document_title: Beowulf

question_text: who transcribed the earliest known manuscript of beowulf

question_tokens: who transcribed the earliest known manuscript of beowulf

root

text: Beowulf

text: Historical background[edit]

text: The events in the poem take place over most of the sixth century, after the Anglo-Saxons had started migrating to England and before the beginning of the seventh century, a time when the Anglo-Saxons were either newly arrived or were still in close contact with their Germanic kinsmen in Northern Germany and southern Scandinavia. The poem may have been brought to England by people of Geatish origins.[7] Many suggest that Beowulf was first composed in the 7th century at Rendlesham in East Anglia, that the Sutton Hoo ship-burial also shows close connections with Scandinavia, and that the East Anglian royal dynasty, the Wuffingas, may have been descendants of the Geatish Wulfings.[8][9] Others have associated this poem with the court of King Alfred the Great or with the court of King Cnut the Great.[10]

tag: p

text: The poem deals with legends, was composed for entertainment, and does not separate between fictional elements and historic events, such as the raid by King Hygelac into Frisia. Though Beowulf himself is not mentioned in any other Anglo-Saxon manuscript,[11] scholars generally agree that many of the other figures referred to in Beowulf also appear in Scandinavian sources. (Specific works are designated in the following section).[12] This concerns not only individuals (e.g., Healfdene, Hroðgar, Halga, Hroðulf, Eadgils and Ohthere), but also clans (e.g., Scyldings, Scylfings and Wulfings) and certain events (e.g., the Battle on the Ice of Lake Vänern).

text: The dating of the events in the epic poem has been confirmed by archaeological excavations of the barrows in Uppland, Sweden, indicated by Snorri Sturluson and by Swedish tradition as the graves of Ohthere (dated to c. 530) and his son Eadgils (dated to c. 575).[13][14][15]

text: In Denmark, recent archaeological excavations at Lejre, where Scandinavian tradition located the seat of the Scyldings, i.e., Heorot, have revealed that a hall was built in the mid-6th century, exactly the time period of Beowulf.[16] Three halls, each about 50 metres (160 ft) long, were found during the excavation.[16]

text: The majority view appears to be that people such as King Hroðgar and the Scyldings in Beowulf are based on historical people from 6th-century Scandinavia.[17] Like the Finnesburg Fragment and several shorter surviving poems, Beowulf has consequently been used as a source of information about Scandinavian figures such as Eadgils and Hygelac, and about continental Germanic figures such as Offa, king of the continental Angles.

text: 19th-century archaeological evidence may confirm elements of the Beowulf story. Eadgils was buried at Uppsala according to Snorri Sturluson. When Eadgils' mound (to the left in the photo) was excavated in 1874, the finds supported Beowulf and the sagas. They showed that a powerful man was buried in a large barrow, c. 575, on a bear skin with two dogs and rich grave offerings. These remains include a Frankish sword adorned with gold and garnets and a tafl game with Roman pawns of ivory. He was dressed in a costly suit made of Frankish cloth with golden threads, and he wore a belt with a costly buckle. There were four cameos from the Middle East which were probably part of a casket. This would have been a burial fitting a king who was famous for his wealth in Old Norse sources. Ongentheow's barrow has not been excavated.[13][14]

text: Summary[edit]

text: The protagonist Beowulf, a hero of the Geats, comes to the aid of Hrothgar, king of the Danes, whose great hall, Heorot, is plagued by the monster Grendel. Beowulf kills Grendel with his bare hands and Grendel's mother with a giant's sword that he found in her lair.

text: Later in his life, Beowulf becomes king of the Geats, and finds his realm terrorized by a dragon, some of whose treasure had been stolen from his hoard in a burial mound. He attacks the dragon with the help of his thegns or servants, but they do not succeed. Beowulf decides to follow the dragon to its lair at Earnanæs, but only his young Swedish relative Wiglaf, whose name means "remnant of valour",[a] dares to join him. Beowulf finally slays the dragon, but is mortally wounded in the struggle. He is cremated and a burial mound by the sea is erected in his honour.

text: Beowulf is considered an epic poem in that the main character is a hero who travels great distances to prove his strength at impossible odds against supernatural demons and beasts. The poem also begins in medias res or simply, "in the middle of things," which is a characteristic of the epics of antiquity. Although the poem begins with Beowulf's arrival, Grendel's attacks have been an ongoing event. An elaborate history of characters and their lineages is spoken of, as well as their interactions with each other, debts owed and repaid, and deeds of valour. The warriors form a kind of brotherhood linked by loyalty to their lord. What is unique about "Beowulf" is that the poem actually begins and ends with a funeral. At the beginning of the poem, the king, hero, Shield Shiefson dies (26–45) and there is a huge funeral for him. At the end of the poem when Beowulf dies, there is also a massive funeral for Beowulf (3140–3170).

text: First battle: Grendel[edit]

text: Beowulf begins with the story of Hrothgar, who constructed the great hall Heorot for himself and his warriors. In it, he, his wife Wealhtheow, and his warriors spend their time singing and celebrating. Grendel, a troll-like monster said to be descended from the biblical Cain, is pained by the sounds of joy.[20] Grendel attacks the hall and kills and devours many of Hrothgar's warriors while they sleep. Hrothgar and his people, helpless against Grendel, abandon Heorot.

text: Beowulf, a young warrior from Geatland, hears of Hrothgar's troubles and with his king's permission leaves his homeland to assist Hrothgar.[21]

text: Beowulf and his men spend the night in Heorot. Beowulf refuses to use any weapon because he holds himself to be the equal of Grendel.[22] When Grendel enters the hall, Beowulf, who has been feigning sleep, leaps up to clench Grendel's hand.[23] Grendel and Beowulf battle each other violently.[24] Beowulf's retainers draw their swords and rush to his aid, but their blades cannot pierce Grendel's skin.[25] Finally, Beowulf tears Grendel's arm from his body at the shoulder and Grendel runs to his home in the marshes where he dies.[26] Beowulf displays "the whole of Grendel's shoulder and arm, his awesome grasp" for all to see at Heorot. This display would fuel Grendel's mother's anger in revenge.[27]

text: Second battle: Grendel's mother[edit]

text: The next night, after celebrating Grendel's defeat, Hrothgar and his men sleep in Heorot. Grendel's mother, angry that her son has been killed, sets out to get revenge. "Beowulf was elsewhere. Earlier, after the award of treasure, The Geat had been given another lodging"; his assistance would be absent in this battle.[28] Grendel's mother violently kills Æschere, who is Hrothgar's most loyal fighter, and escapes.

text: Hrothgar, Beowulf, and their men track Grendel's mother to her lair under a lake. Unferth, a warrior who had doubted him and wishes to make amends, presents Beowulf with his sword Hrunting. After stipulating a number of conditions to Hrothgar in case of his death (including the taking in of his kinsmen and the inheritance by Unferth of Beowulf's estate), Beowulf jumps into the lake, at the bottom of which he finds a cavern containing Grendel's body and the remains of men that the two have killed. Grendel's mother and Beowulf engage in fierce combat.

text: At first, Grendel's mother appears to prevail. Beowulf, finding that Hrunting cannot harm his foe, puts it aside in fury. Beowulf is again saved from his opponent's attack by his armour. Beowulf takes another sword from Grendel's mother and slices her head off with it. Travelling further into Grendel's mother's lair, Beowulf discovers Grendel's corpse and severs his head. The blade of Beowulf's sword touches Grendel's toxic blood, and instantly dissolves so that only the hilt remains. Beowulf swims back up to the rim of the pond where his men wait in growing despair. Carrying the hilt of the sword and Grendel's head, he presents them to Hrothgar upon his return to Heorot. Hrothgar gives Beowulf many gifts, including the sword Nægling, his family's heirloom. The events prompt a long reflection by the king, sometimes referred to as "Hrothgar's sermon", in which he urges Beowulf to be wary of pride and to reward his thegns.[29]

text: Third battle: The dragon[edit]

text: Beowulf returns home and eventually becomes king of his own people. One day, fifty years after Beowulf's battle with Grendel's mother, a slave steals a golden cup from the lair of a dragon at Earnanæs. When the dragon sees that the cup has been stolen, it leaves its cave in a rage, burning everything in sight. Beowulf and his warriors come to fight the dragon, but Beowulf tells his men that he will fight the dragon alone and that they should wait on the barrow. Beowulf descends to do battle with the dragon, but finds himself outmatched. His men, upon seeing this and fearing for their lives, retreat into the woods. One of his men, Wiglaf, however, in great distress at Beowulf's plight, comes to his aid. The two slay the dragon, but Beowulf is mortally wounded. After Beowulf dies, Wiglaf remains by his side, grief-stricken. When the rest of the men finally return, Wiglaf bitterly admonishes them, blaming their cowardice for Beowulf's death. Afterward, Beowulf is ritually burned on a great pyre in Geatland while his people wail and mourn him, fearing that without him, the Geats are defenceless against attacks from surrounding tribes. Afterwards, a barrow, visible from the sea, is built in his memory (Beowulf lines 2712–3182).[30]

text: Authorship and date[edit]

text: Beowulf was written in England, but is set in Scandinavia; its dating has attracted considerable scholarly attention. The poem has been dated to between the 8th and the early 11th centuries, with some recent scholarship offering what has been called "a cohesive and compelling case for Beowulf's early composition."[31][32] However, opinion differs as to whether the composition of the poem is nearly contemporary with its transcription, whether it was first written in the 8th century, or if a proto-version of the poem was perhaps composed at an even earlier time (possibly as one of the Bear's Son Tales) and orally transmitted for many years, then transcribed in its present form at a later date. Albert Lord felt strongly that the manuscript represents the transcription of a performance, though likely taken at more than one sitting.[33] J. R. R. Tolkien believed that the poem retains too genuine a memory of Anglo-Saxon paganism to have been composed more than a few generations after the completion of the Christianisation of England around AD 700,[34] and Tolkien's conviction that the poem dates to the 8th century has been defended by Tom Shippey, Leonard Neidorf, Rafael J. Pascual, and R.D. Fulk, among others.[35][36][37]

text: The claim to an early 11th-century date depends in part on scholars who argue that, rather than the transcription of a tale from the oral tradition by an earlier literate monk, Beowulf reflects an original interpretation of an earlier version of the story by the manuscript's two scribes. On the other hand, some scholars argue that linguistic, palaeographical, metrical, and onomastic considerations align to support a date of composition in the first half of the eighth century;[32][38][39][40] in particular, the poem's regular observation of etymological length distinctions (Max Kaluza's law) has been thought to demonstrate a date of composition in the first half of the eighth century.[36][37] However, scholars disagree about whether the metrical phenomena described by Kaluza's Law prove an early date of composition or are evidence of a longer prehistory of the Beowulf meter;[41] B.R. Hutcheson, for instance, does not believe Kaluza's Law can be used to date the poem, while claiming that "the weight of all the evidence Fulk presents in his book[b] tells strongly in favour of an eighth-century date."[42]

text: Manuscript[edit]

text: Beowulf survives in a single manuscript dated on palaeographical grounds to the late 10th or early 11th century. The manuscript measures 245 × 185 mm.[43]

text: Provenance[edit]

text: The poem is known only from a single manuscript, which is estimated to date from close to AD 1000, in which it appears with other works. The Beowulf manuscript is known as the Nowell Codex, gaining its name from 16th-century scholar Laurence Nowell. The official designation is "British Library, Cotton Vitellius A.XV" because it was one of Sir Robert Bruce Cotton's holdings in the Cotton library in the middle of the 17th century. Many private antiquarians and book collectors, such as Sir Robert Cotton, used their own library classification systems. "Cotton Vitellius A.XV" translates as: the 15th book from the left on shelf A (the top shelf) of the bookcase with the bust of Roman Emperor Vitellius standing on top of it, in Cotton's collection. Kevin Kiernan argues that Nowell most likely acquired it through William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley, in 1563, when Nowell entered Cecil's household as a tutor to his ward, Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford.[44]

text: The earliest extant reference to the first foliation of the Nowell Codex was made sometime between 1628 and 1650 by Franciscus Junius (the younger).[45]:91 The ownership of the codex before Nowell remains a mystery.[45]:120

text: The Reverend Thomas Smith (1638–1710) and Humfrey Wanley (1672–1726) both catalogued the Cotton library (in which the Nowell Codex was held). Smith's catalogue appeared in 1696, and Wanley's in 1705.[46] The Beowulf manuscript itself is identified by name for the first time in an exchange of letters in 1700 between George Hickes, Wanley's assistant, and Wanley. In the letter to Wanley, Hickes responds to an apparent charge against Smith, made by Wanley, that Smith had failed to mention the Beowulf script when cataloguing Cotton MS. Vitellius A. XV. Hickes replies to Wanley "I can find nothing yet of Beowulph."[47] Kiernan theorised that Smith failed to mention the Beowulf manuscript because of his reliance on previous catalogues or because either he had no idea how to describe it or because it was temporarily out of the codex.[48]

text: It suffered damage in the Cotton Library fire at Ashburnham House in 1731. Since then, parts of the manuscript have crumbled along with many of the letters. Rebinding efforts, though saving the manuscript from much degeneration, have nonetheless covered up other letters of the poem, causing further loss. Kevin Kiernan, in preparing his electronic edition of the manuscript, used fibre-optic backlighting and ultraviolet lighting to reveal letters in the manuscript lost from binding, erasure, or ink blotting.[49]

text: Writing[edit]

text: The Beowulf manuscript was transcribed from an original by two scribes, one of whom wrote the prose at the beginning of the manuscript and the first 1939 lines before breaking off in mid sentence. The first scribe made a point of carefully regularizing the spelling of the original document by using the common West Saxon language and by avoiding any archaic or dialectical features. The second scribe, who wrote the remainder, with a difference in handwriting noticeable after line 1939, seems to have written more vigorously and with less interest. As a result, the second scribe's script retains more archaic dialectic features which allow modern scholars to ascribe the poem a cultural context.[50] While both scribes appear to proofread their work, there are nevertheless many errors.[51] The second scribe was ultimately the more conservative copyist of the two as he did not modify the spelling of the text as he wrote but rather copied what he saw in front of him. In the way that it is currently bound, the Beowulf manuscript is followed by the Old English poem Judith. Judith was written by the same scribe that completed Beowulf as evidenced through similar writing style. Worm-holes found in the last leaves of the Beowulf manuscript that aren't present in the Judith manuscript suggest that at one point Beowulf ended the volume. The rubbed appearance of some leaves also suggest that the manuscript stood on a shelf unbound, as is known to have been the case with other Old English manuscripts.[50] From knowledge of books held in the library at Malmesbury Abbey and available as source works, and from the identification of certain words particular to the local dialect found in the text, the transcription may have taken place there.[52]

text: Transcriptions[edit]

text: Icelandic scholar Grímur Jónsson Thorkelin made the first transcriptions of the manuscript in 1786 and published the results in 1815, working as part of a Danish government historical research commission. He made one himself, and had another done by a professional copyist who knew no Anglo-Saxon. Since that time, however, the manuscript has crumbled further, making these transcripts a prized witness to the text. While the recovery of at least 2000 letters can be attributed to them, their accuracy has been called into question,[c] and the extent to which the manuscript was actually more readable in Thorkelin's time is uncertain.

text: Translations and Adaptations[edit]

text: Main article: List of translations and artistic depictions of Beowulf

text: A great number of translations and adaptations are available, in poetry and prose. Andy Orchard, in A Critical Companion to Beowulf, lists 33 "representative" translations in his bibliography,[54] while the Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies published Marijane Osborn's annotated list of over 300 translations and adaptations in 2003.[55] Beowulf has been translated into at least 23 other languages.[56]

text: 19th century

text: In 1805, the historian Sharon Turner translated selected verses into modern English.[57] This was followed in 1814 by John Josias Conybeare who published an edition "in English paraphrase and Latin verse translation."[57] In 1815, Grímur Jónsson Thorkelin published the first complete edition in Latin.[57] N. F. S. Grundtvig reviewed this edition in 1815 and created the first complete verse translation in Danish in 1820.[57] In 1837, John Mitchell Kemble created an important literal translation in English.[57] In 1895, William Morris & A. J. Wyatt published the ninth English translation.[57] Many retellings of Beowulf for children began appearing in the 20th century.[58]

text: 20th century

text: In 1909, Francis Barton Gummere's full translation in "English imitative meter" was published,[57] and was used as the text of Gareth Hinds's graphic novel based on Beowulf in 2007.

text: First published in 1928, Frederick Klaeber's Beowulf and The Fight at Finnsburg[59] (which included the poem in Old English, an extensive glossary of Old English terms, and general background information) became the "central source used by graduate students for the study of the poem and by scholars and teachers as the basis of their translations."[60]

text: Following research in the King's College London Archives, Carl Kears proposed that John Porter's translation, published in 1975 by Bill Griffiths' Pirate Press, was the first complete verse translation of the poem entirely accompanied by facing-page Old English.[61]

text: Seamus Heaney's 1999 translation of the poem (referred to by Howell Chickering and many others as "Heaneywulf"[62]) was widely publicized.

text: 21st century

text: R. D. Fulk, of Indiana University, published the first facing-page edition and translation of the entire Nowell Codex manuscript in the Dumbarton Oaks Medieval Library series in 2010.[63]

text: Translating Beowulf is one of the subjects of the 2012 publication Beowulf at Kalamazoo, containing a section with 10 essays on translation, and a section with 22 reviews of Heaney's translation (some of which compare Heaney's work with that of Anglo-Saxon scholar Roy Liuzza).[64]

text: J. R. R. Tolkien's long-awaited translation (edited by his son, Christopher) was published in 2014 as Beowulf: A Translation and Commentary.[65][66] This also includes Tolkien's own retelling of the story of Beowulf in his tale, Sellic Spell.

text: Debate over oral tradition[edit]

text: The question of whether Beowulf was passed down through oral tradition prior to its present manuscript form has been the subject of much debate, and involves more than simply the issue of its composition. Rather, given the implications of the theory of oral-formulaic composition and oral tradition, the question concerns how the poem is to be understood, and what sorts of interpretations are legitimate.

text: Scholarly discussion about Beowulf in the context of the oral tradition was extremely active throughout the 1960s and 1970s. The debate might be framed starkly as follows: on the one hand, we can hypothesise a poem put together from various tales concerning the hero (the Grendel episode, the Grendel's mother story, and the fire drake narrative). These fragments would have been told for many years in tradition, and learned by apprenticeship from one generation of illiterate poets to the next. The poem is composed orally and extemporaneously, and the archive of tradition on which it draws is oral, pagan, Germanic, heroic, and tribal. On the other hand, one might posit a poem which is composed by a literate scribe, who acquired literacy by way of learning Latin (and absorbing Latinate culture and ways of thinking), probably a monk and therefore profoundly Christian in outlook. On this view, the pagan references would be a sort of decorative archaising.[67][68] There is a third view that sees merit in both arguments above and attempts to bridge them, and so cannot be articulated as starkly as they can; it sees more than one Christianity and more than one attitude towards paganism at work in the poem; it sees the poem as initially the product of a literate Christian author with one foot in the pagan world and one in the Christian, himself perhaps a convert (or one whose forebears had been pagan), a poet who was conversant in both oral and literary composition and was capable of a masterful "repurposing" of poetry from the oral tradition.

text: However, scholars such as D.K. Crowne have proposed the idea that the poem was passed down from reciter to reciter under the theory of oral-formulaic composition, which hypothesises that epic poems were (at least to some extent) improvised by whoever was reciting them, and only much later written down. In his landmark work, The Singer of Tales, Albert Lord refers to the work of Francis Peabody Magoun and others, saying "the documentation is complete, thorough, and accurate. This exhaustive analysis is in itself sufficient to prove that Beowulf was composed orally."[69]

text: Examination of Beowulf and other Old English literature for evidence of oral-formulaic composition has met with mixed response. While "themes" (inherited narrative subunits for representing familiar classes of event, such as the "arming the hero",[70] or the particularly well-studied "hero on the beach" theme[71]) do exist across Anglo-Saxon and other Germanic works, some scholars conclude that Anglo-Saxon poetry is a mix of oral-formulaic and literate patterns, arguing that the poems both were composed on a word-by-word basis and followed larger formulae and patterns.[72]

text: Larry Benson argued that the interpretation of Beowulf as an entirely formulaic work diminishes the ability of the reader to analyse the poem in a unified manner, and with due attention to the poet's creativity. Instead, he proposed that other pieces of Germanic literature contain "kernels of tradition" from which Beowulf borrows and expands upon.[73][74] A few years later, Ann Watts argued against the imperfect application of one theory to two different traditions: traditional, Homeric, oral-formulaic poetry and Anglo-Saxon poetry.[74][75] Thomas Gardner agreed with Watts, arguing that the Beowulf text is of too varied a nature to be completely constructed from set formulae and themes.[74][76]

text: John Miles Foley wrote, referring to the Beowulf debate,[77] that while comparative work was both necessary and valid, it must be conducted with a view to the particularities of a given tradition; Foley argued with a view to developments of oral traditional theory that do not assume, or depend upon, ultimately unverifiable assumptions about composition, and instead delineate a more fluid continuum of traditionality and textuality.[78][79][80][70]

text: Finally, in the view of Ursula Schaefer, the question of whether the poem was "oral" or "literate" becomes something of a red herring.[81] In this model, the poem is created, and is interpretable, within both noetic horizons. Schaefer's concept of "vocality" offers neither a compromise nor a synthesis of the views which see the poem as on the one hand Germanic, pagan, and oral and on the other Latin-derived, Christian, and literate, but, as stated by Monika Otter: "... a 'tertium quid', a modality that participates in both oral and literate culture yet also has a logic and aesthetic of its own."[82]

text: Sources and analogues[edit]

text: Neither identified sources nor analogues for Beowulf can be definitively proven, but many conjectures have been made. These are important in helping historians understand the Beowulf manuscript, as possible source-texts or influences would suggest time-frames of composition, geographic boundaries within which it could be composed, or range (both spatial and temporal) of influence (i.e. when it was "popular" and where its "popularity" took it).

text: There are Scandinavian sources, international folkloric sources, and Celtic sources.[d][83]

text: Scandinavian parallels and sources[edit]

text: 19th century studies proposed that Beowulf was translated from a lost original Scandinavian work, but this idea was quickly abandoned. But Scandinavian works have continued to be studied as a possible source.[84] Proponents included Gregor Sarrazin (de) writing in 1886 that an Old Norse original version of Beowulf must have existed,[85] but that view was later debunked by Carl Wilhelm von Sydow (de) (1914) who pointed out that Beowulf is fundamentally Christian and written at a time when any Norse tale would have most likely been pagan.[86]

text: Grettis saga[edit]

text: The epic's possible connection to Grettis saga was made early on by Guðbrandur Vigfússon (1878).[87]

text: Grettis saga is a family saga, and a story about Grettir Ásmundarson (is), a great-grandson of an Icelandic settler, cannot be comparably as old as Beowulf. Axel Olrik (1903) claimed that on the contrary, this saga was a reworking of Beowulf, and others had followed suit.[85]

text: However, Friedrich Panzer (de) (1910) wrote a thesis in which both Beowulf and Grettis saga drew from a common folkloric source, and this encouraged even a detractor such W. W. Lawrence to reposition his view, and entertain the possibility that certain elements in the saga (such as the waterfall in place of the mere) retained an older form.[85]

text: The viability of this connection has enjoyed enduring support, and was characterized as one of the few Scandinavian analogues to receive a general consensus of potential connection by Theodore M. Andersson (de) (1998).[88] But that same year, Magnús Fjalldal published a volume challenging the perception that there is a close parallel, and that tangential similarities were being overemphasized as analogies.[89]

text: Hrolf kraki and Bodvar Bjarki[edit]

text: Another candidate for a cogener analogue or possible source is the story of Hrolf kraki and his servant, the legendary bear-shapeshifter Bodvar Bjarki. The story survives in Old Norse Hrólfs saga kraka and Saxo's Gesta Danorum. Hrolf kraki, one of the Skjöldungs, even appears as "Hrothulf" in the Anglo-Saxon epic. Hence a story about him and his followers may have developed as early as the 6th century.[90]

text: International folktale sources[edit]

text: Bear's Son Tale[edit]

text: Friedrich Panzer (1910) wrote a thesis that the first part of Beowulf (the Grendel Story) incorporated preexisting folktale material, and that the folktale in question was of the Bear's Son Tale (Bärensohnmärchen) type, which has surviving examples all over the world.[91][85]

text: This tale type was later catalogued as international folktale type 301, now formally entitled "The Three Stolen Princesses" type in Hans Uther's catalogue, although the "Bear's Son" is still used in Beowulf criticism, if not so much in folkloristic circles.[85]

text: However, although this folkloristic approach was seen as a step in the right direction, "The Bear's Son" tale has later been regarded by many as not a close enough parallel to be a viable choice.[92] Later, Peter Jørgensen, looking for a more concise frame of reference, coined a "two-troll tradition" that covers both Beowulf and Grettis saga: "a Norse 'ecotype' in which a hero enters a cave and kills two giants, usually of different sexes";[93] which has emerged as a more attractive folk tale parallel, according to a 1998 assessment by Andersson (Andersson|de).[94][95]

text: Irish folktales[edit]

text: Similarity of the epic to the Irish folktale "The Hand and the Child" had already been noted by Albert S. Cook (1899), and others even earlier,[e][96][86][f] Swedish folklorist Carl Wilhelm von Sydow (de) (1914) then made a strong argument for the case of parallelism in "The Hand and the Child", because the folktale type demonstrated a "monstrous arm" motif that corresponded with Beowulf wrenching off Grendel's arm. For no such correspondence could be perceived in the Bear's Son Tale or Grettis saga.[g][97][96]

text: James Carney and Martin Puhvel also agree with this "Hand and the Child" contextualisation.[h] Puhvel supported the "Hand and the Child" theory through such motifs as (in Andersson's words) "the more powerful giant mother, the mysterious light in the cave, the melting of the sword in blood, the phenomenon of battle rage, swimming prowess, combat with water monsters, underwater adventures, and the bear-hug style of wrestling."[98]

text: Classical sources[edit]

text: Attempts to find classical or Late Latin influence or analogue in Beowulf are almost exclusively linked with Homer's Odyssey or Virgil's Aeneid. In 1926, Albert S. Cook suggested a Homeric connection due to equivalent formulas, metonymies, and analogous voyages.[99] In 1930, James A. Work also supported the Homeric influence, stating that encounter between Beowulf and Unferth was parallel to the encounter between Odysseus and Euryalus in Books 7–8 of the Odyssey, even to the point of both characters giving the hero the same gift of a sword upon being proven wrong in their initial assessment of the hero's prowess. This theory of Homer's influence on Beowulf remained very prevalent in the 1920s, but started to die out in the following decade when a handful of critics stated that the two works were merely "comparative literature",[100] although Greek was known in late 7th century England: Bede states that Theodore of Tarsus, a Greek, was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury in 668, and he taught Greek. Several English scholars and churchmen are described by Bede as being fluent in Greek due to being taught by him; Bede claims to be fluent in Greek himself.[101]

text: Frederick Klaeber, among others, argued for a connection between Beowulf and Virgil near the start of the 20th century, claiming that the very act of writing a secular epic in a Germanic world represents Virgilian influence. Virgil was seen as the pinnacle of Latin literature, and Latin was the dominant literary language of England at the time, therefore making Virgilian influence highly likely.[102] Similarly, in 1971, Alistair Campbell stated that the apologue technique used in Beowulf is so rare in epic poetry aside from Virgil that the poet who composed Beowulf could not have written the poem in such a manner without first coming across Virgil's writings.[103]

text: Biblical influences[edit]

text: It cannot be denied that Biblical parallels occur in the text, whether seen as a pagan work with "Christian colouring" added by scribes or as a "Christian historical novel, with selected bits of paganism deliberately laid on as 'local colour'," as Margaret E. Goldsmith did in "The Christian Theme of Beowulf,".[104] Beowulf channels the Book of Genesis, the Book of Exodus, and the Book of Daniel[105] in its inclusion of references to the Genesis creation narrative, the story of Cain and Abel, Noah and the flood, the Devil, Hell, and the Last Judgment.[104]

text: Dialect[edit]

text:
Part of a series on

Old English

Dialects[show]

Kentish
Mercian
Northumbrian
West Saxon

Use[show]

Orthography
(Runic alphabet, Latin alphabet)
Grammar
Phonology
Phonological history

Literature[show]

Beowulf
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
Cædmon's Hymn

History[show]

Development of Old English

Influences

Proto-Germanic
Latin
Norse
Brittonic

Legacy[show]

Middle English
Early Modern English
Modern English
Scots

v
t
e

tag: table

text: The poem mixes the West Saxon and Anglian dialects of Old English, though it predominantly uses West Saxon, as do other Old English poems copied at the time.[106]

text: There is a wide array of linguistic forms in the Beowulf manuscript. It is this fact that leads some scholars to believe that Beowulf has endured a long and complicated transmission through all the main dialect areas.[107] The poem retains a complicated mix of the following dialectical forms: Mercian, Northumbrian, Early West Saxon, Kentish and Late West Saxon.[45]:20–21 There are in Beowulf more than 3100 distinct words, and almost 1300 occur exclusively, or almost exclusively, in this poem and in the other poetical texts. Considerably more than one-third of the total vocabulary is alien from ordinary prose use. There are, in round numbers, three hundred and sixty uncompounded verbs in Beowulf, and forty of them are poetical words in the sense that they are unrecorded or rare in the existing prose writings. One hundred and fifty more occur with the prefix ge- (reckoning a few found only in the past-participle), but of these one hundred occur also as simple verbs, and the prefix is employed to render a shade of meaning which was perfectly known and thoroughly familiar except in the latest Anglo-Saxon period. The nouns number sixteen hundred. Seven hundred of them, including those formed with prefixes, of which fifty (or considerably more than half) have ge-, are simple nouns, at the highest reckoning not more than one-quarter is absent in prose. That this is due in some degree to accident is clear from the character of the words, and from the fact that several reappear and are common after the Norman Conquest.[108]

text: Form and metre[edit]

text: An Old English poem such as Beowulf is very different from modern poetry. Anglo-Saxon poets typically used alliterative verse, a form of verse in which the first half of the line (the a-verse) is linked to the second half (the b-verse) through similarity in initial sound. In addition, the two halves are divided by a caesura: "Oft Scyld Scefing \\ sceaþena þreatum" (l. 4). This verse form maps stressed and unstressed syllables onto abstract entities known as metrical positions. There is no fixed number of beats per line: the first one cited has three (Oft SCYLD SCEFING, with ictus on the suffix -ING) whereas the second has two (SCEAþena ÞREATum).

text: The poet has a choice of epithets or formulae to use in order to fulfil the alliteration. When speaking or reading Old English poetry, it is important to remember for alliterative purposes that many of the letters are not pronounced in the same way as in modern English. The letter ⟨h⟩, for example, is always pronounced (Hroðgar: [ˈhroðgar]), and the digraph ⟨cg⟩ is pronounced [dʒ], as in the word edge. Both ⟨f⟩ and ⟨s⟩ vary in pronunciation depending on their phonetic environment. Between vowels or voiced consonants, they are voiced, sounding like modern ⟨v⟩ and ⟨z⟩, respectively. Otherwise they are unvoiced, like modern ⟨f⟩ in fat and ⟨s⟩ in sat. Some letters which are no longer found in modern English, such as thorn, ⟨þ⟩, and eth, ⟨ð⟩ – representing both pronunciations of modern English ⟨th⟩, as /θ/ in thing and /ð/ this – are used extensively both in the original manuscript and in modern English editions. The voicing of these characters echoes that of ⟨f⟩ and ⟨s⟩. Both are voiced (as in this) between other voiced sounds: oðer, laþleas, suþern. Otherwise they are unvoiced (as in thing): þunor, suð, soþfæst.

text: Kennings are also a significant technique in Beowulf. They are evocative poetic descriptions of everyday things, often created to fill the alliterative requirements of the metre. For example, a poet might call the sea the "swan-road" or the "whale-road"; a king might be called a "ring-giver." There are many kennings in Beowulf, and the device is typical of much of classic poetry in Old English, which is heavily formulaic. The poem also makes extensive use of elided metaphors.[109]

text: J. R. R. Tolkien argued in Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics that the poem is not an epic, and while no conventional term exactly fits, the nearest would be elegy.[110]

text: Interpretation and criticism[edit]

text: The history of modern Beowulf criticism is often said to begin with J. R. R. Tolkien,[111] author and Merton professor of Anglo-Saxon at University of Oxford, who in his 1936 lecture to the British Academy criticised his contemporaries' excessive interest in its historical implications.[112][citation not found] He noted in Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics that as a result the poem's literary value had been largely overlooked and argued that the poem "is in fact so interesting as poetry, in places poetry so powerful, that this quite overshadows the historical content..."[113]

text: Paganism and Christianity[edit]

text: In historical terms, the poem's characters would have been Norse pagans (the historical events of the poem took place before the Christianisation of Scandinavia), yet the poem was recorded by Christian Anglo-Saxons who had mostly converted from their native Anglo-Saxon paganism around the 7th century – both Anglo-Saxon paganism and Norse paganism share a common origin as both are forms of Germanic paganism. Beowulf thus depicts a Germanic warrior society, in which the relationship between the lord of the region and those who served under him was of paramount importance.[114]

text: In terms of the relationship between characters in Beowulf to God, one might recall the substantial amount of paganism that is present throughout the work. Literary critics such as Fred C. Robinson argue that the Beowulf poet arguably tries to send a message to readers during the Anglo-Saxon time period regarding the state of Christianity in their own time. Robinson argues that the intensified religious aspects of the Anglo-Saxon period inherently shape the way in which the Poet alludes to paganism as presented in Beowulf. The Poet arguably calls on Anglo-Saxon readers to recognize the imperfect aspects of their supposed Christian lifestyles. In other words, the Poet is referencing their "Anglo-Saxon Heathenism." In terms of the characters of the epic itself, Robinson argues that readers are "impressed" by the courageous acts of Beowulf and the speeches of Hrothgar (181). But one is ultimately left to feel sorry for both men as they are fully detached from supposed "Christian truth" (181). The relationship between the characters of Beowulf, and the overall message of the Poet, regarding their relationship with God is largely debated among readers and literary critics alike.

text: At the same time, Richard North argues that the Beowulf poet interpreted "Danish myths in Christian form" (as the poem would have served as a form of entertainment for a Christian audience), and states: "As yet we are no closer to finding out why the first audience of Beowulf liked to hear stories about people routinely classified as damned. This question is pressing, given... that Anglo-Saxons saw the Danes as 'heathens' rather than as foreigners."[115] Grendel's mother and Grendel are described as descendants of Cain, a fact which some scholars link to the Cain tradition.[116]

text: Other scholars disagree, however, as to the meaning and nature of the poem: is it a Christian work set in a Germanic pagan context? The question suggests that the conversion from the Germanic pagan beliefs to Christian ones was a prolonged and gradual process over several centuries, and it remains unclear the ultimate nature of the poem's message in respect to religious belief at the time it was written. Robert F. Yeager notes the facts that form the basis for these questions:

text: That the scribes of Cotton Vitellius A.XV were Christian beyond doubt, and it is equally sure that Beowulf was composed in a Christianised England since conversion took place in the sixth and seventh centuries. The only Biblical references in Beowulf are to the Old Testament, and Christ is never mentioned. The poem is set in pagan times, and none of the characters is demonstrably Christian. In fact, when we are told what anyone in the poem believes, we learn that they are pagans. Beowulf's own beliefs are not expressed explicitly. He offers eloquent prayers to a higher power, addressing himself to the "Father Almighty" or the "Wielder of All." Were those the prayers of a pagan who used phrases the Christians subsequently appropriated? Or, did the poem's author intend to see Beowulf as a Christian Ur-hero, symbolically refulgent with Christian virtues?[117]

text: The location of the composition of the poem is also intensely disputed. In 1914, F.W. Moorman, the first professor of English Language at University of Leeds, claimed that Beowulf was composed in Yorkshire,[118] but E. Talbot Donaldson claims that it was probably composed more than twelve hundred years ago, during the first half of the eighth century, and that the writer was a native of what was then called West Mercia, located in the Western Midlands of England. However, the late tenth-century manuscript "which alone preserves the poem" originated in the kingdom of the West Saxons – as it is more commonly known.[119] Donaldson wrote that "the poet who put the materials into their present form was a Christian and ... poem reflects a Christian tradition".[120]

text: Politics and warfare[edit]

text: Stanley B. Greenfield has suggested that references to the human body throughout Beowulf emphasise the relative position of thanes to their lord. He argues that the term "shoulder-companion" could refer to both a physical arm as well as a thane (Aeschere) who was very valuable to his lord (Hrothgar). With Aeschere's death, Hrothgar turns to Beowulf as his new "arm."[121] Also, Greenfield argues the foot is used for the opposite effect, only appearing four times in the poem. It is used in conjunction with Unferð (a man described by Beowulf as weak, traitorous, and cowardly). Greenfield notes that Unferð is described as "at the king's feet" (line 499). Unferð is also a member of the foot troops, who, throughout the story, do nothing and "generally serve as backdrops for more heroic action."[122]

text: Daniel Podgorski has argued that the work is best understood as an examination of inter-generational vengeance-based conflict, or feuding.[123] In this context, the poem operates as an indictment of feuding conflicts as a function of its conspicuous, circuitous, and lengthy depiction of the Geatish-Swedish wars—coming into contrast with the poem's depiction of the protagonist Beowulf as being disassociated from the ongoing feuds in every way.[123]


document_title: Sinus (anatomy)

question_text: where are the sinuses located in the skull

text: Sinus (anatomy)

text: Etymology[edit]

text: Sinus is Latin for "bay", "pocket", "curve", or "bosom". In anatomy, the term is used in various contexts.

text: The word "sinusitis" is used to indicate that one or more of the membrane linings found in the sinus cavities has become inflamed or infected. It is however distinct from a fistula, which is a tract connecting two epithelial surfaces. If left untreated, infections occurring in the sinus cavities can affect the chest and lungs.

text: Sinuses in the body[edit]

text:
Paranasal sinuses

Maxillary
Ethmoid
Sphenoid
Frontal

Dural venous sinuses

Anterior midline

Cavernous
Superior petrosal
Inferior petrosal

Central sulcus

Inferior sagittal
Superior sagittal

Straight

Confluence of sinuses
Lateral

Transverse
Sigmoid

Inferior

Occipital

Arterial sinuses

Carotid sinus

Organ-specific spaces

Renal sinus (drains renal medulla)
Coronary sinus (subdivisions of the pericardium)
Lymphatic spaces

Subcapsular sinus (space between the lymph node and capsule)
Trabecular sinuses (space around the invaginations of the lymphatic capsule)
Medullary sinuses (space between the lymphatic cortex and efferent lymphatic drainage)

tag: ul

text: Paranasal sinuses[edit]

text: The four paired sinuses or air cavities can be referred to as:

text:
Ethmoid sinus cavities which are located between the eyes.
Frontal sinus cavities which can be found above the eyes (more in the forehead region).
Maxillary sinus cavities are located on either side of the nostrils (cheekbone areas).
Sphenoid sinuses that are located behind the eyes and lie in the deeper recesses of the skull.

text: Function[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The presence of sinus cavities within the cranial bone (skull) is essential for the following reasons:

text:
Sinus cavities allow for voice resonance
They help filter and add moisture to any air that is inhaled through the nasal passages. On top of filtering and adding moisture to the air we inhale, they also help in the removal of unwanted particles from the sinus cavities.
Sinus cavities lighten the overall weight of the skull.

text: Sinusitis[edit]

text: If one or more of the paired paranasal sinuses or air cavities becomes inflamed, it leads to an infection called sinusitis. The term "sinusitis" means an inflammation of one or more of the sinus cavities. This inflammation causes an increase in internal pressure within these areas. The pressure is often experienced in the cheek area, eyes, nose, on one side of the head (temple areas), and can result in a severe headache.

text: When diagnosing a sinus infection, one can identify which sinus cavity the infection is located in by the term given to the cavity. Ethmoiditis refers to an infection in the ethmoid sinus cavity/ies, frontal sinusitis refers to an infection occurring in the frontal sinus cavity/ies, antritis is used to refer to an infection in the maxillary sinus cavity/ies whilst spenoiditis refers to an infection in the sphenoid sinus cavity/ies.

text: Classification[edit]

text: Sinusitis can be acute, chronic or recurrent.

text:
Acute: Any sinus infection which lasts for a maximum of three weeks can be referred to as acute sinusitis; with the affected individual displaying symptoms such as congestion, post nasal drip, halitosis, a runny nose as well as sinus pressure and pain in the affected areas.
Chronic: This infection extends beyond the three-week period and if left untreated can persist for years. Certain causes of chronic sinusitis can be allergies that have been left untreated, bacterial or fungal infections within one or more of the sinus cavities or any allergic disorders which targets and increases the sensitivity of the mucous membrane linings which surround the sinus cavities and nasal passages. Symptoms of chronic sinusitis are debilitating headaches, green colored mucus, severe nasal blockages or congestion and heavy pressure experienced in the cheek, forehead, temple and eye regions.
Recurrent: This type of sinus infection is intermittent; a person usually experiences this type of infection numerous times throughout a year with period of complete relief being experienced for weeks or months in-between.

text: Causes[edit]

text: A sinus infection can have a number of causes. Untreated allergies are one of the main contributing factors to the development of sinus infections. A person with a sinus infection often has nasal congestion with thick nasal secretions, fever, and cough (WebMD). Patients can be treated by “reducing the swelling or inflammation in the nasal passages and sinuses, eliminating the infection, promoting drainage from the sinuses, and maintaining open sinuses” (WebMD). Sinusitis can be treated with medications and can also be eliminated by surgery.

text: Another cause of sinus infections is a result of bacterial invasion within one or more of the sinus cavities. Any bacteria that enter the nasal passages and sinus cavities through the air that is inhaled, are trapped by the mucus secreted by the mucous membranes surrounding these areas. These trapped particles can cause an irritation to these linings resulting in swelling and inflammation. “Bacteria that normally cause acute sinusitis are Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and Moraxella catarrhalis (WebMD). These microorganisms, along with Staphylococcus aureus and some anaerobes (bacteria that live without oxygen), are involved in chronic sinusitis. (WebMD)” Fungi can also cause chronic sinusitis.

text: Certain abnormalities or trauma related injuries to the nasal cavity can make it difficult for effective drainage of mucus from the sinus cavities. This mucus is then allowed to develop in these areas making the cavity an ideal area in which bacteria can both attach and thrive.

text: Treatment outlook[edit]

text: Sinusitis or sinus infections usually clear up if treated early and appropriately. Apart from complications, the outlook for acute bacterial sinusitis is good. People may develop chronic sinusitis or have recurrent attacks of acute sinusitis if they suffer with allergies or if they have any “structural or anatomical causes" which predispose them to developing sinus infections.

text: Viral sinus infections do not however respond well to conventional treatments such as antibiotics. When treating fungal sinusitis, an appropriate fungicide is usually administered.


document_title: Tower of Power

question_text: who wrote the song you're still a young man

question_tokens: who wrote the song you 're still a young man

text: Tower of Power

text: History[edit]

text: In the summer of 1968, tenor saxophonist/vocalist Emilio Castillo met Stephen "Doc" Kupka, who played baritone sax. Castillo had played in several bands, but Castillo's father told his son to "hire that guy" after a home audition.[5] Within months the group, then known as The Motowns, began playing various gigs around Oakland and Berkeley, their soul sound relating to both minority and rebellious listeners.[3][6]

text: Castillo wanted to play Bill Graham's Fillmore Auditorium in San Francisco, but he realized he would never get in with a name like The Motowns.[6] The band agreed on Tower of Power and the name stuck.[7]

text: By 1970, the now renamed Tower of Power—now including trumpet/arranger Greg Adams, first trumpet Mic Gillette, first saxophone Skip Mesquite, Francis "Rocco" Prestia on bass, Willie Fulton on guitar, and drummer David Garibaldi—signed a recording contract with Bill Graham's San Francisco Records and released their first album, East Bay Grease. Rufus Miller performed most of the lead vocals on this debut album.[3] The group was first introduced to the San Francisco Bay area by radio station KSAN, which played a variety of artists such as Cold Blood, Eric Mercury and Marvin Gaye. The single "Sparkling in the Sand" received airplay on the Bay Area soul station KDIA.[citation needed]

text: Augmented by percussionist/conga/bongo player Brent Byars, Tower of Power was released from their San Francisco label contract and moved to Warner Bros. Records. With Rick Stevens now replacing Rufus Miller as lead singer, 1972's Bump City gave the band their first national exposure. This album included the hit single "You're Still a Young Man", which peaked at #29 on the Billboard Hot 100 and was Stevens' pinnacle vocal performance before leaving the band.[4] Emilio Castillo, who, along with Stephen Kupka, co-wrote "You're Still a Young Man," told Songfacts that the song was based on a true story concerning a former girlfriend who was six years older.[8] The single "Down to the Nightclub" received heavy airplay on West Coast FM stations and several AM stations.[citation needed]

text: Tower of Power, released in the spring of 1973, was the third album for the band. It featured Lenny Williams on lead vocals and Lenny Pickett on lead tenor saxophone. Bruce Conte replaced guitarist Willie Fulton and keyboardist Chester Thompson also joined the band during the recording of the album. This was the group's most successful album. It peaked at #15 on the Billboard Pop Albums chart and was RIAA certified as a gold record (for sales in excess of 500,000 copies).[citation needed] The album also spawned their most-successful single "So Very Hard to Go". Although the single peaked at #17 on the Billboard Hot 100,[4] it landed in the Top 10 on the surveys of many West Coast Top 40 radio stations, hitting #1 on many of them. The album also charted two other singles on the Billboard Hot 100, "This Time It's Real" and "What Is Hip?"[3]

text: 1974's Back to Oakland spawned another hit, "Don't Change Horses (in the Middle of a Stream)", that reached #26 on the Billboard Hot 100, and "Time Will Tell", which charted at #69.[4] The funk-jazz classic instrumental "Squib Cakes" also came from this album.[9]

text: On Urban Renewal (1974), the band moved more toward funk than soul; however, they continued recording ballads as well. Williams left the band in late 1974, and was replaced as vocalist by Hubert Tubbs. Though the band remained popular, their days of chart radio airplay declined. During the late 1970s they briefly tried recording disco-sounding material.[3] Leader Emilio Castillo said in an interview that the band's brief foray into quasi-disco was at the request of Columbia Records, who had the band under contract at the time.[citation needed]

text: On January 12, 2017, long-time drummer, David Garibaldi, along with a bass player, Marc Van Wageningen, were hit by a train as they walked across tracks before a performance in Oakland.[2] They both survived the accident. According to their manager, Jeremy Westby, they were both “responsive and being treated at a local hospital”.[2] They have both since returned to the active lineup.

text: Collaborations[edit]

text: The Tower of Power's horn section has appeared on a number of other artists' recordings such as; Otis Redding, Aaron Neville, Aerosmith, Bonnie Raitt, David Sanborn, Elton John, Huey Lewis, Little Feat, Heart, Michelle Shocked, Paula Abdul and Santana.[3]

text: Other performers that have been supported by the Tower of Power's horn section include electric slap bass guitarist Larry Graham's Graham Central Station, The Monkees, Grateful Dead, Carlos Santana, Journey, Elkie Brooks, Cat Stevens (on his Foreigner Suite), Luis Miguel, Linda Lewis, rad. (Rose Ann Dimalanta), Jermaine Jackson, John Lee Hooker, Helen Reddy, Rufus, Rod Stewart, Jefferson Starship, Mickey Hart, Heart, Damn Yankees, Frankie Valli, Spyro Gyra, KMFDM,[10] Lyle Lovett, Poison, Phish, Toto, Pharoahe Monch, Brothers Johnson, and Sam The Band, among many other acts.[2][3]

text: The song "So Very Hard To Go" was featured in the soundtrack of the 2002 film City of God,[11] as well as Will Ferrell's Semi-Pro.

text: Band members[edit]

text: Current members[edit]

text:
Emilio Castillo - tenor and alto saxophones, backing and occasional lead vocals
Stephen 'Doc' Kupka - baritone saxophone, backing vocals, oboe
Francis 'Rocco' Prestia - bass guitar
David Garibaldi - drums, occasional backing vocals, percussion
Roger Smith - keyboards, backing vocals
Sal Cracchiolo - trumpet
Adolfo Acosta - trumpet, flugelhorn
Marcus Scott - lead vocals
Tom Politzer - tenor saxophone
Jerry Cortez - guitar, backing vocals

text: Past members[edit]

text: Tower of Power still tours extensively today, although there have been many changes in personnel over the years. At least 60 musicians have toured or recorded with the band over their 50 year existence. These musicians include current Saturday Night Live musical director/saxophonist Lenny Pickett, David Garibaldi on drums, Francis "Rocco" Prestia on bass, organ master Chester Thompson, saxophonists Richard Elliot and Euge Groove, and guitarist Bruce Conte.

text: Victor Conte is Bruce Conte's cousin[12] and he played bass guitar in the band from 1977 until 1979.[12] Victor Conte went on to create the former nutritional supplement company Bay Area Laboratory Co-Operative (BALCO) which was closed in 2003 after a sports drug scandal.[13] Victor Conte was replaced in the band by Vito San Filippo (later of the Joe Cocker band).[citation needed]

text: Former lead vocalist Rick Stevens (real name Donald Stevenson) was sentenced to life in prison on three counts of first-degree murder relating to a botched drug deal, crimes committed after leaving the band.[14] Stevens was paroled on July 20, 2012 after 36 years in prison.[14] He died September 5, 2017 at age 77 after a battle with cancer.[15]

text: Bruce Conte joined the band as lead guitar in 1979 and rejoined in the 1990s, and has had an on again/off again relationship with the membership in the band.[16] In 2012 Bruce Conte announced he was battling leukemia.[16] Veteran guitarist Jeff Tamelier (on again/off again since 1997), Mark Harper (2007 until 2009), and Jerry Cortez (2010 until now) have been the guitarist for the band.[citation needed]

text:
Greg Adams - trumpet, backing vocals, flugelhorn, French horn, piano, percussion
Ken Balzell - trumpet
David Bartlett - drums
Ron E. Beck - drums, backing vocals, percussion
Michael Bogart - trumpet, valve trombone
Tom Bowes - lead vocals
Larry Braggs - lead vocals
Michael Bryant - trumpet, backing vocals
Brent Byars - percussion, backing vocals
Brent Carter - lead and backing vocals
Mike Cichowicz - Trumpet
Bill Churchville - trumpet, flugelhorn, trombone
Al Chez - trumpet, flugelhorn, backing vocals
Bruce Conte - guitar, backing and occasional lead vocals
Victor Conte - bass
John Creech - alto, tenor, baritone sax
Barry Danielian - trumpet, flugelhorn
Richard Elliot - alto and tenor saxophones, lyricon
Brandon Fields - saxophones
Willie Fulton - guitars, backing and occasional lead vocals
Mic Gillette - trumpet, backing vocals, tenor and bass trombones, flugelhorn, baritone horn
Carmen Grillo - guitar, backing and occasional lead vocals
Steven Grove - alto and tenor saxophones
Ellis Hall Jr. - lead vocals, keyboards, guitar
Mark Harper
Danny Hoefer - guitar
Derick Hughes - lead vocals
Michael Jeffries (singer), lead and backing vocals
Lenny Lee Goldsmith

Louie King
David Mann - tenor saxophone
Herman Matthews - drums, percussion
Dave Mathews
William Edward McGee - lead vocals
Jesse McGuire - trumpet
Russ McKinnon - drums, percussion
Mick Mestek - drums
Skip Mesquite - tenor saxophone, backing and occasional lead vocals, flute
Rufus Miller - lead vocals
Nick Milo - keyboards, backing vocals
David Padron - trumpet
Paul Perez - saxophone
Lenny Pickett - tenor, soprano, alto and bass saxophones; backing vocals, alto and bass clarinets; alto, tenor and piccolo flutes; lyricon
Mark Russo - alto saxophone
Vito San Filippo - bass, backing vocals
Mark Sanders
Rey Carr - clarinet
John Scarpulla - tenor saxophone. arranging
Jay Spell - acoustic piano
Norbert Stachel - tenor and alto saxophones, flute, percussion, arranging
Rick Stevens - lead and backing vocals
Jeff Tamelier - guitar
Chester Thompson - organ, backing vocals, electric and acoustic pianos, clavinet, bass pedals
Lee Thornburg - trumpet, backing and occasional lead vocals, flugelhorn
Hubert Tubbs - lead vocals
Bobby Vega - bass guitar
Rick Waychesko - trumpet
Lenny Williams - lead vocals

text: Discography[edit]

text: Studio albums[edit]

text:
1970: East Bay Grease
1972: Bump City
1973: Tower of Power
1974: Back to Oakland
1975: Urban Renewal
1975: In the Slot
1976: Ain't Nothin' Stoppin' Us Now
1978: We Came to Play!
1979: Back on the Streets
1986: TOP (Only released in Europe)
1987: Power (US Version of TOP)
1991: Monster on a Leash
1993: T.O.P.
1995: Souled Out
1997: Rhythm & Business
1999: Dinosaur Tracks (Songs recorded between 1980–1983)
2003: Oakland Zone
2009: The Great American Soulbook[17]
2018: Soul Side of Town

text: Live albums[edit]

text:
1976: Live And In Living Color
1981: Direct (Studio Live)
1997: Direct Plus (reissue of Direct with alternate takes)
1999: Soul Vaccination: Live
2008: East Bay Archive Volume 1 (recorded at K-K-K-Katy's, Boston, MA; April 1973)
2011: 40th Anniversary (Live)
2014: Hipper Than Hip (recorded 1974)[17]

text: Compilations[edit]

text:
1974: Funkland
1999: What is Hip?: The Tower of Power Anthology
2001: Tower of Power: The Very Best of Tower of Power, The Warner Years
2002: Soul With a Capital "S": The Best of Tower of Power
2003: Havin' Fun
2003: What is Hip & Other Hits[17]

text: Singles[edit]

text:
Year
Title
Chart positions
Album

US[18]
US R&B
CAN

1971
"Back On The Streets Again"
–
–
–
East Bay Grease

1972
"You're Still A Young Man"
29
24
30
Bump City

"Down to the Nightclub"
66
–
–

1973
"So Very Hard to Go"
17
11
36
Tower of Power

"This Time It's Real"
65
27
–

1974
"What Is Hip?"
91
39
–

"Time Will Tell"
69
27
–
Back to Oakland

"Don't Change Horses (In The Middle Of A Stream)"
26
22
59

"Only So Much Oil In The Ground"
–
85
–
Urban Renewal

1975
"Willing To Learn"
–
77
–

"You're So Wonderful, So Marvelous"
–
57
–
In the Slot

"Treat Me Like Your Man"
–
–
–

1976
"You Ought to Be Havin' Fun"
68
62
–
Ain't Nothin' Stoppin' Us Now

"Ain't Nothin' Stoppin' Us Now"
–
95
–

1978
"Lovin' You Is Gonna See Me Thru"
–
98
–
We Came to Play!

"We Came to Play"
–
–
–

1979
"Rock Baby"
–
61
–
Back on the Streets

"In Due Time"
–
–
–

text: Videos and DVDs[edit]

text:
1986: Credit (The band's only music video, to date)
2003: Tower of Power in Concert (1998, Live at Ohne Filter, after return of Garibaldi)
2007: Live from Leverkusen (2005 November Show)
2011: 40th Anniversary (Live)[19]

text: Note: Over the years, there also have been many television performances of Tower of Power aired though not released for sale. One worthy of mention took place in 1991, also part of the German TV live performance series Ohne Filter, Musik Pur, which included Tom Bowes (lead vocals) and the other then-current members.[citation needed] In 2011, Time Life released their November 10, 1973 Soul Train performance of "What is Hip?" on the CD The Best of Soul Train Live.[20][21]