document_title: Tomb Raider

question_text: when did the tomb raider game come out

question_tokens: when did the tomb raider game come out

text: Tomb Raider

text: Titles[edit]

text: The first six Tomb Raider games were developed by Core Design, a British video game development company owned by Eidos Interactive. After the sixth game in the series released to a lukewarm reception in 2003, development was transferred to North American studio Crystal Dynamics, who have handled the main series since then.[1] Since 2001, other developers have contributed either to ports of mainline games or with the development of spin-off titles.[1][2][3][4][5][6]

text: Games[edit]

text:
Timeline of release years

1996
Tomb Raider

1997
Tomb Raider II

1998
Tomb Raider III

1999
The Last Revelation

2000
Tomb Raider

Chronicles

2001
Curse of the Sword

2002
The Prophecy

2003
The Angel of Darkness

2004

2005

2006
Legend

2007
Anniversary

2008
Underworld

2009

2010
Lara Croft and the Guardian of Light

2011

2012

2013
Tomb Raider

2014
Lara Croft and the Temple of Osiris

2015
Lara Croft: Relic Run

Lara Croft Go

Rise of the Tomb Raider

2016

2017

2018
Shadow of the Tomb Raider

text: The first entry in the series Tomb Raider was released in 1996 for personal computers (PC), PlayStation and Sega Saturn consoles.[7][8] The Saturn and PlayStation versions were released in Japan in 1997.[9][10] The second game, Tomb Raider II, launched in 1997, again for PC and PlayStation. A month before release, Eidos finalised a deal with Sony Computer Entertainment to keep the console version of Tomb Raider II and future games exclusive to PlayStation until the year 2000.[7][8] The PlayStation version was released in Japan in 1998.[11] Tomb Raider III launched in 1998.[8] As with Tomb Raider II, the PlayStation version released in Japan the following year.[12] The fourth consecutive title in the series, Tomb Raider: The Last Revelation, released in 1999. In 2000, with the end of the PlayStation exclusivity deal, the game also released on the Dreamcast.[7][13] In Japan, both console versions released the following year.[14][15] Tomb Raider Chronicles released in 2000 on the same platforms as The Last Revelation, with the PlayStation version's Japanese release as before coming the following year.[7][13][16]

text: After a three-year gap, Tomb Raider: The Angel of Darkness was released on the PC and PlayStation 2 (PS2) in 2003. The PS2 version was released in Japan that same year.[13][17] The next entry, Tomb Raider Legend, was released worldwide in 2006 for the PC, PS2, Xbox, Xbox 360, PlayStation Portable (PSP), GameCube, Game Boy Advance (GBA) and Nintendo DS.[6][18][19] The 360, PS2 and PSP versions were released in Japan the same year.[20] A year later, a remake of the first game titled Tomb Raider: Anniversary was released worldwide in 2007 for PC, PS2, PSP, Xbox, Xbox 360 and the Wii.[21] The next entry, Tomb Raider: Underworld, was released in 2008 on the PC, PlayStation 3 (PS3), PS2, Xbox 360, Wii and DS.[22][23][24] The PS3, PS2, Xbox 360 and Wii versions were released in Japan in 2009.[25][26][27][28]

text: In 2011 PS3 gets The Tomb Raider Trilogy which has Anniversary and Legend remastered for HD resolution (720p) along with the PS3 version of Underworld, the single Blu-ray also includes avatars for PS Home, a Theme Pack, new Trophies, Developers Diary videos for the three games and trailers for Lara Croft and the Guardian of Light.

text: A reboot of the series, titled Tomb Raider, was released worldwide in 2013 for the PC, PS3 and Xbox 360.[29][30] Its sequel, Rise of the Tomb Raider, was released in 2015 on the Xbox 360 and Xbox One.[31][32] The game was part of a timed exclusivity deal with Microsoft.[33] Versions for the PlayStation 4 and Microsoft Windows were released in 2016.[34] Rumours indicate that Shadow of the Tomb Raider will be the title for the third game in the reboot trilogy, but there has not yet been an official confirmation.[35] In November 2017, Square Enix announced that Shadow of the Tomb Raider would be revealed in late 2018.[36] However, this reveal would be pulled up, as on 15 March 2018, Shadow of the Tomb Raider was officially confirmed by Square Enix. It will serve as the third and final game in the rebooted origin story. It is currently set to be fully revealed on 27 April 2018, and released worldwide on PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Microsoft Windows on 14 September 2018.[37]

text: Spin-offs[edit]

text: The first spin-off title in the series was a game for the Game Boy Color (GBC) titled Tomb Raider, developed by Core Design and released in 2000.[5][38] Its sequel, Tomb Raider: Curse of the Sword, was released in 2001 for the GBC.[5][39] In 2002, a new game for the GBA called Tomb Raider: The Prophecy, was developed by Ubisoft Milan and published by Ubisoft.[5][40] In 2003, four Tomb Raider titles for mobile phones were released.[41] A platform-puzzler for mobile devices, Lara Croft Go, was released in 2015.[42]

text: Beginning in 2010, a separate subseries titled Lara Croft was in development, offering experiences separate from the development of the main series and existing in its own continuity.[43][44] The first game in this subseries, Lara Croft and the Guardian of Light, released in 2010 as a downloadable title for PC, PS3 and Xbox 360.[43] The next game in the series, Lara Croft and the Temple of Osiris, released for both retail and download in 2014 for PC, PS4 and Xbox One.[45] Another entry for mobile devices, an endless runner platformer titled Lara Croft: Relic Run, was released in 2015.[44]

text: Cancelled games[edit]

text: The Angel of Darkness was originally the first game in a trilogy, with its sequel titled The Lost Dominion. While The Lost Dominion was undergoing preliminary development, the negative reception of The Angel of Darkness caused the entire trilogy to be scrapped.[7][46] With Eidos' approval, Core Design began development of an updated edition of the first game for the PSP called Tomb Raider: The Anniversary Edition in late 2005, with a projected release date of Christmas 2006. Development continued while Core Design staff were working on the platformer Free Running. When Core Design was sold to Rebellion Developments, Eidos requested the project’s cancellation. It was suggested by staff that Eidos did not want to let outside developers handle the franchise.[47][48]

text: Common elements[edit]

text: Lara Croft[edit]

text: Lara Croft is the main protagonist and playable character of the series: she is a woman who travels the world in search of forgotten artifacts and locations, frequently connected to supernatural powers.[51][52][53] While her biography has changed throughout the series, her shared traits are her origins as the only daughter and heir of the aristocratic Croft family.[51][54][55] She is portrayed as intelligent, athletic, elegant, fluent in multiple languages, and determined to fulfill her own goals at any cost. She has brown eyes and brown hair worn in a braid or ponytail. The character's classic outfit consists of a turquoise singlet, light brown shorts, calf-high boots, and tall white socks. Recurring accessories include fingerless gloves, a backpack, a utility belt with holsters on either side, and twin pistols. Later games have multiple new outfits for her.[50][56][57][58]

text: Lara Croft has been voiced and portrayed by many actresses in games: Shelley Blond, Judith Gibbens, Jonell Elliot, Keeley Hawes, and Camilla Luddington. In other media, Croft was voiced by Minnie Driver in the animated series and portrayed by Angelina Jolie and Alicia Vikander in films. Multiple models and body doubles have also portrayed Croft in promotional material up until the reboot in 2013. Eight different real-life models have also portrayed her at promotional events.[59][60]

text: Continuity[edit]

text: The circumstances of her first adventures, along with the drive behind her adventures, differ depending on the continuity. In the original and Legends continuities, she is on a plane that crashes in the Himalayas: her journey back to civilisation against the odds help begin her journey towards her adult life as an adventuress and treasure hunter.[51][54] In the original continuity, after her ordeal in the Himalayas, she left behind her privileged life and made a living writing about her exploits as an adventurer, mercenary, and cat burglar.[61][62] In The Last Revelation, Lara was caught in a collapsing pyramid at the game's end, leaving her fate unknown: this was because the staff, exhausted from four years of non-stop development, wanted to move on from the character.[59] Chronicles was told through a series of flashbacks at a wake for Lara, while The Angel of Darkness was set an unspecified time after The Last Revelation, with Lara revealed to have survived. The circumstances of her survival were originally part of the game, but were cut due to time constraints.[59][63]

text: In the Legends continuity, her mother Amelia was also involved in the crash, and she is partially driven by the need to discover the truth behind her mother's disappearance and vindicate her father's theories about Amelia's disappearance.[64] This obsession with the truth is also present in Anniversary, and ends up bringing the world to the brink of destruction during the events of Underworld.[65][66] Her father is referred to as Lord Henshingly Croft in the original games and Lord Richard Croft in the Legends continuity.[51][54] The Lara Croft subseries take place within this continuity, featuring on smaller side stories that do not contribute to the plot of the main trilogy of the timeline.

text: In the 2013 reboot continuity, Lara's mother vanished at an early age, and her father became obsessed with finding the secrets of immortality, eventually resulting in an apparent suicide. Lara distanced herself from her father's memory, believing like many others that his obsession had caused him to go mad. After studying at university, Lara gets an opportunity to work on an archaeology program, in the search for the mythic kingdom of Yamatai. The voyage to find the kingdom results in a shipwreck on an island, which is later discovered to be Yamatai, however the island is also home to savage bandits, who were victims of previous wrecks. Lara's attempts to find a way off the island lead her to discover that the island itself is stopping them from leaving, which she discovered is linked to the still living soul of the Sun Queen, Himiko. Lara must find a way to banish the spirit of the sun queen in order to get home. However, she must survive long enough to do it. The aftermath of the events of the game causes Lara to see that her father was right, and that she had needlessly distanced herself from him. She decides to finish his work, and uncover the mysteries of the world.

text: Gameplay[edit]

text: The gameplay of Tomb Raider is primarily based around an action-adventure framework, with Lara navigating environments and solving mechanical and environmental puzzles, in addition to fighting enemies and avoiding traps. These puzzles, primarily set within ancient tombs and temples, can extend across multiple rooms and areas within a level. Lara could also swim through water, a rarity in games at the time that has continued through the series.[18][59][67][68] According to original software engineer and later studio manager Gavin Rummery, the original set-up of interlinking rooms was inspired by Egyptian multi-roomed tombs, particularly the tomb of Tutankhamun.[59] The feel of the gameplay was intended to evoke that of the 1989 video game Prince of Persia.[69] In the original games, Lara utilised a "tank" control set-up, with two buttons pushing her forward and back and two buttons steering her left and right, and in combat Lara automatically locked onto enemies when they came within range. The camera automatically adjusts depending on Lara's action, but defaults to a third-person perspective in most instances. This basic formula remained unchanged through the first series of games. Angel of Darkness also added stealth elements.[67][68][70][71]

text: For Legend, the control scheme and character movement was redesigned to provide a smooth and fluid experience. One of the key elements present was how buttons for different actions cleanly transitioned into different actions, along with these moves being incorporated into combat to create effects such as stunning or knocking down enemies. Quick-time events were also added into certain segments within each level, and many of the puzzles were based around sophisticated in-game physics.[18][59][72][73] Anniversary, while going through the same locals of the original game, was rebuilt using the gameplay and environmental puzzles of Legend.[74] For Underworld, the gameplay was redesigned around a phrase the staff had put to themselves: "What Could Lara Do?". Using this set-up, they created a greater variety of moves and greater interaction with the environment, along with expanding and improving combat.[75] The gameplay underwent another major change for the 2013 reboot. Gameplay altered from progression through linear levels to navigating an open world, with hunting for supplies and upgrading equipment and weapons becoming a key part of gameplay. The combat was redesigned to be similar to the Uncharted series: the previous reticle-based lock-on mechanics were replaced by a free-roaming aim.[76] Rise of the Tomb Raider built on the reboot's foundation, adding dynamic weather systems, and reintroducing swimming.[77]

text: History and development[edit]

text: Origins and development[edit]

text: At Core Design (1993–2003)[edit]

text: The concept for Tomb Raider originated in 1993 at Core Design, a British game development studio.[62] One of the men most involved in its creation was Toby Gard, who was mostly responsible for creating the character of Lara Croft. Gard originally envisioned her as a man: company co-founder Jeremy Heath-Smith was worried the character would be seen as derivative of Indiana Jones, so Gard changed the character's gender. Her design underwent multiple revisions and redrafts during early development.[1][59] The game proved an unexpected commercial success, reversing Eidos' then-bleak financial situation.[8] After the success of Tomb Raider, work began almost at once on a sequel. After the first game's success, Gard was no longer given full creative control, and it was stated by development staff that he was both saddened and disappointed by the use of Lara Croft's sex appeal in marketing. Gard left Core Design in 1997 to found his own gaming company Confounding Factor, and was replaced by Stuart Atkinson.[8][59][78] Tomb Raider II proved even more of a commercial success than the original.[79]

text: Over the next three years, Core Design was committed to delivering a Tomb Raider game annually, putting considerable strain on staff.[79] For this reason, and the feeling that they had exhausted the series' potential, the developers tried to kill the character off. This did not work, and while a fifth game was created, the team stated that they were not fully invested in its development.[8][59] During development on the fifth game, the team split into two divisions, with one division working on the next-generation sequel The Angel of Darkness.[46] During this period, multiple handheld titles were also developed by both Core Design and third-party developers.[5][13] The production of The Angel of Darkness was beset by problems from an early stage, with the team wanting to create a grander game to compete with contemporary action-adventure games.[46] Under pressure from Eidos, key sections of the game needed to be cut, and it was released before the team felt it was ready.[46][59] The game received negative reactions from both fans and critics, and was cited by Paramount as the reason for the second Tomb Raider film underperforming.[46][59][68][80]

text: At Crystal Dynamics (2004–present)[edit]

text: After the critical backlash of The Angel of Darkness, Eidos decided to take production of the Tomb Raider series out of Core Design's hands and give it to another subsidiary studio. Production of the next game was given to Crystal Dynamics, a studio that had made its name with the Legacy of Kain series.[68][81][82] Eidos CEO Ian Livingstone stated that while the critical failure of The Angel of Darkness was a major reason for taking the series away from Core Design, the decision was also motivated by their inordinate struggles with developing for the PlayStation 2, and by how many members of the Core team had complained that they were "burnt out" on Tomb Raider. He added that "For a UK company, moving the development of its prized asset from Derby to California was a big decision to make but, as it turned out, absolutely the right one to make."[79] One of the main priorities for both Eidos and Crystal Dynamics was to regain the fanbase's trust in the brand, along with helping the series reclaim the status and selling power it had before The Angel of Darkness' release.[83] Their main goal was to put Lara back inside tombs, with their physics-based engine enabling more intricate puzzles.[72] After Legend was finished, the team decided to celebrate the tenth anniversary of the series by remaking the original game, rebuilding the environments and redesigning the story to fit in with the events and gameplay of Legend.[59][58] Alongside the development of Anniversary, an entry for seventh-generation hardware was in development, although it used established gaming architecture from Legend and this caused problems for the development team.[84] In 2009, the year after the release of Underworld, Eidos was bought by Square Enix and later renamed Square Enix Europe, giving Square Enix ownership of the Tomb Raider franchise.[85][86]

text: Alongside Underworld, the team decided to create a new subseries that featured the character of Lara Croft while not using the Tomb Raider moniker and using the aesthetics of the Legend continuity.[43] During this period, a second development team was working on a second reboot of the series and character, which would put emphasis on a darker and gritter interpretation of the character.[49][87] Another priority was presenting Lara as a more human character, showing her in vulnerable positions, and showing how she begins her journey to becoming a "tomb raider" through both narrative and gameplay.[88] A sequel, eventually revealed as Rise of the Tomb Raider, was confirmed as being in development a few months after the reboot's release.[31][89] In response to criticisms about a lack of classic tombs, more optional and story-based tombs were incorporated into the game.[90] It also continued the team's new portrayal of Lara, showing more sides to her character and her growing obsession with discovering the truth.[53] In addition to this, the Lara Croft subseries was continued in multiple titles: the console game Temple of Osiris, and mobile title Relic Run.[45][91] In addition, the mobile puzzle game Lara Croft Go was created to both give a different gameplay experience and evoke classic Tomb Raider games.[92]

text: Music[edit]

text: The original Tomb Raider theme was composed by Nathan McCree. He created the original theme music after having discussions with Gard about the character of Lara Croft. Having decided to use Classical English music as an inspiration, he decided to create something simple for the theme song. Its simplicity made rearrangements and orchestrations easy. For his work on the first three Tomb Raider games, he was given fairly minimal briefs, and for Tomb Raider III he was working on the game as a freelancer as he had left the company.[93][94] For The Last Revelation, Peter Connelly replaced Nathan McCree as the main composer, using McCree's music as a basis for his work. He composed the opening theme for The Last Revelation, saying that the opening melody came to him out of the blue, and added Egyptian motifs to fit in with the game's setting. Chronicles was originally going to have a sizeable original opening theme, but due to time constraints the majority of it ended up being discarded, much to Connelly's later regret. Only the opening segment survived.[95] The music for Angel of Darkness, composed by Connelly and Martin Iveson, was the one element of production that did not encounter problems, as recording was finished before the major content cuts happened. Scored using a full orchestra as opposed to the synthesised instruments of previous titles, it was performed by the London Symphony Orchestra.[46][95]

text: For Legend, Troels Brun Folmann composed the music and managed the sound effects. Alongside composing a large amount of music for the game, he created micro-scores for small segments within gameplay.[96] Folmann returned to score Anniversary, doing re-orchestrations of the original score, along with expanding them.[59] For Underworld, Folmann handled the main theme while Colin O'Malley handled the rest of the soundtrack, which featured far less looping music than Legend.[97] The 2013 reboot was scored by Jason Graves, who had become known through his work on the Dead Space franchise. Along with his orchestral style, he created a special instrument to create discordant sounds within the music, and musical elements from around the globe to represent the inhabitants of the game's island location.[98][99] For Rise of the Tomb Raider, the composer was Bobby Tahouri, who had previously worked as assistant composer on video games and theatrical films.[100] Guardian of Light used no original music, instead using extracts from the music of Legend, Anniversary and Underworld.[101] The music for Temple of Osiris was written by Will Roget II, who had originally worked on licensed video games including Star Wars: The Old Republic. Temple of Osiris was the first title in the Lara Croft subseries to have an original score, using Egyptian and Middle Eastern musical elements while creating a new main theme that could be used in future Lara Croft games.[102]

text: Technology[edit]

text: The first Tomb Raider used a custom-built game engine, as other equivalent engines available to Core Design at the time were not versatile enough to realise the team's vision. The engine was designed by Paul Douglas, who also handled the game's artificial intelligence (AI) and the three-dimensional (3D) graphics. The choice of a 3D game was influenced by the team's opinion that the game type was under-represented when compared to first-person shooters such as Doom. Its 3D style meant multiple elements were difficult to implement, including the AI and camera control. Another noted aspect was the multi-layered levels, as compared to equivalent 3D action-adventure games of the time which were limited to a flat-floor system. Lara's movements were hand-animated and coordinated rather than created using motion capture. The reason for this was that the team wanted uniformity in her movement, which was not possible with motion capture technology of the time.[69] For Tomb Raider II, only minor upgrades were made to the engine, with the main improvements being to the AI and smoothing out Lara's model.[71] Tomb Raider III underwent major revisions, including rewrites to the graphics engine and improvements in the lighting and AI systems.[103] The engine was given a major overhaul for The Last Revelation. The first five games make use of full-motion video cutscenes. For the first three games, they were primarily used as transitional periods depicting Lara moving from one level to another or one location to another.[104][105] For Chronicles, fairly minor revisions were made.[41][106]

text: For Angel of Darkness, a new engine was built from scratch, but due to being unfamiliar and unused to the technology of the PS2, the team encountered multiple problems such as needing to remove areas and characters due to polygon restrictions. Due to the deadlines imposed, the team were forced to cut corners, meaning that the game reached store shelves in a poor condition.[46] For Legend, the staff at Crystal Dynamics created a proprietary engine from the ground up, named the Crystal Engine.[18][107] The engine and the game's content were developed in parallel, leading to scheduling and workload difficulties.[18] Anniversary used the same engine as Legend.[108] Underworld used an all-new engine built specifically for the game, although its basic codebase was shared with Legend.[84][109] In Underworld, Lara's movements were animated using full motion capture, with Olympic gymnast Heidi Moneymaker providing the character's animations.[110] For the 2013 reboot, a new engine called "Foundation" was created for the game.[111] Motion capture was again used for the 2013 reboot.[112] An updated version of the Foundation engine was used again for Rise of the Tomb Raider.[113] For both games in the new reboot, Lara's hair movements were made more realistic using a technology called TressFX (TR:2013) or PureHair (ROTTR).[114]

text: Cultural impact[edit]

text: Both the character of Lara Croft and the concepts behind the Tomb Raider franchise have evolved thematically and in popularity since the first game's release in 1996.[115] The success of the game series led to several commercial tie-ins that further catapulted to cultural icon status,[116] including feature spin-off games, feature films, and comics.[117]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Upon release, Tomb Raider became an unexpected success with gamers, reaching the top of sales charts and remaining for a considerable time. It went on to sell over 7 million units worldwide.[59][68] Tomb Raider II was an even greater commercial success, with debut sales higher than the first game and total worldwide sales of 8 million units.[8][68] Despite varying critical receptions, series sales continued to be strong until the release of Chronicles, which sold just 1.5 million units.[68] While The Angel of Darkness met with initial strong sales, it failed to meet expectations. Since the release of Legend, the series has picked up in sales and popularity.[29] The 2013 reboot eventually sold 11 million units, becoming the most commercially successful Tomb Raider title to date.[118][119] As of 2017, the series has sold 63 million units worldwide.[120] In addition to the games' success, the 2001 movie adaptation grossed $275 million, making it the highest-grossing video game adaptation until being overtaken in 2010 by Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time.[121]

text: Multiple video game journalists, including Electronic Gaming Monthly's Crispin Boyer in 1997 and Eurogamer's Martyn Carroll in 2008, have cited the series as a pioneer in the medium, both laying the foundations for and popularising action-adventure and platforming games. Carrol also credited the series for bringing video gaming out into the cultural mainstream.[68][71][122][123] In a different article, Eurogamer also cited The Angel of Darkness as a pioneer of mixing different video game genres.[124] The public's reactions to the series over the years have conversely had a profound effect upon the series' direction and identity, as noted in a 2008 review of the series' history by Develop.[29] In 2006, Tomb Raider was voted one of Britain's top 10 designs in the Great British Design Quest organised by the BBC and the Design Museum. The game appeared in a list of British design icons which included Concorde, Mini, World Wide Web, Grand Theft Auto, K2 telephone box, London tube map, AEC Routemaster bus, and the Supermarine Spitfire.[125][126]

text: The character of Lara Croft has similarly enjoyed popularity, standing out during her initial appearance in the male-dominated video game market, and continuing to stand out throughout the series' history.[29][59][68][122][123][127] After her debut in 1996, Lara Croft was famously featured on the front cover of British culture magazine The Face, a position previously only held by real-life celebrities. She similarly was featured in Irish rock band U2's PopMart Tour.[59][123] The character was inducted onto the Walk of Game in 2006,[128] and earned multiple mentions in the Guinness World Records: she was recognised as the "most successful human video game heroine" in 2006, and earned six awards in 2010. As part of the latter honours, Guinness World Records editor Gaz Deaves said that the character "epitomises all that's great about video gaming".[129][130] In an article for 1UP.com, Jeremy Parish said that Lara's sex appeal was the main draw for early fans, a facet Eidos exploited for marketing and attempted to emulate in other products. He also cited other writers' statements that her popularity stemmed from player empathy with her ability to survive tough situations, alongside contrasting against weaker female characters such as Princess Peach.[123] However, alongside this praise, she has divided opinion as to her character design and consequent sexuality: particularly among feminist critics, she is both hailed as an empowering figure for women, and a negative role model due to her improbable[clarification needed] proportions. Later, apparently more "realistic" redesigns lessened these criticisms to a degree.[59]


document_title: Effect of Hurricane Katrina on the New Orleans Saints

question_text: where did the new orleans saints play after katrina

root

text: Before Hurricane Katrina[edit]

text: In April 2005, Tom Benson, owner of the New Orleans Saints, halted lease negotiations with the state of Louisiana until after the completion of the 2005 NFL Season, due to a stadium dispute.[1] Rumors quickly began to spread that San Antonio, Texas, Albuquerque, New Mexico and Los Angeles, California were being considered as possible destinations for the team. It was reported that Benson had strong interest in relocating to San Antonio due to owning a substantial amount of property in the region and having strong business interests within the city, specifically related to his car dealership empire.[2]

tag: p

text: After Hurricane Katrina[edit]

text: After practicing for approximately a week in San Jose, California, where they had evacuated in conjunction with a pre-season game against the Oakland Raiders, the team set up temporary headquarters and arranged for practice facilities in San Antonio, Texas.

text: The league then announced that although the Saints' first home game on September 18 against the New York Giants would be played at Giants Stadium at 7:30 p.m. EDT on September 19, other home games would be split between Tiger Stadium (the stadium of the LSU Tigers football) at LSU in Baton Rouge, Louisiana (80 miles/130 km from New Orleans), and the Alamodome in San Antonio (540 miles/869 km from New Orleans); offices and practice would remain in San Antonio throughout the season.

text: Prospective relocation controversy[edit]

text: Various media reports in the San Antonio Express-News indicated the owner and government officials in San Antonio were working behind the scenes concerning a possible permanent relocation to San Antonio. San Antonio Mayor Phil Hardberger had pushed a strong verbal campaign to pursue the Saints. Other officials, including Texas Governor Rick Perry, had indicated that they would also support a relocation to San Antonio, including using funding to upgrade the Alamodome, or possibly build a new stadium. Dallas Cowboys owner Jerry Jones, whose team currently has San Antonio as part of its territorial rights, also supported an NFL team moving to San Antonio. However, the NFL and commissioner Paul Tagliabue were both in favor of keeping the franchise in New Orleans or at least delaying a decision on a potential relocation. Other rumors of the period said that the NFL preferred to move the team to Los Angeles, or even to expand to Toronto instead, as both cities are over twice the size of San Antonio.

text: Many fans in Louisiana[who?] were angered and felt that Hardberger and Perry were taking advantage of New Orleans' misfortunes to try to steal the Saints. Benson's actions also drew the anger of New Orleans Mayor Ray Nagin, who called Benson's actions shameful and disrespectful to New Orleans fans who have supported the team for nearly four decades of mostly losing seasons. San Antonio officials, on the other hand, countered that Benson may have no choice—at the time, it was thought by some that New Orleans might never fully recover as a viable location for an NFL franchise, and that they were simply giving the franchise an option to relocate and remain economically viable, in this case to a city in which Benson already lives and has business interests. Benson indicated in his open letter to the Gulf Coast that San Antonio officials were only doing what any city seeking a franchise would do—recruit the franchise.

text: On October 21, 2005, Benson issued a statement saying that he had not made any decision about the future of the Saints.[3] However, the San Antonio Express-News reported that sources close to the Saints' organization said that Benson planned to void his lease agreement with New Orleans by declaring the Louisiana Superdome unusable.[4]

text: NFL Commissioner Paul Tagliabue met with Benson and Louisiana governor Kathleen Blanco at the Saints' first home game in Baton Rouge on October 30 against the Miami Dolphins. After the meeting, he stopped just short of making a formal commitment to keep the Saints in New Orleans. Said Tagliabue: "The Saints are Louisiana's team and have been since the late '60s when my predecessor Pete Rozelle welcomed them to the league as New Orleans' team and Louisiana's team. Our focus continues to be on having the Saints in Louisiana." He dispelled rumors that had the Saints relocating to Los Angeles. Tagliabue appointed an eight-owner advisory committee to help decide the team's future.[5] Benson left the game with five minutes left in the fourth quarter. A WWL-TV camera crew recorded him leaving the stadium. Benson angrily pushed the camera away and then got into an argument with a fan. Video of the altercation was obtained by WWL-TV.[6] Three days later, Benson issued a statement that he would no longer go to Baton Rouge for Saints home games because he felt he and his family were in danger from abuse at the game.[7]

text: The following day, Benson agreed with Louisiana state officials to extend his opt out clause with the Superdome and Louisiana because of the disaster until January 2007.

text: In the midst of the Katrina relocation controversy, several groups of investors approached Benson with offers to buy the team and keep them in Louisiana, the most notable group being one led by Fox Sports analyst and former Pittsburgh Steelers quarterback Terry Bradshaw, who is a Louisiana native.[8] However, Benson expressed that he had no intention of selling the team and planned to eventually hand down ownership to his granddaughter, Saints owner/executive Rita Benson LeBlanc. Benson spoke to press following an NFL owners' meeting on November 15, during which he reiterated that the team is not for sale, but also stated that other NFL owners, along with Tagliabue, were working with him to keep the team in New Orleans.[9]

text: On December 5, Tagliabue met with Benson and New Orleans officials to tour the city and assess the viability of playing in New Orleans in 2006. On January 11, 2006, at a press conference in New Orleans, Tagliabue announced that the Saints would likely play all eight home games at the Superdome.[10] Superdome officials said January 12 that the Dome would be ready by September 1, 2006.[11] The NFL announced on February 5, 2006, that the Superdome would reopen on September 24 when the Saints were to host the Atlanta Falcons.[12]

text: Tagliabue said the team's preseason games would likely be played elsewhere in the region. He also stated that the Saints and the NFL were committed to New Orleans for the long haul.

text: Return to the Superdome[edit]

text: Starting in the fall of 2006, the Saints returned to playing all of their regular home games of the 2006 season in New Orleans at the Superdome. Their first game back in New Orleans, on September 25, 2006, was marked by a dramatic blocked punt early in the first quarter, with Steve Gleason blocking the punt and Curtis Deloatch recovering the ball in the Falcons' end zone for a touchdown. It was the first score in the Saints' first game in New Orleans in nearly 21 months. The Saints won the game and, unexpectedly, went on to have the most successful season in their history up to that time, reaching the NFC Championship Game for the first time in franchise history.

text: In April 2009, the franchise reached a deal that would keep the Saints in New Orleans until at least 2025.[13] In the 2009 season, the Saints finished 13–3 and defeated the Indianapolis Colts in Super Bowl XLIV. In July 2012, "Rebirth", a statue depicting Gleason blocking the punt, was erected outside the Superdome; a news report commented that the blocked punt "etched Steve Gleason into Saints lore and became symbolic of New Orleans' resilience in the face of disaster".[14]


document_title: Christian (surname)

question_text: where did the last name christian come from

text: Christian (surname)

text:
Christian

Family name

The cross

Meaning
Follower of Christ

Region of origin
Isle of Man

Language(s) of origin
Greek, Latin, Hebrew

tag: table

text: Christian is a surname from the Latin "Christianus" meaning follower of Christ,[1] from "christus" ("anointed"), created to translate the Hebrew messiah.[2] As one of the native Manx surnames the name originates as an anglicisation of "Mac Christen";[3] Notable people with the surname include:

text:
Benny Gay Christian (1925-1982), American politician
Bill Christian (born 1938), American ice hockey player
Channon Christian (1985-2007), American victim of an alleged hate-crime murder
Charlie Christian (1916–1942), American swing and jazz guitarist
Claudia Christian (born 1965), American actress, a writer, a director singer and musician
Dave Christian (born 1959), American ice hockey player
Ewan Christian (1814–1895), British architect
Fletcher Christian (1764–1793), the leader of the mutineers on the HMS Bounty and the founder of a colony on Pitcairn Island
Frank Christian (disambiguation), several people
Garth Christian, English nature writer, editor, teacher and conservationist
Glen Christian, American football player
Hans Christian, German-born American musician and producer
Henry B. Christian (1883–1953), American painter
Hugh Cloberry Christian (1747–1798), Royal Navy rear-admiral
Ivan Christian (1919–1991), Pitcairn Island politician
James Christian, American musician
John Christian (disambiguation), multiple people
J. Orlean Christian (c. 1898–1979), American college sports coach
Linda Christian (1923–2011), Mexican film actress
Luci Christian (born 1973), American voice actress
Neil Christian (1943–2010), British singer
Roy Christian, New Zealand rugby league football player
Shawn Christian (born 1965), American television and film actor
Stephen Christian (born 1980), American rock singer
Steve Christian (born 1951), Pitcairn Island politician
Terry Christian (born 1962), British television and radio presenter
Thomas Christian (1754-1828), Manx poet and translator
Tom Christian (1935–2013), Pitcairn Island radio operator
William Christian (disambiguation), several people

tag: ul


document_title: Tiffany Haddish

question_text: who did tiffany haddish play in school dance

text: Tiffany Haddish

text: Early life and education[edit]

text: Haddish was born and raised in Los Angeles, California.[2] Her father, Tsihaye Reda Haddish, was a refugee from Eritrea, and was from an Eritrean Jewish family.[5][6] Her mother, Leola, was an African-American small business owner and a Jehovah's Witness.[6][7][8][9] After Haddish's father left when she was three years old, her mother remarried and went on to have more children; Haddish has two half-sisters and two half-brothers.[10]

text: In 1988 while living in Colton, California,[5] Haddish's stepfather tampered with the brakes on her mother’s car, leading to an accident in which Leola suffered severe brain damage. The tampering was allegedly intended to harm Haddish and her siblings as well, but they had opted to stay home on the day of the accident.[11] The brain damage possibly triggered Leola's schizophrenia. Haddish, then age nine and the oldest of her five siblings, became the primary caregiver for her family.[11]

text: At 12, Haddish and her siblings were put into foster care where they were temporarily separated from each other. While there, she used comedy as a way to cope with being in situations with new people.[12] When she was 15, she and her siblings were reunited under the care of their grandmother.

text: She attended George Ellery Hale Middle School in Woodland Hills and graduated from El Camino Real High School, also in Woodland Hills, where she was the school mascot.[5] Haddish said she could not read very well until high school, but improved when she received tutoring from a teacher.[9] She also got in a lot of trouble at school, despite her award-winning participation in drama competition featuring Shakespearean monologues. In 1997, after her social worker gave her an ultimatum to either attend psychiatric therapy or go to the Laugh Factory Comedy Camp, then 17-year-old Haddish opted for comedy as outlet for her pain.[5][13] She has said that the mentorship from many notable comedians—including Richard Pryor, Dane Cook, Charles Fleischer, the Wayans brothers[14]—helped her discover her passion for comedy and it "literally saved her life."[5] She has said that she incorporates her past real life experiences in her sets, finding that doing so functions as a sort of "safe space" for her.[5]

text: Haddish stated in 2018 that at the age of seventeen she was sexually assaulted by a police cadet.[15] She has stated that this led to her having an aggressive front when it comes to avoiding unwanted advances from men.[16]

text: Before her on-screen success, Haddish held a number of jobs, including customer service for Alaska Airlines.[17] Haddish has said she lived in her car during her 20s while in her early days of comedy.[14]

text: Career[edit]

text: Haddish's first break was a spot on the comedy competition Bill Bellamy's Who's Got Jokes?[18] She has made guest appearances on such shows as Chelsea Lately, That's So Raven, My Name Is Earl, It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia, The Underground, Nick Cannon's Short Circuitz, @midnight, Just Jordan, In the Motherhood, Def Comedy Jam, Reality Bites Back and New Girl. She has also starred in movies such as Meet the Spartans and Janky Promoters.[19]

text: In 2013, she had a recurring role on Real Husbands of Hollywood. In 2014, Haddish was cast in the Oprah Winfrey Network series If Loving You Is Wrong.[20] She left the soap after the first season for a regular role on the NBC sitcom The Carmichael Show where she starred as Nekeisha, the semi-estranged wife of Bobby Carmichael (Lil Rel Howery), for three seasons.[18]

text: In 2016, she co-starred opposite Jordan Peele and Keegan-Michael Key in the comedy film Keanu in the role of Hi C.[21]

text: Girls Trip[edit]

text: In 2017, Haddish starred alongside Queen Latifah, Jada Pinkett Smith, and Regina Hall in the comedy film Girls Trip for Universal Pictures.[6][22] The film received widely positive reviews, with an approval rating of 90% on Rotten Tomatoes[23] and a "generally favorable reviews" score of 71/100 from Metacritic;[24] it also became a box-office hit, becoming the highest-grossing comedy of 2017.[25] Her performance was cited by many critics as a Bridesmaids Melissa McCarthy-style breakout.[26][27] In the Chicago Tribune, Katie Walsh wrote, "this is Haddish's movie, and will make her a star. It's clear from the moment she hits the screen."[28]

text: Post-Girls Trip[edit]

text: In August 2017, Haddish's comedy special, Tiffany Haddish: She Ready! From the Hood to Hollywood, premiered on Showtime.[29] Reviewing the special for Vox, Caroline Framke wrote, "Tiffany Haddish is just really damn funny, and deserves a recommendation wherever we can give it to her...Haddish unleashes hilarious, filthy, and even moving anecdotes to tell the story of her life to this point, without anything holding her back, at long last."[30] She also co-hosted the BET game show Face Value with Deon Cole.

text: On November 11, 2017, Haddish became the first black female stand-up comedian to host Saturday Night Live.[31] Haddish's memoir, The Last Black Unicorn, was released in December 2017 by Simon & Schuster; it debuted at number 15 on The New York Times best-seller list.[32] It was ghostwritten with Tucker Max.[33]

text: Haddish currently stars opposite Tracy Morgan in the TBS sitcom, The Last O.G., her first lead in a sitcom.[34] Haddish will star in the 2018 comedy film Night School alongside Kevin Hart, and reunite with Girls Trip director Malcolm D. Lee.[35] She is also set to lead in the comedy Limited Partners for Paramount Pictures.[36]

text: In 2018, Haddish signed a first-look deal with HBO.[37] In addition, Haddish will voice one of the main characters of the Netflix animated comedy series Tuca & Bertie.[38] In 2019, Haddish will be providing the voice of Queen Watevra Wa-Nabi in The Lego Movie 2: The Second Part.

text: Personal life[edit]

text: As described in her memoir,[39] Haddish married and divorced. The ex-husband helped Haddish locate her once-estranged father who walked her down the aisle at their first wedding, which she once described as "one of the happiest days of my life."[40] She filed for divorce in L.A. County, California, in 2011 and 2013.[6][41]

text: Haddish volunteers at the Laugh Factory Comedy Camp and for homeless and other charities that help people.[5] For a period, after she graduated from high school, Haddish was homeless, living in her car.[42][43] She also had a brief experience in Scientology.[6] At one point early in life, she was hospitalized with toxic shock syndrome.[5]

text: Filmography[edit]

text: Film[edit]

text:
Year

Title

Role

Notes

2005

The Urban Demographic

Janice Green

2008

Meet the Spartans

Urban Girl

2009

Janky Promoters

Michelle

2010

Wax On, F*ck Off

Prostitute

Short film

2011

Driving by Braille

Drum Major

2012

What My Husband Doesn't Know

Falana

2013

Christmas Wedding

Aurora

2014

4Play

Comedian

Patterns of Attraction

Sandra Lewis

Wishes

Jeanie

School Dance

Trina

2015

All Between Us

Mishawn

2016

Keanu

Trina "Hi-C" Parker

2017

Mad Families

Keko

Girls Trip

Dina

African-American Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting ActressBlack Reel Award for Best Supporting ActressMTV Movie Award for Best Comedic PerformanceMTV Movie Award for Scene StealerNAACP Image Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Motion PictureNew York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting Actress[44]American Black Film Festival Rising Icon Award[45]Nominated — Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Actress in a ComedyNominated — Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Supporting ActressNominated — Online Film Critics Society Award for Best Supporting ActressNominated — Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting ActressNominated — Detroit Film Critics Society Award for Best Supporting Actress

Boosters

Debra

2018

Uncle Drew

Jess

Night School

Carrie

Post-production

The Oath[46]

Kai

Post-production

Nobody’s Fool

Tanya

Post-production

2019

The Lego Movie 2: The Second Part

Queen Watevra Wa-Nabi (voice)

In production

 The Secret Life of Pets 2

Sonya (voice)

In production

The Kitchen

Ruby O’Carroll

Post-production

text: Television[edit]

text:
Year

Title

Role

Notes

2005

Pimp My Ride

Herself (Rashea's Friend)

Episode: Rashae's Ford Taurus

2005

That's So Raven

Charlotte

Episode: "When in Dome"

2006

Bill Bellamy's Who's Got Jokes?

Herself (contestant)

Episode: "Warm It Up in LA"

2006

My Name Is Earl

Robin

Episode: "The Bounty Hunter"

2006

It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia

Stripper

Episode: "Charlie Gets Crippled"

2006

The Underground

Various

Episode: "1.3"

2007

Nick Cannon Presents: Short Circuitz

Various

Episode: "1.1"

2007

Just Jordan

Diamond

Episode: "Krumpshakers"

2008

Racing for Time

Denise

Television film

2009

In the Motherhood

Teddy

Episode: "It Takes a Village Idiot"

2009

Secret Girlfriend

Jessica's Co-Worker

Episode: "You and Your Ex Call It Quits"

2012

The Game

Friend

Episode: The Black People Episode

2013–2014

Real Husbands of Hollywood

Tiffany

7 episodes

2014–2015

If Loving You Is Wrong

Jackie

14 episodes

2014

New Girl

Leslie

Episode: "Exes"

2014

TripTank

Delsyia (voice)

3 episodes

2015–2017

The Carmichael Show

Nekeisha

25 episodes

2016–2017

Legends of Chamberlain Heights

Cindy (voice)

18 episodesNAACP Image Award for Outstanding Character Voice-Over Performance

2017

Tiffany Haddish: She Ready! From the Hood to Hollywood

Herself

Stand-up special

2017

Face Value

Herself (co-host)

12 episodes

2017

Saturday Night Live

Herself (host)

Episode: "Tiffany Haddish/Taylor Swift"Pending – Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series

2018

Drunk History

Herself

Episode: "Heroines"

2018–present

The Last O.G.

Shay

Main cast

TBA

Tuca & Bertie

Tuca (voice)

Also executive producer

text: Music videos[edit]

text:
Year

Song

Artist

Role

2017

"Moonlight"

Jay-Z

Phoebe Buffay

2018

"Nice for What"

Drake

"What's Going On"

Todrick Hall

"Ring-a-Ling"

"Pettiness"

"Apple Pie"

"Girls Like You"

Maroon 5 featuring Cardi B

Herself

text: Video games[edit]

text:
Year

Title

Voice

2009

Terminator Salvation

Resistance Soldier

text: Awards and Nomination[edit]

text: Primetime Emmy Awards[edit]

text: The Primetime Emmy Award is an American award bestowed by the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences in recognition of excellence in American primetime television programming.

text:
Year

Nominated work

Category

Result

Ref.

2018

Saturday Night Live

Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series

Pending

[47]

text: BET Awards[edit]

text: The BET Awards were established in 2001 by the Black Entertainment Television network to celebrate African Americans and other minorities in music, acting, sports, and other fields of entertainment over the past year.

text:
Year

Nominated work

Category

Result

Ref.

2018

Girls Trip

Best Actress

Won

[48]

text: Black Reel Awards[edit]

text: The Black Reel Awards is an annual American awards ceremony hosted by the Foundation for the Augmentation of African-Americans in Film (FAAAF) to recognize excellence in African-American, as well as those of African diaspora's cinematic achievements in the around the world film industry as assessed by the Academy's voting membership.

text:
Year

Nominated work

Category

Result

Ref.

2018

Girls Trip

Best Supporting Actress

Won

Outstanding Breakthrough Perfomance (Female)

Won

[49]

text: Works and publications[edit]

text: Haddish, Tiffany (December 2017). The Last Black Unicorn. New York: Gallery Books. ISBN 978-1-501-18182-5. OCLC 983640770.


document_title: Indian Health Service

question_text: who is responsible for providing immunizations and direct care services

text: Indian Health Service

text: Formation and mission[edit]

text: IHS was established in 1955 to take over health care of American Indian and Alaska Natives from the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) to the Public Health Service (PHS) in hopes of improving the healthcare of Native Americans living on reservations.

text: The provision of health services to members of federally recognized tribes grew out of the special government-to-government relationship between the federal government and Indian tribes. This relationship, established in 1787, is based on Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution, and has been given form and substance by numerous treaties, laws, Supreme Court decisions, and Executive Orders.

text: Employment[edit]

text: IHS employs approximately 2,650 nurses, 700 physicians, 700 pharmacists, 100 physician assistants and 300 dentists, as well as a variety of other health professionals such as nutritionists.[1] It is one of two federal agencies mandated to use Indian Preference in hiring. This law requires the agency to give preference to qualified Indian applicants before considering non-Indian candidates for employment, although exceptions apply.[3]

text: IHS draws a large number of its professional employees from the U.S. Public Health Service Commissioned Corps. This is a non-armed service branch of the uniformed services of the United States. Professional categories of IHS Commissioned corps officers include physicians, physician assistants, nurses, dentists, pharmacists, engineers, environmental health officers, and dietitians.[4]

text: Many IHS jobs are in remote areas as well as its headquarters in Rockville, Maryland, and at Phoenix Indian Medical Center. In 2007, most IHS job openings were on the Navajo reservation. 71% of IHS employees are American Indian/Alaska Native.[4]

text: Efficiency and Public Law 93-638 (Tribal Self Determination – 1975)[edit]

text: ExpectMore.gov lists four rated areas of IHS: federally administered activities (moderately effective), healthcare-facilities construction (effective), resource- and patient-management systems (effective), and sanitation-facilities construction (moderately effective). All federally recognized Native American and Alaska Natives are entitled to health care. This health care is provided by the Indian Health Service, either through IHS-run hospitals and clinics or tribal contracts to provide healthcare services.[4]

text: IHS-run hospitals and clinics serve any registered Indian/Alaska Native, regardless of tribe or income. Tribal-contract health care facilities serve only their tribal members, with other qualified Indians/Alaska Natives being offered care on a space-available basis. This policy makes it difficult for an Indian who leaves their tribal home for education or employment to receive health care services to which they are legally entitled. An IHS fact sheet clarifies that Indians are also eligible to apply for low-income health care coverage provided by state and local governments, such as Medicaid. IHS 2007 third-party collections were $767 million, and estimated to be $780 million in 2008.[4]

text: Some of those who are served by the system are not satisfied with the efficiency of IHS. A contributor to Indianz.com, a website for Native American news, feels that Native Americans are "suffering" at the hands of IHS.[5] She feels IHS is underfunded, and necessary services are unavailable. Others have concerns that the restrictions of the Indian-preference policy do not allow for the hiring of the most highly qualified health professionals and administration staff, so quality of care and efficiency of administration suffer.[citation needed]

text: IHS also hires Native/non-Native American interns, who are referred to as "externs"; one position available every summer at area offices is the Engineering Externship. Participants are paid according to the GS pay-grade system, which is beneficial for college students. Their GS level is determined according to credit-hours acquired from an accredited college. Engineering Extern participants generally practice field work as needed and office work.

text: Administration[edit]

text: The Indian Health Service is headed by a director; as of mid-2017 the agency has seen five different directors since the beginning of 2015.

text: The current acting director is Rear Admiral Michael D. Weahkee, a Zuni.[6] Rear Admiral Chris Buchanan, a Seminole, served as acting director from January-June 2017, and presently serves as deputy director.[6][7] Prior to Buchanan, the office was headed by attorney Mary L. Smith (Cherokee).[8] Yvette Roubideaux (Rosebud Sioux), was appointed director of IHS by President Obama in 2009; she was re-nominated for a second four-year term in 2013 but was not re-confirmed by the Senate.[9] After she stepped down in 2015, she was briefly replaced by Robert McSwain (Mono).[10] Roubideaux was also preceded by McSwain, who had served as director for eight months.[11]

text: Reporting to the director are a chief medical officer, deputy directors (Operations, Government Affairs, Management, and Quality), and Offices for Tribal Liaison, Urban Health, and Contracting. Twelve regional area offices each coordinate infrastructure and programs in a section of the United States.[12]

text: A 2010 report by Senate Committee on Indian Affairs Chairman Byron Dorgan, D-N.D., found that the Aberdeen Area of the IHS is in a "chronic state of crisis".[13] "Serious management problems and a lack of oversight of this region have adversely affected the access and quality of health care provided to Native Americans in the Aberdeen Area, which serves 18 tribes in the states of North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska and Iowa," according to the report.

text: In July 2017, Director Weahkee was severely chastised during the Senate Interior Appropriations Subcommittee budget hearings by Senator Jon Tester [D Montana].[14] Weahkee refused to answer repeated direct questions about whether the 2018 IHS budget proposal was adequate to fulfill the Service's remit.

text: IHS areas[edit]

text:
Alaska Area: Director, Christopher Mandregan, Jr., M.P.H. (Aleut Community of St. Paul, Alaska)[15]
Albuquerque Area: Director, Leonard Thomas, M.D. (Navajo)[16]
Bemidji Area: Director, Keith Longie, M.P.H., Turtle Band of Chippewa
Billings Area: Director, Dorothy Dupree, M.B.A. (Assiniboine)
California Area: Director, Beverly Miller, C.P.A. (Cherokee)[17]
Great Plains Area: Acting Director, James Driving Hawk (Rosebud Sioux). The name of this area was changed in 2014 from the "Aberdeen" area.[18]
Nashville Area: Director, Martha A. Ketcher, M.B.A (Cherokee)[19][20]
Navajo Area: Acting Director, Capt. Brian Johnson, M.P.H.[21]
Oklahoma Area: Director, Rear Adm. Kevin Meeks, M.P.H. (Chickasaw)[22]
Phoenix Area: Director, Rear Adm. Charles Ty Reidhead, M.P.H. (Three Affiliated Sioux Tribes)[23]
Portland Area: Director, Dean Seyler, B.S. (Confederated Tribes of Warm Springs)[24]
Tucson Area: Director, Dixie Gaikowski (Three Affiliated Sioux Tribes)

text: Services and Benefits[edit]

text: The IHS provides a variety of health services in outpatient and inpatient settings, with benefits including pharmacy, dental, behavioral health, immunizations, pediatrics, physical rehabilitation, and optometry.[25] A more extensive list can be found at the official IHS website, and it is recommended for patients to contact their particular IHS facility to confirm services provided since benefits may differ by location.[25]

text: Eligibility[edit]

text: To qualify for health benefits from the IHS, individuals must be of American Indian and/or Alaska Native descent and be a part of an Indian community serviced by IHS. Individuals must be able to provide evidence such as membership in a federally-recognized tribe, residence on tax-exempt land, or active participation in tribal affairs. Federally-recognized tribes are annually defined by the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA). Non-Indians can also receive care if they are the child of an eligible Indian, the spouse (including same-sex spouses) of an eligible Indian, or a non-Indian women pregnant with an eligible Indian’s child. The exact policy can be found in the IHS Indian Health Manual (IHM).[26]

text: To apply for benefits through the IHS, individuals can enroll through the patient registration office of their local IHS facility. Individuals should be prepared to show proof of enrollment in a federally recognized tribe.[27]

text: Direct Care versus Purchased/Referred Care (PRC)[edit]

text: "Direct Care" refers to medical and dental care that American Indians and Alaska Natives (AI/ANs) receive at an IHS or tribal medical facility.[28][29] If patients are referred to a non-IHS/tribal medical facility, there is the option to request for coverage via the IHS "Purchased/Referred Care (PRC) Program".[28][29] Due to limited funds from U.S. Congress, referrals through PRC are not guaranteed coverage.[28][29][30] Authorization of these payments are determined through several factors, including confirmation of AI/AN tribal affiliation, medical priority, and funding availability.[28][29][30]

text: IHS National Core Formulary[edit]

text: The IHS National Pharmacy and Therapeutics Committee (NPTC) is composed of administrative leaders and clinical professionals, including pharmacists and physicians, who regulate the IHS National Core Formulary (NCF) to reflect current clinical practices and literature.[31] The NCF is reviewed every quarter and revised as needed based on arising health needs within the Native American communities, pharmacoeconomic analyses, recent guidelines, national contracts, and clinician advice.[31] Fibric acid derivatives and niacin extended release were removed from the formulary in February 2017,[31] but there were no changes made to the NCF during the May 2017 meeting.[32] The complete National Core Formulary can be found on the IHS website.[31]

text: Necessity for hepatitis C coverage[edit]

text: The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey provides national prevalence data for hepatitis C but excludes several high risk populations including federal prisoners, homeless individuals and over one million Native Americans residing on reservations.[33] To address this concern, in 2012 IHS implemented a nationwide hepatitis C virus (HCV) antibody testing program for persons born between 1945 and 1965. This resulted in a fourfold increase in the number of patients screened.[34] IHS facilities of the Southwest reported the largest gains in number of patients tested and the percentage of eligible patients that received testing.[34] Currently, the incidence rate of acute hepatitis C in Native Americans is higher in comparison to any other racial/ethnic group (1.32 cases per 100,000).[35] Additionally, Native Americans have the highest rate of hepatitis C related deaths (12.95% in 2015) in comparison to any other racial/ethnic group.[36]

text: Despite this prevalent need, IHS currently does not include any new direct acting anti-retroviral (DAA) hepatitis C medications on its National Core Formulary.[37][original research?] New DAA drugs provide a cure to hepatitis C in most cases but are costly.[38] Due to their lack in funding and quality of care, the IHS has not been able to effectively combat the Native American HCV issue, unlike the Veterans Affairs system, which was able to eradicate much of the disease through adequate resources from the federal government.[citation needed]

text: Budget[edit]

text: The IHS receives funding as allocated by the United States Congress and is not an entitlement program, insurance program, or established benefit program.[39]

text: The 2017 United States federal budget includes $5.1 billion for the IHS to support and expand the provision of health care services and public health programs for American Indians and Alaska Natives (AI/ANs). The proposed 2018 budget proposes to reduce IHS spending by more than $300 million.[40]

text: This covers the provision of health benefits to 2.5 million Native Americans and Alaskan Natives for a recent average cost per patient of less than $3,000, far less than the average cost of health care nationally ($7,700), or for the other major federal health programs Medicaid ($6,200) or Medicare ($12,000).[41]

text: Current issues[edit]

text: Life expectancy for Indians is approximately 4.5 years less than the general population of the United States (73.7 years versus 78.1 years).[1]

text: In 2013, the IHS experienced funding cuts of $800 million, representing a substantial percentage of its budget.[42][43]

text: Data from the 2014 National Emergency Department Inventory survey showed that only 85% of the 34 IHS respondents had continuous physician coverage.[44] Of these 34 sites only 4 sites utilized telemedicine[44] while a median of just 13% of physicians were board certified in emergency medicine.[44] The majority of IHS emergency department from the survey reported operating at or over capacity.[44] This may contribute to emergency department crowding.[citation needed]

text: Since its beginnings in 1955, the IHS has been criticized by those it serves and by public officials.[45][46][47][48]


document_title: Ogallala Aquifer

question_text: how long did it take to accumulate all the water that is currently in the ogallala aquifer

text: Ogallala Aquifer

text: General characteristics[edit]

text: The deposition of aquifer material dates back two to six million years, from the late Miocene to early Pliocene ages when the southern Rocky Mountains were still tectonically active. From the uplands to the west, rivers and streams cut channels in a generally west to east or southeast direction. Erosion of the Rockies provided alluvial and aeolian sediment that filled the ancient channels and eventually covered the entire area of the present-day aquifer, forming the water-bearing Ogallala Formation.[8][9] In that respect, the process is similar to those currently prevailing in other modern rivers of the area, such as the Kansas River and its tributaries. The major differences are time and depth.

text: The depth of the Ogallala varies with the shape of then-prevailing surface, being deepest where it fills ancient valleys and channels. The Ogallala Formation consists mostly of coarse sedimentary rocks in its deeper sections, which transition upward into finer-grained material.[10]

text: The water-saturated thickness of the Ogallala Formation ranges from a few feet to more than 1,000 feet (300 m) and is generally greater in the Northern Plains.[11] The depth of the water below the surface of the land ranges from almost 400 feet (120 m) in parts of the north to between 100 and 200 feet (30 and 61 m) throughout much of the south. Present-day recharge of the aquifer with fresh water occurs at an exceedingly slow rate, suggesting that much of the water in its pore spaces is paleowater, dating back to the most recent ice age and probably earlier.

text: Groundwater within the Ogallala generally flows from west to east at an average rate of a foot per day. Hydraulic conductivity, or the ability for a fluid (water) to move through porous material, ranges from 25 to 300 feet (7.6 to 91.4 m) per day.[12] Water quality within the Ogallala varies with the highest quality for drinking and irrigation in the northern region while the southern region had the poorest.[13] Human and natural processes over the past 60 to 70 years, including irrigation density, climate, and nitrogen applications, have caused higher concentrations of contaminants including nitrates. Nitrate levels generally meet USGS water quality standards, but continue to gradually increase over time.[13] This trend can impact the future groundwater sustainability for portions of the aquifer.

text: Aquifer water balance[edit]

text: An aquifer is a groundwater storage reservoir in the water cycle. While groundwater is a renewable source, reserves replenish relatively slowly. The USGS has performed several studies of the aquifer, to determine what is coming in (groundwater recharge from the surface), what is leaving (water pumped out and baseflow to streams), and what the net changes in storage are (rise, fall or no change).

text: Withdrawals from the Ogallala Aquifer for irrigation amounted to 26 km3 (21,000,000 acre⋅ft) in 2000. As of 2005, the total depletion since before development amounted to 253,000,000 acre feet (312 km3).[1] Some estimates indicate the remaining volume could be depleted as soon as 2028. Many farmers in the Texas High Plains, which rely particularly on the underground source, are now turning away from irrigated agriculture as they become aware of the hazards of overpumping.[14]

text: Groundwater recharge[edit]

text: The rate at which recharge water enters the aquifer is limited by several factors. Much of the plains region is semiarid, with steady winds that hasten evaporation of surface water and precipitation. In many locations, the aquifer is overlain, in the vadose zone, with a shallow layer of caliche that is practically impermeable; this limits the amount of water able to recharge the aquifer from the land surface. However, the soil of the playa lakes is different and not lined with caliche, making these some of the few areas where the aquifer can recharge. The destruction of playas by farmers and development decreases the available recharge area. The prevalence of the caliche is partly due to the ready evaporation of soil moisture and the semiarid climate; the aridity increases the amount of evaporation, which in turn increases the amount of caliche in the soil. Both mechanisms reduce the amount of recharge water that reaches the water table.

text: Recharge in the aquifer ranges from 0.024 inches (0.61 mm) per year in parts of Texas and New Mexico to 6 inches (150 mm) per year in south-central Kansas.[15]

text: Groundwater discharge[edit]

text: The regions overlying the Ogallala Aquifer are some of the most productive regions in the United States for ranching livestock, and growing corn, wheat, and soybeans. The success of large-scale farming in areas that do not have adequate precipitation and do not always have perennial surface water for diversion has depended heavily on pumping groundwater for irrigation.

text: Early settlers of the semiarid High Plains were plagued by crop failures due to cycles of drought, culminating in the disastrous Dust Bowl of the 1930s. Only after World War II, when center pivot irrigation became available, was the land mass of the High Plains aquifer system transformed into one of the most agriculturally productive regions in the world.

text: Change in groundwater storage[edit]

text: Ground water levels decline when the rate of extraction by irrigation exceeds the rate of recharge. At places, the water table was measured to drop more than 5 ft (1.5 m) per year at the time of maximum extraction. In extreme cases, the deepening of wells was required to reach the steadily falling water table. In the 21st century, recognition of the significance of the aquifer has led to increased coverage from regional and international journalists.[16][17][18][19]

text: The USGS estimated that total water storage was about 2,925,000,000 acre feet (3,608 km3) in 2005. This is a decline of about 253,000,000 acre feet (312 km3), or 9%, since substantial groundwater irrigation development began in the 1950s.[1]

text: Water conservation practices (terracing and crop rotation), more efficient irrigation methods (center pivot and drip), and reduced area under irrigation have helped to slow depletion of the aquifer, but levels are generally still dropping in areas including southwestern Kansas and the Texas Panhandle. In other areas, such as parts of eastern and central Nebraska and of the region south of Lubbock, Texas, water levels have risen since 1980.

text: The center-pivot irrigator was described as the "villain"[20] in a New York Times article, "Wells Dry, Fertile Plains Turn to Dust" recounting the relentless decline of parts of the Ogallala Aquifer. Sixty years of intensive farming using huge center-pivot irrigators has emptied parts of the High Plains Aquifer.[20] Hundreds to thousands of years of rainfall would be needed to replace the groundwater in the depleted aquifer. In 1950, irrigated cropland covered 250,000 acres (100,000 ha). With the use of center-pivot irrigation, nearly three million acres of land were irrigated.[20] In some places in the Texas Panhandle, the water table has been drained (dewatered). "Vast stretches of Texas farmland lying over the aquifer no longer support irrigation. In west-central Kansas, up to a fifth of the irrigated farmland along a 100-mile swath (160 km) of the aquifer has already gone dry."[20]

text: The center-pivot irrigation system is considered to be a highly efficient system which helps conserve water. However, by 2013, as the water consumption efficiency of the center-pivot irrigator improved over the years, farmers chose to plant more intensively, irrigate more land, and grow thirstier crops rather than reduce water consumption.[20] One approach to reducing the amount of groundwater used is to employ treated recycled water for irrigation; another approach is to change to crops that require less water, such as sunflowers.[21]

text: Several rivers, such as the Platte, run below the water level of the aquifer. Because of this, the rivers receive groundwater flow (baseflow), carrying it out of the region rather than recharging the aquifer.

text: The $46.1-million Optima Lake dam in western Oklahoma was rendered useless when the dropping level of the aquifer drastically reduced flow of the Beaver River, the lake's intended source of water.[22]

text: Accelerated decline in aquifer storage[edit]

text: The depletion between 2001 and 2008, inclusive, is about 32% of the cumulative depletion during the entire 20th century.[23] In the United States, the biggest users of water from aquifers include agricultural irrigation and oil and coal extraction.[24]"Cumulative total groundwater depletion in the United States accelerated in the late 1940s and continued at an almost steady linear rate through the end of the century. In addition to widely recognized environmental consequences, groundwater depletion also adversely impacts the long-term sustainability of groundwater supplies to help meet the nation’s water needs."[23]

text: Since the 1940s, pumping from the Ogallala has drawn the aquifer down more than 300 feet (90 m) in some areas. Producers have taken steps to reduce their reliance on irrigated water. Streamlined operations allow them to produce significantly greater yield using roughly the same amount of water needed four decades ago. Still, losses to the aquifer between 2001 and 2011 equated to a third of its cumulative depletion during the entire 20th century. The Ogallala is recharged primarily by rainwater, but only about one inch of precipitation actually reaches the aquifer annually. Rainfall in most of the Texas High Plains is minimal, evaporation is high, and infiltration rates are slow.[25]

text: Environmental controversies[edit]

text: Proposed Keystone XL Pipeline[edit]

text: In 2008, TransCanada Corporation proposed the construction of the 1,661-mile (2,673 km) Keystone XL pipeline to carry oil from the Athabasca oil sands of Alberta to refineries near Houston, Texas.[26][27] The proposed route of the pipeline crosses the eastern part of the Nebraska Sandhills; opponents of the route cite the risk to the Ogallala Aquifer posed by the possibility of contamination from spilled dilute bitumen.[28][29]

text: Research hydrogeologist James Goeke, professor emeritus at the University of Nebraska, who has spent more than 40 years studying the Ogallala Aquifer, phoned TransCanada officials and quizzed them on the project, and satisfied himself that danger to the aquifer was small, because he believes that a spill would be unlikely to penetrate down into the aquifer, and if it did, he believes that the contamination would be localized. He noted: "A lot of people in the debate about the pipeline talk about how leakage would foul the water and ruin the entire water supply in the state of Nebraska and that’s just a false", [30] Goeke said "... a leak from the XL pipeline would pose a minimal risk to the aquifer as a whole."[31]

text: Pipeline industry spokesmen have noted that thousands of miles of existing pipelines carrying crude oil and refined liquid hydrocarbons have crossed over the Ogallala Aquifer for years, in southeast Wyoming, eastern Colorado and New Mexico, western Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas.[32][33][34][35][36] The Pioneer crude oil pipeline crosses east-west across Nebraska, and the Pony Express pipeline, which crosses the Ogallala Aquifer in Colorado, Nebraska, and Kansas, was being converted as of 2013 from natural gas to crude oil, under a permit from the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission.[37]

text: As the lead agency in the transboundary pipeline project, the U.S. State Department commissioned an environmental-impact assessment as required by the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969. The Environmental Impact Statement concluded that the project posed little threat of "adverse environmental impacts",[28][38] the report was drafted by Cardno Entrix, a company that assisted both the Department of State and the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission in preparing environmental impact statements for other proposed TransCanda projects. Although it is "common for companies applying to build government projects to be involved in assigning and paying for the impact analysis",[39] several opponents of the project suggested there could be a conflict of interest. In response to that concern, the Department of State's Office of the Inspector General conducted an investigation of the potential conflict of interest. The February 2012 report of that investigation states no conflict of interest existed either in the selection of the contractor or in the preparation of the environmental impact statement.[40]

text: U.S. President Barack Obama "initially rejected the Keystone XL pipeline in January 2012, saying he wanted more time for an environmental review."[41] On February 17, 2013, a rally at the National Mall drew an estimated 40,000 in protest of Keystone XL.[41] In January 2014, the U.S. State Department released its Keystone pipeline Final Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement for the Keystone XL Project Executive Summary, which concluded that, according to models, a large crude oil spill from the pipeline that reached the Ogallala could spread as far as 1,214 feet (370 m), with dissolved components spreading as much as 1,050 ft (320 m) further.[42]

text: Conservation[edit]

text: Since 2010, the North Plains Groundwater Conservation District, which encompasses eight counties north of Amarillo, including Moore and Dallam Counties, has offered a $300,000 annual demonstration project to conserve water that farmers pump from the Ogallala Aquifer. Participating farmers grow corn with just over half of the water that they would normally require to irrigate the fields, or they plant several weeks later than customary. Pivot sprinklers are used in the project, rather than the more expensive drip irrigation. According to district manager Steve Walthour, conservation is essential considering declining levels of the aquifer.[43] The local non-profit organization Ogallala Commons, named for the aquifer itself, which not only collaborates and supports the local communicates, also works to conserve the Ogallala Aquifer and the surrounding area.[44][45][46]

text: Eleven farmers in 2013 participated in the conservation program, with some planting in dry earth, rather than watered soil. They are leaving more space between plants, a technique that retains moisture for a longer period of time. Soil sensors permit farmers to gather accurate information about the moisture level of their crops. The motivation to save water comes from the district's regulations on extracting water from the aquifer. The United States Geological Survey determined the water level in the aquifer has dropped more in Texas than in any other state in the basin.[43]

text: Farmers on their own land may draw water without charge from the aquifer. Pumping costs are low because the fuel used, natural gas, is inexpensive. The North Plains district first established limits on pumping in 2005 and tightened the regulations four years later. Certain wells are now required to have meters. Yet another challenge facing the district is that higher prices for crops[when?] have prompted some to plant additional fields and further increase the use of water from the aquifer.[43]