document_title: Musical notation

question_text: how many pitches do musicians have to work with in the western musical system of today

text: Musical notation

text: History[edit]

text: Ancient Near East[edit]

text: The earliest form of musical notation can be found in a cuneiform tablet that was created at Nippur, in Sumer (today's Iraq), in about 2000 BC. The tablet represents fragmentary instructions for performing music, that the music was composed in harmonies of thirds, and that it was written using a diatonic scale.[2] A tablet from about 1250 BC shows a more developed form of notation.[3] Although the interpretation of the notation system is still controversial, it is clear that the notation indicates the names of strings on a lyre, the tuning of which is described in other tablets.[4] Although they are fragmentary, these tablets represent the earliest notated melodies found anywhere in the world.[5]

text: Ancient Greece[edit]

text: Ancient Greek musical notation was in use from at least the 6th century BC until approximately the 4th century AD; several complete compositions and fragments of compositions using this notation survive. The notation consists of symbols placed above text syllables. An example of a complete composition is the Seikilos epitaph, which has been variously dated between the 2nd century BC to the 1st century AD.

text: Three hymns by Mesomedes of Crete exist in manuscript. The Delphic Hymns, dated to the 2nd century BC, also use this notation, but they are not completely preserved. Ancient Greek notation appears to have fallen out of use around the time of the Decline of the Western Roman Empire.

text: Byzantine Empire[edit]

text: Byzantine music has mainly survived as music for court ceremonies, including vocal religious music. It is not known if it is based on the monodic modal singing and instrumental music of Ancient Greece. Greek theoretical categories played a key role to understand and transmit Byzantine music, especially the tradition of Damascus had a strong impact on the pre-Islamic Near East comparable to Persian music and its music theoretical transfer in Sanskrit.

text: Unlike Western notation Byzantine neumes always indicate modal steps in relation to a clef or modal key (modal signatures which had been in use since papyrus fragments dating back to the 6th century). Originally this key or the incipit of a common melody was enough to indicate a certain melodic model given within the echos, despite ekphonetic notation further early melodic notation developed not earlier than between the 9th and the 10th century.[6] Like the Greek alphabet notational signs are ordered left to right (though the direction could be adapted like in certain Syriac manuscripts), the question of rhythm was entirely based on cheironomia, well-known melodical phrases given by gestures of the choirleaders which existed once as part of an oral tradition.

text: Today the main difference between Western and Eastern neumes is that Eastern notation symbols are differential rather than absolute, i.e. they indicate pitch steps (rising, falling or at the same step), and the musicians know to deduce correctly, from the score and the note they are singing presently, which correct interval is meant. These step symbols themselves, or better "phonic neumes", resemble brush strokes and are colloquially called gántzoi ("hooks") in Modern Greek.

text: Notes as pitch classes or modal keys (usually memorised by modal signatures) are represented in written form only between these neumes (in manuscripts usually written in red ink). In modern notation they simply serve as an optional reminder and modal and tempo directions have been added, if necessary. In Papadic notation medial signatures usually meant a temporary change into another echos.

text: The so-called "great signs" were once related to cheironomic signs, according to modern interpretations they are understood as embellishments and microtonal attractions (pitch changes smaller than a semitone), both essential in Byzantine chant.[7]

text: Since Chrysanthos of Madytos there are seven standard note names used for "solfège" (parallagē) pá, vú, ghá, dhē, ké, zō, nē, while the older practice still used the four enechemata or intonation formulas of the four echoi given by the modal signatures, the authentic or "kyrioi" in ascending direction, and the plagal or "plagioi" in descending direction (Papadic Octoechos).[8] With exception of vú and zō they do roughly correspond to Western solmization syllables as re, mi, fa, sol, la, si, do. Byzantine music uses the eight natural, non-tempered scales whose elements were identified by Ēkhoi, "sounds", exclusively, and therefore the absolute pitch of each note may slightly vary each time, depending on the particular Ēkhos used. Byzantine notation is still used in many Orthodox Churches. Sometimes cantors also use transcriptions into Western or Kievan staff notation while adding non-notatable embellishment material from memory and "sliding" into the natural scales from experience, but even concerning modern neume editions since the reform of Chrysanthos a lot of details are only known from an oral tradition related to traditional masters and their experience.

text: 13th-century Near East[edit]

text: In 1252, Safi al-Din al-Urmawi developed a form of musical notation, where rhythms were represented by geometric representation. Many subsequent scholars of rhythm have sought to develop graphical geometrical notations. For example, a similar geometric system was published in 1987 by Kjell Gustafson, whose method represents a rhythm as a two-dimensional graph.[9]

text: Early Europe[edit]

text: Scholar and music theorist Isidore of Seville, writing in the early 7th century, considered that "unless sounds are held by the memory of man, they perish, because they cannot be written down."[10] By the middle of the 9th century, however, a form of neumatic notation began to develop in monasteries in Europe as a mnemonic device for Gregorian chant, using symbols known as neumes; the earliest surviving musical notation of this type is in the Musica disciplina of Aurelian of Réôme, from about 850. There are scattered survivals from the Iberian Peninsula before this time, of a type of notation known as Visigothic neumes, but its few surviving fragments have not yet been deciphered.[11] The problem with this notation was that it only showed melodic contours and consequently the music could not be read by someone who did not know the music already.

text: Notation had developed far enough to notate melody, but there was still no system for notating rhythm. A mid-13th-century treatise, De Mensurabili Musica, explains a set of six rhythmic modes that were in use at the time,[12] although it is not clear how they were formed. These rhythmic modes were all in triple time and rather limited rhythm in chant to six different repeating patterns. This was a flaw seen by German music theorist Franco of Cologne and summarised as part of his treatise Ars cantus mensurabilis (the art of measured chant, or mensural notation). He suggested that individual notes could have their own rhythms represented by the shape of the note. Not until the 14th century did something like the present system of fixed note lengths arise.[citation needed] The use of regular measures (bars) became commonplace by the end of the 17th century.[citation needed]

text: The founder of what is now considered the standard music stave was Guido d'Arezzo,[13] an Italian Benedictine monk who lived from about 991 until after 1033. He taught the use of solmization syllables based on a hymn to Saint John the Baptist, which begins Ut Queant Laxis and was written by the Lombard historian Paul the Deacon. The first stanza is:

text:
Ut queant laxis
resonare fibris,
Mira gestorum
famuli tuorum,
Solve polluti
labii reatum,
Sancte Iohannes.

text: Guido used the first syllable of each line, Ut, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, and Si, to read notated music in terms of hexachords; they were not note names, and each could, depending on context, be applied to any note. In the 17th century, Ut was changed in most countries except France to the easily singable, "open" syllable Do, said to have been taken from the name of the Italian theorist Giovanni Battista Doni, but rather Do have been taken from the word "Dominus" in Latin with the meaning " the Lord" [14]

text: Catholic monks developed the first forms of modern European musical notation in order to standardize liturgy throughout the worldwide Church,[15] and an enormous body of religious music has been composed for it through the ages. This led directly to the emergence and development of European classical music, and its many derivatives. The Baroque style, which encompassed music, art, and architecture, was particularly encouraged by the post-Reformation Catholic Church as such forms offered a means of religious expression that was stirring and emotional, intended to stimulate religious fervor.[16]

text: Modern staff notation[edit]

text: Modern music notation is used by musicians of many different genres throughout the world. The staff acts as a framework upon which pitches are indicated by placing round notes on the staff lines or between the lines. The pitch of the round musical notes can be modified by accidentals. The duration (note length) is shown with different note values, which can be indicated by the note being just a circle (a whole note) or using stems to indicate quarter notes and other subdivisions, and additional symbols such as dots and ties which lengthen the duration of a note. Notation is read from left to right, which makes setting music for right-to-left scripts difficult.

text: A staff (or stave, in British English) of written music generally begins with a clef, which indicates the position of one particular note on the staff. The treble clef or G clef was originally a letter G and it identifies the second line up on the five line staff as the note G above middle C. The bass clef or F clef shows the position of the note F below middle C. While the treble and bass clef are the most widely used clefs, other clefs are used, such as the alto clef (used for viola music) and the tenor clef (used for some cello and double bass music). Notes representing a pitch outside of the scope of the five line staff can be represented using ledger lines, which provide a single note with additional lines and spaces. Some instruments use mainly one clef, such as violin and flute, which use treble clef and double bass and tuba, which use bass clef. Some instruments regularly use both clefs, such as piano and pipe organ.

text: Following the clef, the key signature on a staff indicates the key of the piece or song by specifying that certain notes are flat or sharp throughout the piece, unless otherwise indicated with accidentals added before certain notes. When a sharp is placed before a note, this makes that note one semitone higher. When a flat is placed before a note, this makes that note one semitone lower. Double sharps and double flats are less common, but they are used. A double sharp is placed before a note to make it two semitones higher. A double flat is placed before a note to make it two semitones lower. A natural sign placed before a note renders that note in its "natural" form, which means that any sharps or flats applying to that note from the key signature or from accidentals are cancelled. Sometimes a courtesy accidental is used in music where it is not technically required, to remind the musician of what pitch the key signature requires.

text: Following the key signature is the time signature. The time signature typically consists of two numbers, with one of the most common being "4/4". The top "4" indicates that there are four beats per measure (also called bar). The bottom "4" indicates that each of those beats are quarter notes. Measures divide the piece into groups of beats, and the time signatures specify those groupings. "4/4" is used so often that it is also called "common time", and it may be indicated with a "C" rather than numbers. Other common time signatures are "3/4" (three beats per bar, with each beat being a quarter note); "2/4" (two beats per bar, with each beat being a quarter note); "6/8" (six beats per bar, with each beat being an eighth note) and "12/8" (twelve beats per bar, with each beat being an eighth note; in practice, the eighth notes are typically put into four groups of three eighth notes. "12/8" is a compound time type of time signature). Many other time signatures exist, such as "3/8", "5/8", "5/4", "7/4", "9/8", and so on.

text: Many short classical music pieces from the classical era and songs from traditional music and popular music are in one time signature for much or all of the piece. Music from the Romantic music era and later, particularly contemporary classical music and rock music genres such as progressive rock and the hardcore punk subgenre mathcore are among the genres which use mixed meter; that is, songs or pieces change from one meter to another (e.g., a song could alternate between bars of "5/4" and "7/8").

text: Directions to the player regarding matters such as tempo (e.g., Allegro, Andante, Largo, Vif, Lent, Modérément, etc.), dynamics (loudness and softness) appear above or below the staff. Terms indicating the musical expression or "feel" to a song or piece are indicated at the beginning of the piece and at any points where the mood changes (e.g., "Slow March", "Fast Swing", "Medium Blues", "Fougueux", "Feierlich", "Gelassen", "Piacevole", "Con slancio", etc.) For vocal music, lyrics are written near the pitches of the melody. For short pauses (breaths), retakes (retakes are indicated with a ' mark) are added.

text: In music for ensembles, a "score" shows music for all players together, with the staves for the different instruments and/or voices stacked vertically. The conductor uses the score while she leads an orchestra, concert band, choir or other large ensemble. Individual performers in an ensemble play from "parts" which contain only the music played by an individual musician. A score can be constructed from a complete set of parts and vice versa. The process was laborious and time consuming when parts were hand-copied from the score, but since the development of scorewriter computer software in the 1980s, a score stored electronically can have parts automatically prepared by the program and quickly and inexpensively printed out using a computer printer.

text: Variations on staff notation[edit]

text:
Percussion notation conventions are varied because of the wide range of percussion instruments. Percussion instruments are generally grouped into two categories: pitched (e.g., glockenspiel or tubular bells) and non-pitched (e.g., bass drum and snare drum). The notation of non-pitched percussion instruments is less standardized. Pitched instruments use standard Western classical notation for the pitches and rhythms. In general, notation for unpitched percussion uses the five line staff, with different lines and spaces representing different drum kit instruments. Standard Western rhythmic notation is used to indicate the rhythm.
Figured bass notation originated in Baroque basso continuo parts. It is also used extensively in accordion notation. The bass notes of the music are conventionally notated, along with numbers and other signs that determine which chords the harpsichordist, organist or lutenist should improvise. It does not, however, specify the exact pitches of the harmony, leaving that for the performer to improvise.
A lead sheet specifies only the melody, lyrics and harmony, using one staff with chord symbols placed above and lyrics below. It is used to capture the essential elements of a popular song without specifying how the song should be arranged or performed.
A chord chart or "chart" contains little or no melodic information at all but provides detailed harmonic information about the chord progression. Some chord charts also contain rhythmic information, indicated using slash notation for full beats and rhythmic notation for rhythms. This is the most common kind of written music used by professional session musicians playing jazz or other forms of popular music and is intended primarily for the rhythm section (usually containing piano, guitar, bass and drums).
Simpler chord charts for songs may contain only the chord changes, placed above the lyrics where they occur. Such charts depend on prior knowledge of the melody, and are used as reminders in performance or informal group singing. Some chord charts intended for rhythm section accompanists contain only the chord progression.
The shape note system is found in some church hymnals, sheet music, and song books, especially in the Southern United States. Instead of the customary elliptical note head, note heads of various shapes are used to show the position of the note on the major scale. Sacred Harp is one of the most popular tune books using shape notes.

text: In various countries[edit]

text: Korea[edit]

text: Jeongganbo is a unique traditional musical notation system created during the time of Sejong the Great that was the first East Asian system to represent rhythm, pitch, and time.[17][18] Among various kinds of Korean traditional music, Jeong-gan-bo targets a particular genre, Jeong-ak (정악, 正樂).

text: Jeong-gan-bo tells the pitch by writing the pitch's name down in a box called 'jeong-gan' (this is where the name comes from). One jeong-gan is one beat each, and it can be split into two, three or more to hold half beats and quarter beats, and more. This makes it easy for the reader to figure out the beat.

text: Also, there are lots of markings indicating things such as ornaments. Most of these were later created by Ki-su Kim.

text: India[edit]

text: The Indian scholar and musical theorist Pingala (c. 200 BC), in his Chanda Sutra, used marks indicating long and short syllables to indicate meters in Sanskrit poetry.

text: In the notation of Indian rāga, a solfege-like system called sargam is used. As in Western solfege, there are names for the seven basic pitches of a major scale (Shadja, Rishabh, Gandhar, Madhyam, Pancham, Dhaivat and Nishad, usually shortened Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni). The tonic of any scale is named Sa, and the dominant Pa. Sa is fixed in any scale, and Pa is fixed at a fifth above it (a Pythagorean fifth rather than an equal-tempered fifth). These two notes are known as achala swar ('fixed notes').

text: Each of the other five notes, Re, Ga, Ma, Dha and Ni, can take a 'regular' (shuddha) pitch, which is equivalent to its pitch in a standard major scale (thus, shuddha Re, the second degree of the scale, is a whole-step higher than Sa), or an altered pitch, either a half-step above or half-step below the shuddha pitch. Re, Ga, Dha and Ni all have altered partners that are a half-step lower (Komal-"flat") (thus, komal Re is a half-step higher than Sa).

text: Ma has an altered partner that is a half-step higher (teevra-"sharp") (thus, tivra Ma is an augmented fourth above Sa). Re, Ga, Ma, Dha and Ni are called vikrut swar ('movable notes'). In the written system of Indian notation devised by Ravi Shankar, the pitches are represented by Western letters. Capital letters are used for the achala swar, and for the higher variety of all the vikrut swar. Lowercase letters are used for the lower variety of the vikrut swar.

text: Other systems exist for non-twelve-tone equal temperament and non-Western music, such as the Indian Swaralipi.

text: Russia[edit]

text: Znamenny Chant is a singing tradition used in the Russian Orthodox Church which uses a "hook and banner" notation. Znamenny Chant is unison, melismatic liturgical singing that has its own specific notation, called the stolp notation. The symbols used in the stolp notation are called kryuki (Russian: крюки, 'hooks') or znamena (Russian: знамёна, 'signs'). Often the names of the signs are used to refer to the stolp notation. Znamenny melodies are part of a system, consisting of Eight Modes (intonation structures; called glasy); the melodies are characterized by fluency and well-balancedness.(Kholopov 2003, 192) There exist several types of Znamenny Chant: the so-called Stolpovoy, Malyj (Little) and Bolshoy (Great) Znamenny Chant. Ruthenian Chant (Prostopinije) is sometimes considered a sub-division of the Znamenny Chant tradition, with the Muscovite Chant (Znamenny Chant proper) being the second branch of the same musical continuum.

text: Znamenny Chants are not written with notes (the so-called linear notation), but with special signs, called Znamëna (Russian for "marks", "banners") or Kryuki ("hooks"), as some shapes of these signs resemble hooks. Each sign may include the following components: a large black hook or a black stroke, several smaller black 'points' and 'commas' and lines near the hook or crossing the hook. Some signs may mean only one note, some 2 to 4 notes, and some a whole melody of more than 10 notes with a complicated rhythmic structure. The stolp notation was developed in Kievan Rus' as an East Slavic refinement of the Byzantine neumatic musical notation.

text: The most notable feature of this notation system is that it records transitions of the melody, rather than notes. The signs also represent a mood and a gradation of how this part of melody is to be sung (tempo, strength, devotion, meekness, etc.) Every sign has its own name and also features as a spiritual symbol. For example, there is a specific sign, called "little dove" (Russian: голубчик (golubchik)), which represents two rising sounds, but which is also a symbol of the Holy Ghost. Gradually the system became more and more complicated. This system was also ambiguous, so that almost no one, except the most trained and educated singers, could sing an unknown melody at sight. The signs only helped to reproduce the melody, not coding it in an unambiguous way. (See Byzantine Empire)

text: China[edit]

text: The earliest known examples of text referring to music in China are inscriptions on musical instruments found in the Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng (d. 433 B.C.). Sets of 41 chimestones and 65 bells bore lengthy inscriptions concerning pitches, scales, and transposition. The bells still sound the pitches that their inscriptions refer to. Although no notated musical compositions were found, the inscriptions indicate that the system was sufficiently advanced to allow for musical notation. Two systems of pitch nomenclature existed, one for relative pitch and one for absolute pitch. For relative pitch, a solmization system was used.[19]

text: Gongche notation used Chinese characters for the names of the scale.

text: Japan[edit]

text: Japanese music is highly diversified, and therefore requires various systems of notation. In Japanese shakuhachi music, for example, glissandos and timbres are often more significant than distinct pitches, whereas taiko notation focuses on discrete strokes.

text: Ryukyuan sanshin music uses kunkunshi, a notation system of kanji with each character corresponding to a finger position on a particular string.

text: Indonesia[edit]

text: Notation plays a relatively minor role in the oral traditions of Indonesia. However, in Java and Bali, several systems were devised beginning at the end of the 19th century, initially for archival purposes. Today the most widespread are cipher notations ("not angka" in the broadest sense) in which the pitches are represented with some subset of the numbers 1 to 7, with 1 corresponding to either highest note of a particular octave, as in Sundanese gamelan, or lowest, as in the kepatihan notation of Javanese gamelan.

text: Notes in the ranges outside the central octave are represented with one or more dots above or below the each number. For the most part, these cipher notations are mainly used to notate the skeletal melody (the balungan) and vocal parts (gerongan), although transcriptions of the elaborating instrument variations are sometimes used for analysis and teaching. Drum parts are notated with a system of symbols largely based on letters representing the vocables used to learn and remember drumming patterns; these symbols are typically laid out in a grid underneath the skeletal melody for a specific or generic piece.

text: The symbols used for drum notation (as well as the vocables represented) are highly variable from place to place and performer to performer. In addition to these current systems, two older notations used a kind of staff: the Solonese script could capture the flexible rhythms of the pesinden with a squiggle on a horizontal staff, while in Yogyakarta a ladder-like vertical staff allowed notation of the balungan by dots and also included important drum strokes. In Bali, there are a few books published of Gamelan gender wayang pieces, employing alphabetical notation in the old Balinese script.

text: Composers and scholars both Indonesian and foreign have also mapped the slendro and pelog tuning systems of gamelan onto the western staff, with and without various symbols for microtones. The Dutch composer Ton de Leeuw also invented a three line staff for his composition Gending. However, these systems do not enjoy widespread use.

text: In the second half of the twentieth century, Indonesian musicians and scholars extended cipher notation to other oral traditions, and a diatonic scale cipher notation has become common for notating western-related genres (church hymns, popular songs, and so forth). Unlike the cipher notation for gamelan music, which uses a "fixed Do" (that is, 1 always corresponds to the same pitch, within the natural variability of gamelan tuning), Indonesian diatonic cipher notation is "moveable-Do" notation, so scores must indicate which pitch corresponds to the number 1 (for example, "1=C").

text:
A short melody in slendro notated using the Surakarta method.[20]

The same notated using the Yogyakarta method or 'chequered notation'.[20]

The same notated using Kepatihan notation.[20]

The same approximated using Western notation.[20]  Play (help·info)

text: Other systems and practices[edit]

text: Pitch bracket notation[edit]

text: In pitch bracket notation music is written with melody lines and pitch brackets. Melody lines are like staff lines except they can change pitch by writing pitch brackets on them. Pitch brackets add or subtract scale steps to the melody line. The shape of the bracket (i.e. angle bracket), determines the number of scale steps to add. The direction of the bracket, opening or closing, determines whether to add or subtract scale steps. As a result of the mathematical nature of pitch bracket notation, arithmetic and algebra can be directly applied to the notation. Musical variations can be mathematically generated from their themes.

text: Cipher notation[edit]

text: Cipher notation systems assigning Arabic numerals to the major scale degrees have been used at least since the Iberian organ tablatures of the 16th-century and include such exotic adaptations as Siffernotskrift. The one most widely in use today is the Chinese Jianpu, discussed in the main article. Numerals can of course also be assigned to different scale systems, as in the Javanese kepatihan notation described above.

text: Solfège[edit]

text: Solfège is a way of assigning syllables to names of the musical scale. In order, they are today: Do Re Mi Fa Sol La Ti Do' (for the octave). The classic variation is: Do Re Mi Fa Sol La Si Do'. The first Western system of functional names for the musical notes was introduced by Guido of Arezzo (c. 991 – after 1033), using the beginning syllables of the first six musical lines of the Latin hymn Ut queant laxis. The original sequence was Ut Re Mi Fa Sol La, where each verse started a scale note higher. "Ut" later became "Do". The equivalent syllables used in Indian music are: Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni. See also: solfège, sargam, Kodály hand signs.

text: Tonic sol-fa is a type of notation using the initial letters of solfège.

text: Letter notation[edit]

text: The notes of the 12-tone scale can be written by their letter names A–G, possibly with a trailing sharp or flat symbol, such as A♯ or B♭.

text: Tablature[edit]

text: Tablature was first used in the Middle Ages for organ music and later in the Renaissance for lute music.[21] In most lute tablatures, a staff is used, but instead of pitch values, the lines of the staff represent the strings of the instrument. The frets to finger are written on each line, indicated by letters or numbers. Rhythm is written separately with one or another variation of standard note values indicating the duration of the fastest moving part. Few seem to have remarked on the fact that tablature combines in one notation system both the physical and technical requirements of play (the lines and symbols on them and in relation to each other representing the actual performance actions) with the unfolding of the music itself (the lines of tablature taken horizontally represent the actual temporal unfolding of the music). In later periods, lute and guitar music was written with standard notation. Tablature caught interest again in the late 20th century for popular guitar music and other fretted instruments, being easy to transcribe and share over the internet in ASCII format. Websites like OLGA[22] have archives of text-based popular music tablature.

text: Klavar notation[edit]

text: Klavarskribo (sometimes shortened to klavar) is a music notation system that was introduced in 1931 by the Dutchman Cornelis Pot. The name means "keyboard writing" in Esperanto. It differs from conventional music notation in a number of ways and is intended to be easily readable. Many klavar readers are from the Netherlands.

text: Piano-roll-based notations[edit]

text: Some chromatic systems have been created taking advantage of the layout of black and white keys of the standard piano keyboard. The "staff" is most widely referred to as "piano roll", created by extending the black and white piano keys.

text: Chromatic staff notations[edit]

text: Over the past three centuries, hundreds of music notation systems have been proposed as alternatives to traditional western music notation. Many of these systems seek to improve upon traditional notation by using a "chromatic staff" in which each of the 12 pitch classes has its own unique place on the staff. Examples are the Ailler-Brennink notation, Jacques-Daniel Rochat's Dodeka music notation [23], Tom Reed's Twinline notation, Russell Ambrose's Ambrose Piano Tabs,[24] Paul Morris' Clairnote,[25] John Keller's Express Stave, and José A. Sotorrio's Bilinear Music Notation. These notation systems do not require the use of standard key signatures, accidentals, or clef signs. They also represent interval relationships more consistently and accurately than traditional notation. The Music Notation Project (formerly known as the Music Notation Modernization Association) has a website with information on many of these notation systems.[26]

text: Graphic notation[edit]

text: The term 'graphic notation' refers to the contemporary use of non-traditional symbols and text to convey information about the performance of a piece of music. Practitioners include Christian Wolff, Earle Brown, Anthony Braxton, John Cage, Morton Feldman, Krzysztof Penderecki, Cornelius Cardew, and Roger Reynolds. See Notations, edited by John Cage and Alison Knowles, ISBN 0-685-14864-5.

text: Simplified music notation[edit]

text: Simplified Music Notation is an alternative form of musical notation designed to make sight-reading easier. It is based on classical staff notation, but incorporates sharps and flats into the shape of the note heads. Notes such as double sharps and double flats are written at the pitch they are actually played at, but preceded by symbols called history signs that show they have been transposed.

text: Modified Stave Notation[edit]

text: Modified Stave Notation (MSN) is an alternative way of notating music for people who cannot easily read ordinary musical notation even if it is enlarged.

text: Parsons code[edit]

text: Parsons code is used to encode music so that it can be easily searched.

text: Braille music[edit]

text: Braille music is a complete, well developed, and internationally accepted musical notation system that has symbols and notational conventions quite independent of print music notation. It is linear in nature, similar to a printed language and different from the two-dimensional nature of standard printed music notation. To a degree Braille music resembles musical markup languages[27] such as MusicXML[28] or NIFF.

text: Integer notation[edit]

text: In integer notation, or the integer model of pitch, all pitch classes and intervals between pitch classes are designated using the numbers 0 through 11.

text: Rap notation[edit]

text: The standard form of rap notation is the "flow diagram", where rappers line up their lyrics underneath "beat numbers".[29] Hip-hop scholars also make use of the same flow diagrams that rappers use: the books How to Rap and How to Rap 2 extensively use the diagrams to explain rap's triplets, flams, rests, rhyme schemes, runs of rhyme, and breaking rhyme patterns, among other techniques.[30] Similar systems are used by musicologists Adam Krims in his book Rap Music and the Poetics of Identity[31] and Kyle Adams in his work on rap's flow.[32] As rap revolves around a strong 4/4 beat,[33] with certain syllables aligned to the beat, all the notational systems have a similar structure: they all have four beat numbers at the top of the diagram, so that syllables can be written in-line with the beat.[33]

text: Music notation on computer[edit]

text: Many computer programs have been developed for creating music notation (called scorewriters or music notation software). Music may also be stored in various digital file formats for purposes other than graphic notation output.

text: Perspectives of musical notation in composition and musical performance[edit]

text: According to Philip Tagg and Richard Middleton, musicology and to a degree European-influenced musical practice suffer from a 'notational centricity', a methodology slanted by the characteristics of notation.[34]

text: Patents[edit]

text: In some countries, new musical notations can be patented. In the United States, for example, about 90 patents have been issued for new notation systems. The earliest patent, U.S. Patent 1,383 was published in 1839.


document_title: Run for Cover (The Killers song)

question_text: what is the killers run for cover about

question_tokens: what is the killers run for cover about

root

text: Run for Cover (The Killers song)

text: Background and release[edit]

text: The Killers' vocalist Brandon Flowers revealed that "Run for Cover" was originally written for their 2008 album Day & Age, but it was not completed due to Flowers not being able to finish the second verse of the song at the time. After meeting with Australian musician Alex Cameron in Las Vegas, he finally had a breakthrough as they kept on working together until the verse was finished.[2] In the beginning of 2017, Flowers revealed the song had a good shot of being featured on the band's album.[3] The Killers debuted "Run for Cover" during a concert at Borgata in Atlantic City on June 10, 2017.[4] Finally, on July 28, the song was released as a promotional single from Wonderful Wonderful.[5]

tag: p

text: Composition and lyrical interpretation[edit]

text: "Run for Cover" has been characterized under the genres new wave, post-punk revival, pop rock, and heartland rock,[6][7][8][9] and was composed by Flowers, Mark Stoermer, Ronnie Vannucci Jr., Alex Cameron, Jacknife Lee, and  Stuart Price.[10] Although it was initially produced by the latter, the track's production was finished by Lee.[4] The song also contains an interpolation of Bob Marley's "Redemption Song".[10] Lyrically, the song talks about domestic violence as Flowers tells a woman to "run for cover" from her abusive husband while she still can.[2]

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: The song received critical acclaim from music critics. Andrew Trendell from NME described it as a "synth-pop banger driven by post-punk propulsion" and noted its sound is similar to the one of Sam's Town era.[4][11] Rolling Stone's Daniel Kreps called it a "glossy, buoyant track that proves the band hasn't strayed from their textbook sound."[12] The Musical Hype! gave the song four out of five stars and said: "All in all, 'Run for Cover' is a well-rounded, energetic, and up-tempo record from The Killers. Does it trump 'The Man'? It depends upon who you ask, but true to the band's style, this is next-level. Elite? Yes."[6]

text: Music video[edit]

text: The song's music video was directed by Tarik Mikou and released on August 22, 2017. The video tells the story of a woman who tries to run away from her ex-lover, backing up the recurring abusive relationship theme of the song's lyrics. After getting hit by him with a car, she gets up and sets the vehicle on fire with him inside. The cassette tape she's holding onto in the video reads "07/28/17", referring to the release date of the single.[13]

text: Track listing[edit]

text: Digital download – remix[14]

tag: ul

text: "Run for Cover" (Naderi remix) – 4:15

tag: ol

text: Credits and personnel[edit]

text: Credits adapted from the liner notes of Wonderful Wonderful.[10]

text: The Killers

text:
Brandon Flowers – vocals, keyboards, songwriting
Mark Stoermer – bass, songwriting
Ronnie Vannucci Jr. – drums, songwriting

text: Additional personnel

text:
Matt Bishop – engineering
Alex Cameron – songwriting
John Davis – mastering
Shawn Everett – mixing
Malcolm Harrison – assistant engineering
Jacknife Lee – engineering, guitar, keyboards, production, programming, songwriting
Stuart Price – songwriting
Ariel Rechtshaid – mixing
Robert Root – engineering

text: Charts[edit]

text:
Chart (2017–18)

Peakposition

Belgium (Ultratip Flanders)[15]

6

UK Singles (Official Charts Company)[16]

100

US Adult Alternative Songs (Billboard)[17]

20

US Hot Rock Songs (Billboard)[18]

19

tag: table

text: Release history[edit]

text:
Region

Date

Format

Label

Ref.

Various[a]

July 28, 2017

Digital downloadstreaming

Island

[19][20]

United Kingdom

September 8, 2017

Contemporary hit radio

[21]

United States

November 14, 2017

Alternative radio

[22]

text: Notes[edit]

text: Jump up ^ Release as a promotional single.


document_title: Mardi Gras in New Orleans

question_text: when did mardi gras start in new orleans

text: Mardi Gras in New Orleans

text: History[edit]

text: The first record of Mardi Gras being celebrated in Louisiana was at the mouth of the Mississippi River in what is now lower Plaquemines Parish, Louisiana, on March 2, 1699. Iberville, Bienville, and their men celebrated it as part of an observance of Catholic practice. The date of the first celebration of the festivities in New Orleans is unknown. A 1730 account by Marc-Antione Caillot celebrating with music and dance, masking and costuming (including cross-dressing). [1] An account from 1743 that the custom of Carnival balls was already established. Processions and wearing of masks in the streets on Mardi Gras took place. They were sometimes prohibited by law, and were quickly renewed whenever such restrictions were lifted or enforcement waned. In 1833 Bernard Xavier de Marigny de Mandeville, a rich plantation owner of French descent, raised money to fund an official Mardi Gras celebration.

text: James R. Creecy in his book Scenes in the South, and Other Miscellaneous Pieces describes New Orleans Mardi Gras in 1835:[2]

text: Shrove Tuesday is a day to be remembered by strangers in New Orleans, for that is the day for fun, frolic, and comic masquerading. All of the mischief of the city is alive and wide awake in active operation. Men and boys, women and girls, bond and free, white and black, yellow and brown, exert themselves to invent and appear in grotesque, quizzical, diabolic, horrible, strange masks, and disguises. Human bodies are seen with heads of beasts and birds, beasts and birds with human heads; demi-beasts, demi-fishes, snakes' heads and bodies with arms of apes; man-bats from the moon; mermaids; satyrs, beggars, monks, and robbers parade and march on foot, on horseback, in wagons, carts, coaches, cars, &c., in rich confusion, up and down the streets, wildly shouting, singing, laughing, drumming, fiddling, fifeing, and all throwing flour broadcast as they wend their reckless way.

text: In 1856 six businessmen gathered at a club room in New Orleans's French Quarter to organize a secret society to observe Mardi Gras with a formal parade. They founded New Orleans' first and oldest krewe, the Mystick Krewe of Comus. According to one historian, "Comus was aggressively English in its celebration of what New Orleans had always considered a French festival. It is hard to think of a clearer assertion than this parade that the lead in the holiday had passed from French-speakers to Anglo-Americans. . . .To a certain extent, Americans 'Americanized' New Orleans and its Creoles. To a certain extent, New Orleans 'creolized' the Americans. Thus the wonder of Anglo-Americans boasting of how their business prowess helped them construct a more elaborate version than was traditional. The lead in organized Carnival passed from Creole to American just as political and economic power did over the course of the nineteenth century. The spectacle of Creole-American Carnival, with Americans using Carnival forms to compete with Creoles in the ballrooms and on the streets, represents the creation of a New Orleans culture neither entirely Creole nor entirely American."[3]

text: In 1875 Louisiana declared Mardi Gras a legal state holiday.[4] War, economic, political, and weather conditions sometimes led to cancellation of some or all major parades, especially during the American Civil War, World War I and World War II, but the city has always celebrated Carnival.[4]

text: 1972 was the last year in which large parades went through the narrow streets of the city's French Quarter section; larger floats, crowds, and fire safety concerns led the city government to prohibit parades in the Quarter. Major parades now skirt the French Quarter along Canal Street.

text: In 1979 the New Orleans police department went on strike. The official parades were canceled or moved to surrounding communities, such as Jefferson Parish. Significantly fewer tourists than usual came to the city. Masking, costuming, and celebrations continued anyway, with National Guard troops maintaining order. Guardsmen prevented crimes against persons or property but made no attempt to enforce laws regulating morality or drug use; for these reasons, some in the French Quarter bohemian community recall 1979 as the city's best Mardi Gras ever.

text: In 1991 the New Orleans City Council passed an ordinance that required social organizations, including Mardi Gras Krewes, to certify publicly that they did not discriminate on the basis of race, religion, gender or sexual orientation, to obtain parade permits and other public licenses.[5] Shortly after the law was passed, the city demanded that these krewes provide them with membership lists, contrary to the long-standing traditions of secrecy and the distinctly private nature of these groups. In protest—and because the city claimed the parade gave it jurisdiction to demand otherwise-private membership lists—the 19th-century krewes Comus and Momus stopped parading.[6] Proteus did parade in the 1992 Carnival season but also suspended its parade for a time, returning to the parade schedule in 2000.

text: Several organizations brought suit against the city, challenging the law as unconstitutional. Two federal courts later declared that the ordinance was an unconstitutional infringement on First Amendment rights of free association, and an unwarranted intrusion on the privacy of the groups subject to the ordinance.[7] The US Supreme Court refused to hear the city's appeal from this decision.

text: Today, New Orleans krewes operate under a business structure; membership is open to anyone who pays dues, and any member can have a place on a parade float.

text: The devastation caused by Hurricane Katrina in late 2005 caused a few people to question the future of the city's Mardi Gras celebrations. Mayor Nagin, who was up for reelection in early 2006, tried to play this sentiment for electoral advantage[citation needed]. However, the economics of Carnival were, and are, too important to the city's revival.

text: The city government, essentially bankrupt after Hurricane Katrina, pushed for a scaled back celebration to limit strains on city services. However, many krewes insisted that they wanted to and would be ready to parade, so negotiations between krewe leaders and city officials resulted in a compromise schedule. It was scaled back but less severely than originally suggested.

text: The 2006 New Orleans Carnival schedule included the Krewe du Vieux on its traditional route through Marigny and the French Quarter on February 11, the Saturday two weekends before Mardi Gras. There were several parades on Saturday, February 18, and Sunday the 19th a week before Mardi Gras. Parades followed daily from Thursday night through Mardi Gras. Other than Krewe du Vieux and two Westbank parades going through Algiers, all New Orleans parades were restricted to the Saint Charles Avenue Uptown to Canal Street route, a section of the city which escaped significant flooding. Some krewes unsuccessfully pushed to parade on their traditional Mid-City route, despite the severe flood damage suffered by that neighborhood.

text: The city restricted how long parades could be on the street and how late at night they could end. National Guard troops assisted with crowd control for the first time since 1979. Louisiana State troopers also assisted, as they have many times in the past. Many floats had been partially submerged in floodwaters for weeks. While some krewes repaired and removed all traces of these effects, others incorporated flood lines and other damage into the designs of the floats.

text: Most of the locals who worked on the floats and rode on them were significantly affected by the storm's aftermath. Many had lost most or all of their possessions, but enthusiasm for Carnival was even more intense as an affirmation of life. The themes of many costumes and floats had more barbed satire than usual, with commentary on the trials and tribulations of living in the devastated city. References included MREs, Katrina refrigerators and FEMA trailers, along with much mocking of the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) and local and national politicians.

text: By the 2009 season, the Endymion parade had returned to the Mid-City route, and other Krewes expanding their parades Uptown.

text: Traditional colors[edit]

text: The colors traditionally associated with Mardi Gras in New Orleans are green, gold, and purple. The colors were first specified in proclamations by the Rex organization during the lead-up to their inaugural parade in 1872, suggesting that balconies be draped in banners of these colors. It is unknown why these specific colors were chosen; some accounts suggest that they were initially selected solely on their aesthetic appeal, as opposed to any true symbolism.[8][9]

text: Errol Laborde, author of Marched the Day God: A History of the Rex Organization, presented a theory that the colors were based on heraldry; all three colors fall within those of tincture, and that if Rex's goal were to create a tricolor to represent their "kingdom", purple was widely associated with royalty, while white was already heavily used on other national flags, and was thus avoided. Furthermore, he noted that a flag in green, gold and purple in that order complies with the rule of tincture, which states that metals (gold or silver) can only be placed on or next to other colors, and that colors cannot be placed on or next to other colors.[8]

text: Following a color-themed Rex parade in 1892 that featured corresponding floats based around these themes, the Rex organization retroactively declared that the purple, green, and gold colors symbolize justice, power, and faith respectively. The traditional colors are commonly addressed in that order, even though it violates the rule of tincture.[8][10]

text: Contemporary Mardi Gras[edit]

text: Each year the New Orleans Carnival season starts on January 6, called Twelfth Night. The Twelfth Night Revelers, New Orleans' second-oldest Krewe, hold a masked ball each year to mark the beginning of New Orleans' Carnival season. Many of Carnival's oldest societies, such as the Independent Strikers' Society, hold masked balls but no longer parade in public.

text: Mardi Gras season continues through Shrove Tuesday or Fat Tuesday.

text: Weekend before Mardi Gras Day[edit]

text: The population of New Orleans more than doubles during the five days before Mardi Gras Day, in anticipation of the biggest celebration.

text: Wednesday night begins with Druids, and is followed by the Mystic Krewe of Nyx, the newest all-female Krewe. Nyx is famous for their highly decorated purses, and has reached Super Krewe status since their founding in 2011.

text: Thursday night starts off with another all-women's parade featuring the Krewe of Muses. The parade is relatively new, but its membership has tripled since its start in 2001. It is popular for its throws (highly sought-after decorated shoes and other trinkets) and themes poking fun at politicians and celebrities.

text: Friday night is the occasion of the large Krewe of Hermes and satirical Krewe D'État parades, ending with one of the fastest-growing krewes, the Krewe of Morpheus.[11] There are several smaller neighborhood parades like the Krewe of Barkus and the Krewe of OAK.

text: Several daytime parades roll on Saturday (including Krewe of Tucks and Krewe of Isis) and on Sunday (Thoth, Okeanos, and Krewe of Mid-City).

text: The first of the "super krewes," Endymion, parades on Saturday night, with the celebrity-led Bacchus parade on Sunday night 1998

text: Lundi Gras[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Monday was recently[when?] declared to be Lundi Gras ("Fat Monday"). The monarchs of the Zulu Social Aid & Pleasure Club and Krewe of Rex, who will parade the following day, arrive by boat on the Mississippi Riverfront at the foot of Canal Street, where an all-day party is staged.

text: Uptown parades start with one of New Orleans' most prestigious organizations, the Krewe of Proteus. Dating to 1882, it is the second-oldest krewe still parading. The Proteus parade is followed by a newer organization, the music-themed super-Krewe of Orpheus, which is considered less prestigious as it draws a significant portion of its membership from outside of New Orleans.

text: Mardi Gras[edit]

text: The celebrations begin early on Mardi Gras, which can fall on any Tuesday between February 3 and March 9 (depending on the date of Easter, and thus of Ash Wednesday).[12]

text: In New Orleans, uptown, the Zulu parade rolls first, followed by the Rex parade, which both end on Canal Street. A number of smaller parading organizations with "truck floats" follow the Rex parade. Numerous smaller parades and walking clubs also parade around the city. The Jefferson City Buzzards, the Lyons Club, the Irish Channel Corner Club, Pete Fountain's Half Fast Walking Club and the KOE all start early in the day Uptown and make their way to the French Quarter with at least one jazz band. At the other end of the old city, the Society of Saint Anne journeys from the Bywater through Marigny and the French Quarter to meet Rex on Canal Street. The Pair-O-Dice Tumblers rambles from bar to bar in Marigny and the French Quarter from noon to dusk. Various groups of Mardi Gras Indians, divided into uptown and downtown tribes, parade in their finery.

text: For upcoming Mardi Gras Dates through 2050 see Mardi Gras Dates.

text: Costumes and masks[edit]

text: In New Orleans, costumes and masks are seldom publicly worn by non-Krewe members on the days before Fat Tuesday (other than at parties), but are frequently worn on Mardi Gras. Laws against concealing one's identity with a mask are suspended for the day. Banks are closed, and some businesses and other places with security concerns (such as convenience stores) post signs asking people to remove their masks before entering.

text: Beads[edit]

text: Inexpensive strings of beads and toys have been thrown from floats to parade-goers since at least the late 19th century. Until the 1960s, the most common form was multi-colored strings of glass beads made in Czechoslovakia.

text: Glass beads were supplanted by less expensive and more durable plastic beads, first from Hong Kong, then from Taiwan, and more recently from China. Lower-cost beads and toys allow float-riders to purchase greater quantities, and throws have become more numerous and common.

text: In the 1990s, many people lost interest in small, cheap beads, often leaving them where they landed on the ground. Larger, more elaborate metallic beads and strands with figures of animals, people, or other objects have become the sought-after throws. David Redmond's 2005 film of cultural and economic globalization, Mardi Gras: Made in China, follows the production and distribution of beads from a small factory in Fuzhou, China to the streets of New Orleans during Carnival.[13] The publication of Redmon's book, Beads Bodies, and Trash, follows up on the documentary by providing an ethnographic analysis of the social harms, the pleasures, and the consequences of the toxicity that Mardi Gras beads produce.

text: With the advent of the 21st century, more sophisticated throws began to replace simple metallic beads. Krewes started to produce limited edition beads and plush toys that are unique to the krewe. Fiber optic beads and LED-powered prizes are now among the most sought-after items. In a retro-inspired twist, glass beads have returned to parades. Now made in India, glass beads are one of the most valuable throws.

text: Other Mardi Gras traditions[edit]

text: Social clubs[edit]

text: New Orleans Social clubs play a very large part in the Mardi Gras celebration as hosts of many of the parades on or around Mardi Gras. The two main Mardi Gras parades, Zulu and Rex, are both social club parades. Zulu is a mostly African-American club and Rex is mostly Caucasian. Social clubs host Mardi Gras balls, starting in late January. At these social balls, the queen of the parade (usually a young woman between the ages of 18 and 21, not married and in high school or college) and the king (an older male member of the club) present themselves and their court of maids (young women aged 16 to 21), and different divisions of younger children with small roles in the ball and parade, such as a theme-beformal neighborhood Carnival club ball at local bar room.

text: In response to their exclusion from Rex, in 1909 Créole and black New Orleanians, led by a mutual aid group known as "The Tramps", adorned William Storey with a tin can crown and banana stalk scepter and named him King Zulu.[5][14] This display was meant as a mockery of Rex's overstated pageantry, but in time, Zulu became a grand parade in its own right. By 1949, as an indication of Zulu's increase in prestige, the krewe named New Orleans' native son Louis Armstrong as its king.[4]

text: Being a member of the court requires much preparation, usually months ahead. Women and girls must have dress fittings as early as the May before the parade, as the season of social balls allows little time between each parade. These balls are generally by invitation only. Balls are held at a variety of venues in the city, large and small, depending on the size and budget of the organization. In the late 19th and early 20th century, the French Opera House was a leading venue for New Orleans balls. From the mid 20th century until Hurricane Katrina the Municipal Auditorim was the city's most famous site for Carnival balls. In more recent years, most are at the ballrooms of various hotels throughout the city. The largest "Super Krewes" use larger venues; Bacchus the Morial Convention Center and Endymion the Superdome.

text: Doubloons[edit]

text: One of the many Mardi Gras throws which krewes fling into the crowds, doubloons are large coins, either wood or metal, made in Mardi Gras colors. Artist H. Alvin Sharpe created the modern doubloon for The School of Design (the actual name of the Rex organization). According to the krewe history, in January 1959 Sharpe arrived at the offices of the captain of the krewe with a handful of aluminum discs. Upon entering the office, he threw the doubloons into the captain's face to prove that they would be safe to throw from the floats. Standard krewe doubloons usually portray the Krewe's emblem, name, and founding date on one side, and the theme and year of the parade and ball on the other side. Royalty and members of the court may throw specialty doubloons, such as the special Riding Lieutenant doubloons given out by men on horseback in the Rex parade. In the last decade, krewes have minted doubloons specific to each float. Krewes also mint special doubloons of cloisonné or pure silver for its members. They never throw these from the floats. Original Rex doubloons are valuable, but it is nearly impossible for aficionados to find a certified original doubloon. The School of Design did not begin dating their doubloons until a few years after their introduction.

text: Flambeau carriers[edit]

text: The flambeau ("flahm-bo" meaning flame-torch) carrier originally, before electric lighting, served as a beacon for New Orleans parade goers to better enjoy the spectacle of night parades. The first flambeau carriers were slaves.

text: Today, the flambeaux are a connection to the New Orleans version of Carnival and a valued contribution. Many people view flambeau-carrying as a kind of performance art – a valid assessment given the wild gyrations and flourishes displayed by experienced flambeau carriers in a parade. Many individuals are descended from a long line of carriers.

text: Parades that commonly feature flambeaux include Babylon, Chaos, Le Krewe d'Etat, Druids, Hermes, Krewe of Muses, Krewe of Orpheus, Krewe of Proteus, Saturn, and Sparta. Flambeaux are powered by naphtha[citation needed], a highly flammable aromatic.

text: It is a tradition, when the flambeau carriers pass by during a parade, to toss quarters to them in thanks for carrying the lights of Carnival. In the 21st century, though, handing dollar bills is common.

text: Rex[edit]

text: Each year in New Orleans, krewes are responsible for electing Rex, the king of the carnival.[15] The Rex Organization was formed to create a daytime parade for the residents of the city. The Rex motto is, "Pro Bono Publico—for the public good."[16]

text: Mardi Gras icons[edit]

text:
Faces of Comedy and Tragedy
Feathered masks
Laissez Les Bons Temps Rouler! (French: "Let the good times roll!")
Throw me something, Mister!

text: New Orleans Zulu or Mardi Gras Coconut[edit]

text: One of the most famous and the most sought after throws, is the Zulu Coconut also known as the Golden Nugget and the Mardi Gras Coconut.[6] The coconut is mentioned as far back as 1910, where they were given in a natural "hairy" state. The coconut was thrown as a cheap alternative, especially in 1910 when the bead throws were made of glass. Before the Krewe of Zulu threw coconuts, they threw walnuts that were painted gold. This is where the name "Golden Nugget" originally came from. It is thought that Zulu switched from walnuts to coconuts in the early 1920s when a local painter, Lloyd Lucus, started to paint coconuts. Most of the coconuts have two decorations. The first is painted gold with added glitter, and the second is painted like the famous black Zulu faces. In 1988, the city forbade Zulu from throwing coconuts due to the risk of injury; they are now handed to onlookers rather than thrown. In the year 2000, a local electronics engineer, Willie Clark, introduced an upgraded version of the classic, naming them Mardi Gras Coconuts. These new coconuts were first used by the club in 2002, giving the souvenirs to royalty and city notables.

text: Ojen liqueur[edit]

text: Aguardiente de Ojén (es), or simply "ojen" ("OH-hen") as it is known in English, is a Spanish anisette traditionally consumed during the New Orleans Mardi Gras festivities.[17] In Ojén, the original Spanish town where it is produced, production stopped for years, but it started again in early 2014 by means of the distillery company Dominique Mertens Impex. S.L.[18]

text: Exposure and Mardi Gras[edit]

text: Women showing their breasts during Mardi Gras has been documented since 1889, when the Times-Democrat decried the "degree of immodesty exhibited by nearly all female masqueraders seen on the streets." The practice was mostly limited to tourists in the upper Bourbon Street area.[4][19] In the crowded streets of the French Quarter, generally avoided by locals on Mardi Gras Day, flashers on balconies cause crowds to form on the streets.

text: In the last decades of the 20th century, the rise in producing commercial videotapes catering to voyeurs helped encourage a tradition of women baring their breasts in exchange for beads and trinkets. Social scientists studying "ritual disrobement" found, at Mardi Gras 1991, 1,200 instances of body-baring in exchange for beads or other favors.[19]

text: End of New Orleans Mardi Gras[edit]

text: The formal end of New Orleans Mardi Gras arrives with the "Meeting of the Courts," a ceremony at which Rex and His Royal Consort, the King and Queen of Carnival, meet with Comus and his Queen, at the ball of the Mistick Krewe of Comus, New Orleans' oldest active Carnival organization. The Meeting of the Courts happens at the conclusion of the two groups' masked balls, which in modern times have both been held at the New Orleans Municipal Auditorium. Following Hurricane Katrina, the ball has been held in the Marriott Hotel.

text: Promptly at the stroke of midnight at the end of Fat Tuesday, a mounted squad of New Orleans police officers make a show of clearing upper Bourbon Street where the bulk of out-of-town revelers congregate, announcing that Carnival is over, as it is the start of Lent, commencing with Ash Wednesday.

text: Ash Wednesday (the day after Big Tuesday) is sometimes jokingly referred to as "Trash Wednesday" because of the amount of refuse left in the streets during the previous day's celebrations and excesses. The tons of garbage picked up by the sanitation department is a local news item, partly because it reflects the positive economic impact of tourist revenue.

text: Additional photographs[edit]

text:
Faubourg Marigny Mardi Gras costumes
French Quarter Mardi Gras costumes


document_title: List of Governors of Reserve Bank of India

question_text: who has shortest tenure as governor of rbi

text:
Governor of the Reserve Bank of India

Seal of RBI

Incumbent
Urjit Patel
since 3 September 2016

Appointer
Government of India

Inaugural holder
Osborne Smith

Formation
1 April 1935

text: RBI Governor is the chief executive of India's central bank and the ex-officio chairperson of its Central Board of Directors. Indian Rupee currency notes, issued by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), bear the governor's signature. Since its establishment in 1935 by the British colonial government, the RBI has been headed by 24 governors. The term of office typically runs for 3 years.

text: The inaugural officeholder was the British banker Osborne Smith, while C. D. Deshmukh was the first Indian governor. The position is currently held by Urjit Patel, who took over from Raghuram Rajan on 4 September 2016.

text: RBI governors[edit]

text:
No.
Name
Term of office

Began
Ended
Duration

1
Osborne Smith
1 April 1935
30 June 1937
7002821000000000000♠2 years, 90 days

2
James Braid Taylor, ICS[1]
1 July 1937
17 February 1943
7003205700000000000♠5 years, 231 days

3
C. D. Deshmukh, ICS
11 August 1943
30 June 1949
7003215000000000000♠5 years, 323 days

4
Benegal Rama Rau, ICS
1 July 1949
14 January 1957
7003275400000000000♠7 years, 197 days

5
K. G. Ambegaonkar, ICS
14 January 1957
28 February 1957
7001450000000000000♠45 days

6
H. V. R. Iyengar, ICS
1 March 1957
28 February 1962
7003182500000000000♠4 years, 364 days

7
P. C. Bhattacharya
1 March 1962
30 June 1967
7003194700000000000♠5 years, 121 days

8
L. K. Jha, ICS
1 July 1967
3 May 1970
7003103700000000000♠2 years, 306 days

9
B. N. Adarkar
4 May 1970
15 June 1970
7001420000000000000♠42 days

10
S. Jagannathan, ICS
16 June 1970
19 May 1975
7003179800000000000♠4 years, 337 days

11
N. C. Sen Gupta
19 May 1975
19 August 1975
7001920000000000000♠92 days

12
K. R. Puri
20 August 1975
2 May 1977
7002621000000000000♠1 year, 255 days

13
M. Narasimham
3 May 1977
30 November 1977
7002211000000000000♠211 days

14
I. G. Patel
1 December 1977
15 September 1982
7003174900000000000♠4 years, 288 days

15
Manmohan Singh
16 September 1982
14 January 1985
7002851000000000000♠2 years, 120 days

16
Amitav Ghosh
15 January 1985
4 February 1985
7001200000000000000♠20 days

17
R. N. Malhotra, IAS
4 February 1985
22 December 1990
7003214700000000000♠5 years, 321 days

18
S. Venkitaramanan, IAS
22 December 1990
21 December 1992
7002730000000000000♠1 year, 365 days

19
C. Rangarajan
22 December 1992
21 November 1997
7003179500000000000♠4 years, 334 days

20
Bimal Jalan
22 November 1997
6 September 2003
7003211400000000000♠5 years, 288 days

21
Y. V. Reddy, IAS
6 September 2003
5 September 2008
7003182600000000000♠4 years, 365 days

22
D. Subbarao, IAS
5 September 2008
4 September 2013
7003182500000000000♠4 years, 364 days

23
Raghuram Rajan
4 September 2013
4 September 2016
7003109600000000000♠3 years, 0 days

24
Urjit Patel
4 September 2016
Incumbent
7002650000000000000♠1 year, 285 days


document_title: Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series

question_text: who won the emmy for outstanding lead actor in a drama series

text: Winners and nominations[edit]

text:
Year

Actor

Role

Program

Network

1953(6th)[note 1]

Donald O'Connor

Himself

The Colgate Comedy Hour

NBC

Sid Caesar

Various Characters

Your Show of Shows

NBC

Wally Cox

Robinson Peepers

Mister Peepers

Jackie Gleason

Ralph Kramden

The Jackie Gleason Show

CBS

Jack Webb

Sgt. Joe Friday

Dragnet

NBC

1954(7th)[note 1]

Danny Thomas

Danny Williams

Make Room for Daddy

ABC

Richard Boone

Dr. Konrad Styner

Medic

NBC

Robert Cummings

Robert Beanblossom

My Hero

Jackie Gleason

Ralph Kramden

The Jackie Gleason Show

CBS

Jack Webb

Sgt. Joe Friday

Dragnet

NBC

1955(8th)[note 1]

Phil Silvers

MSgt. Ernest G. Bilko

The Phil Silvers Show

CBS

Bob Cummings

Bob Collins

The Bob Cummings Show

CBS

Jackie Gleason

Ralph Kramden

The Jackie Gleason Show

Danny Thomas

Danny Williams

Make Room for Daddy

ABC

Robert Young

Jim Anderson

Father Knows Best

CBS

1956(9th)

Robert Young

Jim Anderson

Father Knows Best

NBC

James Arness

Marshal Matt Dillon

Gunsmoke

CBS

Charles Boyer

Various Characters

Four Star Playhouse

David Niven

Hugh O'Brian

Wyatt Earp

The Life and Legend of Wyatt Earp

ABC

1957(10th)[note 1]

Robert Young

Jim Anderson

Father Knows Best

NBC

James Arness

Marshal Matt Dillon

Gunsmoke

CBS

Bob Cummings

Bob Collins

The Bob Cummings Show

Phil Silvers

MSgt. Ernest G. Bilko

The Phil Silvers Show

Danny Thomas

Danny Williams

The Danny Thomas Show

ABC / CBS

1959(11th)

Raymond Burr

Perry Mason

Perry Mason

CBS

James Arness

Marshal Matt Dillon

Gunsmoke

CBS

Richard Boone

Paladin

Have Gun – Will Travel

James Garner

Bret Maverick

Maverick

ABC

Craig Stevens

Peter Gunn

Peter Gunn

NBC

Efrem Zimbalist Jr.

Stuart Bailey

77 Sunset Strip

ABC

text:
Year

Actor

Role

Program

Network

1960(12th)[note 1]

Robert Stack

Eliot Ness

The Untouchables

ABC

Raymond Burr

Perry Mason

Perry Mason

CBS

Richard Boone

Paladin

Have Gun – Will Travel

1961(13th)[note 1]

Raymond Burr

Perry Mason

Perry Mason

CBS

Jackie Cooper

Chick Hennesey

Hennesey

CBS

Robert Stack

Eliot Ness

The Untouchables

1962(14th)[note 1]

E. G. Marshall

Lawrence Preston

The Defenders

CBS

Vincent Edwards

Ben Casey

Ben Casey

ABC

Jackie Cooper

Chick Hennesey

Hennesey

CBS

Paul Burke

Adam Flint

Naked City

ABC

George Maharis

Buz Murdock

Route 66

CBS

1963(15th)[note 1]

E. G. Marshall

Lawrence Preston

The Defenders

CBS

Vic Morrow

Sgt. Sanders

Combat!

ABC

Dick Van Dyke

Rob Petrie

The Dick Van Dyke Show

CBS

Ernest Borgnine

Lt. Cmdr. Quinton McHale

McHale's Navy

Paul Burke

Det. Adam Flint

Naked City

ABC

1964(16th)[note 1]

Dick Van Dyke

Rob Petrie

The Dick Van Dyke Show

CBS

Richard Boone

Various Characters

The Richard Boone Show

NBC

Dean Jagger

Principal Albert Vane

Mr. Novak

David Janssen

Dr. Richard Kimble

The Fugitive

ABC

George C. Scott

Neil Brock

East Side/West Side

CBS

1965(17th)

No Award

1966(18th)

Bill Cosby

Alexander Scott

I Spy

NBC

David Janssen

Dr. Richard Kimble

The Fugitive

ABC

Robert Culp

Kelly Robinson

I Spy

NBC

David McCallum

Illya Kuryakin

The Man from U.N.C.L.E.

Richard Crenna

James Slattery

Slattery's People

CBS

1967(19th)

Bill Cosby

Alexander Scott

I Spy

NBC

David Janssen

Dr. Richard Kimble

The Fugitive

ABC

Robert Culp

Kelly Robinson

I Spy

NBC

Martin Landau

Rollin Hand

Mission: Impossible

CBS

Ben Gazzara

Paul Bryan

Run for Your Life

NBC

1968(20th)

Bill Cosby

Alexander Scott

I Spy

NBC

Robert Culp

Kelly Robinson

I Spy

NBC

Raymond Burr

Robert T. Ironside

Ironside

Martin Landau

Rollin Hand

Mission: Impossible

CBS

Ben Gazzara

Paul Bryan

Run for Your Life

NBC

1969(21st)

Carl Betz

Clinton Judd

Judd, for the Defense

ABC

Raymond Burr

Robert T. Ironside

Ironside

NBC

Peter Graves

Jim Phelps

Mission: Impossible

CBS

Martin Landau

Rollin Hand

Ross Martin

Artemus Gordon

The Wild Wild West

text:
Year

Actor

Role

Program

Network

1970(22nd)

Robert Young

Dr. Marcus Welby

Marcus Welby, M.D.

ABC

Raymond Burr

Robert T. Ironside

Ironside

NBC

Robert Wagner

Al Mundy

It Takes a Thief

ABC

Mike Connors

Joe Mannix

Mannix

CBS

1971(23rd)

Hal Holbrook

Hays Stowe

The Bold Ones: The Senator

NBC

Raymond Burr

Robert T. Ironside

Ironside

NBC

Mike Connors

Joe Mannix

Mannix

CBS

Robert Young

Dr. Marcus Welby

Marcus Welby, M.D.

ABC

1972(24th)

Peter Falk

Columbo

Columbo

NBC

Raymond Burr

Robert T. Ironside

Ironside

NBC

Mike Connors

Joe Mannix

Mannix

CBS

Robert Young

Dr. Marcus Welby

Marcus Welby, M.D.

ABC

Keith Michell #

Henry VIII of England

The Six Wives of Henry VIII

CBS

1973(25th)

Richard Thomas

John-Boy Walton

The Waltons

CBS

William Conrad

Frank Cannon

Cannon

CBS

David Carradine

Kwai Chang Caine

Kung Fu

ABC

Mike Connors

Joe Mannix

Mannix

CBS

Peter Falk

Columbo

Columbo

NBC

1974(26th)

Telly Savalas

Lt. Theo Kojak

Kojak

CBS

William Conrad

Frank Cannon

Cannon

CBS

Karl Malden

Lt. Mike Stone

The Streets of San Francisco

ABC

Richard Thomas

John-Boy Walton

The Waltons

CBS

1975(27th)

Robert Blake

Det. Tony Baretta

Baretta

ABC

Telly Savalas

Theo Kojak

Kojak

CBS

Barry Newman

Anthony J. Petrocelli

Petrocelli

NBC

Karl Malden

Lt. Mike Stone

The Streets of San Francisco

ABC

1976(28th)

Peter Falk

Columbo

Columbo

NBC

James Garner

Jim Rockford

The Rockford Files

NBC

Karl Malden

Lt. Mike Stone

The Streets of San Francisco

ABC

1977(29th)

James Garner

Jim Rockford

The Rockford Files

NBC

Robert Blake

Det. Tony Baretta

Baretta

ABC

Peter Falk

Columbo

Columbo

NBC

Jack Klugman

Dr. R. Quincy, M.E.

Quincy, M.E.

Karl Malden

Lt. Mike Stone

The Streets of San Francisco

ABC

1978(30th)

Ed Asner

Lou Grant

Lou Grant

CBS

James Broderick

Doug Lawrence

Family

ABC

Peter Falk

Columbo

Columbo

NBC

Jack Klugman

Dr. R. Quincy, M.E.

Quincy, M.E.

James Garner

Jim Rockford

The Rockford Files

Ralph Waite

John Walton, Sr.

The Waltons

CBS

1979(31st)

Ron Leibman

Kazinsky

Kaz

CBS

Ed Asner

Lou Grant

Lou Grant

CBS

Jack Klugman

Dr. R. Quincy, M.E.

Quincy, M.E.

NBC

James Garner

Jim Rockford

The Rockford Files

text:
Year

Actor

Role

Program

Network

1980(32nd)

Ed Asner

Lou Grant

Lou Grant

CBS

James Garner

Jim Rockford

The Rockford Files

NBC

Larry Hagman

J. R. Ewing

Dallas

CBS

Jack Klugman

R. Quincy

Quincy, M.E.

NBC

1981(33rd)

Daniel J. Travanti

Frank Furillo

Hill Street Blues

NBC

Ed Asner

Lou Grant

Lou Grant

CBS

Jim Davis (posthumously)

Jock Ewing

Dallas

Louis Gossett Jr. §

Bessie's Father

Palmerstown, U.S.A.

Larry Hagman

J. R. Ewing

Dallas

Pernell Roberts

Trapper John McIntyre

Trapper John, M.D.

1982(34th)

Daniel J. Travanti

Frank Furillo

Hill Street Blues

NBC

Ed Asner

Lou Grant

Lou Grant

CBS

John Forsythe

Blake Carrington

Dynasty

ABC

James Garner

Bret Maverick

Bret Maverick

NBC

Tom Selleck

Thomas Magnum

Magnum, P.I.

CBS

1983(35th)

Ed Flanders

Donald Westphall

St. Elsewhere

NBC

William Daniels

Mark Craig

St. Elsewhere

NBC

John Forsythe

Blake Carrington

Dynasty

ABC

Tom Selleck

Thomas Magnum

Magnum, P.I.

CBS

Daniel J. Travanti

Frank Furillo

Hill Street Blues

NBC

1984(36th)[1]

Tom Selleck

Thomas Magnum

Magnum, P.I.

CBS

William Daniels

Mark Craig

St. Elsewhere

NBC

Ed Flanders

Donald Westphall

John Forsythe

Blake Carrington

Dynasty

ABC

Daniel J. Travanti

Frank Furillo

Hill Street Blues

NBC

1985(37th)

William Daniels

Mark Craig

St. Elsewhere

NBC

Ed Flanders

Donald Westphall

St. Elsewhere

NBC

Don Johnson

Sonny Crockett

Miami Vice

Tom Selleck

Thomas Magnum

Magnum, P.I.

CBS

Daniel J. Travanti

Frank Furillo

Hill Street Blues

NBC

1986(38th)

William Daniels

Mark Craig

St. Elsewhere

NBC

Ed Flanders

Donald Westphall

St. Elsewhere

NBC

Tom Selleck

Thomas Magnum

Magnum, P.I.

CBS

Bruce Willis

David Addison

Moonlighting

ABC

Edward Woodward

Robert McCall

The Equalizer

CBS

1987(39th)

Bruce Willis

David Addison

Moonlighting

ABC

Corbin Bernsen

Arnie Becker

L.A. Law

NBC

William Daniels

Mark Craig

St. Elsewhere

Ed Flanders

Donald Westphall

Edward Woodward

Robert McCall

The Equalizer

CBS

1988(40th)

Richard Kiley

Joe Gardner

A Year in the Life

NBC

Corbin Bernsen

Arnie Becker

L.A. Law

NBC

Ron Perlman

Vincent

Beauty and the Beast

CBS

Michael Tucker

Stuart Markowitz

L.A. Law

NBC

Edward Woodward

Robert McCall

The Equalizer

CBS

1989(41st)

Carroll O'Connor

Bill Gillespie

In the Heat of the Night

NBC

Ron Perlman

Vincent

Beauty and the Beast

CBS

Michael Tucker

Stuart Markowitz

L.A. Law

NBC

Ken Wahl

Vinnie Terranova

Wiseguy

CBS

Edward Woodward

Robert McCall

The Equalizer

text:
Year

Actor

Role

Program

Network

1990(42nd)

Peter Falk

Columbo

Columbo

ABC

Scott Bakula

Dr. Sam Beckett

Quantum Leap

NBC

Robert Loggia

Nick Mancuso

Mancuso, F.B.I.

Kyle MacLachlan

Dale Cooper

Twin Peaks

ABC

Edward Woodward

Robert McCall

The Equalizer

CBS

1991(43rd)

James Earl Jones

Gabriel Bird

Gabriel's Fire

ABC

Scott Bakula

Dr. Sam Beckett

Quantum Leap

NBC

Peter Falk

Columbo

Columbo

ABC

Kyle MacLachlan

Dale Cooper

Twin Peaks

Michael Moriarty

Benjamin Stone

Law & Order

NBC

1992(44th)

Christopher Lloyd §

Alistair Dimple

Road to Avonlea

Disney

Scott Bakula

Dr. Sam Beckett

Quantum Leap

NBC

Kirk Douglas §

General Kalthrob

Tales from the Crypt

HBO

Michael Moriarty

Benjamin Stone

Law & Order

NBC

Rob Morrow

Joel Fleischman

Northern Exposure

CBS

Harrison Page §

Reverend Walters

Quantum Leap

NBC

Sam Waterston

Forrest Bedford

I'll Fly Away

1993(45th)

Tom Skerritt

Jimmy Brock

Picket Fences

CBS

Scott Bakula

Dr. Sam Beckett

Quantum Leap

NBC

Michael Moriarty

Benjamin Stone

Law & Order

Rob Morrow

Joel Fleischman

Northern Exposure

CBS

Sam Waterston

Forrest Bedford

I'll Fly Away

NBC

1994(46th)

Dennis Franz

Andy Sipowicz

NYPD Blue

ABC

David Caruso

John Kelly

NYPD Blue

ABC

Peter Falk

Columbo

Columbo

Michael Moriarty

Benjamin Stone

Law & Order

NBC

Tom Skerritt

Jimmy Brock

Picket Fences

CBS

1995(47th)

Mandy Patinkin

Dr. Jeffrey Geiger

Chicago Hope

CBS

George Clooney

Dr. Doug Ross

ER

NBC

Anthony Edwards

Dr. Mark Greene

Dennis Franz

Andy Sipowicz

NYPD Blue

ABC

Jimmy Smits

Bobby Simone

1996(48th)

Dennis Franz

Andy Sipowicz

NYPD Blue

ABC

Andre Braugher

Frank Pembleton

Homicide: Life on the Street

NBC

George Clooney

Dr. Doug Ross

ER

Anthony Edwards

Dr. Mark Greene

Jimmy Smits

Bobby Simone

NYPD Blue

ABC

1997(49th)

Dennis Franz

Andy Sipowicz

NYPD Blue

ABC

David Duchovny

Fox Mulder

The X-Files

Fox

Anthony Edwards

Dr. Mark Greene

ER

NBC

Jimmy Smits

Bobby Simone

NYPD Blue

ABC

Sam Waterston

Jack McCoy

Law & Order

NBC

1998(50th)

Andre Braugher

Frank Pembleton

Homicide: Life on the Street

NBC

David Duchovny

Fox Mulder

The X-Files

Fox

Anthony Edwards

Dr. Mark Greene

ER

NBC

Dennis Franz

Andy Sipowicz

NYPD Blue

ABC

Jimmy Smits

Bobby Simone

1999(51st)

Dennis Franz

Andy Sipowicz

NYPD Blue

ABC

James Gandolfini

Tony Soprano

The Sopranos

HBO

Dylan McDermott

Bobby Donnell

The Practice

ABC

Jimmy Smits

Bobby Simone

NYPD Blue

Sam Waterston

Jack McCoy

Law & Order

NBC

text:
Year

Actor

Role

Program

Network

2000(52nd)

James Gandolfini

Tony Soprano

The Sopranos

HBO

Dennis Franz

Andy Sipowicz

NYPD Blue

ABC

Jerry Orbach

Lennie Briscoe

Law & Order

NBC

Martin Sheen

Josiah Bartlet

The West Wing

Sam Waterston

Jack McCoy

Law & Order

2001(53rd)

James Gandolfini

Tony Soprano

The Sopranos

HBO

Andre Braugher

Dr. Ben Gideon

Gideon's Crossing

ABC

Dennis Franz

Andy Sipowicz

NYPD Blue

Rob Lowe

Sam Seaborn

The West Wing

NBC

Martin Sheen

Josiah Bartlet

2002(54th)

Michael Chiklis

Vic Mackey

The Shield

FX

Michael C. Hall

David Fisher

Six Feet Under

HBO

Peter Krause

Nate Fisher

Martin Sheen

Josiah Bartlet

The West Wing

NBC

Kiefer Sutherland

Jack Bauer

24

Fox

2003(55th)

James Gandolfini

Tony Soprano

The Sopranos

HBO

Michael Chiklis

Vic Mackey

The Shield

FX

Peter Krause

Nate Fisher

Six Feet Under

HBO

Martin Sheen

Josiah Bartlet

The West Wing

NBC

Kiefer Sutherland

Jack Bauer

24

Fox

2004(56th)

James Spader

Alan Shore

The Practice

ABC

James Gandolfini

Tony Soprano

The Sopranos

HBO

Anthony LaPaglia

Jack Malone

Without a Trace

CBS

Martin Sheen

Josiah Bartlet

The West Wing

NBC

Kiefer Sutherland

Jack Bauer

24

Fox

2005(57th)

James Spader

Alan Shore

Boston Legal

ABC

Hank Azaria

Dr. Craig "Huff" Huffstodt

Huff

Showtime

Hugh Laurie

Dr. Gregory House

House

Fox

Ian McShane

Al Swearengen

Deadwood

HBO

Kiefer Sutherland

Jack Bauer

24

Fox

2006(58th)

Kiefer Sutherland

Jack Bauer

24

Fox

Peter Krause

Nate Fisher

Six Feet Under

HBO

Denis Leary

Tommy Gavin

Rescue Me

FX

Christopher Meloni

Elliot Stabler

Law & Order: Special Victims Unit

NBC

Martin Sheen

Josiah Bartlet

The West Wing

2007(59th)

James Spader

Alan Shore

Boston Legal

ABC

James Gandolfini

Tony Soprano

The Sopranos

HBO

Hugh Laurie

Dr. Gregory House

House

Fox

Denis Leary

Tommy Gavin

Rescue Me

FX

Kiefer Sutherland

Jack Bauer

24

Fox

2008(60th)

Bryan Cranston

Walter White

Breaking Bad

AMC

Gabriel Byrne

Dr. Paul Weston

In Treatment

HBO

Michael C. Hall

Dexter Morgan

Dexter

Showtime

Jon Hamm

Don Draper

Mad Men

AMC

Hugh Laurie

Dr. Gregory House

House

Fox

James Spader

Alan Shore

Boston Legal

ABC

2009(61st)

Bryan Cranston

Walter White

Breaking Bad

AMC

Simon Baker

Patrick Jane

The Mentalist

CBS

Gabriel Byrne

Dr. Paul Weston

In Treatment

HBO

Michael C. Hall

Dexter Morgan

Dexter

Showtime

Jon Hamm

Don Draper

Mad Men

AMC

Hugh Laurie

Dr. Gregory House

House

Fox

text:
Year

Actor

Role

Program

Network

2010(62nd)[2]

Bryan Cranston

Walter White

Breaking Bad

AMC

Kyle Chandler

Eric Taylor

Friday Night Lights

DirecTV

Matthew Fox

Dr. Jack Shephard

Lost

ABC

Michael C. Hall

Dexter Morgan

Dexter

Showtime

Jon Hamm

Don Draper

Mad Men

AMC

Hugh Laurie

Dr. Gregory House

House

Fox

2011(63rd)[3]

Kyle Chandler

Eric Taylor

Friday Night Lights

DirecTV

Steve Buscemi

Nucky Thompson

Boardwalk Empire

HBO

Michael C. Hall

Dexter Morgan

Dexter

Showtime

Jon Hamm

Don Draper

Mad Men

AMC

Hugh Laurie

Dr. Gregory House

House

Fox

Timothy Olyphant

Raylan Givens

Justified

FX

2012(64th)[4]

Damian Lewis

Nicholas Brody

Homeland

Showtime

Hugh Bonneville

Robert Crawley

Downton Abbey

PBS

Steve Buscemi

Nucky Thompson

Boardwalk Empire

HBO

Bryan Cranston

Walter White

Breaking Bad

AMC

Michael C. Hall

Dexter Morgan

Dexter

Showtime

Jon Hamm

Don Draper

Mad Men

AMC

2013(65th)[5]

Jeff Daniels

Will McAvoy

The Newsroom

HBO

Hugh Bonneville

Robert Crawley

Downton Abbey

PBS

Bryan Cranston

Walter White

Breaking Bad

AMC

Jon Hamm

Don Draper

Mad Men

Damian Lewis

Nicholas Brody

Homeland

Showtime

Kevin Spacey

Frank Underwood

House of Cards

Netflix

2014(66th)[6]

Bryan Cranston

Walter White

Breaking Bad

AMC

Jeff Daniels

Will McAvoy

The Newsroom

HBO

Jon Hamm

Don Draper

Mad Men

AMC

Woody Harrelson

Martin Hart

True Detective

HBO

Matthew McConaughey

Rustin Cohle

Kevin Spacey

Frank Underwood

House of Cards

Netflix

2015(67th)[7]

Jon Hamm

Don Draper

Mad Men

AMC

Kyle Chandler

John Rayburn

Bloodline

Netflix

Jeff Daniels

Will McAvoy

The Newsroom

HBO

Bob Odenkirk

Jimmy McGill

Better Call Saul

AMC

Liev Schreiber

Ray Donovan

Ray Donovan

Showtime

Kevin Spacey

Frank Underwood

House of Cards

Netflix

2016(68th)[8]

Rami Malek

Elliot Alderson

Mr. Robot

USA

Kyle Chandler

John Rayburn

Bloodline

Netflix

Bob Odenkirk

Jimmy McGill

Better Call Saul

AMC

Matthew Rhys

Philip Jennings

The Americans

FX

Liev Schreiber

Ray Donovan

Ray Donovan

Showtime

Kevin Spacey

Frank Underwood

House of Cards

Netflix

2017(69th)[9]

Sterling K. Brown

Randall Pearson

This Is Us

NBC

Anthony Hopkins

Dr. Robert Ford

Westworld

HBO

Bob Odenkirk

Jimmy McGill

Better Call Saul

AMC

Matthew Rhys

Philip Jennings

The Americans

FX

Liev Schreiber

Ray Donovan

Ray Donovan

Showtime

Kevin Spacey

Frank Underwood

House of Cards

Netflix

Milo Ventimiglia

Jack Pearson

This Is Us

NBC

2018(70th)[10]

Matthew Rhys

Philip Jennings

The Americans

FX

Jason Bateman

Marty Byrde

Ozark

Netflix

Sterling K. Brown

Randall Pearson

This Is Us

NBC

Ed Harris

The Man in Black / William

Westworld

HBO

Milo Ventimiglia

Jack Pearson

This Is Us

NBC

Jeffrey Wright

Bernard Lowe

Westworld

HBO

text: Performers with multiple awards[edit]

text:
4 awards
Bryan Cranston (3 consecutive)
Dennis Franz (2 consecutive)

3 awards
Bill Cosby (consecutive)
Peter Falk
James Gandolfini (2 consecutive)
James Spader (2 consecutive for same role on different shows)
Robert Young (2 different roles; 2 consecutive for same role)

2 awards
Ed Asner
Raymond Burr
William Daniels (consecutive)
E. G. Marshall (consecutive)
Daniel J. Travanti (consecutive)

text: Programs with multiple awards[edit]

text:
4 awards
Breaking Bad (3 consecutive)
NYPD Blue (2 consecutive)
3 awards
Columbo
I Spy (consecutive)
The Sopranos
St. Elsewhere (2 consecutive)

2 awards
Boston Legal
The Defenders
Father Knows Best (consecutive)
Hill Street Blues (consecutive)
Lou Grant
Perry Mason

text: Performers with multiple nominations[edit]

text:
8 nominations
Raymond Burr
Peter Falk
Dennis Franz
Jon Hamm
7 nominations
James Garner
6 nominations
Bryan Cranston
James Gandolfini
Michael C. Hall
Hugh Laurie
Martin Sheen
Kiefer Sutherland
Robert Young
5 nominations
Ed Asner
William Daniels
Ed Flanders
Tom Selleck
Jimmy Smits
Kevin Spacey
Daniel J. Travanti
Sam Waterston
Edward Woodward

4 nominations
Scott Bakula
Richard Boone
Kyle Chandler
Mike Connors
Anthony Edwards
Jack Klugman
Karl Malden
Michael Moriarty
James Spader
3 nominations
James Arness
Andre Braugher
Bill Cosby
Robert Culp
Jeff Daniels
John Forsythe
David Janssen
Peter Krause
Martin Landau
Bob Odenkirk
Matthew Rhys
Liev Schreiber

2 nominations
Corbin Bernsen
Robert Blake
Hugh Bonneville
Sterling K. Brown
Paul Burke
Steve Buscemi
Gabriel Byrne
Michael Chiklis
George Clooney
William Conrad
Jackie Cooper
David Duchovny
Ben Gazzara
Larry Hagman
Denis Leary
Damian Lewis
Kyle MacLachlan
E. G. Marshall
Rob Morrow
Ron Perlman
Telly Savalas
Tom Skerritt
Robert Stack
Richard Thomas
Michael Tucker
Milo Ventimiglia
Jack Webb
Bruce Willis

text: Programs with multiple nominations[edit]

text:
14 nominations
NYPD Blue
10 nominations
St. Elsewhere
8 nominations
Columbo
Law & Order
Mad Men
7 nominations
The West Wing
6 nominations
24
Breaking Bad
ER
House
I Spy
The Sopranos
5 nominations
Dexter
The Equalizer
Hill Street Blues
House of Cards
Ironside
Lou Grant
Magnum, P.I.
Quantum Leap
The Rockford Files

4 nominations
L.A. Law
Mannix
Mission: Impossible
Quincy, M.E.
Six Feet Under
The Streets of San Francisco
This Is Us
3 nominations
The Americans
Better Call Saul
Boston Legal
Dallas
The Danny Thomas Show[note 2]
Dynasty
Father Knows Best
The Fugitive
Gunsmoke
The Jackie Gleason Show
Marcus Welby, M.D.
The Newsroom
Perry Mason
Ray Donovan
The Waltons
Westworld

2 nominations
Baretta
Beauty and the Beast
Bloodline
Boardwalk Empire
The Bob Cummings Show
Cannon
The Defenders
The Dick Van Dyke Show
Downton Abbey
Dragnet
Four Star Playhouse
Friday Night Lights
Have Gun – Will Travel
Hennesey
Homeland
Homicide: Life on the Street
I'll Fly Away
In Treatment
Kojak
Moonlighting
Naked City
Northern Exposure
The Phil Silvers Show
Picket Fences
The Practice
Rescue Me
Run for Your Life
The Shield
True Detective
Twin Peaks
The Untouchables
The X-Files


document_title: Child marriage in Pakistan

question_text: what is the legal age of marriage in pakistan

text: Child marriage in Pakistan

text: Causes for Child Marriages[edit]

text: Early and child marriage are directly attributable to deep-rooted gender inequalities, traditional practices, and customs.[1]

text: The close relationship between female chastity and family honour forces family members to marry girls at an early age to prevent sexual transgressions and consequent damage to family reputation. The conceptualization of the girl child as ‘other’s property’ who has to eventually move to her husband’s home prevents parents from investing in their daughter’s education and daughters thus are married off at an early age to relieve parents of their ‘burden'.[2]

text: The problem of child marriage is at times justified on the basis of religious foundations.[1] Historically, it can be explained as a reaction to invasions by foreigners; desire to perpetuate the cult of the family by marrying the son early; by marrying the daughter early to escape the discredit caused to the family by the presence of grown-up maiden; or by desire of the mother to marry her son early so that she may sooner obtain the possession of a daughter-in-law in whom the mother could inculcate her habits of obedience and who could share the domestic chores with the mother. In the case of parents, sometimes it is due to their keenness to relieve themselves of the responsibility of marrying their daughter. They are also considered socially acceptable for reasons of responsibility and economically desirable for saving marriage expenses, bride price/ dowry.[3]

text: In certain peculiar situations, it takes place under what is known as dand or bada in Sindh, vani in Punjab, and swara in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and the tribal areas.[citation needed] In this practice, an accused family gives its girl or girls in marriage to an aggrieved family to settle a blood feud between the two parties.[citation needed] Women and girl children who are victims of vani or swara arrangements live in a hostile environment where they are treated as daughters or relatives of the enemy.[citation needed]

text: In addition to being covered by the Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929, such marriages are also covered by section 310-A of the PPC (Pakistan Penal Code 1860), and are liable to be imprisoned up to a term of seven years but not less than three years and liable to a fine of Rs 500,000.[4]

text: At times, women and girl children are deprived of their property rights by symbolically marrying them to the Quran. This ensures that the girl child will not bear children in the future and will not demand her rightful share in the family property. Sometimes poor parents who cannot afford to marry their daughters rely on this symbolic arrangement.[1]

text: Section 498-C of the PPC prohibits marriage with the Quran. A person found guilty of arranging, facilitating or compelling such marriage of a female is liable imprisoned for a period extending to seven years but not less than three years and a fine of up to Rs 500,000.[5]

text: Exchange marriage or Watta Satta is also practiced in many parts of Pakistan.[citation needed] In a watta satta arrangement, both families trade brides. Both families must have a daughter and a son and must be willing to betroth them to the daughter and son of the other family. Watta satta marriages put females in a precarious position as a divorce between one of the couples may trigger a divorce between the other couple because of strong sibling ties. Such marriages are a crime if child marriages are involved in the arrangement.[1]

text: Section 498-B of the PPC prohibits forces marriages and makes it an offense, punishable with imprisonment extending to seven years but not less than three years and liable to a fine of Rs 500,000.[6]

text: Generally, a person accused of deceitfully preventing a woman from inheriting property is punishable under section 498-A of the PPC with an imprisonment extending to ten years but not less than five years and a fine of rupees one million or both.[7]

text: Lack of data[edit]

text: Several surveys have shown over a period of time that more number of females are married at a young age; and age at marriage has also been lower for females. The phenomenon is also more prevalent among backward classes, poor families and in households where there are no literate female members. Quite a large number of child marriages are experienced in families where the head is uneducated.[2]

text: Reliable statistics on the phenomenon are unavailable in Pakistan. The limited data available on child marriages in Pakistan present a bleak picture.[1] Twenty four percent of women in the country were married before the age of 18 years in the country between 2000 and 2010 with seven percent married before they reached the age of 15 years. Other estimates quote that around 30% of the marriages in Pakistan fall under the child marriage category with the highest prevalence in the Sindh province.[8]

text: Consequences[edit]

text:
Over the years, there has been a decline in the occurrence of child marriages but it is lower in case of females than males.
The trend of child marriages has been a major cause of girls' illiteracy or lower level of education.[citation needed] It can also damage the girls physical, mental and social health leading to serious health issues in the future. Prenatal, neonatal, and maternal health problems are also tied to women married before the age of 18.[citation needed]  It is also evident that child marriages are widely prevalent among cultivators and laborers.[citation needed] Dependency on elders and lack of independent occupational aspirations or occupational mobility further hampers the efforts of limiting child marriages.[3] As a result, child marriages, particularly in the rural areas of Pakistan, continue to take place.[citation needed] There are, however, spatial trends as indicated by different trends of distinct villages.  Big farmers seem to be gradually doing away with child marriages; and it remains more concentrated among the landless farmers and laborers.[citation needed] Exposure to urban areas has helped in reduction of child marriage; and finally, realization of bad effects of child marriages has positive relationship with reduction in child marriage indicating thereby a positive role of general understanding and awareness which is spreading quite fast.[3]

text: The possibility of mismatches of marriages is high. Child wives fall ill and lots of times die which explains one of the highest maternal mortality rates in the country.[citation needed] Infants born to the child mothers are many times feeble. The marital lives remain unhappy and child wives lack happiness due to their life-time inability to support their lot. Many a times, the young wives become vulnerable to sexually transmitted diseases.  The occurrence results in increasing the population growth rate.[1]

text: The Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929[edit]

text: Child marriage in Pakistan is legally prohibited to an extent under the Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929 (No XIX). Under the Act, the minimum age for marriage is 18 years for a male and 16 years for a female (section 2).[9] Contravention is punishable with a fine of Rs.1000 and an imprisonment of one month or both for

text:
An adult male (above 18 years of age) who contracts marriage with a child (section 4).[10]
A person who solemnizes a child marriage (section 5).[11]
A parent or guardian who does not act to prevent a child marriage (section 6).[12]

text: The 1929 Act is one of those few laws on the statute books that were introduced by the founder of Pakistan, Mohammad Ali Jinnah, while he was a member of the British India Legislative Assembly. It was passed on October 1, 1929, to restrain the solemnization of child marriages and applied to the whole of India effective April 1, 1930. It still remains in force, and extends to the whole of Pakistan. It applies to, both Muslim and Non-Muslim, citizens of Pakistan, and regardless of whether they are resident in Pakistan or elsewhere.[11]

text:
Prior to the 1929 Act, the Age of Consent Act in 1892 was enacted which laid down the age below which a marriage should not be consummated. Child marriages however continued unabated. It was in order to control this menace that the 1929 Act was enacted.[11]
The purpose of the Act, as its title signifies, is to restrain the solemnization of child marriages. Child was originally defined in the Act to mean a "person who, if a male, is under 14 years of age, and if a female, is under 12 years of age." The age was subsequently raised. The Muslim Family Laws Ordinance 1961 (No VIII) effective July 15, 1961, raised the age of girl child in the Act from 14 to 16 years of age; and lowered the age of male from 21 to 18 years to the extent of the Muslim citizens; this means that the age for the non-Muslim citizens remains the same as prior to the 1961 Amendment.[13]
The Act, after being amended by the 1961 Ordinance, states that, whoever being a male above 18 years of age, contracts a marriage with a girl child of less than 16 years, shall be punishable with simple imprisonment extending up to one month, or with fine extending up to Rs 1000, or with both.[13]

text:
Additionally whoever performs, conducts or directs any child marriage, defined as marriage to which either of the contracting parties is a child, is punishable with simple imprisonment extending up to one month, or fine extending up to Rs 1000, or with both, unless he proves that he had reason to believe that the marriage was not a child marriage.[13]
Similarly, any person having charge of the minor contracting a child marriage, whether as parent or guardian or in any other capacity, lawful or unlawful,

text:
who does any act to promote the marriage; or
permits it to be solemnized; or
negligently fails to prevent it from being solemnized;

text:
is punishable with simple imprisonment extending up to one month, or with, fine extending up to Rs 1000, or with both, provided that no woman is punishable with imprisonment. For purposes of this section of the Act, it will be presumed under law, unless and until the contrary is proved, that where a minor has contracted a child marriage, the person having charge of such minor has negligently failed to prevent the marriage from being solemnized.[13]
No court other than Magistrate of the first class can take cognizance of, or try, any offense under the Act. However even he cannot take cognizance after the expiry of one year from the date on which the offense is alleged to have been committed; and unless, except in Punjab, a complaint is made by the union council within whose jurisdiction a child marriage is or is about to be solemnized, or if there is no union council in the area by such authority as the provincial government may in this behalf prescribe.[13]

text: In cases where the court is satisfied from information laid before it through a complaint or otherwise that a child marriage has been arranged or is about to be solemnized, the court may issue an injunction against any of male contracting the marriage; or the persons involved in the performance, conduct or direction of the child marriage; or the persons having charge of the minor whether as parent or guardian or in any other capacity whether lawful or unlawful. No injunction, however, can be issued unless the court has previously given notice to the person concerned, and has afforded him an opportunity to show cause against the issue of the injunction. Such an injunction order can also be rescinded or altered by the court. Disobedience of the injunction order is punishable with imprisonment extending up to three months, or with fine extending up to Rs 1000, or with both, provided that no woman can be punished under this section of the Act.[13]