document_title: Premier League records and statistics

question_text: which team scored most goals in a premier league season

text: Premier League records and statistics

text: League records[edit]

text: Titles[edit]

text:
Most titles: 13, Manchester United[1]
Most consecutive title wins: 3
Manchester United (1998–99, 1999–2000, 2000–01)[1]
Manchester United (2006–07, 2007–08, 2008–09)[1]
Biggest title-winning margin: 19 points, 2017–18; Manchester City (100 points) over Manchester United (81 points)[2]
Smallest title-winning margin: 0 points and 8 goal difference – 2011–12; Manchester City (+64) over Manchester United (+56). Both finished on 89 points, but Manchester City won the title with a superior goal difference – the only time that goal difference has determined the Premier League.[3]

text: Points[edit]

text:
Most points in a season: 100, Manchester City (2017–18)[2]
Fewest points in a season: 11, Derby County (2007–08)[4]
Most home points in a season: 55, joint record:[5]
Chelsea (2005–06)
Manchester United (2010–11)
Manchester City (2011–12)[6]
Fewest home points in a season: 7, Sunderland (2005–06)[7]
Most away points in a season: 50, Manchester City (2017–18)[2]
Fewest away points in a season: 3, Derby County (2007–08)[7]
Most points in a season without winning the league: 89, Manchester United (2011–12)[8]
Fewest points in a season while winning the league: 75, Manchester United (1996–97)[9]
Most points in a season while being relegated:
42 games: 49, Crystal Palace (1992–93)[10]
38 games: 42, West Ham United (2002–03)[10]
Fewest points in a season while surviving relegation: 34, West Bromwich Albion (2004–05)[11]

text: Wins[edit]

text:
Most wins in total: 629, Manchester United[12]
Most wins in a season (38 games): 32, Manchester City (2017–18)[2]
Fewest wins in a season (38 games): 1, Derby County (2007–08)[7]
Most home wins in a season (19 games): 18, joint record:[13]
Chelsea (2005–06)
Manchester United (2010–11)
Manchester City (2011–12)[6]
Fewest home wins in a season (19 games): 1, joint record:[7]
Sunderland (2005–06)
Derby County (2007–08)
Most away wins in a season (19 games): 16, Manchester City (2017–18)[2]
Fewest away wins in a season (19/21 games): 0, joint record:[7][14][15]
Leeds United (1992–93)
Coventry City (1999–2000)
Wolverhampton Wanderers (2003–04)
Norwich City (2004–05)
Derby County (2007–08)
Hull City (2009–10)
Most consecutive wins: 18, Manchester City (between 26 August 2017 and 27 December 2017)[16][2]
Most consecutive home wins: 20, Manchester City (between 5 March 2011 and 21 March 2012)[17]
Most consecutive away wins: 11, joint record:[18][16]
Chelsea (between 6 April 2008 and 7 December 2008)
Manchester City (between 21 May 2017 and 27 December 2017)
Most consecutive games without a win: 32, Derby County (2007–08)[7]
Most consecutive games without a win from beginning of season: 16, Queens Park Rangers (between 18 August 2012 and 8 December 2012)[19]

text: Defeats[edit]

text:
Most defeats in total: 351, Everton[20]
Longest unbeaten run: 49 games, Arsenal (7 May 2003 – 24 October 2004)[21]
Fewest defeats in a season (38 games): 0, Arsenal (2003–04)[22]
Fewest home defeats in a season (19 games): 0, joint record:
Manchester United (1995–96, 1999–2000, 2010–11)[23][24][25]
Arsenal (1998–99, 2003–04, 2007–08)[26][27][28]
Chelsea (2004–05, 2005–06, 2006–07, 2007–08, 2014–15)[28][29][30][31][32]
Liverpool (2008–09, 2017–18)[33]
Manchester City (2011–12)[6]
Tottenham Hotspur (2016–17)
Fewest away defeats in a season (19 games): 0, Arsenal (2001–02, 2003–04)[27][34]
Most consecutive home games undefeated: 86, Chelsea (20 March 2004 – 5 October 2008)[35]
Most consecutive away games undefeated: 27, Arsenal (5 April 2003 – 25 September 2004)[36]
Most defeats in a season (42 games or 38 games): 29, joint record:
Ipswich Town (1994–95)
Sunderland (2005–06)
Derby County (2007–08)[37]
Most home defeats in a season (19 games): 14, Sunderland (2002–03, 2005–06)[38]
Most away defeats in a season (19 games): 17, Burnley (2009–10)[39]
Most consecutive defeats over more than one season (38 games): 20, Sunderland (2002–03, 2005–06)[40]

text: Draws[edit]

text:
Most draws in total: 287, Everton[20]
Most draws in a season (42 games): 18 – joint record:
Manchester City (1993–94)[41]
Sheffield United (1993–94)[41]
Southampton (1994–95)[41]
Most draws in a season (38 games): 17 – joint record:
Newcastle United (2003–04)[41]
Aston Villa (2006–07, 2011–12)[41]
Sunderland (2014–15)[41]
Most home draws in a season: 10 – joint record:
Sheffield Wednesday (1996–97)[41]
Leicester City (1997–98, 2003–04)[41]
Manchester United (2016–17)[41]
Most away draws in a season: 10, Newcastle United (2003–04)[41]
Fewest draws in a season: 3, Chelsea (1997–98, 2016–17)[41]
Fewest home draws in a season: 0 – joint record:
Manchester City (2008–09)[41]
Manchester United (2012–13)[41]
Chelsea (2016–17)[41]
Fewest away draws in a season: 1 – joint record:
Bolton Wanderers (1995–96)[41]
Queens Park Rangers (1995–96, 2014–15)[41]
Barnsley (1997–98)[41]
Chelsea (1997–98)[41]
Bradford City (1999–2000)[41]
Everton (2000–01)[41]
Ipswich Town (2000–01)[41]
Portsmouth (2005–06, 2007–08)[41]
Burnley (2009–10)[41]
Liverpool (2011–12)[41]
Newcastle United (2013–14)[41]
Queens Park Rangers (2014–15)[41]
Most consecutive draws: 7 – joint record:
Norwich City (1993–94)[41]
Southampton (1994–95)[41]
Manchester City (2009–10)[41]

text: Goals[edit]

text:
Most goals scored in a season: 106, Manchester City (2017–18)[2]
Fewest goals scored in a season: 20, Derby County (2007–08)[42]
Most goals conceded in a season (42 games): 100, Swindon Town (1993–94)[43]
Most goals conceded in a season (38 games): 89, Derby County (2007–08)[44]
Fewest goals conceded in a season: 15, Chelsea (2004–05)[45]
Best goal difference in a season: 79, Manchester City (2017–18)[2]
Worst goal difference in a season: –69, Derby County (2007–08)[46]
Most goals scored in a season by a relegated team: 55, Blackpool (2010–11)[47]
Most goals scored at home in a season: 68, Chelsea (2009–10)[45]
Fewest goals scored at home in a season: 10, Manchester City (2006–07)[48]
Most goals conceded at home in a season (21 games): 45, Swindon Town (1993–94)[49]
Most goals conceded at home in a season (19 games): 43
Derby County (2007–08)[49]
Wolverhampton Wanderers (2011–12)[49]
Fewest goals conceded at home in a season (21 games or 19 games): 4, Manchester United (1994–95)[49]
Most goals scored away in a season: 48, Liverpool (2013–14)[49]
Fewest goals scored away in a season: 8
Middlesbrough (1995–96)[49]
Southampton (1998–99)[49]
Sheffield United (2006–07)[49]
Derby County (2007–08)[49]
Most goals conceded away in a season (21 games): 59, Ipswich Town (1994–95)[49]
Most goals conceded away in a season (19 games): 55, Wigan Athletic (2009–10)[49]
Fewest goals conceded away in a season: 9, Chelsea (2004–05)[49]
Fewest failures to score in a match in a season: 0 (scored in every game), Arsenal (2001–02)[50]
Most goals scored in total: 1,924, Manchester United[20]
Most goals conceded in total: 1,267, Tottenham Hotspur[20]

text: Attendances[edit]

text:
Highest attendance, single game: 83,222, Tottenham Hotspur 1–0 Arsenal (at Wembley Stadium, 10 February 2018)[51]
Lowest attendance, single game: 3,039, Wimbledon 1–3 Everton (at Selhurst Park, 26 January 1993)[52][53]
Highest season average attendance: 75,821 – Old Trafford, Manchester United (2006–07)[54]
Lowest season average attendance: 8,353 – Selhurst Park, Wimbledon (1992–93)[54]

text: Player records[edit]

text: Appearances[edit]

text:
Most Premier League appearances: 653, Gareth Barry (2 May 1998 to 24 February 2018)[55]
Oldest player: John Burridge, 43 years and 162 days (for Manchester City v. Queens Park Rangers, 14 May 1995)[56]
Youngest player: Matthew Briggs, 16 years and 65 days (for Fulham v. Middlesbrough, 13 May 2007)[57]
Most consecutive Premier League appearances: 310, Brad Friedel (14 August 2004 until 7 October 2012)[58]
Most seasons appeared in: 22, Ryan Giggs (every season from 1992–93 to 2013–14)[59]

text: Goals[edit]

text:
First Premier League goal: Brian Deane (for Sheffield United v. Manchester United, 15 August 1992)[60]
Most Premier League goals: 260, Alan Shearer[61]
Most Premier League goals at one club: 183, Wayne Rooney (Manchester United)[62]
Oldest goalscorer: 40 years and 268 days, Teddy Sheringham (for West Ham United v. Portsmouth, 26 December 2006)[63]
Youngest goalscorer: 16 years and 271 days, James Vaughan (for Everton v. Crystal Palace, 10 April 2005)[64]
Most consecutive Premier League matches scored in: 11, Jamie Vardy (for Leicester City, 29 August to 28 November 2015)[65]
Most seasons scored in: 21, Ryan Giggs (every season from 1992–93 to 2012–13)[66]

text:
Rank

Name

Goals

Games

Goals per game

Playing position

First goal

Last goal

1

 Alan Shearer
260
441
0.59
Forward
1992–93
2005–06

2

 Wayne Rooney
208
491
0.42
Forward
2002–03
2017–18

3

 Andy Cole
187
414
0.45
Forward
1993–94
2006–07

4

 Frank Lampard
177
609
0.29
Midfield
1997–98
2014–15

5

 Thierry Henry
175
258
0.68
Forward
1999–2000
2011–12

6

 Robbie Fowler
163
379
0.43
Forward
1993–94
2006–07

7

 Jermain Defoe
162
492
0.33
Forward
2001–02
2017–18

8

 Michael Owen
150
326
0.46
Forward
1996–97
2012–13

9

 Les Ferdinand
149
351
0.42
Forward
1992–93
2004–05

10

 Teddy Sheringham
146
418
0.35
Forward
1992–93
2006–07

text:
Most goals in a season (42 games): 34, joint record:[68]
Andy Cole (Newcastle United, 1993–94)
Alan Shearer (Blackburn Rovers, 1994–95)

text:
Most goals in a season (38 games): 32, Mohamed Salah (Liverpool, 2017–18)[69]
Most games scored in during a Premier League season: 24, Mohamed Salah (Liverpool, 2017–18)[70]
Most Premier League goals in a calendar year: 39, Harry Kane (Tottenham Hotspur, 2017)[71]
Number of teams scored against in a season: 17, joint record:
20-team league:[69]
Ian Wright (Arsenal, 1996–97)
Robin van Persie (Arsenal, 2011–12)
Mohamed Salah (Liverpool, 2017–18)
22-team league:[citation needed]
Andy Cole (Newcastle United, 1993–94)
Alan Shearer (Blackburn Rovers, 1994–95)
Most goals in a debut season: 30, Kevin Phillips (Sunderland, 1999–2000)[72]
Most Premier League hat-tricks in a season: 5, Alan Shearer (38 games) (Blackburn Rovers, 1995–96)[73]
Most Premier League hat-tricks: 11, Alan Shearer[74]
Most goals in a game: 5, joint record:[75]
Andy Cole (for Manchester United v. Ipswich Town, 4 March 1995) W 9–0
Alan Shearer (for Newcastle United v. Sheffield Wednesday, 19 September 1999) W 8–0
Jermain Defoe (for Tottenham Hotspur v. Wigan Athletic, 22 November 2009) W 9–1
Dimitar Berbatov (for Manchester United v. Blackburn Rovers, 27 November 2010) W 7–1
Sergio Agüero (for Manchester City v. Newcastle United, 3 October 2015) W 6–1

text:
Most goals in one half: 5, Jermain Defoe (for Tottenham Hotspur v. Wigan Athletic, 22 November 2009) W 9–1[76]
Fastest goal: 10 seconds, Ledley King (for Tottenham Hotspur v. Bradford City, 9 December 2000)[77]
Most goals scored by a substitute in a game: 4, Ole Gunnar Solskjær (for Manchester United v. Nottingham Forest, 6 February 1999)[78]
Most consecutive away league matches scored in: 9, Robin van Persie (for Arsenal, 1 January 2011 to 22 May 2011)[79]
Most consecutive seasons to score at least 30 goals: 3 (1993–1996), Alan Shearer (all for Blackburn Rovers)[80]
Most consecutive seasons to score at least 25 goals: 4 (1993–1997), Alan Shearer (1993–1996 for Blackburn Rovers, 1996–1997 for Newcastle United)[81]
Most consecutive seasons to score at least 20 goals: 5 (2001–2006), Thierry Henry (all for Arsenal)[81]
Most consecutive seasons to score at least 10 goals: 11 (2004–2015), Wayne Rooney (all for Manchester United)[82]
Most consecutive seasons to score at least 1 goal: 21 (1992–2013), Ryan Giggs (all for Manchester United)[66]
Fastest Premier League hat-trick: 2 minutes 56 seconds, Sadio Mané (for Southampton v. Aston Villa, 16 May 2015)[83]
Most different clubs to score for: 7, Craig Bellamy (for Coventry City, Newcastle United, Blackburn Rovers, Liverpool, West Ham United, Manchester City, Cardiff City)[84]
Most own goals: 10, Richard Dunne[85]
Most own goals in a season: 4, joint record:
Martin Škrtel (2013–14)[86]
Lewis Dunk (2017–18)[87]
Most hat-tricks against a single club: 3, Luis Suárez (for Liverpool v. Norwich City)[88]
Most goals in a calendar month: 10 (December 2013), Luis Suárez (Liverpool)[89]

text: Assists[edit]

text:
Most assists (career)

Rank
Player
Assists

1
 Ryan Giggs
162

2
 Cesc Fàbregas
111

3
 Wayne Rooney
103

4
 Frank Lampard
102

5
 Dennis Bergkamp
94

6
 Steven Gerrard
92

7
 David Beckham
80

8
 James Milner
78

9
 Teddy Sheringham
76

10
 David Silva
75

text:
Most Premier League assists in a season: 20, Thierry Henry (Arsenal, 2002–03)[91]
Most consecutive Premier League matches with an assist: 7, Mesut Özil (for Arsenal, 26 September to 21 November 2015)[92]
Most assists in a single Premier League match: 4, joint record:[93]
Dennis Bergkamp (for Arsenal v. Leicester City, 20 February 1999)
José Antonio Reyes (for Arsenal v. Middlesbrough, 14 January 2006)
Cesc Fàbregas (for Arsenal v. Blackburn Rovers, 4 October 2009)
Emmanuel Adebayor (for Tottenham Hotspur v. Newcastle United, 11 February 2012)
Santi Cazorla (for Arsenal v. Wigan Athletic, 14 May 2013)
Dušan Tadić (for Southampton  v. Sunderland, 18 October 2014)[94]

text: Goalkeepers[edit]

text:
Most clean sheets (career)

Rank
Player
Clean  sheets

1
 Petr Čech
201

2
 David James
169

3
 Mark Schwarzer
151

4
 David Seaman
140

5
 Nigel Martyn
137

6
 Pepe Reina
134

7
 Edwin van der Sar
132

 Tim Howard

 Brad Friedel

10
 Peter Schmeichel
128

text:
Most clean sheets in one season: 24, Petr Čech (for Chelsea, 2004–05)[95]
Longest consecutive run without conceding a goal: 14 games (1,311 minutes), Edwin van der Sar (for Manchester United, 2008–09)[96]
Goalscoring goalkeepers (excluding own goals):
Peter Schmeichel (Everton 3–2 Aston Villa, 20 October 2001)[97]
Brad Friedel (Charlton Athletic 3–2 Blackburn Rovers, 21 February 2004)[98]
Paul Robinson (Tottenham Hotspur 3–1 Watford, 17 March 2007)[99]
Tim Howard (Everton 1–2 Bolton Wanderers, 4 January 2012)[100]
Asmir Begović (Stoke City 1–1 Southampton, 2 November 2013)[101]

text: Disciplinary[edit]

text:
Most red cards: 8, joint record:[55]
Duncan Ferguson
Patrick Vieira
Richard Dunne
Most yellow cards for a player: 103, Gareth Barry[67]
Most yellow cards for a single team in one game: 9 (Tottenham Hotspur v. Chelsea, 2 May 2016)[102]
Fouling record: 782, Kevin Davies (since 2000–01, the first season for which reliable records are available)[103]
Longest ban: 12 matches, Joey Barton. After being dismissed for violent conduct, Barton was found guilty of two further separate counts of violent conduct after his dismissal against Manchester City, 23 May 2012[104]

text: Youngest goalscorers[edit]

text: This is a list of the top 10 youngest players to score a goal in the Premier League.[105]

text:
Player

Date

Team

Age

Opposition

1

James Vaughan

10 April 2005

Everton

16 years, 270 days

Crystal Palace

2

James Milner

26 December 2002

Leeds United

16 years, 346 days

Sunderland

3

Wayne Rooney

19 October 2002

Everton

16 years, 351 days

Arsenal

4

Cesc Fàbregas

25 August 2004

Arsenal

17 years, 114 days

Blackburn Rovers

5

Michael Owen

6 May 1997

Liverpool

17 years, 144 days

Wimbledon

6

Andy Turner

5 September 1992

Tottenham

17 years, 166 days

Everton

7

Federico Macheda

5 April 2009

Manchester United

17 years, 226 days

Aston Villa

8

Raheem Sterling

20 October 2012

Liverpool

17 years, 317 days

Reading

9

Mikael Forssell

20 February 1999

Chelsea

17 years, 342 days

Nottingham Forest

10

Danny Cadamarteri

20 September 1997

Everton

17 years, 344 days

Barnsley

text: Match records[edit]

text: Scorelines[edit]

text:
Biggest home win: 9–0, Manchester United v. Ipswich Town (4 March 1995)[106]
Biggest away win: 1–8, Nottingham Forest v. Manchester United (6 February 1999)[106]
Biggest aggregate win: 12–1, joint record:
Blackburn Rovers 7–0 Nottingham Forest (18 November 1995) & Nottingham Forest 1–5 Blackburn Rovers (13 April 1996)
Tottenham Hotspur 9–1 Wigan Athletic (22 November 2009) & Wigan Athletic 0–3 Tottenham Hotspur (21 February 2010)
Biggest loss by reigning champions: 1–6, joint record:[107]
Manchester United 1–6 Manchester City (23 October 2011), after Manchester United won the 2010–11 season
Leicester City 1–6 Tottenham Hotspur (18 May 2017), after Leicester City won the 2015–16 season
Largest goal deficit overcome to win: 3
Leeds United 4–3 Derby County (8 November 1997)[108]
West Ham United 3–4 Wimbledon (9 September 1998)[109]
Tottenham Hotspur 3–5 Manchester United (29 September 2001)[110]
Wolverhampton Wanderers 4–3 Leicester City (25 October 2003)[111]
Largest goal deficit overcome to draw: 4, Newcastle United 4–4 Arsenal (5 February 2011)[112]
Highest scoring: 7–4, Portsmouth v. Reading (29 September 2007)[113]
Highest scoring draw: 5–5, West Bromwich Albion v. Manchester United (19 May 2013)[114]
Highest scoring in the first half: 7 goals, joint record:
Blackburn Rovers 3–4 Leeds United (14 September 1997 – final score; 3–4)[115]
Bradford City 4–3 Derby County (21 April 2000 – final score; 4–4)[116]
Reading 3–4 Manchester United (1 December 2012 – final score; 3–4)[117]
Most individual goal scorers in one game: 9, joint record:
Tottenham Hotspur 4–5 Arsenal (13 November 2004)[118]
Portsmouth 7–4 Reading (29 September 2007)[119]
Most individual goal scorers in one game for the same team: 7, joint record:
Chelsea 8–0 Aston Villa (23 December 2012)[120]
Manchester City 7–0 Norwich City (2 November 2013)[121]
Southampton 8–0 Sunderland (18 October 2014)[122]

text: All-time Premier League table[edit]

text: The all-time Premier League table is a cumulative record of all match results, points and goals of every team that has played in the Premier League since its inception in 1992. The table that follows is accurate as of the end of the 2017–18 season. Teams in bold are part of the 2018–19 Premier League. Numbers in bold are the record (highest either positive or negative) numbers in each column.[123]

text:
Pos.

Club

Seasons

Pld

Win

Draw

Loss

GF

GA

GD

Pts

1st

2nd

3rd

4th

Relegated

AvgPts

BestPos.

1
Manchester United

26
1000
629
215
156
1924
875
1049
2102
13
6
3
1

80.85
1

2
Arsenal

26
1000
544
253
203
1772
962
810
1885
3
6
5
7

72.50
1

3
Chelsea

26
1000
537
248
215
1707
963
744
1859
5
4
4
2

71.50
1

4
Liverpool

26
1000
499
255
246
1685
1024
661
1752

3
5
7

67.38
2

5
Tottenham Hotspur

26
1000
423
255
322
1480
1267
213
1524

1
2
2

58.62
2

6
Everton

26
1000
362
287
351
1303
1265
38
1373

1

52.81
4

7
Manchester City

21
810
359
194
257
1279
952
327
1271
3
2
2
1
2
60.52
1

8
Newcastle United

23
882
334
225
323
1207
1187
20
1227

2
2
1
2
53.35
2

9
Aston Villa

24
924
316
275
333
1117
1186
−69
1223

1

1
1
50.96
2

10
West Ham United

22
844
275
221
348
1012
1214
−202
1046

2
47.55
5

11
Blackburn Rovers

18
696
262
184
250
927
907
20
970
1
1

1
2
53.89
1

12
Southampton

19
734
229
202
303
892
1022
−130
889

1
46.79
6

13
Leeds United

12
468
189
125
154
641
573
68
692

1
2
1
57.67
3

14
Middlesbrough

15
574
165
169
240
648
794
−146
661[124]

4
44.01
7

15
Sunderland

16
608
153
159
296
612
904
−292
618

4
38.63
7

16
Fulham

13
494
150
136
208
570
697
−127
586

1
45.08
7

17
Bolton Wanderers

13
494
149
128
217
575
745
−170
575

3
44.23
6

18
Leicester City

12
460
142
129
189
572
670
−98
555
1

3
46.25
1

19
West Bromwich Albion

12
456
112
128
216
475
696
−221
464

4
38.67
8

20
Stoke City

10
380
116
109
155
398
525
−127
457

1
45.70
9

21
Coventry City

9
354
99
112
143
387
490
−103
409

1
45.40
11

22
Sheffield Wednesday

8
316
101
89
126
409
453
−44
392

1
49.00
7

23
Wimbledon

8
316
99
94
123
384
472
−88
391

1
48.88
6

24
Crystal Palace

9
350
97
89
164
374
511
−137
380

4
42.22
10

25
Charlton Athletic

8
304
93
82
129
342
442
−100
361

2
45.13
7

26
Norwich City

8
316
89
92
135
365
510
−145
359

1

4
44.88
3

27
Wigan Athletic

8
304
85
76
143
316
482
−166
331

1
41.38
10

28
Swansea City

7
266
82
66
118
306
383
−77
312

1
44.57
8

29
Queens Park Rangers

7
278
81
65
132
339
431
−92
308

3
44.00
5

30
Birmingham City

7
266
73
82
111
273
360
−87
301

3
43.00
9

31
Portsmouth

7
266
79
65
122
292
380
−88
293[125]

1
41.86
8

32
Derby County

7
266
68
70
128
271
420
−149
274

2
39.14
8

33
Nottingham Forest

5
198
60
59
79
229
287
−58
239

1

3
47.80
3

34
Ipswich Town

5
202
57
53
92
219
312
−93
224

2
44.80
5

35
Watford

5
190
45
43
102
188
318
−130
178

2
35.60
13

36
Hull City

5
190
41
48
101
181
323
−142
171

3
34.20
16

37
Burnley

4
152
40
37
75
145
229
−84
157

2
39.25
7

38
Wolverhampton Wanderers

4
152
32
40
80
156
281
−125
136

2
34.00
15

39
Sheffield United

3
122
32
36
54
128
168
−40
132

2
44.00
14

40
Bournemouth

3
114
34
30
50
145
195
−50
132

44.00
9

41
Reading

3
114
32
23
59
136
186
−50
119

2
39.67
8

42
Oldham Athletic

2
84
22
23
39
105
142
−37
89

1
44.50
19

43
Bradford City

2
76
14
20
42
68
138
−70
62

1
31.00
17

44
Brighton & Hove Albion

1
38
9
13
16
34
54
–20
40

40.00
15

45
Blackpool

1
38
10
9
19
55
78
−23
39

1
39.00
19

46
Huddersfield Town

1
38
9
10
19
28
58
–30
37

37.00
16

47
Barnsley

1
38
10
5
23
37
82
−45
35

1
35.00
19

48
Cardiff City

1
38
7
9
22
32
74
−42
30

1
30.00
20

49
Swindon Town

1
42
5
15
22
47
100
−53
30

1
30.00
22

text: League or status at 2018–19:

text:
2018–19 Premier League teams

2018–19 EFL Championship teams

2018–19 EFL League One teams

2018–19 EFL League Two teams

Defunct teams

text: By a 2007 agreement, neither Milton Keynes Dons nor AFC Wimbledon regards itself as custodian of Wimbledon F.C.'s statistics.[126][127]

text: Managers[edit]

text:
Most Premier League titles: 13, Sir Alex Ferguson (Manchester United) – 1993, 1994, 1996, 1997, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2003, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2011, 2013
Most Premier League Manager of the Month awards: 27, Sir Alex Ferguson
Most consecutive Premier League Manager of the Month awards: 4, Pep Guardiola[128]
Most promotions to the Premier League: 4, Steve Bruce (Birmingham City in 2001–02 and 2006–07 and Hull City in 2012–13 and 2015–16)
Most relegations from the Premier League: 3, Dave Bassett (Sheffield United in 1993–94, Nottingham Forest in 1996–97, and Leicester City in 2001–02)[129]
Longest spell as manager: 21 years, 224 days, Arsène Wenger (Arsenal, 1 October 1996 to 13 May 2018)[130]
Shortest spell as manager (excluding caretakers): 41 days, Les Reed (Charlton Athletic, 14 November 2006 to 24 December 2006) (8 games)[131]


document_title: Southern Ocean

question_text: when did the southern ocean come into existence

question_tokens: when did the southern ocean come into existence

root

text: Southern Ocean

text: Definitions and use[edit]

text: Borders and names for oceans and seas were internationally agreed when the International Hydrographic Bureau (IHB), the precursor to the IHO, convened the First International Conference on 24 July 1919. The IHO then published these in its Limits of Oceans and Seas, the first edition being 1928. Since the first edition, the limits of the Southern Ocean have moved progressively southwards; since 1953, it has been omitted from the official publication and left to local hydrographic offices to determine their own limits. The IHO included the ocean and its definition as the waters south of 60°S in its year 2000 revisions, but this has not been formally adopted, due to continuing impasses over other areas of the text, such as the naming dispute over the Sea of Japan. The 2000 IHO definition, however, was circulated in a draft edition in 2002 and is used by some within the IHO and by some other organizations such as the US Central Intelligence Agency[7] and Merriam-Webster.[note 5][10] Australian authorities regard the Southern Ocean as lying immediately south of Australia.[11][12] The National Geographic Society does not recognize the ocean,[2] depicting it (if at all) in a typeface different from the other world oceans; instead, it shows the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans extending to Antarctica on both its print and online maps.[13][note 6] Map publishers using the term Southern Ocean on their maps include Hema Maps[15] and GeoNova.[16]

tag: p

text:
The International Hydrographic Organization's delineation of the "Southern Ocean" has moved steadily southwards since the original 1928 edition of its Limits of Oceans and Seas. Australia continues to view the ocean as beginning at its southern coast. The 1953 limits shown are those of Britain, as identified in third edition. Others continue to view the Antarctic Convergence as the natural boundary of the Southern Ocean, regardless of political agreements.[6]

 Southern Ocean Antarctica Map.

tag: table

text: Pre-20th-century definitions[edit]

text: "Southern Ocean" is an obsolete name for the Pacific Ocean or South Pacific, coined by Vasco Núñez de Balboa, the first European to discover it, who approached it from the north.[17] The "South Seas" is a less archaic synonym. A 1745 British Act of Parliament  established a prize for discovering a Northwest Passage to "the Western and Southern Ocean of America".[18]

text: Authors using "Southern Ocean" to name the waters encircling the unknown southern polar regions used varying limits. James Cook's account of his second voyage implies New Caledonia borders it.[19] Peacock's 1795 Geographical Dictionary said it lay "to the southward of America and Africa";[20] John Payne in 1796 used 40 degrees as the northern limit;[21] the 1827 Edinburgh Gazetteer used 50 degrees.[22] The Family Magazine in 1835 divided the "Great Southern Ocean" into the "Southern Ocean" and the "Antarctick [sic] Ocean" along the Antarctic Circle, with the northern limit of the Southern Ocean being lines joining Cape Horn, the Cape of Good Hope, Van Diemen's Land and the south of New Zealand.[23]

text: The United Kingdom's South Australia Act 1834 described the waters forming the southern limit of the new colony of South Australia as "the Southern Ocean". The Colony of Victoria's Legislative Council Act of 1881 delimited part of the division of Bairnsdale as "along the New South Wales boundary to the Southern ocean".[24]

text: 1928 delineation[edit]

text: In the 1928 first edition of Limits of Oceans and Seas, the Southern Ocean was delineated by land-based limits:  Antarctica to the south, and South America, Africa, Australia, and Broughton Island, New Zealand to the north.

text:
The detailed land-limits used were from Cape Horn in South America eastwards to Cape Agulhas in Africa, then further eastwards to the southern coast of mainland Australia to Cape Leeuwin, Western Australia. From Cape Leeuwin, the limit then followed eastwards along the coast of mainland Australia to Cape Otway, Victoria, then southwards across Bass Strait to Cape Wickham, King Island, along the west coast of King Island, then the remainder of the way south across Bass Strait to Cape Grim, Tasmania. The limit then followed the west coast of Tasmania southwards to the
South East Cape and then went eastwards to Broughton Island, New Zealand, before returning to Cape Horn.[25]

text: 1937 delineation[edit]

text: The northern limits of the Southern Ocean were moved southwards in the IHO's 1937 second edition of the Limits of Oceans and Seas. From this edition, much of the ocean's northern limit ceased to abut land masses.

text: In the second edition, the Southern Ocean then extended from Antarctica northwards to latitude 40°S between Cape Agulhas in Africa (long. 20°E) and Cape Leeuwin in Western Australia (long. 115°E), and extended to latitude 55°S between Auckland Island of New Zealand (165 or 166°E east) and Cape Horn in South America (67°W).[26]

text: As is discussed in more detail below (see section on '2002 delineation'), prior to the 2002 (draft) edition the limits of oceans explicitly excluded the seas lying within each of them. The Great Australian Bight was unnamed in the 1928 edition, and delineated as shown in the figure above in the 1937 edition. It therefore encompassed former Southern Ocean waters (as designated in 1928) but was technically not inside any of the three adjacent oceans by 1937. In the 2002 draft edition, the IHO have designated 'seas' as being subdivisions within 'oceans', so the Bight would have still been within the Southern Ocean in 1937 if the 2002 convention were in place then. To perform direct comparisons of current and former limits of oceans (for example to compare surface areas) it is necessary to consider, or at least be aware of, how the 2002 change in IHO terminology for 'seas' can affect the comparison.

text: 1953 delineation[edit]

text: The Southern Ocean did not appear in the 1953 third edition and a note in the publication read:

text: The Antarctic or Southern Ocean has been omitted from this publication as the majority of opinions received since the issue of the 2nd Edition in 1937 are to the effect that there exists no real justification for applying the term Ocean to this body of water, the northern limits of which are difficult to lay down owing to their seasonal change. The limits of the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans have therefore been extended South to the Antarctic Continent.

text: Hydrographic Offices who issue separate publications dealing with this area are therefore left to decide their own northern limits (Great Britain uses Latitude of 55 South.)

text: Instead, in the IHO 1953 publication, the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans were extended southward, the Indian and Pacific Oceans (which had not previously touched pre 1953, as per the first and second editions) now abutted at the meridian of South East Cape, and the southern limits of the Great Australian Bight and the Tasman Sea were moved northwards.[27]

text: 2002 (draft) delineation[edit]

text: The IHO readdressed the question of the Southern Ocean in a survey in 2000. Of its 68 member nations, 28 responded, and all responding members except Argentina agreed to redefine the ocean, reflecting the importance placed by oceanographers on ocean currents. The proposal for the name Southern Ocean won 18 votes, beating the alternative Antarctic Ocean. Half of the votes supported a definition of the ocean's northern limit at 60°S (with no land interruptions at this latitude), with the other 14 votes cast for other definitions, mostly 50°S, but a few for as far north as 35°S.

text: A draft fourth edition of Limits of Oceans and Seas was circulated to IHO member states in August 2002 (sometimes referred to as the "2000 edition" as it summarized the progress to 2000).[29] It has yet to be published due to 'areas of concern' by several countries relating to various naming issues around the world – primarily the Sea of Japan naming dispute – and there have been various changes, 60 seas were given new names, and even the name of the publication was changed.[30] A reservation had also been lodged by Australia regarding the Southern Ocean limits.[31] Effectively, the 3rd edition (which did not delineate the Southern Ocean leaving delineation to local hydrographic offices) has yet to be superseded.

text: Despite this, the 4th edition definition has partial de facto usage by many nations, scientists and organisations such as the U.S. (the Central Intelligence Agency World Factbook uses "Southern Ocean" but none of the other new sea names within the "Southern Ocean" such as "Cosmonauts Sea") and Merriam-Webster,[7][10][14] scientists and nations – and even by some within the IHO.[32] Some nations' hydrographic offices have defined their own boundaries; the United Kingdom used the 55°S parallel for example.[27] Other organisations favour more northerly limits for the Southern Ocean. For example, the Encyclopædia Britannica describes the Southern Ocean as extending as far north as South America, and confers great significance on the Antarctic Convergence, yet its description of the Indian Ocean contradicts this, describing the Indian Ocean as extending south to Antarctica.[12][33]

text: Other sources, such as the National Geographic Society, show the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans as extending to Antarctica on its maps, although articles on the National Geographic web site have begun to reference the Southern Ocean.[14]

text: In Australia, cartographical authorities define the Southern Ocean as including the entire body of water between Antarctica and the south coasts of Australia and New Zealand, and up to 60°s elsewhere.[34] Coastal maps of Tasmania and South Australia label the sea areas as Southern Ocean,[35] while Cape Leeuwin in Western Australia is described as the point where the Indian and Southern Oceans meet.[36]

text: A radical shift from past IHO practices (1928–1953) was also seen in the 2002 draft edition when the IHO delineated 'seas' as being subdivisions that lay within the boundaries of 'oceans'. While the IHO are often considered the authority for such conventions, the shift brought them into line with the practices of other publications (e.g. the CIA World Fact Book) which already adopted the principle that seas are contained within oceans. This difference in practice is markedly seen for the Pacific Ocean in the adjacent figure. Thus, for example, previously the Tasman Sea between Australia and New Zealand was not regarded by the IHO as being part of the Pacific, but as of the 2002 draft edition it is.

text: The new delineation of seas being subdivisions of oceans has avoided the need to interrupt the northern boundary of the Southern Ocean where intersected by Drake Passage which includes all of the waters from South America to the Antarctic coast, nor interrupt it for the Scotia Sea, which also extends below the 60th parallel south. The new delineation of seas has also meant that the long-time named seas around Antarctica, excluded from the 1953 edition (the 1953 map did not even extend that far south), are 'automatically' part of the Southern Ocean.

text: History of exploration[edit]

text: Unknown southern land[edit]

text: Exploration of the Southern Ocean was inspired by a belief in the existence of a Terra Australis – a vast continent in the far south of the globe to "balance" the northern lands of Eurasia and North Africa – which had existed since the times of Ptolemy. The doubling of the Cape of Good Hope in 1487 by Bartolomeu Dias first brought explorers within touch of the Antarctic cold, and proved that there was an ocean separating Africa from any Antarctic land that might exist. Ferdinand Magellan, who passed through the Strait of Magellan in 1520, assumed that the islands of Tierra del Fuego to the south were an extension of this unknown southern land. In 1564, Abraham Ortelius published his first map, Typus Orbis Terrarum, an eight-leaved wall map of the world, on which he identified the Regio Patalis with Locach as a northward extension of the Terra Australis, reaching as far as New Guinea.[37][38]

text: European geographers continued to connect the coast of Tierra del Fuego with the coast of New Guinea on their globes, and allowing their imaginations to run riot in the vast unknown spaces of the south Atlantic, south Indian and Pacific oceans they sketched the outlines of the Terra Australis Incognita ("Unknown Southern Land"), a vast continent stretching in parts into the tropics. The search for this great south land was a leading motive of explorers in the 16th and the early part of the 17th centuries.

text: The Spaniard Gabriel de Castilla, who claimed having sighted "snow-covered mountains" beyond the 64° S in 1603, is recognized as the first explorer that discovered the continent of Antarctica, although he was ignored in his time.

text: In 1606, Pedro Fernández de Quirós took possession for the king of Spain all of the lands he had discovered in Australia del Espiritu Santo (the New Hebrides) and those he would discover "even to the Pole".

text: Francis Drake, like Spanish explorers before him, had speculated that there might be an open channel south of Tierra del Fuego. When Willem Schouten and Jacob Le Maire discovered the southern extremity of Tierra del Fuego and named it Cape Horn in 1615, they proved that the Tierra del Fuego archipelago was of small extent and not connected to the southern land, as previously thought. Subsequently, in 1642, Abel Tasman showed that even New Holland (Australia) was separated by sea from any continuous southern continent.

text: South of the Antarctic Convergence[edit]

text: The visit to South Georgia by Anthony de la Roché in 1675 was the first ever discovery of land south of the Antarctic Convergence i.e. in the Southern Ocean/Antarctic.[39][40]  Soon after the voyage cartographers started to depict ‘Roché Island’, honouring the discoverer.  James Cook was aware of la Roché's discovery when surveying and mapping the island in 1775.[41]

text: Edmond Halley's voyage in HMS Paramour for magnetic investigations in the South Atlantic met the pack ice in 52° S in January 1700, but that latitude (he reached 140 mi off the north coast of South Georgia) was his farthest south. A determined effort on the part of the French naval officer Jean-Baptiste Charles Bouvet de Lozier to discover the "South Land" – described by a half legendary "sieur de Gonneyville" – resulted in the discovery of Bouvet Island in 54°10′ S, and in the navigation of 48° of longitude of ice-cumbered sea nearly in 55° S in 1730  .

text: In 1771, Yves Joseph Kerguelen sailed from France with instructions to proceed south from Mauritius in search of "a very large continent."  He lighted upon a land in 50° S which he called South France, and believed to be the central mass of the southern continent. He was sent out again to complete the exploration of the new land, and found it to be only an inhospitable island which he renamed the Isle of Desolation, but which was ultimately named after him.[42]

text: South of the Antarctic Circle[edit]

text: The obsession of the undiscovered continent culminated in the brain of Alexander Dalrymple, the brilliant and erratic hydrographer who was nominated by the Royal Society to command the Transit of Venus expedition to Tahiti in 1769. The command of the expedition was given by the admiralty to Captain James Cook. Sailing in 1772 with Resolution, a vessel of 462 tons under his own command and Adventure of 336 tons under Captain Tobias Furneaux, Cook first searched in vain for Bouvet Island, then sailed for 20 degrees of longitude to the westward in latitude 58° S, and then 30° eastward for the most part south of 60° S, a lower southern latitude than had ever been voluntarily entered before by any vessel. On 17 January 1773 the Antarctic Circle was crossed for the first time in history and the two ships reached 67° 15' S by 39° 35' E, where their course was stopped by ice.

text: Cook then turned northward to look for French Southern and Antarctic Lands, of the discovery of which he had received news at Cape Town, but from the rough determination of his longitude by Kerguelen, Cook reached the assigned latitude 10° too far east and did not see it. He turned south again and was stopped by ice in 61° 52′ S by 95° E and continued eastward nearly on the parallel of 60° S to 147° E. On 16 March, the approaching winter drove him northward for rest to New Zealand and the tropical islands of the Pacific. In November 1773, Cook left New Zealand, having parted company with the Adventure, and reached 60° S by 177° W, whence he sailed eastward keeping as far south as the floating ice allowed. The Antarctic Circle was crossed on 20 December and Cook remained south of it for three days, being compelled after reaching 67° 31′ S to stand north again in 135° W.

text: A long detour to 47° 50′ S served to show that there was no land connection between New Zealand and Tierra del Fuego. Turning south again, Cook crossed the Antarctic Circle for the third time at 109° 30′ W before his progress was once again blocked by ice four days later at 71° 10′ S by 106° 54′ W. This point, reached on 30 January 1774, was the farthest south attained in the 18th century. With a great detour to the east, almost to the coast of South America, the expedition regained Tahiti for refreshment. In November 1774, Cook started from New Zealand and crossed the South Pacific without sighting land between 53° and 57° S to Tierra del Fuego; then, passing Cape Horn on 29 December, he rediscovered Roché Island renaming it Isle of Georgia, and discovered the South Sandwich Islands (named Sandwich Land by him), the only ice-clad land he had seen, before crossing the South Atlantic to the Cape of Good Hope between 55° and 60°. He thereby laid open the way for future Antarctic exploration by exploding the myth of a habitable southern continent. Cook's most southerly discovery of land lay on the temperate side of the 60th parallel, and he convinced himself that if land lay farther south it was practically inaccessible and without economic value.[42]

text: Voyagers rounding Cape Horn frequently met with contrary winds and were driven southward into snowy skies and ice-encumbered seas; but so far as can be ascertained none of them before 1770 reached the Antarctic Circle, or knew it, if they did.

text: In a voyage from 1822 to 1824, James Weddell commanded the 160-ton brig Jane, accompanied by his second ship Beaufoy captained by Matthew Brisbane. Together they sailed to the South Orkneys where sealing proved disappointing. They turned south in the hope of finding a better sealing ground. The season was unusually mild and tranquil, and on 20 February 1823 the two ships reached latitude 74°15' S and longitude 34°16'45″ W the southernmost position any ship had ever reached up to that time. A few icebergs were sighted but there was still no sight of land, leading Weddell to theorize that the sea continued as far as the South Pole. Another two days' sailing would have brought him to Coat's Land (to the east of the Weddell Sea) but Weddell decided to turn back.[44]

text: First sighting of land[edit]

text: The first land south of the parallel 60° south latitude was discovered by the Englishman William Smith, who sighted Livingston Island on 19 February 1819. A few months later Smith returned to explore the other islands of the South Shetlands archipelago, landed on King George Island, and claimed the new territories for Britain.

text: In the meantime, the Spanish Navy ship San Telmo sank in September 1819 when trying to cross Cape Horn. Parts of her wreckage were found months later by sealers on the north coast of Livingston Island (South Shetlands). It is unknown if some survivor managed to be the first to set foot on these Antarctic islands.

text: The first confirmed sighting of mainland Antarctica cannot be accurately attributed to one single person. It can, however, be narrowed down to three individuals. According to various sources,[45][46][47] three men all sighted the ice shelf or the continent within days or months of each other: von Bellingshausen, a captain in the Russian Imperial Navy; Edward Bransfield, a captain in the British navy; and Nathaniel Palmer, an American sealer out of Stonington, Connecticut. It is certain that the expedition, led by von Bellingshausen and Lazarev on the ships Vostok and Mirny, reached a point within 32 km (20 mi) from Princess Martha Coast and recorded the sight of an ice shelf at 69°21′28″S 2°14′50″W / 69.35778°S 2.24722°W / -69.35778; -2.24722[48] that became known as the Fimbul ice shelf. On 30 January 1820, Bransfield sighted Trinity Peninsula, the northernmost point of the Antarctic mainland, while Palmer sighted the mainland in the area south of Trinity Peninsula in November 1820. Von Bellingshausen's expedition also discovered Peter I Island and Alexander I Island, the first islands to be discovered south of the circle.

text: Antarctic expeditions[edit]

text: In December 1839, as part of the United States Exploring Expedition of 1838–42 conducted by the United States Navy (sometimes called "the Wilkes Expedition"), an expedition sailed from Sydney, Australia, on the sloops-of-war USS Vincennes and USS Peacock, the brig USS Porpoise, the full-rigged ship Relief, and two schooners Sea Gull and USS Flying Fish. They sailed into the Antarctic Ocean, as it was then known, and reported the discovery "of an Antarctic continent west of the Balleny Islands" on 25 January 1840. That part of Antarctica was later named "Wilkes Land", a name it maintains to this day.

text: Explorer James Clark Ross passed through what is now known as the Ross Sea and discovered Ross Island (both of which were named for him) in 1841. He sailed along a huge wall of ice that was later named the Ross Ice Shelf. Mount Erebus and Mount Terror are named after two ships from his expedition: HMS Erebus and Terror.[49]

text: The Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition of 1914, led by Ernest Shackleton, set out to cross the continent via the pole, but their ship, the Endurance, was trapped and crushed by pack ice before they even landed. The expedition members survived after an epic journey on sledges over pack ice to Elephant Island. Then Shackleton and five others crossed the Southern Ocean, in an open boat called James Caird, and then trekked over South Georgia to raise the alarm at the whaling station Grytviken.

text: In 1946, US Navy Rear Admiral Richard E. Byrd and more than 4,700 military personnel visited the Antarctic in an expedition called Operation Highjump. Reported to the public as a scientific mission, the details were kept secret and it may have actually been a training or testing mission for the military. The expedition was, in both military or scientific planning terms, put together very quickly. The group contained an unusually high amount of military equipment, including an aircraft carrier, submarines, military support ships, assault troops and military vehicles. The expedition was planned to last for eight months but was unexpectedly terminated after only two months. With the exception of some eccentric entries in Admiral Byrd's diaries, no real explanation for the early termination has ever been officially given.

text: Captain Finn Ronne, Byrd's executive officer, returned to Antarctica with his own expedition in 1947–1948, with Navy support, three planes, and dogs. Ronne disproved the notion that the continent was divided in two and established that East and West Antarctica was one single continent, i.e. that the Weddell Sea and the Ross Sea are not connected.[50]  The expedition explored and mapped large parts of Palmer Land and the Weddell Sea coastline, and identified the Ronne Ice Shelf, named by Ronne after his wife Edith "Jackie" Ronne.[51] Ronne covered 3,600 miles by ski and dog sled – more than any other explorer in history.[52] The Ronne Antarctic Research Expedition discovered and mapped the last unknown coastline in the world and was the first Antarctic expedition to ever include women.[53]

text: Recent history[edit]

text: The Antarctic Treaty was signed on 1 December 1959 and came into force on 23 June 1961. Among other provisions, this treaty limits military activity in the Antarctic to the support of scientific research.

text: The first person to sail single-handed to Antarctica was the New Zealander David Henry Lewis, in 1972, in a 10-metre steel sloop Ice Bird.

text: A baby, named Emilio Marcos de Palma, was born near Hope Bay on 7 January 1978, becoming the first baby born on the continent. He also was born further south than anyone in history.[54]

text: The MS Explorer was a cruise ship operated by the Swedish explorer Lars-Eric Lindblad. Observers point to the Explorer's 1969 expeditionary cruise to Antarctica as the frontrunner for today's sea-based tourism in that region.[55][56] The Explorer was the first cruise ship used specifically to sail the icy waters of the Antarctic Ocean and the first to sink there[57] when she struck an unidentified submerged object on 23 November 2007, reported to be ice, which caused a 10 by 4 inches (25 by 10 cm) gash in the hull.[58] The Explorer was abandoned in the early hours of 23 November 2007 after taking on water near the South Shetland Islands in the Southern Ocean, an area which is usually stormy but was calm at the time.[59] The Explorer was confirmed by the Chilean Navy to have sunk at approximately position: 62° 24′ South, 57° 16′ West,[60] in roughly 600 m of water.[61]

text: Geography[edit]

text: The Southern Ocean, geologically the youngest of the oceans, was formed when Antarctica and South America moved apart, opening the Drake Passage, roughly 30 million years ago. The separation of the continents allowed the formation of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current.

text: With a northern limit at 60°S, the Southern Ocean differs from the other oceans in that its largest boundary, the northern boundary, does not abut a landmass (as it did with the first edition of Limits of Oceans and Seas). Instead, the northern limit is with the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans.

text: One reason for considering it as a separate ocean stems from the fact that much of the water of the Southern Ocean differs from the water in the other oceans. Water gets transported around the Southern Ocean fairly rapidly because of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current which circulates around Antarctica. Water in the Southern Ocean south of, for example, New Zealand, resembles the water in the Southern Ocean south of South America more closely than it resembles the water in the Pacific Ocean.

text: The Southern Ocean has typical depths of between 4,000 and 5,000 m (13,000 and 16,000 ft) over most of its extent with only limited areas of shallow water. The Southern Ocean's greatest depth of 7,236 m (23,740 ft) occurs at the southern end of the South Sandwich Trench, at 60°00'S, 024°W. The Antarctic continental shelf appears generally narrow and unusually deep, its edge lying at depths up to 800 m (2,600 ft), compared to a global mean of 133 m (436 ft).

text: Equinox to equinox in line with the sun's seasonal influence, the Antarctic ice pack fluctuates from an average minimum of 2.6 million square kilometres (1.0×10^6 sq mi) in March to about 18.8 million square kilometres (7.3×10^6 sq mi) in September, more than a sevenfold increase in area.

text: Sub-divisions of the Southern Ocean[edit]

text: Sub-divisions of oceans are geographical features such as "seas", "straits", "bays", "channels", and "gulfs". There are many sub-divisions of the Southern Ocean defined in the never-approved 2002 draft fourth edition of the IHO publication Limits of Oceans and Seas. In clockwise order these include (with IHO sub-division chartlet numbers in parenthesis) the Weddell Sea (10.1), the Lazarev Sea (10.2), the Riiser-Larsen Sea (10.3), the Cosmonauts Sea (10.4), the Cooperation Sea (10.5), the Davis Sea (10.6), Tryoshnikova Gulf (10.6.1), the Mawson Sea (10.7), the Dumont D'Urville Sea (10.8), the Somov Sea (10.9), the Ross Sea (10.10), McMurdo Sound (10.10.1), the Amundsen Sea (10.11), the Bellingshausen Sea (10.12), part of the Drake Passage (10.13), Bransfield Strait (10.14) and part of the Scotia Sea (4.2).[29][note 7][note 8]  A number of these such as the 2002 Russian-proposed "Consmonauts Sea", "Cooperation Sea", and "Somov (mid-1950s Russian polar explorer) Sea" are not included in the 1953 IHO document which remains currently in force,[27] because they received their names largely originated from 1962 onward. Leading geographic authorities and atlases do not use these latter three names, including the 2014 10th edition World Atlas from the United States' National Geographic Society and the 2014 12th edition of the British Times Atlas of the World, but Soviet and Russian-issued maps do.[62][63]

text: Natural resources[edit]

text: The Southern Ocean probably contains large, and possibly giant, oil and gas fields on the continental margin. Placer deposits, accumulation of valuable minerals such as gold, formed by gravity separation during sedimentary processes are also expected to exist in the Southern Ocean.[6]

text: Manganese nodules are expected to exist in the Southern Ocean. Manganese nodules are rock concretions on the sea bottom formed of concentric layers of iron and manganese hydroxides around a core. The core may be microscopically small and is sometimes completely transformed into manganese minerals by crystallization. Interest in the potential exploitation of polymetallic nodules generated a great deal of activity among prospective mining consortia in the 1960s and 1970s.[6]

text: The icebergs that form each year around in the Southern Ocean hold enough fresh water to meet the needs of every person on Earth for several months. For several decades there have been proposals, none yet to be feasible or successful, to tow Southern Ocean icebergs to more arid northern regions (such as Australia) where they can be harvested.[64]

text: Natural hazards[edit]

text: Icebergs can occur at any time of year throughout the ocean. Some may have drafts up to several hundred meters; smaller icebergs, iceberg fragments and sea-ice (generally 0.5 to 1 m thick) also pose problems for ships. The deep continental shelf has a floor of glacial deposits varying widely over short distances.

text: Sailors know latitudes from 40 to 70 degrees south as the "Roaring Forties", "Furious Fifties" and "Shrieking Sixties" due to high winds and large waves that form as winds blow around the entire globe unimpeded by any land-mass. Icebergs, especially in May to October, make the area even more dangerous. The remoteness of the region makes sources of search and rescue scarce.

text: Physical oceanography[edit]

text: Antarctic Circumpolar Current and Antarctic Convergence[edit]

text: The Antarctic Circumpolar Current moves perpetually eastward –  chasing and joining itself, and at 21,000 km (13,000 mi) in length –  it comprises the world's longest ocean current, transporting 130 million cubic metres per second (4.6×10^9 cu ft/s) of water – 100 times the flow of all the world's rivers.

text: Several processes operate along the coast of Antarctica to produce, in the Southern Ocean, types of water masses not produced elsewhere in the oceans of the Southern Hemisphere. One of these is the Antarctic Bottom Water, a very cold, highly saline, dense water that forms under sea ice.

text: Associated with the Circumpolar Current is the Antarctic Convergence encircling Antarctica, where cold northward-flowing Antarctic waters meet the relatively warmer waters of the subantarctic, Antarctic waters predominantly sink beneath subantarctic waters, while associated zones of mixing and upwelling create a zone very high in nutrients. These nurture high levels of phytoplankton with associated copepods and Antarctic krill, and resultant foodchains supporting fish, whales, seals, penguins, albatrosses and a wealth of other species.[65]

text: The Antarctic Convergence is considered to be the best natural definition of the northern extent of the Southern Ocean.[6]

text: Upwelling[edit]

text: Large-scale upwelling is found in the Southern Ocean. Strong westerly (eastward) winds blow around Antarctica, driving a significant flow of water northwards. This is actually a type of coastal upwelling. Since there are no continents in a band of open latitudes between South America and the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula, some of this water is drawn up from great depths. In many numerical models and observational syntheses, the Southern Ocean upwelling represents the primary means by which deep dense water is brought to the surface. Shallower, wind-driven upwelling is also found off the west coasts of North and South America, northwest and southwest Africa, and southwest and southeast Australia, all associated with oceanic subtropical high pressure circulations.

text: Some models of the ocean circulation suggest that broad-scale upwelling occurs in the tropics, as pressure driven flows converge water toward the low latitudes where it is diffusively warmed from above. The required diffusion coefficients, however, appear to be larger than are observed in the real ocean. Nonetheless, some diffusive upwelling does probably occur.

text: Ross and Weddell Gyres[edit]

text: The Ross Gyre and Weddell Gyre are two gyres that exist within the Southern Ocean. The gyres are located in the Ross Sea and Weddell Sea respectively, and both rotate clockwise. The gyres are formed by interactions between the Antarctic Circumpolar Current and the Antarctic Continental Shelf.

text: Sea ice has been noted to persist in the central area of the Ross Gyre.[66] There is some evidence that global warming has resulted in some decrease of the salinity of the waters of the Ross Gyre since the 1950s.[67]

text: Due to the Coriolis effect acting to the left in the Southern Hemisphere and the resulting Ekman transport away from the centres of the Weddell Gyre, these regions are very productive due to upwelling of cold, nutrient rich water.

text: Climate[edit]

text: Sea temperatures vary from about −2 to 10 °C (28 to 50 °F). Cyclonic storms travel eastward around the continent and frequently become intense because of the temperature contrast between ice and open ocean. The ocean-area from about latitude 40 south to the Antarctic Circle has the strongest average winds found anywhere on Earth.[68] In winter the ocean freezes outward to 65 degrees south latitude in the Pacific sector and 55 degrees south latitude in the Atlantic sector, lowering surface temperatures well below 0 degrees Celsius. At some coastal points, however, persistent intense drainage winds from the interior keep the shoreline ice-free throughout the winter.

text: Biodiversity[edit]

text: Animals[edit]

text: A variety of marine animals exist and rely, directly or indirectly, on the phytoplankton in the Southern Ocean. Antarctic sea life includes penguins, blue whales, orcas, colossal squids and fur seals. The emperor penguin is the only penguin that breeds during the winter in Antarctica, while the Adélie penguin breeds farther south than any other penguin. The rockhopper penguin has distinctive feathers around the eyes, giving the appearance of elaborate eyelashes. King penguins, chinstrap penguins, and gentoo penguins also breed in the Antarctic.

text: The Antarctic fur seal was very heavily hunted in the 18th and 19th centuries for its pelt by sealers from the United States and the United Kingdom. The Weddell seal, a "true seal", is named after Sir James Weddell, commander of British sealing expeditions in the Weddell Sea. Antarctic krill, which congregates in large schools, is the keystone species of the ecosystem of the Southern Ocean, and is an important food organism for whales, seals, leopard seals, fur seals, squid, icefish, penguins, albatrosses and many other birds.[69]

text: The benthic communities of the seafloor are diverse and dense, with up to 155,000 animals found in 1 square metre (10.8 sq ft). As the seafloor environment is very similar all around the Antarctic, hundreds of species can be found all the way around the mainland, which is a uniquely wide distribution for such a large community. Deep-sea gigantism is common among these animals.[70]

text: A census of sea life carried out during the International Polar Year and which involved some 500 researchers was released in 2010. The research is part of the global Census of Marine Life (CoML) and has disclosed some remarkable findings. More than 235 marine organisms live in both polar regions, having bridged the gap of 12,000 km (7,456 mi). Large animals such as some cetaceans and birds make the round trip annually. More surprising are small forms of life such as mudworms, sea cucumbers and free-swimming snails found in both polar oceans. Various factors may aid in their distribution – fairly uniform temperatures of the deep ocean at the poles and the equator which differ by no more than 5 °C, and the major current systems or marine conveyor belt which transport egg and larva stages.[71]

text: Birds[edit]

text: The rocky shores of mainland Antarctica and its offshore islands provide nesting space for over 100 million birds every spring. These nesters include species of albatrosses, petrels, skuas, gulls and terns.[72] The insectivorous South Georgia pipit is endemic to South Georgia and some smaller surrounding islands. Freshwater ducks inhabit South Georgia and the Kerguelen Islands.[73]

text: The flightless penguins are all located in the Southern Hemisphere, with the greatest concentration located on and around Antarctica. Four of the 18 penguin species live and breed on the mainland and its close offshore islands. Another four species live on the subantarctic islands.[74] Emperor penguins have four overlapping layers of feathers, keeping them warm. They are the only Antarctic animal to breed during the winter.[75]

text: Fish[edit]

text: There are relatively few fish species in few families in the Southern Ocean. The most species-rich family are the snailfish (Liparidae), followed by the cod icefish (Nototheniidae)[76] and eelpout (Zoarcidae). Together the snailfish, eelpouts and notothenioids (which includes cod icefish and several other families) account for almost 9⁄10 of the more than 320 described fish species of the Southern Ocean (tens of undescribed species also occur in the region, especially among the snailfish).[77] Southern Ocean snailfish are generally found in deep waters, while the icefish also occur in shallower waters.[76]

text: Icefish[edit]

text: Cod icefish (Nototheniidae), as well as several other families, are part of the Notothenioidei suborder, collectively sometimes referred to as icefish. The suborder contains many species with antifreeze proteins in their blood and tissue, allowing them to live in water that is around or slightly below 0 °C (32 °F).[78][79] Antifreeze proteins are also known from Southern Ocean snailfish.[80]

text: The crocodile icefish (family Channichthyidae), also known as white-blooded fish, are only found in the Southern Ocean. They lack hemoglobin in their blood, resulting in their blood being colourless. One Channichthyidae species, the mackerel icefish (Champsocephalus gunnari), was once the most common fish in coastal waters less than 400 metres (1,312 ft) deep, but was overfished in the 1970s and 1980s. Schools of icefish spend the day at the seafloor and the night higher in the water column eating plankton and smaller fish.[78]

text: There are two species from the genus Dissostichus, the Antarctic toothfish (Dissostichus mawsoni) and the Patagonian toothfish (Dissostichus eleginoides). These two species live on the seafloor 100–3,000 metres (328–9,843 ft) deep, and can grow to around 2 metres (7 ft) long weighing up to 100 kilograms (220 lb), living up to 45 years. The Antarctic toothfish lives close to the Antarctic mainland, whereas the Patagonian toothfish lives in the relatively warmer subantarctic waters. Toothfish are commercially fished, and overfishing has reduced toothfish populations.[78]

text: Another abundant fish group is the genus Notothenia, which like the Antarctic toothfish have antifreeze in their bodies.[78]

text: An unusual species of icefish is the Antarctic silverfish (Pleuragramma antarcticum), which is the only truly pelagic fish in the waters near Antarctica.[81]

text: Mammals[edit]

text: Seven pinniped species inhabit Antarctica. The largest, the elephant seal (Mirounga leonina), can reach up to 4,000 kilograms (8,818 lb), while females of the smallest, the Antarctic fur seal (Arctocephalus gazella), reach only 150 kilograms (331 lb). These two species live north of the sea ice, and breed in harems on beaches. The other four species can live on the sea ice. Crabeater seals (Lobodon carcinophagus) and Weddell seals (Leptonychotes weddellii) form breeding colonies, whereas leopard seals (Hydrurga leptonyx) and Ross seals (Ommatophoca rossii) live solitary lives. Although these species hunt underwater, they breed on land or ice and spend a great deal of time there, as they have no terrestrial predators.[82]

text: The four species that inhabit sea ice are thought to make up 50% of the total biomass of the world's seals.[83] Crabeater seals have a population of around 15 million, making them one of the most numerous large animals on the planet.[84] The New Zealand sea lion (Phocarctos hookeri), one of the rarest and most localised pinnipeds, breeds almost exclusively on the subantarctic Auckland Islands, although historically it had a wider range.[85] Out of all permanent mammalian residents, the Weddell seals live the furthest south.[86]

text: There are 10 cetacean species found in the Southern Ocean; six baleen whales, and four toothed whales. The largest of these, the blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus), grows to 24 metres (79 ft) long weighing 84 tonnes. Many of these species are migratory, and travel to tropical waters during the Antarctic winter.[87]

text: Invertebrates[edit]

text: Arthropods[edit]

text: Five species of krill, small free-swimming crustaceans, have been found in the Southern Ocean.[88] The Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba) is one of the most abundant animal species on earth, with a biomass of around 500 million tonnes. Each individual is 6 centimetres (2.4 in) long and weighs over 1 gram (0.035 oz).[89]  The swarms that form can stretch for kilometres, with up to 30,000 individuals per 1 cubic metre (35 cu ft), turning the water red.[88] Swarms usually remain in deep water during the day, ascending during the night to feed on plankton. Many larger animals depend on krill for their own survival.[89] During the winter when food is scarce, adult Antarctic krill can revert to a smaller juvenile stage, using their own body as nutrition.[88]

text: Many benthic crustaceans have a non-seasonal breeding cycle, and some raise their young in a brood pouch. Glyptonotus antarcticus is an unusually large benthic isopod, reaching 20 centimetres (8 in) in length weighing 70 grams (2.47 oz). Amphipods are abundant in soft sediments, eating a range of items, from algae to other animals.[70] The amphipods are highly diverse with more than 600 recognized species found south of the Antarctic Convergence and there are indications that many undescribed species remain. Among these are several "giants", such as the iconic epimeriids that are up to 8 cm (3.1 in) long.[90]

text: Slow moving sea spiders are common, sometimes growing as large as a human hand. They feed on the corals, sponges, and bryozoans that litter the seabed.[70]

text: Others[edit]

text: Many aquatic molluscs are present in Antarctica. Bivalves such as Adamussium colbecki move around on the seafloor, while others such as Laternula elliptica live in burrows filtering the water above.[70] There are around 70 cephalopod species in the Southern Ocean,[91] the largest of which is the colossal squid (Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni), which at up to 14 metres (46 ft) is among the largest invertebrate in the world.[92] Squid makes up most of the diet of some animals, such as grey-headed albatrosses and sperm whales, and the warty squid (Moroteuthis ingens) is one of the subantarctic's most preyed upon species by vertebrates.[91]

text: The sea urchin genus Abatus burrow through the sediment eating the nutrients they find in it.[70] Two species of salps are common in Antarctic waters, Salpa thompsoni and Ihlea racovitzai. Salpa thompsoni is found in ice-free areas, whereas Ihlea racovitzai is found in the high latitude areas near ice. Due to their low nutritional value, they are normally only eaten by fish, with larger animals such as birds and marine mammals only eating them when other food is scarce.[93]

text: Antarctic sponges are long lived, and sensitive to environmental changes due to the specificity of the symbiotic microbial communities within them. As a result, they function as indicators of environmental health.[94]

text: Environment[edit]

text: Current issues[edit]

text: Increased solar ultraviolet radiation resulting from the Antarctic ozone hole has reduced marine primary productivity (phytoplankton) by as much as 15% and has started damaging the DNA of some fish.[95] Illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing, especially the landing of an estimated five to six times more Patagonian toothfish than the regulated fishery, likely affects the sustainability of the stock. Long-line fishing for toothfish causes a high incidence of seabird mortality.

text: International agreements[edit]

text: All international agreements regarding the world's oceans apply to the Southern Ocean. In addition, it is subject to these agreements specific to the region:

text:
The Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary of the International Whaling Commission (IWC) prohibits commercial whaling south of 40 degrees south (south of 60 degrees south between 50 degrees and 130 degrees west). Japan regularly does not recognize this provision, because the sanctuary violates IWC charter. Since the scope of the sanctuary is limited to commercial whaling, in regard to its whaling permit and whaling for scientific research, a Japanese fleet carried out an annual whale-hunt in the region. On 31 March 2014, the International Court of Justice ruled that Japan's whaling program, which Japan has long claimed is for scientific purposes, was a cloak for commercial whaling, and no further permits would be granted.
Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals is part of the Antarctic Treaty System. It was signed at the conclusion of a multilateral conference in London on 11 February 1972.[96]
Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR)  is part of the Antarctic Treaty System. The Convention was entered into force on 7 April 1982 and has its goal is to preserve marine life and environmental integrity in and near Antarctica. It was established in large part to concerns that an increase in krill catches in the Southern Ocean could have a serious impact on populations of other marine life which are dependent upon krill for food.[97]

tag: ul

text:
Many nations prohibit the exploration for and the exploitation of mineral resources south of the fluctuating Antarctic Convergence,[98] which lies in the middle of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current and serves as the dividing line between the very cold polar surface waters to the south and the warmer waters to the north. The Antarctic Treaty covers the portion of the globe south of sixty degrees south,[99]
it prohibits new claims to Antarctica.[100]

text: The Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources applies to the area south of 60° South latitude as well as the areas further north up to the limit of the Antarctic Convergence.[101]

text: Economy[edit]

text: Between 1 July 1998 and 30 June 1999, fisheries landed 119,898 tonnes, of which 85% consisted of krill and 14% of Patagonian toothfish. International agreements came into force in late 1999 to reduce illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing, which in the 1998–99 season landed five to six times more Patagonian toothfish than the regulated fishery.

text: Ports and harbors[edit]

text: Major operational ports include: Rothera Station, Palmer Station, Villa Las Estrellas, Esperanza Base, Mawson Station, McMurdo Station, and offshore anchorages in Antarctica.

text: Few ports or harbors exist on the southern (Antarctic) coast of the Southern Ocean, since ice conditions limit use of most shores to short periods in midsummer; even then some require icebreaker escort for access. Most Antarctic ports are operated by government research stations and, except in an emergency, remain closed to commercial or private vessels; vessels in any port south of 60 degrees south are subject to inspection by Antarctic Treaty observers.

text: The Southern Ocean's southernmost port operates at McMurdo Station at 77°50′S 166°40′E / 77.833°S 166.667°E / -77.833; 166.667. Winter Quarters Bay forms a small harbor, on the southern tip of Ross Island where a floating ice pier makes port operations possible in summer. Operation Deep Freeze personnel constructed the first ice pier at McMurdo in 1973.[102]

text: Based on the original 1928 IHO delineation of the Southern Ocean (and the 1937 delineation if the Great Australian Bight is considered integral), Australian ports and harbors between Cape Leeuwin and Cape Otway on the Australian mainland and along the west coast of Tasmania would also be identified as ports and harbors existing in the Southern Ocean. These would include the larger ports and harbors of Albany, Thevenard, Port Lincoln, Whyalla, Port Augusta, Port Adelaide, Portland, Warrnambool, and Macquarie Harbour.

text: Yacht races have been held in the Southern Ocean, such as the Volvo Ocean Race, Velux 5 Oceans Race, Vendée Globe, Jules Verne Trophy and Global Challenge.


document_title: Pencil

question_text: where does lead in a pencil come from

question_tokens: where does lead in a pencil come from

text: Pencil

text: History

text: Camel's hair pencil

text: Pencil, from Old French pincel, from Latin penicillus a "little tail" (see penis; pincellus is Latin from the post-classical period[1]) originally referred to an artist's fine brush of camel hair, also used for writing before modern lead or chalk pencils.[2]

text: Though the archetypal pencil was an artist's brush, the stylus, a thin metal stick used for scratching in papyrus or wax tablets, was used extensively by the Romans[3] and for palm-leaf manuscripts.

text: Discovery of graphite deposit

text: Prior to 1565 (some sources say as early as 1500), a large deposit of graphite was discovered on the approach to Grey Knotts from the hamlet of Seathwaite in Borrowdale parish, Cumbria, England.[4][5][6][7] This particular deposit of graphite was extremely pure and solid, and it could easily be sawn into sticks. It remains the only large-scale deposit of graphite ever found in this solid form.[8] Chemistry was in its infancy and the substance was thought to be a form of lead. Consequently, it was called plumbago (Latin for "lead ore").[9][10] Because the pencil core is still referred to as "lead", or a "lead", many people have the misconception that the graphite in the pencil is lead,[11] and the black core of pencils is still referred to as lead, even though it never contained the element lead.[12][13][14][15][16][17] The words for pencil in German (bleistift), Irish (peann luaidhe), Arabic (قلم رصاص qalam raṣāṣ), and some other languages literally mean lead pen.

text: The value of graphite would soon be realised to be enormous, mainly because it could be used to line the moulds for cannonballs; the mines were taken over by the Crown and were guarded. When sufficient stores of graphite had been accumulated, the mines were flooded to prevent theft until more was required.

text: The usefulness of graphite for pencils was discovered as well, but graphite for pencils had to be smuggled. The news of the usefulness of these early pencils spread far and wide, attracting the attention of artists all over the known world.[citation needed] Because graphite is soft, it requires some form of encasement. Graphite sticks were initially wrapped in string or sheepskin for stability. England would enjoy a monopoly on the production of pencils until a method of reconstituting the graphite powder was found in 1662 in Italy. However, the distinctively square English pencils continued to be made with sticks cut from natural graphite into the 1860s. The town of Keswick, near the original findings of block graphite, still manufactures pencils, the factory also being the location of the Cumberland Pencil Museum.[18] The meaning of "graphite writing implement" apparently evolved late in the 16th century.[19]

text: Wood holders added

text: Around 1560,[20] an Italian couple named Simonio and Lyndiana Bernacotti made what are likely the first blueprints for the modern, wood-encased carpentry pencil. Their version was a flat, oval, more compact type of pencil. Their concept involved the hollowing out of a stick of juniper wood. Shortly thereafter, a superior technique was discovered: two wooden halves were carved, a graphite stick inserted, and the halves then glued together—essentially the same method in use to this day.[21]

text: New pencils from graphite powder, and graphite and clay

text: The first attempt to manufacture graphite sticks from powdered graphite was in Nuremberg, Germany, in 1662. It used a mixture of graphite, sulphur, and antimony.[22][23][24][25]

text: English and German pencils were not available to the French during the Napoleonic Wars; France, under naval blockade imposed by Great Britain, was unable to import the pure graphite sticks from the British Grey Knotts mines – the only known source in the world. France was also unable to import the inferior German graphite pencil substitute. It took the efforts of an officer in Napoleon's army to change this. In 1795, Nicolas-Jacques Conté discovered a method of mixing powdered graphite with clay and forming the mixture into rods that were then fired in a kiln. By varying the ratio of graphite to clay, the hardness of the graphite rod could also be varied. This method of manufacture, which had been earlier discovered by the Austrian Joseph Hardtmuth, the founder of the Koh-I-Noor in 1790, remains in use.[26] In 1802, the production of graphite leads from graphite and clay was patented by the Koh-I-Noor company in Vienna.[27]

text: In England, pencils continued to be made from whole sawn graphite. Henry Bessemer's first successful invention (1838) was a method of compressing graphite powder into solid graphite thus allowing the waste from sawing to be reused.[28]

text: The pencil in America

text: American colonists imported pencils from Europe until after the American Revolution. Benjamin Franklin advertised pencils for sale in his Pennsylvania Gazette in 1729, and George Washington used a three-inch pencil when he surveyed the Ohio Territory in 1762.[29][better source needed] It is said[by whom?] that William Munroe, a cabinetmaker in Concord, Massachusetts, made the first American wood pencils in 1812. This was not the only pencil-making occurring in Concord. According to Henry Petroski,[citation needed] transcendentalist philosopher Henry David Thoreau discovered how to make a good pencil out of inferior graphite using clay as the binder; this invention was prompted by his father's pencil factory in Concord, which employed graphite found in New Hampshire in 1821 by Charles Dunbar.

text: Munroe's method of making pencils was painstakingly slow, and in the neighbouring town of Acton, a pencil mill owner named Ebenezer Wood set out to automate the process at his own pencil mill located at Nashoba Brook. He used the first circular saw in pencil production. He constructed the first of the hexagon- and octagon-shaped wooden casings. Ebenezer did not patent his invention and shared his techniques with anyone. One of those was Eberhard Faber of New York, who became the leader in pencil production.[30]

text: Joseph Dixon, an inventor and entrepreneur involved with the Tantiusques granite mine in Sturbridge, Massachusetts, developed a means to mass-produce pencils. By 1870, The Joseph Dixon Crucible Company was the world’s largest dealer and consumer of graphite and later became the contemporary Dixon Ticonderoga pencil and art supplies company.[31][32]

text: By the end of the 19th century, over 240,000 pencils were used each day in the US. The favoured timber for pencils was Red Cedar as it was aromatic and did not splinter when sharpened. In the early 20th century supplies of Red Cedar were dwindling so that pencil manufacturers were forced to recycle the wood from cedar fences and barns to maintain supply.

text: One effect of this was that "during World War II rotary pencil sharpeners were outlawed in Britain because they wasted so much scarce lead and wood, and pencils had to be sharpened in the more conservative manner – with knives."[33]

text: It was soon discovered that Incense cedar, when dyed and perfumed to resemble Red Cedar, was a suitable alternative and most pencils today are made from this timber which is grown in managed forests. Over 14 billion pencils are manufactured worldwide annually.[34] Less popular alternatives to cedar include basswood and alder.[33]

text: In Southeast Asia the wood Jelutong may be used to create pencils (though the use of this rainforest species is controversial).[35] Environmentalists prefer the use of Pulai – another wood native to the region and used in pencil manufacturing.[36][37]

text: Eraser attached

text: On 30 March 1858, Hymen Lipman received the first patent for attaching an eraser to the end of a pencil.[38] In 1862, Lipman sold his patent to Joseph Reckendorfer for $100,000, who went on to sue pencil manufacturer Faber-Castell for infringement.[39] In 1875, the Supreme Court of the US ruled against Reckendorfer declaring the patent invalid.[40]

text: Pencil extenders

text: Historian Henry Petroski notes that while ever more efficient means of mass production of pencils has driven the replacement cost of a pencil down, before this people would continue to use even the stub of a pencil. For those who "did not feel comfortable using a stub, pencil extenders were sold. These devices function something like a porte-crayon...the pencil stub can be inserted into the end of a shaft...Extenders were especially common among engineers and draftsmen, whose favorite pencils were priced dearly. The use of an extender also has the advantage that the pencil does not appreciably change its heft as it wears down."[33] Artists currently use extenders to maximize the use of their colored pencils.

text: Health

text: Residual graphite from a pencil stick is not poisonous, and graphite is harmless if consumed.[41]

text: Although lead has not been used for writing since antiquity, lead poisoning from pencils was not uncommon. Until the middle of the 20th century the paint used for the outer coating could contain high concentrations of lead, and this could be ingested when the pencil was sucked or chewed.[42]

text: Manufacture

text: The lead of the pencil is a mix of finely ground graphite and clay powders. Before the two substances are mixed, they are separately cleaned of foreign matter and dried in a manner that creates large square cakes. Once the cakes have fully dried, the graphite and the clay squares are mixed together using water. The amount of clay content added to the graphite depends on the intended pencil hardness (lower proportions of clay makes the core softer),[43] and the amount of time spent on grinding the mixture determines the quality of the lead. The mixture is then shaped into long spaghetti-like strings, straightened, dried, cut, and then tempered in a kiln. The resulting strings are dipped in oil or molten wax, which seeps into the tiny holes of the material and allows for the smooth writing ability of the pencil. A juniper or incense-cedar plank with several long parallel grooves is cut to fashion a "slat," and the graphite/clay strings are inserted into the grooves. Another grooved plank is glued on top, and the whole assembly is then cut into individual pencils, which are then varnished or painted. Many pencils feature an eraser on the top and so the process is usually still considered incomplete at this point. Each pencil has a shoulder cut on one end of the pencil to allow for a metal ferrule to be secured onto the wood. A rubber plug is then inserted into the ferrule for a functioning eraser on the end of the pencil.[44]

text: Grading and classification

text: Many pencils across the world, and almost all in Europe, are graded on the European system using a continuum from H (commonly interpreted as "hardness") to B (commonly "blackness"), as well as F (usually taken to mean "fineness", although F pencils are no more fine or more easily sharpened than any other grade). The standard writing pencil is graded HB.[45]

text: According to Petroski, this system might have been developed in the early 20th century by Brookman, an English pencil maker. It used B for black and H for hard; a pencil's grade was described by a sequence or successive Hs or Bs such as BB and BBB for successively softer leads, and HH and HHH for successively harder ones.[46]

text: The Koh-i-Noor Hardtmuth pencil manufacturers claim to have originated the HB standard of gradations, with H standing for Hardtmuth, B for the company's location of Budějovice, and F for Franz Hardtmuth, who was responsible for technological improvements in pencil manufacture.[47][48]

text: As of 2009, a set of pencils ranging from a very hard, light-marking pencil to a very soft, black-marking pencil usually ranges from hardest to softest as follows:

text:
9H
8H
7H
6H
5H
4H
3H
2H
H
F
HB
B
2B
3B
4B
5B
6B
7B
8B
9B

Hardest
→
Medium
→
Softest

text: Koh-i-noor offers twenty grades from 10H to 8B for its 1500 series;[49] Mitsubishi Pencil offers twenty-two grades from 10H to 10B for its Hi-uni range;[50] Derwent produces twenty grades from 9H to 9B for its graphic pencils[51] and Staedtler produces sixteen from 6H to 8B for its Mars Lumograph pencils.[52]

text: The main market for such wide range of grades are artists who are interested in creating a full range of tones from light grey to black. Engineers prefer harder pencils which allow for a greater control in the shape of the lead. This is reflected in the way pencils are packaged and marketed. For example, for its Graphic pencils Derwent offers three packages of 12 pencils each: Technical (with hard grades from 9H to B), Sketching (with soft grades H to 9B), and Designer (with medium grades 4H to 6B).[citation needed]

text: Pencils graded using this system are used to measure the hardness and resistance of varnishes and paints. The resistance of a coating (also known as its pencil hardness) is determined as the grade of the hardest pencil that does not permanently mark the coating when pressed firmly against it at a 45 degree angle.[53][54]

text:
Conté/Thoreau[55]

Tone
US
World

#1
B

#2
HB

#2½*
F

#3
H

#4
2H

*Also seen as 24/8, 2.5, 25/10

text: Another method uses numbers to designate the grade of a pencil. It was originally created by Conté and adopted in the US by John Thoreau, father of Henry David Thoreau, in the 19th century.[56]

text: Although Conté/Thoreau's system is widely accepted, not all manufacturers follow it; for example, Faber-Castell uses a different equivalence table in its Grip 2001 pencils: 1 = 2B, 2 = B, 2½ = HB, 3 = H, 4 = 2H.

text: The various graphite pencil grades are achieved by altering the proportion of graphite to clay: the more clay the harder the pencil.[57][58][59] Two pencils of the same grade but different manufacturers will not necessarily make a mark of identical tone nor have the same hardness.[60]

text: External colour and shape of pencils

text: The majority of pencils made in the US are painted yellow.[61] According to Henry Petroski,[62] this tradition began in 1890 when the L. & C. Hardtmuth Company of Austria-Hungary introduced their Koh-I-Noor brand, named after the famous diamond. It was intended to be the world's best and most expensive pencil, and at a time when most pencils were either painted in dark colours or not at all, the Koh-I-Noor was yellow. As well as simply being distinctive, the colour may have been inspired by the Austro-Hungarian flag; it was also suggestive of the Orient at a time when the best-quality graphite came from Siberia. Other companies then copied the yellow colour so that their pencils would be associated with this high-quality brand, and chose brand names with explicit Oriental references, such as Mikado (renamed Mirado)[63][64] and Mongol.[65][66]

text: Not all countries use yellow pencils. German and Brazilian pencils, for example, are often green, blue or black, based on the trademark colours of Faber-Castell, a major German stationery company which has plants in those countries. In southern European countries, pencils tend to be dark red or black with yellow lines, while in Australia, they are red with black bands at one end. In India, the most common pencil colour scheme was dark red with black lines, and pencils with a large number of colour schemes are produced by various companies.[citation needed]

text: Pencils are commonly round, hexagonal, or sometimes triangular in section. Carpenters' pencils are typically oval or rectangular, so they cannot easily roll away during work.

text: Notable pencil users

text:
Thomas Edison had his pencils specially made by Eagle Pencil. Each pencil was three inches long, was thicker than standard pencils and had softer graphite than was normally available.[34]
Vladimir Nabokov rewrote everything he had ever published, usually several times, in pencil.[34]
John Steinbeck was an obsessive pencil user and is said to have used as many as 60 a day[by whom?]. His novel East of Eden took more than 300 pencils to write.[34]
Vincent van Gogh used only Faber pencils as they were "superior to Carpenters pencils, a capital black and most agreeable".[34][67]
Johnny Carson regularly played with pencils at his Tonight Show desk. These pencils were specially made with erasers at both ends to avoid on-set accidents.[68]
Roald Dahl used only pencils with yellow casing to write his books. He had 6 sharpened pencils ready at the beginning of each day and only when all 6 pencils became unusable did he resharpen them.[69]

text: Types

text: By marking material

text: By use

text: By shape

text:
Triangular (more accurately a Reuleaux triangle)
Hexagonal
Round
Bendable (flexible plastic)

text: By size

text: A standard, #2, hexagonal pencil is 19 cm (7.5 in) long.

text: By manufacture

text: There are also pencils which use mechanical methods to push lead through a hole at the end. These can be divided into two groups: propelling pencils use an internal mechanism to push the lead out from an internal compartment, while clutch pencils merely hold the lead in place (the lead is extended by releasing it and allowing some external force, usually gravity, to pull it out of the body). The erasers (sometimes replaced by a sharpener on pencils with larger lead sizes) are also removable (and thus replaceable), and usually cover a place to store replacement leads. Mechanical pencils are popular for their longevity and the fact that they may never need sharpening. Lead types are based on grade and size; with standard sizes being 2.00 mm (0.079 in), 1.40 mm (0.055 in), 1.00 mm (0.039 in), 0.70 mm (0.028 in), 0.50 mm (0.020 in), 0.35 mm (0.014 in), 0.25 mm (0.0098 in), 0.18 mm (0.0071 in), and 0.13 mm (0.0051 in) (ISO 9175-1)—the 0.90 mm (0.035 in) size is available, but is not considered a standard ISO size.[citation needed]

text: Pioneered by Taiwanese stationery manufacturer Bensia Pioneer Industrial Corporation in the early 1970s, the product is also known as Bensia Pencils, stackable pencils or non-sharpening pencils. It is a type of pencil where many short pencil tips are housed in a cartridge-style plastic holder. A blunt tip is removed by pulling it from the writing end of the body and re-inserting it into the open-ended bottom of the body, thereby pushing a new tip to the top.

text: Invented by Harold Grossman[85] for Empire Pencil Company in 1967 and subsequently improved upon by Arthur D. Little for Empire from 1969 through the early 1970s; the plastic pencil was commercialised by Empire as the "EPCON" Pencil. These pencils were co-extruded, extruding a plasticised graphite mix within a wood-composite core.[86]