document_title: Onion

question_text: where is food stored in the onion bulb

question_tokens: where is food stored in the onion bulb

text: Onion

text: Taxonomy and etymology[edit]

text: The onion plant (Allium cepa), also known as the bulb onion[5] or common onion,[6] is the most widely cultivated species of the genus Allium.[7][8]  It was first officially described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1753 work Species Plantarum.[9] A number of synonyms have appeared in its taxonomic history:

text:
Allium cepa var. aggregatum – G. Don
Allium cepa var. bulbiferum – Regel
Allium cepa var. cepa – Linnaeus
Allium cepa var. multiplicans – L.H. Bailey
Allium cepa var. proliferum – (Moench) Regel
Allium cepa var. solaninum – Alef
Allium cepa var. viviparum – (Metz) Mansf.[10][11]

text: A. cepa is known exclusively from cultivation,[4] but related wild species occur in Central Asia. The most closely related species include A. vavilovii (Popov & Vved.) and A. asarense (R.M. Fritsch & Matin) from Iran.[12] However, Zohary and Hopf state that "there are doubts whether the A. vavilovii collections tested represent genuine wild material or only feral derivatives of the crop."[13]

text: The vast majority of cultivars of A. cepa belong to the "common onion group" (A. cepa var. cepa) and are usually referred to simply as "onions". The Aggregatum group of cultivars (A. cepa var. aggregatum) includes both shallots and potato onions.[14]

text: The genus Allium also contains a number of other species variously referred to as onions and cultivated for food, such as the Japanese bunching onion (A. fistulosum), Egyptian onion (A. ×proliferum), and Canada onion (A. canadense).[6]

text: Cepa is commonly accepted as Latin for "onion" and has an affinity with Ancient Greek: κάπια (kápia), Albanian: qepë, Aromanian: tseapã, Catalan: ceba, English: chive, Occitan: ceba, Spanish: cebolla, Old French: cive, and Romanian: ceapă.

text: Description[edit]

text:
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Onion seeds have a distinct shape.

text: The onion plant has been grown and selectively bred in cultivation for at least 7,000 years.  It is a biennial plant, but is usually grown as an annual. Modern varieties typically grow to a height of 15 to 45 cm (6 to 18 in). The leaves are yellowish- to bluish green and grow alternately in a flattened, fan-shaped swathe. They are fleshy, hollow, and cylindrical, with one flattened side. They are at their broadest about a quarter of the way up, beyond which they taper towards a blunt tip. The base of each leaf is a flattened, usually white sheath that grows out of a basal disc. From the underside of the disc, a bundle of fibrous roots extends for a short way into the soil. As the onion matures, food reserves begin to accumulate in the leaf bases and the bulb of the onion swells.[15]

text: In the autumn, the leaves die back and the outer scales of the bulb become dry and brittle, so the crop is then normally harvested. If left in the soil over winter, the growing point in the middle of the bulb begins to develop in the spring. New leaves appear and a long, stout, hollow stem expands, topped by a bract protecting a developing inflorescence. The inflorescence takes the form of a globular umbel of white flowers with parts in sixes. The seeds are glossy black and triangular in cross section.[15] The average pH of an onion is around 5.5[16]

text: Uses[edit]

text: Origin and history[edit]

text: Because the wild onion is extinct and ancient records of using onions span western and eastern Asia, the geographic origin of the onion is uncertain,[17][18] with likely   domestication worldwide.[19] Food uses of onions date back thousands of years in China, Egypt and Persia.[17][18][19]

text: Traces of onions recovered from Bronze Age settlements in China suggest that onions were used as far back as 5000 BCE, not only for their flavour, but the bulb's durability in storage and transport.[20][19] Ancient Egyptians revered the onion bulb, viewing its spherical shape and concentric rings as symbols of eternal life.[19] Onions were used in Egyptian burials, as evidenced by onion traces found in the eye sockets of Ramesses IV.[21]

text: Pliny the Elder of the first century CE wrote about the use of onions and cabbage in Pompeii. He documented Roman beliefs about the onion's ability to improve ocular ailments, aid in sleep, and heal everything from oral sores and toothaches to dog bites, lumbago, and even dysentery. Archaeologists unearthing Pompeii long after its 79 CE volcanic burial have found gardens resembling those in Pliny's detailed narratives.[19] According to texts collected in the fifth/sixth century CE under the authorial aegis of "Apicius" (said to have been a gourmet), onions were used in many Roman recipes.[19]

text: In the Age of Discovery, onions were taken to North America by the first European settlers,[17] only to discover the plant readily available, and in wide use in Native American gastronomy.[17] According to diaries kept by certain of the first English colonists, the bulb onion was one of the first crops planted by the Pilgrim fathers.[19]

text: Onion types and products[edit]

text: Common onions are normally available in three colour varieties. Yellow or brown onions (called red in some European countries), are full-flavoured and are the onions of choice for everyday use, with many cultivars bred specifically to demonstrate this sweetness (Vidalia, Walla Walla, Cévennes, "Bermuda,"[22] &c.). Yellow onions turn a rich, dark brown when caramelised and give French onion soup its sweet flavour. The red onion (called purple in some European countries) is a good choice for fresh use when its colour livens up the dish; it is also used in grilling. White onions are the traditional onions used in classic Mexican cuisine; they have a golden colour when cooked and a particularly sweet flavour when sautéed.[23][19]

text: While the large, mature onion bulb is most often eaten, onions can be eaten at immature stages. Young plants may be harvested before bulbing occurs and used whole as spring onions or scallions.  When an onion is harvested after bulbing has begun, but the onion is not yet mature, the plants are sometimes referred to as "summer" onions.[24]

text: Additionally, onions may be bred and grown to mature at smaller sizes. Depending on the mature size and the purpose for which the onion is used, these may be referred to as pearl, boiler, or pickler onions, but differ from true pearl onions which are a different species.[24] Pearl and boiler onions may be cooked as a vegetable rather than as an ingredient and pickler onions are often preserved in vinegar as a long-lasting relish.[25]

text: Onions are available in fresh, frozen, canned, caramelised, pickled, and chopped forms. The dehydrated product is available as kibbled, sliced, ring, minced, chopped, granulated, and powder forms.

text: Onion powder is a seasoning widely used when the fresh ingredient is not available. It is made from finely ground, dehydrated onions, mainly the pungent varieties of bulb onions, and has a strong odour. Being dehydrated, it has a long shelf life and is available in several varieties: yellow, red, and white.[26]

text: Culinary uses[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Onions are commonly chopped and used as an ingredient in various hearty warm dishes, and may also be used as a main ingredient in their own right, for example in French onion soup, creamed onions, and onion chutney. They are versatile and can be baked, boiled, braised, grilled, fried, roasted, sautéed, or eaten raw in salads.[27] Their layered nature makes them easy to hollow out once cooked, facilitating stuffing them, as in Turkish sogan-dolma.

text: Onions pickled in vinegar are eaten as a snack around the world, and as a side serving in pubs and fish and chip shops throughout the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth. They are part of a traditional British pub's ploughman's lunch, usually served with crusty bread, English cheese, and ale.

text: Similar to garlic,[28] onions can show an additional colour – pink-red – after cutting, an effect caused by reactions of amino acids with sulfur compounds.[29]

text: Non-culinary uses[edit]

text: Onions have particularly large cells that are readily observed under low magnification. Forming a single layer of cells, the bulb epidermis is easy to separate for educational, experimental, and breeding purposes.[30][31]

text: Onions are, therefore, commonly employed in science education to teach the use of a microscope for observing cell structure.[32]

text: Onions are toxic to dogs, cats, guinea pigs, and many other animals.[33][34]

text: Composition[edit]

text: Nutrients[edit]

text:
Raw onion bulbsNutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)Energy
166 kJ (40 kcal)
Carbohydrates
9.34 gSugars
4.24 gDietary fibre
1.7 g

Fat
0.1 g

Protein
1.1 g

Vitamins
Quantity %DV†Thiamine (B1)
4% 0.046 mgRiboflavin (B2)
2% 0.027 mgNiacin (B3)
1% 0.116 mgPantothenic acid (B5)
2% 0.123 mgVitamin B6
9% 0.12 mgFolate (B9)
5% 19 μgVitamin C
9% 7.4 mg

Minerals
Quantity %DV†Calcium
2% 23 mgIron
2% 0.21 mgMagnesium
3% 10 mgManganese
6% 0.129 mgPhosphorus
4% 29 mgPotassium
3% 146 mgZinc
2% 0.17 mg

Other constituents
QuantityWater
89.11 gFluoride
1.1 µg

Link to USDA Database entry

Units
μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams
IU = International units

†Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient Database

text: Most onion cultivars are about 89% water, 9% carbohydrates (including 4% sugar and 2% dietary fibre), 1% protein, and negligible fat (table). Onions contain low amounts of essential nutrients and have an energy value of 166 kJ (40 Calories) in a 100 g (3.5 oz) amount. Onions contribute savoury flavour to dishes without contributing significant caloric content.[19]

text: Phytochemicals[edit]

text: Considerable differences exist between onion varieties in phytochemical content, particularly for polyphenols, with shallots having the highest level, six times the amount found in Vidalia onions.[35] Yellow onions have the highest total flavonoid content, an amount 11 times higher than in white onions.[35] Red onions have considerable content of anthocyanin pigments, with at least 25 different compounds identified representing 10% of total flavonoid content.[35]

text: Onion polyphenols are under basic research to determine their possible biological properties in humans.[35][36]

text: Some people suffer from allergic reactions after handling onions.[37] Symptoms can include contact dermatitis, intense itching, rhinoconjunctivitis, blurred vision, bronchial asthma, sweating, and anaphylaxis. Allergic reactions may not occur when eating cooked onions, possibly due to the denaturing of the proteins from cooking.[38]

text: Eye irritation[edit]

text: Freshly cut onions often cause a stinging sensation in the eyes of people nearby, and often uncontrollable tears. This is caused by the release of a volatile gas, syn-propanethial-S-oxide, which stimulates nerves in the eye.[7] This gas is produced by a chain of reactions which serve as a defence mechanism: chopping an onion causes damage to cells which releases enzymes called alliinases. These break down amino acid sulfoxides and generate sulfenic acids. A specific sulfenic acid, 1-propenesulfenic acid, is rapidly acted on by a second enzyme, the lacrimatory factor synthase, producing the syn-propanethial-S-oxide.[7] This gas diffuses through the air and soon reaches the eyes, where it activates sensory neurons. Lacrimal glands produce tears to dilute and flush out the irritant.[39]

text: Eye irritation can be avoided by cutting onions under running water or submerged in a basin of water.[39] Leaving the root end intact also reduces irritation as the onion base has a higher concentration of sulphur compounds than the rest of the bulb.[40] Refrigerating the onions before use reduces the enzyme reaction rate and using a fan can blow the gas away from the eyes. The more often one chops onions, the less one experiences eye irritation.[41]

text: The amount of sulfenic acids and lacrimal factor released and the irritation effect differs among Allium species. In 2008, the New Zealand Institute for Crop and Food Research created "no tears" onions by genetic modification to prevent the synthesis of lachrymatory factor synthase in onions.[42] One study suggests that consumers prefer the flavor of onions with lower LFS content.[43] However, since the LFS-silencing process involves reducing sulfur ingestion by the plant, it has also been suggested that LFS− onions are inferior in flavor.[44] A method for efficiently differentiating LFS− and LFS+ onions has been developed based on mass spectrometry, with potential application in high-volume production;[45] gas chromatography is also used to measure lachrymatory factor in onions.[46][47] In early 2018, Bayer released the first crop yield of commercially-available LFS-silenced onions under the name "Sunions."[48] They were the product of 30 years of cross-breeding; genetic modification was not employed.[48][49]

text: Guinea hen weed and honey garlic contain a similar lachrymatory factor.[50] Synthetic onion lachrymatory factor has been used in a study related to tear production,[51] and has been proposed as a nonlethal deterrent against thieves and intruders.[52][53]

text: Cultivation[edit]

text: Onions are best cultivated in fertile soils that are well-drained. Sandy loams are good as they are low in sulphur, while clayey soils usually have a high sulphur content and produce pungent bulbs. Onions require a high level of nutrients in the soil. Phosphorus is often present in sufficient quantities, but may be applied before planting because of its low level of availability in cold soils. Nitrogen and potash can be applied at regular intervals during the growing season, the last application of nitrogen being at least four weeks before harvesting.[54] Bulbing onions are day-length sensitive; their bulbs begin growing only after the number of daylight hours has surpassed some minimal quantity. Most traditional European onions are referred to as "long-day" onions, producing bulbs only after 14 hours or more of daylight occurs. Southern European and North African varieties are often known as "intermediate-day" types, requiring only 12–13 hours of daylight to stimulate bulb formation. Finally, "short-day" onions, which have been developed in more recent times, are planted in mild-winter areas in the autumn and form bulbs in the early spring, and require only 11–12 hours of daylight to stimulate bulb formation.[55] Onions are a cool-weather crop and can be grown in USDA zones 3 to 9.[56] Hot temperatures or other stressful conditions cause them to "bolt", meaning that a flower stem begins to grow.[57]

text: Onions may be grown from seed or from sets. Onion seeds are short-lived and fresh seeds germinate better.[56][58] The seeds are sown thinly in shallow drills, thinning the plants in stages. In suitable climates, certain cultivars can be sown in late summer and autumn to overwinter in the ground and produce early crops the following year.[15] Onion sets are produced by sowing seed thickly in early summer in poor soil and the small bulbs produced are harvested in the autumn. These bulbs are planted the following spring and grow into mature bulbs later in the year.[59] Certain cultivars are used for this purpose and these may not have such good storage characteristics as those grown directly from seed.[15]

text: Routine care during the growing season involves keeping the rows free of competing weeds, especially when the plants are young. The plants are shallow-rooted and do not need a great deal of water when established. Bulbing usually takes place after 12 to 18 weeks. The bulbs can be gathered when needed to eat fresh, but if they will be kept in storage, they should be harvested after the leaves have died back naturally. In dry weather, they can be left on the surface of the soil for a few days to dry out properly, then they can be placed in nets, roped into strings, or laid in layers in shallow boxes. They should be stored in a well-ventilated, cool place such as a shed.[15]

text: Pests and diseases[edit]

text: Onions suffer from a number of plant disorders. The most serious for the home gardener are likely to be the onion fly, stem and bulb eelworm, white rot, and neck rot. Diseases affecting the foliage include rust and smut, downy mildew, and white tip disease. The bulbs may be affected by splitting, white rot, and neck rot. Shanking is a condition in which the central leaves turn yellow and the inner part of the bulb collapses into an unpleasant-smelling slime. Most of these disorders are best treated by removing and burning affected plants.[60] The larvae of the onion leaf miner or leek moth (Acrolepiopsis assectella) sometimes attack the foliage and may burrow down into the bulb.[61]

text: The onion fly (Delia antiqua) lays eggs on the leaves and stems and on the ground close to onion, shallot, leek, and garlic plants. The fly is attracted to the crop by the smell of damaged tissue and is liable to occur after thinning. Plants grown from sets are less prone to attack. The larvae tunnel into the bulbs and the foliage wilts and turns yellow. The bulbs are disfigured and rot, especially in wet weather. Control measures may include crop rotation, the use of seed dressings, early sowing or planting, and the removal of infested plants.[62]

text: The onion eelworm (Ditylenchus dipsaci), a tiny parasitic soil-living nematode, causes swollen, distorted foliage. Young plants are killed and older ones produce soft bulbs. No cure is known and affected plants should be uprooted and burned. The site should not be used for growing onions again for several years and should also be avoided for growing carrots, parsnips, and beans, which are also susceptible to the eelworm.[63]

text: White rot of onions, leeks, and garlic is caused by the soil-borne fungus Sclerotium cepivorum. As the roots rot, the foliage turns yellow and wilts. The bases of the bulbs are attacked and become covered by a fluffy white mass of mycelia, which later produces small, globular black structures called sclerotia. These resting structures remain in the soil to reinfect a future crop. No cure for this fungal disease exists, so affected plants should be removed and destroyed and the ground used for unrelated crops in subsequent years.[64]

text: Neck rot is a fungal disease affecting onions in storage. It is caused by Botrytis allii, which attacks the neck and upper parts of the bulb, causing a grey mould to develop. The symptoms often first occur where the bulb has been damaged and spread downwards in the affected scales. Large quantities of spores are produced and crust-like sclerotia may also develop. In time, a dry rot sets in and the bulb becomes a dry, mummified structure. This disease may be present throughout the growing period, but only manifests itself when the bulb is in storage. Antifungal seed dressings are available and the disease can be minimised by preventing physical damage to the bulbs at harvesting, careful drying and curing of the mature onions, and correct storage in a cool, dry place with plenty of circulating air.[65]

text: Storage in the home[edit]

text: Cooking onions and sweet onions are better stored at room temperature, optimally in a single layer, in mesh bags in a dry, cool, dark, well-ventilated location. In this environment, cooking onions have a shelf life of three to four weeks and sweet onions one to two weeks. Cooking onions will absorb odours from apples and pears. Also, they draw moisture from vegetables with which they are stored which may cause them to decay.[56][66]

text: Sweet onions have a greater water and sugar content than cooking onions. This makes them sweeter and milder tasting, but reduces their shelf life. Sweet onions can be stored refrigerated; they have a shelf life of around 1 month. Irrespective of type, any cut pieces of onion are best tightly wrapped, stored away from other produce, and used within two to three days.[40]

text: Varieties[edit]

text: Common onion group (var. cepa)[edit]

text: Most of the diversity within A. cepa occurs within this group, the most economically important Allium crop. Plants within this group form large single bulbs, and are grown from seed or seed-grown sets. The majority of cultivars grown for dry bulbs, salad onions, and pickling onions belong to this group.[14] The range of diversity found among these cultivars includes variation in photoperiod (length of day that triggers bulbing), storage life, flavour, and skin colour.[67] Common onions range from the pungent varieties used for dried soups and onion powder to the mild and hearty sweet onions, such as the Vidalia from Georgia, USA, or Walla Walla from Washington that can be sliced and eaten raw on a sandwich.

text: Aggregatum group (var. aggregatum)[edit]

text: This group contains shallots and potato onions, also referred to as multiplier onions. The bulbs are smaller than those of common onions, and a single plant forms an aggregate cluster of several bulbs from a master. They are propagated almost exclusively from daughter bulbs, although reproduction from seed is possible. Shallots are the most important subgroup within this group and comprise the only cultivars cultivated commercially. They form aggregate clusters of small, narrowly ovoid to pear-shaped bulbs. Potato onions differ from shallots in forming larger bulbs with fewer bulbs per cluster, and having a flattened (onion-like) shape. However, intermediate forms exist.[14]

text: I'itoi onion is a prolific multiplier onion cultivated in the Baboquivari Peak Wilderness, Arizona area. This small-bulb type has a shallot-like flavour and is easy to grow and ideal for hot, dry climates. Bulbs are separated, and planted in the fall 1 in below the surface and 12 in apart. Bulbs will multiply into clumps and can be harvested throughout the cooler months. Tops die back in the heat of summer and may return with heavy rains; bulbs can remain in the ground or be harvested and stored in a cool dry place for planting in the fall. The plants rarely flower; propagation is by division.[68]

text: Hybrids with A. cepa parentage[edit]

text: A number of hybrids are cultivated that have A. cepa parentage, such as the diploid tree onion or Egyptian onion (A. ×proliferum), and the triploid onion (A. ×cornutum).

text: The tree onion or Egyptian onion produces bulblets in the umbel instead of flowers, and is now known to be a hybrid of A. cepa and A. fistulosum. It has previously been treated as a variety of A. cepa, for example A. cepa var. proliferum, A. cepa var. bulbiferum, and A. cepa var. viviparum.[69][70] It has been grown for centuries in Japan and China for use as a salad onion.[71][6]

text: The triploid onion is a hybrid species with three sets of chromosomes, two sets from A. cepa and the third set from an unknown parent.[70] Various clones of the triploid onion are grown locally in different regions, such as 'Ljutika' in Croatia, and 'Pran', 'Poonch', and 'Srinagar' in the India-Kashmir region. 'Pran' is grown extensively in the northern Indian provinces of Jammu and Kashmir. There are very small genetic differences between 'Pran' and the Croatian clone 'Ljutika', implying a monophyletic origin for this species.[72]

text: Some authors have used the name A. cepa var. viviparum (Metzg.) Alef. for the triploid onion, but this name has also been applied to the Egyptian onion. The only name unambiguously connected with the triploid onion is A. ×cornutum.

text: Spring onions or salad onions may be grown from the Welsh onion (A. fistulosum), as well as from A. cepa. Young plants of A. fistulosum and A. cepa look very similar, but may be distinguished by their leaves, which are circular in cross-section in A. fistulosum rather than flattened on one side.[73]

text:
Onions (dried) production in 2016

Country

(millions of tonnes)

  China
23.8

  India
19.4

  Egypt
3.1

  United States
3.0

  Iran
2.3

  Turkey
2.1

  Russia
2.0

World
93.2

Source: UN Food & Agriculture Organisation[74]

text: Production[edit]

text: In 2016, world production of dried onions was 93.2 million tonnes, led by China and India producing 26% and 21% of the total, respectively.[74]

text: The Onion Futures Act, passed in 1958, bans the trading of futures contracts on onions in the United States. This prohibition came into force after farmers complained about alleged market manipulation by Sam Siegel and Vincent Kosuga at the Chicago Mercantile Exchange two years earlier. The subsequent investigation provided economists with a unique case study into the effects of futures trading on agricultural prices. The act remains in effect as of  2016[update].[75]


document_title: List of Miami Dolphins seasons

question_text: when was the last time the miami dolphins were in the playoffs

root

text: List of Miami Dolphins seasons

text: This is a list of seasons completed by the Miami Dolphins American football franchise of the National Football League (NFL). The list documents the season-by-season records of the Dolphins franchise from 1966 to present, including postseason records, and league awards for individual players or head coaches.

tag: p

text: Although the Miami Dolphins were not successful before joining the NFL, from 1970 when they played their first season after the AFL–NFL merger until 2001 they were one of the most successful teams in the league, playing in the postseason on 22 occasions over those 32 years and winning 335 and tying two of 528 games for an overall win percentage of 63.6. Early in this period the Dolphins won their only two Super Bowls in consecutive seasons, in the process achieving the only modern-day perfect season in any major professional sports league during only their third year in the NFL. Much of this success was orchestrated by coach Don Shula who joined the team in 1970 and stayed with them until his retirement in 1995.

text: After Shula retired in 1995, the Dolphins remained a force for six years under successors Jimmy Johnson and Dave Wannstedt, but since 2002 and especially since 2004 have fallen on harder times, reaching the postseason only twice in the twelve seasons since. In 2007, they nearly suffered an imperfect season, winning only one game in overtime.

text: For complete team history, see History of the Miami Dolphins.

text: Seasons[edit]

text: Note: The Finish, Wins, Losses, and Ties columns list regular season results and exclude any postseason play. Italicized numbers mean that the records are subject to change each week due to regular season or postseason games being played.

tag: ul

text:
Super Bowl Champions (1970–present)
Conference Champions
Division Champions
Wild Card Berth
One-Game Playoff Berth

tag: table

text:
Franchise records according to Pro-Football Reference.com[1]

Season
Team
League
Conference
Division
Regular Season
Post Season Results
Awards
Head coaches

Finish
Wins
Losses
Ties

1966
1966
AFL

Eastern
5th
3
11
0

George Wilson

1967
1967
AFL

Eastern
4th
4
10
0

1968
1968
AFL

Eastern
3rd
5
8
1

1969
1969
AFL

Eastern
5th
3
10
1

1970
1970
NFL
AFC
East
2nd
10
4
0
Lost Divisional Playoffs (at Raiders) 14–21

Don Shula

1971
1971
NFL
AFC
East
1st
10
3
1
Won Divisional Playoffs (at Chiefs) 27–24 (OT)
Won Conference Championship (Colts) 21–0
Lost Super Bowl VI (vs. Cowboys) 3–24

1972
1972
NFL
AFC
East
1st
14
0
0
Won Divisional Playoffs (Browns) 20–14
Won Conference Championship (at Steelers) 21–17
Won Super Bowl VII (1) (vs. Redskins) 14–7
Don Shula (COY)
Jake Scott (SB MVP)
Earl Morrall (CBPOY)

1973
1973
NFL
AFC
East
1st
12
2
0
Won Divisional Playoffs (Bengals) 34–16
Won Conference Championship (Raiders) 27–10
Won Super Bowl VIII (2) (vs. Vikings) 24–7
Dick Anderson (DPOY)
Larry Csonka (SB MVP)
Garo Yepremian (PB MVP)

1974
1974
NFL
AFC
East
1st
11
3
0
Lost Divisional Playoffs (at Raiders) 26–28

1975
1975
NFL
AFC
East
2nd
10
4
0

1976
1976
NFL
AFC
East
3rd
6
8
0

1977
1977
NFL
AFC
East
2nd
10
4
0

A. J. Duhe (DROY)

1978
1978
NFL
AFC
East
2nd
11
5
0
Lost Wild Card Playoffs (Oilers) 9–17

1979
1979
NFL
AFC
East
1st
10
6
0
Lost Divisional Playoffs (at Steelers) 14–34
Larry Csonka (CBPOY)

1980
1980
NFL
AFC
East
3rd
8
8
0

1981
1981
NFL
AFC
East
1st
11
4
1
Lost Divisional Playoffs (Chargers) 38–41 (OT)

1982
1982
NFL
AFC

2nd1
7
2
0
Won First Round (Patriots) 28–13
Won Second Round (Chargers) 34–13
Won Conference Championship (Jets) 14–0
Lost Super Bowl XVII (vs. Redskins) 17–27

1983
1983
NFL
AFC
East
1st
12
4
0
Lost Divisional Playoffs (Seahawks) 20–27
Doug Betters (DPOY)

1984
1984
NFL
AFC
East
1st
14
2
0
Won Divisional Playoffs (Seahawks) 31–10
Won Conference Championship (Steelers) 45–28
Lost Super Bowl XIX (vs. 49ers) 16–38
Dan Marino (MVP, OPOY)

1985
1985
NFL
AFC
East
1st
12
4
0
Won Divisional Playoffs (Browns) 24–21
Lost Conference Championship (Patriots) 14–31
Dwight Stephenson (WPMOY)

1986
1986
NFL
AFC
East
3rd
8
8
0

1987
1987
NFL
AFC
East
3rd
8
7
0

Troy Stradford (OROY)

1988
1988
NFL
AFC
East
5th
6
10
0

1989
1989
NFL
AFC
East
3rd
8
8
0

1990
1990
NFL
AFC
East
2nd
12
4
0
Won Wild Card Playoffs (Chiefs) 17–16
Lost Divisional Playoffs (at Bills) 34–44

1991
1991
NFL
AFC
East
3rd
8
8
0

1992
1992
NFL
AFC
East
1st
11
5
0
Won Divisional Playoffs (Chargers) 31–0
Lost Conference Championship (Bills) 10–29

1993
1993
NFL
AFC
East
2nd
9
7
0

1994
1994
NFL
AFC
East
1st
10
6
0
Won Wild Card Playoffs (Chiefs) 27–17
Lost Divisional Playoffs (at Chargers) 21–22
Tim Bowens (DROY)
Dan Marino (CBPOY)

1995
1995
NFL
AFC
East
3rd
9
7
0
Lost Wild Card Playoffs (at Bills) 22–37

1996
1996
NFL
AFC
East
4th
8
8
0

Jimmy Johnson

1997
1997
NFL
AFC
East
2nd
9
7
0
Lost Wild Card Playoffs (at Patriots) 3–17

1998
1998
NFL
AFC
East
2nd
10
6
0
Won Wild Card Playoffs (Bills) 24–17
Lost Divisional Playoffs (at Broncos) 3–38
Dan Marino (WPMOY)

1999
1999
NFL
AFC
East
3rd
9
7
0
Won Wild Card Playoffs (at Seahawks) 20–17
Lost Divisional Playoffs (at Jaguars) 7–62

2000
2000
NFL
AFC
East
1st
11
5
0
Won Wild Card Playoffs (Colts) 23–17 (OT)
Lost Divisional Playoffs (at Raiders) 0–27

Dave Wannstedt

2001
2001
NFL
AFC
East
2nd
11
5
0
Lost Wild Card Playoffs (Ravens) 3–20

2002
2002
NFL
AFC
East
3rd
9
7
0

Ricky Williams (PB MVP)

2003
2003
NFL
AFC
East
2nd
10
6
0

2004
2004
NFL
AFC
East
4th
4
12
0

Dave Wannstedt (1–8)
Jim Bates (3–4)

2005
2005
NFL
AFC
East
2nd
9
7
0

Nick Saban

2006
2006
NFL
AFC
East
4th
6
10
0

Jason Taylor (DPOY)

2007
2007
NFL
AFC
East
4th
1
15
0

Jason Taylor (WPMOY)
Cam Cameron

2008
2008
NFL
AFC
East
1st
11
5
0
Lost Wild Card Playoffs (Ravens) 9–27
Chad Pennington (CBPOY)
Tony Sparano

2009
2009
NFL
AFC
East
3rd
7
9
0

2010
2010
NFL
AFC
East
3rd
7
9
0

2011
2011
NFL
AFC
East
3rd
6
10
0

Brandon Marshall (PB MVP)
Tony Sparano (4–9)
Todd Bowles (2–1)

2012
2012
NFL
AFC
East
2nd
7
9
0

Joe Philbin

2013
2013
NFL
AFC
East
3rd
8
8
0

2014
2014
NFL
AFC
East
3rd
8
8
0

2015
2015
NFL
AFC
East
4th
6
10
0

Joe Philbin (1–3)
Dan Campbell (5–7)

2016
2016
NFL
AFC
East
2nd
10
6
0
Lost Wild Card Playoffs (at Steelers) 12–30

Adam Gase

2017
2017
NFL
AFC
East
1st
1
1
0

Totals
440
342
4
All-time regular season record (1960–2016)

20
21
0
All-time postseason record (1960–2016)

460
363
4
All-time regular & postseason record (1960–2016)

text: Note: Statistics are correct through the end of the 2016 NFL season.

text: 1 Due to a strike-shortened season in 1982, all teams were ranked by conference instead of division.


document_title: Robin Williams filmography

question_text: what was the name of robin williams last movie

text: Robin Williams filmography

text: Film[edit]

text:
Title

Year

Role

Director(s)

Notes

Ref.

Can I Do It... 'Til I Need Glasses?

1977

LawyerMan with Tooth Ache

I. Robert Levy

[1]

Popeye

1980

Popeye

Robert Altman

[2]

The World According to Garp

1982

T.S. Garp

George Roy Hill

[3]

The Survivors

1983

Donald Quinelle

Michael Ritchie

[4]

Moscow on the Hudson

1984

Vladimir Ivanov

Paul Mazursky

[5]

The Best of Times

1986

Jack Dundee

Roger Spottiswoode

[6]

Club Paradise

Jack Moniker

Harold Ramis

[7]

Seize the Day

Tommy Wilhelm

Fielder Cook

[8]

Good Morning, Vietnam

1987

Adrian Cronauer

Barry Levinson

[9]

The Adventures of Baron Munchausen

1988

King of the Moon

Terry Gilliam

Credited as Ray D. Tutto

[10]

Rabbit Earst: Pecos Bill

Narrator (voice)

Tim Raglin

Portrait of a White Marriage

Air Conditioning Salesman

Harry Shearer

Uncredited

Dead Poets Society

1989

John Keating

Peter Weir

[11]

Cadillac Man

1990

Joey O'Brien

Roger Donaldson

[12]

Awakenings

Dr. Malcolm Sayer

Penny Marshall

[13]

Shakes the Clown

1991

Mime Class Instructor

Bobcat Goldthwait

[14]

Dead Again

Doctor Cozy Carlisle

Kenneth Branagh

[15]

The Fisher King

Henry "Parry" Sagan

Terry Gilliam

[16]

Hook

Peter Banning / Peter Pan

Steven Spielberg

[17]

FernGully: The Last Rainforest

1992

Batty Koda (voice)

Bill Kroyer

[18]

The Timekeeper

The Timekeeper (voice)

Circle-Vision 360° film

[19]

Aladdin

Genie / Peddler (voices)

Ron ClementsJohn Musker

[19]

Toys

Leslie Zevo

Barry Levinson

[20]

Mrs. Doubtfire

1993

Daniel Hillard / Euphegenia Doubtfire

Chris Columbus

Also producer

Being Human

1994

Hector

Bill Forsyth

In Search of Dr. Seuss

The Father

Vincent Paterson

Nine Months

1995

Dr. Kosevich

Chris Columbus

To Wong Foo, Thanks for Everything! Julie Newmar

John Jacob Jingleheimer Schmidt

Beeban Kidron

Uncredited

[21]

Jumanji

Alan Parrish

Joe Johnston

The Birdcage

1996

Armand Goldman

Mike Nichols

[22]

Jack

Jack Powell

Francis Ford Coppola

Aladdin and the King of Thieves

Genie (voice)

Tad Stones

Direct-to-video

[23]

The Secret Agent

Assassin

Christopher Hampton

Uncredited

Hamlet

Osric

Kenneth Branagh

Fathers' Day

1997

Dale Putley

Ivan Reitman

Deconstructing Harry

Mel

Woody Allen

Flubber

Professor Philip Brainard

Les Mayfield

Good Will Hunting

Sean Maguire

Gus Van Sant

[24]

What Dreams May Come

1998

Chris Nielsen

Vincent Ward

Patch Adams

Patch Adams

Tom Shadyac

Jakob the Liar

1999

Jakob Heym / Narrator

Peter Kassovitz

Also executive producer

Bicentennial Man

Andrew Martin

Chris Columbus

Get Bruce

Himself

Andrew J. Kuehn

Documentary

A.I. Artificial Intelligence

2001

Dr. Know (voice)

Steven Spielberg

[25]

The Rutles 2: Can't Buy Me Lunch

2002

Hans Hänkie

Eric Idle

One Hour Photo

Seymour "Sy" Parrish

Mark Romanek

[26]

Death to Smoochy

"Rainbow" Randolph Smiley

Danny DeVito

Insomnia

Walter Finch

Christopher Nolan

The Final Cut

2004

Alan W. Hakman

Omar Naim

House of D

Pappass

David Duchovny

Noel

Charlie Boyd / The Priest

Chazz Palminteri

Uncredited

Robots

2005

Fender (voice)

Chris Wedge

The Big White

Paul Barnell

Mark Mylod

The Aristocrats

Himself

Penn JillettePaul Provenza

Documentary

The Night Listener

2006

Gabriel Noone

Patrick Stettner

RV

Bob Munro

Barry Sonnenfeld

Everyone's Hero

Napoleon Cross (voice)

Christopher ReeveDaniel St. PierreColin Brady

Uncredited

[27]

Man of the Year

Tom Dobbs

Barry Levinson

Happy Feet

Ramon / Lovelace (voices)

George Miller

Night at the Museum

Theodore Roosevelt

Shawn Levy

License to Wed

2007

Reverend Frank

Ken Kwapis

August Rush

Maxwell "Wizard" Wallace

Kirsten Sheridan

World's Greatest Dad

2009

Lance Clayton

Bobcat Goldthwait

Shrink

Jack Holden

Jonas Pate

Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian

Theodore Roosevelt

Shawn Levy

Old Dogs

Dan Rayburn

Walt Becker

Happy Feet Two

2011

Ramon / Lovelace (voices)

George Miller

The Big Wedding

2013

Father Monighan

Justin Zackham

[28]

The Butler

Dwight D. Eisenhower

Lee Daniels

[29]

The Face of Love

Roger

Arie Posin

[30]

Boulevard

2014

Nolan Mack

Dito Montiel

The Angriest Man in Brooklyn

Henry Altmann

Phil Alden Robinson

[31]

A Merry Friggin' Christmas

Mitch

Tristram Shapeero

Posthumous release

[32]

Night at the Museum: Secret of the Tomb

Theodore Roosevelt / Garuda Artifact

Shawn Levy

Posthumous release

[32]

Absolutely Anything

2015

Dennis the Dog (voice)

Terry Jones

Posthumous release

[33]

text: Television[edit]

text:
Year

Title

Role

Notes

1977

Sorority '62

TV Pilot

The Richard Pryor Show

Various characters

2 episodes

Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In

Eight Is Enough

Episode: "The Return of Auntie V"

1978

America 2-Night

Jason Shine

2 episodes

Happy Days

Mork

Episode: "My Favorite Orkan"

1978–82

Mork & Mindy

92 episodes

1979

Happy Days

Episode: "Mork Returns"

Out of the Blue

Episode: "Random's Arrival"

1981–2010

Saturday Night Live

Himself

5 episodes; 4 as host, 1 as guest

1982

E.T. and Friends: Magical Movie Visitors

Host / various characters

TV special

Faerie Tale Theatre

Frog / Prince Robin

Episode: "Tale of the Frog Prince"

SCTV Network

Various

Episode: "Jane Eyrehead"

1982-83

Mork & Mindy/Laverne & Shirley/Fonz Hour

Mork (voice)

26 Episodes

1984

Pryor's Place

Gaby

Episode: "Sax Education"

1987

Carol, Carl, Whoopi and Robin

Various characters

TV special (comedy); Williams won Emmy award [34]

Dear America: Letters Home from Vietnam

Baby-san (voice)

Documentary

1990

The Earth Day Special

Everyman

1990–2012

Sesame Street

Himself

6 episodes

1991

Big Bird's Birthday Celebration

Sesame Street special

A Wish for Wings That Work

The Kiwi (voice)

Credited as Sudy Nim

1992–94

The Larry Sanders Show

Himself

2 episodes

1994

Homicide: Life on the Street

Robert Ellison

Episode: "Bop Gun"

1997

Friends

Tomas

UncreditedEpisode: "The One with the Ultimate Fighting Champion"

1998

One Saturday Morning

Genie

2 episodes

1999

L.A. Doctors

Hugo Kinsley

Episode: "Just Duet"

2000

Whose Line Is It Anyway?

Himself

Season 3, episode 9 (Guest star)

2003

Freedom: A History of Us

Josiah QuincyUlysses S. GrantMissouri farmerWilbur WrightOrville Wright

4 episodes

Life with Bonnie

Kevin Powalski

Episode: "Psychic"

2006

Extreme Makeover: Home Edition

Himself

Episode: "The DeAeth Family"

Mind of Mencia

Episode: "That's F**king Historical"

Blue's Clues

"Behind the Clues: 10 Years of Blue" Blue's Clues special[35]

2008

Law & Order: Special Victims Unit

Merritt Rook

Episode: "Authority"

2009

SpongeBob SquarePants

Himself

Episode: "SpongeBob's Truth or Square"

2012

Wilfred

Dr. Eddy / Himself

Episode: "Progress"

Louie

Himself

Episode: "Barney/Never"

2013–14

The Crazy Ones

Simon Roberts

22 episodes

text: Video games[edit]

text:
Year

Title

Voice role

1997

Disney's Math Quest: Aladdin

Genie

text: Video recordings[edit]

text:
Off the Wall / Live at the Roxy (1978) dir. Marty Callner
An Evening with Robin Williams (1982–1983) dir. Don Misscher
Robin Williams: An Evening at the Met (1986) dir. Bruce Gowers
Activity in Theater in 1994, 2001 and 2011
Robin Williams: Live on Broadway (2002) dir. Bill Crooks and Marty Callner, Sony Pictures Entertainment[36]
Robin Williams: Inside the Actors Studio, with James Lipton, Shout! Factory (2008)[37]
Weapons of Self Destruction (2009) dir. Marty Callner[38]


document_title: Nawabs of Bengal and Murshidabad

question_text: who abolished the dual government system in bengal

text: Nawabs of Bengal and Murshidabad

text: Bengal[edit]

text: The term "Bengal" incorporates to delineate the ethno-linguistic region of Bengal which including but not limited is all districts within the People's Republic of Bangladesh, as well as West Bengal, India.[12][13][14] During the first partition of Bengal in the early 20th century a new province, Eastern Bengal was created as a Lieutenant-Governorship along with Assam.[15] In 1911, East Bengal (now Bangladesh) was reunited with Bengal, and the new provinces in the east became: Assam, Bengal Province.[16] The Nawab thus gained rule over Orissa, which were earlier part of Bengal.[17][18][19] So sometimes That is why the Nawabs of Bengal were also mentioned as "Nawab of Bengal"[20] - where Nazim (or, Subahdar) means the provincial governor - as they ruled over three subahs while the Nawabs of Murshidabad were the local ruler of the city of Murshidabad.[21][self-published source?] The majority of modern Bengal is inhabited by Bengali people who speak the Bengali language.[22]

text:
Modern Bengal include the present day country of Bangladesh and the present day Indian states of West Bengal and Tripura

1893 map of Bengal

1831 map of Hindustan showing the then Bengal in green in the north east

text: History before the Nawab's rule[edit]

text: Sultans of Bengal[edit]

text: The early Sultans of Bengal ruled until 1282 which was followed by the rule of several successive dynasties. Ilyas Shah founder of the Ilyas Shahi dynasty, took complete charge of the then Bengal[23] and the capital was shifted to Sonargaon (near present day, Dhaka in Bangladesh).[24] He was one of the independent rulers of Bengal. His son, Sikandar Shah, who succeeded him, built the Adina Mosque at Pandua, near Gour, Adina Mosque in the medieval times, was considered to be the largest in undivided Bengal, as well as the entire Indian subcontinent.[25]

text: Mughal Empire[edit]

text: The Mughal Empire emerged as a powerful Empire in northern India. Babur, who was related to two legendary warriors – Timur and Genghis Khan, invaded north India and defeated Ibrahim Lodi of the Lodi dynasty.[26] Babur thus became the first Mughal emperor. He was succeeded by his son, Humayun. At the same time, Sher Shah Suri (alias Farid Khan) of the Suri dynasty rose to prominence and established himself as the ruler of the present day Bihar by defeating Ghiyasuddin Shah. But he lost to capture the kingdom because of sudden expedition of Humayun. In 1539, Sher Khan faced Humayun in the Battle of Chausa. He forced Humayun out of India. Assuming the title Sher Shah, he ascended the throne of Delhi. He also captured Agra and established control from Bengal in the east, to the Indus River in the west.[27] After his death he was succeeded by his son, Islam Shah Suri. But in 1544 the Suris were torn apart by internal conflicts. Humayun took this advantage and captured Lahore and Delhi, but he died in 1556 AD.[28] He was succeeded by Akbar, who defeated Daud Khan Karrani of Bengal's Karrani Dynasty (or, Karnani Dynasty). After this, the administration of the entire region of Bengal passed into the hands of governors appointed by the Mughal emperors, who ruled Bengal till 1716 AD.[29][30][31]

text: There were several posts under the Mughal administrative system during Akbar's reign. Diwani was a system of provincial revenue administration under the Mughals. Nizamat (civil administration) and Diwani (revenue administration) were the two main branches of the provincial administration under the Mughals.[29] A Subahdar (provincial viceroy or governor), also called a Nizam was in-charge of the Nizamat. There was a chain of subordinate officials under the Nizams on the executive side and under Diwans on the revenue and judicial side.[29]

text: Emergence of the Nawab Nizam of Bengal[edit]

text: Murshid Quli Khan arrived as the Diwan of Bengal in 1717 AD. Before his arrival, there were four Diwans. And, after his arrival, Azim-ush-Shan held the Nizam's office. Azim got into conflict with Murshid Quli Khan over imperial financial control. Considering the complaint of Khan, the then Mughal emperor, Aurangzeb ordered Azim to move to Bihar.[32] Upon his departure the two posts united in one and Murshid Quli Khan became the first Nizam cum Diwan of Bengal. Murshid Khan was appointed the "Nawab Nizam of Bengal" and he emerged as the ruler of Bengal under the Mughals.[29][33] Murshidabad remained the capital of the Nawabs of Bengal until their rule.[29][34] The Nawab Siraj ud-Daulah, was betrayed in the Battle of Plassey by Mir Jaffer.[35] He lost to the British East India Company, who took installed Mir Jaffer on the Masnad (throne), as a "puppet ruler" and established itself to a political power in Bengal.[36]

text: In 1765, Robert Clive, of the British East India Company, became the first British Governor of Bengal.[37] He secured in perpetuity for the Company the Diwani (revenue and civil justice) of the then Bengal subah from the then Mughal Emperor, Shah Alam II and thus the system of Dual Government was established and the Bengal Presidency was formed. In 1772 the Dual Government system was abolished and Bengal was brought under direct control of the British. In 1793, when the Nizamat (military power and criminal justice) of the Nawab was also taken away from them, they remained as the mere pensioners of the British East India Company. After the Revolt of 1857, Company rule in India ended and the British Crown took over the territories which were under the direct rule of the British East India Company in 1858, which marked the beginning of the British Raj. These territories, including the territory of the Nawab Nazims came under the direct rule of the British Crown and British Raj was established in India. Thus, the Nawab Nizams remained just the titular heads of their territory, which was now ruled by the British Crown, and they had no political or any other kind of control over the territory.[38][39] The last Nawab of Bengal, Mansoor Ali Khan abdicated on 1 November 1880 in favour of his eldest son.[40]

text: History during the Nawab's rule[edit]

text:
Part of a series on the

History of Bengal

Ancient Geopolitical units[show]

Pundravardhana
Vanga
Gangaridai
Samatata
Anga
Suhma
Harikela
Kamarupa

Ancient and Classical dynasties[show]

Nanda dynasty
Maurya dynasty
Gupta dynasty
Varman dynasty
Gauda dynasty
Mallabhum dynasty
Khadga dynasty
Pala dynasty
Chandra dynasty
Chola dynasty
Sena dynasty
Deva dynasty

Medieval and Early Modern periods[show]

Delhi Sultanate
City states

Sonargaon
Lakhnauti
Satgaon

Bengal Sultanate

Ilyas Shahi dynasty
Hussain Shahi dynasty
Karrani dynasty

Sur Empire
Twelve Bhuyan Confederacy
Kingdom of Mrauk U
Jaintia Kingdom
Koch dynasty
Kingdom of Tripura
Kingdom of Bhurshut
Mughal Empire

Bengal Subah
Burdwan Raj
Rajshahi Raj
Nadia Raj
Bettiah Raj
Nawabs of Bengal
Zamindars

Maratha expeditions in Bengal

European colonisation[show]

Portuguese Chittagong
Dutch Bengal
French Bengal
Danish Bengal
Austrian Bengal
British India

Company rule
Bengal Presidency
Bengal famine of 1770
Partition of Bengal (1905)
Bengal famine of 1943
Direct Action Day
Indian Mutiny of 1857
British Raj
Bengal Renaissance
Eastern Bengal and Assam
Anti-colonial struggle
Partition of Bengal (1947)

East Bengal[show]

East Bengali refugees

East Pakistan[show]

1964 East Pakistan riots
Language Movement
Indo-Pakistani War of 1965
Liberation War
1971 Genocide
Indo-Pakistani War of 1971

Bangladesh[show]

People's Republic
Military coups
Bangladesh famine of 1974

Indian Bengal[show]

West Bengal
Tripura merger
Left Front
Naxalism
Barak Valley Language Movement
Gorkhaland

Calendar[show]

Bengali calendar
Malla calendar

Related[show]

Bengali literary history
Architecture of Bengal
Bangamata

v
t
e

text: Dynasties[edit]

text: From 1717 until 1880, three successive Islamic dynasties – Nasiri, Afshar and Najafi – ruled what was then known as Bengal.[41]

text: The first dynasty, the Nasiri, ruled from 1717 until 1740. The founder of the Nasiri, Murshid Quli Khan, was born a poor Deccani Odia Brahmin before being sold into slavery and bought by one Haji Shafi Isfahani, a Persian merchant from Isfahan who converted him to Islam. He entered the service of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb and rose through the ranks before becoming the Nawab Nizam of Bengal in 1717, a post he held until his death in 1727. He in turn was succeeded by his son-in-law, Shuja-ud-Din Muhammad Khan.[42] After Shuja-ud-Din's death in 1739 he was succeeded by his son, Sarfaraz Khan, who held the rank, until he was killed in the Battle of Giria in 1741, and was succeeded by Alivardi Khan, former ruler of Patna, of the Afshar Dynasty in 1740.[43]

text: The second dynasty, the Afshar, ruled from 1740 to 1757. Siraj ud-Daulah (Alivardi Khan's grandson), the last Afshar Nawab was killed in the Battle of Plassey in 1757.[44] They were succeeded by the third and final dynasty to rule the whole Bengal, the Najafi.[45]

text: Under the Mughals[edit]

text: Bengal Subah was one of the wealthiest parts of the Mughal empire.[46] As the Mughal empire began to decline, the Nawabs grew in power, although nominally subordinate to the Mughal emperor.[29][47] They wielded great power in their own right and finally became independent rulers of the Bengal region, for all practical purposes, by the early 1700s.[47]

text: Maratha expeditions[edit]

text: Marathas undertook six expeditions in Bengal from 1741–1748. Maratha general, Raghunath Rao was able to annex Orissa to his kingdom and the larger confederacy permanently as he successfully exploited the chaotic conditions prevailing in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa after the death of Murshid Quli Khan in 1727.[48] Constantly harassed by the Bhonsles, Orissa, Bengal and parts of Bihar were economically ruined. Alivardi Khan made peace with Raghunathrao in 1751 ceding in perpetuity Orissa up to the river Suvarnarekha, and agreeing to pay ₹12 lacs annually in lieu of the Chauth of Bengal and Bihar.[49]

text: The treaty included ₹20 lacs as Chauth for Bengal (includes both West Bengal and Bangladesh) and ₹12 lacs for Bihar(including Jharkhand). After this, Maratha promised never to cross the boundary of the Nawab of Bengal's territory.[50]

text: Thus, Baji Rao is hailed as the greatest Maratha chief after Shivaji because of his success in subjecting Muslim rulers of east India in states such as Bengal, Bihar and Orissa to the Maratha rule.[51]

text: Nawabs of Bengal under British rule and their decline[edit]

text: The break-up of the centralised Mughal empire by 1750, led to the creation of numerous semi-independent kingdoms (all provinces of the former Mughal empire). Nawab Siraj ud-Daulah was defeated by the British forces of Sir Robert Clive in the Battle of Plassey in 1757.[44] Thereafter the Nawab of Bengal became a "puppet ruler" depending on military support from British East India company to secure their throne.[44] Siraj-ud-Daulah was replaced by Mir Jaffer. He was personally led to the throne by Robert Clive, after triumph of the British in the battle.[44] He briefly tried to re-assert his power by allying with the Dutch, but this plan was ended by the Battle of Chinsurah. After the defeat at Battle of Buxar and grant of the Diwani (revenue collection) of Bengal by the then Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II, to the British East India Company in August 1765 and the appointment of Warren Hastings by the East India Company as their first Governor General of Bengal in 1773, the Nawabs authority became restricted. By 1773, British East India company asserted much authority and formed the Bengal Presidency over areas ruled by the Nawabs i.e. the Bengal subah, along with some other regions and abolished the system of Dual Government. In 1793 (during Nawab Mubarak ud-Daulah's reign), the Nizamat (military power, civil and criminal justice) was abolished, British East India company thus annexed this former Mughal province as part of their empire and took complete control of the region, and the Nawabs of Bengal became mere pensioners of the British East India Company. All the Diwan offices except the Diwan Ton were also abolished.[38][39][52]

text: After the Revolt of 1857, Company rule in India ended, and all the territories which were under the rule of the British East India Company came under the British Crown in 1858, which marked the beginning of the British Raj. And administrative control of India came under the Indian Civil Service, which had administrative control over all areas in India, except the Princely States.[16]

text: Mansoor Ali Khan (aka Feradun Jah) was the last Nawab of Bengal. During his reign the Nizamat at Murshidabad became involved in debts. The then Government of India involved it into an action of preventing further claims. Feradun Jah left Murshidabad in February 1869 and started living in England. The title of "Nawab of Bengal" was abolished in 1880.[53] He returned to Bombay in October 1880 but spent most of his time pleading his case against the orders of the Government of India. After it was not resolved the Nawab renounced his styles and titles of Nawab Nizam of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa and abdicated in favour of his eldest son at St. Ives, Maidenhead, on 1 November 1880.[53]

text: Emergence of the Nawab of Murshidabad and the Nawabs post Indian independence[edit]

text: The Nawabs of Murshidabad succeeded the Nawab Nizams of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa as Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad, following Mansoor Ali Khan's abdication[29][40][54] Nawabs of Murshidabad were the successors of the Nawabs of Bengal. After Lord Clive secured the Diwani of Bengal from Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II in 1765 for the East India Company they did not have any effective authority. So they lavishly enjoyed their title, privileges alongside with the honours they received. They got the title changed as the title of the Nawab of Bengal was abolished in 1880.[29] They had little or no say and ceased to control any significant force.[29][55]

text: After Indian Independence in 1947, all the non-princely states were subject to a test of religious majority in which the Muslim majority areas formed the Dominion of Pakistan, while the other regions formed the Dominion of India.[7] Murshidabad (the capital city for both, the Nawabs of Bengal and the Nawabs of Murshidabad) became a part of East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) for two days, as it had a Muslim majority. However, it became a part of India on 17 August 1947.[56] The Pakistani flag was brought down from the Hazarduari Palace and the Indian tricolour was hoisted atop the palace.[57] The Nawabs, after the takeover by the British had no actual power and after merging with India too, they had yielded power, as the Government of India took over control of all the areas that merged with India. Furthermore, with the promulgation of the Indian Constitution on 26 January 1950, the Dominion of India was transformed into the Republic of India, and the Article 18 of the Indian Constitution (which is a part of the Right to Equality, a fundamental right in India), titles were abolished. The Article prevents the state from confirming any title except those titles given by the Government to those who have made their mark in military and academic fields. Such titles and awards include the Bharat Ratna, the Padma Shri and the Padma Vibhushan (the Supreme Court of India, on 15 December 1995, upheld the validity of such awards). Thus, with the promulgation of the Constitution, the title of the Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad was abolished. And although, the Nawab Waris Ali Meerza held titles such as Raes ud-Daulah, they were not officially or legally recognised.[7][58]

text: Although, the Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad had no political power the office continued to be held by the second Nawab Bahadur Syed Wasif Ali Meerza Khan Bahadur, who had held the office since 1906, and after his death in 1959, he was succeeded by his son, Syed Wasif Ali Meerza Khan Bahadur.[7] Waris Ali Meerza died in 1969,[9] survived by his three sons and three daughters. According to the Nawab’s law, the eldest son of the Nawab succeeded him, however, Waris Ali's eldest son, Wakif Ali Meerza Bahadur, was excluded from the succession by his father for contracting a non-Muslim marriage and for not professing the Muslim religion.

text: Waris Ali Meerza, the third Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad, died in 1969, and he took no steps during his lifetime to establish his succession. And before declaring his successor Waris Ali died. There was no clear successor to Waris Ali.[59]

text: Since then there was no clear successor to Waris Ali and the titular office/post was in dispute, and a legal battle ensued. And following this as the title was in dispute, a legal battle ensued. Abbas Ali Meerza claimed to be the legal heir of Waris Ali on the basis of being the son of the daughter of Waris Alis' father, the second Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad, Wasif Ali Meerza; while Sajid Ali Meerza claimed the same on the basis of being the son by mut‘ah marriage of Wasif Ali. The case reached the Supreme Court and finally, the Supreme Court judges, Justice Ranjan Gogoi and Justice R K Agrawal, gave their judgement on 13 August 2014, declaring the then 72-year-old Abbas Ali Meerza (full name, Syed Mohammed Abbas Ali Meerza), who happened to be the son of the only daughter of Waris Ali’s father, Wasif Ali Meerza (the third Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad), the successor and the legal heir to the former Nawab of Murshidabad, Waris Ali Meerza. The Court directed Abbas Ali Meerza, son of Syed Muhammad Sadeque Ali Meerza, to be the direct descendant of Waris Ali Meerza. However, the case against the state's annexation of the Murshidabad Estate, which is worth several thousand crores, is still on, as of 2014[update].[9][60]

text: However, it is to be noted that after Indian independence in 1947, followed by the promulgation of the Indian Constitution on 26 January 1950, which marked the transformation of the Dominion of India into the Republic of India, the Article 18 of the Indian Constitution abolished all titles, except those given by the Government of India to those who have made their mark in military and academic fields.[10] However, under the policy of Privy Purse nobles were allowed to enjoy certain privileges and keep their titles. But this policy was abolished in 1971 by the twenty-sixth Amendment of the Constitution of India. Thus the title of the "Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad" was officially, constitutionally and legally abolished in 1971.[11] Thus, as titles have been abolished in India, the title of the Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad no longer exists. However, Abbas Ali Meerza can now succeed Waris Ali Meerza's office legally, but his title of the fourth Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad would be unofficial, as the title is not legally and officially recognised.[9][60][61]

text: List of the Nawabs of Bengal[edit]

text: The following is a list of all the Nawabs of Bengal. Sarfaraz Khan and Mir Mohammad Jaffer Ali Khan (Mir Jaffer) were the only Nawabs to become the Nawab twice.[62] The chronology started in 1717 with Murshid Quli Khan and ended in 1881 with Mansoor Ali Khan's abdication.[29][40][62]

text:
Portrait
Titular Name
Personal Name
Birth
Reign
Death

Nasiri Dynasty

Jaafar Khan Bahadur Nasiri
Murshid Quli Khan
1665
1717–1727
1727[63][64][65]

Ala-ud-Din Haidar Jang
Sarfaraz Khan Bahadur
 ?
1727-1727
29 April 1740[66]

Shuja ud-Daula
Shuja-ud-Din Muhammad Khan
Around 1670 (date not available)
July 1727 – 26 August 1739
26 August 1739[67][68]

Ala-ud-Din Haidar Jang
Sarfaraz Khan Bahadur
 ?
13 March 1739 – April 1740
29 April 1740[66]

Afshar Dynasty

Hashim ud-Daula
Muhammad Alivardi Khan Bahadur
Before 10 May 1671
29 April 1740 – 9 April 1756
9 April 1756[69][70]

Siraj ud-Daulah
Muhammad Siraj-ud-Daulah
1733
April 1756 – 2 June 1757
2 July 1757[71][72]

Najafi Dynasty

Ja'afar 'Ali Khan Bahadur
Mir Mohammad Jaffer Ali Khan Bahadur
1691
June 1757 – October 1760
17 January 1765[73][74][75]

Itimad ud-Daulah
Mir Qasim Ali Khan Bahadur
 ?
20 October 1760 – 1763
8 May 1777[76]

Ja'afar 'Ali Khan Bahadur
Mir Mohammad Jaffer Ali Khan Bahadur
1691
25 July 1763 – 17 January 1765
17 January 1765[76][77]

Nazam-ud-Daulah
Najimuddin Ali Khan Bahadur
1750
5 February 1765 – 8 May 1766
8 May 1766[78]

Saif ud-Daulah
Najabut Ali Khan Bahadur
1749
22 May 1766 – 10 March 1770
10 March 1770[79]

Mubarak ud-Daulah
Ashraf Ali Khan Bahadur
1759
21 March 1770 – 6 September 1793
6 September 1793[80]

Azud ud-Daulah
Babar Ali Khan Bahadur
 ?
1793 – 28 April 1810
28 April 1810[81]

Ali Jah
Zain-ud-Din Ali Khan Bahadur
 ?
5 June 1810 – 6 August 1821
6 August 1821[82][83]

Walla Jah
Ahmad Ali Khan Bahadur
 ?
1821 – 30 October 1824
30 October 1824[84][85]

Humayun Jah
Mubarak Ali Khan Bahadur
29 September 1810
1824 – 3 October 1838
3 October 1838[86][87][88]

Feradun Jah
Syed Mansoor Ali Khan Bahadur
29 October 1830
29 October 1838 – 1 November 1880 (abdicated)
5 November 1884[89]

text: List of the Nawabs of Murshidabad[edit]

text: The Nawabs of Murshidabad succeeded the Nawabs of Bengal after the abdication in 1881 and the abolition of the title of Nawab of Bengal in 1880.[29][40] There have been four Nawabs of Murshidabad, as of 2014, as follows. However, it is to be noted that Waris Ali Mirza was the last official Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad, for titles like these were abolished in 1971. Though Abbas Ali Mirza is the legal heir to Waris Ali Mirza's office, the title no longer enjoys legal sanctity owing to the abolition of the policy of Privy Purse by the twenty-sixth amendment to the Indian Constitution:[11]

text:
Picture
Titular Name
Personal Name
Birth
Reign
Death

Najafi Dynasty

Ali Kadir
Syed Hassan Ali Mirza Khan Bahadur
25 August 1846
17 February 1882 – 25 December 1906
25 December 1906[90][self-published source?][91]

Amir ul-Omrah
Syed Wasif Ali Mirza Khan Bahadur
7 January 1875
December 1906 – 23 October 1959
23 October 1959[90][92]

Raes ud-Daulah
Syed Waris Ali Mirza Khan Bahadur
14 November 1901
1959 – 20 November 1969
20 November 1969[93]

N/A
N/A
Disputed/In abeyance[9][60]
N/A
20 November 1969 – 13 August 2014
N/A

N/A
Syed Mohammed Abbas Ali Mirza Khan Bahadur
Circa 1942
13 August 2014 – Present[9][60]
N/A

text: Notes[edit]

text:
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Jump up ^ Madhya Pradesh National Means-Cum-Merit Scholarship Exam (Warren Hasting's system of Dual Government). Upkar Prakashan. 2009. pp. 11–. ISBN 978-81-7482-744-9.
^ Jump up to: a b Murshidabad.net (8 May 2012). "Decline of the Nawabs of Bengal". Retrieved 10 August 2012.
Jump up ^ Murshidabad.net (8 May 2012). "Hassan Ali Mirza's succession". Retrieved 10 August 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Lumby 1954, p. 232
^ Jump up to: a b "The last reigning Nawab of Murshidabad, Waris Ali Mirza Khan Bahadur". Retrieved 10 August 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Mahato, Sukumar (20 August 2014). "Murshidabad gets a Nawab again, but fight for assets ahead". The Times of India. Retrieved 14 June 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Article 18 of the Indian Constitution". Indiankanoon.org. Retrieved 1 May 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Twenty Sixth Amendment to the Indian Constitution". Indiacode.nic.in. 28 December 1971. Retrieved 1 May 2017.
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Jump up ^ Chaudhury, Sushil; Mohsin, KM (2012). "Sirajuddaula". In Islam, Sirajul; Jamal, Ahmed A. Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh (Second ed.). Asiatic Society of Bangladesh.
^ Jump up to: a b Singh, Vipul (1 September 2009). Longman History & Civics (Dual Government in Bengal). Pearson Education India.
^ Jump up to: a b Madhya Pradesh National Means-Cum-Merit Scholarship Exam (Warren Hasting's system of Dual Government). Upkar Prakashan. 1 January 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Decline of the Nawabs of Bengal". Murshidabad.net. 8 May 2012. Retrieved 10 August 2012.
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^ Jump up to: a b c d "Defeat of Siraj ud-Daulah in the Battle of Plassey". Retrieved 28 July 2012.
Jump up ^ "Dynasties of The Nawabs". Murshidabad.net. 8 May 2012. Retrieved 9 August 2012.
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^ Jump up to: a b History Modern India – S. N. Sen – Google Books. Books.google.co.in. Retrieved 6 July 2012.
Jump up ^ SNHM. Vol. II, pp. 209, 224.
Jump up ^ Wernham, R. B. (1 Nov 1968). The New Cambridge Modern History: Volume 3, Counter-Reformation and Price Revolution, 1559–1610 (Maratha invasion of Bengal). CUP Archive. Retrieved 14 August 2012.
Jump up ^ Sarkar, Jadunath (1 Jan 1991). Fall Of The Mughal Empire- Vol. I (4Th Edn.) (Maratha Chauth from Bihar). Orient Blackswan. Retrieved 14 August 2012.
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^ Jump up to: a b "Decline of the Nawabs of Bengal". Murshidabad.net. 8 May 2012. Retrieved 9 August 2012.
Jump up ^ "Hassan Ali Meerza's succession". Murshidabad.net. 8 May 2012. Retrieved 10 August 2012.
Jump up ^ "The Nawabs of Murshidabad had little or no say". Royal Ark. Retrieved 17 August 2012.
Jump up ^ Prakash, Ved (2008). Terrorism in India's North-east: A Gathering Storm. Gyan Publishing House. p. 350. ISBN 9788178356617.
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Jump up ^ "Article 18 of Indian Constitution and Abolition of Titles". GK Today. Retrieved 18 June 2015.
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^ Jump up to: a b c d "Portrait of an accidental Nawab". The Times of India. 22 August 2014. Retrieved 14 June 2015.
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^ Jump up to: a b "The Nawabs of Bengal (chronologically)". Archived from the original on 6 January 2012. Retrieved 28 July 2012.
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Jump up ^ "Murshid Quli Khan | Indian nawab". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 7 May 2016.
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^ Jump up to: a b Paul, Gautam. "Murshidabad History - Sarfaraz Khan". murshidabad.net. Retrieved 7 May 2016.
Jump up ^ Karim, KM (2012). "Shujauddin Muhammad Khan". In Islam, Sirajul; Jamal, Ahmed A. Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh (Second ed.). Asiatic Society of Bangladesh.
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tag: ol


document_title: Giza pyramid complex

question_text: what is the purpose of the great pyramids of giza

text: Giza pyramid complex

text: Pyramids and Sphinx[edit]

text: The Pyramids of Giza consist of the Great Pyramid of Giza (also known as the Pyramid of Cheops or Khufu and constructed c. 2560–2540 BC), the somewhat smaller Pyramid of Khafre (or Chephren) a few hundred meters to the south-west, and the relatively modest-sized Pyramid of Menkaure (or Mykerinos) a few hundred meters farther south-west. The Great Sphinx lies on the east side of the complex. Current consensus among Egyptologists is that the head of the Great Sphinx is that of Khafre. Along with these major monuments are a number of smaller satellite edifices, known as "queens" pyramids, causeways and valley pyramids.[3]

text: Khufu's pyramid complex[edit]

text: Khufu’s pyramid complex consists of a valley temple, now buried beneath the village of Nazlet el-Samman; basalt paving and nummulitic limestone walls have been found but the site has not been excavated.[4][5] The valley temple was connected to a causeway which was largely destroyed when the village was constructed. The causeway led to the Mortuary Temple of Khufu. From this temple the basalt pavement is the only thing that remains. The mortuary temple was connected to the king’s pyramid. The king’s pyramid has three smaller queen’s pyramids associated with it and five boat pits.[6]:11–19 The boat pits contained a ship, and the 2 pits on the south side of the pyramid still contained intact ships. One of these ships has been restored and is on display. Khufu's pyramid still has a limited collection of casing stones at its base. These casing stones were made of fine white limestone quarried from the nearby range.[3]

text: Khafre's pyramid complex[edit]

text: Khafre’s pyramid complex consists of a valley temple, the Sphinx temple, a causeway, a mortuary temple and the king’s pyramid. The valley temple yielded several statues of Khafre. Several were found in a well in the floor of the temple by Mariette in 1860. Others were found during successive excavations by Sieglin (1909–10), Junker, Reisner, and Hassan. Khafre’s complex contained five boat-pits and a subsidiary pyramid with a serdab.[6]:19–26 Khafre's pyramid appears larger than the adjacent Khufu Pyramid by virtue of its more elevated location, and the steeper angle of inclination of its construction—it is, in fact, smaller in both height and volume. Khafre's pyramid retains a prominent display of casing stones at its apex.[3]

text: Menkaure's pyramid complex[edit]

text: Menkaure’s pyramid complex consists of a valley temple, a causeway, a mortuary temple, and the king’s pyramid. The valley temple once contained several statues of Menkaure. During the 5th dynasty, a smaller ante-temple was added on to the valley temple. The mortuary temple also yielded several statues of Menkaure. The king’s pyramid has three subsidiary or queen’s pyramids.[6]:26–35 Of the four major monuments, only Menkaure's pyramid is seen today without any of its original polished limestone casing.[3]

text: Sphinx[edit]

text: The Sphinx dates from the reign of king Khafre.[7] During the New Kingdom, Amenhotep II dedicated a new temple to Hauron-Haremakhet and this structure was added onto by later rulers.[6]:39–40

text: Tomb of Queen Khentkaus I[edit]

text: Khentkaus I was buried in Giza. Her tomb is known as LG 100 and G 8400 and is located in the Central Field, near the valley temple of Menkaure. The pyramid complex of Queen Khentkaus includes: her pyramid, a boat pit, a valley temple and a pyramid town.[6]:288–289

text: Construction[edit]

text: Most construction theories are based on the idea that the pyramids were built by moving huge stones from a quarry and dragging and lifting them into place. The disagreements center on the method by which the stones were conveyed and placed and how possible the method was.

text: In building the pyramids, the architects might have developed their techniques over time. They would select a site on a relatively flat area of bedrock—not sand—which provided a stable foundation. After carefully surveying the site and laying down the first level of stones, they constructed the pyramids in horizontal levels, one on top of the other.

text: For the Great Pyramid of Giza, most of the stone for the interior seems to have been quarried immediately to the south of the construction site. The smooth exterior of the pyramid was made of a fine grade of white limestone that was quarried across the Nile. These exterior blocks had to be carefully cut, transported by river barge to Giza, and dragged up ramps to the construction site. Only a few exterior blocks remain in place at the bottom of the Great Pyramid. During the Middle Ages (5th century to 15th century), people may have taken the rest away for building projects in the city of Cairo.[3]

text: To ensure that the pyramid remained symmetrical, the exterior casing stones all had to be equal in height and width. Workers might have marked all the blocks to indicate the angle of the pyramid wall and trimmed the surfaces carefully so that the blocks fit together. During construction, the outer surface of the stone was smooth limestone; excess stone has eroded as time has passed.[3]

text: Purpose[edit]

text: The pyramids of Giza and others are thought to have been constructed to house the remains of the deceased Pharaohs who ruled over Ancient Egypt.[3] A portion of the Pharaoh's spirit called his ka was believed to remain with his corpse. Proper care of the remains was necessary in order for the "former Pharaoh to perform his new duties as king of the dead.". It's theorized the pyramid not only served as a tomb for the Pharaoh, but also as a storage pit for various items he would need in the afterlife. "The people of Ancient Egypt believed that death on Earth was the start of a journey to the next world. The embalmed body of the King was entombed underneath or within the pyramid to protect it and allow his transformation and ascension to the afterlife."[8]

text: Workers' village[edit]

text: The work of quarrying, moving, setting, and sculpting the huge amount of stone used to build the pyramids might have been accomplished by several thousand skilled workers, unskilled laborers and supporting workers. Bakers, carpenters, water carriers, and others were also needed for the project. Along with the methods utilized to construct the pyramids, there is also wide speculation regarding the exact number of workers needed for a building project of this magnitude. When Greek historian Herodotus visited Giza in 450 BC, he was told by Egyptian priests that "the Great Pyramid had taken 400,000 men 20 years to build, working in three-month shifts 100,000 men at a time." Evidence from the tombs indicates that a workforce of 10,000 laborers working in three-month shifts took around 30 years to build a pyramid.[3]

text: The Giza pyramid complex is surrounded by a large stone wall, outside which Mark Lehner and his team discovered a town where the pyramid workers were housed. The village is located to the southeast of the Khafre and Menkaure complexes. Among the discoveries at the workers' village are communal sleeping quarters, bakeries, breweries, and kitchens (with evidence showing that bread, beef, and fish were staples of the diet), a hospital and a cemetery (where some of the skeletons were found with signs of trauma associated with accidents on a building site).[9] The workers' town appears to date from the middle 4th dynasty (2520–2472 BC), after the accepted time of Khufu and completion of the Great Pyramid. According to Lehner and the AERA team;

text: Without carbon dating, using only pottery shards, seal impressions, and stratigraphy to date the site, the team further concludes;

text: Cemeteries[edit]

text: As the pyramids were constructed, the mastabas for lesser royals were constructed around them. Near the pyramid of Khufu, the main cemetery is G 7000 which lies in the East Field located to the east of the main pyramid and next to the Queen’s pyramids. These cemeteries around the pyramids were arranged along streets and avenues.[12] Cemetery G 7000 was one of the earliest and contained tombs of wives, sons and daughters of these 4th dynasty rulers. On the other side of the pyramid in the West Field, the royals sons Wepemnofret and Hemiunu were buried in Cemetery G 1200 and Cemetery G 4000 respectively. These cemeteries were further expanded during the 5th and 6th dynasty.[6]

text: West Field[edit]

text: The West Field is located to the west of Khufu’s pyramid. It is divided into smaller areas such as the cemeteries referred to as the Abu Bakr Excavations (1949–50, 1950–1,1952 and 1953), and several cemeteries named based on the mastaba numbers such as Cemetery G 1000, Cemetery G 1100, etc. The West Field contains Cemetery G1000 – Cemetery G1600, and Cemetery G 1900. Further cemeteries in this field are: Cemeteries G 2000, G 2200, G 2500, G 3000, G 4000, and G 6000. Three other cemeteries are named after their excavators: Junker Cemetery West, Junker Cemetery East and Steindorff Cemetery.[6]:100–122

text:
Cemeteries in the West Field at Giza[6]:47–179

Cemetery
Time Period
Excavation
Comments

Abu Bakr Excavations
the 5th and 6th dynasty
(1949–53)

Cemetery G 1000
the 5th and 6th dynasty
Reisner (1903–05)
Stone built mastabas

Cemetery G 1100
the 5th and 6th dynasty
Reisner (1903–05)
Brick built mastabas

Cemetery G 1200
Mainly 4th dynasty
Reisner (1903–05)
Some members of Khufu’s family are buried here; Wepemnefert (King’s Son), Kaem-ah (King’s Son), Nefertiabet (King’s Daughter)

Cemetery G 1300
the 5th and 6th dynasty
Reisner (1903–05)
Brick built mastabas

Cemetery G 1400
the 5th dynasty or later
Reisner (1903–05)
Two men who were prophets of Khufu

Cemetery G 1500

Reisner (1931?)
Only one mastaba (G 1601)

Cemetery G 1600
the 5th dynasty or later
Reisner (1931)
Two men who were prophets of Khufu

Cemetery G 1900

Reisner (1931)
Only one mastabas (G 1903)

Cemetery G 2000

the 5th and 6th dynasty
Reisner (1905–06)

Cemetery G 2100
the 4th and 5th dynasty and later
Reisner (1931)
G 2100 belongs to Merib, a King’s (grand-)Son and G2101 belongs to a 5th dynasty king’s daughter.

Cemetery G 2200
Late 4th or early 5th dynasty
Reisner ?
Mastaba G 2220

Cemetery G 2300
5th dynasty and 6th dynasty
Reisner (1911–13)
Includes mastabas of Vizier Senedjemib-Inti and his family.

Cemetery G 2400
5th dynasty and 6th dynasty
Reisner (1911–13)

Cemetery G 2500

Reisner

Cemetery G 3000
6th dynasty
Fisher and Eckley Case Jr (1915)

Cemetery G 4000
4th dynasty and later
Junker and Reisner (1931)
Includes tomb of the Vizier Hemiunu

Cemetery G 6000
5th dynasty
Reisner (1925–26)

Junker Cemetery (West)
Late Old Kingdom
Junker (1926–27)
Includes mastaba of the dwarf Seneb

Steindorff Cemetery
5th dynasty and 6th dynasty
Steindorff (1903–07)

Junker Cemetery (East)
Late Old Kingdom
Junker

text: East Field[edit]

text: The East Field is located to the east of Khufu’s pyramid and contains cemetery G 7000. This cemetery was a burial place for some of the family members of Khufu. The cemetery also includes mastabas from tenants and priests of the pyramids dated to the 5th dynasty and 6th dynasty.[6]:179–216

text:
Cemeteries G 7000 – Royalty[6]:179–208

Tomb number
Owner
Comments

G 7000 X
Queen Hetepheres I
Mother of Khufu

G 7010
Nefertkau I
Daughter of Sneferu, half-sister of Khufu

G 7060
Nefermaat I
Son of Nefertkau I and Vizier of Khafra

G 7070
Sneferukhaf
Son of Nefermaat II

G 7110–7120
Kawab and Hetepheres II
Kawab was the eldest son of Khufu

G 7130–7140
Khufukhaf I and Nefertkau II
King’s Son and Vizier and his wife

G 7210–7220
Djedefhor
King’s Son of Khufu and Meritites

G 7350
Hetepheres II
Wife of Kawab and later wife of Djedefre

G 7410–7420
Meresankh II and Horbaef
Meresankh was a king’s daughter and king’s wife

G 7430–7440
Minkhaf I
Son of Khufu and Vizier of Khafra

G 7510
Ankhhaf
Son of Sneferu and Vizier of Khafra

G 7530–7540
Meresankh III
Daughter of Kawab and Hetepheres II, wife of Khafra

G 7550
Duaenhor
Probably son of Kawab and thus a grandson of Khufu

G 7560
Akhethotep and Meritites II
Meritites is a daughter of Khufu

G 7660
Kaemsekhem
Son of Kawab, a grandson of Khufu, served as Director of the Palace

G 7760
Mindjedef
Son of Kawab, a grandson of Khufu, served as Treasurer

G 7810
Djaty
Son of Queen Meresankh II

text: Cemetery GIS[edit]

text: This cemetery dates from the time of Menkaure (Junker) or earlier (Reisner), and contains several stone-built mastabas dating from as late as the 6th dynasty. Tombs from the time of Menkaure include the mastabas of the royal chamberlain Khaemnefert, the King’s son Khufudjedef was master of the royal largesse, and an official named Niankhre.[6]:216–228

text: Central Field[edit]

text: The Central Field contains several burials of royal family members. The tombs range in date from the end of the 4th dynasty to the 5th dynasty or even later.[6]:230–293

text:
Central Field – Royalty[6]:230–293

Tomb number
Owner
Comments

G 8172 (LG 86)
Nebemakhet
Son of Khafre, served as Vizier

G 8158 (LG 87)
Nikaure
Son of Khafre and Persenet, served as Vizier

G 8156 (LG 88)
Persenet
Wife of Khafre

G 8154 (LG 89)
Sekhemkare
Son of Khafre and Hekenuhedjet

G 8140
Niuserre
Son of Khafre, Vizier in the 5th dynasty

G 8130
Niankhre
King’s Son, probably 5th dynasty

G 8080 (LG 92)
Iunmin
King’s Son, end of 4th dynasty

G 8260
Babaef
Son of Khafre, end of 4th dynasty

G 8466
Iunre
Son of Khafre, end of 4th dynasty

G 8464
Hemetre
Probably daughter of Khafre, end of 4th dynasty or 5th dynasty

G 8460
Ankhmare
King’s son and Vizier, end of 4th dynasty

G 8530
Rekhetre
King’s daughter (of Khafre) and Queen, end of 4th dynasty or 5th dynasty

G 8408
Bunefer
King’s daughter and Queen, end of 4th dynasty or 5th dynasty

G 8978
Khamerernebty I
King’s daughter and Queen, middle to end of 4th dynasty. Also known as the Galarza Tomb

text: Tombs dating from the Saite and later period were found near the causeway of Khafre and the Great Sphinx. These tombs include the tomb of a commander of the army named Ahmose and his mother Queen Nakhtubasterau, who was the wife of Pharaoh Amasis II.[6]:289–290

text: South Field[edit]

text: The South Field includes some mastabas dating from the 2nd dynasty and 3rd dynasty. One of these early dynastic tombs is referred to as the Covington tomb. Other tombs date from the late Old Kingdom (5th and 6th dynasty). The south section of the field contains several tombs dating from the Saite period and later.[6]:294–297

text: Tombs of the pyramid builders[edit]

text: In 1990, tombs belonging to the pyramid workers were discovered alongside the pyramids with an additional burial site found nearby in 2009. Although not mummified, they had been buried in mud-brick tombs with beer and bread to support them in the afterlife. The tombs' proximity to the pyramids and the manner of burial supports the theory that they were paid laborers who took great pride in their work and were not slaves, as was previously thought. The commonly held belief of slaves building the pyramids was likely to have been popularized by Hollywood films based on the original archaeological and anthropological opinion that they could not have been built without forced labor. Evidence from the tombs indicates that a workforce of 10,000 laborers working in three-month shifts took around 30 years to build a pyramid. Most of the workers appear to have come from poor families. Farms supplied the laborers with 21 cattle and 23 sheep daily. Specialists such as architects, masons, metalworkers and carpenters, were permanently employed by the king to fill positions that required the most skill.[13][14][15][16][17]

text: New Kingdom[edit]

text: During the New Kingdom, Giza was still an active site. A brick-built chapel was constructed near the Sphinx during the early 18th dynasty, probably by King Thutmose I. Amenhotep II built a temple dedicated to Hauron-Haremakhet near the Sphinx. Pharaoh Thutmose IV visited the pyramids and the Sphinx as a prince and in a dream was told that clearing the sand from the Sphinx would be rewarded with kingship. This event is recorded in the Dream stela. During the early years of his reign, Thutmose IV together with his wife Queen Nefertari had stelae erected at Giza. Pharaoh Tutankhamun had a structure built, which is now referred to as the king's resthouse. During the 19th dynasty, Seti I added to the temple of Hauron-Haremakhet, and his son Ramesses II erected a stela in the chapel before the Sphinx and usurped the resthouse of Tutankhamun.[6]:39–47

text: Late Period[edit]

text: During the 21st dynasty, the Temple of Isis Mistress-of-the-Pyramids was reconstructed. During the 26th dynasty, a stela made in this time mentions Khufu and his Queen Henutsen.[6]:18

text: Astronomy[edit]

text: The sides of all three of the Giza pyramids were astronomically oriented to the north-south and east-west within a small fraction of a degree. Among recent attempts[18][19][20] to explain such a clearly deliberate pattern are those of S. Haack, O. Neugebauer, K. Spence, D. Rawlins, K. Pickering, and J. Belmonte. The arrangement of the pyramids is a representation of the Orion constellation according to the disputed Orion Correlation Theory.