document_title: NBA Finals

question_text: who won the nba championship 2 years ago

text: NBA Finals

text: History[edit]

text: 1957–69: Celtics dynasty[edit]

text: The Boston Celtics went 11–1 in the NBA Finals during 13 seasons (1956–57 to 1968–69). They won eight straight NBA championships from 1959 through 1966.[3] This period marks the largest stretch of seasons that a single team made up over 65% of Finals appearances, and also includes the only ever time the NBA Finals was decided in double overtime.

text: With the establishment of the Celtics dynasty in 1957 spearheaded by center Bill Russell, the team saw great success, only ever encountering difficulty when up against teams led by Wilt Chamberlain. However, for most of the late 1950s and 1960s, the Celtics and Russell managed to have an upper hand on Chamberlain's teams.

text: In 1964, Chamberlain, who had moved to the state of California alongside his team, led the San Francisco Warriors to a Western Conference championship, but again failed to conquer the Celtics. The following season, he returned to the Eastern Conference to join the Philadelphia 76ers, who were the former Syracuse Nationals that had relocated to the city to cover the vacancy created with the departure of the Warriors.

text: The first clash between the two stars in the playoffs was in 1966, with Boston winning the series 4–1. In the following season, Philadelphia coach Alex Hannum instructed Chamberlain to provide an increased focus on playing a team game, to avoid drawing the double-teams that troubled Chamberlain during the Finals. This tactical change brought the team to a new record of 68 wins the following season, as well as defeating the Celtics before winning the Finals. In 1968, Boston overcame a 3–1 deficit against Philadelphia to once again arrive in the Finals. They went on to defeat the Los Angeles Lakers in the Finals to again become NBA Champions.

text: In 1969, the Celtics faced great difficulty entering the postseason, as they had an aging team and multiple injuries to a number of players. They qualified for the playoffs as the fourth and final seed in the East, while the Lakers, who had added Chamberlain in the offseason to join stars Jerry West and Elgin Baylor. The Lakers won the West and were prohibitive favorites to become Champions for the first time since relocating to Los Angeles. Despite holding a 2-1 advantage going into Game 4, the Lakers led 87–86 and had the ball with 10 seconds to play. But after a turnover, Sam Jones scored to give the Celtics a narrow 88–87 win and tying the series. The series was eventually tied 3-3 going into Game 7 in Los Angeles, with Lakers owner Jack Cooke hanging balloons in the arena in anticipation of a Lakers victory. West also picked up injuries to his thigh and hamstring during the series, however, returned to play for the final game. Russell utilized this newly lacking mobility in West to organize fast breaks at every opportunity for the Celtics, which allowed them to gain an early lead. They held off a furious Lakers comeback to win 108–106 and win the series, and win their eleventh championship in 13 years.

text: As many stars either declined or retired following this win, it is largely recognized as the last NBA Finals conducted by the Celtics dynasty.

text: 1970–79: Decade of parity[edit]

text: The 1970s saw eight teams win the title, with the Celtics and New York Knicks winning twice.

text: In 1970, a classic final featured the Knicks against the Lakers. In the waning moments of Game 3, with the series tied, Jerry West hit a basket from 60 feet to tie the game, a shot which became one of the most famous ever. However, the Knicks won in overtime and continued their momentum for a 4–3 win, becoming the first team after the Celtics dynasty to win an NBA championship. The Milwaukee Bucks also won their first franchise title, defeating the Baltimore Bullets in 1971.

text: Two seasons after losing in the Finals, the Lakers got a measure of revenge by winning 33 straight games, the longest such streak in NBA history. By season's end, they broke the record for most wins in a season with 69, one more than the 1966–67 Philadelphia 76ers, before taking home the championship for the first time since relocating to Los Angeles. The Knicks returned to win the championship again a season later to record their second ever victorious season.

text: Despite the rise of the Knicks, the 1974 championship returned to the Celtics, as a newly formed cohort of players led by Dave Cowens demonstrated excellent teamwork and resilience to win in seven games to secure another title.

text: Following the success of the Lakers, the 1970s were characterized by a major breakthrough of the league's western franchises. In 1975, after compiling a 48–34 regular-season record, the Golden State Warriors swept the heavily favored Washington Bullets 4–0 in the 1975 NBA Finals. In 1976, the Phoenix Suns, who only enjoyed eight years of existence as a franchise, overcame a losing record early in the season to build a remarkable win streak to finish 42–40. The events culminated in upset victories over the Seattle SuperSonics and the Warriors, before facing Boston in the Finals. The teams split the first four games, before Game 5 went into three overtimes before Boston won 128–126. The Celtics managed to secure their 13th championship quickly after, defeating the Suns 87–80 in Game 6.

text: Other franchises that secured their first titles in the 1970s included the Portland Trail Blazers in 1977, and the Washington Bullets defeating the SuperSonics in 1978. The SuperSonics managed to exact revenge in the following season, however, as they secured their first franchise title in 1979.

text: 1980–90: Celtics–Lakers rivalry and the Bad Boys[edit]

text: Between 1980 and 1990, the Celtics, 76ers, Lakers, or the Detroit Pistons won every NBA Finals.[citation needed] From 1980 to 1990, the Lakers won five titles (1980, 1982, 1985, 1987, and 1988); the Celtics won three (1981, 1984, and 1986); the Pistons won twice (1989 and 1990); and the 76ers won once (1983).

text: The 1979 NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship Game featured Magic Johnson's Michigan State University team facing off against Larry Bird's Indiana State University team. This meeting has been immortalized as the beginning of the Lakers and Celtics rivalry of the 1980s, which pitted those two NBA teams represented respectively by Johnson and Bird. It also attracted the largest TV rating ever for an NCAA Championship game, as 38 percent of all television viewers that night tuned in.

text: Bird had actually been drafted the year before, but later decided to stay an additional year, and the two superstars both entered the league in 1979, leading their respective teams to dazzling heights. Johnson and the Showtime Lakers reached the 1980 NBA Finals against the 76ers, which were also led by NBA superstar Julius Erving. The Lakers took a 3–2 lead, but Kareem Abdul-Jabbar could not play in Game 6 due to injury. Johnson, a natural point guard, was shifted to center, and ended up playing every position on the court during the game, scoring 42 points, while also attaining 15 rebounds and 7 assists[4] to win his first championship while being awarded his first NBA Finals MVP; a remarkable performance in the annals of the sport.

text: Boston reached the 1981 NBA Finals led by the "Big Three" of Larry Bird, Kevin McHale, and Robert Parish.  During the 1980 NBA draft, the Celtics traded two first round picks to the Warriors for Parish and a first round pick later spent on McHale.  Considered to be one of the best front courts of all time, all three players later made the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame.[5] They met the Houston Rockets in the 1981 Finals, practically single-handedly carried by Moses Malone, who upset the Lakers and Johnson in the first round. The Rockets were only the second team in NBA history to make the Finals after posting a losing record in the regular season, and the Celtics had an NBA best record of 62–20. The Celtics later won the Finals in 6 games.

text: The Lakers returned to the NBA Finals in 1982, this time led by new coach Pat Riley, in a rematch against the 76ers. The 76ers defeated the Celtics in the Eastern Conference finals in a 7-game series, but were defeated by Lakers in 6 games, with Johnson being named Finals MVP. Upon losing their past three NBA Finals appearances, the 76ers decided that they needed one more piece to become champions, and enlisted Malone as their premier target. On September 15, 1982, they traded for Malone, who was also the league's reigning MVP.

text: With the new duo of Malone and Erving, the 76ers won the 1983 NBA Finals, losing only once in the entire playoffs, as well as sweeping the Lakers. However, the 1984 NBA Finals was conducted by the Celtics and Lakers, who faced each other for the first time since 1969. After an inspired performance from Bird, the Celtics toppled the Lakers 4–3. The final game of this series attracted the largest ever TV audience for an NBA game, and the second-largest ever for a basketball game, with only the game between the two stars played five years earlier having a larger audience. It was the last NBA Finals played in the 2–2–1–1–1 format, until 2014.

text: In the 1985 NBA Finals, the Lakers made amends for their previous eight losses to the Celtics by defeating them in six games. Even though the Lakers lost the first game by 34 points in the Memorial Day Massacre, they won 4 of the next 5 games, including Game 6 at the Boston Garden, to finally end the long years of frustration of failing to defeat the Celtics. These finals were the first to be played in the 2–3–2 format, which was suggested by Boston coach Red Auerbach to NBA commissioner David Stern, as he hoped to cut back on the frequent traveling from Boston to Los Angeles.

text: The 1986 NBA Finals saw the Celtics face off against the Rockets, with Boston winning in six games, as well as securing their 16th title. Bird was also named Finals MVP for the second time. In 1987, the Lakers and Celtics met again, with both teams holding a win in the Finals apiece. With the third being contested, it is regarded as a rubber match between the two dynasties. The Lakers won the first two games, but Boston won Game 3. In Game 4, Johnson hit an sky-hook with two seconds left to give the Lakers a 107–106 win and a 3–1 series lead. The Lakers lost Game 5, but eventually won Game 6 to clinch the series, and a 2-1 all time win against the Celtics. Johnson was also named Finals MVP for the third time.

text: In the following two seasons, the aging Celtics failed to reach the Finals, becoming overshadowed by the rise of the Detroit Pistons. The Lakers managed to defend their title in the 1988 Finals, winning the series in 7 games against the Pistons. They then became the first team to win back-to-back NBA titles since 1969.[6] Seeking a three-peat in 1989, the Lakers were swept by the Pistons in a rematch of the previous year's Finals. In 1990, the Pistons then went back-to-back after defeating the Clyde Drexler led Portland Trailblazers in five games, attaining the nickname "Bad Boys" due to its rough, physical play. Led by a Hall of Fame back court in Joe Dumars and Isiah Thomas and a rugged front court in Dennis Rodman and Bill Laimbeer, the Pistons attained great success.

text: 1991–98: Bulls dynasty[edit]

text: The majority of the 1990s was marked by the supremacy of the Chicago Bulls.  The Bulls, led by head coach Phil Jackson and star players Michael Jordan and Scottie Pippen, won six titles in six Finals appearances from 1991-1998.  The only other team to win a title during this stretch was the Houston Rockets who won titles in 1994 and 1995, during Jordan's first retirement from professional basketball.

text: The first championship came at the expense of the Los Angeles Lakers, which also saw the last appearance in the Finals for Magic Johnson. Billed[by whom?] as a showdown between the aging Johnson and the upstart Jordan, the Lakers won the first game, 93–91. For the rest of the series, Pippen guarded Johnson, allowing Jordan a free scoring, and Chicago won the next four games. The Bulls returned to the Finals in the next year, pitted against Clyde Drexler and the Portland Trail Blazers. Throughout the 1991–1992 season, Jordan and Drexler led their teams to the best records in their respective conferences, leading to several comparisons between the two players in anticipation of a postseason match-up. Chicago defeated the Trail Blazers in Game 1 by 33 points, a game notable for Jordan breaking the record for the most three-pointers in a first half, with six. Game 2 went into overtime, with the Trail Blazers outscoring the Bulls 18–7 in the final period to run away with the win, even with Drexler fouling out in the 4th quarter. Games 3 and 4 were split between Chicago and Portland, respectively, but the Bulls took the final two games, clinching their second championship.

text: In 1993, Jordan was matched against close friend Charles Barkley, who was the league's reigning MVP at the Phoenix Suns. The Bulls won the first two games in Phoenix, 100–92 and 111–108. The Suns, rallying behind Barkley, won Game 3, 129–121 in Chicago in triple overtime. The Bulls took Game 4, 111–105, with Jordan scoring 55 points and tying Rick Barry for the second-most points in an NBA Finals game. The Suns won Game 5, 108–98, sending the series back to Phoenix. Chicago clinched the series in Game 6, 99–98, on John Paxson's three-pointer, as the Bulls became the third team in history to three-peat. After this win, Jordan retired from basketball to pursue a career in baseball.

text: Following Jordan's departure, the Houston Rockets, led by Hakeem Olajuwon, won the 1994 and 1995 NBA titles. During this period, Olajuwon became the only player in history to win the NBA MVP, NBA Defensive Player of the Year and Finals MVP awards in the same season. That was the only year that both the NBA and NHL finals went to seven games while involving teams from the same city, with the Rockets facing the New York Knicks in 1994. With their win in Game 7, the Rockets denied New York from winning both the NBA and NHL titles in the same year, as the New York Rangers won the 1994 Stanley Cup Finals. After trading for Clyde Drexler midseason, the Rockets later swept an Orlando Magic team consisting of Shaquille O'Neal and Penny Hardaway in the 1995 Finals; Olajuwon was again named Finals MVP, and the Rockets became the fifth franchise to win back-to-back titles and became the first 6th-seeded team to win the title without enjoying home court advantage on any of their playoff series.  The Houston Rockets also beat teams with at least 60 regular season wins in every round of the playoffs, with "Road Court" advantage.  No other team in NBA History has done that.  The Houston Rockets were down 3 games to 1 to the Phoenix Suns in the Semi-Finals and won 2 out of 3 games on the road, including game 7 to advance to the Conference Finals.

text: After his short stint in baseball, Jordan returned to basketball late in the 1994–95 season. Although he did not lead the Bulls to the Finals, he returned to pre-retirement form the next season while the team acquired perennial rebounding champion Dennis Rodman. The 1995–96 Bulls finished the regular season 72–10, attaining, at the time, the best regular season record in NBA history. They dominated in the playoffs, with series records of 3–0, 4–1 and 4–0, before facing the Seattle SuperSonics in the NBA Finals. After the Bulls took a 3–0 series lead, Seattle won the next two games after coach George Karl switched point guard Gary Payton onto Jordan, leading to a sixth game. However, Jordan altered his game to accommodate the advances of Payton, and the Bulls won Game 6 to win their fourth title.

text: In 1997 and 1998, the Bulls met the Utah Jazz in the Finals twice. Led by Olympians John Stockton and Karl Malone, the Jazz were defeated in both Finals by the Bulls in six games. In both series, Chicago won by hitting winning shots in the sixth and deciding game — the first by Steve Kerr in 1997 in Chicago, and the second by Jordan in Utah in 1998. This saw Chicago winning their sixth NBA championship, and managing their second three-peat. However, prior to the 1999 season, Jackson decided to retire, which set off a chain reaction that resulted in most of the team, including Jordan and Pippen, requesting to leave the Bulls. With no foundation of youth to build upon, the Bulls became a lottery-bound team for the next six seasons.

text: 1999–2010: Lakers'–Spurs' dominance[edit]

text: The Los Angeles Lakers and San Antonio Spurs combined to win nine NBA Championships during this period.

text: The Spurs were responsible for winning four championships during this period, in 1999, 2003, 2005, and 2007. In the 1999 NBA Playoffs, the Spurs finished with a 15–2 mark, including sweeps of the Blazers and Lakers. With a defensive squad led by David Robinson and Tim Duncan, San Antonio's 84.7 points allowed per game was the fewest average points allowed in the post-season in the last 30 years. In the Finals that year, the Spurs held the New York Knicks, the first #8 seed team to reach the finals in NBA history, to an average of 79.8 points per game. During the 2003 NBA Finals, the Spurs defeated the Nets in 6 games, which also marked the first championship contested between two former ABA teams. In Game 6, Duncan was two blocks short of recording the first quadruple-double in NBA Finals history, finishing with 21 points, 20 rebounds, 10 assists, and 8 blocks. The Spurs went on to defeat the Detroit Pistons 4–3 in the 2005 NBA Finals, as well as sweeping the LeBron James-led Cleveland Cavaliers in the 2007 NBA Finals. Duncan won the Finals MVP in 1999, 2003 and 2005. In 2007, Tony Parker was named MVP, becoming the first European-born player to win the award.

text: From 2000 to 2002, the Lakers, led by Shaquille O'Neal and Kobe Bryant, won three straight NBA Championships. O'Neal won the finals MVP all three times. Their first championship came at the expense of the Indiana Pacers, whom the Lakers defeated in 6 games. During their 2001 postseason run, the Lakers swept their first 3 series and won the Finals in 5 games, finishing with an unprecedented 15–1 record, the best postseason record in NBA history. Their opponent in the Finals that year were the Philadelphia 76ers, led by Allen Iverson. In the 2002 NBA Finals, the Lakers swept the New Jersey Nets, leading almost the entire time in each game; only for a short while after the beginning of Game 4 did the New Jersey Nets gain any significant lead in any game.

text: In the 2003 offseason, veteran stars Gary Payton and Karl Malone signed with the Lakers. Along with Bryant and O'Neal, they formed what many expected to be one of the best teams in NBA history, and were the favorites to win the championship in 2004. However, the Detroit Pistons, under coach Larry Brown, upset the Lakers in 5 games. Chauncey Billups was named the Finals MVP. Now established as one of the premier powerhouses of the East, the Pistons returned to the NBA Finals in the following year, before losing to the Spurs in seven games.

text: The 2006 NBA Finals were the only Finals during this period not to feature the Spurs or Lakers, instead featuring the Miami Heat and Dallas Mavericks. It was the first NBA Finals since 1971 that had both Western and Eastern Conference champions making their first Finals appearance in franchise history. The Mavericks won the first two games at home, but the turning point of the series was in Game 3, when the Heat overcame a 13-point deficit with less than 6 minutes left in the fourth quarter to win 98–96. The comeback was led by Dwyane Wade's 12 points in the final six minutes and a clutch outside jumpshot by Gary Payton, who was appearing in his third NBA finals. Miami swept all three of their home games, two of which were sparked by fourth quarter comebacks led by Wade; the Heat won their first championship in game six.

text: The Lakers returned to the finals in 2008, against the Boston Celtics. Renewing the teams' rivalry, this marked the 11th time that these two teams met in the Finals, the last meeting happened in 1987. The Celtics, who defeated the Lakers 4–2, were led by their "Big Three" superstars of Ray Allen, Kevin Garnett, and Paul Pierce, who was also named Finals MVP.

text: The Lakers bounced back from their 2008 loss and returned to the Finals in 2009, where they faced the Orlando Magic, led by Defensive Player of the Year Dwight Howard in 2009. The Lakers defeated Orlando in five games, with Bryant earning the Finals MVP award. The Lakers met the Celtics once again in 2010, trailing 3–2 before winning the last two at home, marking the first time in the history of the Celtics that they lost a Game 7 in the NBA Finals. Bryant was also named Finals MVP, with the triumphs in 2009 and 2010 becoming Phil Jackson's 10th and 11th NBA titles.  With these championship victories, Jackson surpassed both Red Auerbach's record for most NBA titles of all time.  He also passed Auerbach'a and National Hockey League coach Scotty Bowman's record for most titles as head coach in any major American professional sport.

text: 2011–14: Heat wave[edit]

text: During the 2010 offseason, the Miami Heat re-signed team captain Dwyane Wade and added free agents LeBron James and Chris Bosh to form the Big Three.[7] The Heat were then considered the favorites by many to win multiple championships, appearing in the next four finals, winning two in 2012 and 2013. LeBron James has also appeared in every NBA Finals since 2011, with both the Heat and the Cavaliers.

text: The second appearance by the Heat in a Finals came in 2011, where they were pitted against the Dallas Mavericks in a rematch of the finals from five years earlier. The Mavericks, led by Dirk Nowitzki, Jason Terry, Tyson Chandler, and Jason Kidd, won the series 4–2, with Nowitzki being named the Finals MVP. The Heat returned to the finals in the following year against an upstart Oklahoma City Thunder team featuring future MVPs Russell Westbrook, James Harden, and 3-time NBA scoring leader Kevin Durant. After the Thunder took Game 1 at home, the Heat won four straight games to win the series 4–1, becoming the first team to win a championship after trailing in three playoff series. James won his first championship and was unanimously named NBA Finals MVP.

text: The Heat repeated as champions in 2013, this time over the San Antonio Spurs, with the finals being the first since 1987 to feature four former Finals MVPs in a Finals; with Tim Duncan (1999, 2003, 2005) and Tony Parker (2007) for the Spurs, and Wade (2006) and James (2012) for the Heat. The Spurs went up 3–2 in the series, but the Heat bounced back with a Game 6 victory, notable for a game-tying three-pointer by Ray Allen in the closing seconds of regulation to send the game into overtime. The game is considered one of the greatest playoff games in NBA history.[8] The Heat won Game 7, 95–88, to clinch the title. James was named Finals MVP for the second straight year.

text: Looking for a 3-peat, the Heat reached the 2014 NBA Finals and faced the Spurs in a rematch of the 2013 Finals. With James limited in Game 1 due to leg cramps, the Spurs ended the game on a 31–9 run, winning the game 110–95. The Heat bounced back in Game 2, but that was their only win of the series, as the Spurs won both games in Miami and a deciding game 5 at home to win the Championship, their first since 2007 and the fifth and final title of Duncan's career. Kawhi Leonard was named Finals MVP, becoming the third-youngest Finals MVP after Duncan and Magic Johnson.

text: 2015–2018: Cavaliers-Warriors rivalry[edit]

text: The Cleveland Cavaliers and Golden State Warriors have met in every NBA Finals to between 2015 and 2018, becoming the first two teams to meet in four consecutive Finals.  Previously, no two teams have appeared in more than two consecutive finals.

text: After the 2014 Finals, LeBron James became a free agent and returned to the Cleveland Cavaliers where he teamed up with Kyrie Irving. The Cavs also traded for Kevin Love to form a new "Big Three" in Cleveland. In the 2015 postseason, the defending champion Spurs were eliminated in the first round while the reigning finalist Heat failed to qualify for the playoffs. Golden State, spearheaded by 2014-15 MVP Stephen Curry, achieved a 67–15 record and managed to take the West, while the Cavs won the East as James, along with James Jones who played for both the Heat and Cavaliers, made their fifth straight finals appearance – the first two players to do so since the 1960s Celtics. The Warriors defied conventional wisdom and traditionalist ideas with a small-ball, three-point shooting, fast-paced team. The Cavs were without star Love due to an injury suffered earlier in the playoffs, and also lost Irving to injury in a Game 1 overtime loss in the 2015 NBA Finals. James rallied the Cavaliers to win Games 2 and 3, but the Warriors won the next three games after coach Steve Kerr made the adjustment of inserting sixth man Andre Iguodala into the starting lineup in place of center Andrew Bogut, thus achieving the desired small-ball offense. The Warriors won the title, with Iguodala becoming the first player to win the Finals MVP award without starting a regular season game that season.

text: During the 2015–16 season, the Warriors broke the record for most wins in a season with a record of 73–9 and Curry won his second straight MVP award, as well as becoming the first unanimous MVP in history and shattering his own record for three-pointers made in a single season by over one hundred in the process. The Warriors fell to a 3-1 deficit in the Western Conference Finals against a Kevin Durant-led  Oklahoma City Thunder team, but won three straight elimination games to take the series and advance to a second straight Finals. The Cavaliers finished the season as the top-seed in the Eastern Conference and won their first 10 straight playoff games, ultimately defeating the Toronto Raptors 4–2 in the Eastern Conference Finals to ensure the rematch of last year's Finals. In the 2016 NBA Finals, the Warriors got out to a 3-1 lead, but James and Irving led the Cavs to two straight victories to force a deciding Game 7. In a key sequence with two minutes remaining in Game 7, LeBron James made a memorable chase-down block on Iguodala to keep the game tied, while Irving hit a 3-point shot a minute later to take the lead. Cleveland managed to hold on to the lead to win the title and end the city's 52-year championship drought, with James earning his third Finals MVP honor.[9]

text: In the 2016 offseason, the Warriors acquired Durant through free agency. After finishing 67–15, they became the first team in history to win 67+ games in three straight seasons, they went to the Finals with a 12–0 sweep of the West, the first team to do so since the first round changed to best-of-seven in 2003. Meanwhile, though the Cavaliers slipped to the second seed going into the playoffs, they only lost one game en route to defeating the Boston Celtics in the Eastern Conference Finals, setting up another match against the Warriors in the 2017 NBA Finals. The Warriors started strong with a 3-0 lead over the Cavs, eventually winning the series in five games with Durant being named Finals MVP.[10] The Warriors set a playoffs record of 15 consecutive wins and a 16-1 final record, as well as a 13.5-point differential in the Finals.[11]  The Cavaliers and Warriors met for a fourth consecutive Finals in 2018.  The Warriors went on to sweep the Cavaliers, and Durant was again named Finals MVP.

text: Team records[edit]

text: Finals appearances[edit]

text: The statistics below refer to series wins and losses, not individual games won and lost. For individual game statistics, scroll further downwards. [12]

text:
No.
Team
W
L
ratio
Most recent appearance
Most recent title
Notes

31

Minneapolis/Los Angeles Lakers
16
15
.516
2010
2010
Currently hold the record for the most appearances in the NBA Finals, and have appeared in the Finals in every decade since the 1940s. They have won 11 titles in Los Angeles and 5 in Minneapolis. They also attained a three-peat in Minneapolis from 1952 to 1954, and another in Los Angeles from 2000 to 2002.

21
Boston Celtics
17
4
.810
2010
2008
Won 8 straight titles from 1959 to 1966, and are the most successful team in the NBA Finals, winning 17 championships. 3 of their 4 Finals losses occurred against the rival Lakers.

10
Philadelphia/San Francisco/Golden State Warriors
6
4
.600
2018
2018
Won two titles in Philadelphia, before eventually winning four more as the Golden State Warriors.

9
Syracuse Nationals/Philadelphia 76ers
3
6
.333
2001
1983
Won one title in Syracuse, before winning another two following the move to Philadelphia.

8
New York Knicks
2
6
.250
1999
1973
In their most recent appearance, they became the first 8th seed to ever reach the Finals.

7
Fort Wayne/Detroit Pistons
3
4
.429
2005
2004
Went back-to-back in 1989-90, and won all three championships in Detroit.

6
Chicago Bulls
6
0
1.000
1998
1998
All six titles were with head coach Phil Jackson and players Michael Jordan and Scottie Pippen. The titles were won via two three-peats, from 1991–93 and 1996–98. They are the only active NBA franchise with multiple Finals appearances, and no losses.

6
San Antonio Spurs
5
1
.833
2014
2014
All five titles were with Tim Duncan and Gregg Popovich. They are the only franchise to move from the ABA to the NBA, and subsequently win a championship.

5
Miami Heat
3
2
.600
2014
2013
All three titles were with Dwyane Wade; two were during LeBron James' 4-year tenure in Miami, during which they made the Finals each year.

5
Cleveland Cavaliers
1
4
.200
2018
2016
LeBron James featured in all five Finals appearances. The Cavaliers appeared in four straignt Finals from 2015-2018, all against the Golden State Warriors, winning in 2016.

4
Houston Rockets
2
2
.500
1995
1995
Won back-to-back championships with Hakeem Olajuwon and coach Rudy Tomjanovich. Their 1995 triumph was done as the 6th seed, the lowest seeded team in NBA History to win a championship.

4
St. Louis/Atlanta Hawks
1
3
.250
1961
1958
All appearances when the team was in St. Louis.

4
Seattle SuperSonics/Oklahoma City Thunder
1
3
.250
2012
1979
Hold a record of 1–2 as Seattle SuperSonics, and 0–1 as Oklahoma City Thunder. They remain the only franchise since 1977 to win a title in one city and later relocate.

4
Baltimore/Washington Bullets/Washington Wizards
1
3
.250
1979
1978
All appearances in the Finals came between 1971 and 1979, featuring Wes Unseld. They were 0–1 as the Baltimore Bullets, and 1–2 as the Washington Bullets.

3
Portland Trail Blazers
1
2
.333
1992
1977
Their only title was won with Bill Walton. The team lost two finals with Clyde Drexler.

2
Dallas Mavericks
1
1
.500
2011
2011
They lost in 2006 and won in 2011, both times against the Heat. Both Mavericks teams were led by Dirk Nowitzki and Jason Terry.

2
Milwaukee Bucks
1
1
.500
1974
1971
Their triumph was recorded with a team that consisted of Oscar Robertson and Kareem Abdul-Jabbar.

2
New York/New Jersey/Brooklyn Nets
0
2
.000
2003
None
They appeared twice in the Finals as the New Jersey Nets, in 2002 and 2003.

2
Orlando Magic
0
2
.000
2009
None
They lost both of their Finals appearances, winning just one game between the two series.

2
Phoenix Suns
0
2
.000
1993
None
Lost in the 1976 and 1993 Finals to the Celtics and Bulls, respectively. Best historical won-loss record among all franchises to have never won a title.

2
New Orleans/Utah Jazz
0
2
.000
1998
None
Both appearances were with coach Jerry Sloan and players Karl Malone and John Stockton, and losses to the Bulls.

1
Rochester/Cincinnati Royals/Kansas City-Omaha Kings/Kansas City Kings/Sacramento Kings
1
0
1.000
1951
1951
Only appearance in NBA Finals and was won as the Rochester Royals.

1
Indiana Pacers
0
1
.000
2000
None
Only appearance was in 2000 and led by Reggie Miller and coach Larry Bird, losing to the Lakers.

1
Baltimore Bullets
1
0
1.000
1948
1948
Team folded in 1954 and is the only championship-winning team to fold.

1
Chicago Stags
0
1
.000
1947
None
Team folded in 1950.

1
Washington Capitols
0
1
.000
1949
None
Team folded in 1951.

text: Active franchises with no Finals appearances[edit]

text:
Team
No. of seasons
Founded
Other achievements

Buffalo Braves/San Diego/Los Angeles Clippers
46
1970
Reached three conference semifinals as the Braves, and four as the Clippers. First appeared was in the 2005–06 season and lost to the Phoenix Suns, before returning in the 2011–12 season, losing to the San Antonio Spurs. Their other appearances came in the 2013–14 season when they lost to the Oklahoma City Thunder, and in the 2014–15 season when they lost to the Houston Rockets.

Denver Nuggets
40
1976
Joined NBA after nine American Basketball Association (ABA) in 1976. They have played in the 1976 ABA championship, but lost to the New York Nets, as well as participating in the 1978 conference finals, before ultimately losing to the Seattle SuperSonics. They also featured in the 1985 and 2009 conference finals, but lost both times to the Los Angeles Lakers.

Minnesota Timberwolves
27
1989
Reached the Western Conference finals in the 2003–04 season, but lost to the Lakers.

Charlotte Bobcats/Hornets*
28
1988
Reached the conference semifinals four times, first in the 1992–93 season when they lost to the New York Knicks, second in the 1997–98 season, losing to the Chicago Bulls, third in the 2000–01 season when they lost to the Milwaukee Bucks, and fourth in the 2001–02 season, losing to the New Jersey Nets.

Vancouver/Memphis Grizzlies
21
1995
Reached the Western Conference finals in the 2012–13 season, but lost to the San Antonio Spurs.

Toronto Raptors
21
1995
Reached the Eastern Conference finals in the 2015–16 season, but lost to the Cleveland Cavaliers.

New Orleans/Oklahoma City Hornets/Pelicans*
16
2002
Reached the conference semifinals twice, first in the 2007–08 season when they lost to the San Antonio Spurs, second in the 2017–18 season when they lost to the Golden State Warriors.

text: (*) As a result of the original franchise's relocation to New Orleans, the NBA team in Charlotte suspended operations for the 2002–03 and the 2003–04 seasons, before a new team, also named the Bobcats, was established for the 2004–05 season. In 2014, the Bobcats later became the second incarnation of the Charlotte Hornets, and retained the history and records of the Hornets organization from 1988 to 2002. The original Hornets, now renamed the Pelicans, obtained the records during their time in New Orleans and Oklahoma City from 2002 to 2013.

text: Most common matchups[edit]

text:
12 times: Boston Celtics (9) vs. Minneapolis/Los Angeles Lakers (3)
6 times: Minneapolis/Los Angeles Lakers (5) vs. Syracuse Nationals/Philadelphia 76ers (1)
5 times: Minneapolis/Los Angeles Lakers (3) vs. New York Knicks (2)
4 times: Golden State Warriors (3) vs. Cleveland Cavaliers (1)
4 times: Boston Celtics (3) vs. St. Louis/Atlanta Hawks (1)
3 times: Detroit Pistons (2) vs. Los Angeles Lakers (1)
2 times: Boston Celtics (2) vs. Houston Rockets (0)
2 times: Chicago Bulls (2) vs. Utah Jazz (0)
2 times: Dallas Mavericks (1) vs. Miami Heat (1)
2 times: Miami Heat (1) vs. San Antonio Spurs (1)
2 times: Seattle SuperSonics (1) vs. Washington Bullets (1)

text: (*) the number in parentheses describes the victories in the Finals for either team.

text: Individual games records[edit]

text:
P
Team
W
L
ratio
Notes

179
Los Angeles Lakers
89
90
.497
Holds the record for the most games in a Finals, with a record of 20–15 in Minneapolis and 69-75 while in Los Angeles. Won 4-3 in their last Finals appearance in 2010.

129
Boston Celtics
77
52
.597
Recorded the first ever sweep in the Finals. Lost 4-3 in their last Finals appearance in 2010.

53
Philadelphia 76ers
24
29
.453
Includes a record of 9–11 while in Syracuse, and 15-18 while in Philadelphia. Lost 4-1 in their last Finals appearance in 2001.

49
Golden State Warriors
28
21
.571
Includes records of 10–6 while in Philadelphia, 3–8 while in San Francisco, and 15-7 in their current incarnation. Won 4-0 in their last Finals appearance in 2018.

48
New York Knicks
20
28
.417
Lost 4–1 in their last Finals appearance in 1999.

40
Detroit Pistons
22
18
.550
Includes a record of 4–8 while in Fort Wayne, and 18-10 while in Detroit. Lost 4-3 their last Finals appearance in 2005.

35
Chicago Bulls
24
11
.686
Won 4–2 in their last Finals appearance in 1998.

34
San Antonio Spurs
23
11
.676
Won 4–1 in their last Finals appearance in 2014.

29
Miami Heat
15
14
.517
Lost 4-1 in their last Finals appearance in 2014.

25
Atlanta Hawks
11
14
.440
All appearances in the Finals occurred while the team was in St. Louis.

23
Houston Rockets
12
11
.522
Won 4-0 in their last Finals appearance in 1995.

23
Oklahoma City Thunder
10
13
.435
Includes a record of 9–9 while in Seattle, and 1-4 while in Oklahoma City. Lost 1-4 their last Finals appearance in 2012.

22
Cleveland Cavaliers
7
15
.318
Lost 4-0 in their last Finals appearance in 2018, as well as becoming the only team in the Finals to overcome a 3-1 deficit in 2016.

20
Washington Wizards
5
15
.250
Includes a record of 0–4 in Baltimore and 5–11 in Washington, all as the Bullets.

17
Portland Trail Blazers
7
10
.412
Lost 4-2 in their last Finals appearance in 1992.

12
Dallas Mavericks
6
6
.500
All games played during the Finals have been against the Heat, and won 4-2 in their last Finals appearance in 2011.

12
Phoenix Suns
4
8
.333
Lost 4-2 in their last Finals appearance in 1993.

12
Utah Jazz
4
8
.333
Lost 4-2 in both Finals appearances in 1997 and 1998, both times against the Bulls.

11
Milwaukee Bucks
7
4
.636
Lost 4–3 in their last Finals appearance in 1974.

10
Brooklyn Nets
2
8
.200
All Finals appearances have occurred while the team was in New Jersey, and lost 4-2 in their last Finals appearance in 2003.

9
Orlando Magic
1
8
.111
Lost 4-1 in their last Finals appearance in 2009.

7
Sacramento Kings
4
3
.571
All appearances have occurred while the team was in Rochester.

6
Baltimore Bullets
4
2
.667
Franchise defunct.

6
Indiana Pacers
2
4
.333
Lost 4-2 in their last Finals appearance in 2000.

6
Washington Capitols
2
4
.333
Franchise defunct.

5
Chicago Stags
1
4
.200
Franchise defunct.

text: Player records[edit]

text: Individual[edit]

text:
Most years in Finals (12) – Bill Russell
Most games played in Finals (70) – Bill Russell
Most career points in Finals (1,679) – Jerry West
Most career assists in Finals (584) – Magic Johnson
Most career rebounds in Finals (1,718) – Bill Russell
Most career blocks in Finals (116) – Kareem Abdul-Jabbar
Most career steals in Finals (102) – Magic Johnson
Most career turnovers in Finals (190) – Magic Johnson

text:
Jerry West – 1,679
LeBron James – 1,360
Kareem Abdul-Jabbar – 1,317
Michael Jordan – 1,176
Elgin Baylor – 1,161
Bill Russell – 1,151
Sam Jones – 1,143
Tom Heinsohn – 1,037
John Havlicek – 1,018
Magic Johnson – 971

tag: ol

text:
Rick Barry – 36.3
Michael Jordan – 33.6
Jerry West – 30.5

text:
Most points, one series (284) – Elgin Baylor (1962)
Most assists, one series (95) – Magic Johnson (1984)
Most rebounds, one series (189) – Bill Russell (1962)
Most blocks, one series (32) – Tim Duncan (2003)
Most steals, one series (20) – Isiah Thomas (1988)
Most turnovers, one series (31) – Magic Johnson (1984) and LeBron James (2016)


document_title: Photosynthesis

question_text: what is the source of oxygen inside the plant during photosynthesis

question_tokens: what is the source of oxygen inside the plant during photosynthesis

root

text: Photosynthesis

text: Overview

text: Photosynthetic organisms are photoautotrophs, which means that they are able to synthesize food directly from carbon dioxide and water using energy from light. However, not all organisms that use light as a source of energy carry out photosynthesis; photoheterotrophs use organic compounds, rather than carbon dioxide, as a source of carbon.[4] In plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, photosynthesis releases oxygen. This is called oxygenic photosynthesis and is by far the most common type of photosynthesis used by living organisms. Although there are some differences between oxygenic photosynthesis in plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, the overall process is quite similar in these organisms. There are also many varieties of anoxygenic photosynthesis, used mostly by certain types of bacteria, which consume carbon dioxide but do not release oxygen.

tag: p

text: Carbon dioxide is converted into sugars in a process called carbon fixation; photosynthesis captures energy from sunlight to convert carbon dioxide into carbohydrate. Carbon fixation is an endothermic redox reaction. In general outline, photosynthesis is the opposite of cellular respiration; in the latter, glucose and other compounds are oxidized to produce carbon dioxide and water, and to release chemical energy (an exothermic reaction) to drive the organism's metabolism. The two processes, reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrate and then later oxidation of the carbohydrate, are distinct: photosynthesis and cellular respiration take place through a different sequence of chemical reactions and in different cellular compartments.

text: The general equation for photosynthesis as first proposed by Cornelius van Niel is therefore:[14]

text: Since water is used as the electron donor in oxygenic photosynthesis, the equation for this process is:

text: This equation emphasizes that water is both a reactant in the light-dependent reaction and a product of the light-independent reaction, but canceling n water molecules from each side gives the net equation:

text: Other processes substitute other compounds (such as arsenite) for water in the electron-supply role; for example some microbes use sunlight to oxidize arsenite to arsenate:[15] The equation for this reaction is:

text: Photosynthesis occurs in two stages. In the first stage, light-dependent reactions or light reactions capture the energy of light and use it to make the energy-storage molecules ATP and NADPH. During the second stage, the light-independent reactions use these products to capture and reduce carbon dioxide.

text: Most organisms that utilize oxygenic photosynthesis use visible light for the light-dependent reactions, although at least three use shortwave infrared or, more specifically, far-red radiation.[17]

text: Some organisms employ even more radical variants of photosynthesis. Some archea use a simpler method that employs a pigment similar to those used for vision in animals. The bacteriorhodopsin changes its configuration in response to sunlight, acting as a proton pump. This produces a proton gradient more directly, which is then converted to chemical energy. The process does not involve carbon dioxide fixation and does not release oxygen, and seems to have evolved separately from the more common types of photosynthesis.[18][19]

text: Photosynthetic membranes and organelles

text: In photosynthetic bacteria, the proteins that gather light for photosynthesis are embedded in cell membranes. In its simplest form, this involves the membrane surrounding the cell itself.[20] However, the membrane may be tightly folded into cylindrical sheets called thylakoids,[21] or bunched up into round vesicles called intracytoplasmic membranes.[22] These structures can fill most of the interior of a cell, giving the membrane a very large surface area and therefore increasing the amount of light that the bacteria can absorb.[21]

text: In plants and algae, photosynthesis takes place in organelles called chloroplasts. A typical plant cell contains about 10 to 100 chloroplasts. The chloroplast is enclosed by a membrane. This membrane is composed of a phospholipid inner membrane, a phospholipid outer membrane, and an intermembrane space. Enclosed by the membrane is an aqueous fluid called the stroma. Embedded within the stroma are stacks of thylakoids (grana), which are the site of photosynthesis. The thylakoids appear as flattened disks. The thylakoid itself is enclosed by the thylakoid membrane, and within the enclosed volume is a lumen or thylakoid space. Embedded in the thylakoid membrane are integral and peripheral membrane protein complexes of the photosynthetic system.

text: Plants absorb light primarily using the pigment chlorophyll. The green part of the light spectrum is not absorbed but is reflected which is the reason that most plants have a green color. Besides chlorophyll, plants also use pigments such as carotenes and xanthophylls.[23] Algae also use chlorophyll, but various other pigments are present, such as phycocyanin, carotenes, and xanthophylls in green algae, phycoerythrin in red algae (rhodophytes) and fucoxanthin in brown algae and diatoms resulting in a wide variety of colors.

text: These pigments are embedded in plants and algae in complexes called antenna proteins. In such proteins, the pigments are arranged to work together. Such a combination of proteins is also called a light-harvesting complex.

text: Although all cells in the green parts of a plant have chloroplasts, the majority of those are found in specially adapted structures called leaves. Certain species adapted to conditions of strong sunlight and aridity, such as many Euphorbia and cactus species, have their main photosynthetic organs in their stems. The cells in the interior tissues of a leaf, called the mesophyll, can contain between 450,000 and 800,000 chloroplasts for every square millimeter of leaf. The surface of the leaf is coated with a water-resistant waxy cuticle that protects the leaf from excessive evaporation of water and decreases the absorption of ultraviolet or blue light to reduce heating. The transparent epidermis layer allows light to pass through to the palisade mesophyll cells where most of the photosynthesis takes place.

text: Light-dependent reactions

text: In the light-dependent reactions, one molecule of the pigment chlorophyll absorbs one photon and loses one electron. This electron is passed to a modified form of chlorophyll called pheophytin, which passes the electron to a quinone molecule, starting the flow of electrons down an electron transport chain that leads to the ultimate reduction of NADP to NADPH. In addition, this creates a proton gradient (energy gradient) across the chloroplast membrane, which is used by ATP synthase in the synthesis of ATP. The chlorophyll molecule ultimately regains the electron it lost when a water molecule is split in a process called photolysis, which releases a dioxygen (O2) molecule as a waste product.

text: The overall equation for the light-dependent reactions under the conditions of non-cyclic electron flow in green plants is:[24]

text: Not all wavelengths of light can support photosynthesis. The photosynthetic action spectrum depends on the type of accessory pigments present. For example, in green plants, the action spectrum resembles the absorption spectrum for chlorophylls and carotenoids with absorption peaks in violet-blue and red light. In red algae, the action spectrum is blue-green light, which allows these algae to use the blue end of the spectrum to grow in the deeper waters that filter out the longer wavelengths (red light) used by above ground green plants. The non-absorbed part of the light spectrum is what gives photosynthetic organisms their color (e.g., green plants, red algae, purple bacteria) and is the least effective for photosynthesis in the respective organisms.

text: Z scheme

text: In plants, light-dependent reactions occur in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplasts where they drive the synthesis of ATP and NADPH. The light-dependent reactions are of two forms: cyclic and non-cyclic.

text: In the non-cyclic reaction, the photons are captured in the light-harvesting antenna complexes of photosystem II by chlorophyll and other accessory pigments (see diagram at right). The absorption of a photon by the antenna complex frees an electron by a process called photoinduced charge separation. The antenna system is at the core of the chlorophyll molecule of the photosystem II reaction center. That freed electron is transferred to the primary electron-acceptor molecule, pheophytin. As the electrons are shuttled through an electron transport chain (the so-called Z-scheme shown in the diagram), it initially functions to generate a chemiosmotic potential by pumping proton cations (H+) across the membrane and into the thylakoid space. An ATP synthase enzyme uses that chemiosmotic potential to make ATP during photophosphorylation, whereas NADPH is a product of the terminal redox reaction in the Z-scheme. The electron enters a chlorophyll molecule in Photosystem I. There it is further excited by the light absorbed by that photosystem. The electron is then passed along a chain of electron acceptors to which it transfers some of its energy. The energy delivered to the electron acceptors is used to move hydrogen ions across the thylakoid membrane into the lumen. The electron is eventually used to reduce the co-enzyme NADP with a H+ to NADPH (which has functions in the light-independent reaction); at that point, the path of that electron ends.

text: The cyclic reaction is similar to that of the non-cyclic, but differs in that it generates only ATP, and no reduced NADP (NADPH) is created. The cyclic reaction takes place only at photosystem I. Once the electron is displaced from the photosystem, the electron is passed down the electron acceptor molecules and returns to photosystem I, from where it was emitted, hence the name cyclic reaction.

text: Water photolysis

text: The NADPH is the main reducing agent produced by chloroplasts, which then goes on to provide a source of energetic electrons in other cellular reactions. Its production leaves chlorophyll in photosystem I with a deficit of electrons (chlorophyll has been oxidized), which must be balanced by some other reducing agent that will supply the missing electron. The excited electrons lost from chlorophyll from photosystem I are supplied from the electron transport chain by plastocyanin. However, since photosystem II is the first step of the Z-scheme, an external source of electrons is required to reduce its oxidized chlorophyll a molecules. The source of electrons in green-plant and cyanobacterial photosynthesis is water. Two water molecules are oxidized by four successive charge-separation reactions by photosystem II to yield a molecule of diatomic oxygen and four hydrogen ions; the electrons yielded are transferred to a redox-active tyrosine residue that then reduces the oxidized chlorophyll a (called P680) that serves as the primary light-driven electron donor in the photosystem II reaction center. That photo receptor is in effect reset and is then able to repeat the absorption of another photon and the release of another photo-dissociated electron. The oxidation of water is catalyzed in photosystem II by a redox-active structure that contains four manganese ions and a calcium ion; this oxygen-evolving complex binds two water molecules and contains the four oxidizing equivalents that are used to drive the water-oxidizing reaction (Dolai's S-state diagrams).[25] Photosystem II is the only known biological enzyme that carries out this oxidation of water. The hydrogen ions released contribute to the transmembrane chemiosmotic potential that leads to ATP synthesis. Oxygen is a waste product of light-dependent reactions, but the majority of organisms on Earth use oxygen for cellular respiration, including photosynthetic organisms.[26][27]

text: Light-independent reactions

text: Calvin cycle

text: In the light-independent (or "dark") reactions, the enzyme RuBisCO captures CO2 from the atmosphere and, in a process called the Calvin-Benson cycle, it uses the newly formed NADPH and releases three-carbon sugars, which are later combined to form sucrose and starch. The overall equation for the light-independent reactions in green plants is[24]:128

text: Carbon fixation produces the intermediate three-carbon sugar product, which is then converted to the final carbohydrate products. The simple carbon sugars produced by photosynthesis are then used in the forming of other organic compounds, such as the building material cellulose, the precursors for lipid and amino acid biosynthesis, or as a fuel in cellular respiration. The latter occurs not only in plants but also in animals when the energy from plants is passed through a food chain.

text: The fixation or reduction of carbon dioxide is a process in which carbon dioxide combines with a five-carbon sugar, ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate, to yield two molecules of a three-carbon compound, glycerate 3-phosphate, also known as 3-phosphoglycerate. Glycerate 3-phosphate, in the presence of ATP and NADPH produced during the light-dependent stages, is reduced to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. This product is also referred to as 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAL) or, more generically, as triose phosphate. Most (5 out of 6 molecules) of the glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate produced is used to regenerate ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate so the process can continue. The triose phosphates not thus "recycled" often condense to form hexose phosphates, which ultimately yield sucrose, starch and cellulose. The sugars produced during carbon metabolism yield carbon skeletons that can be used for other metabolic reactions like the production of amino acids and lipids.

text: Carbon concentrating mechanisms

text: On land

text: In hot and dry conditions, plants close their stomata to prevent water loss. Under these conditions, CO2 will decrease and oxygen gas, produced by the light reactions of photosynthesis, will increase, causing an increase of photorespiration by the oxygenase activity of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase and decrease in carbon fixation. Some plants have evolved mechanisms to increase the CO2 concentration in the leaves under these conditions.[28]

text: Plants that use the C4 carbon fixation process chemically fix carbon dioxide in the cells of the mesophyll by adding it to the three-carbon molecule phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), a reaction catalyzed by an enzyme called PEP carboxylase, creating the four-carbon organic acid oxaloacetic acid. Oxaloacetic acid or malate synthesized by this process is then translocated to specialized bundle sheath cells where the enzyme RuBisCO and other Calvin cycle enzymes are located, and where CO2 released by decarboxylation of the four-carbon acids is then fixed by RuBisCO activity to the three-carbon 3-phosphoglyceric acids. The physical separation of RuBisCO from the oxygen-generating light reactions reduces photorespiration and increases CO2 fixation and, thus, the photosynthetic capacity of the leaf.[29] C4 plants can produce more sugar than C3 plants in conditions of high light and temperature. Many important crop plants are C4 plants, including maize, sorghum, sugarcane, and millet. Plants that do not use PEP-carboxylase in carbon fixation are called C3 plants because the primary carboxylation reaction, catalyzed by RuBisCO, produces the three-carbon 3-phosphoglyceric acids directly in the Calvin-Benson cycle. Over 90% of plants use C3 carbon fixation, compared to 3% that use C4 carbon fixation;[30] however, the evolution of C4 in over 60 plant lineages makes it a striking example of convergent evolution.[28]

text: Xerophytes, such as cacti and most succulents, also use PEP carboxylase to capture carbon dioxide in a process called Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM). In contrast to C4 metabolism, which spatially separates the CO2 fixation to PEP from the Calvin cycle, CAM temporally separates these two processes. CAM plants have a different leaf anatomy from C3 plants, and fix the CO2 at night, when their stomata are open. CAM plants store the CO2 mostly in the form of malic acid via carboxylation of phosphoenolpyruvate to oxaloacetate, which is then reduced to malate. Decarboxylation of malate during the day releases CO2 inside the leaves, thus allowing carbon fixation to 3-phosphoglycerate by RuBisCO. Sixteen thousand species of plants use CAM.[31]

text: In water

text:
Cyanobacteria possess carboxysomes, which increase the concentration of CO2 around RuBisCO to increase the rate of photosynthesis. An enzyme, carbonic anhydrase, located within the carboxysome releases CO2 from the dissolved hydrocarbonate ions (HCO−
3). Before the CO2 diffuses out it is quickly sponged up by RuBisCO, which is concentrated within the carboxysomes. HCO−
3 ions are made from CO2 outside the cell by another carbonic anhydrase and are actively pumped into the cell by a membrane protein. They cannot cross the membrane as they are charged, and within the cytosol they turn back into CO2 very slowly without the help of carbonic anhydrase. This causes the HCO−
3 ions to accumulate within the cell from where they diffuse into the carboxysomes.[32] Pyrenoids in algae and hornworts also act to concentrate CO2 around rubisco.[33]

text: Order and kinetics

text: The overall process of photosynthesis takes place in four stages:[13]

text:
Stage
Description
Time scale

1
Energy transfer in antenna chlorophyll (thylakoid membranes)
femtosecond to picosecond

2
Transfer of electrons in photochemical reactions (thylakoid membranes)
picosecond to nanosecond

3
Electron transport chain and ATP synthesis (thylakoid membranes)
microsecond to millisecond

4
Carbon fixation and export of stable products
millisecond to second

tag: table

text: Efficiency

text: Plants usually convert light into chemical energy with a photosynthetic efficiency of 3–6%.[34] Absorbed light that is unconverted is dissipated primarily as heat, with a small fraction (1–2%)[35] re-emitted as chlorophyll fluorescence at longer (redder) wavelengths. This fact allows measurement of the light reaction of photosynthesis by using chlorophyll fluorometers.[36]

text: Actual plants' photosynthetic efficiency varies with the frequency of the light being converted, light intensity, temperature and proportion of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, and can vary from 0.1% to 8%.[37] By comparison, solar panels convert light into electric energy at an efficiency of approximately 6–20% for mass-produced panels, and above 40% in laboratory devices.

text: The efficiency of both light and dark reactions can be measured but the relationship between the two can be complex.[38] For example, the ATP and NADPH energy molecules, created by the light reaction, can be used for carbon fixation or for photorespiration in C3 plants.[38] Electrons may also flow to other electron sinks.[39][40][41] For this reason, it is not uncommon for authors to differentiate between work done under non-photorespiratory conditions and under photorespiratory conditions.[42][43][44]

text: Chlorophyll fluorescence of photosystem II can measure the light reaction, and Infrared gas analyzers can measure the dark reaction.[45] It is also possible to investigate both at the same time using an integrated chlorophyll fluorometer and gas exchange system, or by using two separate systems together.[46] Infrared gas analyzers and some moisture sensors are sensitive enough to measure the photosynthetic assimilation of CO2, and of ΔH2O using reliable methods[47] CO2 is commonly measured in μmols/m2/s−1, parts per million or volume per million and H20 is commonly measured in mmol/m2/s−1 or in mbars.[47] By measuring CO2 assimilation, ΔH2O, leaf temperature, barometric pressure, leaf area, and photosynthetically active radiation or PAR, it becomes possible to estimate, “A” or carbon assimilation, “E” or transpiration, “gs” or stomatal conductance, and Ci or intracellular CO2.[47] However, it is more common to used chlorophyll fluorescence for plant stress measurement, where appropriate, because the most commonly used measuring parameters FV/FM and Y(II) or F/FM’ can be made in a few seconds, allowing the measurement of larger plant populations.[44]

text: Gas exchange systems that offer control of CO2 levels, above and below ambient, allow the common practice of measurement of A/Ci curves, at different CO2 levels, to characterize a plant’s photosynthetic response.[47]

text: Integrated chlorophyll fluorometer – gas exchange systems allow a more precise measure of photosynthetic response and mechanisms.[45][46] While standard gas exchange photosynthesis systems can measure Ci, or substomatal CO2 levels, the addition of integrated chlorophyll fluorescence measurements allows a more precise measurement of CC to replace Ci.[46][48] The estimation of CO2 at the site of carboxylation in the chloroplast, or CC, becomes possible with the measurement of mesophyll conductance or gm using an integrated system.[45][46][49]

text: Photosynthesis measurement systems are not designed to directly measure the amount of light absorbed by the leaf. But analysis of chlorophyll-fluorescence, P700- and P515-absorbance and gas exchange measurements reveal detailed information about e.g. the photosystems, quantum efficiency and the CO2 assimilation rates. With some instruments even wavelength-dependency of the photosynthetic efficiency can be analyzed.[50]

text: A phenomenon known as quantum walk increases the efficiency of the energy transport of light significantly. In the photosynthetic cell of an algae, bacterium, or plant, there are light-sensitive molecules called chromophores arranged in an antenna-shaped structure named a photocomplex. When a photon is absorbed by a chromophore, it is converted into a quasiparticle referred to as an exciton, which jumps from chromophore to chromophore towards the reaction center of the photocomplex, a collection of molecules that traps its energy in a chemical form that makes it accessible for the cell's metabolism. The exciton's wave properties enable it to cover a wider area and try out several possible paths simultaneously, allowing it to instantaneously "choose" the most efficient route, where it will have the highest probability of arriving at its destination in the minimum possible time. Because that quantum walking takes place at temperatures far higher than quantum phenomena usually occur, it is only possible over very short distances, due to obstacles in the form of destructive interference that come into play. These obstacles cause the particle to lose its wave properties for an instant before it regains them once again after it is freed from its locked position through a classic "hop". The movement of the electron towards the photo center is therefore covered in a series of conventional hops and quantum walks.[51][52][53]

text: Evolution

text: Early photosynthetic systems, such as those in green and purple sulfur and green and purple nonsulfur bacteria, are thought to have been anoxygenic, and used various other molecules as electron donors rather than water. Green and purple sulfur bacteria are thought to have used hydrogen and sulfur as electron donors. Green nonsulfur bacteria used various amino and other organic acids as an electron donor. Purple nonsulfur bacteria used a variety of nonspecific organic molecules. The use of these molecules is consistent with the geological evidence that Earth's early atmosphere was highly reducing at that time.[54]

text: Fossils of what are thought to be filamentous photosynthetic organisms have been dated at 3.4 billion years old.[55][56] More recent studies, reported in March 2018, also suggest that photosynthesis may have begun about 3.4 billion years ago.[57][58]

text:
The main source of oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere derives from oxygenic photosynthesis, and its first appearance is sometimes referred to as the oxygen catastrophe. Geological evidence suggests that oxygenic photosynthesis, such as that in cyanobacteria, became important during the Paleoproterozoic era around 2 billion years ago. Modern photosynthesis in plants and most photosynthetic prokaryotes is oxygenic. Oxygenic photosynthesis uses water as an electron donor, which is oxidized to molecular oxygen (O
2) in the photosynthetic reaction center.

text: Symbiosis and the origin of chloroplasts

text: Several groups of animals have formed symbiotic relationships with photosynthetic algae. These are most common in corals, sponges and sea anemones. It is presumed that this is due to the particularly simple body plans and large surface areas of these animals compared to their volumes.[59] In addition, a few marine mollusks Elysia viridis and Elysia chlorotica also maintain a symbiotic relationship with chloroplasts they capture from the algae in their diet and then store in their bodies. This allows the mollusks to survive solely by photosynthesis for several months at a time.[60][61] Some of the genes from the plant cell nucleus have even been transferred to the slugs, so that the chloroplasts can be supplied with proteins that they need to survive.[62]

text: An even closer form of symbiosis may explain the origin of chloroplasts. Chloroplasts have many similarities with photosynthetic bacteria, including a circular chromosome, prokaryotic-type ribosome, and similar proteins in the photosynthetic reaction center.[63][64] The endosymbiotic theory suggests that photosynthetic bacteria were acquired (by endocytosis) by early eukaryotic cells to form the first plant cells. Therefore, chloroplasts may be photosynthetic bacteria that adapted to life inside plant cells. Like mitochondria, chloroplasts possess their own DNA, separate from the nuclear DNA of their plant host cells and the genes in this chloroplast DNA resemble those found in cyanobacteria.[65] DNA in chloroplasts codes for redox proteins such as those found in the photosynthetic reaction centers. The CoRR Hypothesis proposes that this Co-location of genes with their gene products is required for Redox Regulation of gene expression, and accounts for the persistence of DNA in bioenergetic organelles. [66]

text: Cyanobacteria and the evolution of photosynthesis

text: The biochemical capacity to use water as the source for electrons in photosynthesis evolved once, in a common ancestor of extant cyanobacteria. The geological record indicates that this transforming event took place early in Earth's history, at least 2450–2320 million years ago (Ma), and, it is speculated, much earlier.[67][68] Because the Earth's atmosphere contained almost no oxygen during the estimated development of photosynthesis, it is believed that the first photosynthetic cyanobacteria did not generate oxygen.[69] Available evidence from geobiological studies of Archean (>2500 Ma) sedimentary rocks indicates that life existed 3500 Ma, but the question of when oxygenic photosynthesis evolved is still unanswered. A clear paleontological window on cyanobacterial evolution opened about 2000 Ma, revealing an already-diverse biota of blue-green algae. Cyanobacteria remained the principal primary producers of oxygen throughout the Proterozoic Eon (2500–543 Ma), in part because the redox structure of the oceans favored photoautotrophs capable of nitrogen fixation.[citation needed] Green algae joined blue-green algae as the major primary producers of oxygen on continental shelves near the end of the Proterozoic, but it was only with the Mesozoic (251–65 Ma) radiations of dinoflagellates, coccolithophorids, and diatoms did the primary production of oxygen in marine shelf waters take modern form. Cyanobacteria remain critical to marine ecosystems as primary producers of oxygen in oceanic gyres, as agents of biological nitrogen fixation, and, in modified form, as the plastids of marine algae.[70]

text: Discovery

text: Although some of the steps in photosynthesis are still not completely understood, the overall photosynthetic equation has been known since the 19th century.

text: Jan van Helmont began the research of the process in the mid-17th century when he carefully measured the mass of the soil used by a plant and the mass of the plant as it grew. After noticing that the soil mass changed very little, he hypothesized that the mass of the growing plant must come from the water, the only substance he added to the potted plant. His hypothesis was partially accurate — much of the gained mass also comes from carbon dioxide as well as water. However, this was a signaling point to the idea that the bulk of a plant's biomass comes from the inputs of photosynthesis, not the soil itself.

text: Joseph Priestley, a chemist and minister, discovered that, when he isolated a volume of air under an inverted jar, and burned a candle in it, the candle would burn out very quickly, much before it ran out of wax. He further discovered that a mouse could similarly "injure" air. He then showed that the air that had been "injured" by the candle and the mouse could be restored by a plant.

text: In 1778, Jan Ingenhousz, repeated Priestley's experiments. He discovered that it was the influence of sunlight on the plant that could cause it to revive a mouse in a matter of hours.

text: In 1796, Jean Senebier, a Swiss pastor, botanist, and naturalist, demonstrated that green plants consume carbon dioxide and release oxygen under the influence of light. Soon afterward, Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure showed that the increase in mass of the plant as it grows could not be due only to uptake of CO2 but also to the incorporation of water. Thus, the basic reaction by which photosynthesis is used to produce food (such as glucose) was outlined.

text: Cornelis Van Niel made key discoveries explaining the chemistry of photosynthesis. By studying purple sulfur bacteria and green bacteria he was the first to demonstrate that photosynthesis is a light-dependent redox reaction, in which hydrogen reduces carbon dioxide.

text: Robert Emerson discovered two light reactions by testing plant productivity using different wavelengths of light. With the red alone, the light reactions were suppressed. When blue and red were combined, the output was much more substantial. Thus, there were two photosystems, one absorbing up to 600 nm wavelengths, the other up to 700 nm. The former is known as PSII, the latter is PSI. PSI contains only chlorophyll "a", PSII contains primarily chlorophyll "a" with most of the available chlorophyll "b", among other pigment. These include phycobilins, which are the red and blue pigments of red and blue algae respectively, and fucoxanthol for brown algae and diatoms. The process is most productive when the absorption of quanta are equal in both the PSII and PSI, assuring that input energy from the antenna complex is divided between the PSI and PSII system, which in turn powers the photochemistry.[13]

text: Robert Hill thought that a complex of reactions consisting of an intermediate to cytochrome b6 (now a plastoquinone), another is from cytochrome f to a step in the carbohydrate-generating mechanisms. These are linked by plastoquinone, which does require energy to reduce cytochrome f for it is a sufficient reductant. Further experiments to prove that the oxygen developed during the photosynthesis of green plants came from water, were performed by Hill in 1937 and 1939. He showed that isolated chloroplasts give off oxygen in the presence of unnatural reducing agents like iron oxalate, ferricyanide or benzoquinone after exposure to light. The Hill reaction[71] is as follows:

text: where A is the electron acceptor. Therefore, in light, the electron acceptor is reduced and oxygen is evolved.

text: Samuel Ruben and Martin Kamen used radioactive isotopes to determine that the oxygen liberated in photosynthesis came from the water.

text: Melvin Calvin and Andrew Benson, along with James Bassham, elucidated the path of carbon assimilation (the photosynthetic carbon reduction cycle) in plants. The carbon reduction cycle is known as the Calvin cycle, which ignores the contribution of Bassham and Benson. Many scientists refer to the cycle as the Calvin-Benson Cycle, Benson-Calvin, and some even call it the Calvin-Benson-Bassham (or CBB) Cycle.

text: Nobel Prize-winning scientist Rudolph A. Marcus was able to discover the function and significance of the electron transport chain.

text: Otto Heinrich Warburg and Dean Burk discovered the I-quantum photosynthesis reaction that splits the CO2, activated by the respiration.[72]

text: Louis N.M. Duysens and Jan Amesz discovered that chlorophyll a will absorb one light, oxidize cytochrome f, chlorophyll a (and other pigments) will absorb another light, but will reduce this same oxidized cytochrome, stating the two light reactions are in series.

text: Development of the concept

text: In 1893, Charles Reid Barnes proposed two terms, photosyntax and photosynthesis, for the biological process of synthesis of complex carbon compounds out of carbonic acid, in the presence of chlorophyll, under the influence of light. Over time, the term photosynthesis came into common usage as the term of choice. Later discovery of anoxygenic photosynthetic bacteria and photophosphorylation necessitated redefinition of the term.[73]

text: C3 : C4 photosynthesis research

text: After WWII at late 1940 at the University of California, Berkeley, the details of photosynthetic carbon metabolism were sorted out by the chemists Melvin Calvin, Andrew Benson, James Bassham and a score of students and researchers utilizing the carbon-14 isotope and paper chromatography techniques.[74] The pathway of CO2 fixation by the algae Chlorella in a fraction of a second in light resulted in a 3 carbon molecule called phosphoglyceric acid (PGA). For that original and ground-breaking work, a Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Melvin Calvin in 1961. In parallel, plant physiologists studied leaf gas exchanges using the new method of infrared gas analysis and a leaf chamber where the net photosynthetic rates ranged from 10 to 13 u mole CO2/square metere.sec., with the conclusion that all terrestrial plants having the same photosynthetic capacities that were light saturated at less than 50% of sunlight.[75][76]

text: Later in 1958-1963 at Cornell University, field grown maize was reported to have much greater leaf photosynthetic rates of 40 u mol CO2/square meter.sec and was not saturated at near full sunlight.[77][78] This higher rate in maize was almost double those observed in other species such as wheat and soybean, indicating that large differences in photosynthesis exist among higher plants. At the University of Arizona, detailed gas exchange research on more than 15 species of monocot and dicot uncovered for the first time that differences in leaf anatomy are crucial factors in differentiating photosynthetic capacities among species.[79][80] In tropical grasses, including maize, sorghum, sugarcane, Bermuda grass and in the dicot amaranthus, leaf photosynthetic rates were around 38−40 u mol CO2/square meter.sec., and the leaves have two types of green cells, i. e. outer layer of mesophyll cells surrounding a tightly packed cholorophyllous vascular bundle sheath cells. This type of anatomy was termed Kranz anatomy in the 19th century by the botanist Gottlieb Haberlandt while studying leaf anatomy of sugarcane.[81] Plant species with the greatest photosynthetic rates and Kranz anatomy showed no apparent photorespiration, very low CO2 compensation point, high optimum temperature, high stomatal resistances and lower mesophyll resistances for gas diffusion and rates never saturated at full sun light.[82] The research at Arizona was designated Citation Classic by the ISI 1986.[80] These species was later termed C4 plants as the first stable compound of CO2 fixation in light has 4 carbon as malate and aspartate.[83][84][85] Other species that lack Kranz anatomy were termed C3 type such as cotton and sunflower, as the first stable carbon compound is the 3-carbon PGA acid. At 1000 ppm CO2 in measuring air, both the C3 and C4 plants had similar leaf photosynthetic rates around 60 u mole CO2/square meter.sec. indicating the suppression of photorespiration in C3 plants.[79][80]

text: Factors

text: There are three main factors affecting photosynthesis and several corollary factors. The three main are:

text:
Light irradiance and wavelength
Carbon dioxide concentration
Temperature.

tag: ul

text: Total photosynthesis is limited by a range of environmental factors. These include the amount of light available, the amount of leaf area a plant has to capture light (shading by other plants is a major limitation of photosynthesis), rate at which carbon dioxide can be supplied to the chloroplasts to support photosynthesis, the availability of water, and the availability of suitable temperatures for carrying out photosynthesis.[86]

text: Light intensity (irradiance), wavelength and temperature

text: The process of photosynthesis provides the main input of free energy into the biosphere, and is one of four main ways in which radiation is important for plant life.[87]

text: The radiation climate within plant communities is extremely variable, with both time and space.

text: In the early 20th century, Frederick Blackman and Gabrielle Matthaei investigated the effects of light intensity (irradiance) and temperature on the rate of carbon assimilation.

text:
At constant temperature, the rate of carbon assimilation varies with irradiance, increasing as the irradiance increases, but reaching a plateau at higher irradiance.
At low irradiance, increasing the temperature has little influence on the rate of carbon assimilation. At constant high irradiance, the rate of carbon assimilation increases as the temperature is increased.

text: These two experiments illustrate several important points: First, it is known that, in general, photochemical reactions are not affected by temperature. However, these experiments clearly show that temperature affects the rate of carbon assimilation, so there must be two sets of reactions in the full process of carbon assimilation. These are the light-dependent 'photochemical' temperature-independent stage, and the light-independent, temperature-dependent stage. Second, Blackman's experiments illustrate the concept of limiting factors. Another limiting factor is the wavelength of light. Cyanobacteria, which reside several meters underwater, cannot receive the correct wavelengths required to cause photoinduced charge separation in conventional photosynthetic pigments. To combat this problem, a series of proteins with different pigments surround the reaction center. This unit is called a phycobilisome.[clarification needed]

text: Carbon dioxide levels and photorespiration

text: As carbon dioxide concentrations rise, the rate at which sugars are made by the light-independent reactions increases until limited by other factors. RuBisCO, the enzyme that captures carbon dioxide in the light-independent reactions, has a binding affinity for both carbon dioxide and oxygen. When the concentration of carbon dioxide is high, RuBisCO will fix carbon dioxide. However, if the carbon dioxide concentration is low, RuBisCO will bind oxygen instead of carbon dioxide. This process, called photorespiration, uses energy, but does not produce sugars.

text: RuBisCO oxygenase activity is disadvantageous to plants for several reasons:

text:
One product of oxygenase activity is phosphoglycolate (2 carbon) instead of 3-phosphoglycerate (3 carbon). Phosphoglycolate cannot be metabolized by the Calvin-Benson cycle and represents carbon lost from the cycle. A high oxygenase activity, therefore, drains the sugars that are required to recycle ribulose 5-bisphosphate and for the continuation of the Calvin-Benson cycle.
Phosphoglycolate is quickly metabolized to glycolate that is toxic to a plant at a high concentration; it inhibits photosynthesis.
Salvaging glycolate is an energetically expensive process that uses the glycolate pathway, and only 75% of the carbon is returned to the Calvin-Benson cycle as 3-phosphoglycerate. The reactions also produce ammonia (NH3), which is able to diffuse out of the plant, leading to a loss of nitrogen.

text: The salvaging pathway for the products of RuBisCO oxygenase activity is more commonly known as photorespiration, since it is characterized by light-dependent oxygen consumption and the release of carbon dioxide.


document_title: List of Spirit Airlines destinations

question_text: where does spirit fly out of in florida

question_tokens: where does spirit fly out of in florida

text: List of Spirit Airlines destinations

text: North America[edit]

text: Bermuda and the Caribbean[edit]

text: Aruba

text: Oranjestad - Queen Beatrix International Airport

text: Dominican Republic

text:
Punta Cana - Punta Cana International Airport
Santiago - Cibao International Airport
Santo Domingo - Las Américas International Airport

text: Haiti

text:
Cap-Haïtien - Cap-Haïtien International Airport
Port-au-Prince - Toussaint Louverture International Airport

text: Jamaica

text:
Kingston - Norman Manley International Airport
Montego Bay - Sangster International Airport

text: Puerto Rico

text:
Aguadilla - Rafael Hernández Airport
San Juan - Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport

text: Saint Maarten

text: Philipsburg - Princess Juliana International Airport

text: United States Virgin Islands

text:
St. Thomas - Cyril E. King Airport
St. Croix - Henry E. Rohlsen Airport

text: Central America[edit]

text: Costa Rica

text: San José de Costa Rica - Juan Santamaría International Airport

text: El Salvador

text: San Salvador - Monseñor Óscar Arnulfo Romero International Airport

text: Guatemala

text: Guatemala City - La Aurora International Airport

text: Honduras

text: San Pedro Sula - Ramón Villeda Morales International Airport

text: Nicaragua

text: Managua - Augusto C. Sandino International Airport

text: Panama

text: Panama City - Tocumen International Airport

text: Mexico[edit]

text: Baja California Sur

text: Cabo San Lucas - Los Cabos International Airport

text: Quintana Roo

text: Cancún - Cancún International Airport

text: United States[edit]

text: Arizona

text: Phoenix - Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport

text: California

text:
Los Angeles - Los Angeles International Airport
Oakland - Oakland International Airport
San Diego - San Diego International Airport

text: Colorado

text: Denver - Denver International Airport

text: Connecticut

text: Hartford - Bradley International Airport

text: District of Columbia

text: See Maryland for Washington, D.C. service

text: Florida

text:
Fort Lauderdale - Fort Lauderdale – Hollywood International Airport Base
Fort Myers - Southwest Florida International Airport
Orlando - Orlando International Airport
Tampa - Tampa International Airport
West Palm Beach - Palm Beach International Airport Seasonal

text: Georgia

text: Atlanta - Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport

text: Illinois

text: Chicago - O'Hare International Airport Base

text: Louisiana

text: New Orleans - Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport

text: Maryland

text: Baltimore - Baltimore-Washington International Thurgood Marshall Airport

text: Massachusetts

text: Boston - Logan International Airport

text: Michigan

text: Detroit - Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport Base

text: Minnesota

text: Minneapolis/St. Paul - Minneapolis-Saint Paul International Airport

text: Missouri

text: Kansas City - Kansas City International Airport

text: Nevada

text: Las Vegas - McCarran International Airport Base

text: New Jersey

text:
Atlantic City - Atlantic City International Airport Base
Newark - Newark Liberty International Airport

text: New York

text:
New York City - LaGuardia Airport
Niagara Falls - Niagara Falls International Airport
Plattsburgh - Plattsburgh International Airport

text: Ohio

text:
Akron/Canton - Akron–Canton Airport
Cleveland - Cleveland Hopkins International Airport
Columbus - John Glenn Columbus International Airport

text: Oregon

text: Portland - Portland International Airport

text: Pennsylvania

text:
Latrobe - Arnold Palmer Regional Airport
Philadelphia - Philadelphia International Airport
Pittsburgh - Pittsburgh International Airport

text: South Carolina

text: Myrtle Beach - Myrtle Beach International Airport

text: Texas

text:
Dallas - Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport Base
Houston - George Bush Intercontinental Airport

text: Virginia

text: Richmond - Richmond International Airport

text: Washington

text: Seattle - Seattle-Tacoma International Airport

text: West Virginia

text: Charleston - Yeager Airport Seasonal

text: South America[edit]

text: Colombia[edit]

text:
Armenia - El Edén International Airport
Bogotá - El Dorado International Airport
Cartagena - Rafael Núñez International Airport
Medellín - José María Córdova International Airport

text: Ecuador[edit]

text: Guayaquil - José Joaquín de Olmedo International Airport

text: Peru[edit]

text: Lima - Jorge Chávez International Airport

text: Terminated destinations[edit]

text:
Columbia, South Carolina, USA (Columbia Metropolitan Airport)
Freeport, Bahamas (Grand Bahama International Airport)[2]
Grand Cayman, Cayman Islands (Owen Roberts International Airport) [3]
Grand Turk Island (JAGS McCartney International Airport)
Havana, Cuba (Jose Marti International Airport)
Nassau, Bahamas (Nassau International Airport)
Phoenix, USA (Williams Gateway Airport) (transferred to PHX Airport) [4]
Ponce, Puerto Rico (Mercedita Airport) [5]
Port-of-Spain, Trinidad and Tobago (Piarco International Airport)
Providence, USA (T. F. Green Airport) [6]
Providenciales (Providenciales International Airport)
San Antonio, USA (San Antonio International Airport) [7]
San Salvador, Bahamas (San Salvador Airport)
Toluca, Mexico (Lic. Adolfo López Mateos International Airport)
Washington, District of Columbia, USA (Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport) (transferred to BWI Airport)[8]