document_title: Flag of the United States

question_text: when did the american flag become a symbol

question_tokens: when did the american flag become a symbol

text: Flag of the United States

text: History

text: The current design of the U.S. flag is its 27th; the design of the flag has been modified officially 26 times since 1777. The 48-star flag was in effect for 47 years until the 49-star version became official on July 4, 1959. The 50-star flag was ordered by the then president Eisenhower on August 21, 1959, and was adopted in July 1960. It is the longest-used version of the U.S. flag and has been in use for over 57 years.[4]

text: First flag

text:
The Continental Colors
(aka the "Grand Union Flag")

Flag of the British East India Company, 1707–1801

text: At the time of the Declaration of Independence in July 1776, the Continental Congress would not legally adopt flags with "stars, white in a blue field" for another year. The flag contemporaneously known as "the Continental Colors" has historically been referred to as the first national flag.[5]

text: The Continental Navy raised the Colors as the ensign of the fledgling nation in the American War for Independence—likely with the expedient of transforming their previous British red ensigns by adding white stripes—and would use this flag until 1777, when it would form the basis for the subsequent de jure designs.[5][6]

text: The name "Grand Union" was first applied to the Continental Colors by George Preble in his 1872 history of the U.S. flag.[6]

text: The flag closely resembles the British East India Company flag of the era, and Sir Charles Fawcett argued in 1937 that the company flag inspired the design.[7] Both flags could have been easily constructed by adding white stripes to a British Red Ensign, one of the three maritime flags used throughout the British Empire at the time. However, an East India Company flag could have from nine to 13 stripes, and was not allowed to be flown outside the Indian Ocean.[8] Benjamin Franklin once gave a speech endorsing the adoption of the Company's flag by the United States as their national flag. He said to George Washington, "While the field of your flag must be new in the details of its design, it need not be entirely new in its elements. There is already in use a flag, I refer to the flag of the East India Company."[9] This was a way of symbolising American loyalty to the Crown as well as the United States' aspirations to be self-governing, as was the East India Company. Some colonists also felt that the Company could be a powerful ally in the American War of Independence, as they shared similar aims and grievances against the British government tax policies. Colonists therefore flew the Company's flag, to endorse the Company.[10]

text: However, the theory that the Grand Union Flag was a direct descendant of the flag of the East India Company has been criticised as lacking written evidence.[11] On the other hand, the resemblance is obvious, and a number of the Founding Fathers of the United States were aware of the East India Company's activities and of their free administration of India under Company rule.[11] In any case, both the stripes (barry) and the stars (mullets) have precedents in classical heraldry. Mullets were comparatively rare in early modern heraldry, but an example of mullets representing territorial divisions predating the U.S. flag are those in the coat of arms of Valais of 1618, where seven mullets stood for seven districts.

text: The Flag Resolution of 1777

text: On June 14, 1777, the Second Continental Congress passed the Flag Resolution which stated: "Resolved, That the flag of the thirteen United States be thirteen stripes, alternate red and white; that the union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field, representing a new constellation."[12] Flag Day is now observed on June 14 of each year. While scholars still argue about this, tradition holds that the new flag was first hoisted in June 1777 by the Continental Army at the Middlebrook encampment.[13]

text: The first official U.S. flag flown during battle was on August 3, 1777, at Fort Schuyler (Fort Stanwix) during the Siege of Fort Stanwix. Massachusetts reinforcements brought news of the adoption by Congress of the official flag to Fort Schuyler. Soldiers cut up their shirts to make the white stripes; scarlet material to form the red was secured from red flannel petticoats of officers' wives, while material for the blue union was secured from Capt. Abraham Swartwout's blue cloth coat. A voucher is extant that Capt. Swartwout of Dutchess County was paid by Congress for his coat for the flag.[14]

text: The 1777 resolution was most probably meant to define a naval ensign. In the late 18th century, the notion of a national flag did not yet exist, or was only nascent. The flag resolution appears between other resolutions from the Marine Committee. On May 10, 1779, Secretary of the Board of War Richard Peters expressed concern "it is not yet settled what is the Standard of the United States."[15] However, the term, "Standard," referred to a national standard for the Army of the United States. Each regiment was to carry the national standard in addition to its regimental standard. The national standard was not a reference to the national or naval flag.[16]

text: The Flag Resolution did not specify any particular arrangement, number of points, nor orientation for the stars and the arrangement or whether the flag had to have seven red stripes and six white ones or vice versa.[17] The appearance was up to the maker of the flag. Some flag makers arranged the stars into one big star, in a circle or in rows and some replaced a state's star with its initial.[18] One arrangement features 13 five-pointed stars arranged in a circle, with the stars arranged pointing outwards from the circle (as opposed to up), the so-called Betsy Ross flag. This flag, however, is more likely a flag used for celebrations of anniversaries of the nation's birthday. Experts have dated the earliest known example of this flag to be 1792 in a painting by John Trumbull.[19]

text: Despite the 1777 resolution, the early years of American independence featured many different flags. Most were individually crafted rather than mass-produced. While there are many examples of 13-star arrangements, some of those flags included blue stripes[20] as well as red and white. Benjamin Franklin and John Adams, in a letter dated October 3, 1778, to Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies, described the American flag as consisting of "13 stripes, alternately red, white, and blue, a small square in the upper angle, next the flag staff, is a blue field, with 13 white stars, denoting a new Constellation."[21] John Paul Jones used a variety of 13-star flags on his U.S. Navy ships including the well-documented 1779 flags of the Serapis and the Alliance. The Serapis flag had three rows of eight-pointed stars with stripes that were red, white, and blue. The flag for the Alliance, however, had five rows of eight-pointed stars with 13 red and white stripes, and the white stripes were on the outer edges.[22] Both flags were documented by the Dutch government in October 1779, making them two of the earliest known flags of 13 stars.[23]

text: Designer of the first stars and stripes

text: Francis Hopkinson of New Jersey, a naval flag designer, and a signer of the Declaration of Independence, designed the 1777 flag[24] while he was the Chairman of the Continental Navy Board's Middle Department, sometime between his appointment to that position in November 1776 and the time that the flag resolution was adopted in June 1777. The Navy Board was under the Continental Marine Committee.[25] Not only did Hopkinson claim that he designed the U.S. flag, but he also claimed that he designed a flag for the U.S. Navy. Hopkinson was the only person to have made such a claim during his own lifetime, when he sent a letter and several bills to Congress for his work. These claims are documented in the Journals of the Continental Congress and George Hasting's biography of Hopkinson. Hopkinson initially wrote a letter to Congress, via the Continental Board of Admiralty, on May 25, 1780.[26] In this letter, he asked for a "Quarter Cask of the Public Wine" as payment for designing the U.S. flag, the seal for the Admiralty Board, the seal for the Treasury Board, Continental currency, the Great Seal of the United States, and other devices. However, in three subsequent bills to Congress, Hopkinson asked to be paid in cash, but he did not list his U.S. flag design. Instead, he asked to be paid for designing the "great Naval Flag of the United States" in the first bill; the "Naval Flag of the United States" in the second bill; and "the Naval Flag of the States" in the third, along with the other items. The flag references were generic terms for the naval ensign that Hopkinson had designed, that is, a flag of seven red stripes and six white ones. The predominance of red stripes made the naval flag more visible against the sky on a ship at sea. By contrast, Hopkinson's flag for the United States had seven white stripes, and six red ones – in reality, six red stripes laid on a white background.[27] Hopkinson's sketches have not been found, but we can make these conclusions because Hopkinson incorporated different stripe arrangements in the Admiralty (naval) Seal that he designed in the Spring of 1780 and the Great Seal of the United States that he proposed at the same time. His Admiralty Seal had seven red stripes;[28] whereas, his second U.S. Seal proposal had seven white ones.[29] Hopkinson's flag for the Navy is the one that the Nation preferred as the national flag. Remnants of Hopkinson's U.S. flag of seven white stripes can be found in the Great Seal of the United States and the President's seal.[27] When Hopkinson was chairman of the Navy Board, his position was like that of today's Secretary of the Navy.[30] The payment was not made, however, because it was determined he had already received a salary as a member of Congress.[31][32] This contradicts the legend of the Betsy Ross flag, which suggests that she sewed the first Stars and Stripes flag by request of the government in the Spring of 1776.[33][34] Furthermore, a letter from the War Board to George Washington on May 10, 1779, documents that there was still no design established for a national flag for the Army's use in battle.[35]

text: The origin of the stars and stripes design has been muddled by a story disseminated by the descendants of Betsy Ross. The apocryphal story credits Betsy Ross for sewing the first flag from a pencil sketch handed to her by George Washington. No evidence for this exists either in the diaries of George Washington nor in the records of the Continental Congress. Indeed, nearly a century passed before Ross' grandson, William Canby, first publicly suggested the story in 1870.[36] By her family's own admission, Ross ran an upholstery business, and she had never made a flag as of the supposed visit in June 1776.[37] Furthermore, her grandson admitted that his own search through the Journals of Congress and other official records failed to find corroboration of his grandmother's story.[38]

text: The family of Rebecca Young claimed that she sewed the first flag.[39] Young's daughter was Mary Pickersgill, who made the Star Spangled Banner Flag.[40][41] According to rumor, the Washington family coat of arms, shown in a 15th-century window of Selby Abbey, was the origin of the stars and stripes.[42]

text: Later flag acts

text: In 1795, the number of stars and stripes was increased from 13 to 15 (to reflect the entry of Vermont and Kentucky as states of the Union). For a time the flag was not changed when subsequent states were admitted, probably because it was thought that this would cause too much clutter. It was the 15-star, 15-stripe flag that inspired Francis Scott Key to write "Defence of Fort M'Henry", later known as "The Star Spangled Banner", which is now the American national anthem. The flag is currently on display in the exhibition, "The Star-Spangled Banner: The Flag That Inspired the National Anthem" at the Smithsonian Institution National Museum of American History in a two-story display chamber that protects the flag while it is on view.[43]

text: On April 4, 1818, a plan was passed by Congress at the suggestion of U.S. Naval Captain Samuel C. Reid[44] in which the flag was changed to have 20 stars, with a new star to be added when each new state was admitted, but the number of stripes would be reduced to 13 so as to honor the original colonies. The act specified that new flag designs should become official on the first July 4 (Independence Day) following admission of one or more new states. The most recent change, from 49 stars to 50, occurred in 1960 when the present design was chosen, after Hawaii gained statehood in August 1959. Before that, the admission of Alaska in January 1959 prompted the debut of a short-lived 49-star flag.[45]

text: Prior to the adoption of the 48-star flag in 1912, there was no official arrangement of the stars in the canton, although the U.S. Army and U.S. Navy used standardized designs. Throughout the 19th century there was an abundance of different star patterns, rectangular and circular.

text: On July 4, 2007, the 50-star flag became the version of the flag in longest use, surpassing the 48-star flag that was used from 1912 to 1959.

text: The "Flower Flag" arrives in Asia

text: The U.S. flag was brought to the city of Canton (Guǎngzhōu) in China in 1784 by the merchant ship Empress of China, which carried a cargo of ginseng.[46] There it gained the designation "Flower Flag" (Chinese: 花旗; pinyin: huāqí; Cantonese Yale: fākeì).[47] According to a pseudonymous account first published in the Boston Courier and later retold by author and U.S. naval officer George H. Preble:

text: When the thirteen stripes and stars first appeared at Canton, much curiosity was excited among the people. News was circulated that a strange ship had arrived from the further end of the world, bearing a flag "as beautiful as a flower". Every body went to see the kwa kee chuen [花旗船; Fākeìsyùhn], or "flower flagship". This name at once established itself in the language, and America is now called the kwa kee kwoh [花旗國; Fākeìgwok], the "flower flag country"—and an American, kwa kee kwoh yin [花旗國人; Fākeìgwokyàhn]—"flower flag countryman"—a more complimentary designation than that of "red headed barbarian"—the name first bestowed upon the Dutch.[48][49]

text: In the above quote, the Chinese words are written phonetically based on spoken Cantonese. The names given were common usage in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.[50] Other Asian nations have equivalent terms for America, for example Vietnamese: Hoa Kỳ ("Flower Flag"). Chinese now refer to the United States as simplified Chinese: 美国; traditional Chinese: 美國; pinyin: Měiguó. Měi is short for Měilìjiān (simplified Chinese: 美利坚; traditional Chinese: 美利堅, phono-semantic matching of "American") and "guó" means "country", so this name is unrelated to the flag. However, the "flower flag" terminology persists in some places today: for example, American Ginseng is called simplified Chinese: 花旗参; traditional Chinese: 花旗參; literally: "flower flag ginseng" in Chinese, and Citibank, which opened a branch in China in 1902, is known as 花旗银行; "Flower Flag Bank".[50]

text: The U.S. flag took its first trip around the world in 1787–90 on board the Columbia.[47] William Driver, who coined the phrase "Old Glory", took the U.S. flag around the world in 1831–32.[47] The flag attracted the notice of Japanese when an oversized version was carried to Yokohama by the steamer Great Republic as part of a round-the-world journey in 1871.[51]

text: Historical progression of designs

text: In the following table depicting the 28 various designs of the United States flag, the star patterns for the flags are merely the usual patterns, often associated with the United States Navy. Canton designs, prior to the proclamation of the 48-star flag, had no official arrangement of the stars. Furthermore, the exact colors of the flag were not standardized until 1934.[52]

text:
Number of
stars
Number of
stripes
Design(s)
States represented
by new stars
Dates in use
Duration

0
13

Union Jack instead of stars, red and white stripes represent Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Virginia
000000001775-12-03-0000December 3, 1775[53] – June 14, 1777
018 !1 1⁄2 years

13
13

Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Virginia
000000001777-06-14-0000June 14, 1777 – May 1, 1795
215 !18 years

15
15

Vermont, Kentucky
000000001795-05-01-0000May 1, 1795 – July 3, 1818
278 !23 years

20
13

Indiana, Louisiana, Mississippi, Ohio, Tennessee
000000001818-07-04-0000July 4, 1818 – July 3, 1819
012 !1 year

21
13

Illinois
000000001819-07-04-0000July 4, 1819 – July 3, 1820
012 !1 year

23
13

Alabama, Maine
000000001820-07-04-0000July 4, 1820 – July 3, 1822
024 !2 years

24
13

Missouri
000000001822-07-04-0000July 4, 1822 – July 3, 1836
1831 term "Old Glory" coined
168 !14 years

25
13

Arkansas
000000001836-07-04-0000July 4, 1836 – July 3, 1837
012 !1 year

26
13

Michigan
000000001837-07-04-0000July 4, 1837 – July 3, 1845
096 !8 years

27
13

Florida
000000001845-07-04-0000July 4, 1845 – July 3, 1846
012 !1 year

28
13

Texas
000000001846-07-04-0000July 4, 1846 – July 3, 1847
012 !1 year

29
13

Iowa
000000001847-07-04-0000July 4, 1847 – July 3, 1848
012 !1 year

30
13

Wisconsin
000000001848-07-04-0000July 4, 1848 – July 3, 1851
036 !3 years

31
13

California
000000001851-07-04-0000July 4, 1851 – July 3, 1858
084 !7 years

32
13

Minnesota
000000001858-07-04-0000July 4, 1858 – July 3, 1859
012 !1 year

33
13

Oregon
000000001859-07-04-0000July 4, 1859 – July 3, 1861
024 !2 years

34
13

Kansas
000000001861-07-04-0000July 4, 1861 – July 3, 1863
024 !2 years

35
13

West Virginia
000000001863-07-04-0000July 4, 1863 – July 3, 1865
024 !2 years

36
13

Nevada
000000001865-07-04-0000July 4, 1865 – July 3, 1867
024 !2 years

37
13

Nebraska
000000001867-07-04-0000July 4, 1867 – July 3, 1877
120 !10 years

38
13

Colorado
000000001877-07-04-0000July 4, 1877 – July 3, 1890
156 !13 years

43
13

Idaho, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Washington
000000001890-07-04-0000July 4, 1890 – July 3, 1891
012 !1 year

44
13

Wyoming
000000001891-07-04-0000July 4, 1891 – July 3, 1896
060 !5 years

45
13

Utah
000000001896-07-04-0000July 4, 1896 – July 3, 1908
144 !12 years

46
13

Oklahoma
000000001908-07-04-0000July 4, 1908 – July 3, 1912
048 !4 years

48
13

Arizona, New Mexico
000000001912-07-04-0000July 4, 1912 – July 3, 1959
564 !47 years

49
13

Alaska
000000001959-07-04-0000July 4, 1959 – July 3, 1960
012 !1 year

50
13

Hawaii
000000001960-07-04-0000July 4, 1960 – present
590 !57 years

text: Future of the flag

text: In the November 2012 U.S. election, Puerto Rico voted to become a U.S. state. However, the legitimacy of the result of this election was disputed.[54] On June 11, 2017, another referendum was held, this time with the result that 97% of voters in Puerto Rico voted for statehood, but it had a turnout of only 23%.[55][56] Similarly in November 2016, a statehood referendum was held in the District of Columbia where 86% of voters approved the proposal. If a new U.S. state were to be admitted, it would require a new design on the flag to accommodate the additional star.[57]

text: Symbolism: Fort Sumter 1861

text: The modern meaning of the flag was forged in April 1861, when Major Robert Anderson defended Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor. The Confederates shot at the flag and Anderson was forced to surrender. The modern meaning of the flag was forged by Anderson's stand at Fort Sumter; he was celebrated in the North as a hero. Harold Holzer states that New York City:

text: Author Adam Goodheart argues after this opening event move of the American Civil War, the flag was used throughout northern states to symbolize U.S. nationalism and rejection of secessionism.

text:
Before that day, the flag had served mostly as a military ensign or a convenient marking of American territory, flown from forts, embassies, and ships, and displayed on special occasions like American Independence day. But in the weeks after Major Anderson's surprising stand, it became something different. Suddenly the Stars and Stripes flew—as it does today, and especially as it did after the September 11 attacks in 2001—from houses, from storefronts, from churches; above the village greens and college quads. For the first time American flags were mass-produced rather than individually stitched and even so, manufacturers could not keep up with demand. As the long winter of 1861 turned into spring, that old flag meant something new. The abstraction of the Union cause was transfigured into a physical thing: strips of cloth that millions of people would fight for, and many thousands die for.
– Adam Goodheart.[59]

text: The flag of the United States is one of the nation's most widely recognized symbols. Within the United States, flags are frequently displayed not only on public buildings but on private residences. The flag is a common motif on decals for car windows, and clothing ornaments such as badges and lapel pins. Throughout the world the flag has been used in public discourse to refer to the United States.[citation needed]

text: The flag has become a powerful symbol of Americanism, and is flown on many occasions, with giant outdoor flags used by retail outlets to draw customers. Desecration of the flag is considered a public outrage, but remains protected as free speech. Scholars have noted the irony that "[t]he flag is so revered because it represents the land of the free, and that freedom includes the ability to use or abuse that flag in protest".[60] In worldwide comparison, Testi noted in 2010 that the United States was not unique in adoring its banner, for the flags of Scandinavian countries are also "beloved, domesticated, commercialized and sacralized objects".[61]

text: Design

text: Creation

text: The man credited with designing the current 50 star American flag was Robert G. Heft. He was 17 years old at the time and created the flag design in 1958 as a high school class project while living with his grandparents in Ohio.[62] He received a B− on the project.[63] According to Heft, his history teacher honored their agreement to change his grade to an A after his design was selected.[64][65]

text: Specifications

text: The basic design of the current flag is specified by 4 U.S.C. § 1; 4 U.S.C. § 2 outlines the addition of new stars to represent new states. The specification gives the following values:

text:
Hoist (height) of the flag: A = 1.0
Fly (width) of the flag: B = 1.9[66]
Hoist (height) of the canton ("union"): C = 0.5385 (A × 7/13, spanning seven stripes)
Fly (width) of the canton: D = 0.76 (B × 2/5, two-fifths of the flag width)
E = F = 0.0538 (C/10, One-tenth of the height of the canton)
G = H = 0.0633 (D/12, One twelfth of the width of the canton)
Diameter of star: K = 0.0616 (L × 4/5, four-fifths of the stripe width, the calculation only gives 0.0616 if L is first rounded to 0.077)
Width of stripe: L = 0.0769 (A/13, One thirteenth of the flag height)

text: These specifications are contained in an executive order which, strictly speaking, governs only flags made for or by the U.S. federal government.[67] In practice, most U.S. national flags available for sale to the public have a different width-to-height ratio; common sizes are 2 × 3 ft. or 4 × 6 ft. (flag ratio 1.5), 2.5 × 4 ft. or 5 × 8 ft. (1.6), or 3 × 5 ft. or 6 × 10 ft. (1.667). Even flags flown over the U.S. Capitol for sale to the public through Representatives or Senators are provided in these sizes.[68] Flags that are made to the prescribed 1.9 ratio are often referred to as "G-spec" (for "government specification") flags.

text: Colors

text: The exact red, white, and blue colors to be used in the flag are specified with reference to the CAUS Standard Color Reference of America, 10th edition. Specifically, the colors are "White", "Old Glory Red", and "Old Glory Blue".[69] The CIE coordinates for the colors of the 9th edition of the Standard Color Card were formally specified in JOSA in 1946.[70] These colors form the standard for cloth, and there is no perfect way to convert them to RGB for display on screen or CMYK for printing. The "relative" coordinates in the following table were found by scaling the luminous reflectance relative to the flag's "white".

text:
Official colors[71]

Name
Absolute
Relative

CIELAB D65
Munsell

CIELAB D50
sRGB
GRACoL 2006

L*
a*
b*
H
V/C
L*
a*
b*
R
G
B
8-bit hex
C
M
Y
K

White

88.7
−0.2
5.4
2.5Y
8.8/0.7

100.0
0.0
0.0
1.000
1.000
1.000
#FFFFFF
.000
.000
.000
.000

Old Glory Red

33.9
51.2
24.7
5.5R
3.3/11.1

39.9
57.3
28.7
.698
.132
.203
#B22234
.196
1.000
.757
.118

Old Glory Blue

23.2
13.1
−26.4
8.2PB
2.3/6.1

26.9
11.5
−30.3
.234
.233
.430
#3C3B6E
.886
.851
.243
.122

text: As with the design, the official colors are only officially required for flags produced for the U.S. federal government, and other colors are often used for mass-market flags, printed reproductions, and other products intended to evoke flag colors. The practice of using more saturated colors than the official cloth is not new. As Taylor, Knoche, and Granville wrote in 1950: "The color of the official wool bunting [of the blue field] is a very dark blue, but printed reproductions of the flag, as well as merchandise supposed to match the flag, present the color as a deep blue much brighter than the official wool."[72]

text: Sometimes, Pantone Matching System (PMS) approximations to the flag colors are used. One set was given on the website of the U.S. embassy in London as early as 1998; the website of the U.S. embassy in Stockholm claimed in 2001 that those had been suggested by Pantone, and that the U.S. Government Printing Office preferred a different set. A third red was suggested by a California Military Department document in 2002.[73] In 2001, the Texas legislature specified that the colors of the Texas flag should be "(1) the same colors used in the United States flag; and (2) defined as numbers 193 (red) and 281 (dark blue) of the Pantone Matching System."[74]

text:
Pantone approximations[75]

Source
PMS

CIELAB D50
sRGB
GRACoL 2006

L*
a*
b*
R
G
B
8-bit hex
C
M
Y
K

Safe

100.0
0.0
0.0
1.000
1.000
1.000
#FFFFFF
.000
.000
.000
.000

U.S. Emb.,
London
193 C

42.1
64.4
26.7
.756
.076
.238
#C1133D
.165
1.000
.678
.063

281 C

15.4
7.0
−41.8
.000
.149
.388
#002663
1.000
.906
.388
.231

U.S. Emb.,
Stockholm
186 C

44.1
67.8
37.9
.800
.048
.185
#CC0C2F
.122
1.000
.796
.035

288 C

18.0
7.6
−50.3
.000
.172
.466
#002C77
1.000
.863
.357
.141

CA Mil. Dept.
200 C

41.1
64.2
30.8
.745
.051
.203
#BE0D34
.169
1.000
.749
.074

text: The 49- and 50-star unions

text: When Alaska and Hawaii were being considered for statehood in the 1950s, more than 1,500 designs were submitted to President Dwight D. Eisenhower. Although some of them were 49-star versions, the vast majority were 50-star proposals. At least three of these designs were identical to the present design of the 50-star flag.[76] At the time, credit was given by the executive department to the United States Army Institute of Heraldry for the design.

text: Of these proposals, one created by 17-year-old Robert G. Heft in 1958 as a school project received the most publicity. His mother was a seamstress, but refused to do any of the work for him. He originally received a B– for the project. After discussing the grade with his teacher, it was agreed (somewhat jokingly) that if the flag was accepted by Congress, the grade would be reconsidered. Heft's flag design was chosen and adopted by presidential proclamation after Alaska and before Hawaii was admitted into the Union in 1959.[77] According to Heft, his teacher did keep to their agreement and changed his grade to an A for the project.[65] The 49- and 50-star flags were each flown for the first time at Fort McHenry on Independence Day, in 1959 and 1960 respectively.[65]

text: Decoration

text: Traditionally, the flag may be decorated with golden fringe surrounding the perimeter of the flag as long as it does not deface the flag proper. Ceremonial displays of the flag, such as those in parades or on indoor posts, often use fringe to enhance the appearance of the flag.

text: The first recorded use of fringe on a flag dates from 1835, and the Army used it officially in 1895. No specific law governs the legality of fringe, but a 1925 opinion of the attorney general addresses the use of fringe (and the number of stars) "... is at the discretion of the Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy ..." as quoted from footnote in previous volumes of Title 4 of the United States Code law books and is a source for claims that such a flag is a military ensign not civilian. However, according to the Army Institute of Heraldry, which has official custody of the flag designs and makes any change ordered, there are no implications of symbolism in the use of fringe.[78] Several federal courts have upheld this conclusion,[79][80] most recently and forcefully in Colorado v. Drew, a Colorado Court of Appeals judgment that was released in May 2010.[81] Traditionally, the Army and Air Force use a fringed National Color for parade, color guard and indoor display, while the Sea Services (Navy, Marine Corps and Coast Guard) use a fringeless National Color for all occasions.

text: Display and use

text: The flag is customarily flown year-round at most public buildings, and it is not unusual to find private houses flying full-size (3 by 5 feet (0.91 by 1.52 m)) flags. Some private use is year-round, but becomes widespread on civic holidays like Memorial Day, Veterans Day, Presidents' Day, Flag Day, and on Independence Day. On Memorial Day it is common to place small flags by war memorials and next to the graves of U.S. war veterans. Also on Memorial Day it is common to fly the flag at half staff, until noon, in remembrance of those who lost their lives fighting in U.S. wars.

text: Flag etiquette

text: The United States Flag Code outlines certain guidelines for the use, display, and disposal of the flag. For example, the flag should never be dipped to any person or thing, unless it is the ensign responding to a salute from a ship of a foreign nation. This tradition may come from the 1908 Summer Olympics in London, where countries were asked to dip their flag to King Edward VII: the American flag bearer did not. Team captain Martin Sheridan is famously quoted as saying "this flag dips to no earthly king", though the true provenance of this quotation is unclear.[82][83]

text: The flag should never be allowed to touch the ground and, if flown at night, must be illuminated. If the edges become tattered through wear, the flag should be repaired or replaced. When a flag is so tattered that it can no longer serve as a symbol of the United States, it should be destroyed in a dignified manner, preferably by burning. The American Legion and other organizations regularly conduct flag retirement ceremonies, often on Flag Day, June 14. (The Boy Scouts of America recommends that modern nylon or polyester flags be recycled instead of burned, due to hazardous gases being produced when such materials are burned.)[84]

text: The Flag Code prohibits using the flag "for any advertising purpose" and also states that the flag "should not be embroidered, printed, or otherwise impressed on such articles as cushions, handkerchiefs, napkins, boxes, or anything intended to be discarded after temporary use".[85] Both of these codes are generally ignored, almost always without comment.

text: Section 8, entitled Respect For Flag states in part: "The flag should never be used as wearing apparel, bedding, or drapery", and "No part of the flag should ever be used as a costume or athletic uniform". Section 3 of the Flag Code[86] defines "the flag" as anything "by which the average person seeing the same without deliberation may believe the same to represent the flag of the United States of America".

text: An additional part of Section 8 Respect For Flag, that is frequently violated at sporting events is part (c) "The flag should never be carried flat or horizontally, but always aloft and free."

text: Although the Flag Code is U.S. federal law, there is no penalty for a private citizen or group failing to comply with the Flag Code and it is not widely enforced—indeed, punitive enforcement would conflict with the First Amendment right to freedom of speech.[87] Passage of the proposed Flag Desecration Amendment would overrule legal precedent that has been established.

text: Display on vehicles

text: When the flag is affixed to the right side of a vehicle of any kind (e.g.: cars, boats, planes, any physical object that moves), it should be oriented so that the canton is towards the front of the vehicle, as if the flag were streaming backwards from its hoist as the vehicle moves forward. Therefore, U.S. flag decals on the right sides of vehicles may appear to be reversed, with the union to the observer's right instead of left as more commonly seen.

text: The flag has been displayed on every U.S. spacecraft designed for manned flight, including Mercury, Gemini, Apollo Command/Service Module, Apollo Lunar Module, and the Space Shuttle. The flag also appeared on the S-IC first stage of the Saturn V launch vehicle used for Apollo. But since Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo were launched and landed vertically and were not capable of horizontal atmospheric flight as the Space Shuttle did on its landing approach, the "streaming" convention was not followed and these flags were oriented with the stripes running horizontally, perpendicular to the direction of flight.

text: Display on uniforms

text: On some U.S. military uniforms, flag patches are worn on the right shoulder, following the vehicle convention with the union toward the front. This rule dates back to the Army's early history, when both mounted cavalry and infantry units would designate a standard bearer, who carried the Colors into battle. As he charged, his forward motion caused the flag to stream back. Since the Stars and Stripes are mounted with the canton closest to the pole, that section stayed to the right, while the stripes flew to the left.[88] Several US military uniforms, such as flight suits worn by members of the United States Air Force and Navy, have the flag patch on the left shoulder.[89][90]

text: Other organizations that wear flag patches on their uniforms can have the flag facing in either direction. The congressional charter of the Boy Scouts of America stipulates that Boy Scout uniforms should not imitate U.S. military uniforms; consequently, the flags are displayed on the right shoulder with the stripes facing front, the reverse of the military style.[91] Law enforcement officers often wear a small flag patch, either on a shoulder, or above a shirt pocket.

text: Every U.S. astronaut since the crew of Gemini 4 has worn the flag on the left shoulder of his or her space suit, with the exception of the crew of Apollo 1, whose flags were worn on the right shoulder. In this case, the canton was on the left.

text: Postage stamps

text: The flag did not appear on U.S. postal stamp issues until the Battle of White Plains Issue was released in 1926, depicting the flag with a circle of 13 stars. The 48-star flag first appeared on the General Casimir Pulaski issue of 1931, though in a small monochrome depiction. The first U.S. postage stamp to feature the flag as the sole subject was issued July 4, 1957, Scott catalog number 1094.[92] Since that time the flag has frequently appeared on U.S. stamps.

text: Display in museums

text: In 1907 Eben Appleton, New York stockbroker and grandson of Lieutenant Colonel George Armistead (the commander of Fort McHenry during the 1814 bombardment) loaned the Star Spangled Banner Flag to the Smithsonian Institution, and in 1912 he converted the loan to a gift. Appleton donated the flag with the wish that it would always be on view to the public. In 1994, the National Museum of American History determined that the Star Spangled Banner Flag required further conservation treatment to remain on public display. In 1998 teams of museum conservators, curators, and other specialists helped move the flag from its home in the Museum's Flag Hall into a new conservation laboratory. Following the reopening of the National Museum of American History on November 21, 2008, the flag is now on display in a special exhibition, "The Star-Spangled Banner: The Flag That Inspired the National Anthem," where it rests at a 10 degree angle in dim light for conservation purposes.[43]

text: Places of continuous display

text: By presidential proclamation, acts of Congress, and custom, U.S. flags are displayed continuously at certain locations.

text:
Replicas of the Star Spangled Banner Flag (15 stars, 15 stripes) are flown at two sites in Baltimore, Maryland: Fort McHenry National Monument and Historic Shrine[93] and Flag House Square.[94]
Marine Corps War Memorial (Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima), Arlington, Virginia.[95]
The Battle Green in Lexington, Massachusetts, site of the first shots fired in the Revolution[96]
The White House, Washington, D.C.[97]
Fifty U.S. flags are displayed continuously at the Washington Monument, Washington, D.C.[98]

text:
At U.S. Customs and Border Protection Ports of Entry that are continuously open.[99]
A Civil War era flag (for the year 1863) flies above Pennsylvania Hall (Old Dorm) at Gettysburg College.[100] This building, occupied by both sides at various points of the Battle of Gettysburg, served as a lookout and battlefield hospital.
Grounds of the National Memorial Arch in Valley Forge NHP, Valley Forge, Pennsylvania[101]
By custom, at the Maryland home, birthplace, and grave of Francis Scott Key; at the Worcester, Massachusetts war memorial; at the plaza in Taos, New Mexico (since 1861); at the United States Capitol (since 1918); and at Mount Moriah Cemetery in Deadwood, South Dakota.
Newark Liberty International Airport's Terminal A, Gate 17 and Boston Logan Airport's Terminal B, Gate 32 and Terminal C, Gate 19 in memoriam of the events of September 11, 2001.[102]
Slover Mountain (Colton Liberty Flag), in Colton, California. July 4, 1917, to circa 1952 & 1997 to 2012.[103][104][105][106]
At the ceremonial South Pole as one of the 12 flags representing the signatory countries of the original Antarctic Treaty.
On the Moon: six manned missions successfully landed at various locations and each had a flag raised at the site. Exhaust gases when the Ascent Stage launched to return the astronauts to their Command Module Columbia for return to Earth blew over the flag the Apollo 11 mission had placed.[107]

text: Particular days for display

text: The flag should especially be displayed at full staff on the following days:[108]

text:
January: 1 (New Year's Day), third Monday of the month (Martin Luther King Jr. Day), and 20 (Inauguration Day, once every four years, which, by tradition, is postponed to the 21st if the 20th falls on a Sunday)
February: 12 (Lincoln's birthday) and the third Monday (legally known as Washington's Birthday but more often called Presidents' Day)
March–April: Easter Sunday (date varies)
May: Second Sunday (Mothers Day), third Saturday (Armed Forces Day), and last Monday (Memorial Day; half-staff until noon)
June: 14 (Flag Day), third Sunday (Fathers Day)
July: 4 (Independence Day) and 27 (National Korean War Veterans Armistice Day)[109]
September: First Monday (Labor Day), 17 (Constitution Day), and last Sunday (Gold Star Mother's Day)[110]
October: Second Monday (Columbus Day) and 27 (Navy Day)
November: 11 (Veterans Day) and fourth Thursday (Thanksgiving Day)
December: 25 (Christmas Day)
and such other days as may be proclaimed by the President of the United States; the birthdays of states (date of admission); and on state holidays.[111]

text: Display at half-staff

text: The flag is displayed at half-staff (half-mast in naval usage) as a sign of respect or mourning. Nationwide, this action is proclaimed by the president; statewide or territory-wide, the proclamation is made by the governor. In addition, there is no prohibition against municipal governments, private businesses or citizens flying the flag at half-staff as a local sign of respect and mourning. However, many flag enthusiasts feel this type of practice has somewhat diminished the meaning of the original intent of lowering the flag to honor those who held high positions in federal or state offices. President Dwight D. Eisenhower issued the first proclamation on March 1, 1954, standardizing the dates and time periods for flying the flag at half-staff from all federal buildings, grounds, and naval vessels; other congressional resolutions and presidential proclamations ensued. However, they are only guidelines to all other entities: typically followed at state and local government facilities, and encouraged of private businesses and citizens.

text: To properly fly the flag at half-staff, one should first briefly hoist it top of the staff, then lower it to the half-staff position, halfway between the top and bottom of the staff. Similarly, when the flag is to be lowered from half-staff, it should be first briefly hoisted to the top of the staff.[112]

text: Federal statutes provide that the flag should be flown at half-staff on the following dates:

text:
May 15: Peace Officers Memorial Day (unless it is the third Saturday in May, Armed Forces Day, then full-staff)[113]
Last Monday in May: Memorial Day (until noon)
September 11: Patriot Day[114]
First Sunday in October: Start of Fire Prevention Week, in honor of the National Fallen Firefighters Memorial Service.[115][116]
December 7: National Pearl Harbor Remembrance Day[117]
For 30 days: Death of a president or former president
For 10 days: Death of a vice president, Supreme Court chief justice/retired chief justice, or speaker of the House of Representatives.
From death until the day of interment: Supreme Court associate justice, member of the Cabinet, former vice president, president pro tempore of the Senate, or the majority and minority leaders of the Senate and House of Representatives. Also for federal facilities within a state or territory, for the governor.
On the day after the death: Senators, members of Congress, territorial delegates or the resident commissioner of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico

text: National Korean War Veterans Armistice Day, on July 27, was formerly a day of half-staff observance until the law expired in 2003. In 2009, it became a day of full-staff observance.[109][118][109]

text: Folding for storage

text: Though not part of the official Flag Code, according to military custom, flags should be folded into a triangular shape when not in use. To properly fold the flag:

text:
Begin by holding it waist-high with another person so that its surface is parallel to the ground.
Fold the lower half of the stripe section lengthwise over the field of stars, holding the bottom and top edges securely.
Fold the flag again lengthwise with the blue field on the outside.
Make a rectangular fold then a triangular fold by bringing the striped corner of the folded edge to meet the open top edge of the flag, starting the fold from the left side over to the right.
Turn the outer end point inward, parallel to the open edge, to form a second triangle.
The triangular folding is continued until the entire length of the flag is folded in this manner (usually thirteen triangular folds, as shown at right). On the final fold, any remnant that does not neatly fold into a triangle (or in the case of exactly even folds, the last triangle) is tucked into the previous fold.
When the flag is completely folded, only a triangular blue field of stars should be visible.

tag: ol

text: There is also no specific meaning for each fold of the flag. However, there are scripts read by non-government organizations and also by the Air Force that are used during the flag folding ceremony. These scripts range from historical timelines of the flag to religious themes.[119][120]

text: Use in funerals

text: Traditionally, the flag of the United States plays a role in military funerals,[121] and occasionally in funerals of other civil servants (such as law enforcement officers, fire fighters, and U.S. presidents). A burial flag is draped over the deceased's casket as a pall during services. Just prior to the casket being lowered into the ground, the flag is ceremonially folded and presented to the deceased's next of kin as a token of respect.[122]

text: Related flags

text: This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (October 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
The flag of Bikini Atoll is symbolic of the islanders' belief that a great debt is still owed to the people of Bikini because in 1954 the United States government detonated a thermonuclear bomb on the island as part of the Castle Bravo test.[123]
The flag of Liberia bears a close resemblance, showing the ex-American-slave origin of the country.[124] The Liberian flag has 11 similar red and white stripes, which stand for the 11 signers of the Liberian Declaration of Independence, as well as a blue square with only a single large white star for the canton. The flag of Liberia is the only flag in the world that was modeled after and resembles the American flag because Liberia was the only nation in the world that was founded, colonized, established, and controlled by freed African American and ex-caribbean slaves as settlers who came from the United States and the Caribbean islands as a homeland to live, with the help and support from the American Colonization Society on January 7, 1822.
Despite Malaysia having no historical connections with the U.S., the flag of Malaysia greatly resembles the U.S. flag. It is possible that the flag of the British East India Company influenced both the Malaysian and U.S. flag.[7]
The flag of El Salvador from 1865 to 1912. A different flag was in use, based on the flag of the United States, with a field of alternating blue and white stripes and a red canton containing white stars.[citation needed]
The flag of Brittany was inspired in part by the American flag.[citation needed]

text: Gallery of related flags

text:
Flag of Bikini Atoll

Flag of Liberia

Flag of Malaysia

Flag of El Salvador 1875–1912

Flag of Brittany


document_title: Prehistory of the Philippines

question_text: what is the land bridges theory in the philippines

root

text: Prehistory of the Philippines

text: Pleistocene[edit]

text: A 2018 study by France's Museum of Natural History, with Thomas Ingicco as the lead author, pushes back the arrival of the first Homo species on the Philippines between 631,000 and 777,000 years ago in a period known today as Pleistocene. This was on the wake of the analysis conducted using several dating techniques to the rhino remains unearthed in a Kalinga site.[1][2]

tag: p

text: Site Description[edit]

text: Unearthed in the site was a 'nearly complete, disarticulated' rhinoceros skeleton, of the extinct species 'Rhinoceros philippinensis'. It showed ridges left by tools made while removing flesh, and special tools designed to remove bone marrow. The site yielded more than 400 bones, including several dozen knapped and chipped tools, of which 49 are knife-like flakes with two hammers.[1] Also, among the finds are other skeletal remains, which include brown deer[clarification needed], monitor lizards, freshwater turtles and stegodonts.[1]

text: Hominins[edit]

text: While the earliest confirmed evidence of a hominin came from 67,000 years old foot bone from Sierra Madre, the recent[timeframe?] finds had no direct trace of the humans who butchered the animals. On the other hand, it is possible that it had already evolved into a distinct species.[1]

text: Stone Age (c. 50,000 – c. 500 BC)[edit]

text: The first evidence of the systematic use of Stone Age technology in the Philippines is estimated to 50,000 BC,[3] and this phase in the development of proto-Philippine societies is considered to end with the rise of metal tools in about 500 BC, albeit with stone tools still used past that date.[4] Filipino anthropologist F. Landa Jocano refers to the earliest noticeable stage in the development of proto-Philippine societies as the Formative Phase.[5] He also identified stone tools and ceramic manufacture as the two core industries that defined the period's economic activity, and which shaped the means by which early Filipinos adapted to their environment during this period.[3]

text: By about 30,000 BC, the Negritos, who became the ancestors of today's aboriginal Filipinos (such as the Aeta), probably lived in the archipelago. No evidence has survived which would indicate details of ancient Filipino life such as their crops, culture, and architecture. Historian William Henry Scott noted any theory which describes such details for the period must be pure hypothesis, and thus be honestly presented as such.[6]

text: Callao Man (c. 67,000 BC)[edit]

text: The earliest known human remains in the Philippines are the fossilised remains discovered in 2007 in the Callao Caves in Cagayan. The 67,000-year-old find predates the 47,000-year-old Tabon Man, which was until then the earliest known set of human remains in the archipelago. The find consisted of a single 61 millimeter metatarsal which, when dated using uranium series ablation, was found to be its current age. If definitively proven to be remains of Homo sapiens, it would also be one of the oldest human remains in the Asia-Pacific.[7][8][9][10]

text: Tabon Man (c. 24,000 or 22,000 BC)[edit]

text: Fossilized fragments of a skull and jawbone of three individuals had been discovered on May 28, 1962 by Dr. Robert B. Fox, an American anthropologist of the National Museum.[11] These fragments are collectively called "Tabon Man" after the place where they were found on the west coast of Palawan. Tabon Cave appears to be a kind of a Stone Age factory, with both finished stone flake tools and waste core flakes having been found at four separate levels in the main chamber. Charcoal left from three assemblages of cooking fires there has been Carbon-14 dated to roughly 7,000, 20,000, and 22,000 BC.[12] (In Mindanao, the existence and importance of these prehistoric tools was noted by famed José Rizal himself, because of his acquaintance with Spanish and German scientific archaeologists in the 1880s, while in Europe.)[citation needed]

text: Tabon Cave is named after the "Tabon bird" (Tabon scrubfowl, Megapodius cumingii), which deposited thick hard layers of guano during the period when the cave was still uninhabited, resulting to a cement-like floor made of bird dung where three succeeding groups of tool-makers settled. It is indicated that about half of the 3,000 specimens recovered from the cave are discarded cores of a material which had to be transported from some distance.  The Tabon man fossils are considered to have come from the third group of inhabitants who inhabited the cave between 22,000 and 20,000 BC. An earlier cave level lies so far below the level containing cooking fire assemblages that it must represent Upper Pleistocene dates from 45 or 50 thousand years ago.[12]

text: Physical anthropologists who have examined the Tabon Man skullcap have agreed that it belonged to a modern man (Homo sapiens), as distinguished from the mid-Pleistocene Homo erectus species. This indicates that Tabon Man was Pre-Mongoloid (Mongoloid being the term anthropologists apply to the racial stock which entered Southeast Asia during the Holocene and absorbed earlier peoples to produce the modern Malay, Indonesian, Filipino, and "Pacific" peoples). Two experts have given the opinion that the mandible is "Australian" in physical type, and that the skullcap measurements are most nearly like the Ainus or Tasmanians. Nothing can be concluded about Tabon man's physical appearance from the recovered skull fragments except that he was not a Negrito.[13]

text: The custom of Jar Burial, which ranges from Sri Lanka, to the Plain of Jars, in Laos, to Japan, also was practiced in the Tabon caves. A spectacular example of a secondary burial jar is owned by the National Museum, a National Treasure, with a jar lid topped with two figures, one the deceased, arms crossed, hands touching the shoulders, the other a steersman, both seated in a proa, with only the mast missing from the piece. Secondary burial was practiced across all the islands of the Philippines during this period, with the bones reburied, some in the burial jars. Seventy-eight earthenware vessels were recovered from the Manunggul cave, Palawan, specifically for burial.

text: Migration theories[edit]

text: There have been many models of early human migration to the Philippines. Since H. Otley Beyer first proposed his wave migration theory, numerous scholars have approached the question of how, when and why humans first came to the Philippines. The question of whether the first humans arrived from the south (Malaysia, Indonesia, and Brunei as suggested by Beyer) or from the north (via Taiwan as suggested by the Austronesian theory) has been a subject of heated debate for decades. As new discoveries come to light, past hypotheses are reevaluated and new theories constructed.

text: Beyer's wave migration theory (Theory of Waves of Migration)[edit]

text: The first, and most widely known theory of the prehistoric peopling of the Philippines is that of H. Otley Beyer, founder of the Anthropology Department of the University of the Philippines.[14] According to Dr. Beyer, the ancestors of the Filipinos came to the islands first via land bridges which would occur during times when the sea level was low, and then later in seagoing vessels such as the balangay.  Thus he differentiated these ancestors as arriving in different "waves of migration", as follows:[15]

text:
"Dawn Man", a cave-man type who was similar to Java man, Peking Man, and other Asian homo erectus of 250,000 years ago.
The aboriginal pygmy group, the Negritos, who arrived between 25,000 and 30,000 years ago.
The seafaring tool-using Indonesian group who arrived about 5,000 to 6,000 years ago and were the first immigrants to reach the Philippines by sea.
The seafaring, more civilized Malays who brought the Iron age culture and were the real colonizers and dominant cultural group in the pre-Hispanic Philippines.

text: Beyer's theory, while still popular among lay Filipinos, has been generally been disputed by anthropologists and historians. Reasons for doubting it are founded on Beyer's use of 19th century scientific methods of progressive evolution and migratory diffusion as the basis for his hypothesis. These methods have since been proven to be too simple and unreliable to explain the prehistoric peopling of the Philippines.[16]

text: Objections to the land bridges theory[edit]

text: In February 1976, Fritjof Voss, a German scientist who studied the geology of the Philippines, questioned the validity of the theory of land bridges. He maintained that the Philippines was never part of mainland Asia. He claimed that it arose from the bottom of the sea and, as the thin Pacific crust moved below it, continued to rise. It continues to rise today. The country lies along great Earth faults that extend to deep submarine trenches. The resulting violent earthquakes caused what is now the land masses forming the Philippines to rise to the surface of the sea. Dr. Voss also pointed out that when scientific studies were done on the Earth's crust from 1964 to 1967, it was discovered that the 35-kilometer- thick crust underneath China does not reach the Philippines. Thus, the latter could not have been a land bridge to the Asian mainland.[17] The matter of who the first settlers were has not been really resolved. This is being disputed by anthropologists, as well as Professor H. Otley Beyer, who claims that the first inhabitants of the Philippines came from the Malay Peninsula. The Malays now constitute the largest portion of the populace and what Filipinos now have is an Austronesian culture.

text: Philippine historian William Henry Scott has pointed out that Palawan and the Calamianes Islands are separated from Borneo by water nowhere deeper than 100 meters, that south of a line drawn between Saigon and Brunei does the depth of the South China Sea nowhere exceeds 100 meters, and that the Strait of Malacca reaches 50 meters only at one point.[18] Scott also asserts that the Sulu Archipelago is not the peak of a submerged mountain range connecting Mindanao and Borneo, but the exposed edge of three small ridges produced by tectonic tilting of the sea bottom in recent geologic times. According to Scott, it is clear that Palawan and the Calamianes do not stand on a submerged land bridge, but were once a hornlike protuberance on the shoulder of a continent whose southern shoreline used to be the present islands of Java and Borneo. Mindoro and the Calamianes are separated by a channel more than 500 meters deep[19]

text: Bellwood's Austronesian diffusion theory (Austronesian Model)[edit]

text: The popular contemporary alternative to Beyer's model is Peter Bellwood’s Out-of-Taiwan (OOT) hypothesis, which is based largely on linguistics, hewing very close to Robert Blust’s model of the history of the Austronesian language family, and supplementing it with archeological data.[20]

text: This model suggests that between 4500 BC and 4000 BC, developments in agricultural technology in the Yunnan Plateau in China created pressures which drove certain peoples to migrate to Taiwan.  These people either already had or began to develop a unique language of their own, now referred to as Proto-Austronesian.

text: By around 3000 BC, these groups started differentiating into three or four distinct subcultures, and by 2500 to 1500 BC, one of these groups began migrating southwards towards the Philippines and Indonesia, reaching as far as Borneo and the Moluccas by 1500 BC, forming new cultural groupings and developing unique languages.

text: By 1500 BC, some of these groups started migrating west, reaching as far as Madagascar around the 1st millennium.  Others migrated east, settling as far as Easter Island by the mid-13th century, giving the Austronesian language group the distinction of being one of the most widely distributed language groups in the world at that time, in terms of the geographical span of the homelands of its languages.

text: According to this theory, the peoples of the Philippines are the descendants of those cultures who remained on the Philippine islands when others moved first southwards, then eastward and westward.

text: Solheim's Nusantao Maritime Trading and Communication Network (NMTCN) or island origin theory[edit]

text: Wilhelm Solheim's concept of the Nusantao Maritime Trading and Communication Network (NMTCN), while not strictly a theory regarding the biological ancestors of modern Southeast Asians, does suggest that the patterns of cultural diffusion throughout the Asia-Pacific region are not what would be expected if such cultures were to be explained by simple migration.  Where Bellwood based his analysis primarily on linguistic analysis, Solheim's approach was based on artifact findings.  On the basis of a careful analysis of artifacts, he suggests the existence of a trade and communication network that first spread in the Asia-Pacific region during its Neolithic age (c.8,000 to 500 BC). According to Solheim's NMTCN theory, this trade network, consisting of both Austronesian and non-Austronesian seafaring peoples, was responsible for the spread of cultural patterns throughout the Asia-Pacific region, not the simple migration proposed by the Out-of-Taiwan hypothesis. Solheim 2006

text: Solheim came up with four geographical divisions delineating the spread of the NMTCN over time, calling these geographical divisions "lobes." Specifically, these were the central, northern, eastern and western lobes.

text: The central lobe was further divided into two smaller lobes reflecting phases of cultural spread: the Early Central Lobe and the Late Central Lobe. Instead of Austronesian peoples originating from Taiwan, Solheim placed the origins of the early NMTCN peoples in the "Early Central Lobe," which was in eastern coastal Vietnam, at around 9000 BC.

text: He then suggests the spread of peoples around 5000 BC towards the "Late central lobe", including the Philippines, via island Southeast Asia, rather than from the north as the Taiwan theory suggests. Thus, from the Point of view of the Philippine peoples, the NMTCN is also referred to as the Island Origin Theory.

text:
This "late central lobe" included southern China and Taiwan, which became "the area where Austronesian became the original language family and
Malayo-Polynesian developed."   In about 4000 to 3000 BC, these peoples continued spreading east through Northern Luzon to Micronesia to form the Early Eastern Lobe, carrying the Malayo-Polynesian languages with them.  These languages would become part of the culture spread by the NMTCN in its expansions Malaysia and western towards Malaysia before 2000 BC, continuing along coastal India and Sri Lanka up to the western coast of Africa and
Madagascar; and over time, further eastward towards its easternmost borders at Easter Island. Thus, as in the case of Bellwood's theory, the Austronesian languages spread eastward and westward from the area around the Philippines.  Aside from the matter of the origination of peoples, the difference between the two theories is that Bellwood's theory suggests a linear expansion, while Solheim's suggests something more akin to concentric circles, all overlapping in the geographical area of the late central lobe which includes the Philippines.

text: Jocano's local origins theory (Core Population)[edit]

text: Another alternative model is that asserted by anthropologist F. Landa Jocano of the University of the Philippines, who in 2001 contended that the existing fossil evidence of ancient humans demonstrates that they not only migrated to the Philippines, but also to New Guinea, Borneo, and Australia.  In reference to Beyer's wave model, he points out that there is no definitive way to determine the "race" of the human fossils; the only certain thing is that the discovery of Tabon Man proves that the Philippines was inhabited as early as 21,000 or 22,000 years ago. If this is true, the first inhabitants of the Philippines would not have come from the Malay Peninsula. Instead, Jocano postulates that the present Filipinos are products of the long process of evolution and movement of people. He also adds that this is also true of Indonesians and Malaysians, with none among the three peoples being the dominant carrier of culture.  In fact, he suggests that the ancient humans who populated Southeast Asia cannot be categorized under any of these three groups.  He thus further suggests that it is not correct to consider Filipino culture as being Malayan in orientation.[21]

text: Genetic studies[edit]

text: 2001 Stanford University study[edit]

text: A Stanford University study conducted during 2001 revealed that Haplogroup O3-M122 (labeled as "Haplogroup L" in this study) is the most common Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup found among Filipinos. This particular haplogroup is also predominant among Chinese, Koreans, and Vietnamese. Another haplogroup, Haplogroup O1a-M119 (labeled as "Haplogroup H" in this study), is also found among Filipinos. The rates of Haplogroup O1a are highest among the Taiwanese aborigines, and Chamic-speaking people. Genetic data found among a sampling of Filipinos may indicate some relation to the Ami tribe of Taiwan.[22]

text: 2008 Leeds University study[edit]

text: A 2008 genetic study showed no evidence of a large-scale Taiwanese migration into the Philippine Islands. A study by Leeds University and published in Molecular Biology and Evolution, showed that mitochondrial DNA lineages have been evolving within Island Southeast Asia (ISEA) since modern humans arrived approximately 50,000 years ago. Population dispersals occurred at the same time as sea levels rose, which resulted in migrations from the Philippine Islands into Taiwan within the last 10,000 years.[23]

text: Other studies[edit]

text: A 2002 China Medical University study indicated that some Filipinos shared genetic chromosome that is found among Asian people, such as Taiwanese aborigines, Indonesians, Thais, and Chinese.[24]

text: A variety of research study by the University of the Philippines, genetic chromosome were found in Filipinos which are shared by people from different parts of East Asia, and Southeast Asia. The predominant genotype detected was SC, the Southeast Asian genotype.[25] However, only about 50 urine samples were collected for the study, far below the minimum sample size needed to account for credible test results.

text: Conclusions[edit]

text: These indigenous elements in the Filipino's genetic makeup serve as clues to the patterns of migration throughout Philippine prehistory.  After the 16th century, of course, the colonial period saw the influx of genetic influence from Europeans. During the above-mentioned study conducted by Stanford University Asia-Pacific Research Center, it was stated that 3.6% of the Philippine population has varying degrees of European ancestry from Spanish, and American colonization.[22] However, only 28 individuals from the Philippines were genotyped for this study, again a sample size far below the minimum sample size needed to account for credible test results in a population of over 90 million individuals.[26] However, the Stanford study is conflicted by the findings of the open-source Y-DNA bank of the company, Applied Biosystems,[27] which found out that most Philippine Y-DNA haplogroups were found to be O3 and O2, which comes from East Asia, Southeast Asia and Polynesia but also concluded that those that carry the percentage of Spanish Y-DNA haplogroups, were higher at around 13.33% of the population (haplogroup R1b). Compared to the 28 individuals used by Stanford which they sampled from the rural areas of isolated Palawan island, the Y-DNA bank had analyzed 105 Filipino individuals from all across the country. A much bigger study by National Geographic on around 40,000 Filipinos found out only 2-3% of the ancestry was R1b found in Europe, Middle East and India, 2-3% was South Asian and the rest mostly Austronesian.

text: Proto-Austronesians[edit]

text: Before the expansion out of Taiwan, recent archaeological, linguistic and genetic evidence has linked Austronesian speakers in Insular Southeast Asia to cultures such as the Hemudu, Liangzhu and Dapenkeng in Neolithic China.[28][29][30][31][32][33][34]

text: Bolobok Archaeological Site (6810-3190 BC)[edit]

text: The site is one of the earliest human settlement zones in the region. The site itself is part of a huge karst system with layers of shells and other minerals made by early humans. More excavation led to discovery of ancient artifacts like flake tools, polished stones, earthenware shards, bone tools and some animal remains. These remains and artifacts were dated by C-14 to be around 8,810 to 5,190 years ago, making the site one of the most significant archaeological sites in the region. The site was declared an Important Cultural Property in 2017 by the National Government.[35]

text: 5000–2000 BC—Austronesian speakers arrive[edit]

text: Historian William Henry Scott has observed that, based on lexicostatistical analysis involving seven million word pairs linguist Isidore Dyen offered in 1962, two alternative scenarios explaining the origin and spread of Austronesian languages: (a) that they originated in some Pacific island and spread westward to Asia, or (b) that they originated in Taiwan and spread southward.[36] Based on subsequent study of the second alternative, Scott concludes that the Philippine language tree could have been introduced by Austronesian speakers as long ago as 5000 BC, probably from the north, with their descendants expanding throughout the Philippine archipelago and beyond in succeeding millennia, absorbing or replacing sparse populations already present, and their language diversifying into dozens of mutually unintelligible languages which replaced earlier ones. During those millennia, other Austronesian speakers entered the Philippines in large enough numbers to leave a linguistic mark but not to replace established languages. Scott suggested that if this scenario is correct all present Philippine languages (except for Sama–Bajaw languages, which probably have more speakers outside the Philippines than within) were produced within the archipelago, none of them being introduced by separate migration, and all of them having more in common with each other than with languages outside of the Philippines.

text: During this neolithic period, a "jade culture" is said to have existed as evidenced by tens of thousands of exquisitely crafted jade artifacts found at a site in Batangas province.[37][38]

text: Timeline of Iron age[edit]

text: Early Metal Age (c. 500 BC – c. 1 AD)[edit]

text: Although there is some evidence early Austronesian migrants having bronze or brass tools,[39][40] the earliest metal tools in the Philippines are generally said to have first been used somewhere around 500 BC, and this new technology coincided with considerable changes in the lifestyle of early Filipinos.  The new tools brought about a more stable way of life, and created more opportunities for communities to grow, both in terms of size and cultural development.[41]

text: Where communities once consisted of small bands of kinsmen living in campsites, larger villages came about- usually based near water, which made traveling and trading easier. The resulting ease of contact between communities meant that they began to share similar cultural traits, something which had not previously been possible when the communities consisted only of small kinship groups.

text: Jocano refers to the period between 500 BC and 1 AD as the incipient phase, which for the first time in the artifact record, sees the presence of artifacts that are similar in design from site to site throughout the archipelago. Along with the use of metal tools, this era also saw significant improvement in pottery technology.[41]

text: Proto-historic era[edit]

text: 100 BC onward[edit]

text: Iron age finds in Philippines also point to the existence of trade between Tamil Nadu and the Philippine Islands during the ninth and tenth centuries B.C.[42] The Philippines is believed by some historians to be the island of Chryse, the "Golden One," which is the name given by ancient Greek writers in reference to an island rich in gold east of India. Pomponius Mela, Marinos of Tyre and the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea mentioned this island in 100 BC, and it is basically the equivalent to the Indian Suvarnadvipa, the "Island of Gold." Josephus calls it in Latin Aurea, and equates the island with biblical Ophir, from where the ships of Tyre and Solomon brought back gold and other trade items.

text:
Ptolemy locates the islands of Chryse east of the Khruses Kersonenson, the "Golden Peninsula," i.e. the Malaya Peninsula. North of Chryse in the Periplus was Thin, which some consider the first European reference to China. In about the 200 BC, there arose a practice of using gold eye covers, and then, gold facial orifice covers to adorn the dead resulting in an increase of ancient gold finds.
During the Qin dynasty and the Tang dynasty, China was well aware of the golden lands far to the south. The Buddhist pilgrim I-Tsing mentions Chin-Chou, "Isle of Gold" in the archipelago south of China on his way back from India. Medieval Muslims refer to the islands as the Kingdoms of Zabag and Wāḳwāḳ, rich in gold, referring, perhaps, to the eastern islands of the Malay archipelago, the location of present-day Philippines and Eastern Indonesia.[43]

text: Thalassocracies and international trade (200 AD onwards)[edit]

text: The emergence of Barangay city-states and trade (200–500)[edit]

text: Since at least the 3rd century, the indigenous peoples were in contact with other Southeast Asian and East Asian nations.

text: Fragmented ethnic groups established numerous city-states formed by the assimilation of several small political units known as barangay each headed by a Datu or headman (still in use among non-Hispanic Filipino ethnic groups) and answerable to a king, titled Rajah. The English of Datu is rich. Even scattered barangays, through the development of inter-island and international trade, became more culturally homogeneous by the 4th century. Hindu-Buddhist culture and religion flourished among the noblemen in this era. Many of the barangay were, to varying extents, under the de jure jurisprudence of one of several neighboring empires, among them the Malay Sri Vijaya, Javanese Majapahit, Brunei, Melaka empires, although de facto had established their own independent system of rule. Trading links with Sumatra, Borneo, Thailand, Java, China, India, Arabia, Japan and the Ryukyu Kingdom flourished during this era. A thalassocracy had thus emerged based on international trade.[44]

text: Each barangay consisted of about 100 families. Some barangays were big, such as Zubu (Cebu), Butuan, Maktan (Mactan),Mandani (Mandaue), Lalan (Liloan),  Irong-Irong (Iloilo), Bigan (Vigan), and Selurong (Manila). Each of these big barangays had a population of more than 2,000.

text: In the earliest times, the items which were prized by the peoples included jars, which were a symbol of wealth throughout South Asia, and later metal, salt and tobacco. In exchange, the peoples would trade feathers, rhino horn, hornbill beaks, beeswax, birds nests, resin, rattan.2

text: In the period between the 7th century to the beginning of the 15th century, numerous prosperous centers of trade had emerged, including the Kingdom of Namayan which flourished alongside Manila Bay,[45] Cebu, Iloilo,[46] Butuan, the Kingdom of Sanfotsi situated in Pangasinan, the Kingdoms of Zabag and Wak-Wak situated in Pampanga[47] and Aparri (which specialized in trade with Japan and the Kingdom of Ryukyu in Okinawa).

text: Introduction of metal[edit]

text: The introduction of metal into the Philippines and the resulting changes did not follow the typical pattern. Robert Fox notes, "There is, for example, no real evidence of a "Bronze Age" or "Copper-Bronze Age" in the archipelago, a development which occurred in many areas of the world.  The transition, as shown by recent excavation, was from stone tools to iron tools."[48]

text: The earliest use of metal in the Philippines was the use of copper for ornamentation, not tools.  Even when copper and bronze tools became common, they were often used side by side with stone tools.  Metal only became the dominant material for tools late in this era, leading to a new phase in cultural development.

text: Bronze tools from the Philippines' early metal age have been encountered in various sites, but they were not widespread.  This has been attributed to the lack of a local source of tin, which when combined with copper produces bronze. This lack has led most anthropologists to conclude that bronze items were imported and that those bronze smelting sites which have been found in the Philippines, in Palawan, were for re-smelting and remolding.

text: Introduction of iron[edit]

text: Iron age finds in Philippines also point to the existence of trade between Tamil Nadu and the Philippine Islands during the ninth and tenth centuries B.C.[42] When iron was introduced to the Philippines, it became the preferred material for tools and largely ended the use of stone tools. Whether the iron was imported or mined locally is still debated by scholars. Beyer thought that it was mined locally, but others point to the lack of iron smelting artifacts and conclude that the iron tools were probably imported.[49]

text: Metalsmiths from this era had already developed a crude version of modern metallurgical processes, notably the hardening of soft iron through carburization.[50]

text: Archeological sources[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: Until very recently[timeframe?], scholars have limited sources or access to artifacts discovered since the 19th century. During the Spanish colonial era, which began in 1521, many artifacts were destroyed or re-used. A good example is the Spanish walled city of Intramuros in Manila, whose stone bricks were taken from the original city wall of pre-Hispanic Maynila.  As new evidence is discovered, old theories are adapted or new ones developed, which has led to numerous and sometimes conflicting theories about the prehistory of the Philippines, leading to a lack of consensus among archaeologists and historians.


document_title: Life in Pieces

question_text: who is the exterminator on life in pieces

text: Life in Pieces

text: Premise[edit]

text: The series chronicles the lives of three generations of the Short family as they go about their daily lives in Los Angeles County. Each episode is told as four short stories, one for each branch of the Short family.[8]

text: Episodes[edit]

text: SeasonEpisodesOriginally airedNielsen ratingsFirst airedLast airedRankAvg. viewership (inc. DVR)  (in millions)122September 21, 2015 (2015-09-21)March 31, 2016 (2016-03-31)3010.53[9]222October 27, 2016 (2016-10-27)May 11, 2017 (2017-05-11)408.15[10]322November 2, 2017 (2017-11-02)May 17, 2018 (2018-05-17)448.27[11]

text: Cast[edit]

text: Main[edit]

text: Colin Hanks as Greg Short:[12]

tag: ul

text: Betsy Brandt as Heather (Short) Hughes:[12]

text: Thomas Sadoski as Matthew "Matt" Short:[12]

text: Zoe Lister-Jones as Jennifer "Jen" Collins Short:[12]

text: Dan Bakkedahl as Dr. Timothy "Tim" Hughes, M.D.:[12]

text: Angelique Cabral as Colleen Brandon Ortega:[12]

text: Niall Cunningham as Tyler Hughes:[12]

text: Holly Barrett as Samantha "Sam" Hughes:[12]

text: Giselle Eisenberg as Sophia Hughes:[12]

text: James Brolin as John Bertram Short:[12]

text: Dianne Wiest as Dr. Joan (Pirkle) Short:[12]

text: Hunter King as Clementine Hughes: (recurring season 1, main seasons 2–)[13]

text: Ana Sophia Heger as Lark Short: (main seasons 3–)

text: Recurring[edit]

text:
Ann Guilbert as Shirley "GiGi" Pirkle: Mother of Dr. Joan (Pirkle) Short; widow (husband was Winston); lived at Hidden Harbor (Retirement Community), then lived at Rocking Hill Nursing Home. Following Guilbert's death in June 2016, the GiGi character's death was written into "Eyebrow Anonymous Trapped Gem" as a tribute, and all four stories of the episode revolved around GiGi.
Jordan Peele as Chad: Ex-fiancé of Colleen.  Chad had some legal troubles and hired Jen's law firm to represent him. He rented his share in Colleen's apartment to Dougie, who was part of his legal team (she's currently Colleen's roommate).
Fortune Feimster as Dougie: A coworker of Jen; daughter of Jen's boss; member of legal team hired by Chad; Colleen's roommate since the season 1 finale, "Crytunes Divorce Tablet Ring".  Dougie is loud, boisterous, uncouth and abrasive physically and emotionally.  Despite that, she showed a more vulnerable side when she came out of the closet to Colleen and Matt.  She had her very first lesbian kiss with Heather, Tim's wife.  When Matt moved in with Colleen and Dougie, it was discovered that Matt wrestled in high school and both he and Dougie went undefeated in their high school careers.  In the season 2 premiere, "Annulled Roommate Pill Shower", Dougie challenged Matt to a wrestling match to determine whether or not she has to move out of the apartment.  Dougie won the match using her patented "hook, line, and sinker" move to keep her spot in the apartment.
Martin Mull as Gary Timpkins: neighbor and patient of Joan; a recent widower
Susan Park as Dr. Sally Hong: Jen's OB/GYN
Tonita Castro as Tonita: Colleen's grandmother. Tonita was very close to Colleen's ex-fiancée, Chad.
Mercedes Ruehl as Mia: Colleen's mother. Married four times. Colleen fears she is turning into her mother.
Bella Shepard as Lexie: one of Samantha's friends
Ashley Wolff as Jenna: one of Samantha's friends
Andrew McKeough as Jayden
Martin Starr as Oscar: an exterminator; a field worker for "Scram! Trappers" animal control & pest removal
Stephnie Weir as Bernadette
Rhys Darby as Teddy
Megan Mullally as Mary-Lynn: mother of Clementine; sister and partner of Spencer
Nick Offerman as Spencer: brother and partner of Mary-Lynn; parent ("uncle-dad") of Clementine
Josh Groban as Ian: an Irish salesman of guitars at a music store who often flirts with his female customers
Russell Peters as Dr. Tak Oh, M.D.: coworker of Tim; widower (wife was Jackie)
Wayne Federman as Dr. Saul Antro
Angela Malhotra as Nurse Silvie: coworker of Tim
Cary Elwes as Professor Sinclair Wilde: Joan's creative writing teacher since "Dinner Professor Steps Lesbian"
Anne Stedman as Sangria: Colleen's stepmom
Matt Cornett as Ryan: Samantha's boyfriend

text: Broadcast[edit]

text: The show debuted on September 21, 2015 on CBS.[14] The first five episodes aired on Mondays, before it was moved on November 5, 2015, to a new time slot of 8:30 p.m. ET/PT (7:30 p.m. CT) on Thursdays, directly after CBS finished its NFL broadcasts.[15] In the United States, the first season airs on Netflix, with the second season also being available in Canada.[16]

text: In the UK all seasons are available on Amazon Prime and is shown season by season on Comedy Central.

text: Home media[edit]

text: Fox Home Entertainment released region-free, MOD versions of the first two seasons on Amazon on May 22, 2018.[17][18] This was followed by the third season being released on June 12, 2018.[19]

text: Reception[edit]

text: The first season on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports a 62% approval rating with an average rating of 6.6/10 based on 39 reviews. The website's consensus reads "Life in Pieces strong cast delivers funny, offbeat stories even if they're not always relatable".[20] On Metacritic, the series holds a score of 64 out of 100 based on 24 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews."[21]

text: Ratings[edit]

text:
Season

Timeslot (ET)

Episodes

Premiered

Ended

TV season

Rank

Viewers(in millions)

Date

Premiereviewers(in millions)

Date

Finaleviewers(in millions)

1

Monday 8:30 p.m. (1–5)Thursday 8:30 p.m. (6–22)

22

September 21, 2015 (2015-09-21)

11.28[22]

March 31, 2016 (2016-03-31)

7.23[23]

2015–16

30

10.53[9]

2

Thursday 9:30 p.m.

22

October 27, 2016 (2016-10-27)

5.96[24]

May 11, 2017 (2017-05-11)

5.97[25]

2016–17

40

8.15[10]

3

22

November 2, 2017 (2017-11-02)

6.67[26]

May 17, 2018 (2018-05-17)

4.95[27]

2017–18

44

8.27[11]