donna are sent to attend premarital counseling at church, and a lie they tell puts them in an embarrassing situation. Kelso continues to lie to Brooke about his failing marks on his Penal Code tests and trouble comes when he accidentally sets the police academy on fire. After the premarital counseling, Donna decides she and Eric need to be celibate until they are married.

143
15
"Who are You?"
David Trainer
Gregg Mettler
March 10, 2004 (2004-03-10)
615

Jackie's mother, Pam (Brooke Shields), returns from Acapulco and starts dating Bob and Kelso is reluctant about going to the police academy, forcing Eric, Hyde and Fez to get him back on his feet. Meanwhile, Donna's celibacy begins to drive Eric mad.

144
16
"Man with Money"
David Trainer
Bryan Moore & Chris Peterson
March 17, 2004 (2004-03-17)
616

Red is at the mercy of a heart rate monitor, as it always goes off whenever Pam is around, making Kitty suspicious of him being attracted to her. Donna and Jackie try to split Bob and Pam up and have the idea of using Fez to seduce Pam.

145
17
"Happy Jack"
David Trainer
Kristin Newman
March 24, 2004 (2004-03-24)
617

Donna is horrified after she finds Eric masturbating in her bathroom. Meanwhile, Hyde and Fez go to the academy to visit Kelso, but what they find is a completely straight-forward, honest person, rather than the bumbling idiot they know and love.

146
18
"Do You Think It's Alright?"
David Trainer
Patrick Kienlen
March 31, 2004 (2004-03-31)
618

Eric and Donna have to go register for wedding gifts, but he does not like shopping with Donna. Hyde is worried all this wedding talk will make Jackie pressure him into proposing to her. Meanwhile, Red begins reading one of Kitty's erotic novels.

147
19
"Substitute"
David Trainer
Jennifer Keene
April 21, 2004 (2004-04-21)
619

Eric feels bad after injuring Mitch (Seth Green), a former high school classmate, at a mini-golf stand and offers him to hang out in his basement. However, he begins to regret it, as Mitch starts making him look bad. Meanwhile, when Bob invites Pam to live with him, she breaks up with him, and Donna and Jackie try to get them back together.

148
20
"Squeeze Box"
David Trainer
Philip Stark
April 28, 2004 (2004-04-28)
620

Eric's fidelity is in question, after he reveals he dated another girl when Donna and Casey were together. After Red and Hyde moved Pam's belongings into Bob's house, the two are speechless when they see Pam topless, and must try every way to hide this fact from Kitty and Jackie.

149
21
"5:15"
David Trainer
Gregg Mettler
May 5, 2004 (2004-05-05)
621

Donna pretends to be Mitch's date for his brother's wedding, but he tells everyone she is his fiancée, proving Eric's suspicion of Mitch's growing affection for Donna. To regain his honor, Mitch challenges him to a fight. Meanwhile, Fez pretends to be rich, in order to impress a girl he meets at the wedding (Rachel Bilson). Kelso and Brooke attend parenting classes with Kitty as the instructor, and Red installs cable TV, only to have someone steal the signal.

150
22
"Sparks"
David Trainer
Rob Deshotel
May 12, 2004 (2004-05-12)
622

Eric accidentally ruins Donna's wedding dress and must find a way to prevent her from knowing. Red, under the influence, buys a canoe at an auction with Kitty's wedding gift money and has to find another present to give to Eric, thus Hyde, Kelso and Fez try to find humorous ways of misusing the canoe.

151
23
"My Wife"
David Trainer
Dean Batali
May 16, 2004 (2004-05-16)
623

Eric thinks he is holding Donna back on college and her dreams, after she leases a trailer for the two of them. While the guys go to Eric's bachelor party at a strip club, the girls attend Donna's bachelorette party, where they find Kelso's older brother Casey.

152
24
"Going Mobile"
David Trainer
Mark Hudis
May 19, 2004 (2004-05-19)
624

As their wedding day approaches, Eric is having second thoughts, after a dream leaves him bewildered about his future and married life, and even Donna starts having cold feet. Hyde and Fez play their own form of rock-paper-scissors to determine who will be Eric's best man, and Kelso meets Brooke's mother (Morgan Fairchild), who wants Brooke to move to Chicago, Illinois with her. Eric disappears before the wedding rehearsal.

153
25
"The Seeker"
David Trainer
Jeff Filgo & Jackie Filgo
May 19, 2004 (2004-05-19)
625

With the wedding called off, Donna commiserates with Hyde at the water tower. After she accidentally knocks him off, Hyde ends up in the hospital, where nurse Kitty, researching his records, finds a different man listed on Hyde's birth certificate than the man Hyde had always thought was his father. Eric eventually returns, sneaking into Donna's bedroom to explain his disappearance, and Donna agrees she, too, was not ready for marriage.