document_title: Alcohol licensing laws of the United Kingdom

question_text: when did pubs stop closing in the afternoon

text: History[edit]

text: In the mid-18th century, gin became extremely popular as it was much cheaper to buy than beer. This was known as the 'gin epidemic'. By 1740, six times more gin than beer was being produced, and of the 15,000 drinking establishments in London, half were gin-shops. The Gin Act 1736 imposed a prohibitively high duty on gin, but this caused rioting, and so the duty was gradually reduced and then abolished in 1742. The Gin Act 1751 was more successful: instead of a tax it restricted gin producers to selling only to licensed premises.

text: During the 19th century, licensing laws began to restrict the opening hours of premises. The Sunday Closing (Wales) Act 1881 required the closure of all public houses in Wales on Sundays.

text: After the outbreak of World War I the Defence of the Realm Act was passed by Parliament in 1914. One section of the Act concerned the hours pubs could sell alcohol, as it was believed that alcohol consumption would interfere with the war effort.[2] It restricted opening hours for licensed premises to luncheon (12:00 to 14:40) and supper (18:30 to 22:30). In the late 1980s the licensing laws in England and Wales became less restricted and allowed pubs to allow the consumption of alcohol on the premises from 11:00 until 23:00,[2] although nightclubs were allowed to stay open much later. Significantly revised rules were introduced in November 2005, when hour limits were scrapped, and pubs were allowed to apply for licences as permissive as "24 hours a day".[3] In practice, most pubs chose not to apply for licences past midnight.

text: Traditionally, the phrase "Last orders!" is still often used to announce the last opportunity to purchase drinks, typically ten or fifteen minutes in advance and is often announced via a bell. At the point when the bar will no longer serve drinks, the bar staff will announce "Time Please!" (Traditionally "Time, gentlemen, please!"), again, either shouted or by use of a bell.

text: The wartime restrictions in Scotland were not repealed until 1976. As a result, Scottish laws were generally less restrictive, with local authorities being allowed to determine opening hours. Most Scottish pubs now open until midnight, though this is not universal.

text: On-licence[edit]

text: On-licence describes an establishment where alcohol must be consumed at the point of sale, such as a pub, bar, nightclub or café.

text: The name derives from the distinction between types of licence which could be granted—a distinction now repealed in England and Wales, and repealed in Scotland in 2009.[needs update] In England and Wales, the magistrates would formerly grant either an "off" licence permitting the sale of intoxicating liquor for consumption only off the premises, or an "on" licence permitting sale for consumption on the premises—which permitted, to a limited extent, off sales too: many public houses were permitted off sales, to sell sealed alcoholic drinks (e.g., unopened bottles of wine) for consumption elsewhere. A restaurant licence was an on-licence with a restaurant condition attached. Until 2009, in Scotland the types of licence were Hotel, Public House, Restricted Hotel, Restaurant, Entertainment, Off-Sale, and Refreshment licences. In Northern Ireland, there are numerous types of licence.

text: Under the Licensing Act 2003 and the Licensing (Scotland) Act 2005, there is only one type of premises licence, though the conditions placed on each one will determine whether on sales or off sales (or both) are permitted.

text: The premises licence is granted to a person, and not to the establishment.Before the Licensing Act 2003 came into effect, there was a legal requirement to display the name of the licensee above the entrance to an on-licence location. The sign would typically say "NAME OF LANDLORD licensed for the sale of alcoholic beverages for consumption on the premises". Under the 2003 Act, that requirement has been repealed (though such signs are still often seen). Instead, the premises licence holder must ensure that the official summary of the licence (or a certified copy) is prominently displayed at the premises, as well as the name and position of any person nominated as the custodian of the summary premises licence.[4]

text: Off-licence[edit]

text: Off-licence (sometimes known as off-sales or informally offie) is a term used in the United Kingdom and Ireland for a shop licensed to sell alcoholic beverages for consumption off the premises, as opposed to a bar or public house which is licensed for consumption at the point of sale (on-licence). The term also applies to the licence granted to the establishment itself.

text: Off-licences typically are specialist shops, convenience stores, parts of supermarkets, or attached to bars and pubs. Prices are usually substantially lower than in bars or pubs.

text: In the United Kingdom, the "off-licence" status of a shop could once be used as a device to circumvent restrictive trading laws, particularly those concerning Sunday trading. Depending on local by-laws, shops might be either required to close at 12:00 once a week, or else not be allowed to trade in the evening. Shops with an off-licence made their hours similar to those of public houses, opening during lunch hours and from early evening to the mandatory closing time, usually 22:30 or 23:00. The Sunday Trading Act 1994 altered the situation somewhat.[how?]

text: Licensing law in Northern Ireland[edit]

text: In Northern Ireland, legislation is more restrictive than in Great Britain—a reaction to social problems at the beginning of the 20th century. Only a limited number of licences are available for pubs and off-licences; any new pub or off-licence wanting to sell alcohol must wait until an existing one surrenders its licence (known as the surrender principle).

text: Licences are granted and administered by the courts, not elected local authorities; the courts have no guidance to assist in the practical application of the law. A new licence is granted by the County Court and will only be granted on the surrender principle, and only if the court is satisfied that the existing number of licensed premises is not already adequate (the need principle). The transfer of a licence is a matter for the magistrates' courts.

text: There are currently twelve categories of premises that may be licensed to sell alcohol, amongst which are pubs, off-licences, and certain businesses where the sale of alcohol is ancillary to the main business.

text: Licensing law in Scotland[edit]

text: Scotland has had separate licensing laws dating back to the 18th century. The current legislation is the Licensing (Scotland) Act 2005, which replaced the Licensing (Scotland) Act 1976 on 1 September 2009.[5] The replaced licensing laws provided for seven types of liquor licence, and were administered by licensing boards, made up of councillors elected to the local authority. There were approximately 30 licensing boards in Scotland and each had its own distinct approach; for example, whilst there is a set "permitted hours" across Scotland, these were frequently extended in order to take account of early morning and late night trading, and each licensing board had its own views on what sort of extra hours a premises should be given.

text: As of 1 February 2008, Scotland entered a "transitional period" in the run-up to the commencement of new licensing legislation—the Licensing (Scotland) Act 2005. The 2005 Act is, in many respects, similar to the English Licensing Act 2003: it features the four English licensing objectives, but adds another: "protecting and improving public health". The Act creates one class of licence—the premises licence—and also introduces personal licences for those working in the trade. The administration continues to be carried out by licensing boards, but the Act has created new "Licensing Forums" in order to increase community involvement, and "Licensing Standards Officers" who have an information, mediation, and compliance role.[6]

text: The legislation in Scotland regarding the sale of alcohol is different from the rest of the UK and England in particular. The Alcohol etc. (Scotland) Act 2010 has amended the core hours during which stores and supermarkets can sell alcohol. Scotland currently restricts the purchase of alcohol between the hours of 22:00 and 10:00.

text: One major change is that Sunday opening hours can be changed to match the rest of the UK, allowing sales from 10:00, rather than 12:30 with the 1976 Act.

text: Changes since 2005[edit]

text: On 10 July 2003 the Licensing Act 2003 was granted Royal Assent and replaced the previous licensing laws for England and Wales, regulated under several different Acts, with a single unified system covering a range of "regulated activities". Rules as to when establishments can open, for how long, and under what criteria are now not laid down in statute but are individual to the premises and are contained in the conditions on each premises licence. The powers of the 2003 Act came fully into force on 24 November 2005.

text: Permitted hours[edit]

text: Some long-standing traditions (indeed, legal requirements) have disappeared as a consequence. First, "permitted hours" gained a new meaning. Until the 2003 Act came into force on 24 November 2005,[7] permitted hours were a standard legal constraint: for example, serving alcohol after 23:00 meant that a licensing extension had to exist—either permanent (as for nightclubs, for example), or by special application from the licensee concerned for a particular occasion. There was also a customary general derogation permitting a modest extension on particular dates, such as New Year's Eve and some other Public Holidays. Licensees did not need to apply for these and could take advantage of them if they wished without any formality. Now, permitted hours are theoretically continuous: it is possible for a premises licence to be held which allows 24-hour opening, and indeed some do exist.

text: Most licensed premises do not go this far, but many applied for licences in 2005 that allowed them longer opening hours than before. However, as in the past, there is no obligation for licensees to use all the time permitted to them. Premises that still close (for commercial reasons) at 23:00 during most of the week may well have licences permitting them to remain open longer, perhaps for several hours. Staying open after 23:00 on the spur of the moment is therefore legal at such premises if the licensee decides to do so—perhaps because custom happens to be good. Of course, the service of alcohol must still cease when the actual licence closing time arrives. Only the holder of the comparatively rare true "24-hour" licence has complete freedom in this respect.

text: Drinking-up time[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The consumption of alcohol itself is not considered a "licensable activity" under the new Licensing Act. Therefore, "drinking-up time" (DUT) has no legal meaning and has disappeared. For many years ten minutes (and later extended to twenty minutes) was the legal dispensation which allowed the consumption of alcohol to continue after the official closing time, which in recent times meant that customers could still drink what they had already bought until 23:20, subject to the licensee's discretion. After that time consumption had to also stop.

text: With the end of standard permitted hours, this concession became irrelevant and there is no mention of DUT in the 2003 Act. Instead, applicants for premises licences can specify the maximum period (their "Opening Hours") for which they wish to allow their customers to stay after the time at which the sale of alcohol ends ("the terminal hour") within their Operating Schedule. Some licences do not specify opening hours at all, which allows an unspecified drinking up time, determined only by the licensee's discretion. In contrast, some licensees call for "last orders" twenty minutes (or more) before the end of the opening hours specified on their premises' licence.

text: Scotland[edit]

text: Licensing law in Scotland was overhauled by the Licensing (Scotland) Act 2005,[8] which came into force in September 2009 following a transition period starting in February 2008. The new system covers alcohol sales only, but otherwise is, in most particulars, identical to the system created in England and Wales by the Licensing Act 2003. There are a number of significant differences, such as a "duty to trade" and attempts to control the irresponsible sale of alcohol through curbs on price discounting and other promotions which may lead to excessive consumption.

text: Northern Ireland[edit]

text: Licensing proposals in Northern Ireland were first announced by the Northern Ireland Office in 2004, leading to a consultation in 2005,[9] again very similar to the Scottish and English Acts. The proposals triggered much initial opposition, even from some parts of the licensed trade.[10][11][12] These proposals are not currently proceeding.[13]

text: Under the proposed rules, all premises where regulated activities are carried out must be authorised by a premises licence. Where alcohol is sold the premises must have a designated premises supervisor, who himself must hold a personal licence. There is a parallel system for the registration of private clubs which sell alcohol to members, and which require a club registration certificate.

text: Serving after 23:00[edit]

text: Part of the changes since 2005 allow pubs to serve alcohol past 23:00; this particular part of the legislation was, and remains, very controversial due to the perceived increase in potential for binge drinking and the effects the change will have on social dynamics. However, the new law's defenders have claimed that the relatively early 23:00 closing time itself contributed to binge drinking, as patrons hurried to drink before closing time. Labour also claimed that the fixed closing time contributed to social disorder, as drunken pub patrons were forced into the street at the same time.[citation needed] Both the Conservative Party and Liberal Democrats unsuccessfully called for a delay in the implementation of this law.

text: Licensing policies[edit]

text: Each licensing authority must adopt a licensing policy, which gives guidance on when licences will be granted and the conditions and permitted hours likely to be imposed on a premises licence in various circumstances.

text: Licensable activities (England and Wales)[edit]

text: The Licensing Act 2003 defines "licensable activities" as:

text:
the retail sale of alcohol,
the supply of alcohol in clubs,
the provision of late night refreshment, and
the provision of regulated entertainment

text: In turn, "regulated entertainment" is defined as:

text:
a performance of a play,
an exhibition of a film,
an indoor sporting event,
a boxing or wrestling entertainment (both indoors and outdoors),
a performance of live music,
any playing of recorded music, or
a performance of dance
entertainment of a similar description to that falling in the previous three categories listed above.

text: There are many exemption categories and qualifications to the above definitions, particularly in respect of Regulated Entertainment and Late Night Refreshment. As a result of changes by the Live Music Act 2012, for example, live music in on-licensed premises is no longer a licensable activity between 08:00 and 23:00 hours before audiences of up to 200 people. Similarly performances of plays and of dance are not licensable before audiences of up to 500 people and indoor sporting events up to 1000 people. These changes, brought in from 2013, coupled with the Live Music Act in 2012, display a readiness by the Coalition Government to deregulate the prescriptive and sometimes confusing definitions of Regulated Entertainment stated above (although it should be noted that the Live Music Act was a Private Members’ Bill sponsored by Lord Clement-Jones and drafted by Poppleston Allen Solicitors which was subsequently supported by the Government).

text: "Late night refreshment" is defined as:

text: the supply of hot food or drink (that is, food or drink that is either served at, or has been heated on the premises to, a point above ambient temperature) to the public for consumption, both on or off the premises, between 23:00 and 05:00.

text: Licensing objectives[edit]

text: The licensing authority, in considering any application for a licence or for a variation must have regard to “the licensing objectives”:

text:
England and Wales
Scotland
(Northern Ireland proposals)

The prevention of crime and disorder;
Public safety;
The prevention of public nuisance; and
The protection of children from harm.

Preventing crime and disorder.
Securing public safety.
Preventing public nuisance.
Protecting and improving public health.
Protecting children from harm.

Promotion of public health.
Promotion of public safety.
Prevention of crime and disorder.
Prevention of public nuisance.
Protection of children from harm.
Fair treatment of all stakeholders[14]

text: Licensing authorities[edit]

text: The licensing authorities are local councils. In two-tier parts of England and Wales, these are the district or borough councils and elsewhere the unitary authority is the licensing authority. In Scotland each council has a Licensing Board to act as licensing authority.

text: For a premises licence, the licensing authority is the council for the place where the premises are located; where they straddle a boundary, the applicant may choose either one. For a personal licence, it is the licensing authority in whose area the applicant lives.

text: The Licensing Authority is also responsible for the issue of a Personal Licence.

text: Personal Licence[edit]

text: The Personal Licence allows an individual to sell alcohol or authorise its sale by others. A Personal Licence applicant must, prior to making an application, pass an exam, known as the Award for Personal Licence Holders (APLH) The APLH exam is a 40-question, multiple-choice paper, in which the applicant must achieve a score of 28 out of 40, or 70 percent. The applicant must also obtain “Basic Disclosure” which details any unspent convictions.

text: Upon application and if the applicant has no unspent relevant convictions the licensing authority must grant a Personal Licence, now with no expiry date attached . If relevant convictions are disclosed then the Licensing Authority must send a copy of the application to the local Police, who can object within 14 days. A hearing may then follow.

text: The applicant must make his application to the licensing authority where he ordinarily resides. Any changes to the Personal Licence thereafter (for example, name or address) must be notified to that original licensing authority, even if the Personal Licence Holder (“PLH”) has subsequently moved out of the area. Failure to do so is a criminal offence.

text: A PLH, if charged with a relevant criminal offence, must tell the court at the first appearance that he/she is a Holder of a Personal Licence. Failure to do so is a criminal offence. If the PLH is convicted of the original offence the Court can suspend or forfeit the personal licence. A Personal Licence is valid:

text:
In England and Wales, for 10 years. The Government has announced also an intention to remove the requirement to renew personal licences which, if enacted before 2015 will eliminate the need for any renewals.
In Scotland, also 10 years but after 5 years the licence holder must satisfy the local licensing board that he or she has passed a refresher course.
In Northern Ireland, also 10 years and under substantially stricter conditions as the Licensing Authorities in England, Wales, and Scotland. A Personal Licence granted in one jurisdiction is not valid in another.

text: A Designated Premises Supervisor (DPS) is required to be a PLH. The DPS (or Designated Premises Manager in Scotland) is responsible for the day-to-day running of the licensed premises.

text: Local variations[edit]

text: Local authorities have decided whether or not on a local basis to exercise their power to introduce specific restrictions on outdoor drinking. For example, Reading Borough Council is among authorities to have emulated the conditions of Transport for London that ban drinking in certain locations and the carrying of open alcohol in parts of Reading town centre.[15] The open alcohol container ban and ban on alcohol consumption outright sets a lower threshold than being drunk or drunk and disorderly in a public place.

text: Concerns[edit]

text: While the reforms from 2005 were intended to reduce "binge drinking", reports have variously claimed that the situation in England and Wales has not improved, or that it has become even worse. This has prompted a Parliamentary investigation.[16] The Department of Culture, Media and Sport concludes that the position presents "a mixed picture".[17]

text: Perceived problems in England and Wales shaped a slightly different approach in the Licensing (Scotland) Act 2005.

text: Most licensed premises are now following the Challenge 21 rule, which helps with avoiding selling to under age people. When a shop assistant believes that the person may be under 21, then they will ask the customer to prove that they are over 18. Challenge 25 (or older) was made mandatory in Scotland by the Alcohol etc. (Scotland) Act 2010.


document_title: List of English football champions

question_text: when did leeds united last win the first division title

root

text: List of English football champions

text: List[edit]

text:
Bold indicates double winners – i.e. League and Domestic (FA) or League (EFL) Cup winners OR League and UEFA Champions League or UEFA Europa League winners.
Bold italic indicates treble winners – i.e. League, Domestic (FA) or League (EFL) Cup winners and UEFA Champions League or UEFA Europa League winners.

tag: ul

text: Football League (1888–1892)[edit]

text:
Year

Champions(number of titles)

Runners-up

Third place

Leading goalscorer

Goals

1888–89

Preston North End[1]

Aston Villa

Wolverhampton Wanderers

 John Goodall (Preston North End)

21

1889–90

Preston North End (2)

Everton

Blackburn Rovers

 Jimmy Ross (Preston North End)

24

1890–91

Everton

Preston North End

Notts County

 Jack Southworth (Blackburn Rovers)

26

1891–92

Sunderland

Preston North End

Bolton Wanderers

 John Campbell (Sunderland)

32

tag: table

text: Football League First Division (1892–1992)[edit]

text:
Year

Champions(number of titles)

Runners-up

Third place

Leading goalscorer

Goals

1892–93

Sunderland (2)

Preston North End

Everton

 John Campbell (Sunderland)

31

1893–94

Aston Villa

Sunderland

Derby County

 Jack Southworth (Everton)

27

1894–95

Sunderland (3)

Everton

Aston Villa

 John Campbell (Sunderland)

22

1895–96

Aston Villa (2)

Derby County

Everton

 Johnny Campbell (Aston Villa)   Steve Bloomer (Derby County)

20

1896–97

Aston Villa (3)

Sheffield United

Derby County

 Steve Bloomer (Derby County)

22

1897–98

Sheffield United

Sunderland

Wolverhampton Wanderers

 Fred Wheldon (Aston Villa)

21

1898–99

Aston Villa (4)

Liverpool

Burnley

 Steve Bloomer (Derby County)

23

1899–1900

Aston Villa (5)

Sheffield United

Sunderland

 Billy Garraty (Aston Villa)

27

1900–01

Liverpool

Sunderland

Notts County

 Steve Bloomer (Derby County)

23

1901–02

Sunderland (4)

Everton

Newcastle United

 Jimmy Settle (Everton)

18

1902–03

The Wednesday[8]

Aston Villa

Sunderland

 Sam Raybould (Liverpool)

31

1903–04

The Wednesday[8] (2)

Manchester City

Everton

 Steve Bloomer (Derby County)

20

1904–05

Newcastle United

Everton

Manchester City

 Arthur Brown (Sheffield United)

22

1905–06

Liverpool (2)

Preston North End

The Wednesday

 Albert Shepherd (Bolton Wanderers)

26

1906–07

Newcastle United (2)

Bristol City

Everton

 Alex Young (Everton)

30

1907–08

Manchester United

Aston Villa

Manchester City

 Enoch West (Nottingham Forest)

27

1908–09

Newcastle United (3)

Everton

Sunderland

 Bert Freeman (Everton)

38

1909–10

Aston Villa (6)

Liverpool

Blackburn Rovers

 Jack Parkinson (Liverpool)

30

1910–11

Manchester United (2)

Aston Villa

Sunderland

 Albert Shepherd (Newcastle United)

25

1911–12

Blackburn Rovers

Everton

Newcastle United

 Harry Hampton (Aston Villa)   George Holley (Sunderland)   David McLean (The Wednesday)

25

1912–13

Sunderland (5)

Aston Villa

The Wednesday

 David McLean (The Wednesday)

30

1913–14

Blackburn Rovers (2)

Aston Villa

Middlesbrough

 George Elliot (Middlesbrough)

32

1914–15

Everton (2)

Oldham Athletic

Blackburn Rovers

 Bobby Parker (Everton)

35

1915/16–1918/19

League suspended owing to the First World War

1919–20

West Bromwich Albion

Burnley

Chelsea

 Fred Morris (West Bromwich Albion)

37

1920–21

Burnley

Manchester City

Bolton Wanderers

 Joe Smith (Bolton Wanderers)

38

1921–22

Liverpool (3)

Tottenham Hotspur

Burnley

 Andy Wilson (Middlesbrough)

31

1922–23

Liverpool (4)

Sunderland

Huddersfield Town

 Charlie Buchan (Sunderland)

30

1923–24

Huddersfield Town

Cardiff City

Sunderland

 Wilf Chadwick (Everton)

28

1924–25

Huddersfield Town (2)

West Bromwich Albion

Bolton Wanderers

 Frank Roberts (Manchester City)

31

1925–26

Huddersfield Town (3)

Arsenal

Sunderland

 Ted Harper (Blackburn Rovers)

43

1926–27

Newcastle United (4)

Huddersfield Town

Sunderland

 Jimmy Trotter (The Wednesday)

37

1927–28

Everton (3)

Huddersfield Town

Leicester City

 Dixie Dean (Everton)

60

1928–29

The Wednesday[8] (3)

Leicester City

Aston Villa

 Dave Halliday (Sunderland)

43

1929–30

Sheffield Wednesday (4)

Derby County

Manchester City

 Vic Watson (West Ham United)

41

1930–31

Arsenal

Aston Villa

Sheffield Wednesday

 Tom Waring (Aston Villa)

49

1931–32

Everton (4)

Arsenal

Sheffield Wednesday

 Dixie Dean (Everton)

44

1932–33

Arsenal (2)

Aston Villa

Sheffield Wednesday

 Jack Bowers (Derby County)

35

1933–34

Arsenal (3)

Huddersfield Town

Tottenham Hotspur

 Jack Bowers (Derby County)

34

1934–35

Arsenal (4)

Sunderland

Sheffield Wednesday

 Ted Drake (Arsenal)

42

1935–36

Sunderland (6)

Derby County

Huddersfield Town

 W. G. Richardson (West Bromwich Albion)

39

1936–37

Manchester City

Charlton Athletic

Arsenal

 Freddie Steele (Stoke City)

33

1937–38

Arsenal (5)

Wolverhampton Wanderers

Preston North End

 Tommy Lawton (Everton)

28

1938–39

Everton (5)

Wolverhampton Wanderers

Charlton Athletic

 Tommy Lawton (Everton)

35

1939/40–1945/46

League suspended owing to the Second World War

1946–47

Liverpool (5)

Manchester United

Wolverhampton Wanderers

 Dennis Westcott (Wolverhampton Wanderers)

37

1947–48

Arsenal (6)

Manchester United

Burnley

 Ronnie Rooke (Arsenal)

33

1948–49

Portsmouth

Manchester United

Derby County

 Willie Moir (Bolton Wanderers)

25

1949–50

Portsmouth (2)

Wolverhampton Wanderers

Sunderland

 Dickie Davis (Sunderland)

25

1950–51

Tottenham Hotspur

Manchester United

Blackpool

 Stan Mortensen (Blackpool)

30

1951–52

Manchester United (3)

Tottenham Hotspur

Arsenal

 George Robledo (Newcastle United)

33

1952–53

Arsenal (7)

Preston North End

Wolverhampton Wanderers

 Charlie Wayman (Preston North End)

24

1953–54

Wolverhampton Wanderers

West Bromwich Albion

Huddersfield Town

 Jimmy Glazzard (Huddersfield Town)

29

1954–55

Chelsea

Wolverhampton Wanderers

Portsmouth

 Ronnie Allen (West Bromwich Albion)

27

1955–56

Manchester United (4)

Blackpool

Wolverhampton Wanderers

 Nat Lofthouse (Bolton Wanderers)

33

1956–57

Manchester United (5)

Tottenham Hotspur

Preston North End

 John Charles (Leeds United)

38

1957–58

Wolverhampton Wanderers (2)

Preston North End

Tottenham Hotspur

 Bobby Smith (Tottenham Hotspur)

36

1958–59

Wolverhampton Wanderers (3)

Manchester United

Arsenal

 Jimmy Greaves (Chelsea)

33

1959–60

Burnley (2)

Wolverhampton Wanderers

Tottenham Hotspur

 Dennis Viollet (Manchester United)

32

1960–61

Tottenham Hotspur (2)

Sheffield Wednesday

Wolverhampton Wanderers

 Jimmy Greaves (Chelsea)

41

1961–62

Ipswich Town

Burnley

Tottenham Hotspur

 Ray Crawford (Ipswich Town)   Derek Kevan (West Bromwich Albion)

33

1962–63

Everton (6)

Tottenham Hotspur

Burnley

 Jimmy Greaves (Tottenham Hotspur)

37

1963–64

Liverpool (6)

Manchester United

Everton

 Jimmy Greaves (Tottenham Hotspur)

35

1964–65

Manchester United (6)

Leeds United

Chelsea

 Andy McEvoy (Blackburn Rovers)   Jimmy Greaves (Tottenham Hotspur)

29

1965–66

Liverpool (7)

Leeds United

Burnley

 Willie Irvine (Burnley)

29

1966–67

Manchester United (7)

Nottingham Forest

Tottenham Hotspur

 Ron Davies (Southampton)

37

1967–68

Manchester City (2)

Manchester United

Liverpool

 George Best (Manchester United)   Ron Davies (Southampton)

28

1968–69

Leeds United

Liverpool

Everton

 Jimmy Greaves (Tottenham Hotspur)

27

1969–70

Everton (7)

Leeds United

Chelsea

 Jeff Astle (West Bromwich Albion)

25

1970–71

Arsenal (8)

Leeds United

Tottenham Hotspur

 Tony Brown (West Bromwich Albion)

28

1971–72

Derby County

Leeds United

Liverpool

 Francis Lee (Manchester City)

33

1972–73

Liverpool[2] (8)

Arsenal

Leeds United

 Pop Robson (West Ham United)

28

1973–74

Leeds United (2)

Liverpool

Derby County

 Mick Channon (Southampton)

21

1974–75

Derby County (2)

Liverpool

Ipswich Town

 Malcolm Macdonald (Newcastle United)

21

1975–76

Liverpool[2] (9)

Queens Park Rangers

Manchester United

 Ted MacDougall (Norwich City)

23

1976–77

Liverpool[3] (10)

Manchester City

Ipswich Town

 Malcolm Macdonald (Arsenal)   Andy Gray (Aston Villa)

25

1977–78

Nottingham Forest[4]

Liverpool

Everton

 Bob Latchford (Everton)

30

1978–79

Liverpool (11)

Nottingham Forest

West Bromwich Albion

 Frank Worthington (Bolton Wanderers)

24

1979–80

Liverpool (12)

Manchester United

Ipswich Town

 Phil Boyer (Southampton)

23

1980–81

Aston Villa (7)

Ipswich Town

Arsenal

 Peter Withe (Aston Villa)   Steve Archibald (Tottenham Hotspur)

20

1981–82[5]

Liverpool[4](13)

Ipswich Town

Manchester United

 Kevin Keegan (Southampton)

26

1982–83

Liverpool[4] (14)

Watford

Manchester United

 Luther Blissett (Watford)

27

1983–84

Liverpool[3][4] (15)

Southampton

Nottingham Forest

 Ian Rush (Liverpool)

32

1984–85

Everton[6] (8)

Liverpool

Tottenham Hotspur

 Kerry Dixon (Chelsea)   Gary Lineker (Leicester City)

24

1985–86

Liverpool (16)

Everton

West Ham United

 Gary Lineker (Everton)

30

1986–87

Everton (9)

Liverpool

Tottenham Hotspur

 Clive Allen (Tottenham Hotspur)

33

1987–88

Liverpool (17)

Manchester United

Nottingham Forest

 John Aldridge (Liverpool)

26

1988–89

Arsenal (9)

Liverpool

Nottingham Forest

 Alan Smith (Arsenal)

23

1989–90

Liverpool (18)

Aston Villa

Tottenham Hotspur

 Gary Lineker (Tottenham Hotspur)

24

1990–91

Arsenal (10)

Liverpool

Crystal Palace

 Alan Smith (Arsenal)

22

1991–92

Leeds United (3)

Manchester United

Sheffield Wednesday

 Ian Wright (Crystal Palace/Arsenal)

29

text: Premier League (1992–present)[edit]

text:
Year

Champions (number of titles)

Points

Runners-up

Points

Third place

Points

Top goalscorer

Goals

1992–93

Manchester United (8)

84

Aston Villa

74

Norwich City

72

 Teddy Sheringham (Nottingham Forest/Tottenham)

22

1993–94

Manchester United (9)

92

Blackburn Rovers

84

Newcastle United

77

 Andrew Cole (Newcastle United)

34

1994–95

Blackburn Rovers (3)

89

Manchester United

88

Nottingham Forest

77

 Alan Shearer (Blackburn Rovers)

34

1995–96

Manchester United (10)

82

Newcastle United

78

Liverpool

71

 Alan Shearer (Blackburn Rovers)

31

1996–97

Manchester United (11)

75

Newcastle United

68

Arsenal

68

 Alan Shearer (Newcastle United)

25

1997–98

Arsenal (11)

78

Manchester United

77

Liverpool

65

 Chris Sutton (Blackburn Rovers) Dion Dublin (Coventry City) Michael Owen (Liverpool)

18

1998–99

Manchester United[7] (12)

79

Arsenal

78

Chelsea

75

 Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink (Leeds United) Michael Owen (Liverpool) Dwight Yorke (Manchester United)

18

1999–2000

Manchester United (13)

91

Arsenal

73

Leeds United

69

 Kevin Phillips (Sunderland)

30

2000–01

Manchester United (14)

80

Arsenal

70

Liverpool

69

 Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink (Chelsea)

23

2001–02

Arsenal (12)

87

Liverpool

80

Manchester United

77

 Thierry Henry (Arsenal)

24

2002–03

Manchester United (15)

83

Arsenal

78

Newcastle United

69

 Ruud van Nistelrooy (Manchester United)

25

2003–04

Arsenal[1] (13)

90

Chelsea

79

Manchester United

75

 Thierry Henry (Arsenal)

30

2004–05

Chelsea[4] (2)

95

Arsenal

83

Manchester United

77

 Thierry Henry (Arsenal)

25

2005–06

Chelsea (3)

91

Manchester United

83

Liverpool

82

 Thierry Henry (Arsenal)

27

2006–07

Manchester United (16)

89

Chelsea

83

Liverpool

68

 Didier Drogba (Chelsea)

20

2007–08

Manchester United[3] (17)

87

Chelsea

85

Arsenal

83

 Cristiano Ronaldo (Manchester United)

31

2008–09

Manchester United[4] (18)

90

Liverpool

86

Chelsea

83

 Nicolas Anelka (Chelsea)

19

2009–10

Chelsea (4)

86

Manchester United

85

Arsenal

75

 Didier Drogba (Chelsea)

29

2010–11

Manchester United (19)

80

Chelsea

71

Manchester City

71

 Dimitar Berbatov (Manchester United) Carlos Tevez (Manchester City)

20

2011–12

Manchester City (3)

89

Manchester United

89

Arsenal

70

 Robin van Persie (Arsenal)

30

2012–13

Manchester United (20)

89

Manchester City

78

Chelsea

75

 Robin van Persie (Manchester United)

26

2013–14

Manchester City[4] (4)

86

Liverpool

84

Chelsea

82

 Luis Suárez (Liverpool)

31

2014–15

Chelsea[4] (5)

87

Manchester City

79

Arsenal

75

 Sergio Agüero (Manchester City)

26

2015–16

Leicester City

81

Arsenal

71

Tottenham Hotspur

70

 Harry Kane (Tottenham Hotspur)

25

2016–17

Chelsea (6)

93

Tottenham Hotspur

86

Manchester City

78

 Harry Kane (Tottenham Hotspur)

29

2017–18

Manchester City[4] (5)

100

Manchester United

81

Tottenham Hotspur

77

 Mohamed Salah (Liverpool)

32

text: Total titles won[edit]

text: Teams in bold compete in the Premier League as of the 2018–19 season.

tag: p

text:
Club

Winners

Runners-up

Winning seasons

Manchester United

20

16

1907–08, 1910–11, 1951–52, 1955–56, 1956–57, 1964–65, 1966–67, 1992–93, 1993–94, 1995–96, 1996–97, 1998–99, 1999–2000, 2000–01, 2002–03, 2006–07, 2007–08, 2008–09, 2010–11, 2012–13

Liverpool

18

13

1900–01, 1905–06, 1921–22, 1922–23, 1946–47, 1963–64, 1965–66, 1972–73, 1975–76, 1976–77, 1978–79, 1979–80, 1981–82, 1982–83, 1983–84, 1985–86, 1987–88, 1989–90

Arsenal

13

9

1930–31, 1932–33, 1933–34, 1934–35, 1937–38, 1947–48, 1952–53, 1970–71, 1988–89, 1990–91, 1997–98, 2001–02, 2003–04

Everton

9

7

1890–91, 1914–15, 1927–28, 1931–32, 1938–39, 1962–63, 1969–70, 1984–85, 1986–87

Aston Villa

7

10

1893–94, 1895–96, 1896–97, 1898–99, 1899–1900, 1909–10, 1980–81

Sunderland

6

5

1891–92, 1892–93, 1894–95, 1901–02, 1912–13, 1935–36

Chelsea

6

4

1954–55, 2004–05, 2005–06, 2009–10, 2014–15, 2016–17

Manchester City

5

5

1936–37, 1967–68, 2011–12, 2013–14, 2017–18

Newcastle United

4

2

1904–05, 1906–07, 1908–09, 1926–27

Sheffield Wednesday

4

1

1902–03, 1903–04, 1928–29, 1929–30

Leeds United

3

5

1968–69, 1973–74, 1991–92

Wolverhampton Wanderers

3

5

1953–54, 1957–58, 1958–59

Huddersfield Town

3

3

1923–24, 1924–25, 1925–26

Blackburn Rovers

3

1

1911–12, 1913–14, 1994–95

Preston North End

2

6

1888–89, 1889–90

Tottenham Hotspur

2

5

1950–51, 1960–61

Derby County

2

3

1971–72, 1974–75

Burnley

2

2

1920–21, 1959–60

Portsmouth

2

0

1948–49, 1949–50

Ipswich Town

1

2

1961–62

Nottingham Forest

1

2

1977–78

Sheffield United

1

2

1897–98

West Bromwich Albion

1

2

1919–20

Leicester City

1

1

2015–16

Bristol City

0

1

Oldham Athletic

0

1

Cardiff City

0

1

Charlton Athletic

0

1

Blackpool

0

1

Queen's Park Rangers

0

1

Watford

0

1

Southampton

0

1

text: Total titles won by region[edit]

text:
Region

Number of titles

Clubs

North West

59

Manchester United (20), Liverpool (18), Everton (9),   Manchester City (5) Blackburn Rovers (3), Burnley (2), Preston North End (2)

London

21

Arsenal (13), Chelsea (6), Tottenham Hotspur (2)

Yorkshire

11

Sheffield Wednesday (4), Huddersfield Town (3), Leeds United (3), Sheffield United (1)

West Midlands

 11

Aston Villa (7), Wolverhampton Wanderers (3), West Bromwich Albion (1)

North East

 10

Sunderland (6), Newcastle United (4)

East Midlands

4

Derby County (2), Leicester City (1), Nottingham Forest (1)

South East

 2

Portsmouth (2)

East of England

 1

Ipswich Town (1)

text: By City / Town[edit]

text:
City / Town

Championships

Clubs

Liverpool

27

Liverpool (18), Everton (9)

Manchester

25

Manchester United (20), Manchester City (5)

London

21

Arsenal (13), Chelsea (6), Tottenham Hotspur (2)

Birmingham

7

Aston Villa (7)

Sunderland

6

Sunderland (6)

Sheffield

5

Sheffield Wednesday (4), Sheffield United (1)

Newcastle

4

Newcastle United (4)

Blackburn

3

Blackburn Rovers (3)

Huddersfield

3

Huddersfield Town (3)

Leeds

3

Leeds United (3)

Wolverhampton

3

Wolverhampton Wanderers (3)

Burnley

2

Burnley (2)

Derby

2

Derby County (2)

Portsmouth

2

Portsmouth (2)

Preston

2

Preston North End (2)

Ipswich

1

Ipswich Town (1)

Leicester

1

Leicester City (1)

Nottingham

1

Nottingham Forest (1)

West Bromwich

1

West Bromwich Albion (1)

text: Multiple trophy wins[edit]

text: See The Double and The Treble.


document_title: Parking space

question_text: average size of a car parking space australia

text: Parking space

text: Patterns[edit]

text: For most motorised vehicles, there are three commonly used arrangements of parking spaces — parallel parking, perpendicular parking, and angle parking. These are self-park configurations where the vehicle driver is able to access the parking independently.

text: Parallel parking[edit]

text: With parallel parking of cars, these are arranged in a line, with the front bumper of one car facing the back bumper of an adjacent one. This is done parallel to a curb, when one is provided. Parallel parking is the most common mode of streetside parking for cars. It may also be used in parking lots and parking structures, but usually only to supplement parking spaces that use the other modes.

text: Perpendicular parking[edit]

text: With perpendicular parking, also known as bay parking, cars are parked side to side, perpendicular to an aisle, curb, or wall. This type of car parking fits more cars per length of road (or curb) than parallel parking, and is therefore commonly used in car parking lots and car parking structures.

text: Often, in car parking lots using perpendicular parking, two rows of parking spaces may be arranged front to front, with aisles in between. If no other cars are blocking, a driver may perform a "pullthrough" by driving through one parking space into the connecting space to avoid having to reverse out of a parking space upon their return.

text: Sometimes, a single row of perpendicular car parking spaces is marked in the center of a street. This arrangement eliminates reversing from the manoeuvre; cars are required to drive in forwards and drive out forwards.

text: Angle parking/echelon parking[edit]

text: Angle parking, known as echelon parking in Britain, is similar to perpendicular parking for these vehicles, except that cars are arranged at an angle to the aisle (an acute angle with the direction of approach). The gentler turn allows easier and quicker parking, narrower aisles, and thus higher density than perpendicular parking. While in theory the aisles are one-way, in practice they are typically wide enough to allow two cars to pass slowly when drivers go down the aisles the wrong way.

text: Angle parking is very common in car parking lots. It may also be used in streetside car parking in the U.S. when there is more width available for car parking than would be needed for parallel parking of cars, as it creates a larger number of parking spaces. Some cities have utilized angled parking on-street (as compared to off-street parking facilities). This has been done mostly in residential, retail and mixed use areas where additional parking compared to parallel parking is desired and traffic volumes are lower. Most angled parking is design in a head-in configuration while a few cities (Seattle, Portland, Baltimore, and Indianapolis are examples) have some back-in angled parking (typically on hills or low traffic volume streets).

text: Angle parking is considered dangerous by cycling organisations, especially in the head-in configuration, but unwelcome in either form. When comparing to parallel parking:

text:
There is a significant risk to cyclists from vehicles reversing out, as approaching bicycles are in the blind spot of the reversing and turning vehicles.[2]
Longer vehicles project further into the road; this can inconvenience/endanger other road users,
The "surplus" road space which enables angle parking could also be used for bicycle lanes.

tag: ol

text: Hence organisations such as the Cyclists Touring Club are usually opposed to all proposed echelon parking schemes, though there are some alternatives, such as back-in angle parking (slanted the "wrong" way, with the driver reversing into the space, rather than reversing out), which can overcome many of the issues of safety.

text: Other parking methods[edit]

text: Besides these basic modes of motor vehicle parking, there are instances where a more ad hoc approach to arranging motor vehicles is appropriate. For example, in parts of some large cities, such as Chicago, where land is expensive and therefore parking space is at a premium, there are parking lots for motor vehicles where the driver leaves the keys to the vehicle with an attendant who arranges vehicles so as to maximize the number of vehicles that can be parked in the lot. Vehicles may be packed up to five vehicles deep in combinations of perpendicular and/or parallel parking with limited circulation aisles for the parking attendant. Such arrangements are known as attendant parking. When the lot or facility is provided to serve the customers of a business, it is considered valet parking.

text: Inner city parking lots are often temporary, the operators renting land which is vacant pending the construction of a new office building. Some inner city lots are equipped with individual lifts, allowing cars to be stored above each other.

text: Another ad hoc arrangement is tandem parking. This is sometimes done with residential motor vehicle parking where two motor vehicles park nose-to-end in tandem. The first motor vehicle does not have independent access, and the second motor vehicle must move to provide access. As with attendant parking, the purpose is to maximize the number of motor vehicles that can park in a limited space.

text: Marks and space size[edit]

text: In parking lots, parking is allowed only where marked.[3]

text: In North America, the width of parking spaces usually ranges from 7.0 to 9.0 feet (2.1–2.7 m). Angled and perpendicular spaces may need to be wide to allow doors to open, while parallel parking spots may be as narrow as 6.0 feet (1.8 m) on narrow, low-traffic neighborhood streets.

text: Because the boundary between parking space and driving area is not always well-defined, the length of a parking space is more difficult to establish. However, most angled and perpendicular spaces are considered to be between 10 and 18 feet (3.0–5.5 m) in length. In the United States, due to vehicles being larger on average than some other countries, a parking space 10 feet (3.0 m) deep is uncommon and most parking spaces will be within 16 to 20 feet (4.9–6.1 m), with 19 feet (5.8 m) feet deep being the standard DOT recommended depth for standard perpendicular parking. Parallel parking spaces typically range from 20 to 24 feet (6.1–7.3 m) long.

text: During construction, the specific dimensions of a parking space are decided by a variety of factors. A high cost of land will encourage smaller dimensions and the introduction of compact spaces.[4] Many garages and parking lots have spaces designated for a Compact car only. These spaces are narrower than traditional spaces, thus allowing more cars to park.[5]

text: According to French standard “Norme NF P 91-100”, minimum width of parking spaces range from 2.20 to 2.30 metres (7.2–7.5 ft) (See fr:Marquage du stationnement en France). Narrow parking spaces such as in Vevey, Switzerland might make opening the door difficult in a larger vehicle.

text: Larger cars are an issue when the size of the parking spot is fixed. Automobile associations warn of this issue.[6] A Swiss Association regulating parking space wants to consider this issue for 2016.

text: In the United Kingdom the recommended standard Parking bay size is 2.4 metres (7.9 ft) wide by 4.8 metres (16 ft) long. Recently there has been some controversy about most UK parking spaces being too small to fit modern cars, which have grown significantly since standards were set decades ago.[7]

text: In Australia the dimensions are defined in AS2890 and are 2.4m wide by 5.4m long[8]

text: Barriers[edit]

text: Parking spaces commonly contain a parking chock (wheel stop), which is used to prevent cars from pulling too far into the space and

text:
obstructing a neighboring parking space, curb, or sidewalk.
contacting with and then damaging a building wall.

text: This barrier is usually made of concrete and will normally be a horizontal bar to stop the tires from moving forward or a vertical bar that may cause damage to the vehicle if contact is made. In a parking garage, the barrier will often be a concrete wall.

text: Parking spaces for the disabled[edit]

text: Some parking spaces are reserved as handicapped parking, for individuals with disabilities. Handicapped parking spaces are typically marked with the International Symbol of Access, though in practice, the design of the symbol varies widely.[9]

text: In the United States the Access Board provides guidelines on parking spaces.[10][11]

text: Women's parking spaces[edit]

text: In some countries, women's parking spaces have been established in more visible spots to reduce the chance of sexual attacks,[12] facilitate parking for women, or to provide spaces that are closer to shopping centers or employment.[13][14]

text: US curb markings[edit]

text: Curb markings in the United States are prescribed by the Manual of Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD).[15] Local highway agencies may prescribe special colors for curb markings to supplement standard signs for parking regulation. California has designated an array of colors for curb regulations. A white curb designates passenger pick up or drop off. The green curb is for time limited parking. The yellow curb is for loading, and the blue curb is for disabled persons with proper vehicle identification. The red curb is for emergency vehicles only - fire lanes (no stopping, standing, or parking). In Oregon and Florida, the yellow curb is utilized to indicate no parking. In Georgia either red or yellow can be used to indicate no parking. In Seattle, Washington, alternating red and yellow curb markings indicate a bus stop.


document_title: Child safety seat

question_text: when did baby car seats become law uk

question_tokens: when did baby car seats become law uk

text: Child safety seat

text: History[edit]

text: Since the first car was manufactured and put on the market in the early 1900s, many modifications and adjustments have been implemented to protect those that drive and ride in motorized vehicles. Most restraints were put into place to protect adults without regard for young children. Though child seats were beginning to be manufactured in the early 1930s, their purpose was not the safety of children. The purpose was to act as booster seats to bring the child to a height easier for the driving parent to see them. It was not until 1962 that two designs with the purpose of protecting a child were developed independently.[5] British inventor Jean Ames created a rear-facing child seat with a Y-shaped strap similar to today's models.[6] American Leonard Rivkin, of Denver Colorado, designed a forward-facing seat with a metal frame to protect the child.[7] It is noted that seat belts for adults were not standard equipment in automobiles until the 1960s.

text: Classifications[edit]

text: There are several types of car seats, which vary in the position of the child and size of the seat. The United Nations European Regional standard ECE R44/04[8] categorizes these into 4 groups: 0-3. Many car seats combine the larger groups 1, 2 and 3. Some new car models includes stock restraint seats by default.

text: Group 0[edit]

text: Group 0 baby seats, or infant carriers, keep the baby locked up in a rear-facing position and are secured in place by a standard adult seat belt and/or an ISOFIX fitting.

text: Group 0 carrycots hold the baby lying on its back.

text: Carrycots are secured by both seat belts in the rear seat of the car. Both types have handles to allow them to be easily moved into and out of the car.

text:
Position: Laying (in carrycots), rear-facing (in infant carriers), no airbags (with the exception of curtain airbags).
Recommended weight: Birth to 10 kg (22 lb)
Approximate age: Birth to 15 month

text:
Car Seat - Middle Back Seat

Car Seat - Not in Front Seat

text: Fastened carrycots[edit]

text: Carrycots or infant car beds are used for children that cannot sit in a regular baby seat, such as premature infants or infants that suffer from apnea. A carrycot is a restraint system intended to accommodate and restrain the child in a supine or prone position with the child's spine perpendicular to the median longitudinal plane of the vehicle. Carrycots are designed to distribute the restraining forces over the child's head and body, excluding its limbs, in the event of a big crash. It must be put on the rear seat of the car. Some models can be changed to face forward after the baby has reached the weight limit which is normally about 15-20 kilograms.

text: Carrycots generally include a stomach belt and a connection to the (three points) safety belt.

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (May 2008)

text: Infant carriers[edit]

text: 'Infant carrier' means a restraint system intended to accommodate the child in a rearward-facing semi-recumbent position. This design distributes the restraining forces over the child's head and body, excluding its limbs, in the event of the frontal collision.

text: For young infants, the seat used is an infant carrier with typical weight recommendations of 5-20 lb. Most infant seats made in the US can now be used up to at least 22 pounds (10.0 kg) and 29 inches (74 cm), with some going up to 35 pounds (16 kg). In the past, most infant seats in the US went to 20 pounds (9.1 kg) and 26 inches (66 cm). Infant carriers are often also called "Bucket Seats" as they resemble a bucket with a handle. Some (but not all) seats can be used with the base secured, or with the carrier strapped in alone. Some seats do not have bases. Infant carriers are mounted rear-facing and are designed to "cocoon" against the back of the vehicle seat in the event of a collision, with the impact being absorbed in the outer shell of the restraint. Rear-facing seats are deemed the safest, and in the US children must remain in this position until they are at least 1 year of age and at least 20 pounds (9.1 kg). although it is recommended to keep them rear-facing until at least 2 years old or until they outgrow the rear-facing car seat height and weight, whichever is longer.

text: Group 0+[edit]

text: Group 0+ car seats commonly have a chassis permanently fixed into the car by an adult seat belt and can be placed into some form of baby transport using the integral handle if it is the specific model. Rear-facing child seats are inherently safer than forward-facing child seats because they provide more support for the child's head in the event of a sudden deceleration. Although some parents are eager to switch to a forward-facing child seat because it seems more "grown up," various countries and car seat manufacturers recommend that children continue to use a rear-facing child seat for as long as physically possible[9]

text:
Position: Sitting, rear-facing, no airbag(with the exception of curtain airbags).
Recommended weight: Birth (2–3 kg) to 13 kg (29 lb).
Approximate age: Birth to 15 months

text: Convertible seats[edit]

text: Convertible seats can be used throughout many stages. Many convertible seats will transition from a rear-facing seat, to a forward-facing seat, and some then can be used as a booster seat. Many convertible seats allow for 2.3–18 kg (5-40 lb.) rear-facing, allowing children to be in the safer rear-facing position up to a weight of 18 kg (40 lbs).

text: Convertible safety seats can be installed as either rear-facing or forward-facing. There is a large selection available to choose from and weight limits, height limits, and extra features vary from seat to seat and by manufacturer. Seats with a 5-point harness are considered safer than those with an overhead shield[10]

text: Convertibles aren't considered the best choice for a newborn because the bottom harness slots are often above the shoulders of most newborns. A seat with low bottom harness slots can be used if it is desired to use a convertible from birth.

text: Rear-facing weight limits range from 20 to 50 lb (9.1 to 22.7 kg) depending on the manufacturer and country of origin. Forward-facing limits range from 20 to 90 lb (9.1 to 40.8 kg) depending on the seat model and the manufacturer and country of origin.

text: Most convertible seats in the U.S. have at least a 35 pounds (16 kg) rear-facing weight limit, most now to go to 40 pounds (18 kg), some 45 pounds (20 kg) and a few 50 pounds (23 kg). The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommends that children remain rear-facing until they outgrow their convertible seat, regardless of how old they are. Children can remain in a rear-facing seat until they have either outgrown the weight limit for their seat, or the top of their head is within 1 inch (25 mm) of the top of the shell of the car seat.[11]

text: Group 1[edit]

text: A permanent fixture in the car using an adult seat belt to hold it in place and a five-point baby harness to hold the infant.

text:
Position: Sitting, recommended rear-facing but forward-facing is legal, no airbag (with the exception of curtain airbags).
Recommended weight: 9 to 18 kg (20 to 40 lb)
Approximate age: 9 months to 4 years (Although older children can fit too sometimes)

text: It is recommended that children sit rear-facing for as long as possible. In Scandinavian countries, for example, children sit rear-facing until around 4 years old. Rear-facing car seats are significantly safer in frontal collisions, which are the most likely to cause severe injury and death.[12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22] Rear-facing group 1 car seats are becoming more widespread but are still difficult to source in many countries.

text: Group 2[edit]

text: A larger seat than the Group 1 design. These seats use an adult seat belt to hold the child in place.

text:
Position: Sitting, forward-facing or rear-facing (make sure the seat is certified for up to 25 kg)
Recommended weight: 15 kg to 25 kg (33 lb to 55 lb)
Approximate age: 4 to 6 years (Although older children can sometimes fit)

text: Group 3[edit]

text: Also known as booster seats, these position the child so that the adult seat belt is held in the correct position for safety and comfort.

text:
Position: Sitting, forward-facing
Recommended weight: 22 kg to 36 kg (48 lb to 76 lb)
Approximate age: 4 to 10, and above if the child is not 36 kg yet

text: Booster seats[edit]

text: Booster seats are recommended for children until they are big enough to properly use a seat belt. Seat belts are engineered for adults, and are thus too big for small children. In the United States, for children under the age of 4 and/or under 40 pounds (18 kg), a seat with a 5-point harness is suggested instead of a booster seat.[23]

text: Booster seats lift the child and allow the seat belt to sit firmly across the collar bone and chest, with the lap portion fitted to the hips. If the seat belt is not across the collar bone and the hips, it will ride across the neck and the stomach and cause internal injuries in the event of a collision.

text: There are two main types of boosters: high back (some of which have energy absorbing foam) and no back. A new generation of booster seats comes with rigid Isofix (Latch) connectors that secure to the vehicle's anchors, improving the seat's stability in the event of a collision.

text: The consumer group Which? is calling on manufacturers and retailers to phase out backless boosters, as it says they don't provide enough protection in side-impact crashes and could put children at risk.[24] So while backless booster cushions are better than using no child seat at all, they do not provide adequate protection in all circumstances.

text: Front-facing restraints[edit]

text: Used for Groups I, II and III.

text: After reaching one year of age and 20 pounds (9.1 kg), children may travel in forward-facing seats. Most Scandinavian countries require children to sit rear-facing until at least the age of 4 years. This has contributed to Sweden having the lowest rate of children killed in traffic in international comparisons.[25]

text: By law (in Canada and some US states), children need to be restrained until they are 4-years old and 40 pounds (18 kg). After the requirement is met, they can move into a booster seat.

text: Safety information[edit]

text: All child restraints have an expiration date. Seats can expire 6 years from the date of manufacture, although this can vary by manufacturer. Expiration dates are highly debated, with proponents and manufacturers claiming that older car seats can degrade over time to be less effective and that changing laws and regulations necessitate an expiration date. Opponents argue that it is simply for their legal protection and to sell more car seats, and point out that manufacturers have noted that the plastics in most car seats long outlast the expiration date. As ageing is due to temperature swings and UV-light, a seat ages faster in a car than in a cool, dark cellar.

text: Like motorcycle and race car helmets, child restraints are tested for use in just one crash event. This means that if the restraint is compromised in any way (with or without the child in it), owners are strongly suggested to replace it. This is due to the uncertainty with how a compromised child restraint will perform in subsequent crashes.[citation needed]

text: The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) provides guidance on the reuse of child restraint systems after a crash. Replacement of child restraints is recommended following a moderate or severe crash in order to ensure a continued high level of protection for child passengers. However, recent studies demonstrate that child restraints can withstand minor crash impacts without any documented degradation in subsequent performance.[26]

text: A minor crash is defined by the NHTSA as one in which all of the following apply:

text:
A visual inspection of the child safety seat, including inspection under any easily movable seat padding, does not reveal any cracks or deformation that might have been caused by the crash
The vehicle in which the child safety seat was installed was capable of being driven from the scene of the crash
The vehicle door nearest the child safety seat was undamaged
There were no injuries to any of the vehicle occupants
The air bags (if any) did not deploy

text: Crashes that meet all of these criteria are much less severe than the dynamic testing requirement for compliance with Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard (FMVSS) 213 and are highly unlikely to affect future child safety seat performance.[26]

text: Child restraints are sometimes the subject of manufacturing recalls.[27] Recalls vary in severity; sometimes the manufacturer will send an additional part for the seat, other times they will provide an entirely new seat.

text: The purchase of a used seat is not recommended. Due to the aforementioned concerns regarding expiry dates, crash testing, and recalls, it is often impossible to determine the history of the child restraint when it is purchased second-hand.

text: Children traveling by plane are safer in a child safety seat than in a parent's arms. The FAA and the AAP recommend that all children under 40 lb use a child safety seat on a plane. Booster seats cannot be used on airplanes because they don't have shoulder belts.

text: Parents should not put children into safety seats with thick winter coats on. The coat will flatten in an accident and the straps will not be snug enough to keep the child safe.[28] An alternative would be placing a coat on the child backwards after buckling the child in.

text: Straps on the harness should be snug on the child, parents should not be able to pinch the straps away from the shoulders of the child. The straps also need to be placed at the proper height for the child.

text: Seat placement[edit]

text: A study of car crash data from 16 U.S. states found that children under the age of 3 were 43% less likely to be injured in a car crash if their car seat was fastened in the center of the back seat rather than on one side. Results were based on data from 4,790 car crashes involving children aged 3 and younger between 1998 and 2006. According to data, the center position was the safest but least used position. However, economist Steven Levitt (see below) has demonstrated that car seats do not reduce fatalities when compared to regular seat belts.[29]

text: The move from having car seats in the front passenger seat to having them in the back seat, facing backwards, may make it easier for a busy, distracted parent to leave an infant in the car.[30] Each year, between 30 and 50 infants die of heat illness and hypothermia in the United States after being left in a car.[30]

text: Law[edit]

text: Europe[edit]

text: Directive 2003/20/EC of the European Parliament and the Council[31] has mandated the use of child-restraint systems in vehicles effective May 5, 2006. Children less than 135 centimetres (53 in) tall in vehicles must be restrained by an approved child restraint system suitable for the child's size.[32] In practice, child restraint systems must be able to be fitted to the front, or other rows of seats. Children may not be transported using a rearward-facing child restraint system in a passenger seat protected by a front air bag, unless the air bag has been deactivated.[citation needed]

text: For a child restraint to be sold or used within any of the 56 UNECE member states it must be approved by the standards of UNECE Regulation 44/04, Directive 77/541/EEC or any other subsequent adaptation thereto. In order to be granted ECE R44 approval the child restraint must comply with several design, construction and production conformity standards.[33] If approval is granted the seat can display an orange label with the unique approval license number, the type of approval, the mass group approved for and the details of the manufacturer.

text: However, until May 9, 2008 member states may have permitted the use of child restraint systems approved in accordance with their national standards. EuroNCAP has developed a child-safety-protection rating to encourage improved designs. Points are awarded for universal child-restraint anchorages ISOFIX, the quality of warning labels and deactivation systems for front-passenger airbags.

text: 2013: New EU I-Size regulation is introduced: “i-Size” is the name of a new European safety regulation, UNECE Regulation 129 that affects car seats for children under 15 months of age. It came into effect in July 2013 and provides extra protection in several ways, most notably by providing rearward facing travel for children up to 15 months instead of 9 to 12 months, which the previous EU regulation advised. Read more about I-Size. This new regulation is to be phased in between 2013 and 2018 and will be run in parallel to UNECE R44/04 until 2018 when it completely supersedes it.

text: Australia[edit]

text: Australian laws regarding infants in motor vehicles were revised on November 9, 2009.[citation needed]

text: By law every child restraint sold in Australia must carry the Australian Standard AS/NZ1754 sticker (pictured right). Most overseas child restraints, including restraints from Europe and the USA, do not comply with these Standards and cannot legally be used in Australia. This also applies for ISOFIX child restraints imported from Europe or the USA.

text:
Children under seven must be restrained in a suitable, approved child restraint or booster seat.
Children under six months must be restrained in a rear-facing position.
Children between six months and under four years must be restrained in a rear- or forward-facing restraint.
Children between four and under seven must be restrained in a forward-facing restraint or booster seat.

text: In Australia there are six different types (Type A to Type F) of child restraints under the mandatory standard. Note: these restraints are NOT based on weight but on HEIGHT. All car seats with the AS/NZ1754 sticker will have height markers. These markers show clearly for what height the seat is appropriate.

text: The six types are:

text:
Type A: Rearward-facing or transversely installed restraint with a harness or other means of holding the child back
Type B: Forward-facing chair with a harness
Type C: Forward-facing harness without a chair
Type D: Rearward-facing chair with harness
Type E: a restraint that consists of either:

a booster seat or booster cushion used with a Type C child restraint and a seat belt, or with a lap-sash seat belt,
a converter seat suitable for children who weigh 18 to 32 kg.

Type F: A restraint that consists of either:

a booster seat used in conjunction with a Type C child restraint and a seatbelt, or with a lap-sash seatbelt, suitable for children approximately 4 to 10 years of age, or
a converter used in conjunction with a seatbelt, suitable for children approximately 8 to 10 years of age.

text: Combination Type A/B: Child restraints can also be a combination of the above types. For example, a Type A/B converter seat.

text: The responsibility for children under the age of 16 using restraints or safety belts correctly rests with the driver. In Queensland, penalties for drivers not ensuring that passengers under the age of 16 are properly restrained involve a fine of A$300 and three demerit points. In Victoria the penalty is a fine of A$234 and three demerit points.[citation needed] Possible suspension or cancellation of license may also apply.

text: Exemptions to the law[edit]

text:
Laws regarding taxis vary by state for infants. For children up to seven, a child restraint must be used if available, otherwise the child must use a properly fastened and adjusted seat belt.[citation needed]
A child traveling in a police or emergency vehicle.
If a child has a medical condition or physical disability that makes it impractical to use a child restraint and the driver has a certificate from a doctor indicating this is the case.[34]

text: Austria[edit]

text: All children who are smaller than 150 cm (4 ft 11 in) and younger than 14 years old must use a booster or car seat appropriate to their weight. A child must be either 14 years old or 4'11" to ride without a booster seat.

text: Brazil[edit]

text:
All children who are smaller than 145 cm (4 ft 9 in) and younger than 7 years old must use a booster or car seat appropriate to their weight. A child must use a car seat at ages 0-4; Ages 5-7 a booster is required.
Children under 10 years old are required to ride in the back seat.

text: Canada[edit]

text:
Child restraint requirements vary from province to province.
The strictest province law requires children who are younger than 10 years and smaller than 4 ft 9 in to use a booster seat.
For safety reasons, it is generally advised to use a booster seat until the child reaches a height of 4 ft 9 in.

text: Germany[edit]

text:
All children younger than 12 years and smaller than 150 cm (4 ft 11 in)[35] must use a booster seat or child-safety seat appropriate to their weight. The Department of Transport advises that children continue to use a seat when they are 12 years or older but smaller than 150 cm (4 ft 11 in).
It is highly recommended that children younger than 14 years sit in the back seat or use a booster seat in the front seat.

text: Israel[edit]

text: 1961 Israeli transportation law states that every passenger and driver in the vehicle must either have a seat belt or a safety seat. A child under the age of 3 must be set in an approved safety seat, and until the age of 8 the child needs to be in a booster or a safety seat. Up until one year a child must ride rear-facing. Children with the appropriate car seat are allowed to travel in the front seat if the airbag is disabled.[36] The Israeli transportation regulation states that a child under the weight of 36 kg, height of 140 cm, or age of 8 will use some kind of safety chair.[37]

text: The Israeli regulation states that a Sal Kal (he:סל קל lit. easy basket) is equal to European group 0 and group 0+ regulations[38]

text: An Urban legend[39] in Israel states that nursery homes and hospitals will not allow exit with an infant if a SalKal (infant carry one safety seat) is not presented.[40]

text: New Zealand[edit]

text: NZ Transport Agency governs the rules and sets standards for the health and safety aspects with respect to child restraints in New Zealand. Their guidelines dictate the minimum legal requirements for a New Zealand vehicle from the safety perspective. The correct fitting of a car seat can protect individuals and can be a lifesaver. This page provides details on qualified seat installation processes and approved standardized marks to look out for in child restraints. The Agency trains and certifies NZTA certified child restraint technicians who are authorized to install child safety seats.[41]

text: Rules and regulations for passengers of different ages[edit]

text:
Children aged under 7 years must use an approved child restraint unless they are travelling in a public bus, shuttle or taxi and an approved child restraint is not available.
Children aged 7 years must use an approved child restraint if one is available.
Children aged 8 years and over are not required to use a child restraint but must travel in the back seat if one is not available.[42]

text: Special rules apply to children travelling in vehicles first registered (in New Zealand or elsewhere) before 1 November 1979[43] since these vehicles are not required to be fitted with seat belts on all seats.

text: New Zealand Approved Marks for child restraints[edit]

text: All child restraints must meet the standards set by the NZ Transport Agency. There are different marks to indicate this approval from the safety perspective. Approved marks/symbols are shown in the table below:[44]

text:
Symbol Description
Standard followed

Tick Mark
Australia and New Zealand standard - AS/NZ 1754

'E' mark and a number
European Standard - ECE 44

'S' mark
United States Standard - FMVSS 213

text: The number after 'E' in the ECE 44 standard indicates as to which country certifies the child restraint. Hence the number differs between countries. The EU (European Union) also has similar symbols to indicate safety standards for children travelling in a vehicle.

text: Spain[edit]

text:
Front seats: children younger than 12 years or smaller than 4 feet 5 inches must use a child-safety seat. Persons bigger than 135 cm (4 ft 5 in) may use the adult safety belt.
Rear seats: persons smaller than 135 cm must use a child-safety seat. Also true for kids younger than 12 years.

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: From September 18, 2006, All children under the age of 12 have to use some form of child car seat, unless they are taller than 135 cm (4 ft 5in).[45]

text: United States[edit]

text:
Child restraint requirements differ for the various states in the United States.
In Florida and South Dakota, children who are four years or older can use an adult seat belt without a child safety seat. In the rest of the country, a booster seat or otherwise appropriate child restraint is required until the child is between five and nine years old, depending on the state.
Most states include in their law a requirement that all infants ride rear-facing until they are BOTH one year of age AND at least 20 pounds.[46] Though it is not included in every state's law, no child safety restraint marketed to the US will accommodate an infant less than 20 pounds, some no less than 22 pounds, in a forward-facing position. As of 2011, most children ride rear-facing until they are at least 2 years of age.
The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) advises the use of a child restraint or a booster seat for all children who are shorter than 4 ft 9 in, regardless of age and weight, or even longer if the belts hit the child at the wrong place. Some booster seats can be used for children up to 60 inches and 120 pounds.
Many state laws prefer that children 12 years and younger sit in the back seat if available. Some states, as is the case in Michigan, forbid placing a child under the age of 4 years in a front seat if a rear seat is available.
Some states require that all child safety seats be used in full accordance with the manufacturer's instructions in what is sometimes referred to as a "proper use clause".

text: Manufacturing[edit]

text: Though there are hundreds of variations of makes and models in the world of child safety seats, the materials used in the manufacturing process are basically the same. Factories in which the seats are put together receive loads of polypropylene pellets.[47] Foam makes up the padding of the individual seats, while vinyl and fabrics are used to make up the covers for the seats as well as the harnesses.

text: A safety seat increases the safety of a properly restrained child in the case of a motor vehicle accident. The safety seat includes foam padding, fabric covers, a harness, and buckles or attaching mechanisms. Labels and instructions are also attached. Every child safety seat will have an expiration date on it. The Safe Kids USA organization does not recommend using a child safety seat that is more than 6 years old[citation needed]. Periodically, child safety seats are recalled by manufacturers for safety reasons. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration posts a link to recent recall information at nhtsa.gov.

text: Types[edit]

text: There are different types of child safety seats for children of different sizes and ages.

text:
Infant seats - Child safety seats made specifically for infants are the smallest and have carrying handles for easy carrying and loading. Newborns are most often placed in a rear-facing seat. These seats are designed for infants is up to 22 pounds (10.0 kg) to 32 pounds (15 kg), depending on the model.
Convertible seats - Similar to the infant seat, the convertible seat can be used in a rear- or forward-facing position and is used for children typically beginning at 5 pounds (2.3 kg) up to 50 pounds (23 kg). The rear-facing position is used for children until they weigh more than 20 pounds (9.1 kg) and are at least two years old. Research studies and crash test results show that children are safer in a rear-facing child safety seat. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends keeping children in a rear-facing seat until “they are 2 years of age or until they reach the highest weight or height allowed by their car safety seat’s manufacturer” (www.healthychildren.org).

text:
Combination seats - The combination seat or five-point booster is a forward-facing seat that has a five-point harness system. It can be modified to a belt-positioning booster by removing some webbing[48]
Booster seats - The earlier described combination seat can become a high-back belt-positioning booster. There is also a high-back belt positioning-booster that is available for that purpose only. The other type of belt-positioning booster is the low-back or no-back booster. The major differences between the low- and high-back booster seats are head support and improved protection in side-impact collisions. Vehicles with a bench seating and no headrest are required to use a high back booster. The purpose of the booster seats is to provide elevation to the child so the shoulder belt rests appropriately on the shoulder blade and does not ride up the child’s neck. It also provides “hips” that the seat belt can rest securely across and remain on the large bones of the child instead of resting across the soft tissue of the abdomen. This seat is available for children over 40 pounds (18 kg) up to over 100 pounds (45 kg).[49] From the ages of eight to twelve, children may have outgrown their booster seats and can be permitted to use regular adult seat restraints. It is suggested that, until the age of thirteen, the child remains in the back seat.

text: Hazards[edit]

text: Manufacturers have quality controls to ensure seats are properly put together and packaged. However, it is not guaranteed that the included instructions are always adhered to and correctly followed. Up to 95% of the safety seats that are installed may not be the right seat for the child, may be hooked into the vehicle loosely, may be hooked with an incompatible belt in the vehicle, may have harnesses incorrectly fastened in some way, or may be incorrectly placed in front of air bags. In 1997, six out of ten children who were killed in vehicle crashes were not correctly restrained.[47]

text: Along with the problem of instructions not being followed properly, there are other hazards that can affect children involving these safety seats. A recent study[clarification needed] attributed many cases of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) to the prolonged sitting or lying position these infants are in when putting the safety seats to use. When researchers reviewed more than 500 infant deaths, it was found that 17 of these deaths occurred while the infant was in a device such as a child safety seat. The age of the most occurring rates of death by SIDS in a child safety device was found to be under one month, having six of the 17 deaths happen in this age group. Although SIDS has been found to be a high risk regarding child safety seats, a coroner in Quebec also stated that “putting infants in car seats…causes breathing problems and should be discouraged."[50] His warning came after the death of a two-month-old boy who was left to nap in a child safety seat positioned inside his crib rather than the crib itself. The death was linked to positional asphyxiation.[50] This means that the child was in a position causing him to slowly lose his supply of oxygen. Coroner Jacques Robinson said it's common for a baby's head to slump forward while in a car seat that is not properly installed in a car and that can diminish a baby's ability to take in oxygen. "The car seat is for the car," he said. "It's not for a bed or sleeping." Robinson added, however, he has nothing against car seats when they are properly used. The coroner said that it is common for a baby’s head to “slump forward while in a car seat and that it diminishes oxygen”.[50]

text: The American Academy of Pediatrics says to “make sure the seat is at the correct angle so your infant’s head does not flop forward. Many seats have angle indicators or adjusters that can help prevent this. If your seat does not have an angle adjuster, tilt the car safety seat back by putting a rolled towel or other firm padding (such as a pool noodle) under the base near the point where the back and bottom of the vehicle seat meet.” Safety seats come with an instruction booklet with additional information on the appropriate angle for the seat.

text: Criticism[edit]

text: There has been some criticism of forward-facing child safety seats, in particular by the economist Steven D. Levitt, author of the popular book Freakonomics. In a 2005 article in the New York Times, Levitt suggests that the available data does not support the necessity of forward-facing child safety seats for children over two years old, arguing that the cheaper and simpler alternative of seat belts offers similar protection as forward-facing seats.[51] Levitt was a guest at the TED conference in the same year, and gave a lecture making the same case.[29] Levitt's study and findings have been criticized and refuted by subsequent peer reviewed studies, which found child safety seats offer a considerable safety advantage over seat belts alone.[52]