document_title: Spanish colonization of the Americas

question_text: where did the spanish first find a permanent settlement

text: Spanish colonization of the Americas

text: Conquests[edit]

text: The Catholic Monarchs Isabella of Castile, Queen of Castile and her husband King Ferdinand, King of Aragon, pursued a policy of joint rule of their kingdoms and created a single Spanish monarchy. Even though Castile and Aragon were ruled jointly by their respective monarchs, they remained separate kingdoms. The Catholic Monarchs gave official approval for the plans of Genoese mariner Christopher Columbus for a voyage to reach India by sailing West. The funding came from the queen of Castile, so the profits from Spanish expedition flowed to Castile. In the extension of Spanish sovereignty to its overseas territories, authority for expeditions of discovery, conquest, and settlement resided in the monarchy.[2]

text: West Indies[edit]

text: Columbus made four voyages to the West Indies as the monarchs granted Columbus the governorship of the new territories, and financed more of his trans-Atlantic journeys. He founded La Navidad on the island later named Hispaniola (now divided into Haiti and the Dominican Republic), in what is the present-day Haiti on his first voyage. After its destruction by the indigenous Taino people, the town of Isabella was begun in 1493, on his second voyage. In 1496 his brother, Bartholomew, founded Santo Domingo. By 1500, despite a high death rate, there were between 300 and 1000 Spanish settled in the area. The local Taíno people continued to resist, refusing to plant crops and abandoning their Spanish-occupied villages. The first mainland explorations were followed by a phase of inland expeditions and conquest. In 1500 the city of Nueva Cádiz was founded on the island of Cubagua, Venezuela,  followed by the founding of Santa Cruz by Alonso de Ojeda in present-day Guajira peninsula. Cumaná in Venezuela was the first permanent settlement founded by Europeans in the mainland Americas,[3] in 1501 by Franciscan friars, but due to successful attacks by the indigenous people, it had to be refounded several times, until Diego Hernández de Serpa's foundation in 1569. The Spanish founded San Sebastian de Uraba in 1509 but abandoned it within the year. There is indirect evidence that the first permanent Spanish mainland settlement established in the Americas was Santa María la Antigua del Darién.[4]

text: Mexico[edit]

text: The Spanish conquest of Mexico is generally understood to be the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire (1519–21) which was the base for later conquests of other regions. Later conquests were protracted campaigns with less spectacular results than the conquest of the Aztecs. The Spanish conquest of Yucatán, the Spanish conquest of Guatemala, the war of Mexico's west, and the Chichimeca War in northern Mexico expanded Spanish control over territory and indigenous populations.[5][6][7] But not until the Spanish conquest of Peru was the conquest of the Aztecs matched in scope by the victory over the Inca empire in 1532.

text: The Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire was led by Hernán Cortés. The victory over the Aztecs was relatively quick, from 1519 to 1521, and aided by his Tlaxcala and other allies from indigenous city-states or altepetl. These polities allied against the Aztec empire, to which they paid tribute following conquest or threat of conquest, leaving the city-states' political hierarchy and social structure in place.

text: The Spanish conquest of Yucatán was a much longer campaign, from 1551 to 1697, against the Maya peoples in the Yucatán Peninsula of present-day Mexico and northern Central America. Hernán Cortés' landing ashore at present day Veracruz and founding the Spanish city there on April 22, 1519 marked the beginning of 300 years of Spanish hegemony over the region. The assertion of royal control over the Kingdom of New Spain and the initial Spanish conquerors took over a decade, with importance of the region meriting the creation of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. Established by Charles V in 1535, the first viceroy was Don Antonio de Mendoza.

text: Spain colonized and exerted control of Alta California through the Spanish missions in California until the Mexican secularization act of 1833.

text: Peru[edit]

text: In 1532 at the Battle of Cajamarca a group of Spaniards under Francisco Pizarro and their indigenous Andean Indian auxiliaries native allies ambushed and captured the Emperor Atahualpa of the Inca Empire. It was the first step in a long campaign that took decades of fighting to subdue the mightiest empire in the Americas. In the following years Spain extended its rule over the Empire of the Inca civilization.

text: The Spanish took advantage of a recent civil war between the factions of the two brothers Emperor Atahualpa and Huáscar, and the enmity of indigenous nations the Incas had subjugated, such as the Huancas, Chachapoyas, and Cañaris. In the following years the conquistadors and indigenous allies extended control over Greater Andes Region. The Viceroyalty of Perú was established in 1542. The last Inca stronghold was conquered by the Spanish in 1572.

text: Río de la Plata and Paraguay[edit]

text: European explorers arrived in Río de la Plata in 1516. Their first Spanish settlement in this zone was the Fort of Sancti Spiritu established in 1527 next to the Paraná River. Buenos Aires, a permanent colony, was established in 1536 and in 1537 Asunción was established in the area that is now Paraguay. Buenos Aires suffered attacks by the indigenous peoples that forced the settlers away, and in 1541 the site was abandoned. A second (and permanent) settlement was established in 1580 by Juan de Garay, who arrived by sailing down the Paraná River from Asunción (now the capital of Paraguay). He dubbed the settlement "Santísima Trinidad" and its port became "Puerto de Santa María de los Buenos Aires." The city came to be the head of the Governorate of the Río de la Plata and in 1776 elevated to be the capital of the new Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata.

text: New Granada[edit]

text: Between 1537 and 1543, six[citation needed] Spanish expeditions entered highland Colombia, conquered the Muisca Confederation, and set up the New Kingdom of Granada (Spanish: Nuevo Reino de Granada). Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada was the leading conquistador with his brother Hernán second in command.[8] It was governed by the president of the Audiencia of Bogotá, and comprised an area corresponding mainly to modern-day Colombia and parts of Venezuela. The conquistadors originally organized it as a captaincy general within the Viceroyalty of Peru. The crown established the audiencia in 1549. Ultimately, the kingdom became part of the Viceroyalty of New Granada first in 1717 and permanently in 1739. After several attempts to set up independent states in the 1810s, the kingdom and the viceroyalty ceased to exist altogether in 1819 with the establishment of Gran Colombia.[9]

text: Governance[edit]

text: Spain's administration of its colonies in the Americas was divided into the Viceroyalty of New Spain 1535 (capital, Mexico City), and the Viceroyalty of Peru 1542 (capital, Lima). In the 18th century the additional Viceroyalty of New Granada 1717 (capital, Bogotá), and Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata 1776 (capital, Buenos Aires) were established from portions of the Viceroyalty of Peru. The change diminished the political and economic power of the viceroyalty and opened formal connections between the mining district of Upper Peru and the port of Buenos Aires.

text: The system of crown rule evolved from the era of the Catholic Monarchs, which established the Council of the Indies, to the establishment of viceroyalties in Mexico and Peru following their conquests in the Hapsburg era, and then into an Intendant system in the eighteenth century as part of the Bourbon Reforms. The reform was aimed at increasing crown control over its colonies, raising more revenue, and promoting greater efficiency.

text: Dominions[edit]

text: North America, Central America[edit]

text:
Viceroyalty of New Spain (1535–1821)
Las Californias
Nuevo Reino de León
Nuevo Santander
Nueva Vizcaya
Santa Fe de Nuevo México
Nueva Extremadura
Nueva Galicia
Captaincy General of Guatemala
Captaincy General of the Philippines (administered by New Spain from 1565 to 1821, then after Mexican independence transferred to and directly administered by Madrid until 1898)
Captaincy General of Cuba (until 1898) – Included in this captaincy general until 1819 was Florida.
Captaincy General of Puerto Rico (until 1898)
Santo Domingo (last Spanish rule 1861–1865)

text: South America[edit]

text:
Viceroyalty of Perú (1542–1824)
Captaincy General of Chile (1541–1818)
Viceroyalty of New Granada (1717–1819)
Captaincy General of Venezuela
Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata (1776–1814)

text: 19th century[edit]

text:
During the Napoleonic Peninsular War in Europe between France and Spain, assemblies called juntas were established to rule in the name of Ferdinand VII of Spain.
The Libertadores (Spanish and Portuguese for "Liberators") were the principal leaders of the Spanish American wars of independence. They were predominantly criollos (Americas-born people of European ancestry, mostly Spanish or Portuguese), bourgeois and influenced by liberalism and in some cases with military training in the mother country.

text: In 1809 the first declarations of independence from Spanish rule occurred in the Viceroyalty of New Granada. The first two were in present-day Bolivia at Sucre (May 25), and La Paz (July 16); and the third in present-day Ecuador at Quito (August 10). In 1810 Mexico declared independence, with the Mexican War of Independence following for over a decade. In 1821 Treaty of Córdoba established Mexican independence from Spain and concluded the War. The Plan of Iguala was part of the peace treaty to establish a constitutional foundation for an independent Mexico.

text: These began a movement for colonial independence that spread to Spain's other colonies in the Americas. The ideas from the French and the American Revolution influenced the efforts. All of the colonies, except Cuba and Puerto Rico, attained independence by the 1820s. The British Empire offered support, wanting to end the Spanish monopoly on trade with its colonies in the Americas.

text: In 1898, the United States achieved victory in the Spanish–American War with Spain, ending the Spanish colonial era. Spanish possession and rule of its remaining colonies in the Americas ended in that year with its sovereignty transferred to the United States. The United States took occupation of Cuba, the Philippines, and Puerto Rico. Puerto Rico continues to be a possession of the United States, now officially continues as a self-governing unincorporated territory.

text: Demographic impact[edit]

text: It has been estimated that over 1.86 million Spaniards emigrated to Latin America in the period between 1492 and 1824, with millions more continuing to immigrate following independence.[10]

text: In Hispaniola, the indigenous Taíno pre-contact population before the arrival of Columbus of several hundred thousand had declined to sixty thousand by 1509. Although population estimates vary, Dominican friar Bartolomé de las Casas, the "Defender of the Indians" estimated there were 6 million (6,000,000) Taíno and Arawak in the Caribbean at the time of Columbus's arrival in 1492.[citation needed]

text: The population of the Native American population in Mexico declined by an estimated 90% (reduced to 1–2.5 million people) by the early 17th century. In Peru the indigenous Amerindian pre-contact population of around 6.5 million declined to 1 million by the early 17th century.[citation needed] The overwhelming cause of the decline in both Mexico and Peru was infectious diseases, although the brutality of the Encomienda also played a significant part in the population decline.

text: Of the history of the indigenous population of California, Sherburne F. Cook (1896–1974) was the most painstakingly careful researcher. From decades of research he made estimates for the pre-contact population and the history of demographic decline during the Spanish and post-Spanish periods. According to Cook, the indigenous Californian population at first contact, in 1769, was about 310,000 and had dropped to 25,000 by 1910. The vast majority of the decline happened after the Spanish period, during the Mexican and US periods of Californian history (1821–1910), with the most dramatic collapse (200,000 to 25,000) occurring in the US period (1846–1910).[11][12][13]


document_title: Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis

question_text: along the hpa-axis what is what factor is the first to be released in response to stress

root

text: Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis

text: Anatomy[edit]

text: The key elements of the HPA axis are:

tag: p

text:
The paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus, which contains neuroendocrine neurons that synthesize and secrete vasopressin and corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH). These two peptides regulate:

The anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. In particular, CRH and vasopressin stimulate the secretion of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), once known as corticotropin. ACTH in turn acts on:
the adrenal cortex, which produces glucocorticoid hormones (mainly cortisol in humans) in response to stimulation by ACTH. Glucocorticoids in turn act back on the hypothalamus and pituitary (to suppress CRH and ACTH production) in a negative feedback cycle.

tag: ul

text: CRH and vasopressin are released from neurosecretory nerve terminals at the median eminence. CRH is transported to the anterior pituitary through the portal blood vessel system of the hypophyseal stalk and vasopressin is transported by axonal transport to the posterior pituitary gland. There, CRH and vasopressin act synergistically to stimulate the secretion of stored ACTH from corticotrope cells. ACTH is transported by the blood to the adrenal cortex of the adrenal gland, where it rapidly stimulates biosynthesis of corticosteroids such as cortisol from cholesterol. Cortisol is a major stress hormone and has effects on many tissues in the body, including the brain. In the brain, cortisol acts on two types of receptor – mineralocorticoid receptors and glucocorticoid receptors, and these are expressed by many different types of neurons. One important target of glucocorticoids is the hypothalamus, which is a major controlling centre of the HPA axis.

text: Vasopressin can be thought of as "water conservation hormone" and is also known as "antidiuretic hormone." It is released when the body is dehydrated and has potent water-conserving effects on the kidney. It is also a potent vasoconstrictor.

text: Important to the function of the HPA axis are some of the feedback loops:

text:
Cortisol produced in the adrenal cortex will negatively feedback to inhibit both the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland. This reduces the secretion of CRH and vasopressin, and also directly reduces the cleavage of proopiomelanocortin (POMC) into ACTH and β-endorphins.
Epinephrine and norepinephrine (E/NE) are produced by the adrenal medulla through sympathetic stimulation and the local effects of cortisol (upregulation enzymes to make E/NE). E/NE will positively feedback to the pituitary and increase the breakdown of POMCs into ACTH and β-endorphins.

text: Function[edit]

text: Release of CRH from the hypothalamus is influenced by stress, physical activity, illness, by blood levels of cortisol and by the sleep/wake cycle (circadian rhythm). In healthy individuals, cortisol rises rapidly after wakening, reaching a peak within 30–45 minutes. It then gradually falls over the day, rising again in late afternoon. Cortisol levels then fall in late evening, reaching a trough during the middle of the night. This corresponds to the rest-activity cycle of the organism.[3] An abnormally flattened circadian cortisol cycle has been linked with chronic fatigue syndrome,[4] insomnia[5] and burnout.[6]

text: The HPA axis has a central role in regulating many homeostatic systems in the body, including the metabolic system, cardiovascular system, immune system, reproductive system and central nervous system. The HPA axis integrates physical and psychosocial influences in order to allow an organism to adapt effectively to its environment, use resources, and optimize survival.[3]

text: Anatomical connections between brain areas such as the amygdala, hippocampus, prefrontal cortex and hypothalamus facilitate activation of the HPA axis.[citation needed] Sensory information arriving at the lateral aspect of the amygdala is processed and conveyed to the amygdala's central nucleus, which then projects out to several parts of the brain involved in responses to fear. At the hypothalamus, fear-signaling impulses activate both the sympathetic nervous system and the modulating systems of the HPA axis.

text: Increased production of cortisol during stress results in an increased availability of glucose in order to facilitate fighting or fleeing. As well as directly increasing glucose availability, cortisol also suppresses the highly demanding metabolic processes of the immune system, resulting in further availability of glucose.[3]

text: Glucocorticoids have many important functions, including modulation of stress reactions, but in excess they can be damaging. Atrophy of the hippocampus in humans and animals exposed to severe stress is believed to be caused by prolonged exposure to high concentrations of glucocorticoids. Deficiencies of the hippocampus may reduce the memory resources available to help a body formulate appropriate reactions to stress.

text: Immune system[edit]

text: There is bi-directional communication and feedback between the HPA axis and immune system. A number of cytokines, such as IL-1, IL-6, IL-10 and TNF-alpha can activate the HPA axis, although IL-1 is the most potent. The HPA axis in turn modulates the immune response, with high levels of cortisol resulting in a suppression of immune and inflammatory reactions. This helps to protect the organism from a lethal overactivation of the immune system, and minimizes tissue damage from inflammation.[3]

text: The CNS is many ways "immune privileged," but it plays an important role in the immune system and is affected by it in turn. The CNS regulates the immune system through neuroendocrine pathways, such as the HPA axis. The HPA axis is responsible for modulating inflammatory responses that occur throughout the body.[7][8]

text: During an immune response, proinflammatory cytokines (e.g. IL-1) are released into the peripheral circulation system and can pass through the blood brain barrier where they can interact with the brain and activate the HPA axis.[8][9][10] Interactions between the proinflammatory cytokines and the brain can alter the metabolic activity of neurotransmitters and cause symptoms such as fatigue, depression, and mood changes.[8][8][9] Deficiencies in the HPA axis may play a role in allergies and inflammatory/ autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis and multiple sclerosis.[7][8][11]

text: When the HPA axis is activated by stressors, such as an immune response, high levels of glucocorticoids are released into the body and suppress immune response by inhibiting the expression of proinflammatory cytokines (e.g. IL-1, TNF alpha, and IFN gamma) and increasing the levels of anti-inflammatory cytokines (e.g. IL-4, IL-10, and IL-13) in immune cells, such as monocytes and neutrophils [8][9][11][12]

text: The relationship between chronic stress and its concomitant activation of the HPA axis, and dysfunction of the immune system is unclear; studies have found both immunosuppression and hyperactivation of the immune response.[12]

text: Stress[edit]

text: Stress and disease[edit]

text: The HPA axis is involved in the neurobiology of mood disorders and functional illnesses, including anxiety disorder, bipolar disorder, insomnia, posttraumatic stress disorder, borderline personality disorder, ADHD, major depressive disorder, burnout, chronic fatigue syndrome, fibromyalgia, irritable bowel syndrome, and alcoholism.[13] Antidepressants, which are routinely prescribed for many of these illnesses, serve to regulate HPA axis function.[14]

text: Experimental studies have investigated many different types of stress, and their effects on the HPA axis in many different circumstances.[15] Stressors can be of many different types—in experimental studies in rats, a distinction is often made between "social stress" and "physical stress", but both types activate the HPA axis, though via different pathways.[16] Several monoamine neurotransmitters are important in regulating the HPA axis, especially dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine (noradrenaline). There is evidence that an increase in oxytocin, resulting for instance from positive social interactions, acts to suppress the HPA axis and thereby counteracts stress, promoting positive health effects such as wound healing.[17]

text: The HPA axis is a feature of mammals and other vertebrates. For example, biologists studying stress in fish showed that social subordination leads to chronic stress, related to reduced aggressive interactions, to lack of control, and to the constant threat imposed by dominant fish. Serotonin (5HT) appeared to be the active neurotransmitter involved in mediating stress responses, and increases in serotonin are related to increased plasma α-MSH levels, which causes skin darkening (a social signal in salmonoid fish), activation of the HPA axis, and inhibition of aggression. Inclusion of the amino acid L-tryptophan, a precursor of 5HT, in the feed of rainbow trout made the trout less aggressive and less responsive to stress.[18] However, the study mentions that plasma cortisol was not affected by dietary L-tryptophan. The drug LY354740 (also known as Eglumegad, an agonist of the metabotropic glutamate receptors 2 and 3) has been shown to interfere in the HPA axis, with chronic oral administration of this drug leading to markedly reduced baseline cortisol levels in bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata); acute infusion of LY354740 resulted in a marked diminution of yohimbine-induced stress response in those animals.[19]

text: Studies on people show that the HPA axis is activated in different ways during chronic stress depending on the type of stressor, the person's response to the stressor and other factors. Stressors that are uncontrollable, threaten physical integrity, or involve trauma tend to have a high, flat diurnal profile of cortisol release (with lower-than-normal levels of cortisol in the morning and higher-than-normal levels in the evening) resulting in a high overall level of daily cortisol release. On the other hand, controllable stressors tend to produce higher-than-normal morning cortisol. Stress hormone release tends to decline gradually after a stressor occurs. In post-traumatic stress disorder there appears to be lower-than-normal cortisol release, and it is thought that a blunted hormonal response to stress may predispose a person to develop PTSD.[20]

text: It is also known that HPA axis hormones are related to certain skin diseases and skin homeostasis. There is evidence shown that the HPA axis hormones can be linked to certain stress related skin diseases and skin tumors. This happens when HPA axis hormones become hyperactive in the brain.[21]

text: Stress and development[edit]

text: Prenatal stress[edit]

text: There is evidence that prenatal stress can influence HPA regulation. In animal experiments, exposure to prenatal stress has been shown to cause a hyper-reactive HPA stress response. Rats that have been prenatally stressed have elevated basal levels and abnormal circadian rhythm of corticosterone as adults.[22] Additionally, they require a longer time for their stress hormone levels to return to baseline following exposure to both acute and prolonged stressors. Prenatally stressed animals also show abnormally high blood glucose levels and have fewer glucocorticoid receptors in the hippocampus.[23] In humans, prolonged maternal stress during gestation is associated with mild impairment of intellectual activity and language development in their children, and with behaviour disorders such as attention deficits, schizophrenia, anxiety and depression; self-reported maternal stress is associated with a higher irritability, emotional and attentional problems.[24]

text: There is growing evidence that prenatal stress can affect HPA regulation in humans. Children who were stressed prenatally may show altered cortisol rhythms. For example, several studies have found an association between maternal depression during pregnancy and childhood cortisol levels.[25] Prenatal stress has also been implicated in a tendency toward depression and short attention span in childhood.[26] There is no clear indication that HPA dysregulation caused by prenatal stress can alter adult behavior.

text: Early life stress[edit]

text: The role of early life stress in programming the HPA Axis has been well-studied in animal models. Exposure to mild or moderate stressors early in life has been shown to enhance HPA regulation and promote a lifelong resilience to stress. In contrast, early-life exposure to extreme or prolonged stress can induce a hyper-reactive HPA Axis and may contribute to lifelong vulnerability to stress.[27] In one widely replicated experiment, rats subjected to the moderate stress of frequent human handling during the first two weeks of life had reduced hormonal and behavioral HPA-mediated stress responses as adults, whereas rats subjected to the extreme stress of prolonged periods of maternal separation showed heightened physiological and behavioral stress responses as adults.[28]

text: Several mechanisms have been proposed to explain these findings in rat models of early-life stress exposure. There may be a critical period during development during which the level of stress hormones in the bloodstream contribute to the permanent calibration of the HPA Axis. One experiment has shown that, even in the absence of any environmental stressors, early-life exposure to moderate levels of corticosterone was associated with stress resilience in adult rats, whereas exposure to high doses was associated with stress vulnerability.[29]

text: Another possibility is that the effects of early-life stress on HPA functioning are mediated by maternal care. Frequent human handling of the rat pups may cause their mother to exhibit more nurturant behavior, such as licking and grooming. Nurturant maternal care, in turn, may enhance HPA functioning in at least two ways. First, maternal care is crucial in maintaining the normal stress hypo responsive period (SHRP), which in rodents, is the first two weeks of life during which the HPA axis is generally non-reactive to stress. Maintenance of the SHRP period may be critical for HPA development, and the extreme stress of maternal separation, which disrupts the SHRP, may lead to permanent HPA dysregulation.[30] Another way that maternal care might influence HPA regulation is by causing epigenetic changes in the offspring. For example, increased maternal licking and grooming has been shown to alter expression of the glutocorticoid receptor gene implicated in adaptive stress response.[27] At least one human study has identified maternal neural activity patterns in response to video stimuli of mother-infant separation as being associated with decreased glucocorticoid receptor gene methylation in the context of post-traumatic stress disorder stemming from early life stress.[31] Yet clearly, more research is needed to determine if the results seen in cross-generational animal models can be extended to humans.

text: Though animal models allow for more control of experimental manipulation, the effects of early life stress on HPA axis function in humans has also been studied. One population that is often studied in this type of research is adult victims of childhood abuse. Adult victims of childhood abuse have exhibited increased ACTH concentrations in response to a psychosocial stress task compared to healthy controls and subjects with depression but not childhood abuse.[32] In one study, adult victims of childhood abuse that are not depressed show increased ACTH response to both exogenous CRF and normal cortisol release. Adult victims of childhood abuse that are depressed show a blunted ACTH response to exoegenous CRH.[33] A blunted ACTH response is common in depression, so the authors of this work posit that this pattern is likely to be due to the participant's depression and not their exposure to early life stress.

text: Heim and colleagues have proposed that early life stress, such as childhood abuse, can induce a sensitization of the HPA axis, resulting in particular heightened neuronal activity in response to stress-induced CRF release.[33] With repeated exposure to stress, the sensitized HPA axis may continue to hypersecrete CRF from the hypothalamus. Over time, CRF receptors in the anterior pituitary will become down-regulated, producing depression and anxiety symptoms.[33] This research in human subjects is consistent with the animal literature discussed above.

text: The HPA Axis was present in the earliest vertebrate species, and has remained highly conserved by strong positive selection due to its critical adaptive roles.[34] The programming of the HPA axis is strongly influenced by the perinatal and early juvenile environment, or “early-life environment.” [35][36][37] Maternal stress and differential degrees of caregiving may constitute early life adversity, which has been shown to profoundly influence, if not permanently alter, the offspring's stress and emotional regulating systems.[35][36] Widely studied in animal models (e.g. licking and grooming/LG in rat pups),[38] the consistency of maternal care has been shown to have a powerful influence on the offspring's neurobiology, physiology, and behavior. Whereas maternal care improves cardiac response, sleep/wake rhythm, and growth hormone secretion in the neonate, it also suppresses HPA axis activity. In this manner, maternal care negatively regulates stress response in the neonate,[38] thereby shaping his/her susceptibility to stress in later life. These programming effects are not deterministic, as the environment in which the individual develops can either match or mismatch with the former's “programmed” and genetically predisposed HPA axis reactivity. Although the primary mediators of the HPA axis are known, the exact mechanism by which its programming can be modulated during early life remains to be elucidated. Furthermore, evolutionary biologists contest the exact adaptive value of such programming, i.e. whether heightened HPA axis reactivity may confer greater evolutionary fitness.

text: Various hypotheses have been proposed, in attempts to explain why early life adversity can produce outcomes ranging from extreme vulnerability to resilience, in the face of later stress. Glucocorticoids produced by the HPA axis have been proposed to confer either a protective or harmful role, depending on an individual's genetic predispositions, programming effects of early-life environment, and match or mismatch with one's postnatal environment. The predictive adaptation hypothesis (1), the three-hit concept of vulnerability and resilience (2) and the maternal mediation hypothesis (3) attempt to elucidate how early life adversity can differentially predict vulnerability or resilience in the face of significant stress in later life.[39] These hypotheses are not mutually exclusive but rather are highly interrelated and unique to the individual.

text: (1) The predictive adaptation hypothesis:[39] this hypothesis is in direct contrast with the diathesis stress model, which posits that the accumulation of stressors across a lifespan can enhance the development of psychopathology once a threshold is crossed. Predictive adaptation asserts that early life experience induces epigenetic change; these changes predict or “set the stage” for adaptive responses that will be required in his/her environment. Thus, if a developing child (i.e., fetus to neonate) is exposed to ongoing maternal stress and low levels of maternal care (i.e., early life adversity), this will program his/her HPA axis to be more reactive to stress. This programming will have predicted, and potentially be adaptive in a highly stressful, precarious environment during childhood and later life. The predictability of these epigenetic changes is not definitive, however – depending primarily on the degree to which the individual's genetic and epigenetically modulated phenotype “matches” or “mismatches” with his/her environment (See: Hypothesis (2)).

text: (2) Three-Hit Concept of vulnerability and resilience:[39] this hypothesis states that within a specific life context, vulnerability may be enhanced with chronic failure to cope with ongoing adversity. It fundamentally seeks to explicate why, under seemingly indistinguishable circumstances, one individual may cope resiliently with stress, whereas another may not only cope poorly, but consequently develop a stress-related mental illness. The three “hits” – chronological and synergistic – are as follows: genetic predisposition (which predispose higher/lower HPA axis reactivity), early-life environment (perinatal – i.e. maternal stress, and postnatal – i.e. maternal care), and later-life environment (which determines match/mismatch, as well as a window for neuroplastic changes in early programming).[40] (Figure 1)6 The concept of match/mismatch is central to this evolutionary hypothesis. In this context, it elucidates why early life programming in the perinatal and postnatal period may have been evolutionarily selected for. Specifically, by instating specific patterns of HPA axis activation, the individual may be more well equipped to cope with adversity in a high-stress environment. Conversely, if an individual is exposed to significant early life adversity, heightened HPA axis reactivity may “mismatch” him/her in an environment characterized by low stress. The latter scenario may represent maladaptation due to early programming, genetic predisposition, and mismatch. This mismatch may then predict negative developmental outcomes such as psychopathologies in later life.

text: Ultimately, the conservation of the HPA axis has underscored its critical adaptive roles in vertebrates, so, too, various invertebrate species over time. The HPA Axis plays a clear role in the production of corticosteroids, which govern many facets of brain development and responses to ongoing environmental stress. With these findings, animal model research has served to identify what these roles are – with regards to animal development and evolutionary adaptation. In more precarious, primitive times, a heightened HPA axis may have served to protect organisms from predators and extreme environmental conditions, such as weather and natural disasters, by encouraging migration (i.e. fleeing), the mobilization of energy, learning (in the face of novel, dangerous stimuli) as well as increased appetite for biochemical energy storage. In contemporary society, the endurance of the HPA axis and early life programming will have important implications for counseling expecting and new mothers, as well as individuals who may have experienced significant early life adversity.[40]


document_title: List of longest suspension bridge spans

question_text: what is the largest suspension bridge in the united states

text: List of longest suspension bridge spans

text: Completed suspension bridges[edit]

text: This list includes only completed suspension bridges that carry automobiles or trains. It does not include cable-stayed bridges, footbridges, or pipeline bridges.

text:
Rank
Name
Main
span
metres
Main
span
feet
Year opened
Location
Country

1
Akashi Kaikyō Bridge
1,991
6,532
1998
Kobe (Hyōgo)
34°37′1.3″N 135°1′18.9″E / 34.617028°N 135.021917°E / 34.617028; 135.021917 (Akashi Kaikyō Bridge)
 Japan
[2]

2
Xihoumen Bridge
1,650
5,413
2009
Zhoushan (Zhejiang)
30°3′42.4″N 121°54′57.6″E / 30.061778°N 121.916000°E / 30.061778; 121.916000 (Xihoumen Bridge)
 China
[3]

3
Great Belt Bridge
1,624
5,328
1998
Korsør – Sprogø (Region Zealand)
55°20′31″N 11°2′9.3″E / 55.34194°N 11.035917°E / 55.34194; 11.035917 (Great Belt Bridge)
 Denmark
[4]

4
Osman Gazi Bridge
1,550
5,090
2016
Dilovası – Altınova (Gulf of İzmit)
40°45′15″N 29°30′55″E / 40.75417°N 29.51528°E / 40.75417; 29.51528 (İzmit Bay Bridge)
 Turkey
[5]

5
Yi Sun-sin Bridge
1,545
5,069
2012
Gwangyang – Yeosu (South Jeolla Province)
34°54′21.4″N 127°42′18.1″E / 34.905944°N 127.705028°E / 34.905944; 127.705028 (Yi Sun-sin Bridge)
 South Korea
[6]

6
Runyang Bridge
1,490
4,888
2005
Yangzhou – Zhenjiang (Jiangsu)
32°12′24.6″N 119°21′49.9″E / 32.206833°N 119.363861°E / 32.206833; 119.363861 (Runyang Bridge)
 China
[7]

7
Nanjing Fourth Yangtze Bridge
1,418
4,652
2012
Nanjing (Jiangsu)
32°10′39.9″N 118°56′24.5″E / 32.177750°N 118.940139°E / 32.177750; 118.940139 (Nanjing Fourth Yangtze Bridge)
 China
[8]

8
Humber Bridge
1,410
4,626
1981
Hessle – Barton-upon-Humber (Yorkshire and Lincolnshire)
53°42′28.7″N 0°27′0.3″W / 53.707972°N 0.450083°W / 53.707972; -0.450083 (Humber Bridge)
 United Kingdom
[9]

9
Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge
1,408
4,619
2016
İstanbul (Bosphorus)
41°12′31″N 29°7′5″E / 41.20861°N 29.11806°E / 41.20861; 29.11806 (Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge)
 Turkey
[10]

10
Jiangyin Bridge
1,385
4,544
1999
Jiangyin – Jingjiang (Jiangsu)
31°56′43.1″N 120°16′10″E / 31.945306°N 120.26944°E / 31.945306; 120.26944 (Jiangyin Suspension Bridge)
 China
[11]

11
Tsing Ma Bridge
1,377
4,518
1997
Tsing Yi – Ma Wan
22°21′4.8″N 114°4′25.6″E / 22.351333°N 114.073778°E / 22.351333; 114.073778 (Tsing Ma Bridge)
 Hong Kong
[12]

12
Hardanger Bridge
1,310
4,298
2013
Ulvik – Ullensvang (Hordaland)
60°28′42.9″N 6°49′47.2″E / 60.478583°N 6.829778°E / 60.478583; 6.829778 (Hardanger Bridge)
 Norway
[13]

13
Verrazano-Narrows Bridge
1,298
4,260
1964
New York City (New York)
40°36′23″N 74°2′43.2″W / 40.60639°N 74.045333°W / 40.60639; -74.045333 (Verrazano-Narrows Bridge)
 United States
[14]

14
Golden Gate Bridge
1,280
4,200
1937
San Francisco – Marin County (California)
37°49′9.5″N 122°28′43.9″W / 37.819306°N 122.478861°W / 37.819306; -122.478861 (Golden Gate Bridge)
 United States
[15]

15
Yangluo Bridge
1,280
4,200
2007
Wuhan (Hubei)
30°38′12.9″N 114°33′17.8″E / 30.636917°N 114.554944°E / 30.636917; 114.554944 (Yangluo Bridge)
 China
[16]

16
Höga Kusten Bridge
1,210
3,970
1997
Utansjö (Västernorrland County)
62°47′53″N 17°56′15″E / 62.79806°N 17.93750°E / 62.79806; 17.93750 (Höga Kusten Bridge)
 Sweden
[17]

17
Longjiang River Bridge
1,196
3,924
2016
Wuhexiang (Yunnan)
24°50′19.7″N 98°40′19.9″E / 24.838806°N 98.672194°E / 24.838806; 98.672194 (Longjiang River Bridge)
 China
[18]

18
Aizhai Bridge
1,176
3,858
2012
Jishou (Hunan)
28°19′54.1″N 109°35′53.2″E / 28.331694°N 109.598111°E / 28.331694; 109.598111 (Aizhai Bridge)
 China
[19]

19
Mackinac Bridge
1,158
3,800
1957
Mackinaw City – St. Ignace (Michigan)
45°48′56″N 84°43′40.6″W / 45.81556°N 84.727944°W / 45.81556; -84.727944 (Mackinac Bridge)
 United States
[20]

External image
20
Ulsan Bridge (ko)
1,150
3,773
2015[21]
Ulsan
35°30′41″N 129°23′28″E / 35.51139°N 129.39111°E / 35.51139; 129.39111 (Ulsan Bridge)
 South Korea
[22]

21
Qingshui River Bridge
1,130
3,707
2015[23]
Kaiyang County, Guizhou
27°1′49.5″N 107°11′21.6″E / 27.030417°N 107.189333°E / 27.030417; 107.189333 (Qingshui River Bridge)
 China

22
Huangpu Bridge
1,108
3,635
2008
Guangzhou (Guangdong)
23°4′17.1″N 113°28′33.9″E / 23.071417°N 113.476083°E / 23.071417; 113.476083 (Huangpu Bridge)
 China
[24]

23
Minami Bisan-Seto Bridge
1,100
3,609
1989
Sakaide – Shiwaku Islands (Kagawa)
34°21′50″N 133°49′30.7″E / 34.36389°N 133.825194°E / 34.36389; 133.825194 (Minami Bisan-Seto Bridge)
 Japan
[25]

24
Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge
1,090
3,576
1988
İstanbul (Bosphorus)
41°5′28″N 29°3′40″E / 41.09111°N 29.06111°E / 41.09111; 29.06111 (Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge)
 Turkey
[26]

25
Baling River Bridge
1,088
3,570
2009
Guanling Buyei and Miao Autonomous County (Guizhou)
25°57′40″N 105°37′46″E / 25.96111°N 105.62944°E / 25.96111; 105.62944 (Balinghe Bridge)
 China
[27]

26
Taizhou Bridge
1,080 (x2)
3,543 (x2)
2012
Taizhou (Jiangsu)
32°14′47.8″N 119°52′36.1″E / 32.246611°N 119.876694°E / 32.246611; 119.876694 (Taizhou Bridge)
 China
[28]

27
Ma'anshan Bridge
1,080 (x2)
3,543 (x2)
2013
Ma'anshan (Anhui)
31°36′36.4″N 118°23′31.4″E / 31.610111°N 118.392056°E / 31.610111; 118.392056 (Ma'anshan Bridge)
 China
[29]

28
Bosphorus Bridge
1,074
3,524
1973
İstanbul (Bosphorus)
41°2′42″N 29°2′2″E / 41.04500°N 29.03389°E / 41.04500; 29.03389 (Bosphorus Bridge)
 Turkey
[30]

29
George Washington Bridge
1,067
3,500
1931
New York City (New York) – Fort Lee (New Jersey)
40°51′6.2″N 73°57′9.8″W / 40.851722°N 73.952722°W / 40.851722; -73.952722 (George Washington Bridge)
 United States
[31]

30
Third Kurushima-Kaikyō Bridge
1,030
3,379
1999
Imabari – Umashima Island (Ehime)
34°6′54.9″N 132°59′3.6″E / 34.115250°N 132.984333°E / 34.115250; 132.984333 (Third Kurushima-Kaikyō Bridgeo)
 Japan
[32]

31
Second Kurushima-Kaikyō Bridge
1,020
3,346
1999
Umashima Island – Ōshima (Ehime)
34°7′16″N 133°0′0.7″E / 34.12111°N 133.000194°E / 34.12111; 133.000194 (Second Kurushima-Kaikyō Bridge)
 Japan
[32]

32
25 de Abril Bridge
1,013
3,323
1966
Lisbon – Almada (Lisboa Region)
38°41′23.5″N 9°10′37.8″W / 38.689861°N 9.177167°W / 38.689861; -9.177167 (25 de Abril Bridge)
 Portugal
[33]

33
Forth Road Bridge
1,006
3,301
1964
South Queensferry – North Queensferry (Fife)
56°0′5.4″N 3°24′15.1″W / 56.001500°N 3.404194°W / 56.001500; -3.404194 (Forth Road Bridge)
 United Kingdom
[34]

34
Kita Bisan-Seto Bridge
990
3,248
1988
Sakaide – Shiwaku Islands (Kagawa)
34°22′42.4″N 133°49′13.2″E / 34.378444°N 133.820333°E / 34.378444; 133.820333 (Kita Bisan-Seto Bridge)
 Japan
[25]

35
Severn Bridge
988
3,241
1966
Bristol (South Gloucestershire) – Chepstow (Monmouthshire)
51°36′36.2″N 2°38′26.4″W / 51.610056°N 2.640667°W / 51.610056; -2.640667 (Severn Bridge)
 United Kingdom
[35]

36
Yichang Bridge
960
3,150
2001
Yichang (Hubei)
30°34′10.5″N 111°23′29.5″E / 30.569583°N 111.391528°E / 30.569583; 111.391528 (Yichang Bridge)
 China
[36]

37
Shimotsui-Seto Bridge
940
3,084
1988
Kojima – Shiwaku Islands (Okayama)
34°25′52.4″N 133°48′23.2″E / 34.431222°N 133.806444°E / 34.431222; 133.806444 (Shimotsui-Seto Bridge)
 Japan
[25]

38
Xiling Bridge
900
2,953
1996
Sandouping (Hubei)
30°49′42.5″N 111°2′48″E / 30.828472°N 111.04667°E / 30.828472; 111.04667 (Xiling Bridge)
 China
[37]

39
Si Du River Bridge
900
2,953
2009
Yesanguan (Hubei)
30°37′16.1″N 110°23′43.1″E / 30.621139°N 110.395306°E / 30.621139; 110.395306 (Si Du River Bridge)
 China
[38]

40
Humen Pearl River Bridge
888
2,913
1997
Dongguan (Guangdong)
22°47′49.5″N 113°36′57.2″E / 22.797083°N 113.615889°E / 22.797083; 113.615889 (Humen Pearl River Bridge)
 China
[39]

41
Ōnaruto Bridge
876
2,874
1985
Naruto (Tokushima) – Awaji Island (Hyōgo)
34°14′19.5″N 134°39′1.1″E / 34.238750°N 134.650306°E / 34.238750; 134.650306 (Ōnaruto Bridge)
 Japan
[40]

42
Lishui River Bridge
856
2,808
2013
Zhangjiajie (Hunan)
29°05′55″N 110°14′48″E / 29.09861°N 110.24667°E / 29.09861; 110.24667 (Lishui River Bridge)
 China
[41][42]

43
Second Tacoma Narrows Bridge
(westbound)
853
2,799
1950
Tacoma (Washington)
47°16′5.6″N 122°33′0.7″W / 47.268222°N 122.550194°W / 47.268222; -122.550194 (Tacoma Narrows Bridge (1950))
 United States
[43]

44
Third Tacoma Narrows Bridge
(eastbound)
853
2,799
2007
Tacoma (Washington)
47°16′4.4″N 122°33′2.8″W / 47.267889°N 122.550778°W / 47.267889; -122.550778 (Tacoma Narrows Bridge (2007))
 United States
[43]

45
Askøy Bridge
850
2,789
1992
Bergen – Askøy (Hordaland)
60°23′43.6″N 5°12′54.8″E / 60.395444°N 5.215222°E / 60.395444; 5.215222 (Askøy Bridge)
 Norway
[44]

46
Yingwuzhou Bridge
850 (x2)
2,790 (x2)
2014
Wuhan (Hubei)
30°32′2.6″N 114°16′36.8″E / 30.534056°N 114.276889°E / 30.534056; 114.276889 (Yingwuzhou Bridge)
 China
[45]

47
Jeokgeum Bridge
850
2,790
2016
Ucheon – Jeokgeum (South Jeolla Province)
34°37′43″N 127°30′15″E / 34.62861°N 127.50417°E / 34.62861; 127.50417 (Jeokgeum Bridge)
 South Korea
[46]

|
48
Miaozui Bridge (zh)
庙嘴长江大桥
838
2,749
2016
Yichang (Hubei)
30°42′56.2″N 111°15′45.2″E / 30.715611°N 111.262556°E / 30.715611; 111.262556 (Miaozui Bridge)
 China

49
Nanxi Bridge
820
2,690
2012
Nanxi District (Sichuan)
28°47′1.3″N 104°56′44.5″E / 28.783694°N 104.945694°E / 28.783694; 104.945694 (Nanxi Bridge)
 China
[47]

50
Qincaobei Bridge
788
2,585
2013
Lidu (Chongqing)
29°42′51.5″N 107°16′52.7″E / 29.714306°N 107.281306°E / 29.714306; 107.281306 (Qincaobei Bridge)
 China
[48][49]

51
Innoshima Bridge
770
2,526
1983
Innoshima – Mukaishima (Hiroshima)
34°21′25.7″N 133°10′49.5″E / 34.357139°N 133.180417°E / 34.357139; 133.180417 (Innoshima Bridge)
 Japan
[50]

52
Akinada Bridge
750
2,461
2000
Kure – Shimokamagari (Hiroshima)
34°12′22.4″N 132°40′45.8″E / 34.206222°N 132.679389°E / 34.206222; 132.679389 (Akinada Bridge)
 Japan
[51]

53
Semey Bridge
750
2,461
2000
Semey (East Kazakhstan Province)
50°24′35″N 80°13′28″E / 50.40972°N 80.22444°E / 50.40972; 80.22444 (Semipalatinsk Bridge)
 Kazakhstan
[52]

54
New Carquinez Bridge
728
2,388
2003
Vallejo – Crockett
(California)
38°3′39.7″N 122°13′35.5″W / 38.061028°N 122.226528°W / 38.061028; -122.226528 (New Carquinez Bridge)
 United States
[53]

55
Hakuchō Bridge
720
2,362
1998
Muroran (Hokkaido)
42°21′10.4″N 140°57′1.2″E / 42.352889°N 140.950333°E / 42.352889; 140.950333 (Hakucho Bridge)
 Japan
[54]

56
Angostura Bridge
712
2,336
1967
Ciudad Bolívar (Bolívar)
8°8′39.9″N 63°35′53.2″W / 8.144417°N 63.598111°W / 8.144417; -63.598111 (Angostura Bridge)
 Venezuela
[55]

57
Kanmon Bridge
712
2,336
1973
Kitakyushu (Fukuoka) – Shimonoseki (Yamaguchi)
33°57′42.2″N 130°57′31.3″E / 33.961722°N 130.958694°E / 33.961722; 130.958694 (Kanmonkyo Bridge)
 Japan
[56]

58
San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge
(east half of west span)
704
2,310
1936
San Francisco – Yerba Buena Island (California)
37°48′12.2″N 122°22′18.9″W / 37.803389°N 122.371917°W / 37.803389; -122.371917 (San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge (east half of West span))
 United States
[57]

59
San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge
(west half of west span)
704
2,310
1936
San Francisco – Yerba Buena Island (California)
37°47′35.4″N 122°22′59″W / 37.793167°N 122.38306°W / 37.793167; -122.38306 (San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge (west half of West span))
 United States
[57]

60
Bronx–Whitestone Bridge
701
2,300
1939
New York City (New York)
40°48′6.7″N 73°49′47.2″W / 40.801861°N 73.829778°W / 40.801861; -73.829778 (Bronx-Whitestone Bridge)
 United States
[58]

60
Stord Bridge
677
2,221
2001
Stord – Føyno (Hordaland)
59°44′53″N 5°24′10.6″E / 59.74806°N 5.402944°E / 59.74806; 5.402944 (Stord Bridge)
 Norway
[59]

61
Pierre Laporte Bridge
668
2,192
1970
Quebec City (Quebec)
46°44′42.8″N 71°17′25.7″W / 46.745222°N 71.290472°W / 46.745222; -71.290472 (Pierre Laporte Bridge)
 Canada
[60]

62
Delaware Memorial Bridge
(northbound)
656
2,152
1951
New Castle (Delaware) – Deepwater (New Jersey)
39°41′20.3″N 75°31′5″W / 39.688972°N 75.51806°W / 39.688972; -75.51806 (Delaware Memorial Bridge (northbound))
 United States
[61]

63
Delaware Memorial Bridge
(southbound)
656
2,152
1968
New Castle (Delaware) – Deepwater (New Jersey)
39°41′18.2″N 75°31′6.2″W / 39.688389°N 75.518389°W / 39.688389; -75.518389 (Delaware Memorial Bridge (southbound))
 United States
[61]

64
Haicang Bridge
648
2,126
1999
Xiamen (Fujian)
24°29′50.2″N 118°4′7.2″E / 24.497278°N 118.068667°E / 24.497278; 118.068667 (Haicang Bridge)
 China
[62]

65
Beipan River Hukun Expressway Bridge
636
2,087
2009
Qinglong County (Guizhou)
25°53′58.1″N 105°19′25″E / 25.899472°N 105.32361°E / 25.899472; 105.32361 (Beipanjiang River 2009 Bridge)
 China
[63]

66
Puli Bridge
628
2,060
2015[64]
Pulixiang (Yunnan)
26°19′20.6″N 104°35′16″E / 26.322389°N 104.58778°E / 26.322389; 104.58778 (Puli Bridge)
 China
[65]

67
Gjemnessund Bridge
623
2,044
1992
Gjemnes – Bergsøya (Møre og Romsdal)
62°58′17″N 7°46′47″E / 62.97139°N 7.77972°E / 62.97139; 7.77972 (Gjemnessund Bridge)
 Norway
[66]

68
Yuzui Yangtze Bridge
616
2,021
2009
Yuzuizhen (Chongqing)
29°36′40.7″N 106°46′21.2″E / 29.611306°N 106.772556°E / 29.611306; 106.772556 (Yuzui Yangtze Bridge)
 China
[67]

69
Walt Whitman Bridge
610
2,001
1957
Philadelphia (Pennsylvania) – Gloucester City (New Jersey)
39°54′18.7″N 75°7′46.1″W / 39.905194°N 75.129472°W / 39.905194; -75.129472 (Walt Whitman Bridge)
 United States
[68]

70
Tancarville Bridge
608
1,995
1959
Tancarville (Seine-Maritime) – Marais-Vernier (Eure)
49°28′21.6″N 0°27′52.8″E / 49.472667°N 0.464667°E / 49.472667; 0.464667 (Tancarville Bridge)
 France
[69]

71
New Little Belt Bridge
600
1,969
1970
Middelfart – Fredericia (Region of Southern Denmark)
55°31′7.1″N 9°44′56.9″E / 55.518639°N 9.749139°E / 55.518639; 9.749139 (New Little Belt Bridge)
 Denmark
[70]

72
First Kurushima-Kaikyō Bridge
600
1,969
1999
Umashima Island – Ōshima (Ehime)
34°7′32.9″N 133°0′45.1″E / 34.125806°N 133.012528°E / 34.125806; 133.012528 (First Kurushima-Kaikyō Bridge)
 Japan
[32]

73
E'gongyan Bridge
600
1,969
2000
Chongqing
29°31′23.9″N 106°31′41.7″E / 29.523306°N 106.528250°E / 29.523306; 106.528250 (E'gongyan Bridge)
 China
[71]

74
Jijiang Yangtze Bridge
600
1,969
2016
Chongqing
 China
[72]

75
Osterøy Bridge
595
1,952
1997
Bergen – Osterøy (Hordaland)
60°25′33.4″N 5°32′9.5″E / 60.425944°N 5.535972°E / 60.425944; 5.535972 (Osterøy Bridge)
 Norway
[73]

76
Second Wanxian Bridge
580
1,903
2003
Wanzhou District (Chongqing)
30°49′33.2″N 108°24′17.2″E / 30.825889°N 108.404778°E / 30.825889; 108.404778 (Second Wanxian Bridge)
 China
[74]

77
Bømla Bridge
577
1,893
2001
Nautøy – Spissøy (Hordaland)
59°44′13.5″N 5°22′37.2″E / 59.737083°N 5.377000°E / 59.737083; 5.377000 (Bømla Bridge)
 Norway
[59]

78
Rainbow Bridge
570
1,870
1993
Tokyo
35°38′11.6″N 139°45′47.4″E / 35.636556°N 139.763167°E / 35.636556; 139.763167 (Rainbow Bridge (Tokyo))
 Japan
[75]

79
Ambassador Bridge
564
1,850
1929
Detroit (Michigan) – Windsor (Ontario)
42°18′43.2″N 83°4′27.2″W / 42.312000°N 83.074222°W / 42.312000; -83.074222 (Ambassador Bridge)
 United States
 Canada
[76]

80
Hakata–Ōshima Bridge
560
1,837
1988
Ōshima – Hakatajima (Ehime)
34°11′32.2″N 133°4′20.2″E / 34.192278°N 133.072278°E / 34.192278; 133.072278 (Hakata-Ōshima Bridge)
 Japan
[77]

81
Zhongxian Yangtze River Bridge
560
1,837
2001
Zhong County (Chongqing)
30°18′6.6″N 108°2′56.8″E / 30.301833°N 108.049111°E / 30.301833; 108.049111 (Zhongxian Yangtze River Bridge)
 China
[78]

82
Throgs Neck Bridge
549
1,801
1961
New York City (New York)
40°48′0.9″N 73°47′36″W / 40.800250°N 73.79333°W / 40.800250; -73.79333 (Throgs Neck Bridge)
 United States
[79]

83
Toyoshima Bridge
540
1,772
2008
Teshima Island – Kami-Kamagari Island (Hiroshima)
34°10′35.1″N 132°46′6.9″E / 34.176417°N 132.768583°E / 34.176417; 132.768583 (Toyoshima Bridge)
 Japan
[80]

84
Dimuhe River Bridge
538
1,765
2016
Liupanshui (Guizhou)
26°39′15″N 105°4′14.8″E / 26.65417°N 105.070778°E / 26.65417; 105.070778 (Dimuhe River Bridge)
 China
[81]

85
Liujiaxia Bridge
536
1,759
2012
Liujiaxiazhen (Gansu)
35°50′42.47″N 103°15′56.83″E / 35.8451306°N 103.2657861°E / 35.8451306; 103.2657861 (Liujiaxia Bridge)
 China
[82][83]

86
Benjamin Franklin Bridge
533.7
1,751
1926
Philadelphia (Pennsylvania) – Camden (New Jersey)
39°57′10.5″N 75°8′3.3″W / 39.952917°N 75.134250°W / 39.952917; -75.134250 (Benjamin Franklin Bridge)
 United States
[84]

87
Skjomen Bridge
525
1,722
1972
Narvik (Nordland)
68°22′15.4″N 17°14′27.5″E / 68.370944°N 17.240972°E / 68.370944; 17.240972 (Skjomen Bridge)
 Norway
[85]

88
Kvalsund Bridge
525
1,722
1977
Kvalsund (Finnmark)
70°30′45.3″N 23°57′5.6″E / 70.512583°N 23.951556°E / 70.512583; 23.951556 (Kvalsund Bridge)
 Norway
[86]

89
Dalsfjord Bridge (no)
523
1,716
2013
Dale – Askvoll (Sogn og Fjordane)
61°22′26.4″N 5°23′47″E / 61.374000°N 5.39639°E / 61.374000; 5.39639 (Dalsfjorden Bridge)
 Norway
[87]

90
Matadi Bridge
520
1,706
1983
Matadi (Bas-Congo)
5°49′31.4″S 13°26′3.1″E / 5.825389°S 13.434194°E / -5.825389; 13.434194 (Matadi Bridge)
 Democratic Republic of the Congo
[88]

91
Emmerich Rhine Bridge
500
1,640
1965
Emmerich am Rhein (North Rhine-Westphalia)
51°49′44.8″N 6°13′35″E / 51.829111°N 6.22639°E / 51.829111; 6.22639 (Emmerich Rhine Bridge)
 Germany
[89]

92
Dazi Bridge
500
1,640
1984
Dazi (Tibet)
29°40′45.84″N 91°22′32.16″E / 29.6794000°N 91.3756000°E / 29.6794000; 91.3756000 (Dazi Bridge)
 China
[90]

93
Gwangan Bridge
500
1,640
2002
Busan
35°8′44.8″N 129°7′41.8″E / 35.145778°N 129.128278°E / 35.145778; 129.128278 (Gwangan Bridge)
 South Korea
[91]

tag: table

text: Bridges under construction[edit]

text: Most of the large suspension bridges built in recent years have been in the People's Republic of China. As the following list shows, most of the bridges under construction are also in China.

text:
Name
Main
span
metres
Main
span
feet
Year to open
Location
Country

Çanakkale 1915 Bridge
2,023
6,637
2021
Gelibolu – Lapseki (Dardanelles)
40°20′18″N 26°37′58″E / 40.33833°N 26.63278°E / 40.33833; 26.63278 (Çanakkale 1915 Bridge)
 Turkey
[92]

Yangsigang Bridge
杨泗港长江大桥
1,700
5,577
2019
Wuhan (Hubei)
30°30′24″N 114°15′24″E / 30.50667°N 114.25667°E / 30.50667; 114.25667 (Yangsigang Yangtze River Bridge)
 China
[93]

Second Humen Bridge East
虎门二桥坭洲水道桥
1,688
5,538
2019[94]
Dongguan (Guangdong)
22°53′05.1″N 113°33′56.4″E / 22.884750°N 113.565667°E / 22.884750; 113.565667 (Second Humen Bridge East)
 China
[95]

Dongting Lake Bridge Hangrui
洞庭湖大桥
1,480
4,856
2017
Yueyang (Hunan)
29°25′23″N 113°07′31.1″E / 29.42306°N 113.125306°E / 29.42306; 113.125306 (Dongting Lake Bridge Hangrui)
 China

Jin'an Bridge
1,386
4,547
2021
Lijiang, Yunnan
26°49′20″N 100°26′30″E / 26.82222°N 100.44167°E / 26.82222; 100.44167 (Jinsha River Jin'an Bridge)]
 China

Second Humen Bridge West
虎门二桥大沙水道桥
1,200
3,937
2019
Dongguan (Guangdong)
22°52′59.8″N 113°31′08.0″E / 22.883278°N 113.518889°E / 22.883278; 113.518889 (Second Humen Bridge West)
 China
[95]

Kazungula Bridge
923
3,028
2018

Longmen Bridge
龙门跨海大桥
1,160
3,806
2020
Fangchenggang – Qinzhou (Guangxi)
21°45′11.2″N 108°33′18.9″E / 21.753111°N 108.555250°E / 21.753111; 108.555250 (Longmen Bridge (Guangxi))
 China
[96]

Hålogaland Bridge
1,145
3,757
2017
Rombaken, Narvik
68°27′32″N 17°28′56″E / 68.45889°N 17.48222°E / 68.45889; 17.48222 (Hålogaland Bridge)
 Norway

Luding Yaye Expressway Bridge
泸定大渡河特大桥
1,100
3,609
2017
Luding County, Sichuan
29°57′55.4″N 102°12′53.6″E / 29.965389°N 102.214889°E / 29.965389; 102.214889 (Luding Yaye Expressway Bridge)
 China

Fuma Bridge
驸马长江大桥
1,050
3,445
2017
Wanzhou (Chongqing)
30°50′04.8″N 108°28′09.4″E / 30.834667°N 108.469278°E / 30.834667; 108.469278 (Fuma Bridge)
 China

Second Namhae Bridge
제2남해대교
890
2,920
2020
Namhaedo (South Gyeongsang Province)
34°56′34.4″N 127°51′58.6″E / 34.942889°N 127.866278°E / 34.942889; 127.866278 (Second Namhae Bridge)
 South Korea
[97][98]

Cuntan Bridge
寸滩长江大桥
880
2,887
2017
Chongqing
29°37′14.2″N 106°36′21.8″E / 29.620611°N 106.606056°E / 29.620611; 106.606056 (Cuntan Bridge)
 China

Jinshajiang Bridge Hutiaoxia
766
2,513
2019
Hutiaoxiazhen (Yunnan)
 China
[99]

Jindong Bridge
金东大桥
730
2,395
2017
Huidong County (Sichuan)
26°30′33.3″N 103°02′24.7″E / 26.509250°N 103.040194°E / 26.509250; 103.040194 (Jindong Bridge)
 China

Maputo–Catembe Bridge
680
2,231
2018
Maputo – Catembe
25°58′23.4″S 32°33′26.7″E / 25.973167°S 32.557417°E / -25.973167; 32.557417 (Maputo-Catembe Bridge)
 Mozambique
[100]

Sunxihe Bridge
笋溪河特大桥
660
2,165
2017
Bailinzhen (Chongqing)
28°42′44.7″N 106°27′44.4″E / 28.712417°N 106.462333°E / 28.712417; 106.462333 (Sunxihe Bridge)
 China
[101]

Jinshajiang Railway Bridge Hutiaoxia
660
2,165
2020
Hutiaoxiazhen (Yunnan)
 China
[102]

Jinshajiang Bridge Hulukou
葫芦口大桥
656
2,152
2017
Hulukouzhen (Sichuan)
26°58′16.4″N 102°53′30.2″E / 26.971222°N 102.891722°E / 26.971222; 102.891722 (Jinshajiang Bridge Hulukou)
 China
[103]

Second Saecheonnyeon Bridge
새천년대교
650 (x2)
2,133 (x2)
2018
Mokpo (South Jeolla Province)
34°51′37.3″N 126°12′19.8″E / 34.860361°N 126.205500°E / 34.860361; 126.205500 (Second Saecheonnyeon Bridge)
 South Korea
[104]

Egongyan Metro Bridge
鹅公岩大桥
600
1,969
2017
Chongqing
29°31′19.9″N 106°31′41.6″E / 29.522194°N 106.528222°E / 29.522194; 106.528222 (Egongyan Metro Bridge)
 China
[105]

text: Planned and proposed bridges[edit]

text:
Name
Location
Main
span
Status
Notes

Gibraltar Bridge
Spain to Morocco
Very long
Proposed
Some designs have suspension spans of several miles. The suspension cables of a very long bridge might be suspended from the ends of cable-stayed struts extending diagonally from huge pylons. However, as of 2008, the feasibility of a tunnel is being considered instead.

HAFAST
Sulafjorden, Norway
4,000 m (13,000 ft)
Bridge under planning
Will replace the ferry connecting Hareid and Sula, as well as being part of the national "Ferry-free E39" project. Expected start 2020 and finished 2024?

Sognebrua
Sognefjorden, Norway
3,700 m (12,100 ft)
Bridge under planning
One of several proposals for crossing the 1,300-metre-deep (4,300 ft) fjord as part of making the E39 highway along Norway's west coast ferry-free. The bridge would utilize two towers 450 m tall and have a maximum clearance above water of 70 m. Plans call for the highway project, including this crossing, to finish by 2025.

Strait of Messina Bridge
Sicily to mainland Italy
3,300 m (10,800 ft)
Cancelled
The project was canceled on 11 October 2006 by the Romano Prodi-led government amid controversy concerning the bridge's cost.[106] The new government from 2008 led by Silvio Berlusconi wanted to pick up the project again. Preliminary works were to begin in December 2009. The main construction was expected to begin in 2012. As of February 2013, the project has again been cancelled.

Sunda Strait Bridge
Java to Sumatra, Indonesia
about 3,000 m (9,800 ft)
Cancelled
This project has been approved by the Indonesian government. If completed, it will not only be the world's longest suspension bridge (26 km), but will also have a main span of about 3,000 m (9,800 ft)—roughly fifty percent longer than the current record.[107]

Malacca Strait Bridge
Peninsular Malaysia, Malaysia to Sumatra, Indonesia
2,600 m (8,500 ft)
Preliminary work
Joint project between the Malaysian and Indonesian governments for a 48-kilometre-long (30 mi) crossing. Included is a suspension span of 2,600 m and a cable-stayed span of 1,200 m, making both longer than any existing in their category.

Storfjord Bridge
Storfjorden, Norway
2,300 m (7,500 ft)
Plans under consideration
Will replace the ferry connecting the municipalities of Sykkylven and Ålesund as well as being part of the "ferry-free E39" project. Unusually, the proposed design will have the roadway split around single column towers.

Edvard Grieg Bridge
Halsafjord, Norway
about 2,000 m (6,600 ft)
Proposed
The bridge will replace a ferry, and reduce the driving time between Trondheim and Molde by 34 minutes.

Mao Zedong Bridge
Qiongzhou Strait, China
about 2,000 m (6,600 ft)
Preliminary work
A suspension bridge is being considered to cross the 22.5-kilometre-wide (14.0 mi) Qiongzhou Strait.[108] One design consists of four bridges strung together with four main spans of 2,000 m, two main-spans of 1,800 m, five anchorages and 10 towers.[109] If completed this bridge will assume six of the top seven longest spans.

Chacao Channel bridge
Chiloé to mainland Chile
1,100 m (3,600 ft)
Preliminary work [110]
This unusual design had two main spans of 1,055 m and 1,100 m without an anchorage between them. Construction was supposed to begin in 2007 and completed in 2012, but because of cost overruns, the project is now on hold.

text: History of longest suspension spans[edit]

text:
Bridge
Location
length
m (ft)
Year became
longest span
Notes

Maya Bridge at Yaxchilan
Mexico
62 m (203 ft)
600
Hemp-rope simple suspension footbridge. Existence unproven. No longer standing.

Chakzam Bridge
Tibet
137 m (449 ft)
1430
Chain suspension footbridge south of Lhasa, built by Thangtong Gyalpo. Reported by British spies to still be in use in 1878. Later (before 1904) fell into disuse after river course changed, swamping the northern end.[111] Dynamited by Chinese soldiers after the Chinese invasion of Tibet in 1950.[112]

Union Bridge
UK (Scotland, England border)
137 m (449 ft)
1820
The oldest in the world still in use today.

Menai Suspension Bridge
Wales, UK
176 m (577 ft)
1826

Great Suspension Bridge
Fribourg, Switzerland
271 m (889 ft)
1834
The bridge was replaced by the Zähringen Bridge in the 1920s.

Wheeling Suspension Bridge
West Virginia, US
308 m (1,010 ft)
1849
The longest deck span from 1849 until 1866, and the oldest vehicular suspension bridge in use in the United States.

Queenston-Lewiston Bridge
US and Canada
317 m (1,040 ft)
1851
The longest cable span from 1851 until it was destroyed by wind in 1864. However, the road deck span was only 258 meters long.

John A. Roebling Suspension Bridge
Kentucky - Ohio
322 m (1,056 ft)
1866

Niagara Clifton Bridge
US and Canada
384 m (1,260 ft)
1869
Replaced in 1899.

Brooklyn Bridge
New York City, US
486 m (1,594 ft)
1883

Williamsburg Bridge
New York City, US
488 m (1,601 ft)
1903
It was the longest suspension span but not the longest span of all bridges. The Forth Railway Bridge with two spans of 521 m was longer.

Bear Mountain Bridge
New York, US
497 m (1,631 ft)
1924
It was the longest suspension span but not the longest span of all bridges. The Quebec Bridge with a span of 549 m was longer. The first suspension bridge to have a concrete deck. The construction methods pioneered in building it would make possible several much larger projects to follow.

Benjamin Franklin Bridge
Pennsylvania - New Jersey, US
533 m (1,749 ft)
1926
It was the longest suspension span but not the longest span of all bridges.

Ambassador Bridge
US and Canada
564 m (1,850 ft)
1929
Since this bridge was built, the record for longest bridge span has only been held by suspension bridges.

George Washington Bridge
New York - New Jersey, US
1,067 m (3,501 ft)
1931
The first span longer than 1 km.

Golden Gate Bridge
California
1,280 m (4,200 ft)
1937

Verrazano-Narrows Bridge
New York City, US
1,298 m (4,259 ft)
1964

Humber Bridge
United Kingdom
1,410 m (4,630 ft)
1981

Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge
Japan
1,991 m (6,532 ft)
1998
The longest span since 1998.
The first main span longer than 1 mile (1.6 km).

text: Sources: [113][114][115]

text: Other record holding suspension bridges[edit]

text:
Si Du River Bridge (People's Republic of China) 2009 The highest bridge in the world (472 m).
San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge (Eastern Span). The widest bridge in the world (78.74 m) is also the most expensive bridge and the largest self-anchored suspension bridge ever constructed.[116][117]
Tacoma Narrows Bridges (Washington State) 853 m—1950 and 2007. The pair of bridges with the longest spans in the world (853 m).
Tsing Ma Bridge (Hong Kong) 1997. The longest span carrying road and rail traffic, longest double deck span (1,377 m).
George Washington Bridge (New York – New Jersey). Suspension bridge with the most lanes of traffic (fourteen total on two levels).
Kurushima-Kaikyō Bridge (Japan): The world's longest suspension bridge structure
Great Seto Bridge (Japan): World's longest two-tiered bridge system (not all of the spans that make up the bridge system are suspension bridges)


document_title: Dally M Medal

question_text: who has won the most dally m awards

question_tokens: who has won the most dally m awards

text: Dally M Medal

text: Voting[edit]

text: After each game, rugby league sports commentators vote to award three votes to the best player, two votes to the second-best player, and one vote to the third-best player. Additionally, a player will lose three votes for each week of suspension that he incurs during the season. The votes for each round are made public up to Round 16 (26-round season), then are kept secret; this allows the final winner to be kept secret until the Dally M Awards ceremony.

text: History[edit]

text: Rothmans Medal[edit]

text: The Rothmans Medal was the first official player-of-the-year award to be established in rugby league in Australia. The medal was sponsored by Rothmans, Benson & Hedges Inc., a tobacco production company. There were two Rothmans Medals awarded each year: one for the best player in the New South Wales Rugby League, and one for the best player in the Brisbane Rugby League. The voting for the Rothmans Medal was the same basic format as the modern day Dally M, except that the votes were determined by the referees, rather than the media.

text: The two Rothmans Medals were first awarded in 1968, and were awarded each year until 1996. In 1997, the Rothmans Medal in New South Wales became known as the Provan-Summons medal, because all tobacco advertising and sponsorship was prohibited in Australia in 1992, under the Tobacco Advertising Prohibition Act 1992; the medal then disappeared altogether in 1998 with the merger of the Australian Rugby League and the Australian Super League. The Queensland Rothmans Medal was also last awarded in 1996, as the Queensland Cup superseded the Brisbane Rugby League as Queensland's premier rugby league competition in 1997.

text: Dally M Medal[edit]

text: The Dally M Medal was named after Henry Herbert 'Dally' Messenger, who was instrumental in the establishment of rugby league football in Australia. The award was originally established in 1980 by The Daily Mirror newspaper in 1980. For many years, it was the second major individual award in the New South Wales Rugby League behind the Rothmans Medal. It was awarded each year between 1980 and 1996. With the Super League schism in 1997, the medal was not awarded.

text: Since the National Rugby League (NRL) was formed from the merger of the Australian Rugby League and the Australian Super League in 1998, the Dally M Medal has been the single official player-of-the-year award for that league, and the highest individual honour in Australian rugby league. The medal is awarded, usually by the Australian Prime Minister, at the annual Dally M Awards night where as well as honoring the player of the year, the NRL recognizes the premier player in each position, the best coach and the most outstanding rookie of the season.

text: The medal was notably not awarded in 2003, with the players first threatening to boycott the event, followed by the league cancelling the event, during a pay dispute between the league and the players association which was going on at the time.[1] Penrith's Craig Gower, who led by one vote entering the final round and was unofficially considered man of the match in the final round, is the player thought to have missed out on winning the award as a result.[2]

text: Venues & Broadcasters[edit]

text:
Year
Broadcaster(s)
Venue

2003
No broadcaster
Not held

2004
Fox Sports
Sydney Town Hall

2005
Fox Sports
Sydney Town Hall

2006
Fox Sports
Sydney Town Hall

2007
Fox Sports
Sydney Town Hall

2008
Fox Sports
Hordern Pavilion

2009
Fox Sports
State Theatre

2010

2011

Royal Hall of Industries,
The Entertainment Quarter

2012
Fox Sports
Sydney Town Hall

2013
Fox Sports
Star Casino

2014
Fox Sports
Star Casino

2015
Fox Sports
Star Casino

2016
Fox Sports
Star Casino

2017
Fox League
Star Casino

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (October 2009)

text: Dally M Medal winners[edit]

text: NSWRL and ARL (1980–1996)[edit]

text:
Year
Winner
Position
Club

1980
Robert Laurie
Five-eighth
 South Sydney Rabbitohs

1981
Steve Rogers
Lock
 Cronulla Sharks

1982
Ray Price
Lock
 Parramatta Eels

1983
Terry Lamb
Five-eighth
 Western Suburbs Magpies

1984
Michael Potter
Fullback
 Canterbury Bulldogs

1985
Greg Alexander
Halfback
 Penrith Panthers

1986
Peter Sterling
Halfback
 Parramatta Eels

1987
Peter Sterling
Halfback
 Parramatta Eels

1988
Gavin Miller
Second-row
 Cronulla Sharks

1989
Gavin Miller
Second-row
 Cronulla Sharks

1990
Cliff Lyons
Five-eighth
 Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles

1991
Michael Potter
Fullback
 St George Dragons

1992
Gary Freeman
Halfback
 Eastern Suburbs Roosters

1993
Ricky Stuart
Halfback
 Canberra Raiders

1994
Cliff Lyons
Five-eighth
 Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles

1995
Laurie Daley
Five-eighth
 Canberra Raiders

1996
Allan Langer
Halfback
 Brisbane Broncos

text: NRL (1998–present)[edit]

text:
Year
Winner
Position
Club

1998
Andrew Johns
Halfback
 Newcastle Knights

1999
Andrew Johns
Halfback
 Newcastle Knights

2000
Trent Barrett
Five-eighth
 St George Illawarra Dragons

2001
Preston Campbell
Halfback, Fullback
 Cronulla Sharks

2002
Andrew Johns
Halfback
 Newcastle Knights

2003
Not awarded due to industrial action

2004
Danny Buderus
Hooker
 Newcastle Knights

2005
Johnathan Thurston
Halfback
 North Queensland Cowboys

2006
Cameron Smith
Hooker
 Melbourne Storm

2007
Johnathan Thurston
Halfback
 North Queensland Cowboys

2008
Matt Orford
Halfback
 Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles

2009
Jarryd Hayne
Fullback
 Parramatta Eels

2010
Todd Carney
Five-eighth
 Sydney Roosters

2011
Billy Slater
Fullback
 Melbourne Storm

2012
Ben Barba
Fullback
 Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs

2013
Cooper Cronk
Halfback
 Melbourne Storm

2014
Jarryd Hayne1
Johnathan Thurston1
Fullback
Five-eighth
 Parramatta Eels
 North Queensland Cowboys

2015
Johnathan Thurston
Halfback
 North Queensland Cowboys

2016
Cooper Cronk2
Jason Taumalolo2
Halfback
Lock
 Melbourne Storm
 North Queensland Cowboys

2017
Cameron Smith
Hooker
 Melbourne Storm

text:
1 - Jarryd Hayne and Johnathan Thurston became the 1st joint winners in history of the Dally M Medal in 2014
2 - Cooper Cronk and Jason Taumalolo became the 2nd joint winners in history of the Dally M Medal in 2016

text: Multiple winners[edit]

text: The following players have won the Dally M Medal multiple times.

text:
Medals
Player
Team
Seasons

4
Johnathan Thurston
 North Queensland Cowboys
2005, 2007, 2014, 2015

3
Andrew Johns
 Newcastle Knights
1998, 1999, 2002

2

Michael Potter
 Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs,  St George Dragons
1984, 1991

Peter Sterling
 Parramatta Eels
1986, 1987

Gavin Miller
 Cronulla-Sutherland Sharks
1988, 1989

Cliff Lyons
 Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles
1990, 1994

Cameron Smith
 Melbourne Storm
2006, 2017

Jarryd Hayne
 Parramatta Eels
2009, 2014

Cooper Cronk
 Melbourne Storm
2013, 2016

text: Wins by Club[edit]

text:
Medals
Team
Seasons

5
 Parramatta Eels
1982, 1986, 1987, 2009, 2014

 North Queensland Cowboys
2005, 2007, 2014, 2015, 2016

 Melbourne Storm
2006, 2011, 2013, 2016, 2017

4
 Cronulla Sutherland Sharks
1981, 1988, 1989, 2001

 Newcastle Knights
1998, 1999, 2002, 2004

3
 Manly Warringah Sea Eagles
1990, 1994, 2008

2
 Canberra Raiders
1993, 1995

 Sydney Roosters
1992, 2010

 Canterbury Bankstown Bulldogs
1984, 2012

1
 South Sydney Rabbitohs
1980

 Western Suburbs Magpies
1983

 Penrith Panthers
1985

 St George Dragons
1991

 Brisbane Broncos
1996

 St George Illawarra Dragons
2000

text:
No award in 1997 and 2003
Multiple winners in 2014 and 2016


document_title: Rise of the Planet of the Apes

question_text: who plays caesar in the planet of the ape movies

text: Rise of the Planet of the Apes

text: Plot[edit]

text: Will Rodman, a scientist at the San Francisco biotech company Gen-Sys, is testing the viral-based drug ALZ-112 on chimpanzees to find a cure for Alzheimer's disease. ALZ-112 is given to a chimp named Bright Eyes, greatly increasing her intelligence. But then, during Will's presentation for the drug, Bright Eyes is forced from her cage, goes on a rampage, and is shot to death. Will's boss Steven Jacobs terminates the project and has the chimps slaughtered. However, Will's assistant Robert Franklin discovers that the reason for Bright Eyes' rampage was that she had recently given birth to an infant chimp. Will reluctantly agrees to take in the chimp, who is named Caesar. Will learns that Caesar has inherited his mother's intelligence and decides to raise him. Three years later, Will introduces Caesar to the redwood forest at Muir Woods National Monument. Meanwhile, Will treats his dementia-suffering father Charles with ALZ-112, which seems to restore his cognitive ability.

text: Five years later, when Caesar reaches adolescence and sees a dog on a leash like his own, he questions his identity and learns of his origins from Will. Meanwhile, Charles's condition returns as he becomes resistant to ALZ-112. Caesar injures an aggressive neighbor, Douglas Hunsiker, while defending a confused Charles from him. As a result, he is placed in a primate shelter where he is tormented by a chimp named Rocket and the chief guard, Dodge Landon, but also where he befriends an orangutan named Maurice who came from a circus. Caesar learns how to unlock his cage, gaining free access to the common area. With the assistance of a gorilla named Buck, he confronts the sanctuary's alpha, Rocket and claims that position. Meanwhile, Jacobs clears development of a more powerful, gaseous version of the drug – ALZ-113 – when Will tells him it can also improve intelligence. Will takes the drug home to try to save his father, but Charles declines further treatment and dies overnight.

text: After attempting to test the drug on a scarred bonobo test subject named Koba, Franklin becomes exposed to ALZ-113 and becomes ill. Attempting to warn Will at his home, he sneezes blood onto Hunsiker and is later discovered dead. Will attempts to reclaim Caesar, but the chimp refuses to go home with him so he could look after the other apes. Instead, he escapes from the facility and returns to Will's house, where he takes canisters of the ALZ-113. Upon returning, Caesar releases the gas and allows it to enhance the intelligence of the other apes. When Dodge attempts to get him back into his cage, Caesar speaks for the first time, yelling "No!" and gets in a fight which inadvertently leads to Dodge's death. The apes flee the facility, release the remaining chimps from Gen-Sys, and free more apes from the San Francisco Zoo on the way.

text: A battle ensues as the ape army fights their way past a police blockade on the Golden Gate Bridge to escape into the redwood forest. Buck sacrifices himself to save Caesar by jumping into the helicopter in which Jacobs is riding. The helicopter crashes onto the bridge, trapping Jacobs in the wreckage. While Caesar ignores Jacobs' pledges for help, Koba seizes his chance for revenge and sends Jacobs falling to his death in the bay below.

text: As the apes find their way into the forest, Will catches up to them in a stolen police car and warns Caesar that the humans will hunt them down, and begs him to return home. In response, Caesar hugs him and says that, "Caesar is home." Will, realizing that this is indeed their last goodbye, respects Caesar's wishes. The apes embrace their new lifestyle in the forest.

text: In a mid-credits scene, an infected Hunsiker leaves his house for work as an airline pilot, arriving at San Francisco International Airport for his flight to Paris. His nose begins to drip blood onto the floor. A graphic traces the spread of the humanity-ravaging virus around the globe via international flight routes.

text: Cast[edit]

text: Humans[edit]

text:
James Franco as Dr. William "Will" Rodman, a biologist who is trying to discover a cure for his father's Alzheimer's disease by testing ALZ-112 on chimps; he is a father figure to Caesar. James Franco was cast after talks with Tobey Maguire broke down.[7][8]
Freida Pinto as Dr. Caroline Aranha, a primatologist who begins a relationship with Will and grows attached to Caesar.
John Lithgow as Charles Rodman, Will's Alzheimer's-afflicted father and a former music teacher who improves after Will gives him the ALZ-112 and forms a grandfatherly bond with Caesar.
Brian Cox as John Landon, manager of the San Bruno Primate Shelter where Caesar is confined for a time. His full name is a reference to one of the astronauts in the original Planet of the Apes.
Tom Felton as Dodge Landon, John's son and an animal caretaker at the shelter, who abuses the apes for sport. His first and last name are references to two of the astronauts in the original Planet of the Apes.
David Oyelowo as Steven Jacobs, Will's arrogant boss. His last name is a reference to Arthur P. Jacobs, the producer of the original Planet of the Apes series.[citation needed]
Tyler Labine as Robert Franklin, a chimp handler at Gen-Sys and one of Will's friends. His surname is a reference to Franklin Schaffner, the director of the original film.
Jamie Harris as Rodney, a caretaker and a nightwatchman who is much kinder to the apes at the sanctuary and is regularly mocked by Dodge for this.
David Hewlett as Hunsiker, Will's hot-headed neighbor.
Chelah Horsdal as Irena, a nurse who is looking after Charles.

text: Apes[edit]

text:
Andy Serkis as Caesar, a common chimpanzee whose intelligence is increased from being exposed in the womb to ALZ-112 when the drug is administered to his pregnant mother, and who is raised by Will for eight years.
Karin Konoval as Maurice, a wise and benevolent Bornean orangutan who was retired from the circus and knows sign language; he becomes Caesar's closest ally. Konoval also cameos as the court clerk whom Will briefly argues with about his appeal. His name is a reference to Maurice Evans who portrays Dr. Zaius in the original Planet of the Apes.[9]
Terry Notary as Rocket, the dominant common chimpanzee at the ape sanctuary, until Caesar overthrows him. Notary also plays Bright Eyes, Caesar's mother, who was captured in Africa. "Bright Eyes" was the name given by chimpanzee scientist Zira to Taylor, the human astronaut in the Planet of the Apes movie.
Richard Ridings as Buck, a Western lowland gorilla who pledges his allegiance to Caesar after he is freed by him.
Devyn Dalton as Cornelia, a female common chimpanzee in the ape sanctuary.
Jay Caputo as Alpha, the dominant male common chimpanzee of Bright Eyes' troop and Caesar's father.
Christopher Gordon as Koba, a scarred and aggressive bonobo who has spent most of his life in laboratories and holds a grudge against humans.

text: Production[edit]

text: Development and writing[edit]

text: In 2006, screenwriter-producer Rick Jaffa was searching for a script idea. As Jaffa searched a newspaper articles clipping, one about pet chimpanzees that become troublesome to their owners and heartbroken for not adapting well to the human environment intrigued him. As Jaffa eventually realized it fit the Planet of the Apes series, he called his wife and screenwriting partner Amanda Silver to express his ideas of such a chimpanzee eventually starting the ape revolution, and then the couple started developing the character of Caesar. Jaffa indicated that "it's a reinvention" and if he had to pick between calling it a prequel or a reboot he would say it is a reboot: "It's a different story of who Caesar is, and how he came to be. So it's really kind of hard to put a label on it. We are hopefully rebooting it." He went on to say that "we tried really hard to create a story that would stand on its own and yet also pay homage and honor the movies that came before us."[10] Jaffa and Silver then wrote a script and sold it to Fox, producers of the Apes franchise. The script added other elements which the couple had researched, such as genetic engineering.[11] Several tributes to specific scenes, characters, and cast and crew from the previous Apes film series were added in the script. In particular, Caesar's treatment at the primate sanctuary parallels Taylor's treatment as a captive in the original film.[12][9]

text: In a segment of a video blog post, director Rupert Wyatt commented on the originality of the plot: "This is part of the mythology and it should be seen as that. It's not a continuation of the other films; it's an original story. It does satisfy the people who enjoy those films. The point of this film is to achieve that and to bring that fan base into this film exactly like Batman Begins."[6] In a 2009 interview, Wyatt said, "We've incorporated elements from Conquest of the Planet of the Apes, in terms of how the apes begin to revolt, but this is primarily a prequel to the 1968 film...Caesar is a revolutionary figure who will be talked about by his fellow apes for centuries...This is just the first step in the evolution of the apes, and there's a lot more stories to tell after this. I imagine the next film will be about the all-out war between the apes and humans."[13] Mark Bomback did an uncredited rewrite of the script.[14]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Filming began in July 2010 in Vancouver, British Columbia.[15] Filming also happened in San Francisco, California (the primary setting of the film),[15] and around Oahu, Hawaii, which doubled for the African jungle as the schedule and budget did not allow for location shooting in Africa.[16]

text: Visual effects[edit]

text: As the apes in Rise were meant to be actual apes, the producers decided not to use actors in ape suits. After considering real apes, instead Weta Digital created the apes digitally in almost every case through performance capture.[17] Advances in the technology allowed the use of performance capture in an exterior environment, affording the film-makers the freedom to shoot much of the film on location with other actors, as opposed to the confines of a soundstage.[18][19] The main breakthrough was a camera that enabled viewing the motion capture dots in daylight, employed mostly for the Golden Gate Bridge battle. A maximum of six actors could have their movements captured, with larger ape crowds using fully digital animals animated using Weta's move library. The Golden Gate Bridge set used both a physical set which was extended digitally, and a fully computer-generated model of the bridge that also included the ocean and nearby hills.[20]

text: After shooting the actors playing humans interacting with others wearing the motion capture suits, a clean plate was shot with actors for extra reference. Actor-stuntman Terry Notary guided the actors on realistic ape movement, while Weta studied the chimps in the Wellington Zoo for reference. The digital apes also received detailed models with skeletons, muscles and nerve tissue layers for accurate animation. Cast models of apes' heads and limbs helped the texture department replicate skin details such as wrinkles and pores. Given the difference between human and chimpanzee facial muscles, the animators tweaked the performance through a new facial muscle system adding dynamics, ballistics, and secondary motion. As the silent performance required expressive eyes, a new eye model was made to depict both greater accuracy in muscle movement in and around the eyes, and also tears, pupil dilation, and light refraction.[17][21] While Andy Serkis was the primary performer for Caesar, as the effects team considered that at times "Andy overcame the character," other motion capture team actors were also used, especially Devyn Dalton, whose height matched that of a chimpanzee. Along with that, they used Notary to play Caesar in stunt-filled scenes such as the Golden Gate Bridge scene.[22]

text: Music[edit]

text: The score for the film was written by Patrick Doyle and performed by the Hollywood Studio Symphony conducted by James Shearman.[23] The main concern was to have the music help progress the plot in the scenes without dialogue, for instance, conveying the emotions of Caesar's relationships with Will and Charles. To turn the score into a "driving force that keeps audiences paying attention," Doyle employed an African-American chorus and focused on percussion and "low and deep" orchestra sounds. Doyle collaborated closely with the sound department to make the music complement the sound effects, including writing a recurring theme based on their recording of a chimpanzee.[24]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 81% based on 258 reviews, with an average rating of 7.1/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Led by Rupert Wyatt's stylish direction, some impressive special effects, and a mesmerizing performance by Andy Serkis, Rise of the Planet of the Apes breathes unlikely new life into a long-running franchise."[25] Another review aggregator, Metacritic, gave the film a score of 68 out of 100, based on 39 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[26]

text: Roger Ebert gave the film 3 out of 4 stars and praised the role of Caesar and Andy Serkis by stating it was a "wonderfully executed character" and "one never knows exactly where the human ends and the effects begin, but Serkis and/or Caesar gives the best performance in the movie."[27] Giving the film 5 out of 5 stars, Joe Neumaier of Daily News labelled Rise of the Planet of the Apes as the summer's best popcorn flick.[28] Nick Pinkerton of The Village Voice wrote, "Caesar's prison conversion to charismatic pan-ape revolutionist is near-silent filmmaking, with simple and precise images illustrating Caesar's General-like divining of personalities and his organization of a group from chaos to order."[29] Roger Moore of Orlando Sentinel wrote, "Audacious, violent and disquieting, "Rise of the Planet of the Apes" is a summer sequel that's better than it has any right to be." He gave the film 3.5 out of 4 stars.[30] Manohla Dargis of The New York Times praised the film by saying, "Precisely the kind of summer diversion that the studios have such a hard time making now. It's good, canny-dumb fun." She also gave it 3.5 out of 4 stars.[31]

text: Peter Travers of Rolling Stone noted that the film has mixed "twists lifted from 1972's Conquest of the Planet of the Apes and 1999's Deep Blue Sea".[32]

text: Box office[edit]

text: Rise of the Planet of the Apes made its debut in the United States and Canada on roughly 5,400 screens within 3,648 theaters.[33] It grossed $19,534,699 on opening day and $54,806,191 in its entire opening weekend, making it #1 for that weekend as well as the fourth-highest-grossing August opening ever.[34] The film held on to the #1 spot in its second weekend, dropping 49.2%, and grossing $27,832,307.[35] Rise of the Planet of the Apes crossed the $150 million mark in the United States and Canada on its 26th day of release. Entertainment Weekly said that this was quite an accomplishment for the film since the month of August is a difficult time for films to make money.[36]

text: The film ended its run at the box office on December 15, 2011, with a gross of $176,760,185 in the U.S. and Canada as well as $305,040,864 internationally, for a total of $481,801,049 worldwide.[1]

text: Home media[edit]

text: Rise of the Planet of the Apes was released on Blu-ray Disc, DVD, and Digital Copy on December 13, 2011.[37]

text: Awards[edit]

text:
Award
Category
Recipient
Result

84th Academy Awards
Best Visual Effects
Joe Letteri, Dan Lemmon, R. Christopher White and Daniel Barrett
Nominated

Alliance of Women Film Journalists[38]
Best Supporting Actor
Andy Serkis
Nominated

Annie Awards[39]
Character Animation in a Live Action Production
Eric Reynolds
Won

Broadcast Film Critics Association[40]
Best Supporting Actor
Andy Serkis
Nominated

Best Visual Effects
Won

Best Action Film
Nominated

Empire Awards[41]
Best Film
Nominated

Best Sci-Fi/Fantasy
Nominated

Best Director
Rupert Wyatt
Nominated

Best Actor
Andy Serkis
Nominated

Genesis Awards
Best Feature Film
Rick Jaffa and Amanda Silver
Won

Houston Film Critics Society[42]
Best Supporting Actor
Andy Serkis
Nominated

Technical Achievement
Won

IGN Best of 2011[43]
Best Movie
Nominated

Best Sci-Fi Movie
Won

Best Movie Actor
Andy Serkis (also for The Adventures of Tintin)
Nominated

Best Movie Director
Rupert Wyatt
Nominated

IGN Summer Movie Awards[44]

Best Summer Movie
Nominated

Funniest Line
"Why cookie Rocket?"
Nominated

Best All-Out Brawl
Apes vs. Humans on the Golden Gate Bridge
Nominated

Favorite Kill
Helicopter Pushed Over the Golden Gate Bridge
Nominated

Coolest Creature
Caesar
Won

Favorite Hero
Caesar – Andy Serkis
Won

Las Vegas Film Critics Society[45]
Best Visual Effects
Won

London Film Critics Circle
Technical Achievement
Joe Letteri
Nominated

Phoenix Film Critics Society
Best Visual Effects
Nominated

San Diego Film Critics Society[46]
Best Supporting Actor
Andy Serkis
Nominated

Satellite Awards[47]
Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture
Andy Serkis
Nominated

Best Visual Effects
Jeff Capogreco, Joe Letteri, R. Christopher White
Nominated

Saturn Awards[48]
Best Science Fiction Film
Won

Best Supporting Actor
Andy Serkis
Won

Best Director
Rupert Wyatt
Nominated

Best Writing
Rick Jaffa and Amanda Silver
Nominated

Best Special Effects
Dan Lemmon, Joe Letteri, R. Christopher White, and Daniel Barrett
Won

Visual Effects Society[49]
Outstanding Visual Effects in a Visual Effects-Driven Feature Motion Picture
Dan Lemmon, Joe Letteri, Cyndi Ochs, Kurt Williams
Won

Outstanding Animated Character in a Live Action Feature Motion Picture
Caesar – Daniel Barrett, Florian Fernandez, Matthew Muntean, Eric Reynolds
Won

Outstanding Virtual Cinematography in a Live Action Feature Motion Picture
Thelvin Cabezas, Mike Perry, R. Christopher White, Erik Winquist
Nominated

Outstanding Compositing in a Feature Motion Picture
Jean-Luc Azzis, Quentin Hema, Simon Jung, Christoph Salzmann
Nominated

Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association[50]
Best Supporting Actor
Andy Serkis
Nominated

text: Sequels[edit]

text: Regarding the story setting up possible sequels, director Rupert Wyatt commented: "I think we're ending with certain questions, which is quite exciting. To me, I can think of all sorts of sequels to this film, but this is just the beginning."[51] Screenwriter and producer Rick Jaffa also stated that Rise of the Planet of the Apes would feature several clues as to future sequels: "I hope that we're building a platform for future films. We're trying to plant a lot of the seeds for a lot of the things you are talking about in terms of the different apes and so forth."[6]

text: On May 31, 2012, 20th Century Fox announced that the sequel would be named Dawn of the Planet of the Apes.[52] Reports said that Wyatt was leaving the sequel due to his concern that a May 2014 release date would not give him enough time to properly make the film;[53] he was replaced by Cloverfield director Matt Reeves.[54] Jaffa and Silver returned as producers and to pen the screenplay, with rewrites from Scott Z. Burns[55] and Mark Bomback.[14]

text: Taking place ten years after Rise, Dawn follows Caesar's growing nation of evolved apes threatened by human survivors that put both sides in the brink of war.[citation needed] Andy Serkis, Terry Notary and Karin Konoval reprised their roles as Caesar, Rocket and Maurice.[56] James Franco returned as Will Rodman in a "cameo via video".[57] Judy Greer and Toby Kebbell replace Devyn Dalton and Christopher Gordon as Cornelia and Koba, respectively.[citation needed] Filming of Dawn of the Planet of the Apes started on North Vancouver Island in April 2013.[58] The film was released July 11, 2014.

text: On January 6, 2014, 20th Century Fox announced a third installment with Reeves returning to direct and co-write along with Bomback, with a planned July 2016 release.[59][60] In January 2015, Fox delayed the release to July 14, 2017.[61][62] On May 14, 2015, the title was given as War of the Planet of the Apes,[63] later re-titled to War for the Planet of the Apes.