document_title: Sedimentary rock

question_text: 4 examples of sediment that might become sedimentary rock

question_tokens: 4 examples of sediment that might become sedimentary rock

text: Sedimentary rock

text: Classification based on origin

text: Sedimentary rocks can be subdivided into four groups based on the processes responsible for their formation: clastic sedimentary rocks, biochemical (biogenic) sedimentary rocks, chemical sedimentary rocks, and a fourth category for "other" sedimentary rocks formed by impacts, volcanism, and other minor processes.

text: Clastic sedimentary rocks

text: Clastic sedimentary rocks are composed of other rock fragments that were cemented by silicate minerals. Clastic rocks are composed largely of quartz, feldspar, rock (lithic) fragments, clay minerals, and mica; any type of mineral may be present, but they in general represent the minerals that exist locally.

text: Clastic sedimentary rocks, are subdivided according to the dominant particle size. Most geologists use the Udden-Wentworth grain size scale and divide unconsolidated sediment into three fractions: gravel (>2 mm diameter), sand (1/16 to 2 mm diameter), and mud (clay is <1/256 mm and silt is between 1/16 and 1/256 mm). The classification of clastic sedimentary rocks parallels this scheme; conglomerates and breccias are made mostly of gravel, sandstones are made mostly of sand, and mudrocks are made mostly of the finest material. This tripartite subdivision is mirrored by the broad categories of rudites, arenites, and lutites, respectively, in older literature.

text: The subdivision of these three broad categories is based on differences in clast shape (conglomerates and breccias), composition (sandstones), grain size or texture (mudrocks).

text: Conglomerates and breccias

text: Conglomerates are dominantly composed of rounded gravel, while breccias are composed of dominantly angular gravel.

text: Sandstones

text: Sandstone classification schemes vary widely, but most geologists have adopted the Dott scheme,[3] which uses the relative abundance of quartz, feldspar, and lithic framework grains and the abundance of a muddy matrix between the larger grains.

text:
Quartz sandstones have >90% quartz grains
Feldspathic sandstones have <90% quartz grains and more feldspar grains than lithic grains
Lithic sandstones have <90% quartz grains and more lithic grains than feldspar grains

text:
"Clean" sandstones with open pore space (that may later be filled with matrix material) are called arenites.
Muddy sandstones with abundant (>10%) muddy matrix are called wackes.

text: Six sandstone names are possible using the descriptors for grain composition (quartz-, feldspathic-, and lithic-) and the amount of matrix (wacke or arenite). For example, a quartz arenite would be composed of mostly (>90%) quartz grains and have little or no clayey matrix between the grains, a lithic wacke would have abundant lithic grains and abundant muddy matrix, etc.

text: Although the Dott classification scheme[3] is widely used by sedimentologists, common names like greywacke, arkose, and quartz sandstone are still widely used by non-specialists and in popular literature.

text: Mudrocks

text: Mudrocks are sedimentary rocks composed of at least 50% silt- and clay-sized particles. These relatively fine-grained particles are commonly transported by turbulent flow in water or air, and deposited as the flow calms and the particles settle out of suspension.

text: Most authors presently use the term "mudrock" to refer to all rocks composed dominantly of mud.[4][5][6][7] Mudrocks can be divided into siltstones, composed dominantly of silt-sized particles; mudstones with subequal mixture of silt- and clay-sized particles; and claystones, composed mostly of clay-sized particles.[4][5] Most authors use "shale" as a term for a fissile mudrock (regardless of grain size) although some older literature uses the term "shale" as a synonym for mudrock.

text: Biochemical sedimentary rocks

text: Biochemical sedimentary rocks are created when organisms use materials dissolved in air or water to build their tissue. Examples include:

text:
Most types of limestone are formed from the calcareous skeletons of organisms such as corals, mollusks, and foraminifera.
Coal, formed from plants that have removed carbon from the atmosphere and combined it with other elements to build their tissue.
Deposits of chert formed from the accumulation of siliceous skeletons of microscopic organisms such as radiolaria and diatoms.

text: Chemical sedimentary rocks

text: Chemical sedimentary rock forms when mineral constituents in solution become supersaturated and inorganically precipitate. Common chemical sedimentary rocks include oolitic limestone and rocks composed of evaporite minerals, such as halite (rock salt), sylvite, barite and gypsum.

text: "Other" sedimentary rocks

text: This fourth miscellaneous category includes rocks formed by Pyroclastic flows, impact breccias, volcanic breccias, and other relatively uncommon processes.

text: Compositional classification schemes

text: Alternatively, sedimentary rocks can be subdivided into compositional groups based on their mineralogy:

text:
Siliciclastic sedimentary rocks, are dominantly composed of silicate minerals. The sediment that makes up these rocks was transported as bed load, suspended load, or by sediment gravity flows. Siliciclastic sedimentary rocks are subdivided into conglomerates and breccias, sandstone, and mudrocks.
Carbonate sedimentary rocks are composed of calcite (rhombohedral CaCO
3), aragonite (orthorhombic CaCO
3), dolomite (CaMg(CO
3)
2), and other carbonate minerals based on the CO2−
3 ion. Common examples include limestone and dolostone.
Evaporite sedimentary rocks are composed of minerals formed from the evaporation of water. The most common evaporite minerals are carbonates (calcite and others based on CO2−
3), chlorides (halite and others built on Cl−), and sulfates (gypsum and others built on SO2−
4). Evaporite rocks commonly include abundant halite (rock salt), gypsum, and anhydrite.
Organic-rich sedimentary rocks have significant amounts of organic material, generally in excess of 3% total organic carbon. Common examples include coal, oil shale as well as source rocks for oil and natural gas.
Siliceous sedimentary rocks are almost entirely composed of silica (SiO
2), typically as chert, opal, chalcedony or other microcrystalline forms.
Iron-rich sedimentary rocks are composed of >15% iron; the most common forms are banded iron formations and ironstones.[5]
Phosphatic sedimentary rocks are composed of phosphate minerals and contain more than 6.5% phosphorus; examples include deposits of phosphate nodules, bone beds, and phosphatic mudrocks.[6]

text: Deposition and transformation

text: Sediment transport and deposition

text: Sedimentary rocks are formed when sediment is deposited out of air, ice, wind, gravity, or water flows carrying the particles in suspension. This sediment is often formed when weathering and erosion break down a rock into loose material in a source area. The material is then transported from the source area to the deposition area. The type of sediment transported depends on the geology of the hinterland (the source area of the sediment). However, some sedimentary rocks, such as evaporites, are composed of material that form at the place of deposition. The nature of a sedimentary rock, therefore, not only depends on the sediment supply, but also on the sedimentary depositional environment in which it formed.

text: Transformation (Diagenesis)

text: The term diagenesis is used to describe all the chemical, physical, and biological changes, exclusive of surface weathering, undergone by a sediment after its initial deposition. Some of those processes cause the sediment to consolidate into a compact, solid substance from the originally loose material. Young sedimentary rocks, especially those of Quaternary age (the most recent period of the geologic time scale) are often still unconsolidated. As sediment deposition builds up, the overburden (lithostatic) pressure rises, and a process known as lithification takes place.

text: Sedimentary rocks are often saturated with seawater or groundwater, in which minerals can dissolve, or from which minerals can precipitate. Precipitating minerals reduce the pore space in a rock, a process called cementation. Due to the decrease in pore space, the original connate fluids are expelled. The precipitated minerals form a cement and make the rock more compact and competent. In this way, loose clasts in a sedimentary rock can become "glued" together.

text: When sedimentation continues, an older rock layer becomes buried deeper as a result. The lithostatic pressure in the rock increases due to the weight of the overlying sediment. This causes compaction, a process in which grains mechanically reorganize. Compaction is, for example, an important diagenetic process in clay, which can initially consist of 60% water. During compaction, this interstitial water is pressed out of pore spaces. Compaction can also be the result of dissolution of grains by pressure solution. The dissolved material precipitates again in open pore spaces, which means there is a net flow of material into the pores. However, in some cases, a certain mineral dissolves and does not precipitate again. This process, called leaching, increases pore space in the rock.

text: Some biochemical processes, like the activity of bacteria, can affect minerals in a rock and are therefore seen as part of diagenesis. Fungi and plants (by their roots) and various other organisms that live beneath the surface can also influence diagenesis.

text: Burial of rocks due to ongoing sedimentation leads to increased pressure and temperature, which stimulates certain chemical reactions. An example is the reactions by which organic material becomes lignite or coal. When temperature and pressure increase still further, the realm of diagenesis makes way for metamorphism, the process that forms metamorphic rock.

text: Properties

text: Color

text: The color of a sedimentary rock is often mostly determined by iron, an element with two major oxides: iron(II) oxide and iron(III) oxide. Iron(II) oxide (FeO) only forms under low oxygen (anoxic) circumstances and gives the rock a grey or greenish colour. Iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3) in a richer oxygen environment is often found in the form of the mineral hematite and gives the rock a reddish to brownish colour. In arid continental climates rocks are in direct contact with the atmosphere, and oxidation is an important process, giving the rock a red or orange colour. Thick sequences of red sedimentary rocks formed in arid climates are called red beds. However, a red colour does not necessarily mean the rock formed in a continental environment or arid climate.[8]

text: The presence of organic material can colour a rock black or grey. Organic material is formed from dead organisms, mostly plants. Normally, such material eventually decays by oxidation or bacterial activity. Under anoxic circumstances, however, organic material cannot decay and leaves a dark sediment, rich in organic material. This can, for example, occur at the bottom of deep seas and lakes. There is little water mixing in such environments; as a result, oxygen from surface water is not brought down, and the deposited sediment is normally a fine dark clay. Dark rocks, rich in organic material, are therefore often shales.[8][9]

text: Texture

text: The size, form and orientation of clasts (the original pieces of rock) in a sediment is called its texture. The texture is a small-scale property of a rock, but determines many of its large-scale properties, such as the density, porosity or permeability.[10]

text: The 3D orientation of the clasts is called the fabric of the rock. Between the clasts, the rock can be composed of a matrix (a cement) that consists of crystals of one or more precipitated minerals. The size and form of clasts can be used to determine the velocity and direction of current in the sedimentary environment that moved the clasts from their origin; fine, calcareous mud only settles in quiet water while gravel and larger clasts are moved only by rapidly moving water.[11][12] The grain size of a rock is usually expressed with the Wentworth scale, though alternative scales are sometimes used. The grain size can be expressed as a diameter or a volume, and is always an average value – a rock is composed of clasts with different sizes. The statistical distribution of grain sizes is different for different rock types and is described in a property called the sorting of the rock. When all clasts are more or less of the same size, the rock is called 'well-sorted', and when there is a large spread in grain size, the rock is called 'poorly sorted'.[13][14]

text: The form of the clasts can reflect the origin of the rock.

text: Coquina, a rock composed of clasts of broken shells, can only form in energetic water. The form of a clast can be described by using four parameters:[15][16]

text:
Surface texture describes the amount of small-scale relief of the surface of a grain that is too small to influence the general shape.
rounding describes the general smoothness of the shape of a grain.
'Sphericity' describes the degree to which the grain approaches a sphere.
'Grain form' describes the three dimensional shape of the grain.

text: Chemical sedimentary rocks have a non-clastic texture, consisting entirely of crystals. To describe such a texture, only the average size of the crystals and the fabric are necessary.

text: Mineralogy

text: Most sedimentary rocks contain either quartz (especially siliciclastic rocks) or calcite (especially carbonate rocks). In contrast to igneous and metamorphic rocks, a sedimentary rock usually contains very few different major minerals. However, the origin of the minerals in a sedimentary rock is often more complex than in an igneous rock. Minerals in a sedimentary rock can have formed by precipitation during sedimentation or by diagenesis. In the second case, the mineral precipitate can have grown over an older generation of cement.[17] A complex diagenetic history can be studied by optical mineralogy, using a petrographic microscope.

text: Carbonate rocks dominantly consist of carbonate minerals such as calcite, aragonite or dolomite. Both the cement and the clasts (including fossils and ooids) of a carbonate sedimentary rock can consist of carbonate minerals. The mineralogy of a clastic rock is determined by the material supplied by the source area, the manner of its transport to the place of deposition and the stability of that particular mineral. The resistance of rock-forming minerals to weathering is expressed by Bowen's reaction series. In this series, quartz is the most stable, followed by feldspar, micas, and finally other less stable minerals that are only present when little weathering has occurred.[18] The amount of weathering depends mainly on the distance to the source area, the local climate and the time it took for the sediment to be transported to the point where it is deposited. In most sedimentary rocks, mica, feldspar and less stable minerals have been reduced to clay minerals like kaolinite, illite or smectite.[clarification needed]

text: Fossils

text: Among the three major types of rock, fossils are most commonly found in sedimentary rock. Unlike most igneous and metamorphic rocks, sedimentary rocks form at temperatures and pressures that do not destroy fossil remnants. Often these fossils may only be visible under magnification.

text: Dead organisms in nature are usually quickly removed by scavengers, bacteria, rotting and erosion, but sedimentation can contribute to exceptional circumstances where these natural processes are unable to work, causing fossilisation. The chance of fossilisation is higher when the sedimentation rate is high (so that a carcass is quickly buried), in anoxic environments (where little bacterial activity occurs) or when the organism had a particularly hard skeleton. Larger, well-preserved fossils are relatively rare.

text: Fossils can be both the direct remains or imprints of organisms and their skeletons. Most commonly preserved are the harder parts of organisms such as bones, shells, and the woody tissue of plants. Soft tissue has a much smaller chance of being fossilized, and the preservation of soft tissue of animals older than 40 million years is very rare.[19] Imprints of organisms made while they were still alive are called trace fossils, examples of which are burrows, footprints, etc.

text: As a part of a sedimentary or metamorphic rock, fossils undergo the same diagenetic processes as does the containing rock. A shell consisting of calcite can, for example, dissolve while a cement of silica then fills the cavity. In the same way, precipitating minerals can fill cavities formerly occupied by blood vessels, vascular tissue or other soft tissues. This preserves the form of the organism but changes the chemical composition, a process called permineralization.[20][21] The most common minerals involved in permineralization are cements of carbonates (especially calcite), forms of amorphous silica (chalcedony, flint, chert) and pyrite. In the case of silica cements, the process is called lithification.

text: At high pressure and temperature, the organic material of a dead organism undergoes chemical reactions in which volatiles such as water and carbon dioxide are expulsed. The fossil, in the end, consists of a thin layer of pure carbon or its mineralized form, graphite. This form of fossilisation is called carbonisation. It is particularly important for plant fossils.[22] The same process is responsible for the formation of fossil fuels like lignite or coal.

text: Primary sedimentary structures

text: Structures in sedimentary rocks can be divided into 'primary' structures (formed during deposition) and 'secondary' structures (formed after deposition). Unlike textures, structures are always large-scale features that can easily be studied in the field. Sedimentary structures can indicate something about the sedimentary environment or can serve to tell which side originally faced up where tectonics have tilted or overturned sedimentary layers.

text: Sedimentary rocks are laid down in layers called beds or strata. A bed is defined as a layer of rock that has a uniform lithology and texture. Beds form by the deposition of layers of sediment on top of each other. The sequence of beds that characterizes sedimentary rocks is called bedding.[23][24] Single beds can be a couple of centimetres to several meters thick. Finer, less pronounced layers are called laminae, and the structure a lamina forms in a rock is called lamination. Laminae are usually less than a few centimetres thick.[25] Though bedding and lamination are often originally horizontal in nature, this is not always the case. In some environments, beds are deposited at a (usually small) angle. Sometimes multiple sets of layers with different orientations exist in the same rock, a structure called cross-bedding.[26] Cross-bedding forms when small-scale erosion occurs during deposition, cutting off part of the beds. Newer beds then form at an angle to older ones.

text: The opposite of cross-bedding is parallel lamination, where all sedimentary layering is parallel.[27] Differences in laminations are generally caused by cyclic changes in the sediment supply, caused, for example, by seasonal changes in rainfall, temperature or biochemical activity. Laminae that represent seasonal changes (similar to tree rings) are called varves. Any sedimentary rock composed of millimeter or finer scale layers can be named with the general term laminite. When sedimentary rocks have no lamination at all, their structural character is called massive bedding.

text: Graded bedding is a structure where beds with a smaller grain size occur on top of beds with larger grains. This structure forms when fast flowing water stops flowing. Larger, heavier clasts in suspension settle first, then smaller clasts. Although graded bedding can form in many different environments, it is a characteristic of turbidity currents.[28]

text: The surface of a particular bed, called the bedform, can be indicative of a particular sedimentary environment, too. Examples of bed forms include dunes and ripple marks. Sole markings, such as tool marks and flute casts, are groves dug into a sedimentary layer that are preserved. These are often elongated structures and can be used to establish the direction of the flow during deposition.[29][30]

text: Ripple marks also form in flowing water. There are two types of ripples: symmetric and asymmetric. Environments where the current is in one direction, such as rivers, produce asymmetric ripples. The longer flank of such ripples is on the upstream side of the current.[31][32][33] Symmetric wave ripples occur in environments where currents reverse directions, such as tidal flats.

text: Mudcracks are a bed form caused by the dehydration of sediment that occasionally comes above the water surface. Such structures are commonly found at tidal flats or point bars along rivers.

text: Secondary sedimentary structures

text: Secondary sedimentary structures are those which formed after deposition. Such structures form by chemical, physical and biological processes within the sediment. They can be indicators of circumstances after deposition. Some can be used as way up criteria.

text: Organic materials in a sediment can leave more traces than just fossils. Preserved tracks and burrows are examples of trace fossils (also called ichnofossils).[34] Such traces are relatively rare. Most trace fossils are burrows of molluscs or arthropods. This burrowing is called bioturbation by sedimentologists. It can be a valuable indicator of the biological and ecological environment that existed after the sediment was deposited. On the other hand, the burrowing activity of organisms can destroy other (primary) structures in the sediment, making a reconstruction more difficult.

text: Secondary structures can also form by diagenesis or the formation of a soil (pedogenesis) when a sediment is exposed above the water level. An example of a diagenetic structure common in carbonate rocks is a stylolite.[35] Stylolites are irregular planes where material was dissolved into the pore fluids in the rock. This can result in the precipitation of a certain chemical species producing colouring and staining of the rock, or the formation of concretions. Concretions are roughly concentric bodies with a different composition from the host rock. Their formation can be the result of localized precipitation due to small differences in composition or porosity of the host rock, such as around fossils, inside burrows or around plant roots.[36] In carbonate based rocks such as limestone or chalk, chert or flint concretions are common, while terrestrial sandstones can have iron concretions. Calcite concretions in clay are called septarian concretions.

text: After deposition, physical processes can deform the sediment, producing a third class of secondary structures. Density contrasts between different sedimentary layers, such as between sand and clay, can result in flame structures or load casts, formed by inverted diapirism.[37] While the clastic bed is still fluid, diapirism can cause a denser upper layer to sink into a lower layer. Sometimes, density contrasts can result or grow when one of the lithologies dehydrates. Clay can be easily compressed as a result of dehydration, while sand retains the same volume and becomes relatively less dense. On the other hand, when the pore fluid pressure in a sand layer surpasses a critical point, the sand can break through overlying clay layers and flow through, forming discordant bodies of sedimentary rock called sedimentary dykes. The same process can form mud volcanoes on the surface where they broke through upper layers.

text: Sedimentary dykes can also be formed in a cold climate where the soil is permanently frozen during a large part of the year. Frost weathering can form cracks in the soil that fill with rubble from above. Such structures can be used as climate indicators as well as way up structures.[38]

text: Density contrasts can also cause small-scale faulting, even while sedimentation progresses (synchronous-sedimentary faulting).[39] Such faulting can also occur when large masses of non-lithified sediment are deposited on a slope, such as at the front side of a delta or the continental slope. Instabilities in such sediments can result in the deposited material to slump, producing fissures and folding. The resulting structures in the rock are syn-sedimentary folds and faults, which can be difficult to distinguish from folds and faults formed by tectonic forces acting on lithified rocks.

text: Sedimentary environments

text: The setting in which a sedimentary rock forms is called the sedimentary environment. Every environment has a characteristic combination of geologic processes and circumstances. The type of sediment that is deposited is not only dependent on the sediment that is transported to a place, but also on the environment itself.[40]

text: A marine environment means that the rock was formed in a sea or ocean. Often, a distinction is made between deep and shallow marine environments. Deep marine usually refers to environments more than 200 m below the water surface. Shallow marine environments exist adjacent to coastlines and can extend to the boundaries of the continental shelf. The water movements in such environments have a generally higher energy than that in deep environments, as wave activity diminishes with depth. This means that coarser sediment particles can be transported and the deposited sediment can be coarser than in deeper environments. When the sediment is transported from the continent, an alternation of sand, clay and silt is deposited. When the continent is far away, the amount of such sediment deposited may be small, and biochemical processes dominate the type of rock that forms. Especially in warm climates, shallow marine environments far offshore mainly see deposition of carbonate rocks. The shallow, warm water is an ideal habitat for many small organisms that build carbonate skeletons. When these organisms die, their skeletons sink to the bottom, forming a thick layer of calcareous mud that may lithify into limestone. Warm shallow marine environments also are ideal environments for coral reefs, where the sediment consists mainly of the calcareous skeletons of larger organisms.[41]

text: In deep marine environments, the water current working the sea bottom is small. Only fine particles can be transported to such places. Typically sediments depositing on the ocean floor are fine clay or small skeletons of micro-organisms. At 4 km depth, the solubility of carbonates increases dramatically (the depth zone where this happens is called the lysocline). Calcareous sediment that sinks below the lysocline dissolves; as a result, no limestone can be formed below this depth. Skeletons of micro-organisms formed of silica (such as radiolarians) are not as soluble and still deposit. An example of a rock formed of silica skeletons is radiolarite. When the bottom of the sea has a small inclination, for example at the continental slopes, the sedimentary cover can become unstable, causing turbidity currents. Turbidity currents are sudden disturbances of the normally quite deep marine environment and can cause the geologically speaking instantaneous deposition of large amounts of sediment, such as sand and silt. The rock sequence formed by a turbidity current is called a turbidite.[42]

text: The coast is an environment dominated by wave action. At a beach, dominantly denser sediment such as sand or gravel, often mingled with shell fragments, is deposited, while the silt and clay sized material is kept in mechanical suspension. Tidal flats and shoals are places that sometimes dry because of the tide. They are often cross-cut by gullies, where the current is strong and the grain size of the deposited sediment is larger. Where rivers enter the body of water, either on a sea or lake coast, deltas can form. These are large accumulations of sediment transported from the continent to places in front of the mouth of the river. Deltas are dominantly composed of clastic sediment (in contrast to chemical).

text: A sedimentary rock formed on land has a continental sedimentary environment. Examples of continental environments are lagoons, lakes, swamps, floodplains and alluvial fans. In the quiet water of swamps, lakes and lagoons, fine sediment is deposited, mingled with organic material from dead plants and animals. In rivers, the energy of the water is much greater and can transport heavier clastic material. Besides transport by water, sediment can in continental environments also be transported by wind or glaciers. Sediment transported by wind is called aeolian and is always very well sorted, while sediment transported by a glacier is called glacial till and is characterized by very poor sorting.[43]

text: Aeolian deposits can be quite striking. The depositional environment of the Touchet Formation, located in the Northwestern United States, had intervening periods of aridity which resulted in a series of rhythmite layers. Erosional cracks were later infilled with layers of soil material, especially from aeolian processes. The infilled sections formed vertical inclusions in the horizontally deposited layers of the Touchet Formation, and thus provided evidence of the events that intervened over time among the forty-one layers that were deposited.[44]

text: Sedimentary facies

text: Sedimentary environments usually exist alongside each other in certain natural successions. A beach, where sand and gravel is deposited, is usually bounded by a deeper marine environment a little offshore, where finer sediments are deposited at the same time. Behind the beach, there can be dunes (where the dominant deposition is well sorted sand) or a lagoon (where fine clay and organic material is deposited). Every sedimentary environment has its own characteristic deposits. The typical rock formed in a certain environment is called its sedimentary facies. When sedimentary strata accumulate through time, the environment can shift, forming a change in facies in the subsurface at one location. On the other hand, when a rock layer with a certain age is followed laterally, the lithology (the type of rock) and facies eventually change.[45]

text: Facies can be distinguished in a number of ways: the most common are by the lithology (for example: limestone, siltstone or sandstone) or by fossil content. Coral, for example, only lives in warm and shallow marine environments and fossils of coral are thus typical for shallow marine facies. Facies determined by lithology are called lithofacies; facies determined by fossils are biofacies.[46]

text: Sedimentary environments can shift their geographical positions through time. Coastlines can shift in the direction of the sea when the sea level drops, when the surface rises due to tectonic forces in the Earth's crust or when a river forms a large delta. In the subsurface, such geographic shifts of sedimentary environments of the past are recorded in shifts in sedimentary facies. This means that sedimentary facies can change either parallel or perpendicular to an imaginary layer of rock with a fixed age, a phenomenon described by Walther's Law.[47]

text: The situation in which coastlines move in the direction of the continent is called transgression. In the case of transgression, deeper marine facies are deposited over shallower facies, a succession called onlap. Regression is the situation in which a coastline moves in the direction of the sea. With regression, shallower facies are deposited on top of deeper facies, a situation called offlap.[48]

text: The facies of all rocks of a certain age can be plotted on a map to give an overview of the palaeogeography. A sequence of maps for different ages can give an insight in the development of the regional geography.

text: Sedimentary basins

text: Places where large-scale sedimentation takes place are called sedimentary basins. The amount of sediment that can be deposited in a basin depends on the depth of the basin, the so-called accommodation space. The depth, shape and size of a basin depend on tectonics, movements within the Earth's lithosphere. Where the lithosphere moves upward (tectonic uplift), land eventually rises above sea level, so that and erosion removes material, and the area becomes a source for new sediment. Where the lithosphere moves downward (tectonic subsidence), a basin forms and sedimentation can take place. When the lithosphere keeps subsiding, new accommodation space keeps being created.

text: A type of basin formed by the moving apart of two pieces of a continent is called a rift basin. Rift basins are elongated, narrow and deep basins. Due to divergent movement, the lithosphere is stretched and thinned, so that the hot asthenosphere rises and heats the overlying rift basin. Apart from continental sediments, rift basins normally also have part of their infill consisting of volcanic deposits. When the basin grows due to continued stretching of the lithosphere, the rift grows and the sea can enter, forming marine deposits.

text: When a piece of lithosphere that was heated and stretched cools again, its density rises, causing isostatic subsidence. If this subsidence continues long enough, the basin is called a sag basin. Examples of sag basins are the regions along passive continental margins, but sag basins can also be found in the interior of continents. In sag basins, the extra weight of the newly deposited sediments is enough to keep the subsidence going in a vicious circle. The total thickness of the sedimentary infill in a sag basins can thus exceed 10 km.

text: A third type of basin exists along convergent plate boundaries – places where one tectonic plate moves under another into the asthenosphere. The subducting plate bends and forms a fore-arc basin in front of the overriding plate—an elongated, deep asymmetric basin. Fore-arc basins are filled with deep marine deposits and thick sequences of turbidites. Such infill is called flysch. When the convergent movement of the two plates results in continental collision, the basin becomes shallower and develops into a foreland basin. At the same time, tectonic uplift forms a mountain belt in the overriding plate, from which large amounts of material are eroded and transported to the basin. Such erosional material of a growing mountain chain is called molasse and has either a shallow marine or a continental facies.

text: At the same time, the growing weight of the mountain belt can cause isostatic subsidence in the area of the overriding plate on the other side to the mountain belt. The basin type resulting from this subsidence is called a back-arc basin and is usually filled by shallow marine deposits and molasse.[49]

text: Influence of astronomical cycles

text: In many cases facies changes and other lithological features in sequences of sedimentary rock have a cyclic nature. This cyclic nature was caused by cyclic changes in sediment supply and the sedimentary environment. Most of these cyclic changes are caused by astronomic cycles. Short astronomic cycles can be the difference between the tides or the spring tide every two weeks. On a larger time-scale, cyclic changes in climate and sea level are caused by Milankovitch cycles: cyclic changes in the orientation and/or position of the Earth's rotational axis and orbit around the Sun. There are a number of Milankovitch cycles known, lasting between 10,000 and 200,000 years.[50]

text: Relatively small changes in the orientation of the Earth's axis or length of the seasons can be a major influence on the Earth's climate. An example are the ice ages of the past 2.6 million years (the Quaternary period), which are assumed to have been caused by astronomic cycles.[51][52] Climate change can influence the global sea level (and thus the amount of accommodation space in sedimentary basins) and sediment supply from a certain region. Eventually, small changes in astronomic parameters can cause large changes in sedimentary environment and sedimentation.

text: Sedimentation rates

text: The rate at which sediment is deposited differs depending on the location. A channel in a tidal flat can see the deposition of a few metres of sediment in one day, while on the deep ocean floor each year only a few millimetres of sediment accumulate. A distinction can be made between normal sedimentation and sedimentation caused by catastrophic processes. The latter category includes all kinds of sudden exceptional processes like mass movements, rock slides or flooding. Catastrophic processes can see the sudden deposition of a large amount of sediment at once. In some sedimentary environments, most of the total column of sedimentary rock was formed by catastrophic processes, even though the environment is usually a quiet place. Other sedimentary environments are dominated by normal, ongoing sedimentation.[53]

text: In many cases, sedimentation occurs slowly. In a desert, for example, the wind deposits siliciclastic material (sand or silt) in some spots, or catastrophic flooding of a wadi may cause sudden deposits of large quantities of detrital material, but in most places eolian erosion dominates. The amount of sedimentary rock that forms is not only dependent on the amount of supplied material, but also on how well the material consolidates. Erosion removes most deposited sediment shortly after deposition.[53]

text: Stratigraphy

text: That new rock layers are above older rock layers is stated in the principle of superposition. There are usually some gaps in the sequence called unconformities. These represent periods where no new sediments were laid down, or when earlier sedimentary layers were raised above sea level and eroded away.

text: Sedimentary rocks contain important information about the history of the Earth. They contain fossils, the preserved remains of ancient plants and animals. Coal is considered a type of sedimentary rock. The composition of sediments provides us with clues as to the original rock. Differences between successive layers indicate changes to the environment over time. Sedimentary rocks can contain fossils because, unlike most igneous and metamorphic rocks, they form at temperatures and pressures that do not destroy fossil remains.


document_title: Now You See Me 2

question_text: why is there a different girl in now you see me 2

root

text: Now You See Me 2

text: Plot[edit]

text: Eighteen months after outwitting the FBI, the remaining members of the Four Horsemen—J. Daniel Atlas (Jesse Eisenberg), Merritt McKinney (Woody Harrelson) and Jack Wilder (Dave Franco)—are in hiding in New York City, awaiting further instructions from The Eye, the secret society of magicians they've been recruited into. Atlas, having grown tired of waiting for a mission, seeks out The Eye himself. His search leads him to an underground tunnel in which he hears a voice that tells him that his wait may be coming to an end. The Horseman handler FBI agent Dylan Rhodes (Mark Ruffalo) ultimately assigns them a new mission, exposing corrupt businessman Owen Case (Ben Lamb), whose new software secretly steals data on its users for Case's benefit. Lula May (Lizzy Caplan) is added to the team to replace former member Henley Reeves (Isla Fisher), who has left the Horsemen after breaking up with Atlas.

tag: p

text: The Horsemen hijack the launch party for the new software, but the show is interrupted by a mysterious individual who reveals to the world that Wilder, believed to be dead, is actually alive, and that Rhodes is their mole, forcing him to escape. While escaping, the Horsemen enter their escape tube on a roof and emerge in Macau, where they are captured by mercenaries and Chase McKinney (also played by Woody Harrelson), Merritt's twin brother. The Horsemen are then brought before Chase's employer, technology prodigy Walter Mabry (Daniel Radcliffe), Case's former business partner, who faked his death after Case stole Walter's company. Mabry conscripts the Horsemen into stealing the data-mining device developed by Case to prevent him from using it. The chip allows the user to decrypt and access any electronic device around the world. The Horsemen agree to steal the device.

text: They get supplies at a famous magic shop in Macau, run by Li (Jay Chou) and Bu Bu (Tsai Chin), and secretly contact The Eye to arrange to hand over the device after they steal it. Meanwhile, Rhodes is branded a fugitive and forced to spring his rival Thaddeus Bradley (Morgan Freeman), whom Rhodes blames for the death of his father, out of jail for help.

text: The Horsemen infiltrate the facility and steal the chip, despite being interrogated and searched by security guard Allen Scott-Frank (Henry Lloyd-Hughes). Atlas is then confronted by Mabry, revealing that Atlas had been fooled into thinking that Mabry was The Eye. Rhodes intervenes and pretends to retrieve the device but is captured by Mabry's forces and taken to a nearby yacht where he learns Mabry is acting on behalf of his father, Arthur Tressler (Michael Caine), whom Rhodes exposed with the help of the Horsemen in the first film. Tressler places Rhodes in a replica of the same safe that his father died in and leaves him to drown, but Rhodes escapes and is rescued by the Horsemen. They find that the chip they had stolen appears to be a fake.

text: Rhodes and the Horsemen broadcast that they will be performing live in London at midnight on New Year's Eve. Mabry and Tressler, thinking that they have the computer chip, make haste to London, where the Horsemen are performing a series of tricks on the streets. At the Shard, Mabry, Tressler and Chase discover that Rhodes is still alive and capture the five, taking them on his private plane. Mabry takes the card from them, and Rhodes and the other Horsemen are thrown out of the plane supposedly in flight. However, Tressler finds that the plane has never taken off, and instead is on a barge in the middle of the River Thames, their criminal activities being broadcast live to the world by the Horsemen in the process. Mabry, Tressler and Chase are arrested and Rhodes, now going by his real surname, "Shrike", entrusts the information they've gathered on the real criminals' activities to the FBI, who allows him a head start to escape.

text: Rhodes and the Horsemen are then taken to meet the leaders of the Eye in a secret library in Greenwich observatory. They find that the members of the Eye include Li, Bu Bu, Allen, and Bradley. Bradley reveals that he was actually Lionel Shrike's partner, and he had been masquerading as his rival as part of their planned act: he had exposed Lionel's first act planning to be dumbfounded by his second act, only to abandon the Eye after Lionel's death. Before Bradley leaves, he asks Rhodes to be his successor in the Eye's leadership and request that the Horsemen enter a curtain. The Horsemen, with Rhodes, go behind the curtain, and find a door behind it. They enter the room and find a staircase; the camera zooms out to the stairs, forming an Eye.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Jesse Eisenberg as J. Daniel Atlas. He is the self-appointed leader of the Four Horsemen.
Mark Ruffalo as Agent Dylan Rhodes/Shrike. The Fool: Former FBI agent, leader of The Four Horsemen, and the son of the late illusionist Lionel Shrike.[5]

William Henderson as young Dylan.

Woody Harrelson as Merritt McKinney and Chase McKinney.[6] They specialize in hypnosis.
Dave Franco as Jack Wilder, a magician specializing in card tricks.
Lizzy Caplan as Lula May, a new member of The Four Horsemen, replacing Henley.[7]
Daniel Radcliffe as Walter Mabry, Arthur Tressler's illegitimate young technology tycoon son.
Morgan Freeman as Thaddeus Bradley, a magic debunker, exposing the tricks of other magicians.[8]
Jay Chou as Li, a Macanese magic shop owner.
Sanaa Lathan as Agent Natalie Austin.
Michael Caine as Arthur Tressler, the Four Horsemen's former sponsor, who wants revenge for losing his money and power.
Henry Lloyd-Hughes as Allen Scott-Frank, head of the Macau Science Center and member of the Eye.
Ben Lamb as Owen Case, Walter's former business partner.
David Warshofsky as Agent Cowan.
Tsai Chin as Bu Bu, Li's grandmother who supposedly does not speak English.
Richard Laing as Lionel Shrike, a magician who drowned while performing an escape trick thirty years ago.
Zach Gerard as Hannes Pike
Zoey Callandria Jones as Hannes' attractive woman
Alberto Calvet Gonzalez as Hannes' scientist

tag: ul

text: Production[edit]

text: On July 3, 2013, after the box office success of the first film, Lionsgate CEO Jon Feltheimer confirmed that there would be a sequel to the film, with production beginning in 2014 for an unspecified release date.[9] In September 2014, it was confirmed that Jon M. Chu would replace Louis Leterrier as director.[10] On October 2, 2014, Michael Caine confirmed in an interview that Daniel Radcliffe would be playing his son in the film, and that shooting is expected to begin in December in London.[11] The film was produced by Lionsgate and Summit Entertainment.[12] In October 2014, it was announced that Isla Fisher would be unable to reprise her role as Henley Reeves due to her pregnancy, and Lizzy Caplan was cast as new character Lula to replace her as the Fourth Horseman.[13][14] The sequel was thought to be titled Now You See Me: Now You Don't,[14] but it was announced in November 2014 that the film had changed its title to Now You See Me: The Second Act.[15][16] On January 28, 2015, Henry Lloyd-Hughes was confirmed to play the role of a tech whiz kid named Allen Scott-Frank.[17] On December 22, 2014, it was reported that Morgan Freeman was not going to reprise his role as Thaddeus Bradley,[18] but on January 19, 2015, film director Chu posted a selfie with Freeman on his Instagram, verifying that he would return.[8]

text: Filming[edit]

text: On November 25, 2014, Mark Ruffalo posted to his Facebook that filming had begun on the sequel,[5] as the film was shooting in London, England.[13] On March 11, 2015, shooting began in China, where filming took place in Macau and the Macau Science Center, and ended on May 12, 2015 in New York City.[19]

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text:
Now You See Me 2 (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack)

Soundtrack album by Brian Tyler

Released
June 10, 2016

Recorded
2016

Genre
Film score

Length
77:37

Label
Varese Sarabande

Producer
Brian Tyler

Brian Tyler film scores chronology

Criminal
(2016)Criminal2016
Now You See Me 2
(2016)
Power Rangers
(2017)Power Rangers2017

tag: table

text: The film’s music was written and composed by Brian Tyler. The soundtrack was released on June 10, 2016 by Varese Sarabande.

text: Track listing[edit]

text: All music composed by Brian Tyler.

text:
[show]Track listing

No.
Title
Length

1.
"Now You See Me 2 Fanfare"
3:20

2.
"Now You See Me 2 Main Titles"
3:00

3.
"300 Seconds"
7:25

4.
"The Setup"
5:45

5.
"Sleight of Hand"
5:52

6.
"Revelatory"
1:24

7.
"A Special Invitation"
4:38

8.
"Equivoque"
3:18

9.
"Off The Grid (Walter's Theme)"
2:13

10.
"Trifecta"
3:53

11.
"The Fool"
1:55

12.
"Buffy the Chippie"
2:58

13.
"Behind the Curtain"
4:10

14.
"Thaddeus' Game"
2:23

15.
"Octa"
1:37

16.
"United"
1:36

17.
"Deliverance"
4:10

18.
"Diversion Tactics"
4:34

19.
"Sibling Rivalry"
1:55

20.
"Bazaar Getaway"
2:09

21.
"The New Horseman"
1:05

22.
"See You in 3 to 5"
1:41

23.
"The Big Finish"
3:56

24.
"Finale"
2:40

Total length:
77:37

text: Release[edit]

text: In November 2014, the film was officially titled Now You See Me 2, and was set to be released on June 10, 2016.[5][10] In March 2016, the film's international release date was announced as July 4, 2016.

text: Home media[edit]

text: Now You See Me 2 was released on Digital HD on August 19, with a subsequent Blu-ray Combo Pack and DVD released on September 6.[20]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: Now You See Me 2 grossed $65.1 million in the United States and Canada and $269.8 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $334.9 million, against a budget of $90 million.[4]

text: In the United States and Canada, Now You See Me 2 opened on June 10, 2016, alongside Warcraft and The Conjuring 2, and was projected to gross $23–26 million from 3,232 theaters in its opening weekend.[3][21] The film grossed $1.8 million from its Thursday night previews, besting the $1.5 million made by its predecessor, and $8.4 million on its first day.[22][23] It went on to gross $22.3 million in its opening weekend, finishing third at the box office behind The Conjuring 2 ($40.4 million) and Warcraft ($24.1 million).[24]

text: In China, the film was released on June 24, 2016 and had an opening day of $14.8 million, a record for Lionsgate and up 67.9% from the original's first day. In its opening weekend the film grossed $44.4 million, also a record for Lionsgate.[25] China was the largest territory for the film, with a total gross of $97.1 million.[26]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: Now You See Me 2 received mixed reviews from critics. On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 34% based on 165 reviews, with an average rating of 5/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Now You See Me 2 packs in even more twists and turns than its predecessor, but in the end, it has even less hiding up its sleeve."[27] On another aggregator, Metacritic, the film has a score of 46 out of 100, based on 33 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[28] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A–" on an A+ to F scale, the same grade earned by its predecessor.[23]

text: Although critics and fans were disappointed that Isla Fisher was not returning as Henley Reeves, many praised Lizzy Caplan's addition to the cast. Caplan was described as "one of the sequel's biggest improvements" by Entertainment Weekly,[29] while Dave White of TheWrap wrote that she "provides a fresh infusion of smart-ass energy into the boy's club."[30] Australian film magazine Filmink also noted that Caplan "over-shadows her skilled co-stars with her sassy and commanding screen presence."[31] Owen Gleiberman of Variety wrote that "all bearded creepy grins, [Daniel Radcliffe] makes Walter a megalomaniac imp, like the world's youngest Bond villain."[32] Randy Cordova of The Arizona Republic, who preferred the film to the original, said of the villain character that "In [Radcliffe's] hands, he is a spoiled and petulant baddie, alternately creepy and hilarious."[33]

text: Ignatiy Vishnevetsky of The A.V. Club wrote that the sequel "up[s] the ludicrous quotient" from the original, "double-timing the convoluted plotting and embracing implausibility as an aesthetic...[I]f [director Jon M.] Chu doesn’t seem comfortable with the swooping, lens-flare-speckled flashiness that director Louis Leterrier brought to the first film, he seems even less interested than his predecessor in creating the impression of a recognizably real world — which is a good thing, at least for a movie about a superstar heist crew called the Horsemen that involves twins, multiple secret identities, and a global corporate surveillance plot that can only be foiled through the use of stage magic."[34]

text: Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune gave the film a mixed review but considered it "more fun" than its predecessor.[35]

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
List of awards and nominations

Award
Date of ceremony
Category
Recipient
Result
Ref(s)

Teen Choice Awards
July 31, 2016
Choice Summer Movie

Nominated
[36]

Choice Summer Movie Star: Male
Dave Franco
Nominated

Choice Summer Movie Star: Female
Lizzy Caplan
Nominated

text: Future[edit]

text: Now You See Me 3[edit]

text: In May 2015, Lionsgate CEO Jon Feltheimer announced that they had indeed "already begun early planning" for Now You See Me 3.[37] It was later confirmed that Lizzy Caplan will be reprising the role of Lula May, and that a new cast member, Benedict Cumberbatch, will be joining the cast. It was also confirmed that Isla Fisher will not be returning to the series as Henley Reeves, after her absence from the first sequel.[38][39][40][41][42]

text: Spin-off film[edit]

text: In July 2016, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Lionsgate wants to make a Now You See Me spin-off with a primarily Chinese cast, starring Jay Chou as Li, his character from Now You See Me 2.[43]


document_title: History of sentence spacing

question_text: where did two spaces after a period come from

text: History of sentence spacing

text: French and English spacing[edit]

text: With the advent of the typewriter in the late nineteenth century, typists adopted approximations of standard spacing practices to fit the limitations of the typewriter itself. French typists used a single space between sentences, consistent with the typeset French spacing technique, whereas English typists used a double space.[citation needed]

text:
French spacing inserted spaces around most punctuation marks, but single-spaced after sentences, colons, and semicolons.[3]
English spacing removed spaces around most punctuation marks, but double-spaced after sentences, colons, and semicolons.[4]

text: These approximations were taught and used as the standard typing techniques in French and English-speaking countries.[5] For example, T. S. Eliot typed rather than wrote the manuscript for his classic The Waste Land between 1920 and 1922, and used only English spacing throughout: double-spaced sentences.[6]

text: There is, however, considerable variability in the use of the terms, to the extent that they are often used with the meanings reversed. Here are some definitions of French spacing:

text:
Additional space at the ends of sentences is called "French Spacing." It is a very old practice, having been commonplace in books up through the 19th century[7]
Adding two spaces after a period is called French spacing. French spacing was quite common in books before the 19th century. Later it became the norm for typewritten copy.[8]
French spacing: The additional inter-word spacing between sentences can be switched off in LaTeX with the command \frenchspacing[9]
Additional space at the ends of sentences is called French spacing, ... In typesetting, a thin space set in addition to the word space achieves French spacing.[10]
French spacing leaves the same amount of white space after all punctuation marks, but leaves some thin space before the “tall” punctuation marks...[11]
In ordinary spacing a full em occurs at the end of a sentence. In French spacing the end of a sentence is spaced the same as the balance of the words in the line.[12]
...French spacing. The insertion of fixed space such as an en or an em between sentences instead of a variable word space.[13]

text: This 1960 quotation is the result of some contemporary research:

text: French spacing is tight spacing with equal word spacing throughout a line, i.e., no extra space after a period, colon, etc. The purpose is not only to create a tighter looking, evenly colored page, but more important, to avoid rivers. In some ad shops, French spacing is understood to mean optically equal word spacing. As to the "French" part of the term, this style has nothing to do with France as verified by several French cultural societies and printers. The word was evidently used because anything "French" was considered to be du haut style.[14]

text: Movement to single sentence spacing[edit]

text: A key change in the publishing industry from the mid-19th century to the mid-20th century was the enormous growth of mass-produced books and magazines. Increasing commercial pressure to reduce the costs, complexity, and lead-time of printing deeply affected the industry, leading to a widening gap between commercial printing and fine printing.[15] For example, T. S. Eliot's The Waste Land was originally published by a high-volume commercial printer according to its house rules and it was not until its third publication that Eliot was satisfied with its typesetting.[16] The underlying reasons were:[15]

text:
ease and speed, since far less physical type and more importantly far less skilled effort was required
cost, since fewer man-hours were required and the condensed text required less paper; the bulk of the cost saving was typesetting-related rather than paper-use-related
cultural, since new typesetters (and readers) had grown up with typewriters and the standard typists' spacing approximations of good typesetting

text: Before the First World War virtually all English-language books were printed following standard typesetters' spacing rules. By the end of the Second World War most American books and an increasing proportion of English books were printed following the typewriter's English spacing approximation rules.[17] Around this time, the practice of single spacing became more prevalent. There were various circumstances which could have contributed to the change. For example, there was an increase in high-volume low-cost mass-produced printing (e.g., newspapers, pulp-novels, magazines). Also, a significant innovation in the typewriter was the breaking of the typewriter "grid" in 1941. "The grid" referred to the uniform spacing of each letter space in the monospaced font used by the typewriter. In 1941, IBM introduced the Executive, a typewriter that used proportional spacing by "breaking each cell of the grid into fifths."[18] Although proportional fonts had been used in various forms in typesetting since the invention of movable type, this innovation broke the hold that the monospaced font had over the typewriter—reducing the severity of its mechanical limitations.

text: Around the 1950s, single sentence spacing became the standard commercial practice in mass-print-runs in the United States. However, double sentence spacing approximations were retained some in higher-cost printed works. For example, for reasons of readability, the US government's 1959 official style guide mandated double sentence spacing in all government documents—whether produced by "Teletypesetter, reproduction or other method.":[19] Single sentence spacing was introduced by professional printers in the United Kingdom as well. The 1947 version of Penguin Composition Rules stated that all Penguin publications would adhere to the following rules: "All major punctuation marks – full point, colon, and semicolon – should be followed by the same spacing as is used throughout the rest of the line.".[20]

text: Until about the early 1990s,[21] double sentence spacing was still referred to as English spacing (or "American typewriter spacing").

text: The computer era[edit]

text: The introduction and widespread adoption of non-commandline desktop publishing software on Macintosh, Amiga, and IBM PC computers in the mid-1980s eliminated previous cost-restrictions that had helped fuel the switch to single-spacing. There was no longer any material marginal cost associated with typesetting double-spaces, or even multiple-width spaces. Despite this, resistance to double-spaced sentences started to grow among English-language professional designers and typographers as they became more directly involved with typesetting.[citation needed] Traditional French typists' rules continued to be the uncontested norm in French-speaking countries,[22] but English spacing became increasingly deprecated in English-speaking countries.

text: By the mid-1990s, the term French spacing was occasionally used in America in reference to double sentence spacing. An example of this apparent terminology reversal can be attributed to the University of Chicago Press in 1994.[23] By the mid-2000s this usage had been widely replicated on the Internet, for unclear reasons.

text: Additionally, there has been a designer-led trend towards closer-fitted text in general.[24] For example, an increasing number of computer font design guidelines now recommend the use of quarter-em spaces rather than third-em spaces. With regard to spacing, modern designers are retracing the steps of the 19th-century design-led typographer William Morris. Morris rejected the restrictions of commercial typesetting which at the time demanded traditional typesetting's spacing rules, and, declaring a "rage for beauty", advocated close-set type and dark "colour" (lack of whitespace, creating uniformity of appearance). However, the reason Donald Knuth gave for creating the TeX typesetting system was his dismay on receiving the proofs of a new edition of his book The Art of Computer Programming at the unreadability of the then new close-fitted phototypesetting technology, which he described as "awful" due to its "poor spacing".[25][26] The leading style guides of Morris's time documented that readers of the time had the same reaction to Morris's output as Knuth did later to phototypesetting's output. De Vinne, for example, wrote in The Practice of Typography:

text:
Printed words need the relief of a surrounding blank as much as figures in a landscape need background or contrast, perspective or atmosphere. (p. 182)
White space is needed to make printing comprehensible. (page 183)

text: And in Modern Book Composition he wrote:

text: Unleaded and thin-spaced composition is preferred by the disciples of William Morris, but it is not liked by the average reader, who does need a perceptible white blank between words or lines of print. During the fifteenth century, when thin leads and graduated spaces were almost unknown and but little used, the reading world had its surfeit of close-spaced and solid typesetting. (p. 105)

text: Varying the spacing between sentences, and using the changing spacing to encode information, are a standard method of steganography, hiding secret information in public documents.[27]


document_title: Alice (TV series)

question_text: who played mel on the tv show alice

question_tokens: who played mel on the tv show alice

text: Alice (TV series)

text: Series summary[edit]

text: Alice Hyatt (Lavin) is an unemployed widow after her husband, Donald, is killed in a trucking accident, and with her young son Tommy (played by Alfred Lutter in the pilot episode, reprising his role from the film, but played by Philip McKeon thereafter) heads from their New Jersey home to Los Angeles so that she can pursue a singing career. Her car breaks down on the way in Phoenix (from a presumed engine fire, as seen in the opening credits), and we meet her soon after she has taken a job as a waitress at Mel's Diner, on the outskirts of Phoenix. (The later seasons' exterior shots were of a real diner, named Mel's, still in operation in Phoenix.) Alice works alongside Mel Sharples (Vic Tayback), the grouchy, stingy owner and cook of the greasy spoon, and fellow waitresses and friends, sassy, man-hungry Florence Jean "Flo" Castleberry (Polly Holliday), and neurotic, scatterbrained Vera Louise Gorman (Beth Howland).

text: Each episode invariably started inside the diner, and most if not all subsequent scenes took place there as well. A frequent set for non-diner scenes was Alice's one-bedroom apartment in the Desert Sun apartments. (Tommy used the bedroom and Alice slept on a sleeper sofa in the living room.) Vera and Mel's studio apartments and Flo's trailer were occasionally seen. Two of the diner's biggest competitors, Barney's Burger Barn and Vinnie's House of Veal, were sometimes mentioned.

text: The diner had its share of regular customers through the years, such as Tommy's basketball coach, Earl Hicks (Dave Madden), local trucker Chuck (Duane R. Campbell), and Henry Beesmeyer (Marvin Kaplan), a telephone repairman who always made jokes about Mel's cooking. Henry's oft-mentioned wife Chloe was seen in one episode, played by Ruth Buzzi. Celebrities playing either themselves or other characters (including Martha Raye, George Burns, Robert Goulet, Desi Arnaz, and Jerry Reed) were a hallmark of the show.

text: Polly Holliday left the show to star in her own spin-off series, Flo.[2] In the episode airing February 24, 1980, Flo leaves to take a hostess job in Houston. On the way to Houston, Flo stops at her hometown Fort Worth, Texas (which she refers to by its moniker "Cowtown"). Flo decides to buy and run a failing roadhouse bar there, which she renames Flo's Yellow Rose. Polly Holliday never made a guest appearance on Alice after beginning Flo, although flashbacks including Flo were shown in the final episode of Alice. Vic Tayback made one guest appearance on Flo.

text: Diane Ladd, who received an Academy Award nomination for her portrayal of Flo in the film version[3] joined the cast in 1980 as Isabelle "Belle" Dupree, a hard-edged but kind-hearted woman. She had been a waitress of Mel's in the past, and the two had a romantic relationship during that time. In spite of Ladd's Golden Globe-winning performance as Belle,[3] the character was not retained for the duration of the series and was replaced early in 1981, the character making one last appearance in which she telephones the diner to inform everyone that she had taken a job as a backup singer in Nashville, Tennessee. It has been said that Ladd clashed with her co-stars, and no flashbacks including Belle were shown during the final episode of the series.

text: Theatre actress Celia Weston then joined the cast as the good-natured, boisterous truck driver Jolene Hunnicutt, who came from Myrtle Point, South Carolina. Jolene arrives as she and her male driving partner are in the midst of an argument over his unwelcome advances, during which she throws and breaks many of Mel's dishes. Mel agrees to hire her "temporarily" to work off the cost of the dishes, but she stays until the end of the series. Jolene frequently mentions her grandmother, "Granny Gums", who had only three or four teeth. Jolene also mentions her distant relative Jefferson Davis "Boss" Hogg, a character from the concurrent CBS series The Dukes of Hazzard. In one episode Sorrell Booke guest stars in this role, along with fellow Dukes character, Enos (Sonny Shroyer).

text: The latter years of the show focused on some character development, such as the hasty courtship and marriage of Vera and lovable cop Elliot (Charles Levin). Tommy eventually goes to college and is seen less frequently. In the final season, the character of Alice was absent several times due to Lavin's directing a number of episodes and playing the character of Mrs. Walden, Vera's wizened and abrasive landlady of arbitrary foreign origin. The final story arc began in the spring of 1985, when country singer Travis Marsh (played by Lavin's real-life husband Kip Niven), discovering that he's falling for Alice, "kidnaps" her to take her to Nashville, telling her it's time to follow her dream there. Bewildered at the thought of her dreams finally coming true, Alice agrees, but not without extracting a promise from Travis to drive her back to Phoenix so she can get her affairs in order, including ending her current relationship with a writer.

text: In the series finale, which aired March 19, 1985, typical of sitcoms of the era, news of several life-changing events is revealed within a matter of minutes. Alice, after nine years of trying, finally gets a recording contract and is moving to Nashville with Travis Marsh. Vera announces she is pregnant and decides to be a full-time mother, Elliott having been promoted from officer to detective. Jolene's "Granny Gums" has died and leaves her granddaughter enough money to open her own beauty parlor in her hometown. Besides all three waitresses suddenly leaving simultaneously, by an amazing coincidence Mel has just sold the diner for a large amount of money to a real estate developer, and must close within days. On closing day, he surprisingly gives each waitress a $5,000 farewell bonus. The remainder of the episode shows flashbacks to humorous and major events, and many of the big stars who had appeared on the show, including Polly Holliday. Finally, while cleaning out her locker, Alice finds the "Waitress Wanted" sign that first drew her to the diner. The series' regular customers, including Henry, Chuck and Earl say their emotional farewells, followed by Elliot, and finally the principal characters Tommy, Jolene, Vera, and Alice. The last thing we see is Mel putting up the "Closed" sign and locking up.

text: Ongoing gags and catchphrases[edit]

text: Flo's catchphrase, "Kiss my grits!", enjoyed widespread popularity at the time the character appeared on Alice. According to Polly Holliday, the line was originally written as, "Kiss my honeydew!", but did not get any laughs. (In the original film, Flo, as played by Diane Ladd, tells Mel in one scene to, "Kiss me where the sun don't shine.") Another of Flo's catchphrases was, "When donkeys fly!" Since her portrayal of Flo, Polly Holliday has refused to repeat her famous "grits" line.[4]

text: In an attempt to duplicate the success of Flo's "Kiss my grits!", Belle began using a new put-down: "Butter my biscuits!". Belle often used the phrase, "My little voice", who called her "Isabelle", which she usually used when starting to tell others what she thinks is best.

text: Mel would snipe, "Stow it!" at anyone he had qualms with, especially his waitstaff. "Stow it!" was usually followed by either "Alice", "Vera", "Flo" "Belle", or "Blondie" (in reference to Jolene). He would also bark, "Bag it, Blondie!" to Jolene. He eventually gave Vera the nickname "Dinghy" and would occasionally bellow "Stow it, Dinghy" at her. Jolene would sometimes say, "When pigs wear perfume."

text: In a handful of episodes, Alice put on a double-breasted suit and fedora to assume the character of husky-voiced "Sam Butler", a mobster she made up as a ruse to fool her intended target. Linda Lavin also played the role of Mrs. Walden in the last season, once even playing both Alice and Mrs. Walden in a split-screen dual role.

text: Part of Mel's Diner was often destroyed, such as by Flo's crashing a truck through the front, Mel chopping down a tree which landed in the diner, Mel accidentally having the building targeted for demolition, and the waitresses crashing a hot air balloon through the roof (upon which Jolene cries, "We went to the bad place and it looks just like Mel's!"). In one episode, a wrecking ball destroyed the front of the diner because someone could not read Mel's handwriting.

text: Mel was a stickler for punctuality. In the fourth season, he installs a time clock, which ends up working to the waitresses' advantage due to significant overtime, and he finally smashes it onto the floor. Mel also had a strict rule against moonlighting, often leading to one or more waitresses getting fired, but he always rehired them before the end of each episode.

text: Although he had a fairly loyal clientele, Mel's food and cooking were constantly criticized by his waitresses and customers alike—especially Henry, who always blamed it for his indigestion. However, Mel's chili was popular and became a plot point of several episodes. During the first season, a newspaper food critic (played by Victor Buono) dropped dead while eating Mel's chili, but it turned out that tainted Peking Duck from a Chinese restaurant was to blame. Guest star Art Carney in one episode was to be the spokesperson for retail distribution of Mel's Chili ("Chili con Carney") but backed out when he discovered Vera was a distant relative with part ownership in the venture. The popularity of Mel's Chili also led to an appearance on Dinah Shore's talk show, which led to some bickering among the waitresses because Mel could take only one person along, but everyone ended up going. Mel refused to reveal his "secret ingredient" to Dinah and her TV audience during the cooking demonstration.

text: The shot of Vera with the "exploding straws" was the only one used during the opening credits for the entire run of the series, with the exception of the pilot episode, which had no scenes from Mel's Diner in the opening.

text: Cast[edit]

text: Opening titles cast members:

text:
Linda Lavin as Alice Hyatt
Vic Tayback as Mel Sharples (Tayback reprised his role from the film)
Philip McKeon as Tommy Hyatt (Alfred Lutter reprised his role from the film but was replaced after the pilot episode)
Polly Holliday as Florence Jean "Flo" Castleberry (Seasons 1–4: 1976–80)
Beth Howland as Vera Louise Gorman Novak
Diane Ladd as Isabelle "Belle" Dupree (Seasons 4–5: 1980–81) (Ladd played the role of Flo in the film)
Celia Weston as Jolene Hunnicutt (Seasons 5–9: 1981–85)
Charles Levin as Elliot Novak (Season 8 recurring, Season 9 regular: 1983–85)

text: Other recurring cast members:

text:
Marvin Kaplan as Henry Beesmeyer
Dave Madden as Earl Hicks
Victoria Carroll as Marie Massey (Mel's girlfriend) (1978–84)
Martha Raye as Carrie Sharples (Mel's mother) (1978–84)
Doris Roberts as Mona Spivak (Alice's mother) (1981–82)
Robert Picardo as Officer Maxwell, Elliott's partner (1983–84)
Pat Cranshaw as Andy (diner regular) (1976–78)

text: Other notable guest stars: Eve Arden, Desi Arnaz, Brice Beckham, Fred Berry, Joan Blondell, George Burns (as himself), Ruth Buzzi (as Chloe Beesmeyer, Henry's wife), Art Carney (as himself), Corey Feldman, Robert Goulet, Joel Grey (as himself), Florence Halop, Eileen Heckart (as Rose Hyatt, Alice's interfering mother in-law), Florence Henderson, Jay Leno, Bill Maher, Nancy McKeon (Philip's sister, appeared twice in different roles), Frank Nelson, Donald O'Connor (as himself), Kelly Parsons, Jerry Reed (as himself), Debbie Reynolds, Kim Richards, Telly Savalas (as himself), and Jerry Stiller.

text: Production information[edit]

text: The show's theme was called "There's a New Girl in Town", with music by David Shire, lyrics by Alan Bergman and Marilyn Bergman; performed by Linda Lavin. Several different arrangements of this tune were used throughout the series' run; the lyrics were altered after the second season.

text: The Mel's Diner set made changes over the years; in the pilot the diner contained a blue refrigerator, but in the series the refrigerator was a dirty stainless steel, then later was changed to clean and shiny stainless steel in 1979–81 and much later the set featured an even shinier stainless steel refrigerator and better appliances. The rest of the set, however, remained the same.

text: The men's and ladies' restrooms were confined to one room in the pilot and during the first season. From 1977–85, there were separate restrooms with "Ladies" and "Men" written on them.

text: The storeroom was inside the diner where the Men's restroom would later be and said "Private" on it during the 1976–77 season. The storeroom from 1977 to 1985 was confined to the back of the diner. Here, the waitresses took their breaks, had their lockers, and stored their uniforms. Mel also conducted his business from this space.

text: The payphone was a touch tone and was located on the left of the "Restrooms" door in the pilot episode. For the first season, it was moved to the right of the doors that led to the kitchen section of the diner. For the second season, it was moved to the wall between the two doors that became two separate restrooms and was replaced by a phone with a rotary dial. From 1978 to 1985, the phone was a touch tone and was located at a section that was a few steps away from the entrance to the diner.

text: In the first season, the diner was decorated in an Aztec and Cowboy motif to accommodate the feel of Arizona. For the second season, the walls had pink wallpaper with red lines on it. For the third season, the walls had wallpaper with orange leaves on it.

text: The giant "14-ounce coffee cup" sign used in later seasons was seen by a producer scouting Phoenix for an establishing shot for the show's later seasons. It was at "Chris’ Diner" and the owner agreed to change the name to Mel’s for the show.

text: Alice's apartment remained more or less unchanged during most of the show's run; the apartments of Mel and Vera and Flo's trailer were occasionally seen. (The set for Flo's trailer was also used on the spinoff Flo.)

text: The pilot episode was taped at CBS Television City in Hollywood, California. After this, the series was taped at The Warner Bros. Studios in Burbank, California.

text: Differences in premise between film and television series[edit]

text: Alice had many contrasts with the film on which it was based, Alice Doesn't Live Here Anymore. The tone and style of the series differed greatly from the film, and there were a number of factual differences concerning the characters and setting.

text:
Film
Television series

Alice's maiden name was Graham.
Alice's maiden name was Spivak.

Alice and Tommy had previously lived in Socorro, New Mexico.
Alice and Tommy had previously lived in northern New Jersey.

Alice's late husband Donald was portrayed as abusive.
Alice's relationship with Donald is never described, but she kept a photo of him displayed on the wall of her apartment for years after his death.

Alice's original plans were to move back to her hometown of Monterey, California, to restart her singing career.
Alice's original plans were to move to Los Angeles to restart her singing career.

The restaurant where Alice becomes a waitress was called Mel & Ruby's Cafe and located in Tucson.
The restaurant where Alice becomes a waitress was called Mel's Diner and located in Phoenix. On the pilot episode, the sign on the door said "Mel & Ruby's Cafe".

Alice and Flo do not initially like each other and do not become friends until well into the "Tucson" segment of the film.
Flo takes on the role of "big sister" to the other waitresses, and she and Alice were best friends from the beginning of the series.

Alice ran out of money, and took the job at Mel and Ruby's temporarily to earn enough money to get them the rest of the way to Monterey.
Alice took a job at Mel's because her car broke down when she and Tommy reached Phoenix on the way to Los Angeles.

Mel was a widower, having been married to a woman named Ruby; hence the restaurant's name, "Mel & Ruby's Cafe."
Mel was a middle-aged bachelor.

Alice and Tommy live in a nearby motel while she works at Mel's.
Alice and Tommy move to the Desert Sun Apartments; the distance between her apartment and Mel's Diner is never revealed, but is presumably within walking distance, as it is mentioned that Alice and/or Tommy occasionally walk between the diner and home.

Alice meets and falls in love with a divorced rancher named David, whose wife left him and took their children; David becomes Tommy's guitar teacher.
Alice does not get involved in a serious relationship until the last season.

Alice and Flo were around the same age.
Flo was roughly ten years older than Alice (despite the fact that in reality Holiday and Lavin were approximately the same age, having both been born in 1937).

Flo had blonde hair. She was in a crumbling marriage and her husband was not speaking to her. She had a daughter to support and flirted with and accepted passes from her male customers, but never dated any of them. She had a number of one-liners, including "You can kiss me where the sun don't shine."
Flo had red hair, was divorced three times and had no children. She lived by herself in a trailer park, dated many men, and her usual catchphrases were "Kiss my grits!" and "When donkeys fly!"

Vera had a low, quiet voice; she was taken to and from work by her father; she was shy and somewhat awkward, but was not dumb.
Vera had a high voice that was fairly loud; she lived alone in an apartment that was located at an unknown distance from the diner; she was extremely clumsy, and rather slow-witted.

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Originally aired
Nielsen ratings[5]

First aired
Last aired
Rank
Rating

1
24
August 31, 1976 (1976-08-31)
March 26, 1977 (1977-03-26)
30
20.0

2
24
October 2, 1977 (1977-10-02)
April 9, 1978 (1978-04-09)
8
23.2[a]

3
24
September 24, 1978 (1978-09-24)
April 1, 1979 (1979-04-01)
13
23.2

4
24
September 23, 1979 (1979-09-23)
April 6, 1980 (1980-04-06)
4
25.3[a]

5
20
November 2, 1980 (1980-11-02)
May 3, 1981 (1981-05-03)
7
22.9

6
24
October 4, 1981 (1981-10-04)
May 16, 1982 (1982-05-16)
5
22.7

7
23
October 6, 1982 (1982-10-06)
September 18, 1983 (1983-09-18)
41[6]
N/A

8
23
October 2, 1983 (1983-10-02)
May 20, 1984 (1984-05-20)
25
17.2[b]

9
16
October 14, 1984 (1984-10-14)
March 19, 1985 (1985-03-19)
58
12.5 [7]

text:
^ Jump up to: a b Tied with M*A*S*H
Jump up ^ Tied with The CBS Tuesday Night Movie, Webster, Knight Rider and Hardcastle and McCormick

tag: ol

text: Syndication and international broadcasts[edit]

text: Alice was seen in reruns:

text:
from June 2, 1980 to September 17, 1982 on CBS daytime at 10:30 a.m. (EST), replacing Whew! (before being replaced with Child's Play)[citation needed];
via syndication on many local broadcast stations beginning in the fall of 1982. Notable stations that purchased and aired reruns of Alice included WPIX in New York City; KTTV in Los Angeles; WGN-TV in Chicago; WTHR in Indianapolis; KOIN in Portland, Oregon, WPHL-TV in Philadelphia; KBHK-TV in San Francisco; KHTV in Houston; WSBK-TV in Boston; WTTG in Washington, D.C.; WUAB in Cleveland; KFMB-TV in San Diego; WXON in Detroit; WTMJ in Milwaukee and KWGN-TV in Denver, WFIE-TV in Evansville, Indiana among others;
in the late 1980s on superstation TBS (WTBS) from Atlanta;
sporadically from the mid-1990s until early 1998 on E! Entertainment Television;
on TNN from late June 1999 to January 2001.
The show returned to television on April 2, 2007, airing on the ION Television network weekdays at 7:30 P.M. until June 22, 2007. The show was heavily edited to make time for additional commercials, with several minutes of important plot often haphazardly cut. The show returned to ION on November 24, 2007, with two back-to-back episodes at 7:00pm EST Monday through Thursday, and continued until the entire series' episodes had been aired. It was replaced by Family Feud on April 7, 2008.
Logo TV started airing episodes in April 2017.
Antenna TV starting airing episodes in January 2018.

text: International[edit]

text: Alice was shown in the UK by Channel 4, starting on 27 August 1984. At first, the series was shown each weekday at 5.00pm, before moving to a twice-weekly slot later. No breaks between seasons were made and the final episode was shown in October 1986.

text: Home media releases[edit]

text: DVD On June 27, 2006, six episodes of Alice were released on DVD as part of the Warner Bros.' Television Favorites Compilation. The episodes were hand picked by fans at SitcomsOnline.com and are as follows:

text:
"Alice Gets a Pass", September 29, 1976 – First non-pilot episode.
"The Odd Couple", February 26, 1977 – When Flo's trailer is stolen, Alice allows Flo to move in with her. Alice finds Flo's habits difficult to handle.
"Close Encounters of the Worst Kind", January 22, 1978 – Alice's use of psychology causes tension among her coworkers.
"Block Those Kicks", October 22, 1978 – The waitresses decide to give up their bad habits in order to encourage Mel to give up his gambling habit.
"Cabin Fever", December 2, 1979 – The waitresses, Mel and his girlfriend unknowingly book the same cabin during the same weekend.
"Flo's Farewell", February 24, 1980 – Flo leaves Mel's Diner for a hosting job at a restaurant in Texas.

text: Season releases Warner Home Video has released the first four seasons on DVD in Region 1 via their Warner Archive Collection. These are manufacture-on-demand (MOD) releases, available through Warner's online store Warner Archives Collection (only sold in the USA), and also through Oldies.com (which distributes and sells worldwide), and through Amazon and eBay.

text: Season 5 was released on August 1, 2017.[8] Season 6 was released on December 5, 2017.[9]

text:
DVD Name
Ep. #
Release Date

The Complete First Season[10]
23
June 12, 2012

The Complete Second Season[11]
24
October 23, 2012

The Complete Third Season[12]
24
March 19, 2013

The Complete Fourth Season[13]
26
October 22, 2013

The Complete Fifth Season[14]
26
August 1, 2017

The Complete Sixth Season[15]
24
December 5, 2017

text: Streaming

text: Alice the whole series is available from Apple iTunes Store and Amazon Video for downloading.[16] In addition, a holiday episode for Season 3 is also available from Amazon.[17]

text: Awards[edit]

text: The "Tommy's Lost Weekend" episode, written by Bob Bendetson, Howard Bendetson, and Robert Getchell, based on a story by Arnold Anthony Schmidt, received an Emmy nomination in 1984. [18]