document_title: United States dollar

question_text: who's face is on the two dollar bill

question_tokens: who 's face is on the two dollar bill

root

text: United States dollar

text: Overview[edit]

text: Article I, Section 8 of the U.S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power "To coin money".[13] Laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U.S.C. § 5112. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued.[14] These coins are both designated in Section 5112 as "legal tender" in payment of debts.[14] The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar. The pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins, which have values ranging from one cent to 100 dollars.[14] These other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar.

tag: p

text: The Constitution provides that "a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be published from time to time".[15] That provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code.[16] The sums of money reported in the "Statements" are currently being expressed in U.S. dollars (for example, see the 2009 Financial Report of the United States Government).[17] The U.S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States.

text: The word "dollar" is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution. There, "dollars" is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U.S. Congress passed a Coinage Act. Section 9 of that act authorized the production of various coins, including "DOLLARS OR UNITS—each to be of the value of a Spanish milled dollar as the same is now current, and to contain three hundred and seventy-one grains and four sixteenth parts of a grain of pure, or four hundred and sixteen grains of standard silver". Section 20 of the act provided, "That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units... and that all accounts in the public offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation". In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States.

text: Unlike the Spanish milled dollar, the U.S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. In addition to the dollar the coinage act officially established monetary units of mill or one-thousandth of a dollar (symbol ₥), cent or one-hundredth of a dollar (symbol ¢), dime or one-tenth of a dollar, and eagle or ten dollars, with prescribed weights and composition of gold, silver, or copper for each. It was proposed in the mid-1800s that one hundred dollars be known as a union, but no union coins were ever struck and only patterns for the $50 half union exist. However, only cents are in everyday use as divisions of the dollar; "dime" is used solely as the name of the coin with the value of 10¢, while "eagle" and "mill" are largely unknown to the general public, though mills are sometimes used in matters of tax levies, and gasoline prices are usually in the form of $X.XX9 per gallon, e.g., $3.599, more commonly written as $3.59 9⁄10. When currently issued in circulating form, denominations equal to or less than a dollar are emitted as U.S. coins while denominations equal to or greater than a dollar are emitted as Federal Reserve notes (with the exception of gold, silver and platinum coins valued up to $100 as legal tender, but worth far more as bullion). Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the note form is significantly more common. In the past, "paper money" was occasionally issued in denominations less than a dollar (fractional currency) and gold coins were issued for circulation up to the value of $20 (known as the "double eagle", discontinued in the 1930s). The term eagle was used in the Coinage Act of 1792 for the denomination of ten dollars, and subsequently was used in naming gold coins. Paper currency less than one dollar in denomination, known as "fractional currency", was also sometimes pejoratively referred to as "shinplasters". In 1854, James Guthrie, then Secretary of the Treasury, proposed creating $100, $50 and $25 gold coins, which were referred to as a "Union", "Half Union", and "Quarter Union",[18] thus implying a denomination of 1 Union = $100.

text: Today, USD notes are made from cotton fiber paper, unlike most common paper, which is made of wood fiber. U.S. coins are produced by the United States Mint. U.S. dollar banknotes are printed by the Bureau of Engraving and Printing and, since 1914, have been issued by the Federal Reserve. The "large-sized notes" issued before 1928 measured 7.42 by 3.125 inches (188.5 by 79.4 mm); small-sized notes, introduced that year, measure 6.14 by 2.61 by 0.0043 inches (155.96 by 66.29 by 0.11 mm). When the current, smaller sized U.S. currency was introduced it was referred to as Philippine-sized currency because the Philippines had previously adopted the same size for its legal currency.

text: Etymology[edit]

text: In the 16th century, Count Hieronymus Schlick of Bohemia began minting coins known as Joachimstalers (from German thal, or nowadays usually Tal, "valley", cognate with "dale" in English), named for Joachimstal, the valley where the silver was mined (St. Joachim's Valley, now Jáchymov; then part of the Kingdom of Bohemia, now part of the Czech Republic).[19] Joachimstaler was later shortened to the German Taler, a word that eventually found its way into Danish and Swedish as daler, Norwegian as dalar and daler, Dutch as daler or daalder, Ethiopian as ታላሪ (talari), Hungarian as tallér, Italian as tallero, and English as dollar.[19] Alternatively, thaler is said to come from the German coin Guldengroschen ("great guilder", being of silver but equal in value to a gold guilder), minted from the silver from Joachimsthal.

text: The coins minted at Joachimsthal soon lent their name to other coins of similar size and weight from other places. One such example, was a Dutch coin depicting a lion, hence its Dutch name leeuwendaler (in English: lion daler).

text: The leeuwendaler was authorized to contain 427.16 grains of .75 fine silver and passed locally for between 36 and 42 stuivers. It was lighter than the large-denomination coins then in circulation, thus it was more advantageous for a Dutch merchant to pay a foreign debt in leeuwendalers and it became the coin of choice for foreign trade.

text: The leeuwendaler was popular in the Dutch East Indies and in the Dutch New Netherland Colony (New York), and circulated throughout the Thirteen Colonies during the 17th and early 18th centuries. It was also popular throughout Eastern Europe, where it led to the current Romanian and Moldovan currency being called leu (literally "lion").

text: Among the English-speaking community, the coin came to be popularly known as lion dollar – and is the origin of the name dollar.[20] The modern American-English pronunciation of dollar is still remarkably close to the 17th-century Dutch pronunciation of daler.[21]

text: By analogy with this lion dollar, Spanish pesos – with the same weight and shape as the lion dollar – came to be known as Spanish dollars.[21] By the mid-18th century, the lion dollar had been replaced by the Spanish dollar, the famous "piece of eight", which was distributed widely in the Spanish colonies in the New World and in the Philippines.[22] Eventually, dollar became the name of the first official American currency.

text: Nicknames[edit]

text: The colloquialism "buck"(s) (much like the British word "quid"(s, pl) for the pound sterling) is often used to refer to dollars of various nations, including the U.S. dollar. This term, dating to the 18th century, may have originated with the colonial leather trade. It may also have originated from a poker term.[23] "Greenback" is another nickname originally applied specifically to the 19th century Demand Note dollars created by Abraham Lincoln to finance the costs of the Civil War for the North.[24] The original note was printed in black and green on the back side. It is still used to refer to the U.S. dollar (but not to the dollars of other countries). Other well-known names of the dollar as a whole in denominations include "greenmail", "green" and "dead presidents" (the last because deceased presidents are pictured on most bills).

text: A "grand", sometimes shortened to simply "G", is a common term for the amount of $1,000. The suffix "K" or "k" (from "kilo-") is also commonly used to denote this amount (such as "$10k" to mean $10,000). However, the $1,000 note is no longer in general use. A "large" or "stack", it is usually a reference to a multiple of $1,000 (such as "fifty large" meaning $50,000). The $100 note is nicknamed "Benjamin", "Benji", "Ben", or "Franklin" (after Benjamin Franklin), "C-note" (C being the Roman numeral for 100), "Century note" or "bill" (e.g. "two bills" being $200). The $50 note is occasionally called a "yardstick" or a "grant" (after President Ulysses S. Grant, pictured on the obverse). The $20 note is referred to as a "double sawbuck", "Jackson" (after Andrew Jackson), or "double eagle". The $10 note is referred to as a "sawbuck", "ten-spot" or "Hamilton" (after Alexander Hamilton). The $5 note as "Lincoln", "fin", "fiver" or "five-spot". The infrequently-used $2 note is sometimes called "deuce", "Tom", or "Jefferson" (after Thomas Jefferson). The $1 note as a "single" or "buck". The dollar has also been referred to as a "bone" and "bones" in plural (e.g. "twenty bones" is equal to $20). The newer designs, with portraits displayed in the main body of the obverse (rather than in cameo insets), upon paper color-coded by denomination, are sometimes referred to as "bigface" notes or "Monopoly money".

text: "Piastre" was the original French word for the U.S. dollar, used for example in the French text of the Louisiana Purchase. Calling the dollar a piastre is still common among the speakers of Cajun French and New England French. Modern French uses dollar for this unit of currency as well. The term is still used as slang for U.S. dollars in the French-speaking Caribbean islands, most notably Haiti.

text: Dollar sign[edit]

text: The symbol $, usually written before the numerical amount, is used for the U.S. dollar (as well as for many other currencies). The sign was the result of a late 18th-century evolution of the scribal abbreviation "ps" for the peso, the common name for the Spanish dollars that were in wide circulation in the New World from the 16th to the 19th centuries. These Spanish pesos or dollars were minted in Spanish America, namely in Mexico City; Potosí, Bolivia; and Lima, Peru. The p and the s eventually came to be written over each other giving rise to $.[25][26][27][28]

text: Another popular explanation is that it is derived from the Pillars of Hercules on the Spanish Coat of arms of the Spanish dollar. These Pillars of Hercules on the silver Spanish dollar coins take the form of two vertical bars (||) and a swinging cloth band in the shape of an "S".

text: Yet another explanation suggests that the dollar sign was formed from the capital letters U and S written or printed one on top of the other. This theory, popularized by novelist Ayn Rand in Atlas Shrugged,[29] does not consider the fact that the symbol was already in use before the formation of the United States.[30]

text: History[edit]

text: The American dollar coin was initially based on the value and look of the Spanish dollar, used widely in Spanish America from the 16th to the 19th centuries. The first dollar coins issued by the United States Mint (founded 1792) were similar in size and composition to the Spanish dollar, minted in Mexico and Peru. The Spanish, U.S. silver dollars, and later, Mexican silver pesos circulated side by side in the United States, and the Spanish dollar and Mexican peso remained legal tender until the Coinage Act of 1857. The coinage of various English colonies also circulated. The lion dollar was popular in the Dutch New Netherland Colony (New York), but the lion dollar also circulated throughout the English colonies during the 17th century and early 18th century. Examples circulating in the colonies were usually worn so that the design was not fully distinguishable, thus they were sometimes referred to as "dog dollars".[31]

text: The U.S. dollar was first defined by the Coinage Act of 1792, which specified a "dollar" to be based in the Spanish milled dollar and of 371 grains and 4 sixteenths part of a grain of pure or 416 grains (27.0 g) of standard silver and an "eagle" to be 247 and 4 eighths of a grain or 270 grains (17 g) of gold (again depending on purity).[32] The choice of the value 371 grains arose from Alexander Hamilton's decision to base the new American unit on the average weight of a selection of worn Spanish dollars. Hamilton got the treasury to weigh a sample of Spanish dollars and the average weight came out to be 371 grains. A new Spanish dollar was usually about 377 grains in weight, and so the new U.S. dollar was at a slight discount in relation to the Spanish dollar.

text: The same coinage act also set the value of an eagle at 10 dollars, and the dollar at  1⁄10 eagle. It called for 90% silver alloy coins in denominations of 1,  1⁄2,  1⁄4,  1⁄10, and  1⁄20 dollars; it called for 90% gold alloy coins in denominations of 1,  1⁄2,  1⁄4, and  1⁄10 eagles. The value of gold or silver contained in the dollar was then converted into relative value in the economy for the buying and selling of goods. This allowed the value of things to remain fairly constant over time, except for the influx and outflux of gold and silver in the nation's economy.[33]

text: The early currency of the United States did not exhibit faces of presidents, as is the custom now;[34] although today, by law, only the portrait of a deceased individual may appear on United States currency.[35] In fact, the newly formed government was against having portraits of leaders on the currency, a practice compared to the policies of European monarchs.[36] The currency as we know it today did not get the faces they currently have until after the early 20th century; before that "heads" side of coinage used profile faces and striding, seated, and standing figures from Greek and Roman mythology and composite Native Americans. The last coins to be converted to profiles of historic Americans were the dime (1946) and the Dollar (1971).

text: For articles on the currencies of the colonies and states, see Connecticut pound, Delaware pound, Georgia pound, Maryland pound, Massachusetts pound, New Hampshire pound, New Jersey pound, New York pound, North Carolina pound, Pennsylvania pound, Rhode Island pound, South Carolina pound and Virginia pound.

text: Continental currency[edit]

text: During the American Revolution the thirteen colonies became independent states. Freed from British monetary regulations, they each issued £sd paper money to pay for military expenses. The Continental Congress also began issuing "Continental Currency" denominated in Spanish dollars. The dollar was valued relative to the states' currencies at the following rates:

text:
5 shillings – Georgia
6 shillings – Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Virginia
 7 1⁄2 shillings – Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey, Pennsylvania
8 shillings – New York, North Carolina
 32 1⁄2 shillings – South Carolina

tag: ul

text: Continental currency depreciated badly during the war, giving rise to the famous phrase "not worth a continental".[37] A primary problem was that monetary policy was not coordinated between Congress and the states, which continued to issue bills of credit. Additionally, neither Congress nor the governments of the several states had the will or the means to retire the bills from circulation through taxation or the sale of bonds.[38] The currency was ultimately replaced by the silver dollar at the rate of 1 silver dollar to 1000 continental dollars.

text: Silver and gold standards[edit]

text: From 1792, when the Mint Act was passed, the dollar was defined as 371.25 grains (24.056 g) of silver. Many historians[who?] erroneously assume gold was standardized at a fixed rate in parity with silver; however, there is no evidence of Congress making this law. This has to do with Alexander Hamilton's suggestion to Congress of a fixed 15:1 ratio of silver to gold, respectively. The gold coins that were minted however, were not given any denomination whatsoever and traded for a market value relative to the Congressional standard of the silver dollar. 1834 saw a shift in the gold standard to 23.2 grains (1.50 g), followed by a slight adjustment to 23.22 grains (1.505 g) in 1837 (16:1 ratio).[citation needed]

text: In 1862, paper money was issued without the backing of precious metals, due to the Civil War. Silver and gold coins continued to be issued and in 1878 the link between paper money and coins was reinstated. This disconnection from gold and silver backing also occurred during the War of 1812. The use of paper money not backed by precious metals had also occurred under the Articles of Confederation from 1777 to 1788. With no solid backing and being easily counterfeited, the continentals quickly lost their value, giving rise to the phrase "not worth a continental". This was a primary reason for the "No state shall... make any thing but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts" clause in article 1, section 10 of the United States Constitution.

text: In order to finance the War of 1812, Congress authorized the issuance of Treasury Notes, interest-bearing short-term debt that could be used to pay public dues. While they were intended to serve as debt, they did function "to a limited extent" as money. Treasury Notes were again printed to help resolve the reduction in public revenues resulting from the Panic of 1837 and the Panic of 1857, as well as to help finance the Mexican–American War and the Civil War.

text: In addition to Treasury Notes, in 1861, Congress authorized the Treasury to borrow $50 million in the form of Demand Notes, which did not bear interest but could be redeemed on demand for precious metals. However, by December 1861, the Union government's supply of specie was outstripped by demand for redemption and they were forced to suspend redemption temporarily. The following February, Congress passed the Legal Tender Act of 1862, issuing United States Notes, which were not redeemable on demand and bore no interest, but were legal tender, meaning that creditors had to accept them at face value for any payment except for public debts and import tariffs. However, silver and gold coins continued to be issued, resulting in the depreciation of the newly printed notes through Gresham's Law. In 1869, Supreme Court ruled in Hepburn v. Griswold that Congress could not require creditors to accept United States Notes, but overturned that ruling the next year in the Legal Tender Cases. In 1875, Congress passed the Specie Payment Resumption Act, requiring the Treasury to allow US Notes to be redeemed for gold after January 1, 1879. The Treasury ceased to issue United States Notes in 1971.

text: The Gold Standard Act of 1900 abandoned the bimetallic standard and defined the dollar as 23.22 grains (1.505 g) of gold, equivalent to setting the price of 1 troy ounce of gold at $20.67. Silver coins continued to be issued for circulation until 1964, when all silver was removed from dimes and quarters, and the half dollar was reduced to 40% silver. Silver half dollars were last issued for circulation in 1970. Gold coins were confiscated by Executive Order 6102 issued in 1933 by Franklin Roosevelt. The gold standard was changed to 13.71 grains (0.888 g), equivalent to setting the price of 1 troy ounce of gold at $35. This standard persisted until 1968.

text: Between 1968 and 1975, a variety of pegs to gold were put in place, eventually culminating in a sudden end, on August 15, 1971, to the convertibility of dollars to gold later dubbed the Nixon Shock. The last peg was $42.22 per ounce[citation needed] before the U.S. dollar was let to freely float on currency markets.

text: According to the Bureau of Engraving and Printing, the largest note it ever printed was the $100,000 Gold Certificate, Series 1934. These notes were printed from December 18, 1934, through January 9, 1935, and were issued by the Treasurer of the United States to Federal Reserve Banks only against an equal amount of gold bullion held by the Treasury. These notes were used for transactions between Federal Reserve Banks and were not circulated among the general public.

text: Coins[edit]

text: Official United States coins have been produced every year from 1792 to the present.

text:
Denomination
Common name
Obverse
Reverse
Portrait and design date
Reverse motif and design date
Weight
Diameter
Material
Edge
Circulation

Cent
1¢
penny

Abraham Lincoln
Union Shield
2.50 g
19.05 mm
97.5% Zn
2.5% Cu
plain
Wide

Five-Cent
5¢
nickel

Thomas Jefferson
Monticello
5.00 g
21.21 mm
75% Cu
25% Ni
plain
Wide

Dime
10¢
dime

Franklin D. Roosevelt
olive branch, torch, oak branch
2.27 g
17.91 mm
91.67% Cu
8.33% Ni
118 reeds
Wide

Quarter Dollar
25¢
quarter

George Washington
Various; five designs per year
5.67 g
24.26 mm
91.67% Cu
8.33% Ni
119 reeds
Wide

Half Dollar
50¢
half

John F. Kennedy
Presidential Seal
11.34 g
30.61 mm
91.67% Cu
8.33% Ni
150 reeds
Limited

Dollar coin
$1
dollar coin, golden dollar

Profile of Sacagawea with her child, Jean Baptiste Charbonneau
Bald eagle in flight (2000–2008), Various; new design per year
8.10 g
26.50 mm
88.5% Cu
6% Zn
3.5% Mn
2% Ni
Lettered
Limited

tag: table

text: Discontinued coin denominations include:

text:
Half cent:  1⁄2¢, 1793–1857
Fugio Cent: 1¢, 1787
Two-cent piece: 2¢, 1863–1873
Three-cent bronze: 3¢, 1863 (not circulated)
Three-cent nickel: 3¢, 1865–1889
Trime: 3¢, 1851–1873
Half dime: 5¢, 1792–1873
Twenty-cent piece: 20¢, 1875–1878
Gold dollar: $1.00, 1849–1889
Quarter eagle: $2.50, 1792–1929
Three-dollar piece: $3.00, 1854–1889
Stella: $4.00, (not circulated)
Half eagle: $5.00, 1795–1929, minted as a commemorative 1986–present
Eagle: $10.00, minted as a commemorative 1984–2003
Double eagle: $20.00, 1849–1933, 2009
Half-union: $50.00, 1877 (pattern only), 1915 (Panama–Pacific International Exposition coin)
Union: $100.00, 2015 (High relief; not circulated)

text: Collector coins for which everyday transactions are non-existent.[39]

text:
American Eagles originally were not available from the Mint for individuals but had to be purchased from authorized dealers. In 2006 The Mint began direct sales to individuals of uncirculated bullion coins with a special finish, and bearing a "W" mintmark.

American Silver Eagle $1 (1 troy ounce) silver bullion coin 1986–present
American Gold Eagle $5 ( 1⁄10 troy oz), $10 ( 1⁄4 troy oz), $25 ( 1⁄2 troy oz), and $50 (1 troy oz) Gold bullion coin 1986–present
American Platinum Eagle ($10, $25, $50, and $100 platinum coin) 1997–present

United States commemorative coins—special issue coins

$50.00 (Half Union) 1915
Presidential Proofs (see below) 2007–present

text: Technically, all these coins are still legal tender at face value, though some are far more valuable today for their numismatic value, and for gold and silver coins, their precious metal value. From 1965 to 1970 the Kennedy half dollar was the only circulating coin with any silver content, which was removed in 1971 and replaced with cupronickel. However, since 1992, the U.S. Mint has produced special Silver Proof Sets in addition to the regular yearly proof sets with silver dimes, quarters, and half dollars in place of the standard copper-nickel versions. In addition, an experimental $4.00 (Stella) coin was also minted in 1879, but never placed into circulation, and is properly considered to be a pattern rather than an actual coin denomination.

text: The $50 coin mentioned was only produced in 1915 for the Panama-Pacific International Exposition (1915) celebrating the opening of the Panama Canal. Only 1,128 were made, 645 of which were octagonal; this remains the only U.S. coin that was not round as well as the largest and heaviest U.S. coin ever produced.

text: A $100 gold coin was produced in High relief during 2015, although it was primarily produced for collectors, not for general circulation.[40]

text: From 1934 to present, the only denominations produced for circulation have been the familiar penny, nickel, dime, quarter, half dollar and dollar. The nickel is the only coin still in use today that is essentially unchanged (except in its design) from its original version. Every year since 1866, the nickel has been 75% copper and 25% nickel, except for 4 years during World War II when nickel was needed for the war.

text: Due to the penny's low value, some efforts have been made to eliminate the penny as circulating coinage.[41][42]

text: Collector coins[edit]

text: The United States Mint produces Proof Sets specifically for collectors and speculators. Silver Proofs tend to be the standard designs but with the dime, quarter, and half dollar containing 90% silver. Starting in 1983 and ending in 1997, the Mint also produced proof sets containing the year's commemorative coins alongside the regular coins. Another type of proof set is the Presidential Dollar Proof Set where four special $1 coins are minted each year featuring a president. Because of budget constraints and increasing stockpiles of these relatively unpopular coins, the production of new Presidential dollar coins for circulation was suspended on December 13, 2011, by U.S. Treasury Secretary Timothy F. Geithner. Future minting of such coins will be made solely for collectors.[43]

text:
2007 had George Washington, John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, and James Madison
2008 had James Monroe, John Quincy Adams, Andrew Jackson, and Martin Van Buren
2009 had William Henry Harrison, John Tyler, James K. Polk, and Zachary Taylor
2010 had Millard Fillmore, Franklin Pierce, James Buchanan, and Abraham Lincoln
2011 had Andrew Johnson, Ulysses S. Grant, Rutherford B. Hayes, and James A. Garfield
2012 had Chester Arthur, Grover Cleveland (1st term), Benjamin Harrison, and Grover Cleveland (2nd term)
2013 had William McKinley, Theodore Roosevelt, William Howard Taft and Woodrow Wilson
2014 had Warren G. Harding, Calvin Coolidge, Herbert Hoover, and Franklin D. Roosevelt
2015 had Harry S Truman, Dwight D. Eisenhower, John F. Kennedy, and Lyndon B. Johnson
2016 had Richard M. Nixon, Gerald R. Ford and Ronald Reagan.

text: Dollar coins[edit]

text: The first United States dollar was minted in 1794. Known as the Flowing Hair Dollar, contained 416 grains of "standard silver" (89.25% silver and 10.75% copper), as specified by Section 13[44] of the Coinage Act of 1792. It was designated by Section 9 of that Act as having "the value of a Spanish milled dollar".

text: Dollar coins have not been very popular in the United States.[45] Silver dollars were minted intermittently from 1794 through 1935; a copper-nickel dollar of the same large size, featuring President Dwight D. Eisenhower, was minted from 1971 through 1978. Gold dollars were also minted in the 19th century. The Susan B. Anthony dollar coin was introduced in 1979; these proved to be unpopular because they were often mistaken for quarters, due to their nearly equal size, their milled edge, and their similar color. Minting of these dollars for circulation was suspended in 1980 (collectors' pieces were struck in 1981), but, as with all past U.S. coins, they remain legal tender. As the number of Anthony dollars held by the Federal Reserve and dispensed primarily to make change in postal and transit vending machines had been virtually exhausted, additional Anthony dollars were struck in 1999. In 2000, a new $1 coin, featuring Sacagawea, (the Sacagawea dollar) was introduced, which corrected some of the problems of the Anthony dollar by having a smooth edge and a gold color, without requiring changes to vending machines that accept the Anthony dollar. However, this new coin has failed to achieve the popularity of the still-existing $1 bill and is rarely used in daily transactions. The failure to simultaneously withdraw the dollar bill and weak publicity efforts have been cited by coin proponents as primary reasons for the failure of the dollar coin to gain popular support.[46]

text: In February 2007, the U.S. Mint, under the Presidential $1 Coin Act of 2005,[47] introduced a new $1 U.S. Presidential dollar coin. Based on the success of the "50 State Quarters" series, the new coin features a sequence of presidents in order of their inaugurations, starting with George Washington, on the obverse side. The reverse side features the Statue of Liberty. To allow for larger, more detailed portraits, the traditional inscriptions of "E Pluribus Unum", "In God We Trust", the year of minting or issuance, and the mint mark will be inscribed on the edge of the coin instead of the face. This feature, similar to the edge inscriptions seen on the British £1 coin, is not usually associated with U.S. coin designs. The inscription "Liberty" has been eliminated, with the Statue of Liberty serving as a sufficient replacement. In addition, due to the nature of U.S. coins, this will be the first time there will be circulating U.S. coins of different denominations with the same president featured on the obverse (heads) side (Lincoln/penny, Jefferson/nickel, Franklin D. Roosevelt/dime, Washington/quarter, Kennedy/half dollar, and Eisenhower/dollar). Another unusual fact about the new $1 coin is Grover Cleveland will have two coins with two different portraits issued due to the fact he was the only U.S. President to be elected to two non-consecutive terms.[48]

text: Early releases of the Washington coin included error coins shipped primarily from the Philadelphia mint to Florida and Tennessee banks. Highly sought after by collectors, and trading for as much as $850 each within a week of discovery, the error coins were identified by the absence of the edge impressions "E PLURIBUS UNUM IN GOD WE TRUST 2007 P". The mint of origin is generally accepted to be mostly Philadelphia, although identifying the source mint is impossible without opening a mint pack also containing marked units. Edge lettering is minted in both orientations with respect to "heads", some amateur collectors were initially duped into buying "upside down lettering error" coins.[49] Some cynics also erroneously point out that the Federal Reserve makes more profit from dollar bills than dollar coins because they wear out in a few years, whereas coins are more permanent. The fallacy of this argument arises because new notes printed to replace worn out notes, which have been withdrawn from circulation, bring in no net revenue to the government to offset the costs of printing new notes and destroying the old ones. As most vending machines are incapable of making change in banknotes, they commonly accept only $1 bills, though a few will give change in dollar coins.

text: Mint marks[edit]

text:
Mint
Mint mark
Metal minted
Year established
Current status

Denver
D
All metals
1906
Facility open

Philadelphia
P or none[a]
All metals
1792
Facility open

San Francisco
S
All metals
1854
Facility open (proof only)

West Point
W or none[b]
Gold, Silver and Platinum
1973
Facility open (bullion only)

Carson City
CC
Gold and Silver
1870
Facility closed, 1893[c]

Charlotte
C
Gold only
1838
Facility closed, 1861

Dahlonega
D[d]
Gold only
1838
Facility closed, 1861

Manila[e]
M or none[f]
All metals
1920
Facility closed, 1922; re-opened 1925–1941

New Orleans
O
Gold and Silver
1838
Facility closed, 1861; re-opened 1879–1909[g]

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ The letter "P" is used for the Philadelphia mint mark on all coins (except cents) released from 1980 onward. Before this it had only been used on silver Jefferson nickels from 1942 to 1945.
Jump up ^ Between 1973 and 1986 there was no mint mark (these coins are indistinguishable from coins produced at the Philadelphia Mint from 1973 to 1980); after 1988 the letter "W" was used for coinage, except for the 2009 Ultra High Relief Double Eagle.
Jump up ^ It is now the home of the Nevada State Museum, which still strikes commemorative medallions with the "CC" mint mark (most recently in 2014 commemorating the Nevada Sesquicentennial), using former mint's the original coin press.
Jump up ^ Although the mint mark "D" has been used by two separate mints, it is easy to distinguish between the two, as any 19th century coinage is Dahlonega, and any 20th or 21st century coins are Denver.
Jump up ^ During the period in which this mint branch was operational, The Philippines was an insular territory and then commonwealth of the U.S.; it was the first (and to date only) U.S. branch mint located outside the Continental United States.
Jump up ^ The letter "M" was used for the Manila mint mark on all coins released from 1925 onward; before this it had produced its coins with no mintmark.
Jump up ^ During the Civil War, this mint operated under the control of the State of Louisiana (February 1861) and the Confederate States of America (March 1861) until it ran out of bullion later in that year; some Half Dollars have been identified as being the issue of the State of Louisiana and the Confederacy.

text: Banknotes[edit]

text:
Denomination
Obverse
Reverse
Portrait
Reverse Motif
First Series
Latest Series
Circulation

One Dollar

George Washington
Great Seal of the United States
Series 1963
Series 2013
Wide

Two Dollars

Thomas Jefferson
Trumbull's Declaration of Independence
Series 1976
Series 2013
Limited

Five Dollars

Abraham Lincoln
Lincoln Memorial
Series 2006
Series 2013
Wide

Ten Dollars

Alexander Hamilton
U.S. Treasury
Series 2004A
Series 2013
Wide

Twenty Dollars

Andrew Jackson
White House
Series 2004
Series 2013
Wide

Fifty Dollars

Ulysses S. Grant
United States Capitol
Series 2004
Series 2013
Wide

One Hundred Dollars

Benjamin Franklin
Independence Hall
Series 2009
Series 2013
Wide

text: The U.S. Constitution provides that Congress shall have the power to "borrow money on the credit of the United States".[50] Congress has exercised that power by authorizing Federal Reserve Banks to issue Federal Reserve Notes. Those notes are "obligations of the United States" and "shall be redeemed in lawful money on demand at the Treasury Department of the United States, in the city of Washington, District of Columbia, or at any Federal Reserve bank".[51] Federal Reserve Notes are designated by law as "legal tender" for the payment of debts.[52] Congress has also authorized the issuance of more than 10 other types of banknotes, including the United States Note[53] and the Federal Reserve Bank Note. The Federal Reserve Note is the only type that remains in circulation since the 1970s.

text: Currently printed denominations are $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $50, and $100. Notes above the $100 denomination stopped being printed in 1946 and were officially withdrawn from circulation in 1969. These notes were used primarily in inter-bank transactions or by organized crime; it was the latter usage that prompted President Richard Nixon to issue an executive order in 1969 halting their use. With the advent of electronic banking, they became less necessary. Notes in denominations of $500, $1,000, $5,000, $10,000, and $100,000 were all produced at one time; see large denomination bills in U.S. currency for details. With the exception of the $100,000 bill (which was only issued as a Series 1934 Gold Certificate and was never publicly circulated; thus it is illegal to own), these notes are now collectors' items and are worth more than their face value to collectors.

text: Though still predominantly green, post-2004 series incorporate other colors to better distinguish different denominations. As a result of a 2008 decision in an accessibility lawsuit filed by the American Council of the Blind, the Bureau of Engraving and Printing is planning to implement a raised tactile feature in the next redesign of each note, except the $1 and the current version of the $100 bill. It also plans larger, higher-contrast numerals, more color differences, and distribution of currency readers to assist the visually impaired during the transition period.[54]

text: Means of issue[edit]

text: The monetary base consists of coins and Federal Reserve Notes in circulation outside the Federal Reserve Banks and the U.S. Treasury, plus deposits held by depository institutions at Federal Reserve Banks. The adjusted monetary base has increased from approximately 400 billion dollars in 1994, to 800 billion in 2005, and over 3000 billion in 2013.[55] The amount of cash in circulation is increased (or decreased) by the actions of the Federal Reserve System. Eight times a year, the 12-person Federal Open Market Committee meets to determine U.S. monetary policy.[56] Every business day, the Federal Reserve System engages in Open market operations to carry out that monetary policy.[57] If the Federal Reserve desires to increase the money supply, it will buy securities (such as U.S. Treasury Bonds) anonymously from banks in exchange for dollars. Conversely, it will sell securities to the banks in exchange for dollars, to take dollars out of circulation.[58]

text: When the Federal Reserve makes a purchase, it credits the seller's reserve account (with the Federal Reserve). This money is not transferred from any existing funds—it is at this point that the Federal Reserve has created new high-powered money. Commercial banks can freely withdraw in cash any excess reserves from their reserve account at the Federal Reserve. To fulfill those requests, the Federal Reserve places an order for printed money from the U.S. Treasury Department.[59] The Treasury Department in turn sends these requests to the Bureau of Engraving and Printing (to print new dollar bills) and the Bureau of the Mint (to stamp the coins).

text: Usually, the short-term goal of open market operations is to achieve a specific short-term interest rate target. In other instances, monetary policy might instead entail the targeting of a specific exchange rate relative to some foreign currency or else relative to gold. For example, in the case of the United States the Federal Reserve targets the federal funds rate, the rate at which member banks lend to one another overnight. The other primary means of conducting monetary policy include: (i) Discount window lending (as lender of last resort); (ii) Fractional deposit lending (changes in the reserve requirement); (iii) Moral suasion (cajoling certain market players to achieve specified outcomes); (iv) "Open mouth operations" (talking monetary policy with the market).

text: Value[edit]

text:
Buying power of one U.S. dollar compared to 1774 USD

 Year
 Equivalent  buying power

1774
 $1.00

1780
 $0.59

1790
 $0.89

1800
 $0.64

1810
 $0.66

1820
 $0.69

1830
 $0.88

1840
 $0.94

1850
 $1.03

1860
 $0.97

 Year
 Equivalent  buying power

1870
 $0.62

1880
 $0.79

1890
 $0.89

1900
 $0.96

1910
 $0.85

1920
 $0.39

1930
 $0.47

1940
 $0.56

1950
 $0.33

1960
 $0.26

 Year
 Equivalent  buying power

1970
 $0.20

1980
 $0.10

1990
 $0.06

2000
 $0.05

2007
 $0.04

2008
 $0.04

2009
 $0.04

2010
 $0.035

2011
 $0.034

2012
 $0.03

text: The 6th paragraph of Section 8 of Article 1 of the U.S. Constitution provides that the U.S. Congress shall have the power to "coin money" and to "regulate the value" of domestic and foreign coins. Congress exercised those powers when it enacted the Coinage Act of 1792. That Act provided for the minting of the first U.S. dollar and it declared that the U.S. dollar shall have "the value of a Spanish milled dollar as the same is now current".[60]

text: The table to the right shows the equivalent amount of goods that, in a particular year, could be purchased with $1. The table shows that from 1774 through 2012 the U.S. dollar has lost about 97.0% of its buying power.[61]

text: The decline in the value of the U.S. dollar corresponds to price inflation, which is a rise in the general level of prices of goods and services in an economy over a period of time.[62] A consumer price index (CPI) is a measure estimating the average price of consumer goods and services purchased by households. The United States Consumer Price Index, published by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, is a measure estimating the average price of consumer goods and services in the United States.[63] It reflects inflation as experienced by consumers in their day-to-day living expenses.[64] A graph showing the U.S. CPI relative to 1982–1984 and the annual year-over-year change in CPI is shown at right.

text: The value of the U.S. dollar declined significantly during wartime, especially during the American Civil War, World War I, and World War II.[65] The Federal Reserve, which was established in 1913, was designed to furnish an "elastic" currency subject to "substantial changes of quantity over short periods", which differed significantly from previous forms of high-powered money such as gold, national bank notes, and silver coins.[66] Over the very long run, the prior gold standard kept prices stable—for instance, the price level and the value of the U.S. dollar in 1914 was not very different from the price level in the 1880s. The Federal Reserve initially succeeded in maintaining the value of the U.S. dollar and price stability, reversing the inflation caused by the First World War and stabilizing the value of the dollar during the 1920s, before presiding over a 30% deflation in U.S. prices in the 1930s.[67]

text: Under the Bretton Woods system established after World War II, the value of gold was fixed to $35 per ounce, and the value of the U.S. dollar was thus anchored to the value of gold. Rising government spending in the 1960s, however, led to doubts about the ability of the United States to maintain this convertibility, gold stocks dwindled as banks and international investors began to convert dollars to gold, and as a result the value of the dollar began to decline. Facing an emerging currency crisis and the imminent danger that the United States would no longer be able to redeem dollars for gold, gold convertibility was finally terminated in 1971 by President Nixon, resulting in the "Nixon shock".[68]

text: The value of the U.S. dollar was therefore no longer anchored to gold, and it fell upon the Federal Reserve to maintain the value of the U.S. currency. The Federal Reserve, however, continued to increase the money supply, resulting in stagflation and a rapidly declining value of the U.S. dollar in the 1970s. This was largely due to the prevailing economic view at the time that inflation and real economic growth were linked (the Phillips curve), and so inflation was regarded as relatively benign.[68] Between 1965 and 1981, the U.S. dollar lost two thirds of its value.[61]

text: In 1979, President Carter appointed Paul Volcker Chairman of the Federal Reserve. The Federal Reserve tightened the money supply and inflation was substantially lower in the 1980s, and hence the value of the U.S. dollar stabilized.[68]

text: Over the thirty-year period from 1981 to 2009, the U.S. dollar lost over half its value.[61] This is because the Federal Reserve has targeted not zero inflation, but a low, stable rate of inflation—between 1987 and 1997, the rate of inflation was approximately 3.5%, and between 1997 and 2007 it was approximately 2%. The so-called "Great Moderation" of economic conditions since the 1970s is credited to monetary policy targeting price stability.[69]

text: There is ongoing debate about whether central banks should target zero inflation (which would mean a constant value for the U.S. dollar over time) or low, stable inflation (which would mean a continuously but slowly declining value of the dollar over time, as is the case now). Although some economists are in favor of a zero inflation policy and therefore a constant value for the U.S. dollar,[67] others contend that such a policy limits the ability of the central bank to control interest rates and stimulate the economy when needed.[70]

text: Exchange rates[edit]

text: Historical exchange rates[edit]

text:
Currency units per U.S. dollar, averaged over the year

19702
19802
19852
19902
1993
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015[71]

Euro
 —
 —
 —
 —
 —
0.9387
1.0832
1.1171
1.0578
0.8833
0.8040
0.8033
0.7960
0.7293
0.6791
0.7176
0.6739
0.7178
0.7777
0.7530
0.7520
0.9015

Japanese yen
357.6
240.45
250.35
146.25
111.08
113.73
107.80
121.57
125.22
115.94
108.15
110.11
116.31
117.76
103.39
93.68
87.78
79.70
79.82
97.60
105.74
121.05

Pound sterling
8s 4d
=0.4167
0.4484[72]
0.8613[72]
0.6207
0.6660
0.6184
0.6598
0.6946
0.6656
0.6117
0.5456
0.5493
0.5425
0.4995
0.5392
0.6385
0.4548
0.6233
0.6308
0.6393
0.6066
0.6544

Canadian dollar
1.081
1.168
1.321
1.1605
1.2902
1.4858
1.4855
1.5487
1.5704
1.4008
1.3017
1.2115
1.1340
1.0734
1.0660
1.1412
1.0298
0.9887
0.9995
1.0300
1.1043
1.2789

Mexican peso
0.01250–0.026501
2.801
2.671
2.501
3.1237
9.553
9.459
9.337
9.663
10.793
11.290
10.894
10.906
10.928
11.143
13.498
12.623
12.427
13.154
12.758
13.302
15.837

Renminbi yuan
2.46
1.7050
2.9366
4.7832
5.7620
8.2783
8.2784
8.2770
8.2771
8.2772
8.2768
8.1936
7.9723
7.6058
6.9477
6.8307
6.7696
6.4630
6.3093
6.1478
6.1620
6.2840

Indian rupee
7.56
8.000
12.38
16.96
31.291
43.13
45.00
47.22
48.63
46.59
45.26
44.00
45.19
41.18
43.39
48.33
45.65
46.58
53.37
58.51
62.00
64.1332

Singapore dollar
 —
 —
2.179
1.903
1.6158
1.6951
1.7361
1.7930
1.7908
1.7429
1.6902
1.6639
1.5882
1.5065
1.4140
1.4543
1.24586
1.2565
1.2492
1.2511
1.2665
1.3748

South African rand
0.7182
0.7780
2.2343[73]
2.5600
3.2729
6.1191
6.9468
8.6093
10.5176
7.5550
6.4402
6.3606
6.7668
7.0477
8.2480
8.4117
7.3159
7.2510
8.2014
9.6436
10.8420
12.7759

text:
Notes:
1. Mexican peso values prior to 1993 revaluation
2. Value at the start of the year

text: Sources:

text:
US: Last 4 years, 2009–2012, 2005–2008, 2001–2004, 1997–2000, 1993–1996, all available years[74]
Multiple countries: 2004–present
Australia: 1970–present
China: 1974–1991, 1993–1995
Mexico: 1976–1991
Canada: 1977–1991

text: Current exchange rates[edit]

text:
Current USD exchange rates

From Google Finance:
AUD CAD CHF EUR GBP HKD JPY RUB INR CNY

From Yahoo! Finance:
AUD CAD CHF EUR GBP HKD JPY RUB INR CNY

From XE:
AUD CAD CHF EUR GBP HKD JPY RUB INR CNY

From OANDA:
AUD CAD CHF EUR GBP HKD JPY RUB INR CNY

From fxtop.com:
AUD CAD CHF EUR GBP HKD JPY RUB INR CNY


document_title: IPv4 address exhaustion

question_text: when did iana make the final /8 allocations of ipv4 addresses

question_tokens: when did iana make the final / 8 allocations of ipv4 addresses

text: IPv4 address exhaustion

text: IP addressing[edit]

text: Every node of an Internet Protocol (IP) network, such as a computer, router, or network printer, is assigned an IP address that is used to locate and identify the node in communications with other nodes on the network. Internet Protocol version 4 provides 232 (4,294,967,296) addresses. However, large blocks of IPv4 addresses are reserved for special uses and are unavailable for public allocation.

text: More precisely, if a device has several network interfaces, then each interface must have at least one distinct IP address assigned to it. For example, a laptop might have a wireless network interface and a wired network interface using a network cable, and this would require a total of two IP addresses, one per interface. Another example is a mobile phone with a 3G network interface and an interface to a wireless LAN. All routers have to have several network interfaces and typically will have several IP addresses associated with them. It is also possible that an interface can be assigned more than one IP address for various reasons.

text: The IPv4 addressing structure provides an insufficient number of publicly routable addresses to provide a distinct address to every Internet device or service. This problem has been mitigated for some time by changes in the address allocation and routing infrastructure of the Internet. The transition from classful network addressing to Classless Inter-Domain Routing delayed the exhaustion of addresses substantially.

text: In addition, network address translation (NAT) permits Internet service providers and enterprises to masquerade private network address space with only one publicly routable IPv4 address on the Internet interface of a customer premises router, instead of allocating a public address to each network device. Complicating matters, IPv6-unaware NAT devices break native and 6to4 IPv6 connectivity, and a large fraction break 6in4 tunnels.

text: Address depletion[edit]

text: While the primary reason for IPv4 address exhaustion is insufficient capacity in the design of the original Internet infrastructure, several additional driving factors have aggravated the shortcomings. Each of them increased the demand on the limited supply of addresses, often in ways unanticipated by the original designers of the network.

text: Mitigation efforts[edit]

text: Efforts to delay address space exhaustion started with the recognition of the problem in the early 1990s, and the introduction of a number of stop-gap refinements to make the existing structure operate more efficiently, such as classful networks, Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) methods, network address translation (NAT) and strict usage-based allocation policies. Other technologies include:

text:
use of network address translation (NAT)[16] which allows a private network to use one public IP address and permitting private addresses in the private network;
use of private network addressing;[17]
name-based virtual hosting of web sites;
tighter control by regional Internet registries on the allocation of addresses to local Internet registries;
network renumbering and subnetting to reclaim large blocks of address space allocated in the early days of the Internet, when the Internet used inefficient classful network addressing.[16]

text: Exhaustion dates and impact[edit]

text: On 31 January 2011, the last two unreserved IANA /8 address blocks were allocated to APNIC according to RIR request procedures. This left five reserved but unallocated /8 blocks.[9][18][19] In accord with ICANN policies, IANA proceeded to allocate one of those five /8s to each RIR, exhausting the IANA pool,[20] at a ceremony and press conference on 3 February 2011.

text: The various legacy address blocks with administration historically split among the RIRs were distributed to the RIRs in February 2011.[21]

text: APNIC was the first regional Internet Registry to run out of freely allocated IPv4 addresses, on 15 April 2011. This date marked the point where not everyone who needed an IPv4 address could be allocated one. As a consequence of this exhaustion, end-to-end connectivity as required by specific applications will not be universally available on the Internet until IPv6 is fully implemented. However, IPv6 hosts cannot directly communicate with IPv4 hosts, and have to communicate using special gateway services. This means that general-purpose computers must still have IPv4 access, for example through NAT64, in addition to the new IPv6 address, which is more effort than just supporting IPv4 or IPv6. The demand for IPv6 is expected become pervasive over three to four years.[22]

text: In early 2011, only 16–26% of computers were IPv6 capable, while only 0.2% preferred IPv6 addressing[23] with many using transition methods such as Teredo tunneling.[24] About 0.15% of the top million websites were IPv6 accessible in 2011.[25] Complicating matters, 0.027% to 0.12% of visitors could not reach dual-stack sites,[26][27] but a larger percentage (0.27%) could not reach IPv4-only sites.[28] IPv4 exhaustion mitigation technologies include IPv4 address sharing to access IPv4 content, IPv6 dual-stack implementation, protocol translation to access IPv4 and IPv6-addressed content, and bridging and tunneling to bypass single protocol routers. Early signs of accelerated IPv6 adoption after IANA exhaustion are evident.[29]

text: Regional exhaustion[edit]

text: All the RIRs have set aside a small pool of IP addresses for the transition to IPv6 (for example carrier-grade NAT), from which each LIR can typically get at most 1024 in total. ARIN[30] and LACNIC[31] reserves the last /10 for IPv6 transition. APNIC, and RIPE NCC have reserved the last obtained /8 block for IPv6 transition. AFRINIC reserves a /11 block for this purpose.[32] When only this last block remains, the RIRs supply of IPv4 addresses is said to be "exhausted".

text: APNIC was the first RIR to restrict allocations to 1024 addresses for each member, as its pool reached critical levels of one /8 block on 14 April 2011.[9][33][34][35][36][37] The APNIC RIR is responsible for address allocation in the area of fastest Internet expansion, including the emerging markets of China and India.

text: RIPE NCC, the regional Internet registry for Europe, was the second RIR to deplete its address pool on 14 September 2012.[38]

text: On 10 June 2014, LACNIC, the regional Internet registry for Latin America and the Caribbean, was the third RIR to deplete its address pool.[39][40]

text: ARIN was exhausted on 24 September 2015.[41] ARIN has been unable to allocate large requests since July 2015, but smaller requests were still being met.[42] After IANA exhaustion, IPv4 address space requests became subject to additional restrictions at ARIN,[43] and became even more restrictive after reaching the last /8 in April 2014.[30]

text: According to Geoff Huston's projection, AfriNIC will reach the /11 block left marking exhaustion in the first half of 2018.[44]

text: Impact of APNIC RIR exhaustion and LIR exhaustion[edit]

text: Systems that require inter-continental connectivity will have to deal with exhaustion mitigation already due to APNIC exhaustion. At APNIC, existing LIRs could apply for twelve months stock before exhaustion when they were using more than 80% of allocated space allocated to them.[45] Since 15 April 2011, the date when APNIC reached its last /8 block, each (current or future) member will only be able to get one allocation of 1024 addresses (a /22 block) once.[46][47] As the slope of the APNIC pool line on the "Geoff Huston's projection of the evolution of the IP pool for each RIR" chart to the right shows, the last /8 block would have been emptied within one month without this policy. By APNIC policy, each current or future member can receive only one /22 block from this last /8 (there are 16384 /22 blocks in the last /8 block). Since there are around 3000 current APNIC members, and around 300 new APNIC members each year, APNIC expects this last /8 block to last for many years.[48] Since the redistribution of recovered space, APNIC is distributing an additional /22 to each member upon request.

text: The 1024 addresses in the /22 block can be used by APNIC members to supply NAT44 or NAT64 as a service on an IPv6 network. However at a new large ISP, 1024 IPv4 addresses might not be enough to provide IPv4 connectivity to all the customers due to the limited number of ports available per IPv4 address.[49]

text: The Regional Internet Registries (RIRs) for Asia (APNIC) and North America have a policy called the Inter-RIR IPv4 Address Transfer Policy, which allows IPv4 addresses to be transferred from North America to Asia.[50][51] The ARIN policy was implemented on 31 July 2012.[52]

text: IPv4 broker businesses have been established to facilitate these transfers.[53]

text: Notable exhaustion advisories[edit]

text: Estimates of the time of complete IPv4 address exhaustion varied widely in the early 2000s. In 2003, Paul Wilson (director of APNIC) stated that, based on then-current rates of deployment, the available space would last for one or two decades.[54] In September 2005, a report by Cisco Systems suggested that the pool of available addresses would deplete in as little as 4 to 5 years.[55] In the last year before exhaustion, IPv4 allocations were accelerating, resulting in exhaustion trending to earlier dates.

text:
On 21 May 2007, the American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN), the RIR for the US, Canada and a number of island states (mostly in the Caribbean), advised the Internet community that, due to the expected exhaustion in 2010, "migration to IPv6 numbering resources is necessary for any applications which require ongoing availability from ARIN of contiguous IP numbering resources".[56] "Applications" include general connectivity between devices on the Internet, as some devices only have an IPv6 address allocated.
On 20 June 2007, the Latin American and Caribbean Internet Addresses Registry (LACNIC), advised "preparing its regional networks for IPv6" by 1 January 2011, for the exhaustion of IPv4 addresses "in three years time".[57]
On 26 June 2007, the Asia-Pacific Network Information Centre (APNIC), the RIR for the Pacific and Asia, endorsed a statement by the Japan Network Information Center (JPNIC) that to continue the expansion and development of the Internet a move towards an IPv6-based Internet is advised.[58] This, with an eye on the expected exhaustion around 2010, would create a great restriction on the Internet.[59]
On 26 October 2007, the Réseaux IP Européens Network Coordination Centre (RIPE NCC), the RIR for Europe, the Middle East, and parts of Central Asia, endorsed a statement[60] by the RIPE community urging "the widespread deployment of IPv6 be made a high priority by all stakeholders".
On 15 April 2009, ARIN sent a letter to all CEO/Executives of companies who have IPv4 addresses allocated informing them that ARIN expects the IPv4 space will be depleted within the next two years.[61]
In May 2009, the RIPE NCC launched IPv6ActNow.org to help explain "IPv6 in terms everyone can understand and providing a variety of useful information aimed at promoting the global adoption of IPv6".
On 25 August 2009, ARIN announced a joint series event in the Caribbean region to push for the implementation of IPv6. ARIN reported at this time that less than 10.9% of IPv4 address space is remaining.[62]
World IPv6 Day was an event sponsored and organized by the Internet Society and several large content providers to test public IPv6 deployment. It started at 00:00 UTC on 8 June 2011 and ended at 23:59 the same day. The test primarily consisted of websites publishing AAAA records, allowing IPv6 capable hosts to connect to these sites using IPv6, and for misconfigured networks to be corrected.
World IPv6 Launch Day occurred on 6 June 2012, following the success of World IPv6 Day a year earlier. It involved many more participants and had a more ambitious goal of permanently enabling IPv6 on participant organizations' networks.

text: Post-exhaustion mitigation[edit]

text: By 2008 policy planning for the end-game and post-exhaustion era was underway.[63] Several proposals have been discussed to delay shortages of IPv4 addresses:

text: Reclamation of unused IPv4 space[edit]

text: Before and during the time when classful network design was still used as allocation model, large blocks of IP addresses were allocated to some organizations. Since the use of Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) could potentially reclaim these ranges and reissue the addresses in smaller blocks.[citation needed] ARIN, RIPE NCC and APNIC have a transfer policy, such that addresses can get returned, with the purpose to be reassigned to a specific recipient.[64][65][66] However, it can be expensive in terms of cost and time to renumber a large network, so these organizations are likely to object, with legal conflicts possible. However, even if all of these were reclaimed, it would only result in postponing the date of address exhaustion.

text: Similarly, IP address blocks have been allocated to entities that no longer exist and some allocated IP address blocks or large portions of them have never been used. No strict accounting of IP address allocations has been undertaken, and it would take a significant amount of effort to track down which addresses really are unused, as many are in use only on intranets.[citation needed]

text: Some address space previously reserved by IANA has been added to the available pool. There have been proposals to use the class E network range of IPv4 addresses[67][68] (which would add 268.4 million IP addresses to the available pool) but many computer and router operating systems and firmware do not allow the use of these addresses.[55][69][70][71] For this reason, the proposals have sought not to designate the class E space for public assignment, but instead propose to permit its private use for networks that require more address space than is currently available through RFC 1918.

text: Several organizations have returned large blocks of IP addresses. Notably, Stanford University relinquished their Class A IP address block in 2000, making 16 million IP addresses available.[72] Other organizations that have done so include the United States Department of Defense, BBN Technologies, and Interop.[73]

text: Markets in IP addresses[edit]

text: The creation of markets to buy and sell IPv4 addresses has been considered to be a solution to the problem of IPv4 scarcity and a means of redistribution. The primary benefits of an IPv4 address market are that it allows buyers to maintain undisrupted local network functionality.[74][75] IPv6 adoption, while in progress, is currently still in early stages.[76] It requires a significant investment of resources, and poses incompatibility issues with IPv4, as well as certain security and stability risks.[77][78]

text:
The creation of a market in IPv4 addresses would only delay the practical exhaustion of the IPv4 address space for a relatively short time, since the public Internet is still growing.
The concept of legal ownership of IP addresses as property is explicitly denied by ARIN and RIPE NCC policy documents and by the ARIN Registration Services Agreement, although ownership rights have been postulated based on a letter from the National Science Foundation General Counsel.[79] NSF later indicated that the view was not official, and a statement from the Department of Commerce was subsequently issued indicating that "The USG participates in the development of and is supportive of the policies, processes, and procedures agreed upon by the Internet technical community through ARIN."[80][81]
Ad-hoc trading in addresses could lead to fragmented patterns of routing that could increase the size of the global routing table, potentially causing problems for routers with insufficient routing memory resources.
Microsoft bought 666,624 IPv4 addresses from Nortel's liquidation sale for 7.5 million dollars in a deal brokered by Addrex.[82][83] Before exhaustion, Microsoft could have obtained addresses from ARIN without charge, provided that, as per ARIN policy, Microsoft could present ARIN with a need for them.[84] The success of this transfer was contingent on Microsoft successfully presenting ARIN with such a justification. The purchase provided Microsoft with a supply that was sufficient for their claimed needs for growth over the next 12 months, rather than for a 3-months' period as is normally requested from ARIN.[85]

text: Transition mechanisms[edit]

text: As the IPv4 address pool depletes, some ISPs will not be able to provide globally routable IPv4 addresses to customers. Nevertheless, customers are likely to require access to services on the IPv4 Internet. Several technologies have been developed for providing IPv4 service over an IPv6 access network.

text: In ISP-level IPv4 NAT, ISPs may implement IPv4 network address translation within their networks and assign private IPv4 addresses to customers. This approach may allow customers to keep using existing hardware. Some estimates for NAT argue that US ISPs have 5-10 times the number of IPs they need in order to service their existing customers.[86] This has been successfully implemented in some countries, e.g., Russia, where many broadband providers use carrier-grade NAT, and offer publicly routable IPv4 address at an additional cost.[citation needed]

text: However the allocation of private IPv4 addresses to customers may conflict with private IP allocations on the customer networks. Furthermore, some ISPs may have to divide their network into subnets to allow them to reuse private IPv4 addresses, complicating network administration. There are also concerns that features of consumer-grade NAT such as DMZs, STUN, UPnP and application-level gateways might not be available at the ISP level. ISP-level NAT may result in multiple-level address translation which is likely to further complicate the use of technologies such as port forwarding used to run Internet servers within private networks.[citation needed]

text: NAT64 translates IPv6 requests from clients to IPv4 requests. This avoids the need to provision any IPv4 addresses to clients and allows clients that only support IPv6 to access IPv4 resources. However this approach requires a DNS server with DNS64 capability and cannot support IPv4-only client devices.

text: DS-Lite (Dual-Stack Light) uses tunnels from the customer premises equipment to a network address translator at the ISP.[87] The consumer premises equipment encapsulates the IPv4 packets in an IPv6 wrapper and sends them to a host known as the AFTR element. The AFTR element de-encapsulates the packets and performs network address translation before sending them to the public Internet. The NAT in the AFTR uses the IPv6 address of the client in its NAT mapping table. This means that different clients can use the same private IPv4 addresses, therefore avoiding the need for allocating private IPv4 IP addresses to customers or using multiple NATs.

text: Address plus Port allows stateless sharing of public IP addresses based on TCP/UDP port numbers. Each node is allocated both an IPv4 address and a range of port numbers[clarification needed] to use. The technique avoids the need for stateful address translation mechanisms in the core of the network, thus leaving end users in control of their own address translation.[citation needed]

text: Long-term solution[edit]

text: Deployment of IPv6 is the standards-based solution to the IPv4 address shortage.[10] IPv6 is endorsed and implemented by all Internet technical standards bodies and network equipment vendors. It encompasses many design improvements, including the replacement of the 32-bit IPv4 address format with a 128-bit address which provides an addressing space without limitations for the foreseeable future. IPv6 has been in active production deployment since June 2006, after organized worldwide testing and evaluation in the 6bone project ceased. Interoperability for hosts using only IPv4 protocols is implemented with a variety of IPv6 transition mechanisms.


document_title: Criminal Minds (season 13)

question_text: when does a new criminal minds come on

question_tokens: when does a new criminal minds come on

text: Criminal Minds (season 13)

text: Cast[edit]

text: The entire main cast from the previous season returned for the season, except Damon Gupton (Stephen Walker), who was fired from the show.[4][5] His character was killed off in the season premiere off-screen.

text: Following the cancellation of Criminal Minds: Beyond Borders, it was announced that Daniel Henney (Matt Simmons) would join the cast this season as a series regular.[6]

text: Main cast[edit]

text:
Joe Mantegna as David Rossi
Matthew Gray Gubler as Dr. Spencer Reid
A. J. Cook as Jennifer "JJ" Jareau
Kirsten Vangsness as Penelope Garcia
Aisha Tyler as Dr. Tara Lewis
Daniel Henney as Matt Simmons
Adam Rodriguez as Luke Alvez
Paget Brewster as Emily Prentiss

text: Special guest star[edit]

text: Shemar Moore as Derek Morgan

text: Recurring cast[edit]

text:
Josh Stewart as William LaMontagne Jr.
Kelly Frye as Kristy Simmons
Declan Whaley as David Simmons
Kim Rhodes as Assistant Director Linda Barnes

text: Guest cast[edit]

text:
Bodhi Elfman as Peter Lewis / Mr. Scratch
Tracie Thoms as Monica Walker
Jamie Kennedy as Floyd Feylinn Ferell
Zelda Williams as Melissa Miller
Lou Diamond Phillips as Sheriff Clifford

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: Criminal Minds was renewed for a thirteenth season with an episode order of 22 episodes on April 7, 2017.[1][2] The entire main cast from the previous season returned for the season, except Damon Gupton (Stephen Walker), who was fired from the show.[4][5]

text: Matthew Gray Gubler will be directing the seventeenth episode of the season and it is said to be "the spookiest episode of Season 13" and will involve clowns.[7] On August 10, 2017, it was revealed that Aisha Tyler will make her television directing debut and direct the sixth episode of the season.[8] On August 12, 2017 it was revealed that Erica Messer and Kirsten Vangsness will be co-writing the eleventh episode of the season, which will be the fourth episode they have co-written together.[9] On October 31, 2017, it was announced that Adam Rodriguez will make his Criminal Minds directing debut and direct the sixteenth episode of the season.[10]

text: Casting[edit]

text: On June 11, 2017, it was announced that Damon Gupton had been let go from the show after one season.[4] CBS said his departure was "part of a creative change on the show".[4][5] His character Stephen Walker was killed off-screen in the season premiere.

text: On June 20, 2017, CBS announced that Daniel Henney, who was a series regular on Criminal Minds: Beyond Borders as Matt Simmons, would join the main show as a series regular for the thirteenth season.[11]

text: On October 12, 2017, it was announced that Shemar Moore would reprise his role as Derek Morgan in the fifth episode of the season ("Lucky Strikes") as his character returns to help Penelope Garcia get through a tough time.[12]

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
Prod.
code
U.S. viewers
(millions)

278
1
"Wheels Up"
Glenn Kershaw
Breen Frazier
September 27, 2017 (2017-09-27)
1301
7.00[13]

When escaped serial killer Peter Lewis (Bodhi Elfman) launches a devastating final assault on the BAU and takes one of their own as a hostage, Garcia brings in former International Response Team member Matt Simmons (Daniel Henney) to help apprehend Lewis before more lives are lost.

279
2
"To a Better Place"
Diana C. Valentine
Bruce Zimmerman
October 4, 2017 (2017-10-04)
1302
6.17[14]

When suitcases containing human remains are found throughout Naples, Florida, the BAU returns from their bureau-dictated vacation to find a connection between the victims before the killer takes another life. Meanwhile, Reid learns about a condition to his reinstatement and the team officially welcomes Simmons into the fold.

280
3
"Blue Angel"
Sharat Raju
Christopher Barbour
October 11, 2017 (2017-10-11)
1304
5.87[15]

When two businessmen are emasculated in Detroit, Michigan, the BAU investigates a connection between the victims only to discover a family secret that changes the course of the investigation. Meanwhile, Simmons finds himself bonding with an escort involved in the case.

281
4
"Killer App"
Alec Smight
Stephanie SenGupta
October 18, 2017 (2017-10-18)
1303
5.94[16]

When a workplace shooting in Silicon Valley claims the lives of three employees, the BAU works with the Department of Homeland Security to determine if the shooting was personal and why the victims were targeted. Meanwhile, Prentiss confronts Alvez about the events surrounding his final confrontation with Peter Lewis.

282
5
"Lucky Strikes"
Tawnia McKiernan
Jim Clemente
October 25, 2017 (2017-10-25)
1306
5.91[17]

When a Florida prostitute is found dead with both legs and several fingers missing, the BAU sets out to determine if cannibalistic serial killer Floyd Feylinn Ferell (Jamie Kennedy) has embarked on another spree or if a copycat killer is responsible. Meanwhile, former SSA Derek Morgan (Shemar Moore) helps Garcia when she becomes overwhelmed by memories of a ten-year-old trauma.

283
6
"The Bunker"
Aisha Tyler
Karen Maser
November 8, 2017 (2017-11-08)
1305
5.50[18]

When a missing persons case is connected to a series of abductions throughout Virginia, the BAU sets out to find a connection between the victims only to unearth an unusual motive. Meanwhile, JJ connects with a woman who believes her sister's disappearance may be connected to the investigation and Garcia searches for a new apartment.

284
7
"Dust and Bones"
Marcus Stokes
Erica Meredith
November 15, 2017 (2017-11-15)
1307
5.64[19]

When two women are abducted and permanently disfigured in Austin, Texas, the BAU determines that the attacker has a dangerous obsession with a vicious creature. Meanwhile, Alvez struggles to find a way to help his former Fugitive Task Force partner come to terms with his paralysis.

285
8
"Neon Terror"
Bethany Rooney
Erik Stiller
November 22, 2017 (2017-11-22)
1308
6.31[20]

When the latest in a series of robbery-homicides occurs in Miami, Florida, the BAU investigates only to suspect that they are dealing with an unsub who seeks attention by releasing footage of his crimes to the media.

286
9
"False Flag"
Joe Mantegna
Breen Frazier
December 6, 2017 (2017-12-06)
1309
5.34[21]

When two members of a Roswell, New Mexico conspiracy theory group die in quick succession, the BAU suspects that the crimes were committed by a serial killer only to find themselves reexamining the evidence following a catastrophic encounter. Meanwhile, Lewis struggles to keep her emotions in check as she interrogates a young podcaster (Zelda Williams) with ties to the group.

287
10
"Submerged"
Rob Bailey
Bruce Zimmerman
January 3, 2018 (2018-01-03)
1310
5.41[22]

When the latest in a series of perplexing robbery-homicides occurs in Ramona, California, the BAU works with a frustrated sheriff (Lou Diamond Phillips) to track down a serial killer with mysterious motives and an even more mysterious past.

288
11
"Full-Tilt Boogie"
Simon Mirren
Erica Messer & Kirsten Vangsness
January 10, 2018 (2018-01-10)
1311
5.70[23]

When the wife of a Virginia police chief survives a brutal home invasion-homicide, the BAU coordinates with her husband and the local authorities to catch her attempted killer only to uncover a multitude of secrets being kept by the town's inhabitants.

289
12
"Bad Moon on the Rise"
Christoph Schrewe
Karen Maser
January 17, 2018 (2018-01-17)
1312
5.63[24]

When a New York City jogger's gruesome death is connected to a series of murder-mutilations, the BAU searches Central Park for a killer suffering from a syndrome that makes him believe he is a vicious creature. Meanwhile, Alvez deals with the fallout of a blind date gone wrong.

290
13
"Cure"
Glenn Kershaw
Christopher Barbour
January 24, 2018 (2018-01-24)
1313
5.30[25]

When a cryptic message is found inside the mouth of a Washington, D.C. financier, the BAU sets out to catch a serial killer determined to eradicate institutions of power. Meanwhile, JJ grows increasingly concerned after receiving an email asking her to sit down with Assistant Director Linda Barnes (Kim Rhodes).

291
14
"Miasma"
Leon Ichaso
Erica Meredith
January 31, 2018 (2018-01-31)
1314
5.42[26]

When a mass grave is uncovered in a New Orleans cemetery, the BAU searches for a killer who sees himself as a modern-day plague doctor. Meanwhile, Prentiss finds herself forced to endure a hostile interrogation after Barnes suspends her from active duty and summons her for an internal audit.

292
15
"Annihilator"[27]
Rob Bailey
Erik Stiller
March 7, 2018 (2018-03-07)
1315
TBD

293
16
"Last Gasp"[28]
Adam Rodriguez
Stephanie SenGupta
March 14, 2018 (2018-03-14)
1316
TBD

294
17
"The Capilano's"[29]
Matthew Gray Gubler
Erica Messer
March 21, 2018 (2018-03-21)
1317
TBD

295
18
"The Dance Of Love"
Joe Mantegna[30]
TBA
March 28, 2018 (2018-03-28)
1318
TBD

296
19
"TBA"
Lily Mariye[31]
Christopher Barbour
April 4, 2018 (2018-04-04)
1319
TBD

297
20
"All You Can Eat"[32]
Diana Valentine
Karen Maser
April 11, 2018 (2018-04-11)
1320
TBD

298
21
"Mixed Signals"[33]
Alec Smight
Erica Meredith & Erik Stiller
April 18, 2018 (2018-04-18)
1321
TBD

299
22
"Believer"[34]
Glenn Kershaw
Breen Frazier
April 25, 2018 (2018-04-25)
1322
TBD

text: Ratings[edit]

text:
No.
Title
Air date
Rating/share
(18–49)
Viewers
(millions)
DVR
(18–49)
DVR viewers
(millions)
Total
(18–49)
Total viewers
(millions)

1
"Wheels Up"
September 27, 2017
1.3/5
7.00[13]
1.1
4.15
2.4
11.15[35]

2
"To a Better Place"
October 4, 2017
1.1/4
6.17[14]
1.1
3.98
2.2
10.15[36]

3
"Blue Angel"
October 11, 2017
1.1/4
5.87[15]
1.0
3.82
2.1
9.68[37]

4
"Killer App"
October 18, 2017
1.0/4
5.94[16]
1.1
3.87
2.1
9.81[38]

5
"Lucky Strikes"
October 25, 2017
1.0/4
5.91[17]
1.0
3.81
2.0
9.72[39]

6
"The Bunker"
November 8, 2017
0.9/3
5.50[18]
1.0
3.53
1.9
9.03[40]

7
"Dust and Bones"
November 15, 2017
1.0/4
5.64[19]
1.0
3.76
2.0
9.40[41]

8
"Neon Terror"
November 22, 2017
1.0/4
6.31[20]
1.0
3.70
2.0
10.00[42]

9
"False Flag"
December 6, 2017
0.9/4
5.34[21]
1.1
4.04
2.0
9.38[43]

10
"Submerged"
January 3, 2018
0.9/3
5.41[22]
1.1
3.93
2.0
9.37[44]

11
"Full-Tilt Boogie"
January 10, 2018
1.0/4
5.70[23]
1.1
4.13
2.1
9.83[45]

12
"Bad Moon on the Rise"
January 17, 2018
1.0/4
5.63[24]
1.1
4.02
2.1
9.65[46]

13
"Cure"
January 24, 2018
0.9/3
5.30[25]
1.1
4.12
2.0
9.42[47]

14
"Miasma"
January 31, 2018
1.0/4
5.42[26]
1.0
3.90
2.0
9.32[48]

15
"Annihilator"
March 7, 2018
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD

16
"Last Gasp"
March 14, 2018
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD

17
"The Capilano's"
March 21, 2018
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD

18
"The Dance of Love"
March 28, 2018
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD


document_title: Symptomatic treatment

question_text: what is a medical term for relieving but not curing

text: Symptomatic treatment

text: This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Symptomatic treatment is any medical therapy of a disease that only affects its symptoms, not its cause, i.e., its etiology. It is usually aimed at reducing the signs and symptoms for the comfort and well-being of the patient, but it also may be useful in reducing organic consequences and sequelae of these signs and symptoms of the disease. In many diseases, even in those whose etiologies are known (e.g., most viral diseases, such as influenza), symptomatic treatment is the only one available so far.

text: Examples of symptomatic treatments:

text:
Analgesics, for pain
Anti-inflammatory agents, for inflammation caused by arthritis
Antitussives, for cough
Antihistaminics, for allergy
Cerebral shunts, to alleviate hydrocephalus

text: When the etiology for the disease is known, then specific treatment may be instituted, but it is generally associated to symptomatic treatment, as well.

text: Symptomatic treatment is not always recommended, and in fact it may be outright dangerous, because it may mask the presence of an underlying etiology which will then be forgotten or treated with great delay. Examples:

text:
Low-grade fever for 15 days or more sometimes is the only symptom of bacteremia by staphylococcus bacteria. Suppressing it by symptomatic treatment will hide the disease from effective diagnosis and treatment with antibiotics. The consequence may be severe (rheumatic fever, nephritis, endocarditis, etc.)
Chronic headache may be caused simply by a constitutional disposition or be the result of a brain tumor or a brain aneurysm.

text: Finally, symptomatic treatment is not exempt from adverse effects, and may be a cause of iatrogenic consequences (i.e., ill effects caused by the treatment itself), such as allergic reactions, stomach bleeding, central nervous system effects (nausea, dizziness, etc.).