document_title: The Three Stooges (2012 film)

question_text: who played curly in the three stooges movie

text: The Three Stooges (2012 film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: The film is composed of three acts, which are referred to as episodes (a reference to how the original Three Stooges short films were packaged for television by Columbia Pictures).

text: Act / Episode 1: More Orphan Than Not[edit]

text: Thirty-five years in the past, the children at the Sisters of Mercy Orphanage are playing soccer with an old soda can in the front yard. But then, Sister Mary-Mengele (Larry David), the meanest and strictest nun in the orphanage gets their attention by telling them to go inside and do their work. The kids sing "Everybody is Special", but she tells them to shut up and go to work. Later, infant versions of Moe, Larry, and Curly are dumped on the doorstep of the orphanage from an unknown person’s car. Ever since, the trio have wreaked havoc in the place, leaving the nuns who run it utterly terrified, especially Sister Mary-Mengele, who has always hated the trio. Ten years later, out of desperation, when a prospective couple comes to adopt, the exasperated nuns bring out the trio as being the only three available, eventually being forced to add a fourth when another boy, Teddy, enters the picture. The couple, the Harters (Stephen Collins and Carly Craig), decides to pick Moe, but when he requests Larry and Curly to join him, he is dropped back off at the orphanage, and they choose Teddy instead.

text: Twenty-five years later, in the present, the trio (Chris Diamantopoulos, Sean Hayes and Will Sasso) are adults, still living at the orphanage and working as maintenance men. Monsignor Ratliffe (Brian Doyle-Murray) arrives to give everyone an important message. After Monsignor Ratliffe tells Mother Superior (Jane Lynch) that the orphanage is going to close, she tells Sister Mary-Mengele to get the trio. However, the trio accidentally injure Sister Mary-Mengele when she tells them that Mother Superior needs them. They head to Mother Superior until another on of their accidents causes Monsignor Ratliffe to fall on top of the nuns. Monsignor Ratliffe gets attacked by Moe, Larry, and Curly, who think that Monsignor Ratliffe was getting fresh with the nuns. Eventually, Monsignor Ratliffe informs everyone that the orphanage will be forced to close down unless they can come up with $830,000 in 30 days. The trio volunteers to go out and try to raise the money somehow. Some of the nuns think that they will not be able to succeed because the only people they know are nuns and kids, but Mother Superior thinks otherwise.

text: Act / Episode 2: The Bananas Split[edit]

text: A subplot involves a woman named Lydia (Sofía Vergara), who wants to kill her husband so she can be with her lover, Mac (Craig Bierko), and inherit her husband's considerable fortune. She then finds the trio and offers to pay them the money they need to take care of the hit job. They botch the job by letting Curly push Mac (the supposed husband) in front of a bus and leave Mac in traction in the hospital. When they try to visit Mac in the hospital to finish the job, they are chased by the cops throughout the hospital and escape by jumping off the roof using a fire hose. They end up running into a now grown-up Teddy (Kirby Heyborne), who invites them to his anniversary party, but Moe refuses. It turns out that Teddy is actually Lydia's husband. Their next scheme for raising the money is selling farm-raised salmon, with them scattering salmon on a golf range and watering them like produce. But the same cops from the hospital arrive at the golf course to arrest them and the trio are chased off the golf course and they hide in an old building (getting in by using Curly as a battering ram to bust down the door), where they have a slapstick fight. Larry then stops the fight, and he and Curly then scold Moe for rejecting Teddy’s invitation and Teddy's father's earlier adoption attempt; they could have used his adoptive parents’ wealth to help save the orphanage. Moe angrily yells at them by telling them that he doesn’t care and also saying that he didn't need them. After deciding to split up, they leave the old building, with Moe left inside alone. Then it turns out that they were all on stage in front of an audition crew who select Moe to be the newest cast member of Jersey Shore as "Dyna-Moe".

text: Final Act / Episode 3: No Moe Mister Nice Guy[edit]

text: Larry and Curly are getting along well without Moe, but they return to the orphanage, where they find out a girl named Murph is very ill, but has not been taken to the hospital because the orphanage has no medical insurance. Sister Mary-Mengele tells them that no one will insure the orphanage due to the trio’s numerous accidents & injuries over the years, and the $830,000 is needed in order to cover medical bills that accumulated over the years.Larry and Curly later meet up with Teddy's adopted father at his office to talk about what happened with the orphanage. Teddy's father confesses that Moe wanted him to go back for his friends to adopt them and he didn't want to so he gave Moe back and took Teddy in his place. Then Larry and Curly discover a picture of Teddy and Mr. Harter with Lydia and Mac and realize that Teddy is the husband that Lydia wanted to murder. In addition to this, they feel guilty for rebuking Moe in not accepting the Harter’s adoption and decide to go find him.

text: Meanwhile, Moe has been causing a lot of havoc on Jersey Shore by slapping the cast members around and not putting up with their spoiled antics. The cast go to the producer and tell him to kick Moe off of the show or sue him. The producer then informs them that the show is all about ratings…NOT them. Larry and Curly finally go to the set of Jersey Shore to reunite with Moe and they all head to the anniversary party where they show up to thwart the murder plot, getting in as balloon men. When they get inside, Curly gives all the balloons to a little girl and she floats up into the air. Later, they get chased by the angry Lydia and Mac after the same girl’s balloons are popped and she falls onto the wedding cake, destroying it. Moe, Larry, and Curly are chased into Teddy’s bedroom, finding Teddy on the bed, drowsy. Mac then draws a gun on the trio, but Teddy’s dad appears and tells Mac to put his gun down. Mac then says Lydia was “calling the shots," but Teddy’s dad confesses that he was “calling the shots.” The trio then realize that Mr. Harter was the real mastermind and Lydia was working for him. He married into the money and was incensed to find out the money was left to Teddy and not him when Teddy’s mother died years earlier. They are taken for a ride, but the car crashes into the water when Curly’s pet rat Nippy distracts them; then, they all escape when Curly passes gas, and they light it with “waterproof, strike-anywhere matches” that Larry had, causing enough of an explosion to blow out the windows. Once they are back on land, Mr. Harter, Lydia, and Mac are arrested, and Teddy thanks the trio for saving him. When the trio request the $830,000 from Teddy, he says no, stating he refuses to help the same orphanage that gave him up to a father that tried to kill him, as well as sending him to military school when he was seven, among other things over the years.

text: A couple months later, the trio return to the now-condemned and abandoned orphanage. They then start crying for feeling like failures, but then they hear kids laughing, swimming and playing. When they investigate, they find out a whole brand new orphanage was built next door, complete with a swimming pool, a basketball court, and a tennis court. They soon learn that the money came from the Jersey Shore's producers who consider this as an advance payment in relation to a new reality show, Nuns vs. Nitwits, in which the entire trio will take part. Murph is revealed to be perfectly fine and her illness was due to poison in the cheese (really from rat traps in the attic), though Larry has always suspected it was from too much iron in the water. Then she, along with her friends, brothers Peezer and Weezer (the latter thought to have been lost forever to a foster home), will be adopted by Teddy and his new fiancee, Ling (Emy Coligado), who was Teddy's father's secretary. In the end, after causing one more incident (namely, Curly accidentally knocking Sister Mary-Mengele into the pool with a folded-up diving board, causing the sister to scream, "I'm gonna mash your heads like potatoes!!"), the trio run away and bounce off trampolines out of the orphanage and onto some mules, on which they ride away from the orphanage, off into the distance.

text: Post-script epilogue[edit]

text: An epilogue consists of two actors (Antonio Sabàto, Jr. and Justin Lopez) playing Bobby and Peter Farrelly, explaining that the stunts were all done by professionals, showing the foam rubber props used in the film for the trio to hit one another, demonstrating the fake eye-poke trick (to the eyebrows), and advising children not to try any of the stunts at home.

text: During the end credits, a music video plays showing the Stooges and Sister Rosemary performing "It's a Shame", originally recorded by The Spinners in 1970, interspersed with excerpts from deleted scenes and a couple of brief outtakes. Though credited to "The Spinners and The Three Stooges", Hudson's own distinctive vocals can also be heard.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Chris Diamantopoulos as Moe, the aggressive and short-tempered leader of the Stooges.

Skyler Gisondo as young Moe

Sean Hayes as Larry, the nearly smartest and most relaxed member of the Stooges.

Lance Chantiles-Wertz as young Larry

Will Sasso as Curly, the goofy and dim-witted member of the Stooges.

Robert Capron as young Curly

Jane Lynch as Mother Superior, the head nun of the orphanage the stooges grew up in.
Kirby Heyborne as Theodore J. "Teddy" Harter, a long-lost friend of the Stooges who they met at the orphanage.
Stephen Collins as Mr. Harter, Teddy’s adoptive father, who is a lawyer that married into money, rather than love. He had originally wanted to adopt Moe, but when he insisted that he returns & adopt Larry and Curly, he dropped him back off at the orphanage & took Teddy in his place. He wants to murder his adopted son out of spite because his late wife & Teddy's deceased mother both left their inheritance to him, rather than himself.
Sofía Vergara as Lydia Harter who was Teddy’s wife that wanted to exploit the stooges. She wants to murder him in order to gain his inheritence. She hates the trio for thwarting her plans to murder Teddy.
Craig Bierko as Mac Mioski, Lydia's lover and henchman.
Larry David as Sister Mary-Mengele, a bad-tempered nun at the orphanage.
Jennifer Hudson as Sister Rosemary, a nun who works at the orphanage.
Brian Doyle-Murray as Monsignor Ratliffe.
Lin Shaye as Nursery Nurse, a nurse who works at the hospital.
Caitlin Colford as Katilyn, a nurse who first notices the Stooges when they first come to the orphanage.
Carly Craig as Mrs. Harter, Mr. Harter's wife who adopted Teddy and leaves the entire inheritance to Teddy over her husband.
Kate Upton as Sister Bernice, a nun at the orphanage.
Marianne Leone as Sister Ricarda, a nun at the orphanage.
Avalon Robbins as Murph, a sick girl at the orphanage who is a friend of the Stooges.
Max Charles as Peezer, Murph's best friend and a friend of the Stooges.
Reid Meadows as Weezer, Peezer's brother; adopted by Teddy
Emy Coligado as Ling, Mr. Harter's secretary who eventually becomes Teddy's second wife.
Isaiah Mustafa as Ralph, a producer for Jersey Shore.
Nicole "Snooki" Polizzi as herself.
Mike "The Situation" Sorrentino as himself.
Jennifer "JWoww" Farley as herself.
Ronnie Ortiz-Magro as himself.
Samantha "Sweetheart" Giancola as herself.
Justin Lopez as Peter Farrelly, Bobby's older brother and co-director of the film.
Antonio Sabàto, Jr. as Bobby Farrelly, Peter's younger brother and co-director of the film.
Dwight Howard as himself, a basketball player who teaches at the new orphanage.

text: Production[edit]

text: Development and writing[edit]

text: A Three Stooges film set in the modern day had been in development since at least the mid-1990s; Mad About You creator Danny Jacobson wrote and developed a version in 1997 that had Phil Hartman attached to play Moe.[6] Conundrum Entertainment's Bradley Thomas became attached to The Three Stooges around 2000 with Columbia Pictures. In March 2001, Warner Bros. bought the feature rights from C3 Entertainment and Peter and Bobby Farrelly became involved.[7] They along with co-writer Mike Cerrone completed the script in mid-to-late 2002 and began shopping it. In 2004, with no talent being attached to the project, their rights expired and it was acquired by First Look Studios and C3 Entertainment.[8] In November 2008, MGM boss Mary Parent picked up The Farrelly's Warner Bros. scripts and the rights from C3 Entertainment, and was given a budget of $40 million with a release date of November 20, 2009.[8] In March 2009, after struggling with casting delays, the release date was pushed to 2010, but the filmmakers still did not have a cast set.[8] In November 2010, MGM filed bankruptcy and the following month the project was taken over by 20th Century Fox in hopes to have released the film in 2011.[8][9]

text: The Farrellys said that they were not going to do a biopic or remake, but instead new Three Stooges episodes set in the present day. The film was divided into three segments, each with a stand-alone story, and each being 27 minutes long.[10] The Farrellys aimed to receive a PG (Parental Guidance) rating from the MPAA, while still incorporating physical comedy. In Britain several images were cut before the film achieved the equivalent rating.[3] The Farrellys have also said it would have "non-stop slapping, more in the tone of Dumb and Dumber than we've done. Our goal is 85 minutes of laughs in a film that will be very respectful of who the Stooges were. It's by far the riskiest project we've ever done, without question, but it is also the one closest to our hearts."[11]

text: Casting[edit]

text: In March 2009, Benicio del Toro and Hank Azaria were in consideration to play the lead role of Moe Howard.[12] The role of Moe went to Chris Diamantopoulos.[11][13] Sean Penn was already set to play Larry Fine but dropped out to concentrate on his charitable efforts in Haiti.[13] Sean Hayes was chosen to play Larry. Jim Carrey was set to play Curly Howard and gained 40 pounds for the role but ultimately dropped out because of not wanting to endanger his health gaining 60 to 70 pounds.[13][14] The role went to Will Sasso.[15] Johnny Knoxville, Andy Samberg and Shane Jacobson were all on the short list to play Moe, Larry and Curly, respectively.[16] As the Farrellys note in the DVD/Blu-ray featurette on casting the picture, Sasso was cast as Curly despite being considerably taller than the other Stooges (the original Curly was roughly the same height as Moe and Larry).

text: In December 2010, Richard Jenkins was in talks to play Mother Superior in the film.[8] In February 2011, Cher was considered[13] but Jane Lynch secured the role.[17] Larry David plays another nun in the film called Sister Mary-Mengele,[18] a character named after the infamous Nazi doctor.[19] Sofía Vergara was cast as Lydia. Stephen Collins was cast as Mr. Harter[4] and Carly Craig as his wife, Mrs. Harter.[20] The cast of Jersey Shore (Nicole Polizzi, Michael Sorrentino, Sammi Giancola, Jennifer Farley, and Ronnie Ortiz-Magro) have cameos in the film.[21][22]

text: Filming[edit]

text: On a reported budget of $30 million,[4] principal photography started on May 9, 2011, in downtown Atlanta, Georgia and wrapped on July 20, 2011.[22][23] Scenes were shot at the Fairlie-Poplar Historic District around 5 Points Sports Building on the corner of Peachtree St., Edgewood Ave., and Decatur St. on the evening and night of May 13 and wrapped the next day.[23] On May 26, filming took place at Stone Mountain Park in Atlanta.[4] Other locations included Piedmont Park, Emory Saint Joseph's Hospital, Zoo Atlanta, and Colony Square.[24] In June, production moved to Cartersville and shot scenes near Woodland High School.[25] After the cast of the Jersey Shore arrived on July 18, 2011, they shot scenes at the Atlanta Civic Center.[21] During the last two days of filming, scenes were shot at an Ansley Park home.[24] Filming concluded on July 22, 2011, at the Miami Seaquarium, a popular marine life park in Florida, capturing a scene in their dolphin tank.[26]

text: Release and Reception[edit]

text: Appearance on WWE Raw[edit]

text: To promote the film, Diamantopoulos, Hayes, and Sasso appeared as the Stooges on WWE Raw on April 9, 2012. They acted in several scenes, the first with Santino Marella, before later taking to the ring where they were booed by an infuriated crowd before Sasso, dressed as Hulk Hogan, received a chokeslam by Kane.[27]

text: Box office[edit]

text: On its opening weekend in US, The Three Stooges earned $17.1 million and debuted second behind The Hunger Games.[28] The film has grossed $54,819,301 in the box office,[29] and at least $23,875,651 through US home video sales.[30]

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a rating of 51% based on reviews from 142 critics; the average rating is 5.4/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "While nowhere near as painful as it could have been, The Three Stooges fails to add fresh laughs to the Stooges' inestimable cinematic legacy."[31] Metacritic gives the film a score of 56 out of 100, based on reviews from 26 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[32] Despite the mixed reviews, Diamantopoulos, Hayes, and Sasso were praised for their performances as Moe, Larry, and Curly.[33]

text: Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter described it as "[A] funny, good-hearted resuscitation of Hollywood's beloved lowbrow lunkheads",[33] while Manohla Dargis of The New York Times lauded the film as a "thoroughly enjoyable paean to Moe, Larry and Curly and the art of the eye poke".[34] Spill.com gave the movie a fairly good review, insisting that the movie is great for families, and hardcore Stooge-fans will not be disappointed. They also went on to praise the actors for their portrayal of the Stooges, saying the likeness was uncanny, and perhaps even Oscar-worthy. Roger Ebert gave the movie two-and-a-half out of four stars, stating "The Farrelly brothers have made probably the best Three Stooges movie it's possible to make in 2012, and perhaps ever since the Stooges stopped making them themselves." Some critics however complained about the forced pop culture references such as cameos by Jersey Shore cast members which were presumably done to ensure the movie would have youth appeal and not simply be a nostalgia trip for older audiences.

text: Betsy Sherman of The Boston Phoenix gave it three out of four stars, saying it was "funny and faithful", and added that the film contains "stories that could have graced [the Stooges]' 1930s shorts (raise money to save an orphanage, stumble into a greedy wife's plot) onto the present and imagine how they'd interpret modern concepts (farm-raised salmon)".[35]

text: Peter Travers of Rolling Stone magazine gave it two stars out of four, commenting that "the movie is a mixed bag. The gags don't blossom with repetition. The Stooges were always better in short doses. And 90 minutes of PG nyuk-nyuk-nyuk can seem like an eternity. For the Farrellys, The Three Stooges is a labor of love. For non-believers, it's merely a labor." Travers also praised the cast, stating "The actors deserve a full-throated woo-woo-woo!" adding that "Hayes, Sasso and Diamantopoulos do themselves and the Stooges proud."[36]

text: Bill Wine of KYW Newsradio 1060 in Philadelphia commented that "no one's going to confuse The Three Stooges with a transcendent movie anytime soon, but the Farrellys do capture and reproduce the anarchic spirit and uninhibited essence of the Stooges—soitenly and poifectly, as the Stooges would put it—and remind us why they had such a hold on some of us in decades past. The three leads are expert mimics—especially Hayes...they acquit themselves admirably..."[37]

text: Controversy[edit]

text: Bill Donohue, president of the Catholic League anti-defamation organization, released a statement condemning the movie on the grounds of disrespectful portrayals of Catholics, specifically nuns.[38] Donohue claims that the movie is evidence of increasing hostility towards religion and Catholics in Hollywood, commenting "In the 1950s, Hollywood generally avoided crude fare and was respectful of religion. Today, it specializes in crudity and trashes Christianity, especially Catholicism." Donohue added that the movie "is not just another remake: it is a cultural marker of sociological significance, and what it says about the way we’ve changed is not encouraging."[38]

text: Donohue pinpoints one scene in which the film pushes the envelope with its portrayals of two unusual nuns, portrayed by the swimsuit model Kate Upton, and Curb Your Enthusiasm creator Larry David. Both are potential causes for offense for different reasons, as Moviefone reports:

text: "In Stooges, David portrays Sister Mary-Mengele. The name is a nod to the late Nazi Josef Mengele, an SS Officer who decided prisoners' fates at Auschwitz. As for Upton, it's not so much her character's name—Sister Bernice—as it is her attire. During one scene, the SI swimsuit model dons a very revealing bikini along with a large rosary around her neck."[19]

text: To resolve the issue, the Farelly brothers reshot the scene with Larry pointing out Sister Bernice, still wearing the "nun-kini" while on lifeguard duty at the new orphanage's pool.[citation needed] Close-up footage of Upton exiting the pool in front of a group of children appears in the film's trailer, but not in the movie itself nor DVD/Blu-ray deleted scenes; in the final film, she is only seen sitting in a chair and briefly in the background of a group shot while in her swimsuit (in her other scenes, she is dressed in standard nun attire).

text: Accolades[edit]

text: The cast of Jersey Shore were each nominated for a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Screen Couple for their work on the film, but lost to Mackenzie Foy and Taylor Lautner for The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2.

text: The film received a nomination for worst film of the year by the Houston Film Critics Society.[39]

text: Home media[edit]

text: The Three Stooges was released on DVD and Blu-ray on July 17, 2012. The release includes behind-the-scenes featurettes, a screen test featuring the three lead actors testing out a scene later reshot for the movie, and a selection of deleted scenes. Of note is the inclusion of the theatrical trailer which, as mentioned above, contains numerous differences compared to the final film.

text: Sequel[edit]

text: On May 7, 2015, a sequel was announced, with Sean Hayes, Chris Diamantopoulos and Will Sasso all reprising their roles. Cameron Fay has been hired to write the script.[40] It will begin production in 2018.[41][42]


document_title: Mousse

question_text: where does the mousse derive its light texture from

root

text: Mousse

text: This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text:
Mousse

Chocolate mousse garnished with ground cinnamon

Course
Dessert

Place of origin
France

Main ingredients
Whipped egg whites or whipped cream, chocolate or puréed fruit

Variations
Chocolate, Vanilla, Strawberry, Choco Vanilla etc.

 Cookbook: Mousse   Media: Mousse

text: A mousse (French 'foam' /ˈmuːs/) is a soft prepared food that incorporates air bubbles to give it a light and airy texture. It can range from light and fluffy to creamy and thick, depending on preparation techniques. A mousse may be sweet or savoury.[1]

tag: p

text: Sweet mousses are typically made with whipped egg whites and flavored with one or more of chocolate, coffee, caramel,[2] puréed fruits, or various herbs and spices, such as mint or vanilla.[3] In the case of some chocolate mousses, egg yolks are often stirred into melted chocolate to give the final product a richer mouthfeel. Mousses are also typically chilled before being served, which gives them a denser texture. Sweetened mousse is served as a dessert, or used as an airy cake filling. It is sometimes stabilized with gelatin.[4][5]

text: Savory mousses can be made from meat, fish, shellfish, foie gras, cheese, or vegetables. Hot mousses often get their light texture from the addition of beaten egg whites.[1]

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
Lemon mousse with peach compote

Savory salmon mousse

Mousse cake

tag: ul


document_title: You Should Be Here (Cole Swindell song)

question_text: the story behind cole swindell you should be here

text: You Should Be Here (Cole Swindell song)

text: Background[edit]

text: The song is the title track of Swindell's second album You Should Be Here. The song was written as a tribute to his father, who died unexpectedly while Swindell was out on his radio tour in September 2013, shortly after Swindell had signed a record deal with Warner Music Nashville.[2][3] According to CMT News, Swindell's father, William Swindell, died unexpectedly "when a truck he was working on fell on him."

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: Website Taste of Country reviewed the single favorably, saying that "Cole Swindell‘s 'You Should Be Here' is personal and accessible. The piano-driven ballad about the death of his father isn’t so specific that those who haven’t lost a parent feel left out. More than a tribute, it’s a soundtrack for those moments that are perfect except for one vacant parking spot."[1]

text: Commercial performance[edit]

text: The song debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at No. 69,[4] and No. 10 on Hot Country Songs charts on the song release.[5] The song topped both the Hot Country Songs,[6] and the Country Airplay charts in March 2016.[7] The song peaked at No. 31 on the Hot 100 for chart dated April 16, 2016.[8] The song has sold 706,000 copies in the US as of July 2016.[9]

text: Music video[edit]

text: The music video was directed by Michael Monaco and premiered in December 2015.[10]

text: Personnel[edit]

text:
Pat Buchanan – electric guitar
Michael Carter – electric guitar, keyboards, programming
Dave Cohen – keyboards
James Mitchell – electric guitar
Greg Morrow – drums, percussion
Billy Panda – acoustic guitar
Cole Swindell – lead vocals
Russell Terrell – background vocals
Patrick Thrasher – programming
Mike Wolofsky – bass guitar

text: Charts[edit]

text: Weekly charts[edit]

text:
Chart (2016)
Peak
position

Canada (Canadian Hot 100)[11]
67

Canada Country (Billboard)[12]
3

US Billboard Hot 100[13]
31

US Country Airplay (Billboard)[14]
1

US Hot Country Songs (Billboard)[15]
1

text: Year end charts[edit]

text:
Chart (2016)
Position

US Country Airplay (Billboard)[16]
32

US Hot Country Songs (Billboard)[17]
6

text: Certifications[edit]

text:
Region
Certification
Certified units/Sales

Canada (Music Canada)[18]
Gold
40,000^

United States (RIAA)[19]
Gold
706,000[9]

*sales figures based on certification alone
^shipments figures based on certification alone
sales+streaming figures based on certification alone


document_title: Dukes in the United Kingdom

question_text: who is the highest ranking duke in england

text: Dukes in the United Kingdom

text: Royal Dukedoms[edit]

text: A Royal Duke is a duke who is a member of the British Royal Family, entitled to the style of "His Royal Highness". The current Royal Dukedoms are, in order of precedence:

text:
Duke of Edinburgh, held by Prince Philip
Duke of Cornwall (England) and Duke of Rothesay (Scotland), held by Prince Charles, Prince of Wales
Duke of York, held by Prince Andrew
Duke of Cambridge held by Prince William
Duke of Gloucester, held by Prince Richard
Duke of Kent, held by Prince Edward

text: With the exceptions of the dukedoms of Cornwall and Rothesay (which can only be held by the eldest son of the Sovereign), royal dukedoms are hereditary, according to the terms of the Letters Patent that created them, which usually contain the standard remainder to the "heirs male of his body". The British monarch also holds and is entitled to the revenues of the Duchy of Lancaster, and within the borders of the County Palatine of Lancashire is by tradition saluted as "The Duke of Lancaster". Even when the monarch is a Queen regnant, she does not use the title of Duchess.

text: Forms of address[edit]

text:
Begin: My Lord Duke
Address: His Grace the Duke of _____
Speak to as: Your Grace (formal and employees), Duke (social)
Ceremonial, formal, or legal title: The Most High, Noble and Potent Prince His Grace [forename], Duke of _____

text: Coronet[edit]

text: A British or Irish Duke is entitled to a coronet (a silver-gilt circlet, chased as jewelled but not actually gemmed) bearing eight conventional strawberry leaves on the rim of the circlet. The physical coronet is worn only at coronations. Any peer can bear his coronet of rank on his coat of arms above the shield.


document_title: James Anderson (American actor)

question_text: who played mr ewell in to kill a mockingbird

text: James Anderson (American actor)

text:
James Anderson

James Anderson (right) with Gregory Peck in To Kill a Mockingbird (1962)

Born
(1921-07-13)July 13, 1921
Wetumpka, Alabama, U.S.

Died
September 14, 1969(1969-09-14) (aged 48)
Billings, Montana, U.S

Cause of death
heart attack

Resting place
Pierce Brothers Valhalla Memorial Park

Occupation
Actor

Years active
1941–1969

text: James Anderson (July 13, 1921 – September 14, 1969), sometimes billed as Kyle James, was an American television and film actor of the 1950s and 1960s. He is probably best known for his role as Robert E. Lee "Bob" Ewell in To Kill a Mockingbird (1962).

text: He made over 120 appearances, mostly in television and several films between 1941 and 1969. He made three guest appearances on Perry Mason, including the role of murder victim Frank Anderson in the 1958 episode, "The Case of the Pint-Sized Client," and murder victim Stanley Piper in the 1960 episode, "The Case of the Ill-Fated Faker." He appeared in a number of westerns throughout his career, often playing a gun-for-hire or outlaw. He died of a heart attack on September 14, 1969. Two films he appeared in The Ballad of Cable Hogue (1969) and Little Big Man (1970) were released posthumously.[1]

text: His sister, Mary Anderson (April 3, 1918 – April 6, 2014), was also an actress. They appeared in only one film together, Hunt the Man Down (1951).[2]

text: Filmography[edit]

text:
Year
Title
Role
Notes

1941
Sergeant York

uncredited

1951
Along the Great Divide
Dan Roden

Five
Eric

Hunt the Man Down

1952
The Duel at Silver Creek
Kyle James

1953
Flight to Tangier

The Great Jesse James Raid
Johnny Dorette

1954
Drums Across the River
Jed Walker

1955
Seven Angry Men
Henry Thompson

1956
Friendly Persuasion

Running Target
Strothers

1957
Official Detective
Smith
Episode 'Take Him Alive'

The Big Land
Cole

1958
I Married a Monster from Outer Space
Weldon

The Thing That Couldn't Die
Boyd Abercrombie

1962
To Kill a Mockingbird
Robert E. Lee "Bob" Ewell

1969
Take the Money and Run
Chain Gang Warden

The Ballad of Cable Hogue
Preacher

1970
Little Big Man
Sergeant
his final film role


document_title: U.S. history of alcohol minimum purchase age by state

question_text: when did the drinking age change in illinois

text: The alcohol laws of the United States regarding minimum age for purchase have changed over time. The history is given in the table below. Unless otherwise noted, if different alcohol categories have different minimum purchase ages, the age listed below is set at the lowest age given (e.g. if the purchase age is 18 for beer and 21 for wine or spirits, as was the case in several states, the age in the table will read as "18", not "21"). In addition, the purchase age is not necessarily the same as the minimum age for consumption of alcoholic beverages, although they have often been the same.

text: As one can see in the table below, there has been much volatility in the states' drinking ages since the repeal of Prohibition in 1933. Shortly after the ratification of the 21st amendment in December, most states set their purchase ages at 21 since that was the Voting age at the time. Most of these limits remained constant until the early 1970s. From 1969 to 1976, some 30 states lowered their purchase ages, generally to 18. This was primarily because the voting age was lowered from 21 to 18 in 1971 with the 26th amendment. A lot of states started to lower their minimum drinking age in response, most of this occurring in 1972 or 1973.[1][2][3] Twelve states kept their purchase ages at 21 since repeal of Prohibition and never changed them.

text: From 1976 to 1983, several states voluntarily raised their purchase ages to 19 (or, less commonly, 20 or 21), in part to combat drunk driving fatalities.[citation needed] In 1984, Congress passed the National Minimum Drinking Age Act, which required states to raise their ages for purchase and public possession to 21 by October 1986 or lose 10% of their federal highway funds. By mid-1988, all 50 states and the District of Columbia had raised their purchase ages to 21 (but not Puerto Rico, Guam, or the Virgin Islands, see Additional Notes below). South Dakota and Wyoming were the final two states to comply with the age 21 mandate. The current drinking age of 21 remains a point of contention among many Americans, because of it being higher than the age of majority (18 in most states) and higher than the drinking ages of most other countries. The National Minimum Drinking Age Act is also seen as a congressional sidestep of the tenth amendment. Although debates have not been highly publicized, a few states have proposed legislation to lower their drinking age,[4] while Guam has raised its drinking age to 21 in July 2010.[5]

text:
State
Pre-Prohibition
(prior to 1919)
Post-Prohibition
(after 1933)
1970s / 26th Amendment
(adopted in 1971)
1980s /
Drinking Age Act of 1984
21st century

Alabama
Pre 1881:
None
1881:
21 (none with consent of parent)[6]
21
1975:
Lowered to 19[7]
1986:
Raised to 21[8]
21 (no one underage is allowed consumption Section 28-1)

Alaska
?
21[7]
1970:
Lowered to 19[9]
1984:
Raised to 21 with grandfather clause (if born before January 1, 1965)[10][11]
21

Arizona
?
21[11]
1972:
Lowered to 19[12][13]
1985:
Raised to 21[8]
21

Arkansas
Pre 1925:
None[7]
1925:
21[7]
21
21[14]
21[8]
21

California
Pre 1891:
Regulated by municipality/county (common age was 16)[15][16][17]
1891:
18 (statewide)[18]
1933:
21[7]
21
21[8]
21 (except small amounts for religious ceremonies)

Colorado
None[11]
1945:
18: for beer
21: for wine and liquor[7]
18[19]
Raised to 21 in 1987[8]
21

Connecticut
?
21[11]
1972:
Lowered to 18[20]
1982:
Raised to 19
1983:
Raised to 20
1985:
Raised to 21[21]
21 (exemptions: (1) a person over age eighteen who is an employee or permit holder under section 30-90a and who possesses alcoholic liquor in the course of such person’s employment or business, (2) a minor who possesses alcoholic liquor on the order of a practicing physician, or (3) a minor who possesses alcoholic liquor while accompanied by a parent, guardian or spouse of the minor, who has attained the age of twenty-one. Nothing in this subsection shall be construed to burden a person’s exercise of religion under section 3 of article first of the Constitution of the state in violation of subsection (a) of section 52-571b.[22]

Delaware
?
21[11]
1972:
Lowered to 20[13]
1984:
Raised to 21[8]
21

District of Columbia
?
18: for beer and wine[11]
21: for liquor[23][24]
18: for beer and wine[13][24]
21: for liquor
1986:
Raised to 21 with grandfather clause.[25][26]
21

Florida
?
18[7]
1980:
19[27]
1985:
Raised to 21 with grandfather clause[27]
21[28]

Georgia
?
21[11]
1972:
Lowered to 18[12]
1984:
Raised to 19[14]
1985:
Raised to 20[14]
1986:
Raised to 21[14]
21

Hawaii
?
21[7]
1972:
Lowered to 18[13]
1986:
Raised to 21[8]
21

Idaho
?
20: for beer[29][30]
21: for wine and liquor[11][31]
1972:
Lowered to 19 (all)[13][32]
1987:
Raised to 21 in 1987 (Apr 11) with grandfather clause[8][33]
21

Illinois
1872:
Age of majority
(none with written consent of parent)[34]
pre 1961: Age of majority 1961: Raised to 21[35]
1973:
Lowered to 19: for beer and wine
21: for liquor[36]
1980:
Raised to 21[37]
21

Indiana
?
Post-1934:
21[7]
21[14]
21[8]
21

Iowa
?
21[7]
1972:
Lowered to 19 in 1972 (Jul 1)
1973:
Lowered to 18 in 1973 (Jul 1)
1978:
Raised to 19 in 1978 (Jul 1)[38]
1986:
Raised to 21 in 1986 (Jul 1) with grandfather clause.[14][38]
21

Kansas
?
1949:
18: for beer and wine with less than 4% ABV
21: for liquor[7]
18: for beer and wine with less than 4% ABV[14]
21: for beer and wine with 4% ABV or more[14]
21: for liquor[14][19]
1985:
Raised to 21[8]
21 (However, anyone under 21 may consume cereal malt beverages with parental supervision on their own property)

Kentucky
?
1938:
21[7]
21[14]
21[8]
21

Louisiana
?
As of 1948:
18[13]
18[19]
1987:
Raised to 21 de jure in 1987,[8]
but de facto age was still 18 until 1995 due to a sale loophole.
1995:
De facto age raised to 21 in 1995 when loophole was closed.[39]
1996:
In 1996, briefly lowered by Louisiana Supreme Court to 18 until it reversed its decision, raising to 21 three months later.[40]
Other exceptions still remain.[41]
21 (Exceptions to state law include:[42]

For an established religious purpose;
When a person under twenty-one years of age is accompanied by a parent, spouse, or legal guardian twenty-one years of age or older;
For medical purposes when purchased as an over the counter medication, or when prescribed or administered by a licensed physician, pharmacist, dentist, nurse, hospital, or medical institution;
In a private residence, which shall include a residential dwelling and up to twenty contiguous acres, on which the dwelling is located, owned by the same person who owns the dwelling;
The sale, handling, transport, or service in dispensing of any alcoholic beverage pursuant to lawful ownership of an establishment or to lawful employment of a person under twenty-one years of age by a duly licensed manufacturer, wholesaler, or retailer of beverage alcohol.)

Maine
?
21[7]
1969:
Lowered to 20
1972:
Lowered to 18[12]
1977:
Raised to 20[8][43]
1985:
Raised to 21[8]
21

Maryland
?
21[7]
1974:
Lowered to 18: for beer and wine
21: for liquor[44][45]
1982:
Raised to 21 with grandfather clause[8][46]
21 (however anyone can drink when parents, spouses, teachers are present)

Massachusetts
?
21[11]
1973:
Lowered to 18
1979:
Raised to 20 in 1979 (Apr 16)[47][48][49]
Raised to 21 in 1985[8]
21

Michigan
?
21[7]
1972:
Lowered to 18 in 1972 (Jan 1)[50]
1978:
Raised to 19 in 1978 (Dec 3)[51][52]
1978:
Raised to 21 in 1978 (Dec 21), 18 days later.[8]
First state to raise age to 21 since it was lowered
21

Minnesota
?
21[11]
1973:
Lowered to 18 (June 1)
1976:
Raised to 19 (Sept 1)[53]
First state to raise age after lowering.
1986:
Raised to 21[54]
21

Mississippi
?
1966:
18: for beer and wine
21: for liquor[7]
(alcohol not legalized until 1966)
18[19]
Raised to 21 in 1986[8]
21

Missouri
?
1945:
21[7]
21
21[8]
21

Montana
?
21[11]
1971:
Lowered to 19[55]
1973:
Lowered to 18[56][57]
1979:
Raised to 19
1987:
Raised to 21[8][58]
21

Nebraska
?
21[59]
1969:
Lowered to 20
1972:
Lowered to 19[59]
1980:
Raised to 20[14]
1985:
Raised to 21[14]
21

Nevada
?
1933:
21[7]
21
21[8]
21

New Hampshire
?
21[11]
1973:
Lowered to 18[60]
1979:
Raised to 20
1985:
Raised to 21[8][21]
21

New Jersey
Before 1880:
None
Post-1880:
18 (penalties only against businesses)[61][62][63]
21[citation needed]
1973:
Lowered to 18[12]
1980:
Raised to 19
1983:
Raised to 21[8][64]
21

New Mexico
?
1934:
21[7]
21[14]
21[8]
21

New York
21
18[65]
18
1982:
Raised to 19 in 1982 (Dec)
1985:
Raised to 21 in 1985 (Dec)[21][66][67]
21

North Carolina
?
18[11]
18: for beer and wine[19]
21: for liquor
1983:
19: for beer and wine
21: for liquor
1986:
Raised to 21 in 1986 (Sep 1)[8][26]
21

North Dakota
?
1936:
21[7]
21[14]
21[68]
21

Ohio
?
1935:
18: for 3.2% ABW beer
21: for beer stronger than 3.2% ABW, wine and liquor[69]
18: for 3.2% ABW beer
21: for beer stronger than 3.2% ABW, wine and liquor
1982 (Aug. 19 to Oct. 1):
19: for 3.2% ABW beer[14]
21: for beer stronger than 3.2% ABW, wine and liquor[14]
1982 (From Oct. 1):
19: beer
21: wine and liquor[70]
1988:
21[14]
21 (However, anyone can drink with parents or legal-age spouse)

Oklahoma
?
Men:
21
Women:
18: 3.2% ABW beer
21: for beer stronger than 3.2% ABW, wine and liquor[71]
1976:
Lowered to 18 (for 3.2% ABW beer) for both sexes in 1976 (Dec)[72]
Last state to lower the drinking age.
1983:
Raised to 21[11][73]
21

Oregon
?
1933:
21[7]
21
21[8]
21

Pennsylvania
?
1935:
21[7]
21
21[8][52]
21

Rhode Island
?
21[11]
1970:
Lowered to 18[12][74]
1980:
Raised to 19
1981:
Raised to 20
1984:
Raised to 21[21]
21

South Carolina
21[75]
1935:
18: for beer and wine
21: for liquor[7]
18: for beer and wine[19]
21: for liquor
1984:
19: for beer and wine[7]
21: for liquor
1986:
Raised to 21[8]
21

South Dakota
?
1934:
21 (all)
1939:
Lowered to 18: for 3.2% beer
Raised to 19: for 3.2% beer[76]
1972:
18: for beer and wine
21: for liquor[13]
1984:
19: for beer and wine
21: for liquor[8]
1988:
Raised to 21[58]
21

Tennessee
Pre 1881:
None
1881:
21[77]
21[7]
1964:
Lowered to 18[7]
1979:
Raised to 19
1984:
Raised to 21[8]
21

Texas
Pre 1909:
21
None (with written permission of parent or guardian)
Post 1909:
21[78][79]
21[7]
1973:
Lowered to 18[80]
1981:
Raised to 19[81]
1986:
Raised to 21 in 1986 (Sep 1)[8][26]
21

Utah
?
1935:
21[7]
21[14]
21[8]
21

Vermont
?
21[7]
1971:
Lowered to 18[82][83]
1986:
Raised to 21[21][83]
21

Virginia
?
21[84]
1974:
Lowered to 18: for beer and wine
(21: for liquor remained)[84]
1981:
Raised to 19 for off-premises consumption
1983:
Raised to 19 (all beer)
1985:
Raised to 21[84]
21

Washington
"Age of majority"
since 1877[85]
21[citation needed]
21
21[8]
21

West Virginia
?
18: for beer and wine
21: for liquor[11]
1972:
Lowered to 18 (all)[86]
1983:
Raised to 19
(& 21 for non-residents)[8][43]
1986:
Raised to 21[8]
21

Wisconsin
1839–1866:
18: for wine and liquor
None: for beer
Post-1866:
21 (all)[87]
18: for beer
21: for wine and spirits
1957:
21: for residents of bordering states with age limit 21.[88]
1963:
Raised to 21 (off-premises beer sales, remained 18 for on-premises).[88]
1972:
Lowered to 18 (all) in 1972 (Mar)[88]
1977:
Border state restriction lifted.[88]
1984:
Raised to 19
1986:
Raised to 21 (September 1, 1986)[88]
21 (however anyone can drink when parents, spouses, teachers are present)[citation needed]

Wyoming
?
21[7]
1973:
Lowered to 19[13]
1988:
Raised to 21 in 1988 (Jul 1)[89][90]
Last state to raise de jure drinking age to 21
21

American Samoa
?
?
?
21?
21[91]

Northern Mariana Islands
–
–
?
21?
21[92]

Puerto Rico
?
18
18
Kept at 18
despite 10% highway funding
penalty under Drinking Age Act.
18[93]

Virgin Islands
?
?
?
18
18[94]

Guam
?
21?
18
18
Raised to 21 in 2010[5]

text: Additional notes[edit]

text:
Contrary to popular belief, since the National Minimum Drinking Age Act of 1984, not all states specifically prohibit minors' and young adults' consumption of alcohol in private settings. That is because the federal law is concerned only with purchase and public possession, not private consumption, and contains several exceptions. As of January 1, 2007, 14 states and the District of Columbia ban underage consumption outright, 19 states do not specifically ban underage consumption outright, and 17 states have family member or location exceptions to their underage consumption laws. Federal law explicitly provides for religious, medical, employment and private club possession exceptions; as of 2005, 31 states have family member or location exceptions to their underage possession laws.[41]
In the 1960s the age for buying or drinking beer and wine in the District of Columbia (Washington, D.C.) was 18; the age for hard liquor was 21.[23][24] Residents from Virginia and Maryland would often drive to D.C. to obtain alcohol. In Louisiana, the 1987 law raising the age from 18 to 21 was deliberately written solely to comply with the National Minimum Drinking Age Act of 1984 to avoid losing highway funding, while still allowing 18- to 20-year-olds to drink as before. Not only did it still allow 18- to 20-year-olds to consume in private, it contained a major loophole allowing bars and stores to sell alcohol to 18- to 20-year-olds without penalty (despite purchase being technically illegal) which meant that the de facto age was still 18.[39] In other words, the drinking age was 21 only on paper. This loophole was closed in 1995, but in 1996 the Louisiana Supreme Court declared a drinking age of 21 unconstitutional.[39] That briefly lowered the de jure purchase age to 18, causing an uproar which prompted the Louisiana Supreme Court to reverse its decision, raising the age to 21 three months later.[40] Other exceptions still remain to this day, including drinking in a private residence,[41] and Louisiana still has some of the most liberal general alcohol laws of any state.
Some states were "dry" well before national Prohibition was enacted in 1919, in some cases since achieving statehood. Also, some states did not become fully "wet" until several years after the repeal of Prohibition in 1933 (e.g. Mississippi in 1966). Since 1966, all states and territories of the USA have been "wet", but dry counties and towns still exist in some states.


document_title: New Year's Day (song)

question_text: what is the u2 song new years day about

question_tokens: what is the u2 song new years day about

text: New Year's Day (song)

text: Writing and composition[edit]

text: The lyric had its origins in a love song from Bono to his wife,[4] but was subsequently reshaped and inspired by the Polish Solidarity movement.[5] The bassline stemmed from bassist Adam Clayton trying to figure out the chords to the Visage song "Fade to Grey"[6] during a soundcheck.[7]

text: In 1983, Bono said of the song, "It would be stupid to start drawing up battle lines, but I think the fact that 'New Year's Day' made the Top Ten indicated a disillusionment among record buyers. I don't think 'New Year's Day' was a pop single, certainly not in the way that Mickie Most might define a pop single as something that lasts three minutes and three weeks in the chart. I don't think we could have written that kind of song."[8]

text: Live performances[edit]

text: "New Year's Day" is U2's seventh most frequently performed live song,[9] with the Edge switching back and forth between piano and guitar during the song. It has been a standard on every U2 tour since its debut on 1 December 1982 at the first show of the War Tour's Pre-Tour, however the recent Innocence + Experience tour only featured three performances of the song for the entire tour. During the 1980s, the Edge used a Fender Stratocaster to perform this song, along with a keyboard. During the 1990s and 2000s (decade), he has alternated between a Gibson Les Paul Custom and Les Paul Standard. The Les Paul the Edge used to write this song was sold for charity. Up until the Elevation Tour, Clayton normally used a chorus effect on his bass guitar for this song live. In the Top of the Pops performance, Bono is seen playing guitar.

text: "New Year's Day" has appeared on many of U2's concert video releases including 1983's U2 Live at Red Rocks: Under a Blood Red Sky, Zoo TV: Live from Sydney, PopMart: Live from Mexico City, U2 Go Home: Live from Slane Castle, Vertigo 2005: Live from Chicago, Live from Paris, and U2 3D.

text: The B-side of "New Year's Day", "Treasure (Whatever Happened to Pete the Chop?)", was never performed live. However, an early version known simply as "Pete the Chop" was played at some concerts in 1980.[10]

text: During the Vertigo Tour at Silesian Stadium in Poland a quite remarkable example of fan action occurred. During "New Year's Day", the lower sections of the crowd waved red coloured items while other sections waved white, creating the Polish flag and stunning the band.[11] This was repeated during the U2 360° Tour at the same venue.[12][13][14]

text: Music video[edit]

text: The video was one of their first to see heavy rotation on MTV. It was filmed in Sälen, Sweden in December 1982 and directed by Meiert Avis. The band only appeared in the performance scenes of the video as it was filmed in the dead of the Swedish winter. U2 guitarist Edge revealed in the official U2 biography that the four people riding on horseback in the video that appeared to be the four U2 members were in fact four Swedish teenage girls disguised as the members of U2 riding on horseback with masks over their faces. This was done as the band were frozen from shooting the video in sub-freezing temperatures the day before. Their biography states that Bono refused to wear any headgear despite the cold weather and had a lot of trouble mouthing the lyrics.[15] The video also features footage of Soviet troops advancing in winter during World War II.

text: The video made its debut UK television broadcast on Friday 31 December 1982, on the Channel 4 music programme The Tube.[citation needed]

text: U2 allowed free-of-charge use of this song in a spot prepared by the European Commission. This clip published on YouTube shows a transformation of Poland in the last 20 years mixed with short scenes from today's Warsaw seen from a perspective of a 20-year-old woman.[16]

text: Formats and track listings[edit]

text:
[show]7" - Island / WIP 6848 (UK)

No.
Title
Length

1.
"New Year's Day" (Short version)
3:53

2.
"Treasure (Whatever Happened to Pete the Chop)"
3:24

text:
[show]7" - Island / 811 323-7 (France)

No.
Title
Length

1.
"New Year's Day" (Edit)
3:40

2.
"Treasure (Whatever Happened to Pete the Chop)"
3:24

text:
[show]7" - Island / 7S-86 (Japan)

No.
Title
Length

1.
"New Year's Day" (Special version)
4:16

2.
"Treasure (Whatever Happened to Pete the Chop)"
3:24

text:
[show]2x7" - Island / UWIP6848 (UK)

No.
Title
Length

1.
"New Year's Day" (Short version)
3:53

2.
"Treasure (Whatever Happened to Pete the Chop)"
3:24

3.
"Fire" (Live from Werchter, 4 July 1982)
3:45

4.
"I Threw a Brick Through a Window"/"A Day Without Me" (Live from Werchter, 4 July 1982)
6:58

text:
[show]12" - Island / 12 WIP 6848 (UK)

No.
Title
Length

1.
"New Year's Day" (Album version)
5:35

2.
"Treasure (Whatever Happened to Pete the Chop)"
3:24

3.
"Fire" (Live from Werchter, 4 July 1982)
3:45

4.
"I Threw a Brick Through a Window"/"A Day Without Me" (Live from Werchter, 4 July 1982)
6:58

text:
[show]12" - Island / 814 948-1 (France)

No.
Title
Length

1.
"New Year's Day" (U.S. remix)
4:30

2.
"Two Hearts Beat as One" (U.S. remix)
5:40

text:
[show]CD - Island / 664 973 (Austria)

No.
Title
Length

1.
"New Year's Day" (Album version)
5:35

2.
"Treasure (Whatever Happened to Pete the Chop)"
3:24

3.
"Fire" (Live from Werchter, 4 July 1982)
3:45

4.
"I Threw a Brick Through a Window"/"A Day Without Me" (Live from Werchter, 4 July 1982)
6:58

text: Personnel[edit]

text:
Bono – vocals
The Edge – guitar, piano, backing vocals
Adam Clayton – bass guitar
Larry Mullen Jr. – drums

text: Charts[edit]

text:
Chart (1983)
Peak
position

Australia (Kent Music Report)[17]
36

Belgium (Ultratop 50 Flanders)[18]
17

Canada Top Singles (RPM)[19]
41

France (IFOP)[20]
17

Ireland (IRMA)[21]
2

Netherlands (Dutch Top 40)[22]
11

Netherlands (Single Top 100)[23]
9

New Zealand (Recorded Music NZ)[24]
32

Norway (VG-lista)[25]
9

Sweden (Sverigetopplistan)[26]
17

UK Singles (Official Charts Company)[27]
10

US Billboard Hot 100[28]
53

US Billboard Top Tracks[28]
2

Chart (2010)
Peak
position

Belgium (Ultratop 50 Back Catalogue Singles Flanders)[29]
14

text: Musique remix[edit]

text:
"New Year's Dub"

Single by Musique vs. U2

Released
2001

Format
Maxi single

Genre
Dance

Length
2:57 (radio edit)

Label
Serious

Songwriter(s)

U2
Moussa Clarke
Nick Hanson

Producer(s)

Nick Hanson
Moose

text: In 2001, dance act Musique released a remix of the song, "New Year's Dub". The remix charted in some European countries, including in the UK and in Ireland, where it peaked at no. 15 and no. 13, respectively. It also charted in Australia, where it peaked at no. 74.

text: Track listings[edit]

text:
CD-Maxi Serious 572 922-2

No.
Title
Length

1.
"New Year's Dub" (7" Radio Edit)
2:57

2.
"New Year's Dub" (Mauro Picotto Club Mix)
8:38

3.
"New Year's Dub" (Hybrid Remix)
6:59

text: Charts[edit]

text:
Chart (2001)
Peak
position

Australia (Kent Music Report)[30]
74

Ireland (IRMA)[31]
13

Italy (FIMI)[32]
46

Netherlands (Single Top 100)[33]
55

Switzerland (Schweizer Hitparade)[34]
93

UK Singles (Official Charts Company)[35]
15


document_title: Jellyfish

question_text: what do you call a group of jelly fish

question_tokens: what do you call a group of jelly fish

text: Jellyfish

text: Terminology

text: The popular English name jellyfish has been in use since 1796.[4] It has traditionally also been applied to other animals sharing a superficial resemblance, for example ctenophores (members from another phylum of common, gelatinous and generally transparent or translucent, free-swimming planktonic carnivores now known as comb jellies) were included as "jellyfishes".[5] Even some scientists include the phylum ctenophora when they are referring to jellyfish.[6] Other scientists prefer to use the more all-encompassing term gelatinous zooplankton, when referring to these, together with other soft-bodied animals in the water column.[7]

text: As jellyfish are not true fish, which are vertebrates, the word jellyfish is considered by some to be a misnomer. Public aquaria often use the terms jellies or sea jellies instead.[8] The term "jellies" may have become more popular than "jellyfish".[1] In scientific literature, "jelly" and "jellyfish" are often used interchangeably.[9] Some sources may use the term "jelly" to refer to organisms in this taxon, as "jellyfish" may be considered inappropriate.[10]

text: Many textbooks and sources refer to only scyphozoans as "true jellyfish".[11][12]

text: A group of jellyfish is sometimes called a bloom or a swarm.[13] "Bloom" is usually used for a large group of jellyfish that gather in a small area, but may also have a time component, referring to seasonal increases, or numbers beyond what was expected.[14] Other collective names for a group of jellyfish are "fluther"[15] and "smack,"[16] though neither term is commonly used by scientists who study jellyfish. Jellyfish are "bloomy" by nature of their life cycles, being produced by their benthic polyps usually in the spring when sunshine and plankton increase, so they appear rather suddenly and often in large numbers, even when an ecosystem is in balance.[17] Using "swarm" usually implies some kind of active ability to stay together, which a few species such as Aurelia, the moon jelly, demonstrate.[18]

text: Medusa jellyfish may be classified as scyphomedusae ("true" jellyfish), stauromedusae (stalked jellyfish), cubomedusae (box jellyfish), or hydromedusae, according to which clade their species belongs.[19]

text: The term medusa was coined by Linnaeus in 1752, alluding to the tentacled head of Medusa in Greek mythology.[4] This term refers exclusively to the non-polyp life-stage which occurs in many cnidarians, which is typified by a large pulsating gelatinous bell with long trailing tentacles. All medusa-producing species belong to the sub-phylum Medusozoa.

text: In biology, a medusa (plural: medusae) is a form of cnidarian in which the body is shaped like an umbrella, in contrast with polyps. Medusae vary from bell-shaped to the shape of a thin disk, scarcely convex above and only slightly concave below. The upper or aboral surface is called the exumbrella and the lower surface is called the subumbrella; the mouth is located on the lower surface, which may be partially closed by a membrane extending inward from the margin (called the velum). The digestive cavity consists of the gastrovascular cavity and radiating canals which extend toward the margin; these canals may be simple or branching, and vary in number from few to many. The margin of the disk bears sensory organs and tentacles.

text: German biologist Ernst Haeckel popularized medusae through his vivid illustrations, particularly in Kunstformen der Natur.

text: Anatomy

text: Most jellyfish do not have specialized digestive, osmoregulatory, central nervous, respiratory, or circulatory systems. The manubrium is a stalk-like structure hanging down from the centre of the underside, often surrounded by oral arms, which connects with the mouth/anus at the base of the bell.[20] This opens into the gastrovascular cavity, where digestion takes place and nutrients are absorbed. It is joined to the radial canals which extend to the margin of the bell, where tentacles are attached.[21] Nematocysts, which deliver the sting, are located mostly on the tentacles; scyphozoans also have them around the mouth and stomach.[22] Jellyfish do not need a respiratory system since their skin is thin enough that the body is oxygenated by diffusion. They have limited control over movement, but can use their hydrostatic skeleton to navigate through contraction-pulsations of the bell-like body; some species actively swim most of the time, while others are mostly passive.[23] Depending on the species, the body contains between 95 and 98% water.[24] Most of the umbrella mass is a gelatinous material — the jelly — called mesoglea which is surrounded by two layers of protective skin. The top layer is called the epidermis, and the inner layer is referred to as gastrodermis, which lines the gut.

text: Nervous system

text: Jellyfish employ a loose network of nerves, located in the epidermis, which is called a "nerve net".[25] Although traditionally thought not to have a central nervous system, nerve net concentration and ganglion-like structures could be considered to constitute one in most species.[26] A jellyfish detects various stimuli including the touch of other animals via this nerve net, which then transmits impulses both throughout the nerve net and around a circular nerve ring, through the rhopalial lappet, located at the rim of the jellyfish body, to other nerve cells.

text: Vision

text: Some jellyfish have ocelli: light-sensitive organs that do not form images but which can detect light and are used to determine up from down, responding to sunlight shining on the water's surface. These are generally pigment spot ocelli, which have some cells (not all) pigmented.

text: Certain species of jellyfish, such as the box jellyfish, have more advanced vision than their counterparts. The box jellyfish has 24 eyes, two of which are capable of seeing color, and four parallel information processing areas or rhopalia that act in competition,[27] supposedly making it one of the few creatures to have a 360-degree view of its environment.[28]

text: The eyes are suspended on stalks with heavy crystals on one end, acting like a gyroscope to orient the eyes skyward. They look upward to navigate from roots in mangrove swamps to the open lagoon and back, watching for the mangrove canopy, where they feed.[3]

text: Size

text: Jellyfish range from about one millimeter in bell height and diameter to nearly 2 metres (6.6 ft) in bell height and diameter; the tentacles and mouth parts usually extend beyond this bell dimension.

text: The smallest jellyfish are the peculiar creeping jellyfish in the genera Staurocladia and Eleutheria, which have bell disks from 0.5 mm to a few millimeters in diameter, with short tentacles that extend out beyond this, which these jellyfish use to move across the surface of seaweed or the bottoms of rocky pools.[29] Many of these tiny creeping jellyfish cannot be seen in the field without a hand lens or microscope; they can reproduce asexually by splitting in half (called fission). Other very small jellyfish, which have bells about one millimeter, are the hydromedusae of many species that have just been released from their parent polyps;[30] some of these live only a few minutes before shedding their gametes in the plankton and then dying, while others will grow in the plankton for weeks or months. The hydromedusae Cladonema radiatum and Cladonema californicum are also very small, living for months, yet never growing beyond a few mm in bell height and diameter.[31] Another small species of jellyfish is the Australian Irukandji, which is about the size of a fingernail.[3]

text: The lion's mane jellyfish, Cyanea capillata, was long-cited as the largest jellyfish, and arguably the longest animal in the world, with fine, thread-like tentacles that may extend up to 36.5 metres (120 ft) long (though most are nowhere near that large).[32][33] They have a moderately painful, but rarely fatal, sting.

text: The increasingly common giant Nomura's jellyfish, Nemopilema nomurai, found in some, but not all years in the waters of Japan, Korea and China in summer and autumn is another candidate for "largest jellyfish", in terms of diameter and weight, since the largest Nomura's jellyfish in late autumn can reach 200 centimetres (79 in) in bell (body) diameter and about 200 kilograms (440 lb) in weight, with average specimens frequently reaching 90 centimetres (35 in) in bell diameter and about 150 kilograms (330 lb) in weight.[34][35] The large bell mass of the giant Nomura's jellyfish[36] can dwarf a diver and is nearly always much greater than the up-to-100 centimetres (39 in) bell diameter Lion's Mane.[37]

text: The rarely encountered deep-sea jellyfish Stygiomedusa gigantea is another candidate for "largest jellyfish", with its thick, massive bell up to 100 centimetres (39 in) wide, and four thick, "strap-like" oral arms extending up to 6 metres (20 ft) in length,[38] very different from the typical fine, threadlike tentacles that rim the umbrella of more-typical-looking jellyfish, including the Lion's Mane.

text: Taxonomy

text: Jellyfish belong to Medusozoa, the clade of cnidarians which excludes Anthozoa (e.g., corals and anemones). This suggests that the medusa form evolved after the polyps.[39]

text: The phylogenetics of this group are complex and evolving. The Medusozoa and Octocorallia are proposed as sister groups according to research published in 2012. That research also proposes coronate Scyphozoa and Cubozoa as a sister clade to Hydrozoa and discomedusan Scyphozoa, which are themselves sister groups. The hydroidolinans are a sister group to Limnomedusae, also called Trachylina. Semaeostomae is paraphyletic with Rhizostomeae. The class Storozoa was the earliest group of Medusozoa to diverge and the Limnomedusae were the earliest Hydrozoa to diverge.[40]

text: The four major classes of medusozoan Cnidaria are:

text:
Scyphozoa are sometimes called true jellyfish, though they are no more truly jellyfish than the others listed here. They have tetra-radial symmetry. Most have tentacles around the outer margin of the bowl-shaped bell, and long, oral arms around the mouth in the center of the subumbrella.
Cubozoa (box jellyfish) have a (rounded) box-shaped bell, and their velarium assists them to swim more quickly. Box jellyfish may be related more closely to scyphozoan jellyfish than either are to the Hydrozoa.[39]
Hydrozoa medusae also have tetra-radial symmetry, nearly always have a velum attached just inside the bell margin, do not have oral arms, but a much smaller central manubrium with terminal mouth opening, and are distinguished by the absence of cells in the mesoglea. The majority of hydrozoan species maintain the polyp form for their entire life cycle and do not form medusa at all (such as Hydra, which is hence not considered a jellyfish).
Staurozoa (stalked jellyfish) are characterized by a medusa form that is generally sessile, oriented upside down and with a stalk emerging from the apex of the "calyx" (bell), which attaches to the substrate. Some Staurozoa (all? – it is not known yet) also have a polyp form that alternates with the medusoid portion of the life cycle. Until recently, Staurozoa were classified within the Scyphozoa.

text: Some other animals are frequently associated with or mistaken for medusa jellyfish.

text:
Siphonophorae are an order of hydrozoa which generally live as colonies (for example, free-swimming chains of repeated units, some units similar to polyps or to medusa). They are not considered medusa jellyfish. A well-known example is the Portuguese man o' war.
Ctenophores (comb jellies) are a separate phylum from Cnidaria. Their method of propulsion is coordinated movement of thousands of cilia used as paddles, rather than a pulsating bell, although a few species of ctenophores swim by flapping large lobes.
Salps are transparent, gelatinous marine organisms that form pelagic colonies like siphonophores. Salps are chordates, and as such are actually more closely related to humans than they are to cnidarians and comb jellies.[41]

text: There are over 200 species of Scyphozoa, about 50 species of Staurozoa, about 20 species of Cubozoa, and the Hydrozoa includes about 1000–1500 species that produce medusae (and many more hydrozoan species that do not produce medusae).[42][43]

text: Many scientists who work on relationships between these groups are reluctant to assign ranks, although there is general agreement on the different groups, regardless of their absolute rank. Here is one scheme, which includes all groups that produce jellyfish, derived from several expert sources:

text:
Jellyfish taxonomy (phylum Cnidaria: subphylum Medusozoa)

Class
Subclass
Order
Suborder
Families

Hydrozoa[44][45]
Hydroidolina
Anthomedusae
Filifera
see[44]

Capitata

Leptomedusae
Conica

Proboscoida

Siphonophorae
Physonectae
Agalmatidae, Apolemiidae, Erennidae, Forskaliidae, Physophoridae, Pyrostephidae, Rhodaliidae

Calycophorae
Abylidae, Clausophyidae, Diphyidae, Hippopodiidae, Prayidae, Sphaeronectidae

Cystonectae
Physaliidae, Rhizophysidae

Trachylina
Limnomedusae
Olindiidae, Monobrachiidae, Microhydrulidae, Armorhydridae

Trachymedusae
Geryoniidae, Halicreatidae, Petasidae, Ptychogastriidae, Rhopalonematidae

Narcomedusae
Cuninidae, Solmarisidae, Aeginidae, Tetraplatiidae

Actinulidae
Halammohydridae, Otohydridae

Staurozoa[46]
Eleutherocarpida
Lucernariidae, Kishinouyeidae, Lipkeidae, Kyopodiidae

Cleistocarpida
Depastridae, Thaumatoscyphidae, Craterolophidae

Cubozoa[47]
Carybdeidae, Alatinidae, Tamoyidae, Chirodropidae, Chiropsalmidae

Scyphozoa[48][49][50]
Coronatae
Atollidae, Atorellidae, Linuchidae, Nausithoidae, Paraphyllinidae, Periphyllidae

Semaeostomeae
Cyaneidae, Drymonematidae, Pelagiidae, Phacellophoridae, Ulmaridae

Rhizostomeae
Cassiopeidae, Catostylidae, Cepheidae, Lobonematidae, Lychnorhizidae, Mastigiidae, Rhizostomatidae, Stomolophidae, Thysanostomatidae, Versurigidae

text: Life history and behavior

text: Phases

text: Jellyfish development occurs in multiple phases. Sperm fertilize eggs which develop into larval planulae, become polyps, bud into ephyrae and then transform into adult medusae. In some species, specimens may skip some phases.[51]

text: The planula is a small larva covered with cilia. It settles onto a firm surface and develops into a polyp.

text: The polyp is generally a small stalk with a mouth that is ringed by upward-facing tentacles. The polyps resemble the closely related Cnidaria anthozoan (sea anemones and corals) polyps. The jellyfish polyp may be sessile, living on the bottom or on another substrate such as floats or boat hulls, or it may be free-floating or attached to tiny bits of free-living plankton[52] or rarely, fish[53][54] or other invertebrates. Polyps may be solitary or colonial. Polyp colonies form by strobilation, in which multiple polyps share a common stomach cavity.[55] Most polyps are only millimeters in size. They feed continuously. The polyp stage may last for years.

text: The next stage is the ephyra, which is a free-swimming precursor of the final adult stage.

text: The ephyra then develops into a medusa. The medusa is the life stage that is typically identified as a jellyfish.[56]

text: Reproduction

text: Jellyfish reproduce both sexually and asexually. Upon reaching adult size, jellyfish spawn daily given enough food. In most species, spawning is controlled by light, so the entire population spawns at about the same time of day, often at either dusk or dawn.[57] Jellyfish are usually either male or female (with occasional hermaphrodites). In most cases, adults release sperm and eggs into the surrounding water, where the (unprotected) eggs are fertilized and mature into new organisms.

text: After a growth interval, the polyp begins reproducing asexually by budding and, in the Scyphozoa, is called a segmenting polyp, or a scyphistoma. Budding produces more scyphistomae and also ephyrae. Budding sites vary by species; from the tentacle bulbs, the manubrium (above the mouth), or the gonads of hydromedusae.[52] Polyps asexually produce free-swimming ephyra, which then become a medusa. New specimens (usually only a millimeter or two across) swim away from the polyp and then grow. Some polyps can asexually produce a creeping frustule larval form, which then develops into another polyp.[citation needed]

text: A few species can produce new medusae by budding directly from the medusan stage. Some hydromedusae reproduce by fission (splitting in half).[52] A few omit the planula, polyp and ephyra phases and produce new medusae directly from eggs.[citation needed]

text: In a few species, the sperm swim into the female's mouth, fertilizing the eggs within her body, where they remain during early development stages. In moon jellies, the eggs lodge in pits on the oral arms, which form a temporary brood chamber for the developing planula larvae.

text: Lifespan

text: Jellyfish lifespans typically range from a few hours (in the case of some very small hydromedusae) to several months; there are some indications that deep sea species may live on the order of years. Life span varies by species. Most large coastal jellyfish live 2 to 6 months, during which they grow from a millimeter or two to many centimeters in diameter.

text: Aquarium jellyfish that are carefully tended, fed daily even when food might be seasonally rare in the wild, and sometimes treated with antibiotics if they develop infections, may live several years, though this would be very unusual in the wild.

text: An unusual species, Turritopsis dohrnii, formerly classified as T. nutricula,[58] might be effectively immortal because of its ability under certain circumstances to transform from medusa back to the polyp stage, thereby escaping the death that typically awaits medusae post-reproduction if they have not otherwise been eaten by some other ocean organism. So far this reversal has been observed only in the laboratory.[59] At least one professor at the Seto Marine Biological Laboratory at Kyoto University in Japan has concluded that there are three species of jellyfish that are immortal, and says their immortality may hold the key to immortality for human beings, as he says that genetically they are not that much different from humans.[60]

text: Movement

text: Jellyfish have been proven to be the most energy efficient swimmers of all animals.[61] They move through the water by radially expanding and contracting their bell-shaped bodies to push water behind them. They pause between the contraction and expansion to create two vortex rings. Muscles are used for the contraction of the body, which sheds the first vortex and pushes the animal forward, but the mesoglea is so elastic that the expansion is powered exclusively by relaxing the bell, which releases the energy stored from the contraction. By doing so, the second vortex ring rolls under it and begins to spin faster. This sucks in water which refills the bell and is pushed up against the centre of the body, giving it a secondary and "free" boost forward. The mechanism, called passive energy recapture, only works at low speeds and relatively small body sizes, allowing the animal to travel 30 percent farther on each swimming cycle. Jellyfish achieved a 48 percent lower cost of transport (the amount of food and oxygen consumed, versus energy spent in movement) than other animals in similar studies.[62][63][64]

text: Ecology

text: Diet

text: Medusae are carnivorous, feeding on plankton, crustaceans, fish eggs, small fish and other jellyfish, ingesting and voiding through the same hole in the middle of the bell. Jellies hunt passively using their tentacles as drift nets. Their swimming technique also helps them to capture prey; when their body expands it displaces more water which brings more potential prey within the reach of their tentacles.[66]

text: Predation

text: Other species of jellyfish are among the most common and important jellyfish predators, some of which specialize in jellies. Sea anemones may eat jellyfish that drift into their range. Other predators include tunas, sharks, swordfish, sea turtles, penguins,[67][68] and at least one species of Pacific salmon. In general however, there are few predators preying on jellyfish and they can be considered top predators in the food chain. Not only do they eat fish eggs and juvenile fish, but they also compete for food resources, leading to jellyfish having a difficult-to-reverse dominant position in the ecosystem.[69]

text: Sea birds sometimes pick symbiotic crustaceans from the jellyfish bells near the sea's surface, inevitably feeding also on the jellyfish hosts of these amphipods or young crabs and shrimp.

text: Blooms

text: Jellyfish bloom formation is a complex process that depends on ocean currents, nutrients, sunshine, temperature, season, prey availability, reduced predation and oxygen concentrations. Ocean currents tend to congregate jellyfish into large swarms or "blooms", consisting of hundreds or thousands of individuals. Blooms can also result from unusually high populations in some years. A recent study tracking swimming jellyfish revealed that these medusae can detect marine currents and swim against the current to congregate in blooms.[70] Jellyfish are better able to survive in nutrient-rich, oxygen-poor water than competitors, and thus can feast on plankton without competition. Jellyfish may also benefit from saltier waters, as saltier waters contain more iodine, which is necessary for polyps to turn into jellyfish. Rising sea temperatures caused by climate change may also contribute to jellyfish blooms, because many species of jellyfish are relatively better able to survive in warmer waters.[71]

text: One hypothesis is that the global increase in jellyfish bloom frequency may stem from human impact. In some locations jellyfish may be filling ecological niches formerly occupied by now overfished creatures, but this hypothesis lacks supporting data.[17] Youngbluth states that "jellyfish feed on the same kinds of prey as adult and young fish, so if fish are removed from the equation, jellyfish are likely to move in."[72]

text: Some jellyfish populations that have shown clear increases in the past few decades are invasive species, newly arrived from other habitats: examples include the Black Sea, Caspian Sea, Baltic Sea, central and eastern Mediterranean, Hawaii, and tropical and subtropical parts of the West Atlantic (including the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico and Brazil).[73][74] Invasive populations can expand rapidly because they often face no predators in the new habitat.

text: Increased nutrients, ascribed to agricultural runoff, have been cited as contributing to jellyfish proliferation. Graham states, "ecosystems in which there are high levels of nutrients ... provide nourishment for the small organisms on which jellyfish feed. In waters where there is eutrophication, low oxygen levels often result, favoring jellyfish as they thrive in less oxygen-rich water than fish can tolerate. The fact that jellyfish are increasing is a symptom of something happening in the ecosystem."[72]

text: Population

text: Jellyfish populations may be expanding globally as a result of overfishing of their natural predators and the availability of excessive nutrients due to land runoff.[75][76] When marine ecosystems become disturbed jellyfish can proliferate. For example, jellyfish reproduce rapidly and have fast growth rates; they predate many species, while few species predate them; and they feed via touch rather than visually, so they can feed effectively at night and in turbid waters.[77][78] It may become difficult for fish stocks to reestablish themselves in marine ecosystems once they have become dominated by jellyfish, because jellyfish feed on plankton, which includes fish eggs and larvae.[79][80]

text: Habitats

text: Most jellyfish are marine animals, although a few hydromedusae inhabit freshwater. The best known freshwater example is the cosmopolitan hydrozoan jellyfish, Craspedacusta sowerbii. It is less than an inch (2.5 cm) in diameter, colorless and it does not sting.

text: Some jellyfish populations have become restricted to coastal saltwater lakes, such as Jellyfish Lake in Palau.

text: Although what first comes to mind as the common domain of jellyfish is living well up off the ocean floor in the plankton, a few species of jellyfish are closely associated with the bottom for much of their lives (that is, they can be considered benthic). The upside-down jellyfish in the genus Cassiopea typically lie on the bottom of shallow lagoons where they sometimes pulsate gently with their umbrella top facing down. The tiny creeping jellyfish Staurocladia and Eleutheria (see section on Size, above) cannot swim and "walk" around on seaweed fronds or rocky bottoms on their tentacles. Most hydromedusae and scyphomedusae that live in coastal habitats find themselves on the bottom periodically, where they may stop swimming for a while, and certain box jellyfish species also rest on the sea bed in shallow water.[81] Even some deep-sea species of hydromedusae and scyphomedusae are usually collected on or near the bottom. All of the stauromedusae are found attached to either seaweed or rocky or other firm material on the bottom.[82]

text: Some species explicitly adapt to tidal flux. In Roscoe Bay, jellyfish ride the current at ebb tide until they hit a gravel bar, and then descend below the current. They remain in still waters until the tide rises, ascending and allowing it to sweep them back into the bay. They also actively avoid fresh water from mountain snowmelt, diving until they find enough salt.[3]

text: Parasites

text: Jellyfish function as hosts for a wide variety of organisms. Endoparasitic helminths are transmitted from intermediate host jellyfish to definitive host fish via predation. Some digenean trematodes, especially species of the family Lepocreadiidae, are known to use jellyfish as their second intermediate hosts and/or paratenic hosts. Medusivorous fish become infected by trematodes through predation of infected jellyfish and act as definitive hosts.[83] [84]

text: Relation to humans

text: Fisheries

text: Fisheries have begun harvesting the American cannonball jellyfish, Stomolophus meleagris, along the southern Atlantic coast of the United States and in the Gulf of Mexico for export to Asia.[86]

text: Jellyfish are also harvested for their collagen, which can be used for a variety of applications including the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis.

text: Products

text: In some countries, such as China, Japan, and Korea, jellyfish are known as a delicacy. "Dried jellyfish" has become increasingly popular throughout the world. The jellyfish is dried to prevent spoiling; if not dried they can spoil within a matter of hours. Once dried, they can be stored for weeks at a time. Only scyphozoan jellyfish belonging to the order Rhizostomeae are harvested for food; about 12 of the approximately 85 species. Most of the harvest takes place in southeast Asia.[87] Rhizostomes, especially Rhopilema esculentum in China (海蜇 hǎizhé, "sea stingers") and Stomolophus meleagris (cannonball jellyfish) in the United States, are favored because of their larger and more rigid bodies and because their toxins are harmless to humans.[86]

text: Traditional processing methods, carried out by a Jellyfish Master, involve a 20- to 40-day multi-phase procedure in which after removing the gonads and mucous membranes, the umbrella and oral arms are treated with a mixture of table salt and alum, and compressed. Processing reduces liquefaction, odor, and the growth of spoilage organisms, and makes the jellyfish drier and more acidic, producing a "crunchy and crispy texture." Jellyfish prepared this way retain 7–10% of their original weight, and the processed product contains approximately 94% water and 6% protein. Freshly processed jellyfish has a white, creamy color and turns yellow or brown during prolonged storage.

text: In China, processed jellyfish are desalted by soaking in water overnight and eaten cooked or raw. The dish is often served shredded with a dressing of oil, soy sauce, vinegar and sugar, or as a salad with vegetables. In Japan, cured jellyfish are rinsed, cut into strips and served with vinegar as an appetizer.[86][88] Desalted, ready-to-eat products are also available.[86]

text: In Israel, a start-up company called Cine'al has developed a super-absorbent substance made from jellyfish known as hydromash which they claim can be used to make diapers, tampons, and paper towels. Hydrosmash was inspired by research from the University of Tel Aviv, which found that jellyfish were made up of a material that could "absorb high volume of liquids and hold them without disintegrating or dissolving."[89]

text: Biotechnology

text: In 1961, Osamu Shimomura extracted green fluorescent protein (GFP) and another bioluminescent protein, called aequorin, from the large and abundant hydromedusa Aequorea victoria, while studying photoproteins that cause bioluminescence in this species. Three decades later, Douglas Prasher sequenced and cloned the gene for GFP. Martin Chalfie figured out how to use GFP as a fluorescent marker of genes inserted into other cells or organisms. Roger Tsien later chemically manipulated GFP to produce other fluorescent colors to use as markers. In 2008, Shimomura, Chalfie and Tsien won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their work with GFP.

text: Man-made GFP became commonly used as a fluorescent tag to show which cells or tissues express specific genes. The genetic engineering technique fuses the gene of interest to the GFP gene. The fused DNA is then put into a cell, to generate either a cell line or (via IVF techniques) an entire animal bearing the gene. In the cell or animal, the artificial gene turns on in the same tissues and the same time as the normal gene, making GFP instead of the normal protein. Illuminating the animal or cell reveals what tissues express that protein—or at what stage of development. The fluorescence shows where the gene is expressed.[90]

text: Aquaria

text: Jellyfish are displayed in many public aquariums. Often the tank's background is blue and the animals are illuminated by side light, increasing the contrast between the animal and the background. In natural conditions, many jellies are so transparent that they are nearly invisible.

text: Jellyfish are not adapted to closed spaces. They depend on currents to transport them from place to place. Professional exhibits feature precise water flows, typically in circular tanks to avoid trapping specimens in corners. The Monterey Bay Aquarium uses a modified version of the kreisel (German for "spinning top") for this purpose. The outflow is spread out over a large surface area and the inflow enters as a sheet of water in front of the outflow, so the jellyfish do not get sucked into it.[91] As of 2009, jellyfish were becoming popular in home aquariums.[92][93][94][95] These home aquariums generate this special water flow pattern using an air-lift pump[96] and require special food for the jellyfish, which can be shipped from suppliers to their final destination.

text: Toxicity

text: Jellyfish sting their prey using nematocysts, also called cnidocysts, stinging structures located in specialized cells called cnidocytes, which are characteristic of all Cnidaria. Contact with a jellyfish tentacle can trigger millions of nematocysts to pierce the skin and inject venom,[97] yet only some species' venom cause an adverse reaction in humans. When a nematocyst is triggered by contact by predator or prey, pressure builds up rapidly inside it up to 2,000 pounds per square inch (14,000 kPa) until it bursts. A lance inside the nematocyst pierces the victim's skin, and venom flows through into the victim.[98] Touching or being touched by a jellyfish can be very uncomfortable, sometimes requiring medical assistance; sting effects range from no effect to extreme pain to death. Even beached and dying jellyfish can still sting when touched.

text: Scyphozoan jellyfish stings range from a twinge to tingling to agony.[99] Most jellyfish stings are not deadly, but stings of some species of the class Cubozoa (box jellyfish), such as the famous and especially toxic Irukandji jellyfish, can be deadly. Stings may cause anaphylaxis, which can be fatal. Medical care may include administration of an antivenom.

text: In 2010, at a New Hampshire beach, pieces of a single dead lion's mane jellyfish stung between 125 and 150 people.[100][101] Jellyfish kill 20 to 40 people a year in the Philippines alone.[99] In 2006 the Spanish Red Cross treated 19,000 stung swimmers along the Costa Brava.[99]

text: The sea wasp, a box jellyfish found in Australian waters, and more recently, Florida,[102] can kill an adult human within a few minutes. A thin skin covering such as pantyhose was found to be sufficient protection. The pantyhose were formerly thought to work because of the length of the nematocysts, but it is now known to be related to the way the stinger cells work. The stinging cells on a box jellyfish's tentacles are not triggered by pressure. Instead, they are triggered by the chemicals found on skin. Pantyhose hinders the detection of the chemicals preventing the nematocysts from firing.[103]

text: Treatment of stings

text: The three goals of first aid for uncomplicated stings are to prevent injury to rescuers, deactivate the nematocysts, and remove tentacles attached to the patient. Rescuers usually wear barrier clothing, such as pantyhose, wet suits or full-body sting-proof suits while removing jellies or tentacles from injured. Deactivating the nematocysts (stinging cells) prevents further injection of venom.

text: Vinegar (3–10% aqueous acetic acid) may be used as a common remedy to help with box jellyfish stings,[104][105] but not the stings of the Portuguese man o' war (which is not a true jellyfish, but a siphonophore).[104] For stings on or around the eyes, a towel dampened with vinegar may be used to dab around the eyes, with care taken to avoid the eyeballs. Salt water may be used as an alternative if vinegar is unavailable;[104][106] and may be preferred over vinegar.[107] Fresh water is not usually used if the sting occurs in salt water, as changes in tonicity[108] can release additional venom. Rubbing wounds, or using alcohol, spirits, ammonia, or urine may have strongly negative effects as these can encourage the release of venom.[109]

text: Clearing the area of jelly, tentacles, and wetness further reduces nematocyst firing.[109] Scraping the affected skin with a knife edge, safety razor, or credit card may remove remaining nematocysts.[110]

text: Beyond initial first aid, antihistamines such as diphenhydramine (Benadryl) may control skin irritation (pruritus).[110] Ice or fresh water is not usually applied to stings, since they may cause nematocysts to continue to release toxin.[111][112] Immunobased antivenins have been available since the 1970s;[113] administration requires medical personnel and refrigeration and are used in extreme cases as with regard to the box jellyfish, Chironex fleckeri.[114]

text: Hazards

text: Jellyfish adversely affect humanity by interfering with public systems and harming swimmers.[99] The most obvious consequences are human injury or death and reduced coastal tourism. Jellies destroy fish nets, poison or crush captured fish, and consume fish eggs and young fish.[115] The most venomous jellyfish is the box jellyfish which produces enough poison to kill 60 humans and is the reason for 1 death per year.[116]

text: Jellyfish can clog cooling equipment, disabling power plants in several countries. Jellyfish caused a cascading blackout in the Philippines in 1999,[99] as well as damaging the Diablo Canyon Power Plant in California in 2008.[117] Clogging can stop desalination plants, as well as clogging ship engines[115] and infesting fishing nets.[118]