document_title: Newsboys' strike of 1899

question_text: when did the newsboy strike of 1899 end

question_tokens: when did the newsboy strike of 1899 end

text: Newsboys' strike of 1899

text: Background[edit]

text: There were newsboy strikes several years before the events of 1899, including those in 1884,[3] 1886,[4] 1887,[5] and 1889.[6] The last notable strike that the newsboys held against the World and the Journal was in May 1898.[7]

text: Causes[edit]

text: In 1898, with the Spanish–American War increasing newspaper sales, several publishers raised the cost of a newsboy bundle of 100 newspapers from 50¢ to 60¢,[8] a price increase that at the time was offset by the increased sales. After the war, many papers reduced the cost back to previous levels, with the notable exceptions of The Morning World and the New York Evening Journal.[9]

text: Strike[edit]

text: On July 21, 1899, a large number of New York City newsboys refused to distribute the papers of Joseph Pulitzer, publisher of the World, and William Randolph Hearst, publisher of the Journal. The strikers demonstrated across the Brooklyn Bridge for several days, effectively bringing traffic to a standstill,[10] along with the news distribution for most New England cities. They kept others from selling the papers by tearing up the distribution in the streets.[11] The boys also requested from the public that they no longer buy either paper until the strike was settled.[12] Pulitzer tried to hire older men to do the boys' job, but the men understood their stance and wanted no part in defying the boys.[13] Several rallies drew more than 5,000 newsboys, complete with charismatic speeches by strike leader Kid Blink.[14]

text: So named because he was blind in one eye, Kid Blink (Louis Ballatt)[15] was a popular subject among competing newspapers such as the New York Tribune, who often quoted Blink with his heavy Brooklyn accent depicted as an eye dialect, attributing to him such sayings as "Me men is nobul." Blink and his strikers were the subject of violence, as well. Hearst and Pulitzer hired men to break up rallies and protect the newspaper deliveries still underway.[16] During one rally Blink told strikers, "Friens and feller workers. This is a time which tries de hearts of men. Dis is de time when we'se got to stick together like glue.... We know wot we wants and we'll git it even if we is blind."[17]

text: Although the World and the Journal did not lower their 60¢-a-bundle price, they did agree to buy back all unsold papers and the union disbanded, ending the strike on August 2, 1899.[18]

text: Legacy[edit]

text: The newsboys' strike of 1899 has been credited with inspiring later strikes, including the Butte, Montana, Newsboys Strike of 1914,[19] and a 1920s strike in Louisville, Kentucky.[20]

text: Some decades later, the introduction of urban child-welfare practices led to improvements in the newsboys' quality of life.

text: Cultural representations[edit]

text: The newsboys were fictionalized in 1942 by DC Comics as the Newsboy Legion, first appearing in Issue number 7 of Star Spangled Comics and continuing therein through issue 64, as well as also continuing in various forms to modern-day comics.

text: The events of the 1899 strike later inspired the 1992 Disney film Newsies, including a character named Kid Blink (who wears an eye patch), but in this version of the story the leader of the strike was named Jack Kelly. A musical theatre adaptation of the film, also called Newsies, debuted in 2011 and played on Broadway from 2012 to 2014, starring Jeremy Jordan as Jack Kelly, and on tour from 2014-2016. A live filmed version of the stage production with cast members from both the Broadway and Tour productions, was digitally released on May 23, 2017.

text: The newsboy strike is described in detail in the 2003 non-fiction book, Kids on Strike!


document_title: Saraswati Samman

question_text: who has won the saraswathi samman 2016 award this year

root

text: Saraswati Samman

text:
Saraswati Samman

Date
1991

Location
Delhi

Country
India

Currently held by
Mahabaleshwar Sail

tag: table

text: The Saraswati Samman (Hindi: सरस्वती सम्मान) is an annual award for outstanding prose or poetry literary works in any 22 Indian language listed in Schedule VIII of the Constitution of India.[1][2] It is named after an Indian goddess of learning and is considered to be among the highest literary awards in India.[2]

tag: p

text: The Saraswati Samman was instituted in 1991 by the K. K. Birla Foundation. It consists of Rs 15[3] lakh, a citation and a plaque.[1][2][4] Candidates are selected from literary works published in the previous ten years by a panel that included scholars and former award winners. The inaugural award was given to Harivanshrai 'Bachchan' for his four volume autobiography, Kya Bhooloon Kya Yaad Karoon, Needa Ka Nirman Phir, Basere Se Door and Dashdwar se Sopan Tak.[5]

text: Awardees[edit]

text:
Year
Recipient
Work
Language
Ref.

1991
Harivansh Rai Bachchan
Autobiography in four volumes
(Autobiography)
Hindi
[2][6]

1992
Ramakant Rath
"Sri Radha"
(Poetry)
Oriya
[2]

1993
Vijay Tendulkar
"Kanyadaan"
(Play)
Marathi
[2]

1994
Harbhajan Singh
"Rukh Te Rishi"
(Poetry collection)
Punjabi
[2]

1995
Balamani Amma
"Nivedyam"
(Poetry collection)
Malayalam
[2]

1996
Shamsur Rahman Faruqi
"She`r-e Shor-Angez"
Urdu
[2]

1997
Manubhai Pancholi
"Kurukshetra"
Gujarati
[2]

1998
Shankha Ghosh
"Gandharba Kabita Guccha"
(Poetry collection)
Bengali
[2]

1999
Indira Parthasarathy
"Ramanujar"
(Play)
Tamil
[2]

2000
Manoj Das
"Amruta Phala"
(Novel)
Oriya
[2][7]

2001
Dalip Kaur Tiwana
"Katha Kaho Urvashi"
(Novel)
Punjabi
[2][8]

2002
Mahesh Elkunchwar
"Yugant"
(Play)
Marathi
[2]

2003
Govind Chandra Pande
"Bhagirathi"
(Poetry collection)
Sanskrit
[2]

2004
Sunil Gangopadhyay
"Pratham Alo"
(Novel)
Bengali
[2]

2005
K. Ayyappa Panicker
"Ayyappa Panikarude Kritikal"
(Poetry collection)
Malayalam
[2][9]

2006
Jagannath Prasad Das
"Parikrama"
(Poetry collection)
Oriya
[10]

2007
Naiyer Masud
"Taoos Chaman Ki Myna"
(Short stories collection)
Urdu
[11][12]

2008
Lakshmi Nandan Bora
"Kayakalpa"
(Novel)
Assamese [13]

2009
Surjit Paatar
"Lafzan Di Dargah"
Punjabi
[14]

2010
S. L. Bhyrappa
"Mandra"
Kannada
[4]

2011
A. A. Manavalan
"Irama Kathaiyum Iramayakalum"
Tamil
[15]

2012
Sugathakumari
"Manalezhuthu"
(Poetry collection)
MALAYALAM
[16]

2013
Govind Mishra
"Dhool Paudho Par"
(Novel)
Hindi
[17]

2014
Veerappa Moily
"Ramayana Mahanveshanam"
(Poetry)
Kannada
[18]

2015
Padma Sachdev
"Chitt-Chete"
(Autobiography)
Dogri
[19]

2016
Mahabaleshwar Sail
"Hawthan"
(Novel)
Konkani
[20]

text: Notes[edit]

text:
^ Jump up to: a b "About Saraswati Samman". K.K. Birla Foundation. Retrieved 2014-09-23.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r "Saraswati Samman for Prof Paniker". The Tribune. Chandigarh, India. 19 February 2006. Archived from the original on 16 December 2006.
Jump up ^ http://www.tribuneindia.com/news/jammu-kashmir/community/padma-sachdev-to-get-saraswati-samman/221490.html
^ Jump up to: a b "Saraswati Samman for writer Bhyrappa". The Times of India. 6 April 2011. Archived from the original on 5 December 2011.
Jump up ^ "Saraswati Samman Recipients". K.K. Birla Foundation . Retrieved 2014-09-23.
Jump up ^ "Harivansh Rai Bachchan". LitGloss, University at Buffalo. Archived from the original on 24 June 2010.
Jump up ^ Choudhury, Ashok K. (17 June 2001). "Manoj Das: True interpreter of India's cultural and spiritual heritage". Daily Excelsior. Jammu and Kashmir, India. Archived from the original on 1 July 2001.
Jump up ^ "Saraswati Samman for Dalip Kaur Tiwana". The Tribune. Chandigarh, India. 24 January 2002. Archived from the original on 13 February 2002.
Jump up ^ Joshua, Anita (18 February 2006). "Saraswati Samman for Ayyappa Paniker, Malayalam poet". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 28 January 2014.
Jump up ^ "Saraswati Samman for eminent Oriya writer". The Hindu. 13 February 2007. Archived from the original on 4 March 2007.
Jump up ^ "Saraswati Samman for Urdu author". The Hindu. 15 February 2008. Archived from the original on 19 February 2008.
Jump up ^ "I view the whole story like a movie: Naiyer Masud". The Tribune. Chandigarh, India. 24 February 2008. Archived from the original on 2008.
Jump up ^ ""Kayakalpa" gets Saraswati Samman". The Hindu. 12 February 2009. Archived from the original on 28 January 2014.
Jump up ^ "Punjabi poet Surjit Patar gets Saraswati Samman". The Hindu. 19 September 2010. Archived from the original on 28 January 2014.
Jump up ^ "Honour for Tamil writer". The Hindu. 23 March 2012. Archived from the original on 28 January 2014.
Jump up ^ "Award for Sugathakumari". The Hindu. 3 August 2013. Archived from the original on 28 January 2014.
Jump up ^ "Govind Mishra gets Saraswati Samman 2013 for novel 'Dhool Paudhon Par'". Daily News & Analysis. 22 September 2014. Archived from the original on 23 September 2014.
Jump up ^ http://english.dcbooks.com/m-veerappa-moily-bags-prestigious-saraswati-samman-2014.html
Jump up ^ http://currentaffairs.gktoday.in/dogri-poetess-padma-sachdev-selected-2015-saraswati-samman-04201632095.html
Jump up ^ http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/konkani-author-mahabaleshwar-sail-gets-saraswati-samman/articleshow/57561403.cms

tag: ol


document_title: Battle of the Sexes (film)

question_text: who plays marilyn in battle of the sexes

text: Battle of the Sexes (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: The film dramatizes the events leading up to the 1973 match between Billie Jean King (Emma Stone) and Robert Larimore Riggs (Steve Carell), and their personal lives. King and Gladys Heldman (Sarah Silverman) confront Jack Kramer (Bill Pullman) who has announced a tennis tournament where the top prize for women is one-eighth of the men’s prize, despite equal ticket sales. King and Heldman threaten to start their own tour but Kramer won't alter the terms, citing the inferiority of women’s tennis. He later expels the women who join the new tour from the Lawn Tennis Association. The women's tour struggles until Heldman wins a lucrative sponsorship from Virginia Slims cigarettes. Billie Jean begins an affair with Marilyn Barnett (Andrea Riseborough), her hairdresser, threatening her marriage to Larry King (Austin Stowell).

text: Meanwhile, Riggs’ marriage to the wealthy Priscilla Wheelan (Elisabeth Shue) is in trouble because of his addiction to gambling. Thrown out of his house when he can’t conceal a Rolls Royce he won in a tennis bet, he hits upon the idea of a challenge match against the top woman player, boasting that even at age 55 he can beat any woman. King declines, but Margaret Court (Jessica McNamee), who recently beat King in a match, accepts. Riggs easily defeats Court and King decides she has to accept his challenge, but demands a final say as to the arrangements. King trains intensely, while Riggs relaxes. King objects to Kramer as a game announcer, threatening to not play unless he withdraws, which he does. After a slow start, King wins the match.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Emma Stone as Billie Jean King
Steve Carell as Robert Larimore Riggs
Andrea Riseborough as Marilyn Barnett
Sarah Silverman as Gladys Heldman
Bill Pullman as Jack Kramer
Alan Cumming as Ted Tinling
Elisabeth Shue as Priscilla Wheelan
Austin Stowell as Larry King
Natalie Morales as Rosie Casals
Eric Christian Olsen as Lornie Kuhle
Lewis Pullman as Larry Riggs
Jessica McNamee as Margaret Court
James Mackay as Barry Court
Martha MacIsaac as Jane Bartkowicz
Mickey Sumner as Valerie Ziegenfuss
Lauren Klein as Nancy Richey
Ashley Weinhold as Kristy Pigeon
Fidan Manashirova as Judy Tegart-Dalton
Kaitlyn Christian as Kerry Melville
Bridley Elliott as Julie Heldman
Wallace Langham as Henry
Mark Harelik as Hank Greenberg
Fred Armisen as Rheo Blair
Chris Parnell as DJ
Dan Bakkedahl as Gamblers Anon Leader
John C. McGinley as Herb
Tom Kenny as Bob Sanders
Mike Vogel as Miles
Nelson Franklin as TV Reporter

tag: ul

text: Production[edit]

text: The project and its two leads were announced in April 2015.[8] Brie Larson was, for a brief period, set to replace Stone due to scheduling conflicts, but these were cleared up.[9][10] On March 3, 2016, Andrea Riseborough was cast to play Marilyn Barnett, King’s hairdresser and lover.[11] Later that month, three more were cast in the film, Elisabeth Shue as Riggs' wife;[12] Austin Stowell as Larry King, Billie Jean's husband;[13] and Sarah Silverman as Gladys Heldman, the founder of World Tennis magazine.[14] Four actors joined the cast in April: Eric Christian Olsen as Lornie Kuhle,[15] Jessica McNamee as tennis player Margaret Court,[16] Alan Cumming as designer Ted Tinling,[17] and Natalie Morales as player Rosie Casals.[18]

text: Principal photography on the film began in Los Angeles on April 13, 2016, with a budget of more than $25 million.[19][20]

text: For the tennis match scenes, tennis players Kaitlyn Christian and Vince Spadea were the body doubles of Stone and Carell, respectively.[21][22]

text: Release[edit]

text: Battle of the Sexes had its world premiere at the Telluride Film Festival on September 2, 2017.[23] It also screened at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 10, 2017,[24] and at the BFI London Film Festival on October 7, 2017.[25] The film began a limited release in the United States on September 22, 2017, before going wide the following week.[26]

text: Box office[edit]

text: Battle of the Sexes grossed $12.6 million in the United States and Canada, and $5.2 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $17.8 million.[4]

text: In its opening weekend, the film grossed $515,450 from 21 theaters, an average of $24,545 per theater.[27] The film expanded the following Friday, where it was released alongside the openings of Flatliners, 'Til Death Do Us Part and American Made, and was projected to gross around $6 million from 1,213 theaters over the weekend.[28] It ended up making $3.4 million over the weekend, finishing 6th at the box office. Deadline.com noted the film's weekend gross was disappointing given its cast and positive reviews.[27] The following week the film was added to another 609 theaters and made $2.4 million, dropping just 30%.[29]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: On the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 85% based on 252 reviews, with an average rating of 7.2/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Battle of the Sexes turns real-life events into a crowd-pleasing, well-acted dramedy that ably entertains while smartly serving up a volley of present-day parallels."[30] On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, the film a weighted average score of 73 out of 100, based on 46 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[31] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale,[32] while PostTrak reported filmgoers gave the film an overall positive score of 74%.[27]

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
Award
Date of ceremony
Category
Recipient(s) and nominee(s)
Result
Ref.

AARP's Movies for Grownups Awards
February 5, 2018
Best Actor
Steve Carell
Nominated
[33][34][35]

Best Time Capsule
Battle of the Sexes
Nominated

Casting Society of America
January 18, 2018
Studio or Independent – Comedy
Justine Arteta and Kim Davis-Wagner
Nominated
[36]

Cinema For Peace Awards
February 19, 2018
Most Valuable Film of the Year
Battle of the Sexes
Nominated
[37]

Critics' Choice Movie Awards
January 11, 2018
Best Actor in a Comedy
Steve Carell
Nominated
[38]

Best Actress in a Comedy
Emma Stone
Nominated

Dorian Awards
February 24, 2018
LGBTQ Film of the Year
Battle of the Sexes
Nominated
[39]
[40]

GLAAD Media Awards
April 12, 2018
Outstanding Film – Wide Release
Battle of the Sexes
Pending
[41]

Golden Globe Awards
January 7, 2018
Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy
Steve Carell
Nominated
[42]

Best Actress – Motion Picture Comedy or Musical
Emma Stone
Nominated

Satellite Awards
February 10, 2018
Best Actress – Motion Picture
Emma Stone
Nominated
[43]

Screen Actors Guild Awards
January 21, 2018
Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Supporting Role
Steve Carell
Nominated
[44]


document_title: Snow in Florida

question_text: when's the last time it snowed in tampa florida

question_tokens: when 's the last time it snowed in tampa florida

text: Snow in Florida

text: Events[edit]

text: Due to larger populations and more advanced communication networks, snow events are witnessed and reported much more frequently in recent years than in historical eras. Interpretations of this timeline must therefore be made with caution, as observed patterns may not reflect actual climate-related trends in annual snowfall but rather improved reporting.

text:
December 19, 1765: A "white frost" fell in the northern part of the British colony of East Florida "of short duration, and of no material detriment to the agricultural interests."[7]
1774: A snowstorm extended across much of the territory. The affected residents spoke of it as an "extraordinary white rain."[1][8]
January 10/11, 1800: Land surveyor Andrew Ellicott erected an observatory at Point Peter, a location near the mouth of Saint Marys River, now in the far southeast side of the City of St. Marys, Georgia. After recording a sunrise temperature of 37 °F (3 °C), he observed "snow and hail the whole day" until 10 pm. The temperature then fell below freezing, the wind shifted to northwesterly, and the skies cleared at midnight. At sunrise the morning of January 11, he reported snow 5 inches (130 mm) deep and a temperature of 28 °F (−2 °C).[2][9] This snowstorm perhaps extended from Louisiana to Georgia.[10]
January 13, 1852: Snow fell all morning, accumulating to 0.5 inches (13 mm) at Jacksonville.[1]
February 28, 1855: A few flakes of snow fell at Jacksonville.[1]
January 29, 1868: Light sleet fell during the night at Jacksonville.[1]
February 28, 1869: During the morning, snow flurries fell at Jacksonville.[1]
January 10, 1873: At 7:25 am, a few snowflakes fell at Jacksonville.[1]
February 4/5, 1875: Between midnight and sunrise on both dates, light sleet occurred.[1]
December 1, 1876: According to the observer at Punta Rassa, Florida, snow fell for 5 minutes on the morning of December 1.[11]
January 4/5, 1879: At Jacksonville at 7 pm, sleet began, which turned to rain 90 minutes later. The freezing rain covered trees, shrubbery, and everything else outdoors by morning. The weight of the ice broke the limbs of many orange trees.[1] At Fernandina, snow occurred.[12]
December 5, 1886: At Pensacola, following a heavy rain and wind storm, light snow fell from 4:25 pm to 8:20 pm, accumulating to 1.5 inches (38 mm).[13]
January 5, 1887: 1 inch (25 mm) of snow fell at Pensacola,[14] and sleet fell elsewhere in the state.[15]
January 14, 1892: 0.4 inches (10 mm) of snow was reported at Pensacola.[14] The first snowfall of the season occurred at Fort Barrancas. Monthly snowfall totaled 0.5 inches (13 mm) at Pensacola.[16]
January 17, 1892: At 10:30 am, sleet fell for a few minutes only at Madison, Florida.[17]
February 14, 1892: Pensacola reported 3 inches (76 mm) of snow.[18]
December 26/27, 1892: On both days, precipitation fell as sleet and snow at Pensacola. On December 26, sleet also occurred at Cerro Gordo, Florida, and slight trace of snow fell at Tallahassee. On December 27, a slight trace fell at Moseley Hall, Madison County, Florida.[19] At intervals during daytime on December 27, light snow flurries occurred at Jacksonville.[1]
January 16–19, 1893: On January 16, snow occurred at Palatka. On January 17, sleet fell at Oxford, and at Pensacola. Shortly after midnight on January 18, sleet began in the city of Jacksonville and then turned to snow and then to rain.[1] That day, sleet also fell at Moseley Hall, Pensacola, and Tallahassee, and snow occurred at Lawtey. On January 18 and 19, sleet fell at Bristol.
December 29, 1894: Brooksville reported snowfall from 9 am to 11 am, and a few flakes fell at Mosquito Lagoon near Oak Hill, Florida. The press reported snow at towns in middle and west Florida. The temperature morning fell to lows unprecedented in decades, and this freeze destroyed 2 million to 3 million boxes of not yet gathered oranges, severely damaged pineapple plants, and killed or destroyed almost all other fruits and vegetables.[20]
February 14, 1895: From 6:22 pm to 6:27 pm, light sleet fell at Jacksonville, followed by light snow until 6:32 pm. At 7:20 pm, light snow resumed until 8 pm.[1] Snow also fell at Tampa, and at Pensacola, snow reportedly reached depths allowing for sleighing.[21]
February 12/13, 1899: At 9:45 pm, rain changed to sleet at Jacksonville. Sleet then changed to snow at 10:15 pm and continued through the night, accumulating to 2 inches (51 mm) before sunrise at 7 am as the temperature plunged to 10 °F (−12 °C).[1] The accumulation reached 4 inches (100 mm) at Lake Butler.[18] In sheltered locations, the snow melted only several days later.[1] This Great Blizzard of 1899 also affected much of the rest of the American South.

text: 20th century (21 reported events)[edit]

text:
December 16, 1901: At 1 pm, light snow fell at Jacksonville; at intervals through the afternoon, sleet followed.[1]
February 7, 1907: During the afternoon, a light snow flurry occurred "in the immediate vicinity" of the city of Jacksonville.[1]
November 27, 1912: An overnight period of snow covers the ground and trees with a 0.5-inch (13 mm) layer in northern Florida.[22]
January 22/23, 1935: Snow falls until the next morning, with Pensacola recording 1 inch (25 mm).[14]
February 8/9, 1947: A cold wave entering from Canada, accompanied by winds of up to 80 miles per hour (130 km/h; 36 m/s), causes snow as far south as Clearwater.[23]
February 2/3, 1951: Snowfall accumulates to 2.0 inches (51 mm) at Saint Augustine and Crescent City.[18]
December 14, 1952: Sleet and snow falls across the northern portion of the state, though there is very little accumulation.[24]
December 14, 1953: Light sleet occurs in the morning in Marianna.[24]
March 6, 1954: 4 in (100 mm) of snow accumulates at Milton Experimental Station, Santa Rosa County, within a 24-hour period, the highest such total for Florida according to official modern records.[25]
March 28, 1955: Snowfall accumulates to 1 inch (25 mm) in Marianna along the Florida Panhandle.[26]
February 13, 1958: An overnight rainfall changes to snowfall in Jacksonville and accumulates to 1.5 inches (38 mm).[2] Additionally, Tallahassee reports a record 2.8 inches (71 mm).[18]
February 9, 1973: Snow falls over the northern portion of the state, including a total of 2.0 inches (51 mm) in Pensacola, with unofficial reports of up to 8 inches (200 mm).[18]
January 18, 1977: The pressure gradient between a strong ridge over the Mississippi Valley and a Nor'easter over Atlantic Canada sends very cold temperatures southward into the state. Areas around Pensacola are the first to receive the snow, then the rest of The Panhandle. Followed by record accumulations for The Nature Coast, the I-4 corridor (both Orlando and Tampa (one tenth to a quarter inch) receive light accumulations of 1 inch (25 mm) to 2 inches (51 mm) with a few isolated spots reportedly receiving 3 inches (76 mm) to 6 inches (150 mm)), and finally South Florida. By early morning before sunrise on January 19, West Palm Beach reported snow for the first time on record, with snow flurries reaching as far south as Homestead. The snow causes little impact as it was of the dry variety, though the accompanying cold air results in hundreds of millions of dollars in damage (Orlando tied the 1899 record of over six consecutive nights well-below freezing). On January 20, The Miami Herald reports the event as the front-page story, with a headline of a size usually reserved for the declaration of war.[27]
Late January 1977: Pensacola receives snowfall.[27]
March 2, 1980: About 0.25 inches (6.4 mm) of snow covers car tops and patio furniture in Jacksonville.[2]
March 1, 1986: 0.5 inches (13 mm) of snow accumulates overnight in Jacksonville before melting within 30 minutes due to the morning sun.[2]
December 23/24, 1989: Light rain in Jacksonville turns to freezing rain as temperatures drop, and later changes to snow. The snow totals several inches in some locations, and results in the first White Christmas in the city's history.[2]

Picture of the December 23, 1989, Jacksonville snowfall

Light snow falls across central Florida as far south as southern Pinellas County on the 23rd, though the official weather station in St. Petersburg experiences only a light sleet.[28][29]
March 12, 1993: The 1993 Storm of the Century produces up to 4 inches (100 mm) of snow along the Florida Panhandle.[30]
January 8, 1996: Snow flurries are reported from Crystal River to New Port Richey with no accumulation.[31]
December 18, 1996: A plume of cold air causes snow to form in the northwestern portion of Escambia County.[32]

text: 21st century (19 reported events)[edit]

text:
January 24, 2003: A plume of Arctic air produces widespread record low temperatures and light snow flurries along the eastern coastline. The snow is described as ocean-effect snow, identical to lake effect snow in that it occurs due to very cold air passing over relatively warm water temperatures. The snow reaches as far south as Fort Pierce.[33]
December 25, 2004: Locations along the Florida Panhandle receive a dusting of snow.[34]
November 21, 2006: An eastward-moving weather system produces a very light dusting and snowflakes in central Florida. It is the first snow in November in the state since 1912.[34]
February 3, 2007: Very light snow flurries are reported in the northeastern panhandle, lasting less than an hour.[35]
January 3, 2008: Light snow flurries are reported near Daytona Beach.[36]
January 8/9, 2010: Very light dusting of snow seen in the eastern Jacksonville area. Light snow also fell in parts of central Florida, which briefly accumulated in Ocala and other parts of Marion County. A "wintry mix" of sleet and freezing rain was widespread, with reports of light snow across central Florida from Tampa to Orlando to Melbourne.[37] Isolated flurries were even reported from West Palm Beach to as far south as Kendall and sleet in a few spots in the South Florida metropolitan area for only the second time in recorded history and first time since 1977.[38]
February 12, 2010: Portions of northwestern Florida experience snowfall totals of around 1 in (25 mm).[39]
February 14, 2010: 0.5 inches (13 mm) of snow fell across the northern halves of Escambia, Santa Rosa, Walton and Okaloosa Counties.[40]
December 8, 2010: Snow mixed with rain is reported in western parts of the panhandle, north of Pensacola.[41]
December 26, 2010: A mix of snow and sleet was reported in Jacksonville by the National Weather Service.[42]
December 28, 2010: Light snow was reported at Tampa Executive Airport in eastern Hillsborough County at 01:00 and 05:00 local time, following a rare freezing fog event around midnight.[43]
January 9, 2011: Sleet is reported in the Pensacola area, as well as other places in Escambia and Santa Rosa counties. There was no accumulation.[44]
March 3, 2013: Snow flurries were reported in the Panhandle, specifically around Panama City Beach
January 24–25, 2014: Sleet and light snow are reported in Escambia, Santa Rosa, and Okaloosa counties.[45] Very light sleet is reported at a few locations around Jacksonville.[46]

Snowfall forecast for 28–29 January 2014, predicting over 1 inch of snow in northwest Florida.

January 28–29, 2014: A major winter storm event resulted in a mixture of freezing rain (with ice accumulation), sleet, and snow across most of the Panhandle between the afternoon of the 28th and morning of the 29th. Due to dangerous ice accumulation, the Florida Highway Patrol and FDOT closed several bridges in the Panhandle and advised against non-essential travel.[47] Many state and local government offices were closed around mid-day on the 28th.[48] In Santa Rosa county, officials cautioned that ice-laden tree limbs were hanging low enough to hit vehicles.[49] Between 1 and 9:30 PM on the 28th, 21,633 Gulf Power customers lost power at some point.[50] At 2 PM EST on January 28, Pensacola was 31 °F (−1 °C) with freezing rain while Immokalee, near Fort Myers, was 86 °F (30 °C). Pensacola received 1.8 inches (46 mm) of snow on January 28.[51] On January 29, the Florida Highway Patrol closed nearly 200 miles (320 km) of Interstate 10 from the Florida-Alabama state line to Gadsden County, directing resources and traffic to U.S. 90.[52] Pensacola International Airport closed at 9:17 PM January 28 and was not scheduled to reopen until late on the 29th.[53]
January 8, 2015: Snow flurries are reported in various locations around Jacksonville. The event is attributed to ocean-effect snow.[54][55]
January 22–23, 2016: Snow flurries are reported along the Florida Panhandle, as far east as the Jacksonville area,[56] and as far south as the Gainesville area.[57]
December 8–9, 2017: Snow falls in various locations in the western Florida Panhandle. Northern Escambia County saw up to 2 inches (51 mm) of snow while Century saw 0.5 inches (13 mm) of snow. Snow flurries were reported in Destin and Miramar Beach.[58]
January 2–3, 2018: A winter storm resulted in snow and a wintry mix (freezing rain, sleet, and ice) across northern Florida from Tallahassee to the outskirts of Jacksonville and as far south as Gainesville, with temperatures in the 20s and dewpoints in the teens in the morning.[59] A winter storm warning was in effect on the morning of January 3 for Nassau, Baker, Union, Columbia, Gilchrist, Suwanee, Hamilton, Lafayette, Madison, Taylor, Jefferson, and Leon Counties,[60][61] prompting several school districts to cancel classes on January 3.[62] Tallahassee received 0.10-0.20 in of snow, which was the first measurable snowfall in the city since December 1989 (it sees flurries every few years).[63][64][65] The Tallahassee snowfall followed a couple hours of freezing rain.[63] The Florida Highway Patrol closed Interstate 10 from Tallahassee to Madison for most of the morning of January 3 as well as several bridges in North-Central Florida that had accumulated a dangerous amount of ice.[66][62] Recorded ice accumulations included 0.25 in in Hilliard and Lake City and 0.10 in in Perry.[67]


document_title: Big Fish

question_text: what is the theme of the book big fish

question_tokens: what is the theme of the book big fish

text: Big Fish

text: Plot[edit]

text: At Will Bloom’s wedding party, his father Edward recalls the day Will was born, claiming he caught an enormous catfish using his wedding ring as bait. Will, having heard these stories all his life, believes them to be lies and falls out with his father. Three years later, Edward is stricken with cancer, so Will and his pregnant French wife Joséphine return to his childhood home in Alabama to spend time with his father. Edward’s life is told through flashbacks, beginning with his encounter with a witch in his hometown, Ashton. She shows him his death but he reacts to it without fear. As he grows into adulthood, he finds his home too confining, and sets out into the world with a misunderstood giant, Karl, who has come to town with a traveling circus.

text: Edward and Karl find a fork in the road and travel down separate paths. Edward follows a path through a swamp and discovers the secret town of Spectre, the cheery locals claiming he was expected. There, he befriends Ashton poet Norther Winslow and the mayor’s daughter Jenny. However, Edward leaves Spectre, unwilling to settle down but promises Jenny he will return. In the present day, Joséphine speaks to the bed-ridden Edward and asks him to tell her the story of how he met his wife Sandra, with Will listening outside the door. Returning to his reminisces, Edward reunites with Karl and they visit the Calloway Circus, where Edward falls in love with a beautiful woman. Karl and Edward get jobs in the circus where the ringmaster Amos Calloway reveals to Edward one detail about the woman at the end of every month.

text: Three years later, Edward discovers that Amos is secretly a werewolf but shows no ill-will towards his employer. Amos, upon returning to normal, reveals the woman is Sandra, and she attends Auburn University. Edward confesses his love to Sandra, but she declines his wedding proposal despite numerous romantic gestures. He then learns she is already engaged to Don Price, a fellow Ashton citizen. Don beats Edward in a fight, prompting Sandra to break off their engagement and marry Edward. Shortly after, Edward is conscripted into the army and sent to fight in the Korean War. He parachutes into the middle of a North Korean military show, steals important documents, and convinces Siamese twins Ping and Jing to help him go home in exchange for making them celebrities.

text: Upon returning home, Edward becomes a travelling salesman and crosses paths with Winslow, unwittingly helping him rob a failing bank, inspiring the poet to work on Wall Street. In the present, Will investigates the truth behind his father’s tales and travels to Spectre. He meets an older Jenny, who explains that Edward rescued the town from bankruptcy and rebuilt it with help from his friends from Calloway Circus. Will suggests that Jenny had an affair with his father, but she reveals while she loved Edward, he remained loyal to Sandra. Will returns home but learns Edward has had a stroke and stays with him at the hospital.

text: Edward wakes up but, unable to speak much, asks Will to narrate how his life ends. Though struggling, Will tells his father of their imagined daring escape from the hospital to the nearby lake, where everyone from Edward’s past is there to see him off. Will takes Edward into the river, where he transforms into the giant catfish and swims away. A satisfied Edward dies, knowing Will finally understands his love for storytelling. At the funeral, Will and Joséphine are surprised when all the people from Edward’s stories come to the service, though each one is a slightly less fantastical version than described. Will, finally understanding his father’s love for life, passes on Edward’s stories to his own son.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Albert Finney as old Edward Bloom

Ewan McGregor as young Edward Bloom
Perry Walston as 10-year old Edward Bloom

Billy Crudup as Will Bloom

Grayson Stone as 6–8-year old Will Bloom

Jessica Lange as Sandra K. Bloom

Alison Lohman as the young Sandra, née Templeton

Marion Cotillard as Joséphine Bloom
Helena Bonham Carter as Jenny Hill

Hailey Anne Nelson as 8-year-old Jenny Hill

Robert Guillaume as Dr. Bennett

Karlos Walkes as young Dr. Bennett

Matthew McGrory as Karl
Steve Buscemi as Norther Winslow
Danny DeVito as Amos Calloway
Loudon Wainwright III as Beamen
Missi Pyle as Mildred
Ada Tai and Arlene Tai as Ping and Jing
David Denman as Don Price

John Lowell as 12-year old Don Price

Bevin Kaye as River Woman (Fish)
Destiny Cyrus as 8-year-old Ruthie
Daniel Wallace as Economics teacher
Deep Roy as Mr. Soggybottom
George McArthur as Colossus

text: Themes[edit]

text:
"Big Fish is about what's real and what's fantastic, what's true and what's not true, what's partially true and how, in the end, it's all true."

Tim Burton[3]

tag: div

text: The reconciliation of the father-son relationship between Edward and William is the key theme in Big Fish.[4][5] Novelist Daniel Wallace's interest in the theme of the father-son relationship began with his own family. Wallace found the "charming" character of Edward Bloom similar to his father, who used charm to keep his distance from other people.[6] In the film, Will believes Edward has never been honest with him because Edward creates extravagant myths about his past to hide himself, using storytelling as an avoidance mechanism.[7] Edward's stories are filled with fairy tale characters (a witch, mermaid, giant, and werewolf) and places (the circus, small towns, the mythological city of Spectre), all of which are classic images and archetypes.[8] The quest motif propels both Edward's story and Will's attempt to get to the bottom of it. Wallace explains: "The father's quest is to be a big fish in a big pond, and the son's quest is to see through his tall tales."[6]

text: Screenwriter John August identified with Will's character and adapted it after himself. In college, August's father died, and like Will, August had attempted to get to know him before his death, but found it difficult. Like Will, August had studied journalism and was 28 years old. In the film, Will says of Edward, "I didn't see anything of myself in my father, and I don't think he saw anything of himself in me. We were like strangers who knew each other very well."[9] Will's description of his relationship with Edward closely resembled August's own relationship with his father.[9] Burton also used the film to confront his thoughts and emotions concerning the death of his father in 2000:[5] "My father had been ill for a while... I tried to get in touch with him, to have, like in this film, some sort of resolution, but it was impossible."[8]

text: Religion and film scholar Kent L. Brintnall observes how the father-son relationship resolves itself at the end of the film. As Edward dies, Will finally lets go of his anger and begins to understand his father for the first time:

text: In a final gesture of love and comprehension, after a lifetime of despising his father's stories and his father as story-teller, Will finishes the story his father has begun, pulling together the themes, images and characters of his father's storied life to blend reality and fantasy in act of communion and care. By unselfishly releasing the anger he has held about his father's stories, Will gains the understanding that all we are our stories and that his father's stories gave him a reality and substance and a dimension that was as real, genuine, and deep as the day-to-day experiences that Will sought out. Will comes to understand, then, that his father—and the rest of us—are our stories and that the deeper reality of our lives may, in fact, not be our truest self.[10]

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: About six months before it was published, screenwriter John August read a manuscript of Big Fish: A Novel of Mythic Proportions (1998) by author Daniel Wallace.[11] August read the unpublished novel following the death of his father. In September 1998,[12] August convinced Columbia Pictures to acquire the film rights on his behalf.[13] August worked hard to make the episodic book into a cohesive screenplay, deciding on several narrators for the script.[8] In August 2000, producers Bruce Cohen and Dan Jinks began discussions for Steven Spielberg to direct. Spielberg planned to have DreamWorks co-finance and distribute Big Fish with Columbia, and planned to have filming start in late 2001,[14] after completing Minority Report (2002).[15]

text: Spielberg courted Jack Nicholson for the role of Edward Bloom, Sr. and towards this end, had August compose two additional drafts for Nicholson's part. August recalls: "There was this thought that there wasn't enough for Jack Nicholson to do in the movie so we built new sequences. Pieces got moved around, but it wasn't a lot of new stuff being created. It ended up being a really good intellectual exercise in my explaining and defending and reanalyzing pieces of the story."[13] Spielberg eventually left Big Fish when he became distracted with Catch Me If You Can (2002),[16] and DreamWorks also backed out of the film.[14]

text: With Spielberg no closer to committing, August, working with Jinks and Cohen,[13] considered Stephen Daldry as a potential director.[17] "Once Steven decided he wasn't going to do it, we put the script back to the way it was," recalls Jinks. "Steven even said, 'I think I made a mistake with a couple of things I asked you guys to try.'" August took his favorite elements from the previous drafts, coming up with what he called "a best-of Big Fish script. "By the time we approached Tim Burton, the script was in the best shape it had ever been."[13]

text:
"My father had recently died and, although I wasn't really close to him, it was a heavy time, and it made me start thinking and going back to the past. It was something that was very difficult for me to discuss, but then this script came along and it actually dealt with those same issues, and so it was an amazing catharsis to do this film—because you're able to work through those feelings without having to talk to a therapist about it."

Tim Burton[8]

text: Burton had never been particularly close to his parents, but his father's death in October 2000 and his mother's in March 2002 affected him deeply. Following the production of Planet of the Apes (2001), the director wanted to get back to making a smaller film. Burton enjoyed the script, feeling that it was the first unique story he was offered since Beetlejuice (1988). Burton also found appeal in the story's combination of an emotional drama with exaggerated tall tales, which allowed him to tell various stories of different genres.[8] He signed to direct in April 2002,[18] which prompted Richard D. Zanuck, who worked with Burton on Planet of the Apes, to join Big Fish as a producer. Zanuck also had a difficult relationship with his own father, Darryl F. Zanuck, who once fired him as head of production at 20th Century Fox.[13]

text: Casting[edit]

text: For the role of Edward Bloom, Burton spoke with Jack Nicholson, Spielberg's initial choice for the role. Burton had previously worked with Nicholson on Batman (1989) and Mars Attacks! (1996). In order to depict Nicholson as the young Bloom, Burton intended to use a combination of computer-generated imagery and prosthetic makeup. The director then decided to cast around for the two actors in question.[8] Jinks and Cohen, who were then working with Ewan McGregor on Down with Love (2003), suggested that Burton cast both McGregor and Albert Finney for Edward. Burton later compared McGregor's acting style to regular colleague Johnny Depp.[8] Viewing Finney's performance in Tom Jones (1963), Burton found him similar to McGregor, and coincidentally found a People magazine article comparing the two.[13] McGregor, being Scottish, found it easier performing with a Southern American English accent. "It's a much easier accent to do than a standard American accent because you can really hear it. You can get your teeth into it. Standard American is much harder because it's more lyrical."[19] The same dual casting applied to the role of Bloom's wife, Sandra, who would be played by Jessica Lange and Alison Lohman.[8] Burton commented that he was impressed with Lohman's performance in White Oleander (2002).[20] Burton's girlfriend, Helena Bonham Carter, was also cast in two roles. Her prosthetic makeup for The Witch took five hours to apply. "I was pregnant throughout filming, so it was weird being a pregnant witch," the actress reflected. "I had morning sickness, so all those fumes and the make-up and the rubber...it was hideous."[21]

text: Burton personalized the film with several cameos. While filming in Alabama, the crew tracked down Billy Redden, one of the original banjo players from Deliverance (1972). Redden was working as a part-owner of a restaurant in Clayton, Georgia, and he agreed to reprise his role in the Spectre vignette. As Edward Bloom first enters the town, Redden can be seen on a porch plucking a few notes from "Dueling Banjos". Burton was pleased with the result: "If you're watching the film and don't recognise the solitary, enigmatic figure on the porch, that's fine. But if you do – well, it just makes me so happy to see him and I think other people will feel the same way."[22] Original Big Fish author Daniel Wallace makes a brief appearance as Sandra's economics teacher in the "Courtship of Sandra Templeton" scene.[23]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Burton planned to start filming in October 2002, but principal photography in Alabama did not begin until January 13, 2003.[14] Apart from filming in Paris for one week in May, Big Fish was entirely shot in Alabama,[8] mostly in Wetumpka[26] and Montgomery (such as the Cloverdale neighborhood).[16] Brief filming also took place in Tallassee and on the campus of Huntingdon College.[27] Scenes for the town of Spectre were filmed on a custom set located on an island in Lake Jackson between Montgomery and Millbrook, Alabama, adjacent to the Alabama River.[28][29][30] Principal photography for Big Fish in Alabama continued until the first week of April.[8][31] and is estimated to have generated as much as $25 million for the local economy.[26]

text: Burton filmed all the dramatic hospital scenes and most of those involving Finney first, before moving on to the McGregor section of Bloom's life.[13] Although McGregor was on set from the beginning of filming, Burton chose to shoot all Finney's scenes first.[8] Location filming in Alabama was delayed by inclement weather; during the Calloway circus scenes filming, a tornado watch was issued and flooding on the set interrupted filming for several weeks.[32][33] Despite the delays, Burton delivered the film on budget and on schedule.[13]

text: The director attempted to limit the use of digital effects. However, because he wanted to evoke a Southern Gothic fantasy tone for Big Fish, color grading techniques were applied by Sony Pictures Imageworks.[8] Stan Winston Studios, with whom Burton worked with on Edward Scissorhands (1990) and Batman Returns (1992), designed Helena Bonham Carter's prosthetic makeup and created the animatronics.[34] Scenes with Karl the Giant were commissioned using forced perspective filmmaking.[25]

text: Music[edit]

text: The soundtrack was composed by regular Burton collaborator Danny Elfman.[8] Burton approached Pearl Jam during post-production to request an original song for the soundtrack and closing credits. After screening an early print of the film, Pearl Jam vocalist Eddie Vedder wrote "Man of the Hour", completing the demo by the next day. It was recorded by the band four days later.[35] Guitarist Mike McCready stated, "We were so blown away by the movie... Eddie and I were standing around talking about it afterwards and were teary-eyed. We were so emotionally charged and moved by the imagination and humanity that we felt because of the movie."[35]

text: Release[edit]

text: Columbia Pictures planned to wide release Big Fish in the United States on November 26, 2003[36] before pushing it back to December 10 for a limited release.[37] The film premiered on December 4, 2003 at the Hammerstein Ballroom in Manhattan.[38] The domestic wide release in the US came on January 9, 2004, with the film appearing in 2,406 theaters and earning $13.81 million in its opening weekend. The film eventually grossed $66.81 million in U.S. totals and $56.11 million in foreign countries, with a total of $122.92 million worldwide.[39]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: Big Fish received positive reviews from film critics. Based on 212 reviews collected by Rotten Tomatoes, 77% of the critics positively reviewed Big Fish, for an average score of 7.2/10.[40] Metacritic calculated an average score of 58/100, based on 43 reviews.[41]

text: Observations modeled the film after Forrest Gump (1994).[42][43] "Big Fish turns into a wide-eyed Southern Gothic picaresque in which each lunatic twist of a development is more enchanting than the last," Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly wrote. "It's like Forrest Gump without the bogus theme-park politics."[44] Peter Travers from Rolling Stone magazine praised Burton's direction, feeling it was a celebration of the art of storytelling and a touching father–son drama.[42]

text: Mike Clark of USA Today commented that he was most fascinated by the casting choices. "Equally delightful is the Alison Lohman character's evolution into an older woman (Jessica Lange). It's a metamorphosis to equal any in screen history."[43] Internet reviewer James Berardinelli found the fairy tale approach reminiscent of The Princess Bride (1987) and the films of Terry Gilliam. "Big Fish is a clever, smart fantasy that targets the child inside every adult," Berardinelli said, "without insulting the intelligence of either."[45] Roger Ebert, in a mixed review, wrote "there is no denying that Will has a point: The old man is a blowhard. There is a point at which his stories stop working as entertainment and segue into sadism."[46] Richard Corliss of Time magazine was disappointed, finding the father-son reconciliation storyline to be over-dramatically cliché. "You recall The Boy Who Cried Wolf? Edward Bloom is the man who cried fish."[47] Big Fish was #85 on Slant Magazine's best films of the 2000s.[48]

text: Home media[edit]

text: The Region 1 DVD was released on April 27, 2004,[49] and Region 2 was released on June 7.[50] The DVD features a Burton audio commentary track, seven featurettes and a trivia quiz. A special edition was released on November 1, 2005, with a 24-page hardback book entitled Fairy Tale for a Grown Up.[51] The film was released on Blu-ray Disc on March 20, 2007.[52]

text: Accolades[edit]

text: Big Fish received four nominations at the 61st Golden Globe Awards (but no winners) for Best Motion Picture (Musical or Comedy), Best Supporting Actor (Finney), Best Original Score and Best Original Song (Pearl Jam's "Man of the Hour").[53]

text: At the 57th British Academy Film Awards, the film received seven nominations from the British Academy of Film and Television Arts, including Best Film, Best Direction (Tim Burton), Best Adapted Screenplay (John August), Best Actor in a Supporting Role (Albert Finney), Best Production Design (Dennis Gassner), Best Visual Effects (Kevin Scott Mack, Seth Maury, Lindsay MacGowan, Paddy Eason) as well as Best Makeup and Hair (Jean Ann Black and Paul LeBlanc).[54]

text: Finney received another nomination for Best Actor at the 30th Saturn Awards, where the film was also nominated for Best Fantasy Film.[55]

text: At the 76th Academy Awards, Danny Elfman was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Score.[56] In 2005, Elfman received a nomination at the 47th Grammy Awards for the Best Score Soundtrack Album for a Motion Picture.[57]


document_title: Five-second rule

question_text: who came up with the 5 second rule

question_tokens: who came up with the 5 second rule

text: Five-second rule

text: The five-second rule, sometimes also the three-second rule,[1] is a western cultural food hygiene concept, that states that there is a defined window where it is permissible to pick up food (or sometimes cutlery) after it has been dropped and thus exposed to contamination. Some may believe this assertion, whereas most people employ the rule as an amusing social fiction that allows them to eat a dropped piece of food, despite the potential reservations of their peers. How many and what type of bacteria would stick to a piece of dropped food depends on many factors, the food or the floor being wet or dry among them. There is also a social dimension as dropped food in a restaurant or when guests are around is simply unacceptable, but in a family or private situation it may be still tolerated.

text: The origin of the five second rule seems to have cultivated at Doc's Hard Rock Cafe, in Moscow, Pennsylvania. Upon dropping a "cherry bomb" onto the bar floor, local conneusier Jason Powell declared 5 second rule before consuming the delicacy. [2] [3][4][5]

text: Research[edit]

text: The five-second rule has received some scholarly attention.[6] It has been studied as both a public health recommendation and a sociological effect.

text: In 2003, Jillian Clarke of the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign found in a survey that 56% of men and 70% of women surveyed, were familiar with the five-second rule. She also determined that a variety of foods were significantly contaminated by even brief exposure to a tile inoculated with E. coli.[7] On the other hand, Clarke found no significant evidence of contamination on public flooring.[7] For this work, Clarke received the 2004 Ig Nobel Prize in public health.[8] A more thorough study in 2006 using salmonella on wood, tiles, and nylon carpet, found that the bacteria were able to thrive under dry conditions even after twenty-eight days.[9] Tested after eight hours of exposure, the bacteria was still able to contaminate bread in bologna in under five seconds. But a minute-long contact increased contamination about tenfold (especially tile and carpet surfaces).[10] The researchers at the Rutgers University also debunked this theory by dropping watermelon cubes, Haribo strawberry gummies, plain white bread, and buttered bread from a height of five inches on to the ground. The surfaces selected were slathered in Enterobacter aerogenes. The surfaces used were carpet, ceramic tile, stainless steel and wood. The food was left on the surface in intervals of 5, 30 and 300 seconds. The scientists assessed the amount of E. aerogenes transferred between surface and food. Since bacteria tended to be attracted to moisture, wet food had more risk to have bacteria transferred than dry food. To the surprise of the researchers, carpet transferred fewer bacteria than steel or tile. Wood was hard to pin down. It showed a large variation. "The five-second rule is a significant oversimplification of what actually happens when bacteria transfer from a surface to food,” Donald Schaffner, a Rutgers University biologist and an author of the research, said in a statement in the Washington Post. "Bacteria can contaminate instantaneously."[11]

text: The five-second rule was also featured in an episode of the Discovery Channel series MythBusters. There was no significant difference in the number of bacteria collected. The aspects that affect the contamination process is the moisture, surface geometry and the location.[12] Ted Allen put the rule to the test in an episode of Food Detectives,[13] and found that bacteria will cling to food immediately. Vsauce, a YouTube channel, also dedicated a video to this topic.[14]

text: A 2006 study could not verify the "rule" and looked at tile, wood, and carpet floors. It indicated that bacteria can survive on grounds for long time.[15]

text: A 2016 New York Times article states "You may think your floors are so clean you can eat off them, but a new study debunking the so-called five-second rule would suggest otherwise."[16] In response, a pediatrician discounted the danger in consuming certain foods dropped onto floors.[17]

text: A 2014 study, by biology students at Aston University in England, suggested that there may be a basis for the five-second rule.[18] Anthony Hilton, head of microbiology at Aston University, indicated in 2017 that food dropped on a seemingly clean floor for a few moments can be eaten with minimal risk.[19]


document_title: Warri South

question_text: what is the postal code for warri nigeria

text: Warri South

text:
Warri South

LGA

Country
 Nigeria

State
Delta State

Headquarters
Warri

Time zone
WAT (UTC+1)

text: Warri South is a Local Government Area of Delta State, Nigeria. Its headquarters are in the city of Warri. Warri, the headquarters of Warri South LGA, is an important sea port in the country and the commercial nerve centre of the state. The area is predominantly riverine with large expanses of mangrove forests and has a land area of approximately 1,520 square kilometres. The LGA consists of several communities namely, Ode-Itsekiri, Agbassa, Orugbo, Ogunu, Obodo, Igbudu, Omadino, Edjeba, Ijala, Ekurede, Ugbori, Okere, Ikpisan, Ifie-Kporo, Ubeji, Ajamimogha and Alders Town. It harbors many industrial establishments including all the major oil companies operating in Nigeria and is also the seat of the Olu of Warri, a major traditional ruler. [1]

text: It has an area of 633 km² and a population of 303,417 at the 2006 census.

text: The postal code of the area is 332.[2]


document_title: Mycenae

question_text: a stronghold or fortified place such as in mycenaea - is called a

text: Mycenae

text: Name[edit]

text: Although the citadel was built by Greeks, the name Mukanai is thought not to be Greek but rather one of the many pre-Greek place names inherited by the immigrant Greeks.[6][7]

text: Legend has it that the name was connected to the Greek word mycēs (μύκης, "mushroom"). Thus, Pausanias ascribes the name to the legendary founder Perseus, who was said to have named it either after the cap (mykēs) of the sheath of his sword, or after a mushroom he had plucked on the site.[8]

text: The earliest written form of the name is Mykēnē (Μυκήνη), which is found in Homer.[9] The reconstructed Mycenaean Greek name of the site is Mukānai, which has the form of a plural like Athānai. The change of ā to ē in more recent versions of the name is the result of a well-known sound change in later Attic-Ionic.

text: History[edit]

text: Neolithic to Middle Bronze Age[edit]

text: Mycenae, an acropolis site, was continuously inhabited from the Early Neolithic (EN) down through the Early Helladic (EH) and Middle Helladic (MH) periods; EN Rainbow Ware constitutes the earliest ceramic evidence discovered so far.[10] Pottery material spanning the entire EHI through EHIII period was discovered in 1877–1878 by Stamatakis at a low depth in the sixth shaft grave in Grave Circle A; further EH and MH material was found beneath the walls and floors of the palace, on the summit of the acropolis, and outside the Lion Gate in the area of the ancient cemetery.[11] An EH–MH settlement was discovered near a fresh-water well on top of the Kalkani hill southwest of the acropolis.[11] The first burials in pits or cist graves manifest in the MH period (circa 1800–1700 BC) on the west slope of the acropolis, which was at least partially enclosed by the earliest circuit wall.[11]

text: Late Bronze Age[edit]

text: During the Bronze Age, the pattern of settlement at Mycenae was a fortified hill surrounded by hamlets and estates, in contrast to the dense urbanity on the coast (cf. Argos).[citation needed] Since Mycenae was the capital of a state that ruled, or dominated, much of the eastern Mediterranean world, the rulers must have placed their stronghold in this less populated and more remote region for its defensive value. Since there are few documents on site with datable contents (such as an Egyptian scarab) and since no dendrochronology has yet been performed upon the remains here, the events are listed here according to Helladic period material culture.

text: Late Helladic I (LHI)[edit]

text: Outside the partial circuit wall, Grave Circle B, named for its enclosing wall, contained ten cist graves in Middle Helladic style and several shaft graves, sunk more deeply, with interments resting in cists. Richer grave goods mark the burials as possibly regal. Mounds over the top contained broken drinking vessels and bones from a repast, testifying to a more than ordinary farewell.[12] Stelae surmounted the mounds.[13]

text: A walled enclosure, Grave Circle A, included six more shaft graves, with nine female, eight male, and two juvenile interments. Grave goods were more costly than in Circle B. The presence of engraved and inlaid swords and daggers, with spear points and arrowheads, leave little doubt that warrior chieftains and their families were buried here. Some art objects obtained from the graves are the Silver Siege Rhyton, the Mask of Agamemnon, the Cup of Nestor, and weapons both votive and practical.

text: Late Helladic II (LHII)[edit]

text: Alan Wace divided the nine tholos tombs of Mycenae into three groups of three, each based on architecture. His earliest – the Cyclopean Tomb, Epano Phournos, and the Tomb of Aegisthus – are dated to LHIIA.

text: Burial in tholoi is seen as replacing burial in shaft graves. The care taken to preserve the shaft graves testifies that they were by then part of the royal heritage, the tombs of the ancestral heroes. Being more visible, the tholoi all had been plundered either in antiquity, or in later historic times.

text: Late Helladic III (LHIII)[edit]

text: At a conventional date of 1350 BC, the fortifications on the acropolis, and other surrounding hills, were rebuilt in a style known as cyclopean because the blocks of stone used were so massive that they were thought in later ages to be the work of the one-eyed giants known as the Cyclopes (singular: Cyclops).[14] Within these walls, much of which can still be seen, successive monumental palaces were built. The final palace, remains of which are currently visible on the acropolis of Mycenae, dates to the start of LHIIIA:2. Earlier palaces must have existed, but they had been cleared away or built over.

text: The construction of palaces at that time with a similar architecture was general throughout southern Greece. They all featured a megaron, or throne room, with a raised central hearth under an opening in the roof, which was supported by four columns in a square around the hearth. A throne was placed against the center of a wall to the side of the hearth, allowing an unobstructed view of the ruler from the entrance. Frescos adorned the plaster walls and floor.

text: The room was accessed from a courtyard with a columned portico. A grand staircase led from a terrace below to the courtyard on the acropolis.

text: In the temple built within the citadel, a scarab of Queen Tiye of Egypt, who was married to Amenhotep III, was placed in the Room of the Idols alongside at least one statue of either LHIIIA:2 or B:1 type. Amenhotep III's relations with m-w-k-i-n-u, *Mukana, have corroboration from the inscription at Kom al-Hetan - but Amenhotep's reign is thought to align with late LHIIIA:1. It is likely that Amenhotep's herald presented the scarab to an earlier generation, which then found the resources to rebuild the citadel as Cyclopean and then, to move the scarab here.

text: Wace’s second group of tholoi are dated between LHIIA and LHIIIB: Kato Phournos, Panagia Tholos, and the Lion Tomb. The final group, Group III: the Treasury of Atreus, the Tomb of Clytemnestra and the Tomb of the Genii, are dated to LHIIIB by a sherd under the threshold of the Treasury of Atreus, the largest of the nine tombs. Like the Treasury of Minyas at Orchomenus the tomb had been looted of its contents and its nature as funerary monument had been forgotten. The structure bore the traditional name of "Treasury".

text: The pottery phases on which the relative dating scheme is based (EH, MH, LH, etc.) do not allow very precise dating, even augmented by the few existing C-14 dates due to the tolerance inherent in these. The sequence of further construction at Mycenae is approximately as follows. In the middle of LHIIIB, around 1250 BC or so, the Cyclopean wall was extended on the west slope to include Grave Circle A.[16] The main entrance through the circuit wall was made grand by the best known feature of Mycenae, the Lion Gate, through which passed a stepped ramp leading past circle A and up to the palace. The Lion Gate was constructed in the form of a "Relieving Triangle" in order to support the weight of the stones. An undecorated postern gate also was constructed through the north wall.

text: One of the few groups of excavated houses in the city outside the walls lies beyond Grave Circle B and belongs to the same period. The House of Shields, the House of the Oil Merchant, the House of the Sphinxes, and the West House. These may have been both residences and workshops.

text:
Citadel Facts and Figures
Circuit length: 1105M
Preserved height: up to 12.5M
Width: 7.5-17M
Minimum stone required: 145,215 Cu.M or 14,420 average stones (10 tons)
Time to move 1 Block using men: 2.125 days
Time to move all Blocks using men: 110.52 years
Time to move 1 Block using oxen: 0.125 days
Time to move all Blocks using oxen: 9.9 years
Based on 8-hour work day.

text: The largest stones including the lintels and gate jambs weighed well over 20 tonnes; some may have been close to 100 tonnes.[17]

text: Somewhat later, toward the end of LHIIIB,[when?] another extension to the citadel was undertaken. The wall was extended again on the northeast, with a sally port and also a secret passage through and under the wall, of corbeled construction, leading downward by some 99 steps to a cistern carved out of rock 15 m below the surface. It was fed by a tunnel from a spring on more distant higher ground.

text: Already in LHIIIA:1, Egypt knew *Mukana by name as a capital city on the level of Thebes and Knossos. During LHIIIB, Mycenae's political, military and economic influence likely extended as far as Crete, Pylos in the western Peloponnese, and to Athens and Thebes. Hellenic settlements already were being placed on the coast of Anatolia. A collision with the Hittite Empire over their sometime dependency at a then strategic location, Troy, was to be expected. In folklore, the powerful Pelopid family ruled many Greek states, one branch of which was the Atreid dynasty at Mycenae.

text: Decline[edit]

text: By 1200 BC, the power of Mycenae was declining; finally, during the 12th century BC, Mycenaean dominance collapsed entirely. The eventual destruction of Mycenae formed part of the general Bronze Age collapse in the Greek mainland and beyond. Within a short time around 1200 BC, all the palace complexes of southern Greece were burned, including that at Mycenae. This was traditionally attributed by scholars to a Dorian invasion of Greeks from the north, although many historians now doubt that this invasion caused the destruction of the Mycenaean centres. Displaced populations escaped to former colonies of the Mycenaeans in Anatolia and elsewhere, where they came to speak the Ionic dialect.

text: Emily Vermeule suggests that the disruption of commercial networks at the end of the 13th century BC was disastrous for Greece and this was followed by the coming of the mysterious "Sea Peoples", who caused chaos in the Aegean.[18] According to Egyptian records, the "Sea Peoples" destroyed the Hittite Empire then attacked the 19th and the 20th dynasties of Egypt, (circa 1300–1164). They may be related with the destruction of the Mycenaean centers (the records of Pylos mention sea-attack). However at the end of LHIIIB period, the Mycenaeans undertook an expedition against Troy, which meant that the sea was safe with no indication of destruction in the Aegean islands.[19]

text: Another theory has drought as the primary cause behind the Mycenaean decline, but there is no climatological evidence to support this. Manolis Andronikos claimed that internal conflicts involving social revolutions were the sole cause behind the destruction of Mycenaean sites,[20] but this is contradicted by the fact that all the Mycenaean centers throughout Greece were destroyed almost simultaneously.[21] George E. Mylonas noticed that after 1200 BC, some attempt was made for recovery in Mycenae. He believes that in the Argolid there was internal fighting, and this was followed by the Dorian invasion. It seems that the Dorians moved southward gradually in small clans, until they managed to establish themselves.[22]

text: Amos Nur argues that earthquakes played a major role in the destruction of Mycenae and many other cities at the end of the Bronze Age.[23] However, no conclusive evidence has been brought forward to confirm any theory of why the Mycenaean citadel and others throughout Greece fell almost simultaneously at this time.

text: Whatever the cause, by the LHIIIC period (whose latest phase is also termed "Submycenaean"), Mycenae was no longer a major power. Pottery and decorative styles were changing rapidly with craftsmanship and fine art undergoing a decline. Although settlements were significantly reduced in size, the citadel remained occupied but never regained its earlier importance.

text: Archaic and Classical Periods[edit]

text: A temple dedicated to Hera was built on the summit of the Mycenaean citadel during the Archaic Period. A Mycenaean contingent fought at Thermopylae and Plataea during the Persian Wars. In 468 BC, however, troops from Argos captured Mycenae, expelled the inhabitants and razed the fortifications.[24]

text: Revival and Abandonment[edit]

text: Mycenae was briefly reoccupied in the Hellenistic period, when it could boast a theatre (located over the Tomb of Clytemnestra). The site was subsequently abandoned, and by the Roman period in Greece its ruins had become a tourist attraction. The ancient travel writer Pausanias, for example, visited the site and briefly described the prominent fortifications and the Lion Gate, still visible in his time.[25]

text: Political organization[edit]

text: It appears that the Mycenaean state was ruled by kings identified by the title 𐀷𐀙𐀏, wa-na-ka ("wanax') in the Linear B inscriptions at Knossos and Pylos. In the Homeric poems, the word form is anax (ἄναξ), often translated in English as "lord". Some inscriptions with a list of offerings indicate that the king was probably divine, but the term "for the king" is usually accompanied by another name.[26] It is doubtful that the wanax was responsible for religious matters, but probably his title indicates that his right to rule was given by the god.[27] The term 𐀣𐀯𐀩𐀄, qa-si-re-u (cf. βασιλεύς, "basileús"), which was later used in Greece for "king", was apparently used for the "chief" of any group of people, or for a provincial official. (Homer mentions many basilees in Ithaca).[26]

text: The land possessed by the king is usually called 𐀳𐀕𐀜, te-me-no (τέμενος, "témenos"), a word that survived in classical Greece (the temenos placed by Hephaestus on the shield of Achilles is called "royal").[27] Other important landowners were the 𐀨𐀷𐀐𐀲, ra-wa-ke-ta ("lāwāgetas"), the leader of the people, and the 𐀳𐀩𐀲, te-re-ta ("telestai"), the officials. Lawagetas is placed next to the king and he could be the leader of the army, but this is not confirmed by the inscriptions.[26] Leonard Robert Palmer suggests that the "telestai were the men of telos- the fief holders".[27] The 𐀁𐀤𐀲, e-qe-ta (equetai, "companions" or "followers") were a group of nobles (aristocrats), who followed the king in peace and war. There is also at least one instance of a person, Enkhelyawon at Pylos, who appears titleless in the written record but whom modern scholars regard as being probably a king.[28]

text: From the existing evidence, it seems that the kingdom was further subdivided into sixteen districts. The 𐀒𐀩𐀮, ko-re-te was the "governor of the district" and the 𐀡𐀫𐀒𐀩𐀮, po-ro-ko-re-te was the "deputy". It is possible that the real names were koreter and prokoreter. The 𐀅𐀗𐀒𐀫, da-mo-ko-ro (damokoros) was an official appointment but his duties are not very clear. The communal land was held at the hands of 𐀅𐀗, da-mo (literally, "people", cf. δῆμος, dễmos), or "plot holders". It seems that "damo" was a collective body of men, representing the local district.[26] It is suggested that qa-si-re-u had a council of elders, a 𐀐𐀫𐀯𐀊, ke-ro-si-ja, (later "γερουσία", gerousia), but Palmer believes that it was an organization of "bronze smiths".[27]

text: Religion[edit]

text: Much of the Mycenaean religion survived into classical Greece in their pantheon of Greek deities, but it is not known to what extent Greek religious belief is Mycenaean, nor how much is a product of the Greek Dark Ages or later. Moses I. Finley detected only few authentic Mycenaean beliefs in the 8th-century Homeric world,[29] but Nilsson suggested that the Mycenean religion was the mother of the Greek religion.[30] Through oral tradition, Homer transferred the beliefs during the Dark Ages, but he kept in memory the confederacy of the Greeks under the powerful king of Mycenae.[31] when gods walked along friendly with men, and the "Heroic Age" when great heroes dominated the scene. The belief in gods as embodiments of power, the heroic outlook inherited from a distant past together with the local chthonic cults, were later fitted into the frame of the city-states.

text: From the history traced by Nilsson and Guthrie, the Mycenaean pantheon consisted of Minoan deities, but also of gods and goddesses who appear under different names with similar functions in East and West.[32] Many of these names appearing in the Linear B inscriptions can be found later in classical Greece like Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Athena, Hermes, Eileithyia and Dionysos,[33] but the etymology is the only evidence of the cults.

text: There are several reasonable guesses that can be made, however. It seems that originally the Mycenaeans, like many Indo-Europeans, considered divine any object that inherited an internal power (anima). Certain religious beliefs were mixed with the beliefs of the local populations as it appears in the old cults of isolated Arcadia, which survived up to classical Greece. In these cults, Poseidon appears usually as a horse, representing the river spirit of the underworld as it usually happens in northern-European folklore. The precursor goddesses of Demeter and Persephone are closely related with the springs and the animals, and especially with Poseidon and Artemis who was the first nymph.[34] Mycenaean religion was almost certainly polytheistic, and the Mycenaeans were actively syncretistic, adding foreign deities to their pantheon of deities with considerable ease. The Mycenaeans probably entered Greece with a pantheon of deities headed by some ruling sky-deity, which linguists speculate might have been called *Dyeus in early Indo-European. In Greek, this deity would become Zeus (pronounced Zeus or Dias in ancient Greek). Among the Hindus, this sky-deity becomes "Dyaus Pita". In Latin he becomes "deus pater" or Jupiter; we still encounter this word in the etymologies of the words "deity" and "divine".

text: Later in some cults, Zeus is united with the Aegean Great Goddess, who is represented by Hera in a "holy wedding" (hieros gamos). At some point in their cultural history, the Mycenaeans adopted some Minoan goddesses like Aphaea, Britomartis, Diktynna and associated them with their sky-god.[32] Many of them were absorbed by more powerful divinities, and some like the vegetation goddesses Ariadne and Helen survived in Greek folklore together with the cult of the "divine child", who was probably the precursor of Dionysos.[35] Athena and Hera survived and were tutelary goddesses, the guardians of the palaces and the cities. In general, later Greek religion distinguishes between two types of deities: the Olympian, or sky deities (including Zeus), which are now commonly known in some form or another; and, the chthonic deities, or deities of the earth. Walter Burkert warns: "To what extent one can and must differentiate between Minoan and Mycenaean religion is a question which has not yet found a conclusive answer."[36] He suggests that useful parallels will be found in the relations between Etruscan and Archaic Greek culture and religion, or between Roman and Hellenistic culture.

text: The pantheon also included deities representing the powers of nature and wildlife, who appear with similar functions in the Mediterranean region.[32] The "Mistress of the Animals" (Potnia Theron), later called Artemis, may be identified as the Minoan goddess Britomartis/Dictynna.[37] Poseidon is the lord of the sea, and therefore of storms and earthquakes, (the "Earth shaker" in Linear B tablets). He may have functioned as a pre-Hellenic chthonic Zeus, the lord or spouse of the Earth goddess.[38] Athena whose task was to protect the olive-trees is a civic Artemis. The powers of animal nature fostered a belief in nymphs whose existence was bound to the trees and the waters, and in gods with human forms and the heads or tails of animals who stood for primitive bodily instincts. In Arcadia were depicted animal-headed gods, indicating that in the remote past the gods were conceived as animals and birds, in a surrounding of animal-headed daemons.[34] Later the gods were revealed in human forms with an animal as a companion or symbol. Some of the old gods survived in the cult of Dionysos (Satyrs) and Pan (the goat-god).

text: The Mycenaeans adopted probably from the east a priest-king system and the belief of a ruling deity in the hands of a theocratic society. At the end of the second millennium BC, when the Mycenaean palaces collapsed, it seems that Greek thought was gradually released from the idea that each man was a servant to the gods, and sought a "moral purpose". It is possible that this procedure started before the end of the Mycenaean age, but the idea is almost absent or vague in the Homeric poems, where the interference of the gods is not related to the rightness or wrongness of men's actions.[32] Later, Hesiod uses a lot of eastern material in his cosmology and in the genealogical trees of the gods,[39] and he introduces the idea of the existence of something else behind the gods, which was more powerful than they.[40] This is the powerful Fate (Moira), who in the Homeric poems is acting in parallel with the gods and predestinates the events.[41] Hesiod complies to the Greek desire of an order in the universe, and tries to bring the gods under a rule comparable to the rule which controls the lives of men. In Greek mythology this power is named Ananke (necessity).[42]

text: The Olympian Pantheon is an ordered system. The Greek divinities live with Zeus at the helm and each is concerned with a recognizable sphere. However, certain elements in some Greek cults indicate the survival of some older cults from a less rationalized world: old cults of the dead, agrarian magic, exorcism of evil spirits, peculiar sacrifices, and animal-headed gods. In the Homeric poems, the avenging Fate was probably originally a daemon acting in parallel with the gods.[41] Later, the cult of Dionysos Zagreus indicates that life-blood of animals was needed to renew that of men.[43] A similar belief may be guessed from the Mycenaean Hagia Triada sarcophagus (1400 BC), which combines features of Minoan civilization and Mycenaean style. It seems that the blood of a bull was used for the regeneration of the reappearing dead.[44] Probably most of these cults existed in the Mycenaean period and survived by immemorial practice.

text: A secondary level of importance was the cult of the heroes, which seems to have started in the Mycenaean era. These were great men of the past who were exalted to honor after death, because of what they had done. According to an old Minoan belief, beyond the sea there was an island called Elysion, where the departed could have a different but happier existence.[45] Later, the Greeks believed that there could live in human form only heroes and the beloved of the gods. The souls of the rest would drift unconsciously in the gloomy space of Hades. Gods and men had common origins, but there was an enormous gap between the immortal gods and mortal men. However, certain elements indicate that the Myceneans probably believed in a future existence. Two well-preserved bodies were found in Shaft Grave VI, and Wolfgang Helbig believed that an embalming preceded the burial.[46] In the shaft graves discovered by Heinrich Schliemann, the corpses were lightly exposed to fire in order to preserve them.[47]

text: Mycenaean religion certainly involved offerings and sacrifices to the deities, and some have speculated that their ceremonies involved human sacrifice based on textual evidence and bones found outside tombs. In the Homeric poems, there seems to be a lingering cultural memory of human sacrifice in King Agamemnon's sacrifice of his daughter, Iphigenia; several of the stories of Trojan heroes involve tragic human sacrifice. In the far past, even human beings might be offered to placate inscrutable gods, especially in times of guilty fear. Later sacrifice became a feast at which oxen were slaughtered. Men kept the meat, and gave the gods the bones wrapped in fat.[48]

text: Beyond this speculation we can go no further. Somewhere in the shades of the centuries between the fall of the Mycenaean civilization and the end of the Greek Dark Ages, the original Mycenaean religion persisted and adapted until it finally emerged in the stories of human devotion, apostasy, and divine capriciousness that exists in the two great epic poems of Homer. It was the beginning of the religion which later the Greeks considered Hellenic, and embodies a paradox. Though the world is dominated by a divine power that the gods bestow in different ways on men, nothing but "darkness" lay ahead and life was sometimes frail and unsubstantial.[49]

text: Mycenae in Greek mythology and legends[edit]

text: Perseid dynasty[edit]

text: Classical Greek myths assert that Mycenae was founded by Perseus, grandson of king Acrisius of Argos, son of Acrisius's daughter, Danaë and the god Zeus. Having killed his grandfather by accident, Perseus could not, or would not, inherit the throne of Argos. Instead he arranged an exchange of realms with his cousin, Megapenthes, and became king of Tiryns, Megapenthes taking Argos. After that, he founded Mycenae and ruled the kingdoms jointly from there.

text: Perseus married Andromeda and had many sons, but in the course of time, went to war with Argos and was slain by Megapenthes. His son, Electryon, became the second of the dynasty, but the succession was disputed by the Taphians under Pterelaos, another Perseid, who assaulted Mycenae, lost, and retreated with the cattle. The cattle were recovered by Amphitryon, a grandson of Perseus, but he killed his uncle by accident with a club in an unruly cattle incident and had to go into exile.

text: The throne went to Sthenelus, third in the dynasty, a son of Perseus. He set the stage for future greatness by marrying Nicippe, a daughter of King Pelops of Elis, the most powerful state of the region and the times. With her he had a son, Eurystheus, the fourth and last of the Perseid dynasty. When a son of Heracles, Hyllus, killed Sthenelus, Eurystheus became noted for his enmity to Heracles and for his ruthless persecution of the Heracleidae, the descendants of Heracles.

text: This is the first we hear in legend of those noted sons, who became a symbol of the Dorians. Heracles had been a Perseid. After his death, Eurystheus determined to annihilate these rivals for the throne of Mycenae, but they took refuge in Athens, and in the course of war, Eurystheus and all his sons were killed. The Perseid dynasty came to an end and the people of Mycenae placed Eurystheus's maternal uncle, Atreus, a Pelopid, on the throne.

text: Atreid dynasty[edit]

text: The people of Mycenae had received advice from an oracle that they should choose a new king from among the Pelopids. The two contenders were Atreus and his brother, Thyestes. The latter was chosen at first. At this moment nature intervened and the sun appeared to reverse direction by setting in the east. Atreus argued that because the sun had reversed its path, the election of Thyestes should be reversed. The argument was heeded, and Atreus became king. His first move was to pursue Thyestes and all his family - that is, his own kin - but Thyestes managed to escape from Mycenae.

text: In legend, Atreus had two sons, Agamemnon and Menelaus, the Atreids. Aegisthus, the son of Thyestes, killed Atreus and restored Thyestes to the throne. With the help of King Tyndareus of Sparta, the Atreids drove Thyestes again into exile. Tyndareus had two ill-starred daughters, Helen and Clytemnestra, whom Menelaus and Agamemnon married, respectively. Agamemnon inherited Mycenae and Menelaus became king of Sparta.

text: Soon, Helen eloped with Paris of Troy. Agamemnon conducted a 10-year war against Troy to get her back for his brother. Because of lack of wind, the warships could not sail to Troy. In order to please the gods so that they might make the winds start to blow, Agamemnon sacrificed his daughter Iphigenia. According to some versions of the legend, the hunting goddess Artemis replaced her at the very last moment with a deer on the altar, and took Iphigenia to Tauris (see Iphigenia by Euripides). The deities, having been satisfied by such a sacrifice, made the winds blow and the Greek fleet departed.

text: Legend tells us that the long and arduous Trojan War, although nominally a Greek victory, brought anarchy, piracy, and ruin; already before the Greek fleet set sail for Troy, the conflict had divided the gods as well, and this contributed to curses and acts of vengeance following many of the Greek heroes. After the war, Agamemnon, returning, was greeted royally with a red carpet rolled out for him and then was slain in his bathtub by Clytemnestra, who hated him bitterly for having ordered the sacrifice of their daughter Iphigenia (although the life of the latter had been saved). Clytemnestra was aided in her crime by Aegistheus, who reigned subsequently, but Orestes, son of Agamemnon, was smuggled out to Phocis. He returned as an adult to slay Clytemnestra and Aegistheus. He then fled to Athens to evade justice and a matricide, and became insane for a time. Meanwhile, the throne of Mycenae went to Aletes, son of Aegistheus, but not for long. Recovering, Orestes returned to Mycenae to kill him and take the throne.

text: Orestes then built a larger state in the Peloponnese, but he died in Arcadia from a snake bite. His son, Tisamenus, the last of the Atreid dynasty, was killed by the Heracleidae on their return to the Peloponnesus. They claimed the right of the Perseids to inherit the various kingdoms of the Peloponnese and cast lots for the dominion of them. Whatever the historical realities reflected in these stories, the Atreids are firmly set in the epoch near the end of the Heroic Age, leading up to the arrival of the Dorians. There are no established stories of a royal house at Mycenae later than the Atreids, and this could reflect the fact that not much more than fifty or sixty years seem to have separated the fall of Troy VIIa (the likely inspiration of Homeric Troy) and the fall of Mycenae.

text: Atreids in Asia Minor[edit]

text: On March 5, 1223 BC, there was a total eclipse of the sun in the Aegean, which Atreus might have twisted into a setting of the sun in the east. However, this date does not solve all unknowns.

text: A late date is implied for the Trojan War, which would, in that case, have been against Troy VIIa after all. The Perseids would have been in power circa 1380 BC, the date of a statue base from Kom el-Heitan in Egypt recording the itinerary of an Egyptian embassy to the Aegean in the time of Amenhotep III (r. 1391–1353 BC or 1388–1351 BC). M-w-k-i-n-u (phonetic "Mukanuh"?) was one of the cities visited, a rare early document of the name of Mycenae. It was one of the cities of the tj-n3-jj ("Tinay"?),[50] The Homeric Danaans were named, in myth, after Danaë, which suggests that the Perseids were in fact in some sort of dominion.

text: Also in the 14th century BC, Ahhiya began to be troublesome to numerous kings of the Hittite Empire. Ahhiyawa or Ahhiya, which occurs a few dozen times in Hittite tablets over the century, is probably Achaiwia, reconstructed Mycenaean Greek for Achaea. The Hittites did not use "Danaja" as did the Egyptians, even though the first Ahhiya reference in the "Indictment of Madduwatta"[51] precedes the correspondence between Amenhotep III and one of Madduwatta's subsequent successors in Arzawa, Tarhunta-Radu. The external LHIIIA:1-era sources do, however, agree in their omission of a great king or other unifying structure behind Ahhiya and the Tinay.

text: For example, in the "Indictment of Madduwatta", Attarsiya, the "ruler of Ahhiya", attacks Madduwatta and drives him from his land. He obtains refuge and military assistance from the King Tudhaliya of the Hittites.[51] After the death of the latter and in the reign of his son, Arnuwanda, Madduwatta allies with Attarissiya and they, along with another ruler, raid Alasiya, that is, Cyprus.[52]

text: This is the only known occurrence of a man named Attarissiya. Attempts to link this name to Atreus have not found wide support, nor is there any evidence of a powerful Pelopid named Atreus of those times.

text: During LHIIIA:2, Ahhiya, now known as Ahhiyawa, extended its influence over Miletus, settling on the coast of Anatolia, and competed with the Hittites for influence and control in western Anatolia. For instance, Uhha-Ziti's Arzawa and through him Manapa-Tarhunta's Seha River Land. While establishing the credibility of the Mycenaean Greeks as a historical power, these documents create as many problems as they solve.

text: Similarly, a Hittite king wrote the so-called Tawagalawa Letter to the Great King of Ahhiyawa, concerning the depredations of the Luwiyan adventurer Piyama-Radu. Neither of the names of the great kings are stated; the Hittite king could be either Muwatalli II or his brother Hattusili III, which at least dates the letter to LHIIIB by Mycenaean standards. But neither the Atreus nor the Agamemnon of legend have any brothers named *Etewoclewes (Eteocles); this name, rather, is associated with Thebes, which during the preceding LHIIIA period Amenhotep III had viewed as equal to Mycenae.

text: Excavation[edit]

text: The first excavations at Mycenae were carried out by Greek archaeologist Kyriakos Psistakis in 1841 where he found and restored the Lion Gate.[53] In 1874, Heinrich Schliemann excavated deep shafts all over the acropolis without permission; in August 1876, a complete excavation of the site by Schliemann commenced with the permission of the Archaeological Society of Athens (ASA) and the supervision of one of its members, Panayiotis Stamatakis.[53] Schliemann believed in the historical truth of the Homeric stories and interpreted the site accordingly. He found the ancient shaft graves with their royal skeletons and spectacular grave goods. Upon discovering a human skull beneath a gold death mask in one of the tombs, he declared: "I have gazed upon the face of Agamemnon".[54] Christos Tsountas, another member of the ASA, cleared a significant portion of the citadel during his excavations of the site beginning in 1884 and ending in 1902.[53] Afterwards, Tsountas and the ASA gave permission to the British School of Archaeology (BSA) to excavate; the BSA conducted excavations from 1920 to 1955 under the supervision of Alan John Bayard Wace.[53] After Wace died in 1957, excavation work was finished by Lord William Taylor from 1958 to 1969, especially on the west slope of the citadel.[53] The ASA continued excavation work on the site with efforts led by Ioannis Papadimitriou and Nicolas Verdelis in the late 1950s and early 1960s, as well as by George Mylonas from 1957 up until 1985.[53] In 1985, excavation work was directed by Spyros Iakovidis who, as of 2009[update], is still overseeing the ASA's research mission in both fieldwork and publication preparation.[53]

text: Since Schliemann's day, more scientific excavations have taken place at Mycenae, mainly by Greek archaeologists but also by the British School at Athens. The acropolis was excavated in 1902, and the surrounding hills have been methodically investigated by subsequent excavations. The Athens Archaeological Society is currently excavating the Mycenae Lower Town (as of 2011[update]), with support from Dickinson College and the Institute for Aegean Prehistory.[55]


document_title: White Walker

question_text: what are the zombies on game of thrones

question_tokens: what are the zombies on game of thrones

text: White Walker

text: Description[edit]

text: Martin introduces the Others in the prologue of A Game of Thrones (1996), describing them as "Tall ... and gaunt and hard as old bones, with flesh pale as milk" with eyes "deeper and bluer than any human eyes, a blue that burned like ice". Accompanied by intense cold, they wear armor that "seemed to change color as it moved", and wield thin crystal swords capable of shattering steel. The Others move silently, and they speak their own language; Martin writes that their voices are "like the cracking of ice on a winter lake".[4] In A Storm of Swords (2000), they are shown to be vulnerable to weapons made of dragonglass (obsidian),[5] as Samwell Tarly kills one this way:

text: [T]he Other's armor was running down its legs in rivulets as pale blue blood hissed and steamed around the black dragonglass dagger in its throat ... where its fingers touched the obsidian they smoked ... the Other shrank and puddled, dissolving away. In twenty heartbeats its flesh was gone, swirling away in a fine white mist. Beneath were bones like milkglass, pale and shiny, and they were melting too. Finally only the dragonglass dagger remained, wreathed in steam ... Grenn bent to scoop it up and flung it down again at once. "Mother, that’s cold."[5]

text: In A Dance with Dragons (2011), Sam uncovers ancient record fragments which suggest that the Others are also vulnerable to something called "dragonsteel", which he and Jon Snow surmise is another term for Valyrian steel.[6]

text: Creatures killed by the Others soon reanimate as wights: undead with pallid skin, black hands and similarly glowing blue eyes.[4][7] Dragonglass has no effect on them.[8] Wights may be physically injured, but even dismembered parts remain animated, so they must be destroyed by fire.[7][8] The humans who live in the north beyond The Wall—called "wildlings" by the inhabitants of Westeros—burn their dead so that they do not become wights.[9]

text: Novels[edit]

text: In 2012, Chris Lackner wrote in Dose, "Fans of the novels are eagerly awaiting Martin's final two installments of the seven-part series. In particular, they are eager to learn more about the White Walkers—or The Others—a mysterious, undead race seemingly bent on humanity's destruction."[10]

text: Backstory[edit]

text: In the novels and the 2014 companion book The World of Ice & Fire, Martin establishes that, millennia before the events of A Song of Ice and Fire series, a pact existed between the Children of the Forest (elf-like creatures) and the First Men (mankind). This was weakened by the emergence of the Others, an enigmatic and malevolent nonhuman species who inflicted a night that lasted a generation and a winter that lasted decades.[11] After the Others were pushed back, the Children and the First Men raised The Wall, a vast barrier of stone, ice and magic from one coast of northern Westeros to the other, to bar the passage of the Others south.[12]

text: A Game of Thrones[edit]

text: As A Game of Thrones (1996) begins, the general belief across Westeros is that the Others are a legend to scare children, or else "gone eight thousand years".[7][13] But the Others have reemerged, and are gaining power–and wights–beyond the Wall.[4] In the Prologue, a ranging party from the Night's Watch come face to face with a group of the Others, who kill Ser Waymar Royce.[4] Reanimated as a wight, he then kills the ranger Will.[4] Out ranging beyond the Wall, Jon Snow and the Night's Watch find the corpses of two of their fallen brothers. Brought home to Castle Black, the dead men rise and kill several of their living fellows before they are destroyed.[7][14]

text: A Storm of Swords[edit]

text: Sam Tarly kills an Other with a dragonglass dagger in A Storm of Swords (2000).[5] His former comrade Small Paul is killed and reanimated as a wight. The undead Paul is unfazed by the dragonglass but Sam is able to put him down with fire.[8] Bran Stark recalls the story of the Night's King, a Stark and the 13th Commander of the Night's Watch who had been seduced by a female White Walker.[12] The Night's King and his queen enslaved the brothers of the Watch until the Starks and the wildlings joined to defeat him.[12]

text: The Winds of Winter[edit]

text: Martin said in 2012 that readers will see more of the Others in his forthcoming novel The Winds of Winter.[15] He noted in another 2012 interview, "[We'll learn more about their] history, certainly, but I don't know about culture ... I don't know if they have a culture".[10]

text: TV adaptation[edit]

text: The White Walkers portrayed on HBO's Game of Thrones differ slightly in appearance from their literary counterparts, but Aaron Souppouris of The Verge named them among "the most visually iconic creatures on the show".[3] In the TV series, the primary White Walker has been portrayed by Ross Mullan.[3][16] Their apparent leader is the Night King, portrayed by Richard Brake and Vladimir Furdik, who first appeared in the episode "Oathkeeper".[17][18][19] In "Hardhome", the effectiveness of Valyrian steel against the White Walkers is proven as Jon shatters one to pieces with a single stroke of his ancient sword Longclaw.[20][21] Unlike in the novels, the TV series has established that wights can be destroyed by dragonglass.[22]

text: In the season 6 episode "The Door" (May 2016), Bran Stark experiences a vision of the creation of the Night King by Leaf, one of the Children of the Forest, by stabbing a human prisoner in the chest with a dragonglass dagger. Leaf explains to an incredulous Bran that the Children were at war with the First Men.[23][24]

text: Merchandising[edit]

text: In 2012, Funko released a White Walker figure as part of their POP! Television line, which are 4.5 inch vinyl figures in the Japanese super deformed style.[25] The company later produced a Mystery Mini Blind Box figurine of a stylized White Walker.[26] Dark Horse released a 9-inch White Walker bust statue in 2013,[27][28] and later a 9-inch full figure statue.[29] In 2014, Funko released a 6.5 inch articulated White Walker action figure (with spear accessory) as part of their HBO-licensed Legacy Collection line, which features "some of the series’ most popular characters".[30][31] Dark Horse produced a Night King bust in March 2016,[32] which was followed by an 8-inch Night King figure by Dark Horse Deluxe in late 2016.[33] Funko also released a "Night King" POP! figure that same year.[34]