document_title: Navy

question_text: who has the oldest navy in the world

question_tokens: who has the oldest navy in the world

text: Navy

text: Etymology and meanings[edit]

text: First attested in English in the early 14th century,[1] the word "navy" came via Old French navie, "fleet of ships", from the Latin navigium, "a vessel, a ship, bark, boat",[2] from navis, "ship".[3] The word "naval" came from Latin navalis, "pertaining to ship";[4] cf. Greek ναῦς (naus), "ship",[5] ναύτης (nautes), "seaman, sailor".[6] The earliest attested form of the word is in the Mycenaean Greek compound word 𐀙𐀄𐀈𐀗, na-u-do-mo (*naudomoi), "shipbuilders", written in Linear B syllabic script.[n 1]

text: The word formerly denoted fleets of both commercial and military nature. In modern usage "navy" used alone always denotes a military fleet, although the term "merchant navy" for a commercial fleet still incorporates the non-military word sense. This overlap in word senses between commercial and military fleets grew out of the inherently dual-use nature of fleets; centuries ago, nationality was a trait that unified a fleet across both civilian and military uses. Although nationality of commercial vessels has little importance in peacetime trade other than for tax avoidance, it can have greater meaning during wartime, when supply chains become matters of patriotic attack and defense, and when in some cases private vessels are even temporarily converted to military vessels. The latter was especially important, and common, before 20th-century military technology existed, when merely adding artillery and naval infantry to any sailing vessel could render it fully as martial as any military-owned vessel. Such privateering has been rendered obsolete in blue-water strategy since modern missile and aircraft systems grew to leapfrog over artillery and infantry in many respects; but privateering nevertheless remains potentially relevant in littoral warfare of a limited and asymmetric nature.

text: History[edit]

text: Naval warfare developed when humans first fought from water-borne vessels. Prior to the introduction of the cannon and ships with sufficient capacity to carry the large guns, navy warfare primarily involved ramming and boarding actions. In the time of ancient Greece and the Roman Empire, naval warfare centered on long, narrow vessels powered by banks of oarsmen (such as triremes and quinqueremes) designed to ram and sink enemy vessels or come alongside the enemy vessel so its occupants could be attacked hand-to-hand. Naval warfare continued in this vein through the Middle Ages until the cannon became commonplace and capable of being reloaded quickly enough to be reused in the same battle. The Chola Dynasty of medieval India was known as one of the greatest naval powers of its time from 300 BC to 1279 AD. The Chola Navy, Chola kadarpadai comprised the naval forces of the Chola Empire along with several other Naval-arms of the country. The Chola navy played a vital role in the expansion of the Chola Tamil kingdom, including the conquest of the Sri Lanka islands, Kadaaram (Present day Burma), Sri Vijaya (present day Southeast Asia), the spread of Hinduism, Tamil architecture and Tamil culture to Southeast Asia and in curbing the piracy in Southeast Asia in 900 CE. In ancient China, large naval battles were known since the Qin Dynasty (also see Battle of Red Cliffs, 208), employing the war junk during the Han Dynasty. However, China's first official standing navy was not established until the Southern Song dynasty in the 12th century, a time when gunpowder was a revolutionary new application to warfare.

text: The mass and deck space required to carry a large number of cannon made oar-based propulsion impossible, and ships came to rely primarily on sails. Warships were designed to carry increasing numbers of cannon and naval tactics evolved to bring a ship's firepower to bear in a broadside, with ships-of-the-line arranged in a line of battle.

text: The development of large capacity, sail-powered ships carrying cannon led to a rapid expansion of European navies, especially the Spanish and Portuguese navies which dominated in the 16th and early 17th centuries, and helped propel the age of exploration and colonialism. The repulsion of the Spanish Armada (1588) by the English fleet revolutionized naval warfare by the success of a guns-only strategy and caused a major overhaul of the Spanish Navy, partly along English lines, which resulted in even greater dominance by the Spanish. From the beginning of the 17th century the Dutch cannibalized the Portuguese Empire in the East and, with the immense wealth gained, challenged Spanish hegemony at sea. From the 1620s, Dutch raiders seriously troubled Spanish shipping and, after a number of battles which went both ways, the Dutch Navy finally broke the long dominance of the Spanish Navy in the Battle of the Downs (1639).

text: England emerged as a major naval power in the mid-17th century in the first Anglo-Dutch war with a technical victory. Successive decisive Dutch victories in the second and third Anglo-Dutch Wars confirmed the Dutch mastery of the seas during the Dutch Golden Age, financed by the expansion of the Dutch Empire. The French Navy won some important victories near the end of the 17th century but a focus upon land forces led to the French Navy's relative neglect, which allowed the Royal Navy to emerge with an ever-growing advantage in size and quality, especially in tactics and experience, from 1695. Throughout the 18th century the Royal Navy gradually gained ascendancy over the French Navy, with victories in the War of Spanish Succession (1701–1714), inconclusive battles in the War of Austrian Succession (1740–1748), victories in the Seven Years' War (1754–1763), a partial reversal during the American War of Independence (1775–1783), and consolidation into uncontested supremacy during the 19th century from the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. These conflicts saw the development and refinement of tactics which came to be called the line of battle.

text: The next stage in the evolution of naval warfare was the introduction of metal plating along the hull sides. The increased mass required steam-powered engines, resulting in an arms race between armor and weapon thickness and firepower. The first armored vessels, the French Gloire and British HMS Warrior, made wooden vessels obsolete. Another significant improvement came with the invention of the rotating turrets, which allowed the guns to be aimed independently of ship movement. The battle between CSS Virginia and USS Monitor during the American Civil War (1861–1865) is often cited as the beginning of this age of maritime conflict. The Russian Navy was considered the third strongest in the world on the eve of the Russo-Japanese War, which turned to be a catastrophe for the Russian military in general and the Russian Navy in particular. Although neither party lacked courage, the Russians were defeated by the Japanese in the Battle of Port Arthur, which was the first time in warfare that mines were used for offensive purposes. The warships of the Baltic Fleet sent to the Far East were lost in the Battle of Tsushima. A further step change in naval firepower occurred when the United Kingdom launched HMS Dreadnought in 1906, but naval tactics still emphasized the line of battle.

text: The first practical military submarines were developed in the late 19th century and by the end of World War I had proven to be a powerful arm of naval warfare. During World War II, Nazi Germany's submarine fleet of U-boats almost starved the United Kingdom into submission and inflicted tremendous losses on U.S. coastal shipping. The German battleship Tirpitz, a sister ship of Bismarck, was almost put out of action by miniature submarines known as X-Craft. The X-Craft severely damaged her and kept her in port for some months.

text: A major paradigm shift in naval warfare occurred with the introduction of the aircraft carrier. First at Taranto in 1940 and then at Pearl Harbor in 1941, the carrier demonstrated its ability to strike decisively at enemy ships out of sight and range of surface vessels. The Battle of Leyte Gulf (1944) was arguably the largest naval battle in history; it was also the last battle in which battleships played a significant role. By the end of World War II, the carrier had become the dominant force of naval warfare.

text: World War II also saw the United States become by far the largest Naval power in the world. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, the United States Navy possessed over 70% of the world's total numbers and total tonnage of naval vessels of 1,000 tons or greater.[11] Throughout the rest of the 20th century, the United States Navy would maintain a tonnage greater than that of the next 17 largest navies combined. During the Cold War, the Soviet Navy became a significant armed force, with large numbers of large, heavily armed ballistic missile submarines and extensive use of heavy, long-ranged antisurface missiles to counter the numerous United States carrier battle groups. Only three nations (United States, France, and Brazil) presently operate CATOBAR carriers of any size, while Russia, China and India operate sizeable STOBAR carriers (although all three are originally of Russian design). The United Kingdom is also currently constructing two Queen Elizabeth-class carriers, which will be the largest STOVL vessels in service, and India is currently building two Vikrant-class aircraft carriers (the second one with CATOBAR technology) and considering another. France is also looking at a new carrier, probably using a CATOBAR system and possibly based on the British Queen Elizabeth design.

text: Operations[edit]

text: A navy typically operates from one or more naval bases. The base is a port that is specialized in naval operations, and often includes housing, a munitions depot, docks for the vessels, and various repair facilities. During times of war temporary bases may be constructed in closer proximity to strategic locations, as it is advantageous in terms of patrols and station-keeping. Nations with historically strong naval forces have found it advantageous to obtain basing rights in other countries in areas of strategic interest.

text: Navy ships can operate independently or with a group, which may be a small squadron of comparable ships, or a larger naval fleet of various specialized ships. The commander of a fleet travels in the flagship, which is usually the most powerful vessel in the group. Prior to the invention of radio, commands from the flagship were communicated by means of flags. At night signal lamps could be used for a similar purpose. Later these were replaced by the radio transmitter, or the flashing light when radio silence was needed.

text: A "blue water navy" is designed to operate far from the coastal waters of its home nation. These are ships capable of maintaining station for long periods of time in deep ocean, and will have a long logistical tail for their support. Many are also nuclear powered to save having to refuel. By contrast a "brown water navy" operates in the coastal periphery and along inland waterways, where larger ocean-going naval vessels can not readily enter. Regional powers may maintain a "green water navy" as a means of localized force projection. Blue water fleets may require specialized vessels, such as minesweepers, when operating in the littoral regions along the coast.

text: Traditions[edit]

text: A basic tradition is that all ships commissioned in a navy are referred to as ships rather than vessels, with the exception of destroyers and submarines, which are known as boats. The prefix on a ship's name indicates that it is a commissioned ship.

text: An important tradition on board naval vessels of some nations has been the ship's bell. This was historically used to mark the passage of time, as warning devices in heavy fog, and for alarms and ceremonies.

text: The ship's captain, and more senior officers are "piped" aboard the ship using a Boatswain's call.

text: In the United States, the First Navy Jack is a flag that has the words, "Don't Tread on Me" on the flag.

text: By English tradition, ships have been referred to as a "she". However, it was long considered bad luck to permit women to sail on board naval vessels. To do so would invite a terrible storm that would wreck the ship. The only women that were welcomed on board were figureheads mounted on the prow of the ship.

text: Firing a cannon salute partially disarms the ship, so firing a cannon for no combat reason showed respect and trust. As the tradition evolved, the number of cannon fired became an indication of the rank of the official being saluted.

text: Naval organization[edit]

text: Ships[edit]

text: Historically, navy ships were primarily intended for warfare. They were designed to withstand damage and to inflict the same, but only carried munitions and supplies for the voyage (rather than merchant cargo). Often, other ships which were not built specifically for warfare, such as the galleon or the armed merchant ships in World War II, did carry armaments. In more recent times, navy ships have become more specialized and have included supply ships, troop transports, repair ships, oil tankers and other logistics support ships as well as combat ships.

text: Modern navy combat ships are generally divided into seven main categories: aircraft carriers, cruisers, destroyers, frigates, corvettes, submarines, and amphibious assault ships. There are also support and auxiliary ships, including the oiler, minesweeper, patrol boat, hydrographic and oceanographic survey ship and tender. During the age of sail, the ship categories were divided into the ship of the line, frigate, and sloop-of-war.

text: Naval ship names are typically prefixed by an abbreviation indicating the national navy in which they serve. For a list of the prefixes used with ship names (HMS, USS, LÉ, etc.) see ship prefix.

text: Today ships are significantly faster than in former times, thanks to much improved propulsion systems. Also, the efficiency of the engines has improved, in terms of fuel, and of how many sailors it takes to operate them. In World War II, ships needed to refuel very often. However, today ships can go on very long journeys without refueling. Also, in World War II, the engine room needed about a dozen sailors to work the many engines, however, today, only about 4–5 are needed (depending on the class of the ship). Today, naval strike groups on longer missions are always followed by a range of support and replenishment ships supplying them with anything from fuel and munitions, to medical treatment and postal services. This allows strike groups and combat ships to remain at sea for several months at a time.

text: Boats[edit]

text: The term "boat" refers to small craft limited in their use by size and usually not capable of making lengthy independent voyages at sea. The old navy adage to differentiate between ships and boats is that boats are capable of being carried by ships. (Submarines by this rule are ships rather than boats, but are customarily referred to as boats reflecting their previous smaller size.)

text: Navies use many types of boat, ranging from 9-foot (2.7 m) dinghies to 135-foot (41 m) landing craft. They are powered by either diesel engines, out-board gasoline engines, or waterjets. Most boats are built of aluminum, fiberglass, or steel. Rigid-hulled inflatable boats are also used.

text: Patrol boats are used for patrols of coastal areas, lakes and large rivers.

text: Landing craft are designed to carry troops, vehicles, or cargo from ship to shore under combat conditions, to unload, to withdraw from the beach, and to return to the ship. They are rugged, with powerful engines, and usually armed. There are many types in today's navies including hovercraft. They will typically have a power-operated bow ramp, a cargo well and after structures that house engine rooms, pilot houses, and stowage compartments. These boats are sometimes carried by larger ships.

text: Special operations craft are high-speed craft used for insertion and extraction of special forces personnel and some may be transportable (and deployed) by air.

text: Boats used in non-combat roles include lifeboats, mail boats, line handling boats, buoy boats, aircraft rescue boats, torpedo retrievers, explosive ordnance disposal craft, utility boats, dive boats, targets, and work boats. Boats are also used for survey work, tending divers, and minesweeping operations. Boats for carrying cargo and personnel are sometimes known as launches, gigs, barges or shore party boats.

text: Units[edit]

text: Naval forces are typically arranged into units based on the number of ships included, a single ship being the smallest operational unit. Ships may be combined into squadrons or flotillas, which may be formed into fleets. The largest unit size may be the whole Navy or Admiralty.

text: A task force can be assembled using ships from different fleets for an operational task.

text: Personnel[edit]

text: Despite their acceptance in many areas of naval service, female sailors were not permitted to serve on board U.S. submarines until the U.S. Navy lifted the ban in April 2010.[12] The major reasons historically cited by the U.S. Navy were the extended duty tours and close conditions which afford almost no privacy. The United Kingdom's Royal Navy has had similar restrictions. Australia, Canada, Norway, and Spain previously opened submarine service to women sailors.[13]

text: Ranks[edit]

text: A navy will typically have two sets of ranks, one for enlisted personnel and one for officers.

text: Typical ranks for commissioned officers include the following, in ascending order (Commonwealth ranks are listed first on each line; USA ranks are listed second in those instances where they differ from Commonwealth ranks):

text:
Midshipman / Ensign / Corvette Lieutenant
Sub Lieutenant / Lieutenant Junior Grade / Frigate Lieutenant
Lieutenant (Commonwealth & USA)/ Ship-of-the-Line Lieutenant / Captain Lieutenant
Lieutenant Commander (Commonwealth & USA)/ Corvette Captain
Commander (Commonwealth & USA)/ Frigate Captain
Captain (Commonwealth & USA)/ Ship-of-the-Line Captain
Commodore / Flotilla Admiral (in USA only: Rear Admiral (lower half))
Rear Admiral (in USA only: Rear Admiral (upper half))
Vice Admiral (Commonwealth & USA)
Admiral (Commonwealth & USA)
Admiral of the Fleet (Commonwealth) / Fleet Admiral (USA) / Grand Admiral

text: "Flag officers" include any rank that includes the word "admiral" (or commodore in services other than the US Navy), and are generally in command of a battle group, strike group or similar flotilla of ships, rather than a single ship or aspect of a ship. However, commodores can also be temporary or honorary positions. For example, during World War II, a Navy captain was assigned duty as a convoy commodore, which meant that he was still a captain, but in charge of all the merchant vessels in the convoy.

text: The most senior rank employed by a navy will tend to vary depending on the size of the navy and whether it is wartime or peacetime, for example, few people have ever held the rank of Fleet Admiral in the U.S. Navy, the chief of the Royal Australian Navy holds the rank of Vice Admiral, and the chief of the Irish Naval Service holds the rank of Commodore.

text: Naval infantry[edit]

text: Naval infantry, commonly known as marines, are a category of infantry that form part of a state’s naval forces and perform roles on land and at sea, including amphibious operations, as well as other, naval roles. They also perform other tasks, including land warfare, separate from naval operations.

text: During the era of the Roman empire, naval forces included marine legionaries for maritime boarding actions. These were troops primarily trained in land warfare, and did not need to be skilled at handling a ship. Much later during the age of sail, a component of marines served a similar role, being ship-borne soldiers who were used either during boarding actions, as sharp-shooters, or in raids along shorelines.

text: The Spanish Infantería de Marina was formed in 1537, making it the oldest, current marine force in the world. The British Royal Marines combine being both a ship-based force and also being specially trained in commando-style operations and tactics, operating in some cases separately from the rest of the Royal Navy. The Royal Marines also have their own special forces unit.

text: In the majority of countries, the marine force is an integral part of the navy. The United States Marine Corps is a separate armed service within the United States Department of the Navy, with its own leadership structure.

text: Naval aviation[edit]

text: Naval aviation is the application of military air power by navies, whether from warships that embark aircraft, or land bases.

text: In World War I several navies used floatplanes and flying boats - mainly for scouting. By World War II, aircraft carriers could carry bomber aircraft capable of attacking naval and land targets, as well as fighter aircraft for defence. Since World War II helicopters have been embarked on smaller ships in roles such as anti-submarine warfare and transport. Some navies have also operated land-based aircraft in roles such as maritime patrol and training.

text: Naval aviation forces primarily perform naval roles at sea. However, they are also used in a variety of other roles.

text: Additional reading[edit]

text:
Non-fiction:

Combat Fleets of the World: Their Ships, Aircraft and Systems - Naval Institute Press. Published annually. Comprehensive.
Braudel, Fernand, The Mediterranean in the Ancient World
Corbett, Sir Julian, Some Principles of Maritime Strategy, 1911.
Hughes, Jr., Wayne P., Fleet Tactics and Coastal Combat, 1999, Naval Institute Press, ISBN 1-55750-392-3
Kennedy, Paul. The Rise and Fall of British Naval Mastery. New York: Scribner, 1976. ISBN 0-394-54674-1
Mahan, Alfred Thayer, The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660-1783, 1918, Little Brown, Boston.
Marder, Arthur. The Anatomy of British Seapower. New York: Octagon Books, 1940.
Marder, Arthur. "The Influence of History on Sea Power: The Royal Navy and the Lessons of 1914-1918," Pacific Historical Review. November, 1972.
Richmond, Herbert. National Policy and National Strength and other Essays. London: Longman, Green and Co., 1928.
Sprout, Harold and Margaret Sprout. Toward a New Order of Sea Power: American Naval Policy ... 1918-1922. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1940.
Starr, Chester G., The Influence of Sea Power on Ancient History, 1989, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-505666-3
Tangredi, Sam, "Globalization and Maritime Power", 2002 - National Defense University, ISBN 1-57906-060-9
Trafalgar 200 Through the Lens, ISBN 0-9553004-0-1
Wombacher, Joerg and Joerg Felfe. (2012) United We Are Strong: An Investigation into Sense of Community among Navy Crews, Armed Forces & Society, Vol. 38, No. 4
Woolley, Peter J. "The Role of Strategy in Great Power Decline," Naval War College Review. Vol. XLIX, no. 1 (1996). ISBN 1-884733-06-9

Fiction:

Alan Lewrie series by Dewey Lambdin
Aubrey–Maturin series by Patrick O'Brian
Horatio Hornblower series by C. S. Forester
Richard Bolitho series by Alexander Kent (Pseudonym of Douglas Reeman)
Tom Clancy, The Hunt for Red October, Red Storm Rising


document_title: Breakfast at Tiffany's (film)

question_text: who plays paul in breakfast at tiffany's

question_tokens: who plays paul in breakfast at tiffany 's

root

text: Breakfast at Tiffany's (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: Early one morning, a taxi pulls up at Tiffany & Co. on Fifth Avenue in New York City, from which elegantly dressed Holly Golightly emerges carrying a paper bag with her breakfast. After looking into the shop's windows while eating her bun and sipping her coffee, she strolls home. Outside her apartment, she fends off Sid Arbuck, her date from the disastrous night before. Inside the apartment building, Holly can't find her keys so she buzzes her landlord, Mr. Yunioshi, who begrudgingly lets her in. Later, she is awakened by new neighbor Paul Varjak, who rings her doorbell to get into the building. The pair chat as she dresses to leave for her weekly visit to Sally Tomato, a mobster incarcerated at Sing Sing prison. Tomato's lawyer pays her $100 a week (a rent-covering annual “wage” of $42,600 today) to deliver "the weather report".

tag: p

text: As she is leaving for Sing Sing, Holly is introduced to Paul's "decorator", wealthy older woman Emily Eustace Failenson, whom Paul nicknames "2E" (pronounced "Tooley"). That night, Holly goes out onto the fire escape to elude an over-eager date. She peeks into Paul's apartment and sees 2E leaving money and kissing Paul goodbye. After Tooley leaves, Holly enters Paul's apartment and learns he is a writer who has not had anything published since a book of vignettes five years before. Holly, in turn, explains she is trying to save money to support her brother Fred. The pair fall asleep, but are awakened when Holly has a nightmare about Fred. When Paul questions her about this, Holly chides him for prying and leaves. She later buys Paul a typewriter ribbon to apologize and invites him to a lively party at her apartment. There, Paul meets her Hollywood agent, O. J. Berman, who describes Holly's transformation from country girl into Manhattan socialite. He is also introduced to José da Silva Pereira, a wealthy Brazilian politician, and Rusty Trawler, the "ninth richest man in America under 50".

text: In the days that follow, Paul and Holly become closer. The next day, Tooley enters Paul's apartment, worried she is being followed. Paul tells her he will investigate and eventually confronts Doc Golightly, Holly's estranged husband. Doc explains Holly's real name is Lula Mae Barnes and that they were married when she was 14. He wants to take her back to rural Texas, as her brother Fred will be returning in a few months after Army service. After Paul reunites Holly and Doc, she tells Paul the marriage was annulled. At the Greyhound bus station, she tells Doc she will not return to Texas with him and Doc leaves town broken-hearted.

text: After drinking at a club, Paul and Holly return to her apartment, where she drunkenly tells him she plans to marry Trawler for his money.  A few days later, Paul learns one of his short stories will be published. On the way to tell Holly, he sees a newspaper headline stating Trawler has married someone else. Holly and Paul agree to spend the day together, taking turns doing things each has never done before, including visiting the library.  At Tiffany's, Paul has the ring from Doc Golightly's box of Cracker Jack engraved as a present for Holly. After spending the night together, he awakens to find her gone. When Tooley arrives, Paul ends their relationship. She calmly accepts, having earlier concluded he and some other woman are in love.

text: Holly schemes to marry José for his money, which angers Paul. After Holly receives a telegram notifying her of Fred's death, she trashes her apartment. Months later, Paul has moved  out. He is invited to dinner by Holly, who is leaving the next morning for Brazil to continue her relationship with José. However, they are arrested in connection with Sally Tomato's drug ring, and Holly spends the night in jail.

text: The next morning, Holly is released on bail and finds Paul waiting, and they take a cab. He has her cat and a letter from José explaining he must end their relationship due to her arrest. Holly insists she will go to Brazil anyway, asks the cab to pull over, and releases the cat into the rain. Paul confronts Holly about his love and her behavior, then gets out of the cab in the pouring rain and leaves, tossing the engraved Cracker Jack ring into her lap and telling her to examine her life. She goes through a decision making moment, puts on the ring, and runs after Paul, who has gone looking for the cat. She searches the alley and finally finds the cat. Paul and Holly stand in the rain, and with the cat tucked into Holly's coat, look into each other's eyes and share a kiss.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Audrey Hepburn as Holly Golightly - New York "City" girl - Socialite
George Peppard as Paul Varjak (nicknamed "Fred" by Holly, for his resemblance to her brother) - Writer - New neighbor and kept man of "2E"
Patricia Neal as Mrs. Emily Eustace "Tooley" Failenson - Rich decorator
Buddy Ebsen as Doc Golightly - Holly's former husband from Texas
Martin Balsam as O.J. Berman - Agent
Mickey Rooney as I. Y. Yunioshi - Angry upstairs neighbor
Alan Reed as Sally Tomato - Mobster in Sing Sing
José Luis de Vilallonga as José da Silva Pereira (credited as Vilallonga) - Holly's Brazilian rich mark
Stanley Adams as Rutherford "Rusty" Trawler - Another failed husband mark
John McGiver as Tiffany's salesman
Dorothy Whitney as Mag Wildwood
Claude Stroud as Sid Arbuck - First Holly suitor
Mel Blanc as Holly's over eager date
Orangey as Cat (trained by Frank Inn)
Beverly Powers as the stripper (credited as Miss Beverly Hills)
Elvia Allman as the librarian

tag: ul

text: Production[edit]

text: Pre-production[edit]

text: The Oscar-nominated screenplay was written by George Axelrod, loosely based on the novella by Truman Capote. Changes were made to fit the medium of cinema and to correspond to the filmmakers' vision. Capote, who sold the film rights of his novella to Paramount Studios, wanted Marilyn Monroe to play Holly Golightly, whom he had described perfectly in the book. Barry Paris cites Capote's own comments on the choice of actress: "Marilyn was always my first choice to play the girl, Holly Golightly." Screenwriter Axelrod was hired to "tailor the screenplay for Monroe". When Lee Strasberg advised Monroe that playing a "lady of the evening" would be bad for her image, she turned it down and performed in The Misfits instead. When Hepburn was cast instead of Monroe, Capote remarked: "Paramount double-crossed me in every way and cast Audrey".[4] Shirley MacLaine was also offered the part of Holly, but she turned it down and performed in Two Loves instead.[5]

text: Originally producers Martin Jurow and Richard Shepherd had picked John Frankenheimer as the director,[6] but Hepburn said: "I've never heard of him" and he was replaced on her request.

text: Principal photography[edit]

text: Most of the exteriors were filmed in New York City, except the fire escape scenes and the alley scene at the end in the rain where Holly puts Cat out of the cab and then Paul and Holly look for Cat. All of the interiors, except for portions of the scene inside Tiffany & Company, were filmed on the Paramount Studios lot in Hollywood.[citation needed]

text: According to one report the film's on-location opening sequence, in which Holly gazes into a Tiffany's display window, was extremely difficult for director Blake Edwards to shoot. Although it was simple in concept, crowd control, Hepburn's dislike of pastries, and an accident that nearly resulted in the electrocution of a crew member are all said to have made capturing the scene a challenge. However, another report claims that the sequence was captured rather quickly due to the good fortune of an unexpected traffic lull.[7]

text: Music[edit]

text:
“

It took me a long time to figure out what Holly Golightly was all about. One night after midnight I was still trying. I don't drink much, but I was sipping. And it came to me. I wrote ["Moon River"] in half an hour.

”

— Henry Mancini[8]

tag: table

text: During the film, Hepburn sang the film's signature song, "Moon River" by Henry Mancini and Johnny Mercer. The song was tailored to Hepburn's limited vocal range, based on songs she had performed in 1957's Funny Face.[9] On the Anniversary Edition DVD of Breakfast at Tiffany's co-producer Richard Shepherd says in his audio commentary that after a preview in San Francisco, Martin Rankin, Paramount's head of production, wanted "Moon River" replaced with music by somebody like Gordon Jenkins (whose album Manhattan Tower had been out fairly recently): "Marty [Jurow, co-producer] and I both said 'over our dead bodies.'"[10] According to Mancini and Edwards, a studio executive hated the song and demanded it be cut from the film; Hepburn, who was present, responded to the suggestion by standing up and saying, "Over my dead body!"[11]

text: According to Time magazine, Mancini "sets off his melodies with a walking bass, extends them with choral and string variations, varies them with the brisk sounds of combo jazz. 'Moon River' is sobbed by a plaintive harmonica, repeated by strings, hummed and then sung by the chorus, finally resolved with the harmonica again."[8]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: Time magazine noted "for the first half hour or so, Hollywood's Holly (Audrey Hepburn) is not much different from Capote's. She has kicked the weed and lost the illegitimate child she was having, but she is still jolly Holly, the child bride from Tulip, Texas, who at 15 runs away to Hollywood to find some of the finer things of life—like shoes."  It pointed out that "after that out-of-Capote beginning, Director Blake Edwards (High Time) goes on to an out-of-character end."[12]  Almost a half century later, Time commented on the pivotal impact of Hepburn's portrayal of Golightly:[13]

text: Breakfast at Tiffany's set Hepburn on her 60s Hollywood course. Holly Golightly, small-town Southern girl turned Manhattan trickster, was the naughty American cousin of Eliza Doolittle, Cockney flower girl turned My Fair Lady. Holly was also the prototype for the Hepburn women in Charade, Paris When It Sizzles, and How to Steal a Million: kooks in capers. And she prepared audiences for the ground-level anxieties that Hepburn characters endured in The Children's Hour, Two for the Road and Wait Until Dark.

text: The New York Times called the film a "completely unbelievable but wholly captivating flight into fancy composed of unequal dollops of comedy, romance, poignancy, funny colloquialisms and Manhattan's swankiest East Side areas captured in the loveliest of colors". In reviewing the performances, the newspaper said Holly Golightly is

text: as implausible as ever. But in the person of Miss Hepburn, she is a genuinely charming, elfin waif who will be believed and adored when seen. George Peppard is casual and, for the most part, a subdued citizen who seems to like observing better than participating in the proceedings. Martin Balsam makes a properly brash, snappy Hollywood agent. Mickey Rooney's bucktoothed, myopic Japanese is broadly exotic. Patricia Neal is simply cool and brisk in her few appearances as Mr. Peppard's sponsor and Vilallonga, is properly suave and Continental as Miss Hepburn's Brazilian, while Buddy Ebsen has a brief poignant moment as Miss Hepburn's husband.[14]

text: Truman Capote hated Hepburn in the lead part. Capote biographer Gerald Clarke deemed the film a "valentine" to free-spirited women rather than a cautionary tale about a little girl lost in the big city. "The movie is a confection — a sugar and spice confection."[15]

text: Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes retrospectively collected reviews from 50 critics and gives the film a rating of 88%, with an average rating of 7.4/10. The site's consensus states: "It contains some ugly anachronisms, but Blake Edwards is at his funniest in this iconic classic, and Audrey Hepburn absolutely lights up the screen."[16]

text: Influence[edit]

text: Hepburn as Holly, with her hair in a high chignon and carrying an oversized cigarette holder, is considered one of the most iconic images of 20th century American cinema.[17] Another iconic item throughout the movie is Holly's sunglasses. Often misidentified as Ray-Ban, they are Manhattan sunglasses designed and manufactured in London by Oliver Goldsmith. In 2011 the model was re-released to mark the 50th anniversary of Breakfast at Tiffany's.[18] One of three dresses designed by Givenchy for Hepburn for possible use in the film sold at auction by Christie's[19] on December 5, 2006 for £467,200 (~US$947,000), about seven times the reserve price.[20] The "Little Black Dress" by Givenchy, worn by Hepburn in the beginning of the film, is cited as one of the most iconic items of clothing in the history of the twentieth century and is, perhaps, the most famous little black dress of all time.[21][22][23][24] A second "little black dress" in Breakfast at Tiffany's, along with its wide-brimmed hat, was worn by Hepburn as Holly when she goes to visit mobster Sally Tomato at Sing Sing Prison. This dress was paid homage as one of the dresses worn by Anne Hathaway's character Selina Kyle, Catwoman's alter ego, in Christopher Nolan's The Dark Knight Rises; the comic book Catwoman character was originally drawn based on Hepburn, according to Catwoman comic cover artist Adam Hughes, creating a double homage to Hepburn's Holly Golightly in Hathaway's Catwoman.[25]

text: The film rejuvenated the career of 1930s movie song-and-dance man and Disney Davy Crockett sidekick Buddy Ebsen, who had a small but effective role in this film as Doc Golightly, Holly's ex-husband. His success here led directly to his best-known role as Jed Clampett on The Beverly Hillbillies.[26]

text: A diamond necklace at Tiffany's that Hepburn scorned as too flashy, was the Tiffany Yellow Diamond, which she wore in publicity photos for the film. Tiffany's profile, while already established as a pre-eminent luxury retailer, was further boosted by the film.[27]

text: Portrayal of Mr. Yunioshi and yellowface controversy[edit]

text: For his portrayal of I. Y. Yunioshi, Mickey Rooney wore makeup and a prosthetic mouthpiece to change his features to a caricatured approximation of a Japanese person. Since the 1990s, this portrayal has been subject to increasing protest by Asian Americans, among others. For instance, in the film Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story (1993), Breakfast at Tiffany's is used as an illustration of Hollywood's racist depiction of Asian people when Bruce Lee and his future wife, Linda, see the film and Linda suggests they leave when she notices that Bruce is upset at Rooney's caricatured performance.

text: In his audio commentary for the DVD release, producer Richard Shepherd said that at the time of production as well as in retrospect, he wanted to recast the role "not because he [Rooney] didn't play the part well" but because Shepherd thought the part of Mr. Yunioshi should be performed by an actor of Japanese ethnicity; it was director Blake Edwards' decision to keep Rooney.[28]  In a "making-of" for the 45th anniversary edition DVD release, Shepherd repeatedly apologizes, saying, "If we could just change Mickey Rooney, I'd be thrilled with the movie."[29] Director Blake Edwards stated, "Looking back, I wish I had never done it... and I would give anything to be able to recast it, but it's there, and onward and upward."[29]

text: In a 2008 interview about the film, 87-year-old Rooney said he was heartbroken about the criticism:

text: Blake Edwards... wanted me to do it because he was a comedy director. They hired me to do this overboard, and we had fun doing it.... Never in all the more than 40 years after we made it – not one complaint. Every place I've gone in the world people say, "God, you were so funny." Asians and Chinese come up to me and say, "Mickey you were out of this world."[30]

text: Rooney also said that if he had known the portrayal would be offensive, "I wouldn't have done it. Those that didn't like it, I forgive them and God bless America, God bless the universe, God bless Japanese, Chinese, Indians, all of them and let's have peace."[30]

text: The film continues to draw criticism for this character now widely considered to be a racist caricature, particularly when the movie is selected as a "classic" screened in public spaces, supported by tax dollars. In 2011, a SyFy and  Brooklyn Bridge Park Corporation screening inspired petitions.[31]

text: Awards and honors[edit]

text: Academy Awards[edit]

text:
Award[32]
Person

Best Score of a Dramatic or Comedy Picture
Henry Mancini

Best Original Song: "Moon River"
Henry Mancini  Johnny Mercer

Nominated:

Best Actress in a Leading Role
Audrey Hepburn

Best Art Direction
Hal PereiraRoland AndersonSam ComerRay Moyer

Best Adapted Screenplay
George Axelrod

text: Other awards[edit]

text:
Golden Globe Awards, 1961: Best picture (musical or comedy)
Golden Globe Awards, 1961: Best actress (musical or comedy) – Audrey Hepburn
Henry Mancini won the Grammy Award for Best Soundtrack Album or Recording or Score.
George Axelrod won the Writers Guild of America, East for Best Written American Drama.
Blake Edwards was nominated for the Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Motion Pictures.
Orangey the cat won the 1962 PATSY Award of the American Humane Association for his portrayal of "the poor slob without a name".[citation needed]
The film was ranked #486 on Empire's The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time list for 2008.[33]
National Film Registry, 2012
American Film Institute ranked the film #61 in 100 Years...100 Passions and "Moon River" as #4 in 100 Years...100 Songs.

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text: The soundtrack featured a score composed and conducted by Henry Mancini, with songs by Mancini and lyricist Johnny Mercer. Mancini and Mercer won the 1961 Oscar for Best Original Song for "Moon River". Mancini won for Best Original Score. There are also unreleased score pieces from Breakfast at Tiffany's in existence; "Carousel Cue" is from an unsurfaced scene, while "Outtake 1" is from a deleted scene in which Holly and Fred visit Tiffany's and is a variation of the main theme.

text: List of songs[edit]

text:
"Moon River"
"Something for Cat"
"Sally's Tomato"
"Mr. Yunioshi"
"The Big Blow Out"
"Hub Caps and Tail Lights"
"Breakfast at Tiffany's"
"Latin Golightly"
"Holly"
"Loose Caboose"
"The Big Heist"
"Moon River [Cha Cha]"

text: In 2013 Intrada released the complete score in its original film performance (as with many soundtrack albums by Mancini and others at the time, the album released alongside the film was a re-recording).

text:
Main Title (Moon River) (3:07)
Paul Meets Cat (1:24)
Sally’s Tomato (4:57)
The Big Blowout (1:05)
Poor Fred (3:22)
Moon River (Cha Cha) (2:32)
Latin Golightly (3:05)
Something For Cat (4:48)
Loose Caboose – Part 1 (À La Cha Cha) (3:22)
Loose Caboose – Part 2 (2:11)
Moon River (Vocal By Audrey Hepburn) (2:03)
Meet The Doc (With Organ Grinder) (1:37)
An Exceptional Person (2:57)
You’re So Skinny (0:57)
Turkey Eggs (2:43)
Hub Caps And Tail Lights (2:19)
Rats And Super Rats (2:27)
The Hard Way (0:55)
Rusty Trawler (0:26)
Holly (1:56)
A Lovely Place (1:33)
Bermuda Nights (0:22)
The Big Heist (4:02)
After The Ball (1:14)
Just Like Holly (1:41)
Wait A Minute (0:44)
Feathers (1:14)
Let’s Eat (1:39)
Where’s The Cat? And End Title (Moon River) (3:50)
Moon River (Audrey Hepburn & Guitar) (1:38)
Moon River (Piano And Guitar) (1:38)
Moon River (Harmonica And Guitar) (1:36)
Meet The Doc (Without Organ Grinder) (1:37)
Piano Practice No. 1 (1:38)
Piano Practice No. 2 (1:48)
Piano Practice No. 3 (0:54)
Moon River (New York Version) (2:01)
Moon River (Whistling) (0:10)

tag: ol

text: Home media[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Breakfast at Tiffany's was one of the first Hepburn films to be released to the home video market in the early 1980s,[citation needed] and is also widely available on DVD. On February 7, 2006, Paramount released a 45th anniversary special edition DVD set in North America with featurettes not included on the prior DVD release:

text:
Audio Commentary – with producer Richard Shepherd
Breakfast at Tiffany's: The Making of a Classic – a making-of featurette with interviews by Edwards, Neal, the "laughing/crying" woman from the party, and Sean Ferrer, Hepburn's son.
It's So Audrey! A Style Icon – a short tribute to Hepburn.
Brilliance in a Blue Box – a brief history of Tiffany & Co.
Audrey's Letter to Tiffany – an accounting of Hepburn's letter to Tiffany & Co. on the occasion of the company's 150th anniversary in 1987.
Original Theatrical Trailer
Photo Gallery

text: On January 13, 2009, a remastered Centennial Collection version of the film was released. In addition to the special features on the 45th anniversary edition, this version includes:

text:
A Golightly Gathering – Reuniting some of the past cast members from the party with interviews on their experiences filming that segment.
Henry Mancini: More Than Music – A featurette about Henry Mancini, "Moon River" and interviews with Mancini's wife and children.
Mr. Yunioshi: An Asian Perspective – Documentary discussing the reaction and Asian perspective of the character of Mr. Yunioshi, one of the most controversial characters in film.
Behind the Gates – A tour through Paramount Studios

text: In 2011 a newly remastered HD version of the film was released on Blu-ray with many of the features from the aforementioned DVDs. The digital restoration of the film was done by Paramount Pictures.  The digital pictures were frame by frame digitally restored at Prasad Corporation to remove dirt, tears, scratches and other artifacts. The film was restored to its original look for its 50th Anniversary.[34][35]

text: Stage adaptations[edit]

text: In 1966, David Merrick produced a Broadway musical of the same name starring Mary Tyler Moore as Holly Golightly and Richard Chamberlain as Paul. The troubled production closed after four previews.

text: In 2004, a new musical adaptation of the film made its world debut at The Muny in St. Louis.[36]

text: In May 2009, actress Anna Friel confirmed that she would star in a West End adaptation of the film. The show opened in September 2009 at the Haymarket Theatre.[37]

text: A new stage adaption made its debut in March 2013 at the Cort Theater in New York City. The role of Holly Golightly would be played by Emilia Clarke.[38]


document_title: Plasmid

question_text: prokaryotic cells may also contain small rings of dna known as

text: Plasmid

text: Properties and characteristics[edit]

text: The American molecular biologist Joshua Lederberg first introduced the term plasmid in 1952 - originally to describe any bacterial genetic material that exists in an extrachromosomal state for at least part of its replication cycle.[4] Later in 1968, it was decided that the term plasmid should be adopted as the term for extrachromosomal genetic element,[5] and to distinguish it from viruses, the definition was narrowed to genetic elements that exist exclusively or predominantly outside of the chromosome and can replicate autonomously.[6]

text: In order for plasmids to replicate independently within a cell, they must possess a stretch of DNA that can act as an origin of replication. The self-replicating unit, in this case the plasmid, is called a replicon. A typical bacterial replicon may consist of a number of elements, such as the gene for plasmid-specific replication initiation protein (Rep), repeating units called iterons, DnaA boxes, and an adjacent AT-rich region.[7] Smaller plasmids make use of the host replicative enzymes to make copies of themselves, while larger plasmids may carry genes specific for the replication of those plasmids. A few types of plasmids can also insert into the host chromosome, and these integrative plasmids are sometimes referred to as episomes in prokaryotes.[8]

text: Plasmids almost always carry at least one gene. Many of the genes carried by a plasmid are beneficial for the host cells, for example: enabling the host cell to survive in an environment that would otherwise be lethal or restrictive for growth. Some of these genes encode traits for antibiotic resistance or resistance to heavy metal, while others may produce virulence factors that enable a bacterium to colonize a host and overcome its defences, or have specific metabolic functions that allow the bacterium to utilize a particular nutrient, including the ability to degrade recalcitrant or toxic organic compounds.[6] Plasmids can also provide bacteria with the ability to fix nitrogen. Some plasmids, however, have no observable effect on the phenotype of the host cell or its benefit to the host cells cannot be determined, and these plasmids are called cryptic plasmids.[9]

text: Naturally occurring plasmids vary greatly in their physical properties. Their size can range from very small mini-plasmids of less than a 1 kilobase pairs (Kbp), to very large megaplasmids of several megabase pairs (Mbp). At the upper end, little can differentiate between a megaplasmid and a minichromosome. Plasmids are generally circular, however examples of linear plasmids are also known. These linear plasmids require specialized mechanisms to replicate their ends.[6]

text: Plasmids may be present in an individual cell in varying number, ranging from one to several hundreds. The normal number of copies of plasmid that may be found in a single cell is called the copy number, and is determined by how the replication initiation is regulated and the size of the molecule. Larger plasmids tend to have lower copy numbers.[8] Low-copy-number plasmids that exist only as one or a few copies in each bacterium are, upon cell division, in danger of being lost in one of the segregating bacteria. Such single-copy plasmids have systems that attempt to actively distribute a copy to both daughter cells. These systems, which include the parABS system and parMRC system, are often referred to as the partition system or partition function of a plasmid.

text: Classifications and types[edit]

text: Plasmids may be classified in a number of ways. Plasmids can be broadly classified into conjugative plasmids and non-conjugative plasmids. Conjugative plasmids contain a set of transfer or tra genes which promote sexual conjugation between different cells.[8] In the complex process of conjugation, plasmid may be transferred from one bacterium to another via sex pili encoded by some of the tra genes (see figure).[10] Non-conjugative plasmids are incapable of initiating conjugation, hence they can be transferred only with the assistance of conjugative plasmids. An intermediate class of plasmids are mobilizable, and carry only a subset of the genes required for transfer. They can parasitize a conjugative plasmid, transferring at high frequency only in its presence.

text: Plasmids can also be classified into incompatibility groups. A microbe can harbour different types of plasmids, however, different plasmids can only exist in a single bacterial cell if they are compatible. If two plasmids are not compatible, one or the other will be rapidly lost from the cell. Different plasmids may therefore be assigned to different incompatibility groups depending on whether they can coexist together. Incompatible plasmids (belonging to the same incompatibility group) normally share the same replication or partition mechanisms and can thus not be kept together in a single cell.[11][12]

text: Another way to classify plasmids is by function. There are five main classes:

text:
Fertility F-plasmids, which contain tra genes. They are capable of conjugation and result in the expression of sex pili.
Resistance (R) plasmids, which contain genes that provide resistance against antibiotics or poisons. Historically known as R-factors, before the nature of plasmids was understood.
Col plasmids, which contain genes that code for bacteriocins, proteins that can kill other bacteria.
Degradative plasmids, which enable the digestion of unusual substances, e.g. toluene and salicylic acid.
Virulence plasmids, which turn the bacterium into a pathogen.

text: Plasmids can belong to more than one of these functional groups.

text: Vectors[edit]

text: Artificially constructed plasmids may be used as vectors in genetic engineering. These plasmids serve as important tools in genetics and biotechnology labs, where they are commonly used to clone and amplify (make many copies of) or express particular genes.[13] A wide variety of plasmids are commercially available for such uses. The gene to be replicated is normally inserted into a plasmid that typically contains a number of features for their use. These include a gene that confers resistance to particular antibiotics (ampicillin is most frequently used for bacterial strains), an origin of replication to allow the bacterial cells to replicate the plasmid DNA, and a suitable site for cloning.

text: Cloning[edit]

text: Plasmids are the most-commonly used bacterial cloning vectors.[14] These cloning vectors contain a site that allows DNA fragments to be inserted, for example a multiple cloning site or polylinker which has several commonly used restriction sites to which DNA fragments may be ligated. After the gene of interest is inserted, the plasmids are introduced into bacteria by a process called transformation. These plasmids contain a selectable marker, usually an antibiotic resistance gene, which confer on the bacteria an ability to survive and proliferate in a selective growth medium containing the particular antibiotics. The cells after transformation are exposed to the selective media, and only cells containing the plasmid may survive. In this way, the antibiotics act as a filter to select only the bacteria containing the plasmid DNA. The vector may also contain other marker genes or reporter genes to facilitate selection of plasmid with cloned insert. Bacteria containing the plasmid can then be grown in large amounts, harvested, and the plasmid of interest may then be isolated using various methods of plasmid preparation.

text: A plasmid cloning vector is typically used to clone DNA fragments of up to 15 kbp.[15] To clone longer lengths of DNA, lambda phage with lysogeny genes deleted, cosmids, bacterial artificial chromosomes, or yeast artificial chromosomes are used.

text: Protein production[edit]

text: Another major use of plasmids is to make large amounts of proteins. In this case, researchers grow bacteria containing a plasmid harboring the gene of interest. Just as the bacterium produces proteins to confer its antibiotic resistance, it can also be induced to produce large amounts of proteins from the inserted gene. This is a cheap and easy way of mass-producing the protein the gene codes for, for example, insulin.

text: Gene therapy[edit]

text: Plasmid may also be used for gene transfer into human cells as potential treatment in gene therapy so that it may express the protein that is lacking in the cells. Some strategies of gene therapy require the insertion of therapeutic genes at pre-selected chromosomal target sites within the human genome. Plasmid vectors are one of many approaches that could be used for this purpose. Zinc finger nucleases (ZFNs) offer a way to cause a site-specific double-strand break to the DNA genome and cause homologous recombination. Plasmids encoding ZFN could help deliver a therapeutic gene to a specific site so that cell damage, cancer-causing mutations, or an immune response is avoided.[16]

text: Disease models[edit]

text: Plasmids were historically used to genetically engineer the embryonic stem cells of rats in order to create rat genetic disease models. The limited efficiency of plasmid-based techniques precluded their use in the creation of more accurate human cell models. However, developments in Adeno-associated virus recombination techniques, and Zinc finger nucleases, have enabled the creation of a new generation of isogenic human disease models.

text: Episomes[edit]

text: The term episome was proposed François Jacob and Élie Wollman in 1958 to describe extra-chromosomal genetic material that may replicate autonomously or become integrated into the chromosome.[17][18] The use of the term, however, has diverged since it was first coined as plasmid became the preferred word for autonomously replicating extrachromosomal DNA as proposed in the symposium in 1968 – it was suggested by some that the use of the term episome be abandoned, although others continued to use the term with a shift in meaning.[19][20] In prokaryotes, episome is now used by some to refer to plasmid that is capable of integrating into the chromosome. The integrative plasmids may be replicated and stably maintained in a cell through multiple generations, but always at some stage they exist as an independent plasmid molecule.[21]

text: In eukaryotes, episomes used to mean non-integrated extrachromosomal closed circular DNA molecule that may be replicated in the nucleus.[22][23] Viruses are the most common examples of this, such as herpesviruses, adenoviruses, and polyomaviruses, but some are plasmids. Other examples include aberrant chromosomal fragments, such as double minute chromosomes, that can arise during artificial gene amplifications or in pathologic processes (e.g., cancer cell transformation). Episomes in eukaryotes behave similarly to plasmids in prokaryotes in that the DNA is stably maintained and replicated with the host cell. Cytoplasmic viral episomes (as in poxvirus infections) can also occur. Some episomes, such as herpesviruses, replicate in a rolling circle mechanism, similar to bacterial phage viruses. Others replicate through a bidirectional replication mechanism (Theta type plasmids). In either case, episomes remain physically separate from host cell chromosomes. Several cancer viruses, including Epstein-Barr virus and Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus, are maintained as latent, chromosomally distinct episomes in cancer cells, where the viruses express oncogenes that promote cancer cell proliferation. In cancers, these episomes passively replicate together with host chromosomes when the cell divides. When these viral episomes initiate lytic replication to generate multiple virus particles, they in general activate cellular innate immunity defense mechanisms that kill the host cell.

text: Plasmid maintenance[edit]

text: Some plasmids or microbial hosts include an addiction system or postsegregational killing system (PSK), such as the hok/sok (host killing/suppressor of killing) system of plasmid R1 in Escherichia coli.[24] This variant produces both a long-lived poison and a short-lived antidote. Several types of plasmid addiction systems (toxin/ antitoxin, metabolism-based, ORT systems) were described in the literature[25] and used in biotechnical (fermentation) or biomedical (vaccine therapy) applications. Daughter cells that retain a copy of the plasmid survive, while a daughter cell that fails to inherit the plasmid dies or suffers a reduced growth-rate because of the lingering poison from the parent cell. Finally, the overall productivity could be enhanced.

text: In contrast, virtually all biotechnologically used plasmids (such as pUC18, pBR322 and derived vectors) do not contain toxin-antitoxin addiction systems and thus need to be kept under antibiotic pressure to avoid plasmid loss.

text: Yeast plasmids[edit]

text: The term "Yeast" means an artificial group or assemblage of uni/few cellular organisms under Domain Eukaryote and kingdom Fungi. So, unlike bacteria; yeasts are eukaryotic. Yeast are organisms that naturally harbour plasmids. Notable plasmids are 2 µm plasmids - small circular plasmids often used for genetic engineering of yeast, and linear pGKL plasmids from Kluyveromyces lactis, that are responsible for killer phenotypes.[26]

text: Other types of plasmids are often related to yeast cloning vectors that include:

text:
Yeast integrative plasmid (YIp), yeast vectors that rely on integration into the host chromosome for survival and replication, and are usually used when studying the functionality of a solo gene or when the gene is toxic. Also connected with the gene URA3, that codes an enzyme related to the biosynthesis of pyrimidine nucleotides (T, C);
Yeast Replicative Plasmid (YRp), which transport a sequence of chromosomal DNA that includes an origin of replication. These plasmids are less stable, as they can get lost during the budding.

text: Plasmid DNA extraction[edit]

text: As alluded to above, plasmids are often used to purify a specific sequence, since they can easily be purified away from the rest of the genome. For their use as vectors, and for molecular cloning, plasmids often need to be isolated.

text: There are several methods to isolate plasmid DNA from bacteria, the archetypes of which are the miniprep and the maxiprep/bulkprep.[13] The former can be used to quickly find out whether the plasmid is correct in any of several bacterial clones. The yield is a small amount of impure plasmid DNA, which is sufficient for analysis by restriction digest and for some cloning techniques.

text: In the latter, much larger volumes of bacterial suspension are grown from which a maxi-prep can be performed. In essence, this is a scaled-up miniprep followed by additional purification. This results in relatively large amounts (several hundreds micrograms) of very pure plasmid DNA.

text: In recent times, many commercial kits have been created to perform plasmid extraction at various scales, purity, and levels of automation. Commercial services can prepare plasmid DNA at quoted prices below $300/mg in milligram quantities and $15/mg in gram quantities (early 2007[update]).

text: Conformations[edit]

text: Plasmid DNA may appear in one of five conformations, which (for a given size) run at different speeds in a gel during electrophoresis. The conformations are listed below in order of electrophoretic mobility (speed for a given applied voltage) from slowest to fastest:

text:
Nicked open-circular DNA has one strand cut.
Relaxed circular DNA is fully intact with both strands uncut, but has been enzymatically relaxed (supercoils removed). This can be modeled by letting a twisted extension cord unwind and relax and then plugging it into itself.
Linear DNA has free ends, either because both strands have been cut or because the DNA was linear in vivo. This can be modeled with an electrical extension cord that is not plugged into itself.
Supercoiled (or covalently closed-circular) DNA is fully intact with both strands uncut, and with an integral twist, resulting in a compact form. This can be modeled by twisting an extension cord and then plugging it into itself.
Supercoiled denatured DNA is like supercoiled DNA, but has unpaired regions that make it slightly less compact; this can result from excessive alkalinity during plasmid preparation.

text: The rate of migration for small linear fragments is directly proportional to the voltage applied at low voltages. At higher voltages, larger fragments migrate at continuously increasing yet different rates. Thus, the resolution of a gel decreases with increased voltage.

text: At a specified, low voltage, the migration rate of small linear DNA fragments is a function of their length. Large linear fragments (over 20 kb or so) migrate at a certain fixed rate regardless of length. This is because the molecules 'resperate', with the bulk of the molecule following the leading end through the gel matrix. Restriction digests are frequently used to analyse purified plasmids. These enzymes specifically break the DNA at certain short sequences. The resulting linear fragments form 'bands' after gel electrophoresis. It is possible to purify certain fragments by cutting the bands out of the gel and dissolving the gel to release the DNA fragments.

text: Because of its tight conformation, supercoiled DNA migrates faster through a gel than linear or open-circular DNA.

text: Software for bioinformatics and design[edit]

text: The use of plasmids as a technique in molecular biology is supported by bioinformatics software. These programs record the DNA sequence of plasmid vectors, help to predict cut sites of restriction enzymes, and to plan manipulations. Examples of software packages that handle plasmid maps are ApE, Clone Manager, GeneConstructionKit, Geneious, Genome Compiler, LabGenius, Lasergene, MacVector, pDraw32, Serial Cloner, VectorFriends, Vector NTI, and WebDSV. These software help conduct entire experiments in silico before doing wet experiments.[27]

text: Plasmid collections[edit]

text: Many plasmids have been created over the years and researchers have given out plasmids to plasmid databases such as the non profit organisations Addgene and BCCM/LMBP. One can find and request plasmids from those databases in order to continue research. Researcher also often upload sequences of plasmids in the NCBI database. Using the NCBI database sequences of specific plasmids can be looked up.


document_title: Baroreceptor

question_text: which type of receptor is present in the cardiac wall and responds to stimulation by the vagus nerve

text: Baroreceptor

text: Arterial baroreceptors[edit]

text: Arterial baroreceptors are stretch receptors that are stimulated by distortion of the arterial wall when pressure changes. The baroreceptors can identify the changes in both the average blood pressure or the rate of change in pressure with each arterial pulse. Action potentials triggered in the baroreceptor ending are then directly conducted to the brainstem where central terminations (synapses) transmit this information to neurons within the solitary nucleus. Reflex responses from such baroreceptor activity can trigger increases or decreases in the heart rate. Arterial baroreceptor sensory endings are simple, splayed nerve endings that lie in the tunica adventitia of the artery. An increase in the mean arterial pressure increases depolarization of these sensory endings, which results in action potentials. These action potentials are conducted to the solitary nucleus in the central nervous system by axons and have a reflex effect on the cardiovascular system through autonomic neurons.[5] Hormone secretions that target the heart and blood vessels are affected by the stimulation of baroreceptors.

text: At normal resting blood pressures, baroreceptors discharge with each heart beat. If blood pressure falls, such as on orthostatic hypotension or in hypovolaemic shock, baroreceptor firing rate decreases and baroreceptor reflexes act to help restore blood pressure by increasing heart rate. Signals from the carotid baroreceptors are sent via the glossopharyngeal nerve (cranial nerve IX). Signals from the aortic baroreceptors travel through the vagus nerve (cranial nerve X).[6] Arterial baroreceptors inform reflexes about arterial blood pressure but other stretch receptors in the large veins and right atrium convey information about the low pressure parts of the circulatory system.

text: Baroreceptors respond very quickly to maintain a stable blood pressure, but their responses diminish with time and thus are most effective for conveying short term changes in blood pressure. In people with essential hypertension the baroreceptors and their reflexes change and function to maintain the elevated blood pressure as if normal. The receptors then become less sensitive to change.[7]

text: Electrical stimulation of baroreceptors has been found to activate the baroreflex, reducing sympathetic tone throughout the body and thereby reducing blood pressure in patients with resistant hypertension.[8]

text: Low-pressure baroreceptors[edit]

text: The low-pressure baroreceptors, are found in large systemic veins, in pulmonary vessels, and in the walls of the right atrium and ventricles of the heart (the atrial volume receptors).[4] The low-pressure baroreceptors are involved with the regulation of blood volume. The blood volume determines the mean pressure throughout the system, in particular in the venous side where most of the blood is held.

text: The low-pressure baroreceptors have both circulatory and renal effects; they produce changes in hormone secretion, resulting in profound effects on the retention of salt and water; they also influence intake of salt and water. The renal effects allow the receptors to change the mean pressure in the system in the long term.

text: Denervating these receptors 'fools' the body into thinking that it has too low blood volume and initiates mechanisms that retain fluid and so push up the blood pressure to a higher level than it would otherwise have.[citation needed]

text: Baroreceptor dysfunction[edit]

text: Baroreceptors are integral to the body’s function: Pressure changes in the blood vessels would not be detected as quickly in the absence of baroreceptors. When baroreceptors are not working, blood pressure continues to increase, but, within an hour, the blood pressure returns to normal as other blood pressure regulatory systems take over.[9]

text: Baroreceptors can also become oversensitive in some people (usually the carotid baroreceptors in older males). This can lead to bradycardia, dizziness and fainting (syncope) from touching the neck (often whilst shaving). This is an important cause to exclude in men having pre-syncope or syncope symptoms.


document_title: I Want You (She's So Heavy)

question_text: who played guitar on i want you she's so heavy

question_tokens: who played guitar on i want you she 's so heavy

text: I Want You (She's So Heavy)

text: Composition[edit]

text:
The song begins in 6
8 time, with an arpeggio guitar theme in D minor, progressing through E7(♭9) and B♭7 before cadencing on an A augmented chord. In this chord sequence, the F note is a drone. The bass and lead guitar ascend and descend with a riff derived from the D minor scale. As the last chord fades, a verse begins in 4
4 time, based on the A and D blues scales, with Lennon singing "I want you / I want you so bad . . ." The two blues verses alternate, before the reappearance of the E7(♭9) chord, and McCartney playing a notably aggressive bass riff. This would function, throughout the song, as a transition to the main theme. The main theme repeats with Lennon singing "She's so heavy", with a long sustain on the last word. The second set of verses are rendered instrumentally with lead guitar. Another repeat of the "She's So Heavy" theme (this time featuring harmonies) is followed by Lennon singing a livelier repeat of the "I Want You" verse. During the next E7(♭9) transition, Lennon lets loose a primal scream of "Yeah", until his voice breaks. The song's coda consists of a three-minute repetition of the "She's So Heavy" theme, with the arpeggios double tracked, intensifying with "white noise" fading in as the theme continues; this consists of multi-tracked guitars from Lennon and Harrison, Moog white-noise from Lennon, and drums and bass from Starr and McCartney respectively until an abrupt ending.[6]

text: Josh Hart and Damien Fanelli, writing for Guitar World, placed the song 34th in their list of the 50 Heaviest Songs Before Black Sabbath, and called the song a "bluesy rocker" that "might have inadvertently started doom metal."[7] Similarly, Jo Kendall of Classic Rock magazine commented that the song pre-dated "Black Sabbath's creation of doom rock by several months" and noted the "Santana-like Latin blues section" in the song.[8]

text: Recording[edit]

text: Lennon wrote the song about his love for Yoko Ono.[4] The song was rehearsed several times during the Get Back/Let It Be sessions; the basic track and Lennon's guide vocal (which is used in the master) were recorded at Trident Studios on 22 February 1969, shortly after shooting for the Let It Be film ended. Lennon played the lead guitar, as George Harrison stated:

text: It's very heavy. John plays lead guitar and sings the same as he plays. It's really basically a bit like a blues. The riff that he sings and plays is really a very basic blues-type thing. But again, it's very original sort of John-type song.[9]

text: Lennon and Harrison overdubbed multi-tracked heavy guitars on 18 April 1969. Billy Preston's keyboards and Ringo Starr's congas were added on 20 April 1969. "I Want You" received the "She's So Heavy" vocals on 11 August, and thus the title became "I Want You (She's So Heavy)".[10] "'She's So Heavy' was about Yoko," Lennon told Rolling Stone. "When you're drowning, you don't say, 'I would be incredibly pleased if someone would have the foresight to notice me drowning and come and help me.' You just scream."[4]

text: Three takes from 22 February were edited into a master (second generation), which was overdubbed, mixed down on 18 April (third generation), and overdubbed on 18 April, 20 April, 8 August and 11 August. Different overdubs were made to the second generation tape on 8 August. The mix is the third generation for 4:37 and then the second generation tape, which has white noise produced by the Moog synthesizer played by Lennon and additional drums added on 8 August. The final overdub session for "I Want You (She's So Heavy)", which included the final mixing and editing, was the last time all four Beatles worked in the studio together.[11][12]

text: The final master lasted 8:04, but Lennon decided on a surprise ending. During the final edit with the guitars, drums and white noise climaxing endlessly, he told recording engineer Geoff Emerick to "cut it right there" at the 7:44 mark, bringing the song (and Side 1 of Abbey Road) to an abrupt end. On Love, the three-minute stretch of repeated guitar chords that ends the song intercuts with elements of "Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite!" and "Helter Skelter", while retaining the abrupt cut to silence at the end.[13][14]

text: Personnel[edit]

text:
John Lennon – lead and harmony vocals, multi-tracked lead guitar, Moog synthesizer
Paul McCartney – harmony vocals, bass
George Harrison – harmony vocals, rhythm guitar, multi-tracked lead guitar
Ringo Starr – drums, congas, wind machine[4]
Billy Preston – Hammond organ

text: Covers[edit]

text: Numerous bands and solo artists have covered "I Want You (She's So Heavy)" in the studio and live, in particular the following:

text:
Performer
Album
Year
Comment

Alvin Lee
Nineteen Ninety-Four
1994
Accompanied by George Harrison on slide guitar

Beatallica
Sgt. Hetfield's Motorbreath Pub Band
2007
Merged with Metallica's "The Call of Ktulu" to create "Ktulu (He's So Heavy)"

Bee Gees
–
1978
Performance for the Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band movie, with Peter Frampton, Frankie Howerd, Dianne Steiberg and Stargard

Blackmail
Science Fiction
1999
Usage of part of the lyrics ("I want you so bad") and part of the tune for the song "3.000.000 Years From Here"[original research?]

Booker T. and the MGs
McLemore Avenue
1969
Album cover also mimicks the Abbey Road album cover

Budka Suflera
-
1978
-

Coroner
Mental Vortex
1991

Earth to Andy
Simple Machine
1998
As hidden track at the end of the album that features a "talking guitar" effect

Eddie Hazel
Game, Dames and Guitar Thangs
1977
Founding lead guitarist for Parliament-Funkadelic. Eddie Hazel's solo debut album

Eric Gales Band
Picture of a Thousand Faces
1993

The Flaming Lips
-
2011
15-minute performance of the song at NYE Freakout in Oklahoma City, in honour of the special guest performance by The Plastic Ono Band

George Benson
The Other Side of Abbey Road
1970

George Lynch
Furious George
2004
Cover album

Groove Collective
-
1996
Single, which charted in the US

Halestorm
ReAniMate: The CoVeRs eP
2011

Incubus (band)
-
2013
Covered a small snippet of the song multiple times, usually to close their performances during the 2013 and 2014 tour

Joe Anderson, Dana Fuchs and T.V. Carpio
-
2007
Performance by cast members for Julie Taymor's film Across the Universe'

John Legend
Live in Philadelphia
2008

The Last Shadow Puppets
-
2008
Performance during the BBC Electric Proms[16] Regularly performed as part of their setlist.

Ministry
Cover Up
2008
track only on Japanese issue of the album

Noir Désir
Dies Irae
1994
Live album; the title means The Day of Wrath (Lat.)

Robyn Hitchcock
CD: Various Artists – Abbey Road Now!
2009
Album of covers of songs from Abbey Road

Sarah Vaughan
Songs of the Beatles
1981
Omits any "She's So Heavy" vocals

Soda Stereo
-
1990–91
Covered song in several live performances during that time

Soulive
Rubber Soulive
2010
Beatles cover album

Soundgarden
-
1994-97
Covered the song multiple times, usually to close their performances in their Superunknown and Down on the Upside tours.

Steel Train
1969
2004
Cover album

Thrice
-
2010
Released as download track for their label Vagrant Records[17]

Transatlantic
All of the above
2000
Live album, cover appears as last segment of the closing medley

Type O Negative
World Coming Down
1999
As part of a medley with "Day Tripper" and "If I Needed Someone"

Phillips, Grier & Flinner
Looking Back
2002
Instrumental version, with David Grier on acoustic guitar, Todd Phillips (musician) on acoustic bass, and Matt Flinner on mandolin

Umphrey's McGee
The London Session
2015
Recorded at Abbey Road studios in London

text: Notes[edit]

text:
^ Jump up to: a b Moon, Tom (2008). 1,000 Recordings to Hear Before You Die. p. 62. the most convincing exploration of blues and progressive rock the Beatles ever attempted, "I Want You (She's So Heavy)"
Jump up ^ Perone, James E. (2012). The Album: A Guide to Pop Music's Most Provocative, Influential, and Important Creations. Praeger. p. 213. ISBN 978-0-313-37907-9.
Jump up ^ Sander, Ellen (25 October 1969). "The Beatles: "Abbey Road"". Saturday Review. Vol. 52. p. 69. ISSN 0036-4983.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "59 – 'I Want You (She's So Heavy)' -". 100 Greatest Beatles Songs. Rolling Stone. Retrieved 18 June 2012.
Jump up ^ The Beatles. J Lennon, P McCartney, G Harrison… – John Lennon – books.google.com
Jump up ^ "Alan W. Pollack's Notes on "I Want You (She's So Heavy)"". Icce.rug.nl. Retrieved 2016-07-27.
Jump up ^ "The 50 Heaviest Songs Before Black Sabbath: #40-31". guitarworld.com.
Jump up ^ Classic Rock Magazine, September 2014
Jump up ^ "George Harrison interview with Ritchie Yorke, September, 1969". Ottawa Beatles Site. Retrieved 8 October 2010.
Jump up ^ Voice Leading and Harmony as Expressive Devices in the Early Music of the Beatles:'She Loves You'W Everett – College Music Symposium, 1992 – JSTOR
Jump up ^ "Mixing, editing: I Want You (She's So Heavy)". beatlesbible.com.
Jump up ^ "The Final Days of The Beatles". Mental Floss.
Jump up ^ Willman, Chris (26 December 2006). "peace". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved 25 July 2010.
Jump up ^ "The Beatles: LOVE". Yahoo!. 20 November 2006. Retrieved 25 July 2010.
Jump up ^ MacDonald 2005, p. 342.
Jump up ^ "Last Shadow Puppets cover The Beatles in Liverpool". NME. 25 October 2008. Retrieved 6 January 2012.
Jump up ^ "Competition to win Thrice songs for download". Vagrant Records. Retrieved 6 January 2012.