document_title: Market segmentation

question_text: a person's income is an example of what kind of market variable

question_tokens: a person 's income is an example of what kind of market variable

text: Market segmentation

text: Definition and brief explanation[edit]

text: Market segmentation is the process of dividing up mass markets into groups with similar needs and wants.[1] The rationale for market segmentation is that in order to achieve competitive advantage and superior performance, firms should: "(1) identify segments of industry demand, (2) target specific segments of demand, and (3) develop specific 'marketing mixes' for each targeted market segment. "[2] From an economic perspective, segmentation is built on the assumption that heterogeneity in demand allows for demand to be disaggregated into segments with distinct demand functions.[3]

text: History[edit]

text: The business historian, Richard S. Tedlow, identifies four stages in the evolution of market segmentation:[4]

text:
Fragmentation (pre-1880s): The economy was characterised by small regional suppliers who sold goods on a local or regional basis
Unification or Mass Marketing (1880s–1920s): As transportation systems improved, the economy became unified. Standardised, branded goods were distributed at a national level. Manufacturers tended to insist on strict standardisation in order to achieve scale economies with a view to penetrating markets in the early stages of a product's lifecycle. e.g. the Model T Ford
Segmentation (1920s–1980s): As market size increased, manufacturers were able to produce different models pitched at different quality points to meet the needs of various demographic and psychographic market segments. This is the era of market differentiation based on demographic, socio-economic and lifestyle factors.
Hyper-segmentation (post-1980s): a shift towards the definition of ever more narrow market segments. Technological advancements, especially in the area of digital communications, allow marketers to communicate with individual consumers or very small groups. This is sometimes known as one-to-one marketing.

text: The practice of market segmentation emerged well before marketers thought about it at a theoretical level.[5] Archaeological evidence suggests that Bronze Age traders segmented trade routes according to geographical circuits.[6] Other evidence suggests that the practice of modern market segmentation was developed incrementally from the 16th century onwards. Retailers, operating outside the major metropolitan cities, could not afford to serve one type of clientele exclusively, yet retailers needed to find ways to separate the wealthier clientele from the "riff raff". One simple technique was to have a window opening out onto the street from which customers could be served. This allowed the sale of goods to the common people, without encouraging them to come inside. Another solution, that came into vogue from the late sixteenth century, was to invite favored customers into a back-room of the store, where goods were permanently on display. Yet another technique that emerged around the same time was to hold a showcase of goods in the shopkeeper's private home for the benefit of wealthier clients. Samuel Pepys, for example, writing in 1660, describes being invited to the home of a retailer to view a wooden jack.[7] The eighteenth-century English entrepreneurs, Josiah Wedgewood and Matthew Boulton, both staged expansive showcases of their wares in their private residences or in rented halls to which only the upper classes were invited while Wedgewood used a team of itinerant salesmen to sell wares to the masses.[8]

text: Evidence of early marketing segmentation has also been noted elsewhere in Europe. A study of the German book trade found examples of both product differentiation and market segmentation in the 1820s.[9] From the 1880s, German toy manufacturers were producing models of tin toys for specific geographic markets; London omnibuses and ambulances destined for the British market; French postal delivery vans for Continental Europe and American locomotives intended for sale in America. [10] Such activities suggest that basic forms of market segmentation have been practised since the 17th century and possibly earlier.

text: Contemporary market segmentation emerged in the first decades of the twentieth century as marketers responded to two pressing issues. Demographic and purchasing data were available for groups but rarely for individuals and secondly, advertising and distribution channels were available for groups, but rarely for single consumers. Between 1902 and 1910, George B Waldron, working at Mahin's Advertising Agency in the United States used tax registers, city directories and census data to show advertisers the proportion of educated vs illiterate consumers and the earning capacity of different occupations etc. in a very early example of simple market segmentation.[11][12] In 1924 Paul Cherington developed the 'ABCD' household typology; the first socio-demographic segmentation tool.[11][13] By the 1930s, market researchers such as Ernest Dichter recognised that demographics alone were insufficient to explain different marketing behaviours and began exploring the use of lifestyles, attitudes, values, beliefs and culture to segment markets. [14] With access to group level data only, brand marketers approached the task from a tactical viewpoint. Thus, segmentation was essentially a brand-driven process.

text: Wendell R. Smith is generally credited with being the first to introduce the concept of market segmentation into the marketing literature in 1956 with the publication of his article, "Product Differentiation and Market Segmentation as Alternative Marketing Strategies."[15] Smith's article makes it clear that he had observed "many examples of segmentation" emerging and to a certain extent saw this as a "natural force" in the market that would "not be denied."[16] As Schwarzkopf points out, Smith was codifying implicit knowledge that had been used in advertising and brand management since at least the 1920s.[17]

text: Until relatively recently, most segmentation approaches have retained a tactical perspective in that they address immediate short-term decisions; such as describing the current “market served” and are concerned with informing marketing mix decisions. However, with the advent of digital communications and mass data storage, it has been possible for marketers to conceive of segmenting at the level of the individual consumer. Extensive data is now available to support segmentation at very narrow groups or even for the single customer, allowing marketers to devise a customised offer with an individual price which can be disseminated via real-time communications.[18] Some scholars have argued that the fragmentation of markets has rendered traditional approaches to market segmentation less useful.[19]

text: Criticisms[edit]

text: The limitations of conventional segmentation have been well documented in the literature.[20] Perennial criticisms include:

text:
That it is no better than mass marketing at building brands[21]
That in competitive markets, segments rarely exhibit major differences in the way they use brands[22]
That it fails to identify sufficiently narrow clusters[23]
Geographic/demographic segmentation is overly descriptive and lacks sufficient insights into the motivations necessary to drive communications strategy[24]
Difficulties with market dynamics, notably the instability of segments over time[25][26] and structural change which leads to segment creep and membership migration as individuals move from one segment to another[27]

text: Market segmentation has many critics. But in spite of its limitations, market segmentation remains one of the enduring concepts in marketing and continues to be widely used in practice. One American study, for example, suggested that almost 60 percent of senior executives had used market segmentation in the past two years.[28]

text: Market segmentation strategy[edit]

text: A key consideration for marketers is whether to segment or not to segment. Depending on company philosophy, resources, product type or market characteristics, a business may develop an undifferentiated approach or differentiated approach. In an undifferentiated approach, the marketer ignores segmentation and develops a product that meets the needs of the largest number of buyers.[29] In a differentiated approach the firm targets one or more market segments, and develops separate offers for each segment.[29]

text: In consumer marketing, it is difficult to find examples of undifferentiated approaches. Even goods such as salt and sugar, which were once treated as commodities, are now highly differentiated. Consumers can purchase a variety of salt products; cooking salt, table salt, sea salt, rock salt, kosher salt, mineral salt, herbal or vegetable salts, iodised salt, salt substitutes and many more. Sugar also comes in many different types - cane sugar, beet sugar, raw sugar, white refined sugar, brown sugar, caster sugar, sugar lumps, icing sugar (also known as milled sugar), sugar syrup, invert sugar and a plethora of sugar substitutes including smart sugar which is essentially a blend of pure sugar and a sugar substitute. Each of these product types is designed to meet the needs of specific market segments. Invert sugar and sugar syrups, for example, are marketed to food manufacturers where they are used in the production of conserves, chocolate, and baked goods. Sugars marketed to consumers appeal to different usage segments – refined sugar is primarily for use on the table, while caster sugar and icing sugar are primarily designed for use in home-baked goods.

text:
Main Strategic Approaches to Segmentation[30]

Number of segments

Segmentation strategy

Comments

Zero

Undifferentiated strategy

Mass marketing: no segmentation

One

Focus strategy

Niche marketing: focus efforts on a small, tightly defined target market

Two or more

Differentiated strategy

Multiple niches: focus efforts on 2 or more, tightly defined targets

Thousands

Hypersegmentation

One-to-one marketing: customise the offer for each individual customer

text: A number of factors are likely to affect a company's segmentation strategy:[31]

text:
Company resources: When resources are restricted, a concentrated strategy may be more effective.
Product variability: For highly uniform products (such as sugar or steel) an undifferentiated marketing may be more appropriate. For products that can be differentiated, (such as cars) then either a differentiated or concentrated approach is indicated.
Product life cycle: For new products, one version may be used at the launch stage, but this may be expanded to a more segmented approach over time. As more competitors enter the market, it may be necessary to differentiate.
Market characteristics: When all buyers have similar tastes or are unwilling to pay a premium for different quality, then undifferentiated marketing is indicated.
Competitive activity: When competitors apply differentiated or concentrated market segmentation, using undifferentiated marketing may prove to be fatal. A company should consider whether it can use a different market segmentation approach.

text: Segmentation, targeting, positioning[edit]

text: The process of segmenting the market is deceptively simple. Seven basic steps describe the entire process including segmentation, targeting, and positioning. In practice, however, the task can be very laborious since it involves poring overloads of data, and requires a great deal of skill in analysis, interpretation and some judgment. Although a great deal of analysis needs to be undertaken, and many decisions need to be made, marketers tend to use the so-called S-T-P process, that is Segmentation→ Targeting → Positioning, as a broad framework for simplifying the process.[32] Segmentation comprises identifying the market to be segmented; identification, selection, and application of bases to be used in that segmentation; and development of profiles. Targeting comprises an evaluation of each segment's attractiveness and selection of the segments to be targeted. Positioning comprises the identification of optimal position and development of the marketing program.

text: Identifying the market to be segmented[edit]

text: The market for a given product or service known as the market potential or the total addressable market (TAM). Given that this is the market to be segmented, the market analyst should begin by identifying the size of the potential market. For existing products and services, estimating the size and value of the market potential is relatively straightforward. However, estimating the market potential can be very challenging when a product or service is totally new to the market and no historical data on which to base forecasts exists.

text: A basic approach is to first assess the size of the broad population, then estimate the percentage likely to use the product or service and finally to estimate the revenue potential.

text: Another approach is to use historical analogy.[33] For example, the manufacturer of HDTV might assume that the number of consumers willing to adopt high definition TV will be similar to the adoption rate for Color TV. To support this type of analysis, data for household penetration of TV, Radio, PCs, and other communications technologies is readily available from government statistics departments. Finding useful analogies can be challenging because every market is unique. However, analogous product adoption and growth rates can provide the analyst with benchmark estimates, and can be used to cross-validate other methods that might be used to forecast sales or market size.

text: A more robust technique for estimating the market potential is known as the Bass diffusion model, the equation for which follows:[34]

text: Where:

text:
N(t)= the number of adopters in the current time period, (t)
N(t−1)= the number of adopters in the previous time period, (t-1)
P = the coefficient of innovation
Q = the coefficient of imitation (the social contagion influence)
M = an estimate of the number of eventual adopters

text: The major challenge with the Bass model is estimating the parameters for p and q. However, the Bass model has been so widely used in empirical studies that the values of p and q for more than 50 consumer and industrial categories have been determined and are widely published in tables.[35] The average value for p is 0.037 and for q is 0.327.

text: Bases for segmenting consumer markets[edit]

text: A major step in the segmentation process is the selection of a suitable base. In this step, marketers are looking for a means of achieving internal homogeneity (similarity within the segments), and external heterogeneity (differences between segments).[36] In other words, they are searching for a process that minimises differences between members of a segment and maximises differences between each segment. In addition, the segmentation approach must yield segments that are meaningful for the specific marketing problem or situation. For example, a person's hair color may be a relevant base for a shampoo manufacturer, but it would not be relevant for a seller of financial services. Selecting the right base requires a good deal of thought and a basic understanding of the market to be segmented.

text: In reality, marketers can segment the market using any base or variable provided that it is identifiable, substantial, responsive, actionable and stable.[37]

text:
Identifiability refers to the extent to which managers can identify or recognise distinct groups within the marketplace
Substantiality refers to the extent to which a segment or group of customers represents a sufficient size to be profitable. This could mean sufficiently large in number of people or in purchasing power
Accessibility refers to the extent to which marketers can reach the targeted segments with promotional or distribution efforts
Responsiveness refers to the extent to which consumers in a defined segment will respond to marketing offers targeted at them
Actionable – segments are said to be actionable when they provide guidance for marketing decisions.[38]

text: For example, although dress size is not a standard base for segmenting a market, some fashion houses have successfully segmented the market using women's dress size as a variable.[39] However, the most common bases for segmenting consumer markets include: geographics, demographics, psychographics, and behaviour. Marketers normally select a single base for the segmentation analysis, although, some bases can be combined into a single segmentation with care. For example, geographics and demographics are often combined, but other bases are rarely combined. Given that psychographics includes demographic variables such as age, gender, and income as well as attitudinal and behavioural variables, it makes little logical sense to combine psychographics with demographics or other bases. Any attempt to use combined bases needs careful consideration and a logical foundation.

text:
Segmentation base
Brief explanation of base (and example)
Typical segments

Demographic
Quantifiable population characteristics. (e.g. age, gender, income, education, socio-economic status, family size or situation).
e.g. Young, Upwardly-mobile, Prosperous, Professionals (YUPPY); Double Income No Kids (DINKS); Greying, Leisured And Moneyed (GLAMS); Empty- nester, Full-nester

Geographic
Physical location or region (e.g. country, state, region, city, suburb, postcode).
e.g. New Yorkers; Remote, outback Australians; Urbanites, Inner-city dwellers

Geo-demographic or geoclusters
Combination of geographic & demographic variables.
e.g. Rural farmers, Urban professionals, 'sea-changers', 'tree-changers'

Psychographics
Lifestyle, social or personality characteristics. (typically includes basic demographic descriptors)
e.g. Socially Aware; Traditionalists, Conservatives, Active 'club-going' young professionals

Behavioural
Purchasing, consumption or usage behaviour. (e.g. Needs-based, benefit-sought, usage occasion, purchase frequency, customer loyalty, buyer readiness).
e.g. Tech-savvy (aka tech-heads); Heavy users, Enthusiasts; Early adopters, Opinion Leaders, Luxury-seekers, Price-conscious, Quality-conscious, Time-poor

Contextual and situational
The same consumer changes in their attractiveness to marketers based on context and situation. This is particularly used in digital targeting via programmatic bidding approaches
e.g. Actively shopping, just entering into a life change event, being physically in a certain location or at a particular retailer which is known from GPS data via smartphones.

text: Source: Based on Wikiversity, Marketing [E-Book], c. 2015

text: The following sections provide a detailed description of the most common forms of consumer market segmentation.

text: Geographic segmentation[edit]

text: Geographic segmentation divides markets according to geographic criteria. In practice, markets can be segmented as broadly as continents and as narrowly as neighborhoods or postal codes.[40] Typical geographic variables include:

text:
Country e.g. Brazil, Canada, China, France, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, UK, US
Region e.g. North, North-west, Mid-west, South, Central
Population density: e.g. central business district (CBD), urban, suburban, rural, regional
City or town size: e.g. under 1,000; 1,000–5,000; 5,000–10,000 ... 1,000,000–3,000,000 and over 3,000,000
Climatic zone: e.g. Mediterranean, Temperate, Sub-Tropical, Tropical, Polar

text: The geo-cluster approach (also called geodemographic segmentation) combines demographic data with geographic data to create richer, more detailed profiles.[41] Geo-cluster approaches are a consumer classification system designed market segmentation and consumer profiling purposes. They classify residential regions or postcodes on the basis of census and lifestyle characteristics obtained from a wide range of sources. This allows the segmentation of a population into smaller groups defined by individual characteristics such as demographic, socio-economic or other shared socio-demographic characteristics.

text: Geographic segmentation may be considered the first step in international marketing, where marketers must decide whether to adapt their existing products and marketing programs for the unique needs of distinct geographic markets. Tourism Marketing Boards often segment international visitors based on their country of origin.

text: A number of proprietary geo-demographic packages are available for commercial use. Geographic segmentation is widely used in direct marketing campaigns to identify areas which are potential candidates for personal selling, letter-box distribution or direct mail. Geo-cluster segmentation is widely used by Governments and public sector departments such as urban planning, health authorities, police, criminal justice departments, telecommunications and public utility organisations such as water boards.[42]

text: Demographic segmentation[edit]

text:
Segmentation according to demography is based on consumer- demographic variables such as age, income, family size, socio-economic status, etc.[43]
Demographic segmentation assumes that consumers with similar demographic profiles will exhibit similar purchasing patterns, motivations, interests and lifestyles and that these characteristics will translate into similar product/brand preferences.[44] In practice, demographic segmentation can potentially employ any variable that is used by the nation's census collectors. Typical demographic variables and their descriptors are as follows:

text:
Age: e.g. Under 5, 5–8 years, 9–12 years, 13–17 years, 18–24, 25–29, 30–39, 40–49, 50–59, 60+[45]
Gender: Male, Female[46]
Occupation: Professional, self-employed, semi-professional, clerical/ admin, sales, trades, mining, primary producer, student, home duties, unemployed, retired[47]
Socio-economic: A, B, C, D, E, or I, II, III, IV or V (normally divided into quintiles)[48]
Marital Status: Single, married, divorced, widowed
Family Life-stage: Young single; Young married with no children; Young family with children under 5 years; Older married with children; Older married with no children living at home, Older living alone[49]
Family size/ number of dependants: 0, 1–2, 3–4, 5+
Income: Under $10,000; 10,000–20,000; 20,001–30,000; 30,001–40,000, 40,001–50,000 etc.
Educational attainment: Primary school; Some secondary, Completed secondary, Some university, Degree; Post graduate or higher degree
Home ownership: Renting, Own home with mortgage, Home owned outright
Ethnicity: Asian, African, Aboriginal, Polynesian, Melanesian, Latin-American, African-American, American Indian etc.
Religion: Catholic, Protestant, Muslim, Jewish, Buddhist, Hindu, Other

text: In practice, most demographic segmentation utilises a combination of demographic variables.

text: The use of multiple segmentation variables normally requires analysis of databases using sophisticated statistical techniques such as cluster analysis or principal components analysis. It should be noted that these types of analysis require very large sample sizes. However, data-collection is expensive for individual firms. For this reason, many companies purchase data from commercial market research firms, many of whom develop proprietary software to interrogate the data.

text: The labels applied to some of the more popular demographic segments began to enter the popular lexicon in the 1980s.[50][51][52] These include the following:[53][54]

text: Psychographic segmentation[edit]

text: Psychographic segmentation, which is sometimes called psychometric or lifestyle segmentation, is measured by studying the activities, interests, and opinions (AIOs) of customers. It considers how people spend their leisure,[55] and which external influences they are most responsive to and influenced by. Psychographics is a very widely used basis for segmentation, because it enables marketers to identify tightly defined market segments and better understand consumer motivations for product or brand choice.

text: While many of these proprietary psychographic segmentation analyses are well-known, the majority of studies based on psychographics are custom designed. That is, the segments are developed for individual products at a specific time. One common thread among psychographic segmentation studies is that they use quirky names to describe the segments.[56]

text: Behavioural segmentation[edit]

text: Behavioural segmentation divides consumers into groups according to their observed behaviours. Many marketers believe that behavioural variables are superior to demographics and geographics for building market segments[57] and some analysts have suggested that behavioural segmentation is killing off demographics.[58] Typical behavioural variables and their descriptors include:[59]

text:
Purchase/Usage Occasion: e.g. regular occasion, special occasion, festive occasion, gift-giving
Benefit-Sought: e.g. economy, quality, service level, convenience, access
User Status: e.g. First-time user, Regular user, Non-user
Usage Rate/Purchase Frequency: e.g. Light user, heavy user, moderate user
Loyalty Status: e.g. Loyal, switcher, non-loyal, lapsed
Buyer Readiness: e.g. Unaware, aware, intention to buy
Attitude to Product or Service: e.g. Enthusiast, Indifferent, Hostile; Price Conscious, Quality Conscious
Adopter Status: e.g. Early adopter, late adopter, laggard

text: Note that these descriptors are merely commonly used examples. Marketers customise the variable and descriptors for both local conditions and for specific applications. For example, in the health industry, planners often segment broad markets according to 'health consciousness' and identify low, moderate and highly health conscious segments. This is an applied example of behavioural segmentation, using attitude to product or service as a key descriptor or variable which has been customised for the specific application.

text: Purchase/usage occasion[edit]

text: Purchase or usage occasion segmentation focuses on analyzing occasions when consumers might purchase or consume a product. This approach customer-level and occasion-level segmentation models and provides an understanding of the individual customers’ needs, behaviour and value under different occasions of usage and time. Unlike traditional segmentation models, this approach assigns more than one segment to each unique customer, depending on the current circumstances they are under.

text: Benefit-sought[edit]

text: The benefits sought by purchasers (sometimes called needs-based segmentation) divides markets into distinct needs, perceived value, benefits sought or advantage that accrues from the purchase of a product or service. Marketers using benefit-sought segmentation might develop products with different quality levels, performance, customer service, special features or any other meaningful benefit and pitch different products at each of the segments identified. Benefit segmentation is one of the more commonly used approaches to segmentation and is widely used in many consumer markets including motor vehicles, fashion and clothing, furniture, consumer electronics, and holiday-makers.[60]

text: Loker and Purdue, for example, used benefit segmentation to segment the pleasure holiday travel market. The segments identified in this study were the naturalists, pure excitement seekers, escapists.[61]

text: Attitudinal segments[edit]

text: Attitudinal segmentation provides insight into the mindset of customers, especially the attitudes and beliefs that drive consumer decision-making and behaviour. An example of attitudinal segmentation comes from the UK's Department of Environment which segmented the British population into six segments, based on attitudes that drive behaviour relating to environmental protection:[62]

text:
Greens: Driven by the belief that protecting the environment is critical; try to conserve whenever they can
Conscious with a conscience: Aspire to be green; primarily concerned with wastage; lack awareness of other behaviours associated with broader environmental issues such as climate change
Currently constrained: Aspire to be green but feel they cannot afford to purchase organic products; pragmatic realists
 Basic contributors: Sceptical about the need for behaviour change; aspire to conform to social norms; lack awareness of social and environmental issues
Long-term resistance: Have serious life priorities that take precedence before a behavioural change is a consideration; their everyday behaviours often have a low impact on the environment, but for other reasons than conservation
Disinterested: View greenies as an eccentric minority; exhibit no interest in changing their behaviour; may be aware of climate change but have not internalised it to the extent that it enters their decision-making process.

text: Other types of consumer segmentation[edit]

text: In addition to geographics, demographics, psychographics and behavioural bases, marketers occasionally turn to other means of segmenting the market, or to develop segment profiles.

text: Generational segments[edit]

text: A generation is defined as "a cohort of people born within a similar span of time (15 years at the upper end) who share a comparable age and life stage and who were shaped by a particular span of time (events, trends, and developments)."[63] Generational segmentation refers to the process of dividing and analyzing a population into cohorts based on their birth date. Generational segmentation assumes that people's values and attitudes are shaped by the key events that occurred during their lives and that these attitudes translate into product and brand preferences.

text: Demographers, studying population change, disagree about precise dates for each generation.[64] Dating is normally achieved by identifying population peaks or troughs, which can occur at different times in each country. For example, in Australia the post-war population boom peaked in 1960,[65] while the peak occurred somewhat later in the USA and Europe,[66] with most estimates converging on 1964. Accordingly, Australian Boomers are normally defined as those born between 1945–1960; while American and European Boomers are normally defined as those born between 1945–64. Thus, the generational segments and their dates discussed here must be taken as approximations only.

text: The primary generational segments identified by marketers are:[67]

text:
Builders: born 1920 to 1945
Baby boomers: born about 1945–1965
Generation X: born about 1966–1976
Generation Y: also known as Millennials; born about 1977–1994
Generation Z: also known as Centennials; born 1995–2015

text:
Unique characteristics of selected generations[68]

Millennials

Generation X

Baby Boomers

Technology use
24%

Technology use
12%

Work ethic
17%

Music/ popular culture
11%

Work ethic
11%

Respectful
14%

Liberal/ tolerant
7%

Conservative/ traditional
7%

Values/ morals
8%

Smarter
6%

Smarter
6%

Smarter
5%

Clothes
5%

Respectful
5%

N/A
—

text: Cultural segmentation[edit]

text: Cultural segmentation is used to classify markets according to cultural origin. Culture is a major dimension of consumer behaviour and can be used to enhance customer insight and as a component of predictive models. Cultural segmentation enables appropriate communications to be crafted to particular cultural communities. Cultural segmentation can be applied to existing customer data to measure market penetration in key cultural segments by product, brand, channel as well as traditional measures of recency, frequency, and monetary value. These benchmarks form an important evidence-base to guide strategic direction and tactical campaign activity, allowing engagement trends to be monitored over time.

text: Cultural segmentation can also be mapped according to state, region, suburb, and neighborhood. This provides a geographical market view of population proportions and may be of benefit in selecting appropriately located premises, determining territory boundaries and local marketing activities.

text: Census data is a valuable source of cultural data but cannot meaningfully be applied to individuals. Name analysis (onomastics) is the most reliable and efficient means of describing the cultural origin of individuals. The accuracy of using name analysis as a surrogate for cultural background in Australia is 80–85%, after allowing for female name changes due to marriage, social or political reasons or colonial influence. The extent of name data coverage means a user will code a minimum of 99 percent of individuals with their most likely ancestral origin.

text: Online customer segmentation[edit]

text: Online market segmentation is similar to the traditional approaches in that the segments should be identifiable, substantial, accessible, stable, differentiable and actionable.[69] Customer data stored in online data management systems such as a CRM or DMP enables the analysis and segmentation of consumers across a diverse set of attributes.[70] Forsyth et al., in an article 'Internet research' grouped current active online consumers into six groups: Simplifiers, Surfers, Bargainers, Connectors, Routiners, and Sportsters. The segments differ regarding four customers' behaviours, namely:[71]

text:
The amount of time they actively spend online,
The number of pages and sites they access,
The time they spend actively viewing each page,
And the kinds of sites they visit.

text: For example, Simplifiers make over 50 percent of all online transactions. Their main characteristic is that they need easy (one-click) access to information and products as well as easy and quickly available service regarding products. Amazon.com is a good example of a company who created an online environment for Simplifiers. They also 'dislike unsolicited e-mail, uninviting chat rooms, pop-up windows intended to encourage impulse buys, and other features that complicate their on- and off-line experience'. Surfers like to spend a lot of time online, thus companies must have a variety of products to offer and constant update, Bargainers are looking for the best price, Connectors like to relate to others, Routiners want content and Sportsters like sport and entertainment sites.

text: Selecting target markets[edit]

text: Another major decision in developing the segmentation strategy is the selection of market segments that will become the focus of special attention (known as target markets). The marketer faces a number of important decisions:

text:
What criteria should be used to evaluate markets?
How many markets to enter (one, two or more)?
Which market segments are the most valuable?

text: When a marketer enters more than one market, the segments are often labeled the primary target market, secondary target market. The primary market is the target market selected as the main focus of marketing activities. The secondary target market is likely to be a segment that is not as large as the primary market, but has growth potential. Alternatively, the secondary target group might consist of a small number of purchasers that account for a relatively high proportion of sales volume perhaps due to purchase value or purchase frequency.

text: In terms of evaluating markets, three core considerations are essential:[72]

text:
Segment size and growth
Segment structural attractiveness
Company objectives and resources.

text: Criteria for evaluating segment attractiveness[edit]

text: There are no formulas for evaluating the attractiveness of market segments and a good deal of judgment must be exercised.[73] Nevertheless, a number of considerations can be used to assist in evaluating market segments for overall attractiveness. The following lists a series of questions that can be asked.

text: Segment size and growth[edit]

text:
How large is the market?
Is the market segment substantial enough to be profitable? (Segment size can be measured in number of customers, but superior measures are likely to include sales value or volume)
Is the market segment growing or contracting?
What are the indications that growth will be sustained in the long term? Is any observed growth sustainable?
Is the segment stable over time? (Segment must have sufficient time to reach desired performance level)

text: Segment structural attractiveness[edit]

text:
To what extent are competitors targeting this market segment?
Do buyers have bargaining power in the market?
Are substitute products available?
Can we carve out a viable position to differentiate from any competitors?
How responsive are members of the market segment to the marketing program?
Is this market segment reachable and accessible? (i.e., with respect to distribution and promotion)

text: Company objectives and resources[edit]

text:
Is this market segment aligned with our company's operating philosophy?
Do we have the resources necessary to enter this market segment?
Do we have prior experience with this market segment or similar market segments?
Do we have the skills and/or know-how to enter this market segment successfully?

text: Developing the marketing program and positioning strategy[edit]

text: When the segments have been determined and separate offers developed for each of the core segments, the marketer's next task is to design a marketing program (also known as the marketing mix) that will resonate with the target market or markets. Developing the marketing program requires a deep knowledge of key market segment's purchasing habits, their preferred retail outlet, their media habits and their price sensitivity. The marketing program for each brand or product should be based on the understanding of the target market (or target markets) revealed in the market profile.

text: Positioning is the final step in the S-T-P planning approach; Segmentation→ Targeting → Positioning; a core framework for developing marketing plans and setting objectives. Positioning refers to decisions about how to present the offer in a way that resonates with the target market. During the research and analysis that forms the central part of segmentation and targeting, the marketer will have gained insights into what motivates consumers to purchase a product or brand. These insights will form part of the positioning strategy.

text: According to advertising guru, David Ogilvy, "Positioning is the act of designing the company’s offering and image to occupy a distinctive place in the minds of the target market. The goal is to locate the brand in the minds of consumers to maximise the potential benefit to the firm. A good brand positioning helps guide marketing strategy by clarifying the brand’s essence, what goals it helps the consumer achieve, and how it does so in a unique way."[74]

text: The technique known as perceptual mapping is often used to understand consumers' mental representations of brands within a given category. Traditionally two variables (often, but not necessarily, price and quality) are used to construct the map. A sample of people in the target market are asked to explain where they would place various brands in terms of the selected variables. Results are averaged across all respondents, and results are plotted on a graph, as illustrated in the figure. The final map indicates how the average member of the population views the brand that makes up a category and how each of the brands relates to other brands within the same category. While perceptual maps with two dimensions are common, multi-dimensional maps are also used.

text: There are a number of different approaches to positioning:[75]

text:
Against a competitor
Within a category
According to product benefit
According to product attribute
For usage occasion
Along price lines e.g. a luxury brand or premium brand
For a user
Cultural symbols e.g. Australia's Easter Bilby (as a culturally appropriate alternative to the Easter Bunny).

text: Bases for segmenting business markets[edit]

text: Segmenting business markets is more straightforward than segmenting consumer markets. Businesses may be segmented according to industry, business size, business location, turnover, number of employees, company technology, purchasing approach or any other relevant variables.[76]

text: Firmographics (also known as emporographics or feature based segmentation) is the business community's answer to demographic segmentation. It is commonly used in business-to-business markets (it's estimated that 81% of B2B marketers use this technique). Under this approach the target market is segmented based on features such as company size (either in terms of revenue or number of employees), industry sector or location (country and/or region).[77]

text: In sales territory management, using more than one criterion to characterise the organisation's accounts,such as segmenting sales accounts by government, business, customer, etc. and account size or duration, in effort to increase time efficiency and sales volume.[78]

text: Use in customer retention[edit]

text: The basic approach to retention-based segmentation is that a company tags each of its active customers on four axes:

text: Segmentation: algorithms and approaches[edit]

text: The choice of an appropriate statistical method for the segmentation depends on a number of factors including, the broad approach (a-priori or post-hoc), the availability of data, time constraints, the marketer's skill level and resources.

text: A-priori segmentation[edit]

text: A priori research occurs when "a theoretical framework is developed before the research is conducted".[82] In other words, the marketer has an idea about whether to segment the market geographically, demographically, psychographically or behaviourally before undertaking any research. For example, a marketer might want to learn more about the motivations and demographics of light and moderate users in an effort to understand what tactics could be used to increase usage rates. In this case, the target variable is known – the marketer has already segmented using a behavioural variable – user status. The next step would be to collect and analyze attitudinal data for light and moderate users. The typical analysis includes simple cross-tabulations, frequency distributions and occasionally logistic regression or one of a number of proprietary methods.[83]

text: The main disadvantage of a-priori segmentation is that it does not explore other opportunities to identify market segments that could be more meaningful.

text: Post-hoc segmentation[edit]

text: In contrast, post-hoc segmentation makes no assumptions about the optimal theoretical framework. Instead, the analyst's role is to determine the segments that are the most meaningful for a given marketing problem or situation. In this approach, the empirical data drives the segmentation selection. Analysts typically employ some type of clustering analysis or structural equation modeling to identify segments within the data. The figure alongside illustrates how segments might be formed using clustering; however, note that this diagram only uses two variables, while in practice clustering employs a large number of variables.[84] Post-hoc segmentation relies on access to rich datasets, usually with a very large number of cases and uses sophisticated algorithms to identify segments.[85]

text: Statistical techniques used in segmentation[edit]

text: Marketers often engage commercial research firms or consultancies to carry out segmentation analysis, especially if they lack the statistical skills to undertake the analysis. Some segmentation, especially post-hoc analysis, relies on sophisticated statistical analysis.

text: Common statistical approaches and techniques used in segmentation analysis include:

text:
Clustering algorithms[86] – overlapping, non-overlapping and fuzzy methods; e.g. K-means or other Cluster analysis
Conjoint analysis[87]
Ensemble approaches – such as random forests[88]
Chi-square automatic interaction detection – a type of decision-tree[89]
Factor analysis or principal components analysis[90]
Latent Class Analysis – a generic term for a class of methods that attempt to detect underlying clusters based on observed patterns of association[91]
Logistic regression[92]
Multidimensional scaling and canonical analysis[93]
Mixture models – e.g., EM estimation algorithm, finite-mixture models[94]
Model-based segmentation using simultaneous and structural equation modeling[95] e.g. LISREL
Other algorithms such as artificial neural networks.[96]

text: Data sources used for segmentation[edit]

text: Marketers use a variety of data sources for segmentation studies and market profiling. Typical sources of information include:[97][98]

text: Internal sources[edit]

text:
Customer transaction records e.g. sale value per transaction, purchase frequency
Patron membership records e.g. active members, lapsed members, length of membership
Customer relationship management (CRM) databases
In-house surveys
Customer self-completed questionnaires or feedback forms

text: External sources[edit]

text:
Proprietary surveys or tracking studies
Proprietary databases/software[99]
Omnibus surveys
Government agencies and departments
Government statistics
Professional/Industry associations/Employer associations
Census data
Observed purchase behaviours
Data-mining techniques
Commissioned research

text: Companies (proprietary segmentation databases)[edit]

text:
Acorn – geo-demographic segmentation[100]
Claritas Prizm – geo-demographic segmentation[101]
Experian – geo-demographic segmentation
Mosaic – geo-demographic segmentation
Roy Morgan Research Values Segments -psychographic/ psychometric[102]
VALS-psychographic/ psychometric
Values Modes-psychographic/ psychometric


document_title: History of South Africa (1994–present)

question_text: briefly outline the positive effects of the 1994 development strategy in south africa

root

text: History of South Africa (1994–present)

text: Mandela presidency (1994–1999)[edit]

text: Following the election of 27 April 1994, Nelson Mandela was sworn in as President of South Africa. The Government of National Unity was established; its cabinet made up of twelve African National Congress representatives, six from the National Party, and three from the Inkatha Freedom Party. Thabo Mbeki and F.W. de Klerk were made deputy presidents. Economically, the government embarked on the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) to address the socio-economic consequences of apartheid, including alleviating poverty and addressing the massive shortfalls in social services across the country - something that the government acknowledged would rely upon a stronger macroeconomic environment.[2]

tag: p

text: In 1995, the interim constitution agreed to during the negotiations to end apartheid was replaced by a new constitution. The government also established the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) to expose the crimes of the apartheid era. The commission heard many stories of horrific brutality and injustice from all sides of the struggle, and offered some catharsis to people and communities shattered by their past experiences.[3] [4]

text: The TRC operated by allowing victims to tell their stories and by allowing perpetrators to confess their guilt, with amnesty on offer to those who made a full confession. Those who chose not to appear before the commission would face criminal prosecution if the authorities could prove their guilt. But while some soldiers, police, and ordinary citizens confessed their crimes, few of those who had given the orders presented themselves. For example, former State President P. W. Botha and then-Deputy President Thabo Mbeki refused to appear before the Commission.

text: A Growth, Employment and Redistribution (GEAR) strategy was adopted in June 1996. The GEAR strategy was influenced by the economic ideas that became known as the Washington Consensus; it aimed to cut state expenditure, rationalise the public sector and reduce the budget deficit to 3% by 1999.[5] Trevor Manuel had just been appointed Minister of Finance. The GEAR strategy was probably adopted under some pressure from international investors.[6]

text: In 1995, South Africa hosted and won the 1995 Rugby World Cup. Nelson Mandela wore a Springbok rugby jersey to present the William Webb Ellis Cup to South African captain Francois Pienaar, a symbolic image of reconciliation between the races.[7][8]

text: Mbeki presidency (1999–2008)[edit]

text: In 1999, South Africa held its second multiracial elections. The governing ANC increased their majority, putting the party within one seat of the two-thirds majority that would allow it to alter the constitution. Thabo Mbeki was elected as the nation's second ethnically Black President.

text: The National Party (NP), restyled as the New National Party (NNP), lost two-thirds of its seats, as well as official opposition status to the Democratic Party (DP). The DP had traditionally functioned as a stronghold of liberal whites, and now gained new support from conservatives disenchanted with the NP, and from some middle-class blacks. Just behind the DP came the KwaZulu-Natal Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP), historically the voice of Zulu nationalism. While the IFP lost some support, its leader, Mangosuthu Buthelezi, continued to exercise power as the national Home Affairs minister.

text: While the ANC grassroots held Mbeki in far less affection than the beloved "Madiba" (Nelson Mandela), Mbeki proved himself to be a shrewd politician, maintaining his political pre-eminence by isolating or co-opting opposition parties. However, Mbeki's effective denial of the HIV crisis invited global criticism, and his conspicuous failure to condemn the deteriorating situation in neighbouring Zimbabwe unnerved South African landowners.

text: In June 2005, corruption allegations related to a national arms deal surfaced against the country's deputy president, Jacob Zuma, after his financial advisor, Schabir Shaik, was convicted of corruption and fraud.  In the aftermath of the conviction, Mbeki dismissed Zuma as deputy president. Zuma was subsequently charged with corruption in a case which is still unresolved as of 2009; in the meantime, Zuma's power base within the ANC has grown significantly. Popular support for Mbeki also suffered from the feeling that his government's economic policies had failed to generate inclusive development.[9]

text: The Black Economic Empowerment programme was implemented from 2003 to redress the inequalites of the apartheid era. It was criticised as benefiting mostly a narrow stratum of previously disadvantaged groups, and the programme was re-launched in 2007 as Broad-Based Black Economic Empowerment.

text: Crime in South Africa remained a massive problem. The Economist reports the killing of approximately 1,500 white farmers in attacks since 1991,[10] and in both 1995 and 1998, the country led the world in reported murders.[citation needed] In an effort to combat the alarming murder rates, the government has published statistics showing a steady, albeit tiny decrease in the murder rate since 1994, however this varies across the country.[11] In 2001, a South African was more likely to be murdered than die in a car crash.[12]

text: According to The Economist, an estimated 250,000 white South Africans emigrated between 1994-2005.[13]

text: Recall of Mbeki[edit]

text: At the 52nd National Conference of the African National Congress at Polokwane in December 2007, Mbeki lost the race for the presidency of the ANC to his former Deputy President, Jacob Zuma. All leadership positions within the ANC went to Zuma supporters, representing a major power shift within the ruling party. The ejection of Mbeki was followed by a gradual move to the left in the country's economic policy.[14]

text: Zuma, now president of the ANC; and ANC candidate for President in the 2009 general election, continued to face charges of corruption relating to the multi-billion rand arms deal. However, in 2008 a landmark ruling by high court judge Chris Nicholson found that the re-charging of Zuma by the National Prosecuting Authority was illegal and was unduly influenced by Mbeki due to political motives. The case against Zuma was thus dismissed.

text: As a consequence of the judge's findings of political interference, the ANC's National Executive Committee requested the recall of Mbeki as the country's president. Mbeki tendered his resignation on 21 September 2008. Nicholson's judgement was later overturned on appeal.

text: Motlanthe presidency (2008–2009)[edit]

text: Following Mbeki's resignation, Kgalema Motlanthe was appointed president by the South African National Assembly on 25 September 2008. The ANC made it clear that Motlanthe would be a "caretaker" president until the election on 22 April 2009, for which Jacob Zuma was the ANC's presidential candidate.[15]

text: Tensions within the ANC following Mbeki's departure led to a number of prominent members defecting to form a new party, the Congress of the People (COPE), under the leadership of Mosiuoa Lekota, Mbhazima Shilowa and Mluleki George.[16]

text: Zuma presidency (2009–2018)[edit]

text: The ANC majority was reduced to below the two-thirds level in the 2009 general election with 65.9% of the vote, with the opposition Democratic Alliance (formerly Democratic Party) winning the province of the Western Cape and increasing its overall share of the vote to 16.7%. COPE attained 7.4%. Jacob Zuma was sworn in as president on 9 May 2009.[17] The shift in economic policy, started with Mbeki's ejection from the presidency, continued with the appointment of Pravin Gordhan as Finance Minister instead of Trever Manuel.

text: In 2010, South Africa hosted the 2010 FIFA World Cup, the first time it was hosted in Africa.

text: The 2014 general election was again won by the ANC, though its share of the vote fell to 62.1%. The Democratic Alliance (DA) increased its vote to 22.2% and confirmed its role as main opposition party. The DA got 6% of the black vote and almost 93% of the white vote, and is often described as a "white" party.[18] It is also sometimes described as a "centre-right" party.[19] The Economic Freedom Fighters (EFF), led by former ANC youth leader Julius Malema, gained 6.4% of the vote and entered parliament as the third largest party. The EFF opposes what it sees as the "pro-business" stance of both ANC and DA; it also supports land reform.

text: Resignation of Zuma[edit]

text: From 2015, Jacob Zuma was understood to favour his ex-wife, Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma, to succeed him both as President of the African National Congress and as President of South Africa, in order to retain his control of the ANC and the state through her, and to avoid prosecution for still pending criminal charges.[20][21][22] In December 2017, Dlamini-Zuma was defeated by Cyril Ramaphosa in the election for the ANC Presidency at the ANC Conference at Nasrec, Johannesburg.[23]

text: Following the end of Zuma's term as ANC President, pressure grew for Zuma to be replaced as President of South Africa. The annual State of the Nation Address scheduled for 8 February was postponed indefinitely 2 days beforehand.[24] After a week of discussions within ANC structures and between Ramaphosa and Zuma, the ANC announced on 13 February that Zuma had been requested to resign, but had refused, and that the ANC was therefore "recalling" him from the Presidency.[25]  Facing a motion of no confidence in Parliament scheduled for 15 February, Jacob Zuma announced his resignation with immediate effect in a late night address on 14 February.[26]

text: Ramaphosa presidency (2018–present)[edit]

text: Following Zuma's resignation, Acting President Cyril Ramaphosa of the ruling African National Congress was elected unopposed as President of South Africa by the National Assembly on 15 February 2018.[27]. He was sworn-in by Chief Justice Mogoeng Mogoeng at 5pm, 15 February 2018.[28]

text: In February 2018, the Parliament of South Africa passed a motion to review the property ownership clause of the constitution, to allow for the expropriation of land, in the public interest, without compensation.[29][30][31]

text: In August 2018, the South African government began the process of taking two privately owned farms by filing papers seeking to acquire the farms via eminent domain for one-tenth of the price that the owner wants, (which in one case is based on possible value when the farm is developed into an eco-estate)[32]. According to a 2017 government audit, 72 percent of the nation's private farmland is owned by white people, who make up 9 percent of the population.[33]

text: Emigration, debt burden and poverty[edit]

text:
The immediate post-apartheid period was marked by an exodus of skilled, white South Africans amid safety concerns and the prospect of losing their formerly privileged status. The South African Institute of Race Relations estimated in 2008 that 800,000 or more white people had emigrated overseas since 1995, out of the approximately 4,000,000 who were in South Africa when apartheid formally ended the year before. Large white South African diasporas, both English- and Afrikaans-speaking, sprouted in Australia, New Zealand, North America, and especially in the United Kingdom to which around 550,000 South Africans emigrated.
[34]

text: The apartheid government had declared a moratorium on foreign debt repayments in the mid-1980s when it declared a state of emergency in the face of escalating civil unrest. With the formal end of apartheid in 1994, the newly elected ANC government was saddled with an onerous foreign debt amounting to 86,700,000,000 rands ($14,000,000,000 at then current exchange rates) accrued by the former apartheid regime. The cash-strapped government was obliged to repay this debt, or else face a credit downgrading by foreign financial institutions.[35] The debt was finally settled in September 2001.[36]

text: A further financial burden was imposed on the new post-apartheid government through its obligation to provide antiretroviral (ARV) treatment to impoverished victims of the HIV-AIDS epidemic sweeping the country. South Africa had the highest prevalence of HIV-AIDS compared to any other country in the world, with 5,600,000 people afflicted by the disease and 270,000 HIV-related deaths were recorded in 2011. By that time, more than 2,000,000 children were orphaned due to the epidemic. The provision of ARV treatment resulted in 100,000 fewer AIDS-related deaths in 2011, than in 2005.[37]

text: Migrant labour remained a fundamental aspect of the South African mining industry, which employed half a million, mostly black miners. Labour unrest in the industry resulted in a massacre which took place in mid-August 2012, during which; anti-riot police shot dead 34 striking miners and wounded many more in what is now known as the Marikana massacre. The migrant labour system was identified as a primary cause of the unrest. Multinational mining corporations including Anglo-American Corporation, Lonmin, and Anglo Platinum, were accused of failing to address the enduring legacies of apartheid.[38]

text: By 2014, around 47% of mostly black South Africans continued to live in poverty, making  it one of the most unequal countries  in the world.[39] Widespread dissatisfaction with the slow pace of socio-economic transformation, government incompetence and maladministration, and other public grievances in the post-apartheid era, precipitated many violent protest demonstrations. In 2007, less than half the protests were associated with some form of violence, compared with 2014 when almost 80% of protests involved violence on the part of the participants or the authorities.[40] The slow pace of transformation also fomented tensions within the tripartite alliance between the ANC, the South African Communist Party and the Congress of South African Trade Unions.[41]

text: The ANC had risen to power on the strength of a socialist agenda embodied in a Freedom Charter, which was intended to form the basis of ANC social, economic and political policies.[42] The Charter decreed that "the national wealth of our country, the heritage of South Africans, shall be restored to the people; the mineral wealth beneath the soil, the banks and monopoly industry shall be transferred to the ownership of the people".[43] ANC icon Nelson Mandela, asserted in a statement released on 25 January 1990: "The nationalisation of the mines, banks and monopoly industries is the policy of the ANC, and a change or modification of our views in this regard is inconceivable."[44] But, after the ANC's electoral victory in 1994, the eradication of mass poverty through nationalisation was never implemented. The ANC-led government, in a historic reversal of policy, adopted neoliberalism instead.[45] A wealth tax on the super-rich to fund developmental projects was set aside, while domestic and international corporations, enriched by apartheid, were excused from any financial reparations. Large corporations were allowed to shift their main listings abroad. According to a leading South African economics expert, the government's concessions to big business represented "treacherous decisions that [will] haunt South Africa for generations to come".[46]


document_title: Jesus, King of the Jews

question_text: what does the letters inri stand for on the cross

text: Jesus, King of the Jews

text: Use in the Nativity[edit]

text: In the account of the Nativity of Jesus in the Gospel of Matthew the Biblical Magi go to see King Herod the Great in Jerusalem and in Matthew 2:2 ask him: "Where is He that is born King of the Judeans?"[8]

text: The question troubles Herod who considers the title his own, and in Matthew 2:7–8 he attempts to trick the Magi to reveal the exact location of the newborn King of the Jews. However, once the Magi depart without informing Herod of the location of Jesus, Herod orders the execution of all young male children in the village of Bethlehem, in the episode known as the Massacre of the Innocents (Matthew 2:16) to avoid the loss of his throne to the newborn King of the Jews whose birth had been announced to him by the Magi.[8][9]

text: Use in the Passion Narratives[edit]

text: In the accounts of the Passion of Jesus, the title King of the Judeans is used on three separate occasions. In the first such episode, all four Gospels state that the title was used for Jesus when he was interviewed by Pilate and that his Crucifixion was based on that charge, as in Matthew 27:11, Mark 15:2, Luke 23:3 and John 18:33.[10]

text: The use of the terms King and Kingdom and the role of the Jews in using the term King to accuse Jesus are central to the discussion between Jesus and Pilate. In Mark 15:2, Jesus confirms to Pilate that he is the King of the Jews and says nothing further. In John 18:34, he hints that the King accusation did not originate with Pilate but with "others" and, in John 18:36, he states: "My kingdom is not of this world". However, Jesus does not directly deny being the King of the Jews.[11][12]

text: In the New Testament, Pilate writes "Jesus the Nazarene, King of the Judeans" as a sign to be affixed to the cross of Jesus. John 19:21 states that the Jews told Pilate: "Do not write King of the Jews" but instead write that Jesus had merely claimed that title, but Pilate wrote it anyway.[13] Pilate's response to the protest is recorded by John: "What I have written, I have written."

text: After the trial by Pilate and after the Flagellation of Christ episode, the soldiers mock Jesus as the King of Jews by putting a purple robe (that signifies royal status) on him, place a Crown of Thorns on his head, and beat and mistreat him in Matthew 27:29-30, Mark 15:17-19 and John 19:2-3.[14]

text: The continued reliance on the use of the term King by the Judeans to press charges against Jesus is a key element of the final decision to crucify him.[3] In John 19:12 Pilate seeks to release Jesus, but the Jews object, saying: "If thou release this man, thou art not Caesar's friend: every one that maketh himself a king speaketh against Caesar", bringing the power of Caesar to the forefront of the discussion.[3] In John 19:12, the Jews then cry out: "Crucify him! ... We have no king but Caesar." This is a violation of Deuteronomy 17:15 which states "You shall surely set a king over you whom the LORD your God chooses, one from among your countrymen you shall set as king over yourselves; you may not put a foreigner over yourselves who is not your countryman." and a violation of Exodus 23:2 which states "Do not follow the crowd in doing wrong. When you give testimony in a lawsuit, do not pervert justice by siding with the crowd."

text: The use of the term "King of the Judeans" by the early Church after the death of Jesus was thus not without risk, for this term could have opened them to prosecution as followers of Jesus, who was accused of possible rebellion against Rome.[3]

text: The final use of the title only appears in Luke 23:36-37. Here, after Jesus has carried the cross to Calvary and has been nailed to the cross, the soldiers look up on him on the cross, mock him, offer him vinegar and say: "If thou art the King of the Jews, save thyself." In the parallel account in Matthew 27:42, the Jewish priests mock Jesus as "King of Israel", saying: "He is the King of Israel; let him now come down from the cross, and we will believe on him."

text: King of the Jews vs King of Israel[edit]

text: In the New Testament, the "King of the Jews" title is used only by the gentiles, namely by the Magi, Pontius Pilate, Roman soldiers. In contrast the Jewish leaders prefer the designation "King of Israel", as in Matthew 27:42, Mark 15:32. But from Pilate's perspective, it is the term "King" (regardless of Jews or Israel) which is sensitive, for it implies possible rebellion against the Roman Empire.[2]

text: In the Gospel of Mark the distinction between King of the Jews and King of Israel is made consciously, setting apart the two uses of the term by the Jews and the gentiles.[15]

text: The INRI and ΙΝΒΙ acronyms[edit]

text: The acronym INRI represents the Latin inscription IESVS·NAZARENVS·REX·IVDÆORVM (Iesus Nazarenus, Rex Iudaeorum), in English reads as "Jesus the Nazarene, King of the Jews" (John 19:19).[16] John 19:20 states that this was written in three languages: Hebrew, Latin and Greek and was put on the cross of Jesus. The Greek version reads ΙΝΒΙ.[4]

text: Devotional enthusiasm greeted the discovery by Cardinal Pedro González de Mendoza in 1492 of what was acclaimed as the actual tablet, said to have been brought to Rome by Saint Helena, mother of Emperor Constantine.[17]

text: Western Christianity[edit]

text: In Western Christianity, most crucifixes and many depictions of the crucifixion of Jesus include a plaque or parchment placed above his head, called a titulus, or title, bearing only the Latin letters INRI, occasionally carved directly into the cross and usually just above the head of Jesus. In the Eastern Church "King of Glory" (τῆς Δόξης, tês Dóxēs) may be used.[4][18]

text: Eastern Christianity[edit]

text: In Eastern Christianity, both the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Eastern Catholic particular churches sui iuris use the Greek letters ΙΝΒΙ, based on the Greek version of the inscription Ἰησοῦς ὁ Ναζωραῖος ὁ βασιλεὺς τῶν Ἰουδαίων (Iēsûs ho Nazōraêos ho basileùs tôn Iudaéōn). Some representations change the title to "ΙΝΒΚ," ὁ Bασιλεὺς τοῦ κόσμου (ho Basileùs tû kósmu, "The King of the World"), or to ὁ Bασιλεὺς τῆς Δόξης (ho Basileùs tês Dóxēs, "The King of Glory"), not implying that this was really what was written but reflecting the tradition that icons depict the spiritual reality rather than the physical reality. Some other Eastern Orthodox churches (such as the Romanian Orthodox Church) use the Latin version, INRI, which is the same to the abbreviation of the Romanian equivalent. The Russian Orthodox Church uses ІНЦІ (INCI, the Church Slavonic equivalent of ΙΝΒΙ) or the abbreviation Царь Славы (Carĭ Slavy, "King of Glory").

text: Tetragrammaton Theory[edit]

text: Some have claimed that the Hebrew translation of IESVS·NAZARENVS·REX·IVDÆORVM would be properly abbreviated יהוה (YHWH), which is the Tetragrammaton or biblical name of God, and that this explains why the chief priests asked Pilate to change it (the Tetragrammaton being sacred and reserved only for God).[19] This theory is almost certainly not true, because the Hebrew word for "king," מלך, begins with the letter מ (M), which is not a part of the Tetragrammaton. Additionally, there is no suitable explanation for the inclusion of a word beginning with the letter ו (W).[20][21]

text: Versions in the gospels[edit]

text:
Mark
Luke
Matthew
John

Verse
Mk 15:26
Lk 23:38
Mt 27:37
Jn 19:19-20

Greek Inscription
ὁ βασιλεὺς τῶν Ἰουδαίων
ὁ βασιλεὺς τῶν Ἰουδαίων οὗτος
οὗτός ἐστιν Ἰησοῦς ὁ βασιλεὺς τῶν Ἰουδαίων
Ἰησοῦς ὁ Ναζωραῖος ὁ βασιλεὺς τῶν Ἰουδαίων

Transliteration
ho basileùs tôn Iudaéōn
ho basileùs tôn Iudaéōn hûtos
hûtós estin Iēsûs ho basileùs tôn Iudaéōn
Iēsûs ho Nazōraêos ho basileùs tôn Iudaéōn

English translation
The King of the Jews
This is the King of the Jews
This is Jesus, the King of the Jews
Jesus the Nazarene, the King of the Jews

Languages
[none specified]
Hebrew, Latin, Greek
[none specified]
Hebrew, Latin, Greek

Full verse in KJV
And the superscription of His accusation was written over, THE KING OF THE JEWS.
And a superscription also was written over Him in letters of Greek, and Latin, and Hebrew, THIS IS THE KING OF THE JEWS.
And set up over His head His accusation written, THIS IS JESUS THE KING OF THE JEWS
And Pilate wrote a title, and put it on the cross. And the writing was, JESUS OF NAZARETH THE KING OF THE JEWS.

tag: table

text: Gallery[edit]

text: Biblical scenes[edit]

text:
The Magi visit Herod to ask about the newborn King of the Jews, Matthew 2:2

Pilate, trying and handing over Jesus, the King of the Jews, Mark 15:2

Jesus with a royal purple robe mocked and beaten as the King of the Jews, John 19:2–3.

Jesus, on the cross, is mocked in Calvary as the King of the Jews, Luke 23:36–37

tag: ul

text: INRI examples[edit]

text:
INRI from the Isenheim Altarpiece

A Latin crucifix with a stylized INRI plaque attached, in cornfields near Mureck, Styria, Austria

INRI plaque attached to Crucifix and Calvary statue on the north side of Charles Bridge, Prague

Detail of The Small Crucifixion, painting by Matthias Grünewald, c. 1510, National Gallery of Art, Washington.


document_title: Deputy President of the Nigerian Senate

question_text: who is the current nigerian deputy senate president

text: Deputy President of the Nigerian Senate

text: The Deputy President of the Nigerian Senate is second highest-ranking member of the Senate of Nigeria, after the President of the Senate. The current Deputy President is Ike Ekweremadu of the People's Democratic Party.[1] The Deputy President presides over the Senate in the absence of the Senate President. The Deputy Senate President is elected by a majority of the Senate.[2]

text: List of Deputy Senate Presidents[edit]

text:
Deputy Senate Presidents of Nigeria

Deputy Senate President
Term
Party

Ibrahim Mantu
1999-2007
PDP

Ike Ekweremadu
2007 - present
PDP