document_title: Zero-turn mower

question_text: who made the very first zero turn lawn mower

text: Zero-turn mower

text: History[edit]

text: In 1949, Warrensburg, MO resident Max Swisher invented the very first commercially available zero-turn mower and called it the "Ride King".  It was a three-wheeled machine - one drive wheel in front and two in the rear.  The patented system utilized the front wheel as the drive wheel that also was able to turn an amazing 360 degrees.  The wheel was driven by the motor in the same direction 100% of the time.  In order to reverse and/or utilize the zero turn capabilities, you simply turn the steering wheel 180 degrees and the mower would move in reverse. In 1963, John Regier was an employee of the Hesston Corporation, a manufacturer of farm and agricultural equipment. The company had recently engineered a device called the swather, which, propelled by a series of belts, cut hay, alfalfa and other farming materials and laid them out in windrows. The way the belts and pulleys operated allowed for counter- rotation—a process which particularly struck Regier. An idea came to him one day: What if he could incorporate the same technology into lawnmowers?

text: "So he went home and invented this thing that was able to operate on the zero-turn radius," says Ken Raney, advertising manager at Hustler Turf. "He began selling them, but they weren’t really taking off the way he wanted them to. Nobody knew the technology then, so nobody wanted to buy it." Regier's patent was eventually sold to Hesston, which would eventually become Excel Industries—parent company of Hustler Turf. The mower was called—appropriately enough—the Hustler.

text: "We were the first company to offer mowers with zero-turn technology," says Paul Mullet, president of Excel Industries. "After Regier sold us the patent, he came to work for us and the rest is history."  Excel Industries is the parent company of Hustler Turf Equipment, Inc., which manufacturers Hustler Turf and BigDog Mowers zero-turn mowers.[1]

text: In 1969, Grasshopper Mowers introduced the first commercially viable zero-turn mower,[citation needed]and in 1974, Dixon coined the term "zero-turn radius" with their entrance into the mower market.[1]

text: In 1997, Robert D. Davis Jr. obtained United States Patent 5644903 for a new steering control he had invented for a zero turn radius mower, based on eight previous patents.[2][3]

text: Currently, there are more than three dozen zero-turn mower manufacturers offering a range of mid-mounted and out-front mowing deck options and accessories.

text: Steering[edit]

text: For most zero-turn mowers today, steering is simply changing the speeds of the drive tires, a method called differential steering. The tire speed is controlled by two levers that protrude on either side of the driver and typically extend over the lap (aka. lap bars). It is not that different from steering a shopping cart.[4]  When both levers are pushed forward simultaneously with the same force, the mower moves forward; when both levers are pulled back simultaneously with the same force, the mower moves backward. Push one lever more than the other and the mower makes a gentle turn. Push one lever forward and pull the other back and the mower pivots from the drive wheels, creating a zero-radius turn.[5]

text: Zero-turn mowers can use steering wheels but must be designed much differently. Cub Cadet is one of the few zero-turns to use a steering wheel by connecting the back wheels to an axle. The axle is mounted in its midpoint to the body of the mower.[6]

text: Operation[edit]

text:
Zero-turn mowers are designed to cut so closely around obstacles that there's virtually no need to trim. These mowers pivot through 180 degrees without leaving any uncut grass. Maximum lever movement means maximum fluid flow, which translates into a rapidly turning wheel. If one drive wheel turns more rapidly than the other, the machine moves along a curved path. If both wheels turn at the same speed, the machine follows a straight path. If one wheel stops and the other turns, or if the wheels turn in opposite directions, the mower pivots.[6]
This drive system can be used on two different types of zero turn mowers, Mid Mount, where the mower is suspended under a 4 wheel chassis or Out Front, where the mower is terrain following and front mounted.The terrain following models provide a higher level of balance, comfort, safety and performance.
The Out-front models utilise a centralised main drive wheel system with front and rear caster wheels. The midmount has front caster wheels and rear drive wheels. As both types use traction only as a steering system, care must be taken on any sloping terrain. Loss of traction causes total loss of steering.

text: Attachments[edit]

text: There are a number of different attachments that add to the versatility of zero-turn mowers. One popular attachment is a bagging system that allows you to collect grass clippings. There are many bagger options available for zero turn mowers including two- and three-bucket designs. You can also add a mulching kit to the deck to mulch clippings back into the lawn instead of having the grass discharge from the side chute.

text: Adding a hitch to the back of a zero turn mower allows use of  a variety of different attachments, including a dump cart, spreader, plug aerator, lawn dethatcher, roller or sprayer. Some zero turn mowers also accommodate front-mounted attachments such as a snow blade, snow blower or brush for clearing snow or debris.[citation needed]


document_title: Sydney New Year's Eve

question_text: when did fireworks on sydney harbour bridge start

root

text: Sydney New Year's Eve

text: History[edit]

text: Origins[edit]

text: In 1976, the Sydney Committee decided to reconstitute a failing Waratah Festival as the Festival of Sydney. At the first meeting of its Programme Committee, they agreed that New Year's Eve should launch the new festival, a 'big bang affair'. Focusing on the harbour and adjacent areas, it would include a sail-past of decorated craft, music, and a 'spectacular fireworks display at midnight'. With this, the Festival of Sydney made New Year's Eve official for the first time. Stephen Hall was its Executive Director from 1977 to 1994.[5]. The 1979/80 brochure for the Festival featured an image of the fireworks over the Sydney Opera House and the slogan "Get into the 80's with a bang"[6]

tag: p

text: Inspiration to use the Sydney Harbour Bridge as a launchpad for fireworks came from the use of fireworks on the Brooklyn Bridge as part of its 100th anniversary celebrations in 1983.[7]

text: Syd Howard, pyrotechnician, used his inspiration and the chances given to him to put fireworks displays on Sydney Harbour to use the bridge as a launchpad for fireworks. His first opportunity was in 1986 for the 75th Anniversary Review of the Royal Australian Navy. Here he introduced the "waterfall" effect as well as a pyrotechnic message on the bridge. The message read "NSW salutes Royal Australian navy" and employed thousands of cigarette-style fireworks to create the lettering. It hung over the side of the pedestrian walkway.

text: From NYE 1996 to NYE 1999, management of the event was contracted out to Ric Birch's Spectak Productions. Birch, known for his work on numerous Olympic Games Opening and Closing Ceremonies brought with him former Jimmy and the Boys front man Ignatius Jones as Creative Director and Catriona Brown as Senior Producer.

text: The original Sydney New Year's Eve fireworks display (NYE 1996) was designed by Syd Howard Fireworks. The event used the pylons, arch and catwalk of the bridge, city buildings and one barge located in front of the Sydney Opera House. There was a ten-second pyrotechnic countdown. Each second, one shooting comet shot off a different building starting from North Sydney and finishing at AMP Tower to form an Olympic Torch to welcome in 1997.

text: For NYE 1997, the Midnight Fireworks included the Star City Casino. The AMP Tower turned into a ticking clock with shooting comets slowly rotating around the top of the tower. The soundtrack for the countdown was a ticking clock before a bell toll rang in 1999. This bell toll also turned AMP Tower into an Olympic Torch. Also, from NYE 1997, the Midnight Fireworks were extended to include the Harbour Bridge, the 9 pm Family Fireworks were extended to include two barges (one on each side of the bridge) and the displays were co-designed by Foti International Fireworks and Syd Howard Fireworks.

text: On NYE 1999 the Apollo 11 countdown, as well as air raid sirens provided the soundtrack for the countdown. A smiley face was visible on the bridge during the show, until the finale revealed the word "Eternity" in Copperplate writing, in honour of Arthur Stace. Fireworks were also launched from the Centrepoint Tower. A rather unusual feature of the 1999 display was a selection of tugboats that made their way through the harbour, each one carrying a colourful, brightly lit model of a particular sea creature. The Fireworks Soundtrack included a 5-minute "History Of Pop" featuring hits from the 1890s to the 1990s.

text: Since NYE 2000, the displays have been fully designed and created by Foti International Fireworks.[8] During NYE 2000, a larger than life birthday cake was unveiled well before midnight to celebrate 100 years of Australia as a nation. It was placed in front of the northern forecourt of the Opera House on a pontoon. A Federation Star representing 100 years since the federation of Australia appeared on the bridge. At midnight, the cake lit up with a chasing lighting effect running from the bottom of the cake to the top.

text: On NYE 2001, A dove of peace slowly came into view to speak peace to the world after the September 11th terrorist attacks in New York. On NYE 2002, the city buildings were removed from the fireworks displays. The 9 pm family fireworks had to be cancelled due to high winds of 90 km/h (56 mph). Those fireworks were then rescheduled to Australia Day, but were cancelled again, this time due to a total fire ban. An animated dove appeared on the bridge during the finale.

text: After six years as creative director, Ignatius Jones stepped down in 2002 to be replaced by former Melbourne and Sydney Festival artistic director Leo Schofield. Ken Wilby moved on the following year with the event's production manager Ed Wilkinson elevated to the producer role from 2003 to 2005.

text: On NYE 2003, a fifteen-second countdown was accompanied with the striking of a gong at midnight. For the first time, fireworks were launched off the vertical hangers of the bridge in a one-off display. From NYE 2004, the first 3D bridge effect was used. Also in that year, the fireworks display was viewed as a disco with pop music and a disco ball suspended from the bridge.

text: On NYE 2005, a beating heart was the icon on the bridge that appeared after the 9 pm fireworks display. The fireworks themselves during the show exploded in Heart shapes. Former Sydney Theatre Company head Wayne Harrison joined Katrina Marton in taking over leadership of the event as Creative Director and Producer respectively for the events from 2005 to 2007.

text: NYE 2006 saw the six barges feature with the city buildings return in the Midnight Fireworks and in addition, it had a ten-second countdown projected on the pylons starting with the Network Ten logo. A question mark was shown in the nights leading up to the celebrations, which also doubled up as the curved end of the coat hanger..

text: In NYE 2007, the bridge acted as a seventh barge for the first time shooting fireworks throughout the show instead of just during the beginning and finale.

text: In NYE 2008, the bridge, seven city buildings and six barges staged in the biggest fireworks display yet, increasing from $4 million worth of fireworks to $5 million. Brenton Kewley, who had worked on the event since 1996 in various roles, including Art Director and Associate Producer took over as Producer for the 2008 and 2009 events while Journalist and broadcaster Rhoda Roberts, took over from Harrison in 2008.

text: During NYE 2009, the countdown started with messages projected on the pylons. The pyrotechnic countdown was started by launching an exploding mine on a barge in front of the bridge. For the first time, microchip fireworks were used in the show which lasted longer in the sky and were more accurate when synchronised with music. The show consisted of $5 million worth of fireworks running for twelve minutes. A Yin Yang symbol appeared on the bridge during the finale. Once again, more fireworks exploded on the bridge throughout the entire show when compared with previous NYE displays.

text: In NYE 2010, the creative direction was still Rhoda Roberts. The theme for the Sydney 2010/11 fireworks extravaganza was "Make Your Mark", reflecting on the decade gone and the lasting impressions left by our actions; as well as reflecting on ways in which all people can make their mark by contributing to a better future. For the very first time the bridge effect was multi-layered, which included more than ten signs and symbols.

text: In NYE 2011, the creative director was handed over to Marc Newson and Imagination Australia, taking over from Rhoda Roberts. The display, for the very first time, was choreographed to an all-Australian soundtrack created by music production house s:amplify which included original composition. This marks the only year, a 90 second countdown was featured on the bridge effect.

text: On NYE 2012, the logo featured a swirl of coloured sails in magenta, yellow, purple and red, and marked with Kylie Minogue's signature "K". The show included new effects such as bees, koalas and octopus shells. A ten-second countdown accompanied by comets launched from jet skis before midnight. The show's budget has increased from $6.3 million to $6.6 million. Kylie Minogue was appointed as creative ambassador for the 2012 celebrations. Kylie worked alongside samplify to create the soundtrack including an exclusive remix created for the finale.

text: On NYE 2013, fireworks launched from the Opera House celebrating its 40th anniversary in the midnight fireworks and once again, city buildings were removed from the 9 pm and midnight fireworks. The bridge effect was also twice as big than previous years and used new LED technology. Reg Mombassa was creative ambassador for 2013/14.

text: The budget for Sydney New Year's Eve 2014 was reported to have increased from $6.8 million to $7.2 million.[9] Throughout the night, "inspiring" messages from Twitter users via the hashtag "#SydNYE" were projected onto the pylons of the bridge.[10] More extended sequences were featured on the Harbour Bridge and a pontoon barge in front. The Sydney Opera House was again used as a launching platform for the third time since the millennium. Australian actor Jack Thompson was the creative ambassador for 2014/15.[11]

text: 2015 and beyond[edit]

text: The theme for the Sydney New Year's Eve 2015 celebrations was unveiled as 'City Of Colour'. The usual emblem or symbol on the bridge supporting the fireworks theme would now be absent, however light displays illuminating the whole bridge would be used for future New Year shows. The Sydney Opera House was again used as a launching platform for the fourth time since the millennium. It is reported that an additional 2,400 fireworks were launched off the harbour bridge itself, and featured new flora-and fauna-inspired effects as tribute to the 200th year anniversary of Sydney's Royal Botanic Garden & 100 years of Taronga Zoo.[12] The hangers of the Sydney Harbour Bridge were re-introduced for a second time since NYE2003. Sequential moments on the harbour bridge itself occurred almost non-stop throughout the entire show, utilising the whole bridge.[13]

text: The theme confirmed for Sydney New Year's Eve 2016 was 'Welcome to SydNYE'. For the first time, the ABC broadcast of the event was live streamed through Facebook, YouTube, and the official SydNYE website. The display proved to be the most biggest and complex yet, featuring more sequences on the hangers of the harbour bridge, and the city's name ("SYDNEY") being ignited from the bridge's upper arch, as the clock struck midnight. Both the 9pm and Midnight shows also paid tribute to deceased artists Prince, David Bowie and Gene Wilder, which included never-before-seen effects such as; violet droplets, stars, quarter moons, saturn-shaped shells, and candy-coloured fireworks. The bridge effect was a multi-coloured light show, choreographed to music.

text: The theme for Sydney New Year's Eve 2017 was the catchphrase 'Wonder'. As a nod to Australia's legalisation of same-sex marriage and tribute to the 40th anniversary of the Sydney Mardi Gras, a rainbow waterfall cascaded from the harbour bridge during the midnight display. The show set the record for Sydney's biggest display yet, featuring 8 tonnes of pyrotechnics (1 tonne more than previous years), 13,000 aerial shells & 30,000 shooting comets (1000 and 5000 more than in 2016, respectively), and a numerical pyrotechnic countdown on the harbour bridge. For the very first time, 6 pontoon barges were re-introduced with all three displays, with the pontoons being configured horizontally across the Opera House Northern Forecourt for the Midnight show, and a segment co-designed by Hugh Jackman set to the tune of Geoffrey Gurrumul Yunupingu's song; 'Wiyathul'. The artwork from the event's creative artist; Nadia Hernandez, served as inspiration for the lighting effects on the harbour bridge featuring new pastel shades, bright orange, pink, lime green, and light blue. The Welcome to Country ceremony included a tribute marking the 50th anniversary of the Sydney-San Francisco sister city relationship, with a message from the Muwekma Ohlone peoples of the San Francisco Bay area projected onto the Sydney Harbour Bridge pylons at the close of the ceremony. The bridge effect incorporated 3000 individual lighting effects (1000 effects more than last year's) designed by lighting director; Ziggy Ziegler. [14][15]

text: Bridge effect[edit]

text: Central to the firework displays each year since 1999 is the lighting display on the Harbour Bridge known as the "bridge effect". Made of rope light attached to a panel and truss system, the display showcases a variety of symbols and other images related to the current year's theme.

text: In recent times, the bridge has included a ropelight display on a framework in the centre of the eastern arch, which is used to complement the fireworks. As the scaffolding and framework are clearly visible for some weeks before the event, revealing the outline of the design, there is much speculation as to how the effect is to be realised. The bridge effect has been designed by Brian Thomson since 2006, with the lighting designed by Mark Hammer since 2008. Since 2015, the current lighting designer is Ziggy Ziegler.

text:
Timeline of effects by year

Year
Theme
Effect

1996–97
"Masquerade"
Sydney AMP Tower was the focal point for the midnight fireworks

1997–98
Smiley face

1998–99
Smiley face

1999–2000
"Sydney Millennium"
"Eternity" in copperplate writing and a smiley face

2000–01
"Centenary of Federation"
Rainbow Serpent and a Federation Star

2001–02
"Year of the Outback"
Uluru, and the Southern Cross (supporting effect: Dove of Peace)

2002–03
"Celebration in Unity"
Dove of Peace and the word "PEACE"

2003–04
"City of Light"
Light show

2004–05
"Reflections"
Fanfare

2005–06
"Heart of the Harbour"
Three concentric hearts

2006–07
"A Diamond Night in Emerald City"
Coathanger and a diamond (supporting effect: question mark)

2007–08
"The Time of Our Lives"
Mandala and an hourglass[16]

2008–09
"Creation"
Sun (supporting effect: eight-pointed star)

2009–10
"Awaken the Spirit"
Yin and yang symbol, blue moon and a ring of fire

2010–11
"Make Your Mark"
X mark, Target and hand print (supporting effects: smiling face, an asterisk, exclamation mark, the peace symbol, analogue clock, a pointer and an archer)

2011–12
"Time to Dream"
thought bubble and Endless rainbow (supporting effect: Sun)

2012–13
"Embrace"
Butterfly and lip

2013–14
"Shine"
Eye (supporting effect: a UFO and a blue star)

2014–15
"Inspire"[10]
Light bulb (with love heart inside it) (supporting effect: seahorses)

2015–16
"City of Colour"
Light show on Sydney Harbour Bridge

2016–17
"Welcome to SydNYE"[17]

2017–18
"Wonder"[18]

tag: table

text: "Waterfall" effect[edit]

text: A continual stream of fireworks falling from the base of the bridge down to actually touch the water. The waterfall comprises approximately 1100 candle fireworks. Each year, it has been a traditional golden waterfall.

text: Some years the waterfall effect has been changed such as on NYE 2000 when the waterfall changed colours from gold to silver. NYE 2000 was also unique in that fireworks were also fired for the first time from the gantry of the bridge.

text: NYE 2002 had a "strobing angelic" waterfall effect where 144 Roman candles released mines and stars that "twinkled". This effect was repeated on NYE 2005 where it changed colour from red to white and also on NYE 2006 where it was coloured only green.

text: NYE 2004 had the traditional golden waterfall effect except that it slowed crossed the bridge from south to north. This was a difficult set up due to the arch's access but a first of its kind on the bridge with a spectacular "torrent style" waterfall effect.

text: NYE 2009 saw a "lollipop" waterfall effect shoot off the catwalk of the bridge during the 9 pm Family Fireworks. This was followed on NYE 2010 where a red and white checkerboard waterfall effect shot off the catwalk of the bridge during the 9 pm Family Fireworks. NYE 2011 saw a colourful waterfall effect shot off during the 9 pm Family Fireworks. NYE 2014 saw a red and white waterfall effect shot off during the 9pm Family Fireworks. NYE 2015 saw a colourful waterfall effect shot off during the 9pm Family Fireworks. NYE 2016 saw a purple waterfall effect shot off during the 9pm Family Fireworks as a tribute to the deceased artist Prince.

text: While in NYE 2017, a rainbow waterfall cascaded from the harbour bridge during the midnight show, celebrating the legalisation of same-sex marriage in Australia.

text: The years where the traditional golden waterfall effect have not been featured completely are; NYE 2000 (golden to silver), NYE 2002 (green & white strobing angelic), NYE 2005 (red to white strobing angelic), and NYE 2006 (green strobing angelic).

text: "Birthday cake" effect[edit]

text: Originally fired for the Australia Day Bicenntenial Celebrations in 1988, the effect has been used to close the fireworks display with its loudness and brightness. The effect comprises 200 long burning comets shooting out balls of fire 250 feet into the sky, with a silver star effect at the end fired off the top of the bridge, simulating a big birthday cake with 200 lit candles. This effect has closed every Sydney New Year's Eve between NYE 1996 and NYE 1998. It was the used in the finale of the NYE 1999 celebrations. The effect has not been used in Sydney New Year's Eve since NYE 1999.

text: Broadcast[edit]

text: From 1996–2006, the rights to the television broadcast were held by the Nine Network with Richard Wilkins as a host for almost every year. From 2006–09, Network Ten was broadcaster after winning a three-year deal from Nine. In 2009, Nine regained the rights back from Ten until 2013. ABC, ABC HD and Australia Plus had the rights until 2015.

text: The City of Sydney put its 2015–16 Sydney New Year's Eve fireworks coverage to tender, following the conclusion of ABC's two-year contract.[19] However, the ABC held broadcast rights to the 2015[20] and 2016[21] Sydney New Year's Eve coverage.

text:
Broadcast networks and presenters by year

Year
Broadcaster
Host(s)

1996/97
Nine Network
Richard Wilkins
Catriona Rowntree

1997/98
1998/99
Richard Wilkins
Hugh Jackman

1999/2000
Eddie McGuire

2000/01
Richard Wilkins

2001/02
Richard Wilkins
Vince Sorrenti

2002/03
2003/04
2004/05
2005/06
Richard Wilkins

2006/07
Network Ten
Gretel Killeen
Daniel MacPherson

2007/08
2008/09
Kim Watkins
Andrew Günsberg

2009/10
Nine Network
Leila McKinnon
Cameron Williams

2010/11
Alicia Gorey
Michael Usher

2011/12
Jesinta Campbell
Cameron Williams
Jaynie Seal

2012/13
Catriona Rowntree
Jason Dundas

2013/14
ABC
ABC HD
Australia Plus
Lawrence Mooney
Stephanie Brantz

2014/15
Julia Zemiro
Toby Truslove

2015/16
Eddie Perfect
Ella Hooper

2016/17
Jeremy Fernandez
Ella Hooper

2017/18
Charlie Pickering

text: Controversies[edit]

text: NYE 2004 soundtrack[edit]

text: The dance remix of Advance Australia Fair/Waltzing Matilda (by Hylton Mowday) was composed especially for the event. It caused backlash among the public, most notably, the Prime Minister of Australia of the time, John Howard. He said, "the public will not be able to sing along. The anthem should only be played and sung to allow maximum audience participation. It is after all our national anthem and I don't think it should be played around with. It's become widely accepted and I think people should be encouraged to sing it with great gusto, but it's got to be played in a way that enables them to do so. Most of us are pretty inadequate singers at the best of times and trying to keep pace with that, I don't know about you but gee I couldn't".[22]

text: The NSW Opposition Leader of the time, John Brogden was quoted to say "it is simply a bad piece of music. I think it actually strangles the national anthem, which is what I think is upsetting people the most. It's not like it's a slight change on the version that people are willing to entertain for a party. What it is on this occasion is a very bad piece of music and that's why I think the public anger has been so strong. I think people actually regard the treatment of the national anthem as disrespectful, cause it just doesn't work."[23]

text: Network Ten coverage[edit]

text: On NYE 2006–07, Network Ten received many complaints regarding its first ever coverage of the event. The main issue was with a special episode of The Big Night In with John Foreman, shown between the two firework displays where Matthew Newton simulated oral sex with Foreman and pretended to play a piano with his penis.[24][25]

text: ABC coverage[edit]

text: The Australian Broadcasting Corporation received a barrage of complaints from viewers regarding its 2013–14 New Year's Eve coverage, which was the first for the network, with many branding the coverage as a "train wreck" and that many of the presenters may have been affected by alcohol. Additionally, many sexual references were made in the lead-up to the midnight fireworks, with co-presenter Stephanie Brantz warning Lawrence Mooney that the show was "moving into inappropriate land", whilst also trying to restore focus onto the coverage.[26]

text: The following year's 2014–15 coverage was also panned, with descriptions including "embarrassing" and "amateurish". Co-host Julia Zemiro was overheard to say "Oh, thank God" while her microphone was still on as the closing credits began. There were also some technical glitches during the midnight fireworks. The ratings however were slightly up on last year's coverage.[27][28]

text: ABC's coverage of the 2015–16 show was yet again panned by viewers. Viewers this year criticised the show as a "disaster" with the hashtag #abcnye hijacked with complaints during the broadcast. The Children's show was dubbed a "train wreck" by viewers slamming the segment as cringeworthy. The pub quiz, however was praised with some viewers calling host Lawrence Mooney "the funniest man on tv." Some viewers even asked for the rights to be handed back to the Nine Network.[29] Ratings were comparable with the previous year for the midnight fireworks, however the 9pm family fireworks were down around 18%.[30]


document_title: Jeremy Foley (actor)

question_text: who played billy in buffy the vampire slayer

text: Jeremy Foley (actor)

text: Jeremy Foley (born Geronimo Jeremiah Foley on February 20, 1983) is an American actor. Foley is perhaps best known for his appearance as Billy in the Buffy the Vampire Slayer episode "Nightmares", as well as his supporting role of Griffen Lowe in the Nickelodeon show Caitlin's Way.

text: Foley also played Graham in the 1997 film Dante's Peak and voiced the titular ghost in Casper: A Spirited Beginning and Casper Meets Wendy. He also played Clay in the 1999 movie Soccer Dog.


document_title: True Grit (1969 film)

question_text: who played ned pepper in the original true grit

text: True Grit (1969 film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: Frank Ross (John Pickard) is murdered by his hired hand, Tom Chaney (Jeff Corey). Ross's young daughter, Mattie (Kim Darby), travels to Fort Smith, Arkansas, where she hires aging U.S. Marshal Reuben "Rooster" J. Cogburn (John Wayne) to bring Chaney in, raising his fee by shrewdly horse trading with Colonel Stonehill (Strother Martin). Mattie has heard that Cogburn has "true grit." She gives him a payment to track and capture Chaney, who has taken up with outlaw "Lucky" Ned Pepper (Robert Duvall) in Indian Territory (modern-day Oklahoma).

text: A young Texas Ranger, La Boeuf (Glen Campbell), is also pursuing Chaney and joins forces with Cogburn, despite Mattie's protest. The two try to ditch Mattie, but she catches up and is permitted to ride along.

text: After several days, the three discover horse thieves Emmett Quincy (Jeremy Slate) and Moon (Dennis Hopper), who are waiting for Ned Pepper at a remote dugout cabin. Cogburn captures and interrogates the two men. Moon's leg is injured and Cogburn uses the injury as leverage to get information about Lucky Ned. In terrible pain and about to talk, Moon is stabbed by Quincy, who is then killed by Cogburn. In the remaining minute before Moon dies, he reveals that Pepper and his gang are due at the cabin that night to get fresh mounts.

text: Rooster and La Boeuf lay a trap. But as soon as Pepper and his men arrive, La Boeuf blows their cover by firing too soon. A firefight ensues, during which Cogburn and La Boeuf kill two of the gang, but Pepper and the rest of his men escape. Cogburn, La Boeuf, and Mattie make their way to McAlester's store with the dead bodies. Cogburn tries to persuade Mattie to stay at McAlester's, but she refuses.

text: The three resume their pursuit. Fetching water one morning, Mattie finds herself face-to-face with Chaney in a stream. When he comes toward her menacingly, she shoots Chaney with her father's Colt Dragoon, injuring him and calling out to her partners. Pepper and his gang get there first, capturing her. Lucky Ned then forces Cogburn and La Boeuf to abandon the girl and ride away. Pepper decides to leave Mattie in the care of Chaney, who has lost his horse. He promises he will send a horse back for Chaney, vowing to kill him if any harm comes to the girl.

text: Cogburn doubles back and attacks Pepper and his gang single-handedly. La Boeuf, meantime, finds Mattie. They watch from a high bluff as a mounted Cogburn confronts Pepper's gang. Cogburn gives Pepper a choice between being killed right there or surrendering and being hanged in Fort Smith. Calling this "bold talk for a one-eyed fat man," Pepper enrages Cogburn, who charges the four outlaws, guns blazing. He kills two of the gang and mortally wounds Pepper. In the fight, Ned shoots Rooster's horse, trapping Rooster's leg under him as he goes down. As a last act, the wounded Pepper prepares to kill Rooster, until La Boeuf makes a long shot with his Sharps Rifle, doing away with Pepper once and for all.

text: As La Boeuf and Mattie return to Pepper's camp, Chaney comes out from behind a tree and strikes La Boeuf in the head with a rock, fracturing his skull and knocking him unconscious. Mattie is able to shoot Chaney and wound him, but, driven back by the recoil, falls into a snake pit and breaks her arm. Chaney begins to taunt Mattie about the snakes, whereupon Cogburn appears and shoots Chaney. With great difficulty, Cogburn descends into the pit on a rope to retrieve Mattie, who is bitten by a rattlesnake before Cogburn can kill it. The mortally injured La Boeuf helps them out of the pit, saving their lives. La Boeuf dies from the effort.

text: Cogburn is forced to leave La Boeuf's body behind as they race to get help for Mattie at McAlester's on Mattie's pony. After stealing a buckboard, they arrive at their destination. There, an Indian doctor treats Mattie's snakebite and broken arm.

text: Some time later, Mattie's attorney, J. Noble Daggett (John Fiedler) meets Cogburn in Fort Smith. On Mattie's behalf Daggett pays Cogburn for Cogburn's part in Chaney's capture. Cogburn offers to wager the money on a bet that Mattie will recover just fine, a bet Daggett declines.

text: In the epilogue Mattie, her arm in a sling, is back at home recovering from her injuries. She promises Cogburn he will be buried next to her in the Ross family plot after his death. Cogburn reluctantly accepts her offer and leaves, jumping over a fence on his new horse to disprove her good-natured jab that he was too old and fat to clear a four-rail fence, and rides off into the valley below.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Kim Darby as Mattie Ross
John Wayne as Reuben J. "Rooster" Cogburn
Glen Campbell as La Boeuf
Jeremy Slate as Emmett Quincy
Robert Duvall as Lucky Ned Pepper
Dennis Hopper as Moon
Strother Martin as Col. G. Stonehill
Jeff Corey as Tom Chaney
Donald Woods as Barlow
John Fiedler as Lawyer Daggett
James Westerfield as Judge Parker
John Doucette as Sheriff
Edith Atwater as Mrs. Floyd
Carlos Rivas as Dirty Bob
Isabel Boniface as Mrs. Bagby
H.W. Gim as Chen Lee
Ginger Cat as General Sterling Price (uncredited)
John Pickard as Frank Ross
Elizabeth Harrower as Mrs. Ross
Ken Renard as Yarnell
Hank Worden as R. Ryan, the undertaker at Fort Smith
Ron Soble as Captain Boots Finch
Alfred Ryder as Goudy
Jay Ripley as Harold Parmalee
Kenneth Becker as Farrell Parmalee
Wilford Brimley as Minor Role (uncredited)
Leo Alton as Boarding House Guest (uncredited)
Forrest Burns as Courtroom Spectator (uncredited)
Gene Coogan as Boarding House Guest (uncredited)
Myron Healey as Deputy at Prisoner Unloading (uncredited)
Boyd "Red" Morgan as Red (Ferryman) (uncredited)
James McEachin as Judge Parker's Bailiff (uncredited)
Dennis McMullen as Bailiff (uncredited)
Robin Morse as Bit Part (uncredited)
Stuart Randall as McAlester (uncredited)
Connie Sawyer as Talkative Woman at Hanging (uncredited)
Jeffrey Sayre as Courtroom Spectator (uncredited)
Jay Silverheels as Condemned Man at Hanging (uncredited)
Dean Smith as Minor Role (uncredited)
Vince St. Cyr as Gaspargoo (uncredited)
Max Wagner as Courtroom Spectator (uncredited)
Guy Wilkerson as The Hangman (uncredited)
Chalky Williams as Courtroom Spectator (uncredited)
Tom Gosnell as John Wayne Stunt Double (uncredited)

tag: ul

text: Production[edit]

text: Filming took place mainly in Ouray County, Colorado, in the vicinity of Ridgway (now the home of the True Grit Cafe), around the town of Montrose (Montrose County), and the town of Ouray.[2][3][4] (The script maintains the novel's references to place names in Arkansas and Oklahoma, in dramatic contrast to the Colorado topography.) The courtroom scenes were filmed at Ouray County Courthouse in Ouray.[5][6]

text: The scenes that take place at the "dugout" and along the creek where Quincy and Moon are killed, as well as the scene where Rooster carries Mattie on her horse Little Blackie after the snakebite, were filmed at Hot Creek on the east side of the Sierra Nevada near the town of Mammoth Lakes, California. Mount Morrison and Laurel Mountain form the backdrop above the creek. This location was also used in North to Alaska.[3] Filming was done from September to December 1968.[7]

text: Mia Farrow was originally cast as Mattie and was keen on the role. However, prior to filming she made a film in England with Robert Mitchum, who advised her not to work with director Henry Hathaway because he was "cantankerous." Farrow asked producer Hal B. Wallis to replace Hathaway with Roman Polanski, who had directed Farrow in Rosemary's Baby, but Wallis refused. Farrow quit the film, which was then offered to Sondra Locke and Tuesday Weld, both of whom turned it down. John Wayne met Karen Carpenter at a talent show he was hosting and recommended her for the part, though the producers decided against it because she had no acting experience. Wayne had also lobbied for his daughter Aissa to win the part. After also considering Sally Field, the role went to Kim Darby.[8]

text: Elvis Presley was the original choice for LaBoeuf but the producers turned him down when his agent demanded top-billing over both Wayne and Darby. Glen Campbell was then cast instead. Wayne began lobbying for the part of Rooster Cogburn after reading the novel by Charles Portis.

text: Wayne called Marguerite Roberts' script "the best script he had ever read," and was instrumental in getting her script approved and credited to her name after Roberts had been blacklisted for alleged leftist affiliations years before. This came in spite of Wayne's own right-wing ideals.[3] He particularly liked the scene with Darby where Rooster tells Mattie about his life in Illinois (where he has a restaurant, his wife Nola leaves him because of his degenerate friends, and has a clumsy son named Horace), calling it "about the best scene I ever did."[9] Garry Wills notes in his book, John Wayne's America: The Politics of Celebrity, that Wayne's performance as Rooster Cogburn bears close resemblance to the way Wallace Beery portrayed similar characters in the 1930s and 1940s, an inspired if surprising choice on Wayne's part. Wills comments that it's difficult for one actor to imitate another for the entire length of a movie and that the Beery mannerisms temporarily recede during the aforementioned scene in which Cogburn discusses his wife and child.[10]

text: Veteran John Wayne stunt-double Tom Gosnell does the stunt in the meadow, where "Bo" goes down, on his longtime horse Twinkle Toes.[11] In the last scene, Mattie gives Rooster her father's gun. She comments that he's gotten a tall horse, as she expected he would. He notes that his new horse can jump a four-rail fence. Then she admonishes him, "You're too old and fat to be jumping horses." Rooster responds with a smile, saying, "Well, come see a fat old man sometime," and jumps his new horse over a fence. Although many of Wayne's stunts over the years were done by Hayward and Chuck Roberson, it is Wayne on Twinkle Toes going over the fence.[11] Darby's stunts were done by Polly Burson.[12]

text: The horse shown during the final scene of True Grit (before he jumps the fence on Twinkle Toes) was Dollor, a two-year-old (in 1969) chestnut Quarter horse gelding. Dollor ('Ole Dollor) was Wayne's favorite horse for 10 years. Wayne fell in love with the horse, which would carry him through several more Westerns, including his final movie, The Shootist. Wayne had Dollor written into the script of The Shootist because of his love for the horse; it was a condition for him working on the project. Wayne would not let anyone else ride the horse, the lone exception being Robert Wagner, who rode the horse in a segment of the Hart to Hart television show, after Wayne's death.[13]

text: Reception[edit]

text: The cast and crew were initially skeptical about the film. John Wayne, in particular, was disappointed with the finished result. He hated Kim Darby's performance, saying that they hardly spoke off-camera and that she behaved inappropriately on the set. For his part, Henry Hathaway hated the casting and performance of Glen Campbell, who he felt had been pushed on him by the studio to get a hit with the film's title song. Both Wayne and Hathaway had difficulties with Robert Duvall, with the director having constant shouting matches with his supporting actor and Duvall and Wayne nearly coming to blows.

text: The film earned an estimated $11.5 million in rentals at the North American box office during its first year of release.[14] As of May 2014, the film maintains a rating of 90% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 48 reviews.

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text: John Wayne won a Golden Globe and the Academy Award for Best Actor. Upon accepting his Oscar, Wayne said, "Wow! If I'd known that, I'd have put that patch on 35 years earlier."[15] The title song, by composer Elmer Bernstein and lyricist Don Black, and sung by Glen Campbell, who co-starred in the movie, received nominations for both the Academy Award for Best Song and the Golden Globe.

text: Differences from the novel[edit]

text: Unlike the book, the movie doesn’t introduce Mattie as an old woman telling a story of her childhood, but instead begins and ends in late 1880, when Mattie is 14. In the book, Mattie remains the central character throughout; in the movie Rooster Cogburn gets an equal share of the limelight. The film also downplays the novel's biblical tone and adds a hint of romance between Mattie and La Boeuf. La Boeuf also does not die in the novel, but survives his head injury. Another significant difference from Portis' tale is that Mattie has her arm amputated as a result of the rattlesnake attack, in contrast to the final scene in the film where Mattie is seen with only a sling on her arm—indicating that she is recovering from the snake bites and intact physically. The novel's conclusion makes the reader aware that the story has been recounted by Mattie as an elderly, one-armed woman who never married. Also in the book, Mattie shoots Chaney in the head with her Dragoon but he survives until Rooster hits him with the butt of his rifle and he falls into the pit. In the movie, Rooster shoots Chaney.

text: In the book and both this movie and the 2010 film version, Mattie's Colt Dragoon misfires at a critical moment. The book explains this as, while drunk, Rooster used it to shoot a rat. Mattie insisted he re-load the two chambers fired, which he did, while still drunk, using defective old caps from a box under his bed. In the 1969 film, Rooster shoots the rat with his own Peacemaker, removing the reloading scene. Thus, during the scene where the Dragoon misfires it is unfairly portrayed as an unreliable weapon. However, during the graveyard scene at the end of the movie, when Mattie presents Rooster with the Dragoon as a gift, he states "It almost got you killed when it misfired once," to which she responds "That is because you loaded it wrong when you were in a state of drunkenness." When or why he reloaded it is not explained, but the misfire itself is.

text: In the book, Tom Chaney was a young man; Mattie guessed his age to be around 25. Jeff Corey, who played Chaney in the movie, was 55 at the time. In the movie, La Boeuf claims to have a girl in Texas who would "look with favor" on his capture of Tom Chaney. In the book, La Boeuf made no mention of a girlfriend; his motive for capturing Chaney was purely financial.

text: In the book, Rooster Cogburn had a mustache and did not wear an eye patch, though he had only one eye. In his fight with Ned Pepper, he wielded two Navy six-shooters. In the movie, Wayne carried a six-shooter in his left hand and his Winchester Model 1892 large-loop rifle in the other (the rifle is anachronistic, being introduced 12 years after the setting of the movie). The character of Rooster was supposed to be around 40 in the novel; in the film, he was played by 61-year-old Wayne.

text: In the book, Mattie has her arm amputated due to the snakebite and break. Rooster pays her a visit while she is recovering from the procedure, but she is too sedated to remember. She tries to meet him 25 years later while he is traveling in a wild west show, but he passes away a few days before they can meet. She has his remains exhumed and re-interred in her family plot.

text: Also, the film's Colorado location and mountain scenery are in sharp contrast to the script's references to place names in Arkansas and Oklahoma. Further, the film is set in autumn, while the book clearly sets the story in winter, with snow on the ground outside the dugout where Quincy and Moon awaited Pepper's gang. In the book, when Mattie falls into the snake pit her left arm is broken; in the movie it is her right arm. In the book she faces a ball of snakes which are disturbed in their winter quarters when Chaney falls on them. In the film Mattie faces a single rattlesnake.

text: Sequels and other film versions[edit]

text: A film sequel, Rooster Cogburn, was made in 1975, with Wayne reprising his role and Katharine Hepburn as an elderly spinster, Eula Goodnight, who teams up with him. The plot has been described as a rehash of the original True Grit with elements of the Bogart-Hepburn film The African Queen.[16] A further made-for-television sequel titled True Grit: A Further Adventure appeared in 1978, starring Warren Oates as Rooster Cogburn and Lisa Pelikan as Mattie Ross and featuring subsequent adventures of the valiant pair.

text: In 2010, Joel and Ethan Coen directed another adaptation of the novel. Their adaptation focuses more on Mattie's point of view, as in the novel, and is more faithful to its Oklahoma setting.[17] Hailee Steinfeld portrays Mattie Ross, Jeff Bridges plays Rooster Cogburn, and the cast also includes Matt Damon as La Boeuf and Josh Brolin as Tom Chaney.


document_title: Polygyny

question_text: which type of economy most often practices polygyny

question_tokens: which type of economy most often practices polygyny

text: Polygyny

text: Incidence[edit]

text: Today, polygyny is more widespread in Africa than in any other continent.[2] Some scholars see the slave trade's impact on the male-to-female sex ratio as a key factor in the emergence and fortification of polygynous practices in regions of Africa.[3] Generally in rural areas with growing populations, the higher the incidence of polygyny, the greater the delay of first marriage for young men.[citation needed] The higher the average polygyny rate, the greater the element of gerontocracy and social stratification.[citation needed]

text: Throughout the African polygyny belt stretching from Senegal in the west to Tanzania in the east, as many as a third to a half of married women are in polygynous unions, and polygyny is found especially in West Africa.[4] Historically, polygyny was partly accepted in ancient Hebrew society, in classical China, and in sporadic traditional Native American, African and Polynesian cultures. In India it was known to have been practiced during ancient times. It was accepted in ancient Greece, until the Roman Empire and the Roman Catholic Church.

text: In North America, polygyny is practiced by some Mormon sects, such as the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (FLDS Church).[5][6]

text: Cause and explanation[edit]

text: Augmenting division of labor[edit]

text: Boserup (1970)[7] was the first to propose that the high incidence of polygyny in sub-Saharan Africa is rooted in the sexual division of labor in hoe-farming and the large economic contribution of women.

text: In the regions of shifting cultivation where polygyny is most frequently recorded, labor is often starkly divided between genders. The task of felling trees in preparation of new plots is usually done by older boys and very young men. Wives, on the other hand, are solely or primarily responsible for giving birth and rearing children; cultivating, processing and providing food for the family; and for performing domestic duties for the husband.

text: An elderly cultivator, with several wives and likely several young male children, benefits from having a much larger workforce within his household. By the combined efforts of his young sons and young wives, he may gradually expand his cultivation and become more prosperous. A man with a single wife has less help in cultivation and is likely to have little or no help for felling trees. According to Boserup's historical data, women living in such a structure also welcome one or more co-wives to share with them the burden of daily labor. However, the second wife will usually do the most tiresome work, almost as if she were a servant to the first wife, and will be inferior to the first wife in status.[8][page needed] A 1930s study of the Mende in the west African state of Sierra Leone concluded that a plurality of wives is an agricultural asset, since a large number of women makes it unnecessary to employ wage laborers. Polygyny is considered an economic advantage in many rural areas. In some cases, the economic role of the additional wife enables the husband to enjoy more leisure.[9][page needed]

text: Anthropologist Jack Goody's comparative study of marriage around the world, using the Ethnographic Atlas, demonstrated a historical correlation between the practice of extensive shifting horticulture and polygyny in the majority of Sub-Saharan African societies.[10] Drawing on the work of Ester Boserup, Goody notes that in some of the sparsely populated regions where shifting cultivation takes place in Africa, much of the work is done by women. This favoured polygamous marriages in which men sought to monopolize the production of women "who are valued both as workers and as child bearers." Goody however, observes that the correlation is imperfect, and also describes more male dominated though relatively extensive farming systems such as those that exist in much of West Africa, particularly the savannah region, where polygamy is desired more for the production of sons whose labor is valued."[11][12]

text: Goody's observation regarding African male farming systems is discussed and supported by anthropologists Douglas R. White and Michael L. Burton in "Causes of Polygyny: Ecology, Economy, Kinship, and Warfare",[13] where the authors note: "Goody (1973) argues against the female contributions hypothesis. He notes Dorjahn's (1959) comparison of East and West Africa, showing higher female agricultural contributions in East Africa and higher polygyny rates in West Africa, especially in the West African savannah, where one finds especially high male agricultural contributions. Goody says, "The reasons behind polygyny are sexual and reproductive rather than economic and productive" (1973:189), arguing that men marry polygynously to maximize their fertility and to obtain large households containing many young dependent males."[14]

text: Desire for progeny[edit]

text: Most research into the determinants of polygyny has focused on macro-level factors. Widespread polygyny is linked to the kinship groups that share descent from a common ancestor.[15] Polygyny also served as "a dynamic principle of family survival, growth, security, continuity, and prestige," especially as a socially approved mechanism that increases the number of adult workers immediately and the eventual workforce of resident children.[16]

text: According to scientific studies, the human mating system is considered to be moderately polygynous, based on both surveys of world populations[17],[18] and on characteristics of human reproductive physiology.[19] [20] [21]

text: Economic burden[edit]

text: Scholars have argued that in farming systems where men do most of the agriculture work, a second wife can be an economic burden rather than an asset. In order to feed an additional wife, the husband must either work harder himself or he must hire laborers to do part of the work. In such regions, polygyny is either non-existent or is a luxury which only a small minority of rich farmers can indulge.[8][page needed]

text: A report by the secretariat of the UN Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) quotes: "one of the strongest appeals of polygyny to men in Africa is precisely its economic aspect, for a man with several wives commands more land, can produce more food for his household and can achieve a high status due to the wealth which he can command.".[8][page needed] According to Esther Boserup, over much of the continent of Africa, tribal rules of land tenure are still in force.[page needed] This implies that members of a tribe, which commands a certain territory, have a native right to take land under cultivation for food production and in many cases also for the cultivation of cash crops. Under this tenure system, an additional wife is an economic asset that helps the family to expand its production.

text: The economist Michèle Tertilt concludes that countries that practice polygyny are less economically stable than those that practice monogamy. Polygynous countries usually have a higher fertility rate, fewer savings reserves, and a lower GDP. Fertility would decrease by 40%, savings would increase by 70%, and GDP would increase by 170% if polygyny was banned.[3] Monogamous societies present a surge in economic productivity because monogamous men are able to save and invest their resources due to having fewer children. Polygynous societies have a higher concentration of men investing into methods of mating with women, whereas monogamous men invest more into their families and other related institutions.[22]

text: Despite the expenses of polygynous marriages, men benefit from marrying multiple wives through the economic and social insurance that kinship ties produce. With a large network of in-laws, these men have the ties they need to compensate for other economic shortages.[23]

text: Sex drive[edit]

text: Some analysts have posited that a high libido may be a factor in polygyny,[24] although others have downplayed its significance.[25] The sex drive as a factor in some Asian cultures was sometimes associated with wealthy men and those that were adjunct to an aristocracy,[26] although such libidinal perceptions were at times discarded in favor of seeing polygyny as a factor of traditional life.[27] Other explanations postulate that polygyny is a tool used to ward off inclinations towards infidelity.[28]

text: Findings[edit]

text: Some research that show that males living in polygynous marriages may live 12 percent longer.[29] Polygyny may be practiced where there is a lower male:female ratio; this may result from male infants having increased mortality from infectious diseases.[30]

text: Other research shows that wherever polygyny is widely practised societies become destabilized, bloodier, more likely to invade neighbours and more likely to fail.[31] This has been attributed to the inequality factor of polygyny, where rich men can take extra wives, leaving more poor men single. A study has also shown that, after controlling for other factors, African children in polygynous families were more likely to die young, due to less attentive fathers.[31]

text: Effects on women[edit]

text: Polygynous marriages play a huge role in maintaining the hold of gender roles across the continent of Africa. Even though African women make up more than half of the continent's population, women hold subordinate positions in comparison to African men. Polygyny helps uphold inequality between the two genders by creating a legal bond through marriage that binds women into a subordinate role. Women across the continent are responsible for a large portion of the production of farming (sustainable and cash crops) yet, men married to these women reap the benefits and are allowed to redistribute their gains throughout the family as they would like.[32] However, Islam is against this and gives the woman independent control over her wealth. Inequality between husbands and wives are common in countries where polygyny is more frequently practiced because of limited education. Polygyny continues to enforce the male domination that has been seen in societies all over with the belief that women are inferior to men with the exclusion of few matriarchal societies. In Africa polygyny was believed to be part of the way to build an empire. It was not until the post colonialism era in Africa that polygyny began to be viewed as unjust or taboo. According to Natali Exposito, "in a study of the Ngwa Igbo Clan in Nigeria identified five principal reasons for men to maintain more than one wife: because having more than one wife allows the Ngwa husband to (1) have the many children that he desires; (2) heighten his prestige and boost his ego among his peers; (3) enhance his status within the community; (4) ensure a sufficient availability of labor to perform the necessary farm work and the processing of commercial oil-palm produce; and (5) satisfy his sexual urges.”[33] Out of all of the reasons stated none are beneficial to the wives, but instead only beneficial to the husbands. In Egypt, feminist have fought for polygamy to be abolished, but it is viewed as a basic human right so the fight has been unsuccessful. In countries where polygyny is practiced less frequently, women have more equality in the marriage and are better able to communicate their opinions about family planning.[34]

text: Women participating in polygynous marriages share common marital problems with women in a monogamous marriage; however, there are issues uniquely related to polygyny which affects their overall life satisfaction and have severe implications for women's health.[35] Women practicing polygyny are susceptible to sexually transmitted diseases, infertility, and mental health complications.[34] Among the Logoli of Kenya, the fear of AIDS or becoming infected with the HIV virus has informed women's decisions about entering polygynous marriages. Some view polygyny as a means to prevent men from taking random sexual partners and potentially introducing STDs into relationships. Interviews conducted with some of the Logoli tribe in Kenya suggested they feared polygynous marriages because of what they have witnessed in the lives of other women who are currently in such relationships. The observed experiences of some of the women in polygynous unions tend to be characterized by frequent jealousy, conflicts, competition, tensions, and psychological stresses. Some of the husbands fail to share love and other resources equally; and envy and hatred, and sometimes violent physical confrontations become the order of the day among co-wives and their children. This discourages women from entering a polygynous marriage.[16] Research shows that competition and conflict can intensify to unbearable level for co- wives causing women to commit suicide due to psychological distress. Findings show that the wife order can affect life satisfaction. According to Bove and Valeggia, women who are senior wives often misuse their position to obtain healthcare benefits in countries one wife can become a recipient. The conflict between co-wives can attribute to the higher rates of mental health disorders such as anxiety, depression, and paranoia.[35]

text: Various methods have been used to reduce the amount of jealousy and conflict among wives. These include sororal polygyny, in which the co-wives are sisters; and hut polygyny, in which each wife has her own residence and the husband visits them in rotation. A clear status hierarchy among wives is also sometimes used to avoid fighting by establishing unequivocally each wife's rights and obligations.[36] Although there are several harmful aspects of this practice related to women, there are some reported personal and economic advantages for women such as sharing household and childrearing responsibilities. Also, wives share companionship and support with co-wives.[34]

text: Premodern Era[edit]

text: In Africa, the Americas, and Southeast Asia in the Premodern Era, circa 600BCE - 1600 BCE; both monogamy and polygyny occurred. Polygyny occurred even in areas of where monogamy was prevalent. Wealth played a key role in the development of family life during these times. Wealth meant the more powerful men had a principal wife and several secondary wives, known as resource polygyny. Local rulers of villages usually had the most wives as a sign of power and status. Conquerors of villages would often marry the daughters of the former leaders as a symbol of conquest. The practice of resource polygyny continued with the spread and expansion of Islam in Africa and Southeast Asia. Children born into these households were considered free. Children born to free or slave concubines were free, but had lesser status than those born to wives. Living arrangements varied between areas. In Africa, each wife usually their own house, as well as property and animals. The idea that all property was owned by the husband originated in Europe and was not recognized in Africa. In many other parts of the world, wives lived together in seclusion, under one household. A harem (also known as a forbidden area) was a special part of the house for the wives.[37]

text: By country[edit]

text: Africa[edit]

text: Kenya[edit]

text: Polygynous marriage was preferred among the Logoli and other Abalulya sub ethnic groups. Taking additional wives was regarded as one of the fundamental indicators of a successfully established man. Large families enhanced the prestige of Logoli men. Logoli men with large families were also capable of obtaining justice, as they would be feared by people, who would not dare to use force to take their livestock or other goods from them. Interviews with some of the contemporary Logoli men and women who recently made polygynous marriages yielded data which suggest that marrying another wife is usually approached with considerable thought and deliberation by the man. It may or may not involve or require the consent of the other wives and prospective wife's parents. A type of "surrogate pregnancy" arrangement was reported to have been observed, in which some wives who are unable to bear children, find fulfillment in the children and family provided by a husband taking additional wives.[38] Some of the men indicated that they were pressured by their parents to marry another wife, who could contribute additional income to the family. Some of the young polygynous men indicated that they were trapped in polygyny because of the large number of single women who needed and were willing to take them as husbands although they were already married. Most of those second and third wives were older women who had not yet married.[16]

text: Nigeria[edit]

text: Customary law, one of the three legal systems in operation in Nigeria (The other two being Nigerian common law and Sharia law) allows for the legal marriage of more than one woman by a single man.

text: Unlike those marriages recognised by Sharia, there is no limit to the number of legal wives allowed under customary law. Currently polygyny is most common within royal and noble families within the country, and is largely practiced by the tribes native to its north and west. Although far less popular there, it is nonetheless also legal in Nigeria's east and south.

text: Asia[edit]

text: Many majority-Muslim countries retain the traditional sharia, which interprets teachings of the Quran to permit polygamy with up to four wives. Exceptions to this include Albania, Tunisia, Turkey, and former USSR republics. Though about 70% of the population of Albania is historically Muslim, the majority is non-practicing. Turkey and Tunisia are countries with overwhelmingly Muslim populations that enforce secularist practices by law. In the former USSR republics, a prohibition against polygamy has been inherited from Soviet Law. In the 21st century, a revival of the practice of polygamy in the Muslim World has contributed to efforts to re-establish its legality and legitimacy in some countries and communities where it is illegal.

text: Proposals have been made to re-legalize polygamy in other ex-Soviet Muslim republics, such as Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan and Uzbekistan.[39]

text: The original wife (or legal wife) was referred to as the 正室 zhèngshì /정실 (main room) both in China, Japan and Korea. 大婆 dàpó ("big woman/big wife") is the slang term. Both terms indicate the orthodox nature and hierarchy. The official wife was called "big mother" (大媽 dàmā), mother or aunt. The child of the concubine addressed the big mother as "aunt".

text: The written word for the second woman was 側室 cèshì /측실 and literally means "she who occupied the side room". This word was also used in both Korea and Japan. They were also called 妾 qiè/첩 in China and Korea. The common terms referring to the second woman, and the act of having the second woman respectively, are 二奶 (èrnǎi), literally "the second wife".

text: India[edit]

text: Polygamy in India is, in general, prohibited and the vast majority of marriages are legally monogamous. Polygyny among Christians was banned in the late 19th century, while The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 banned polygyny for Hindus. Currently polygyny is only allowed among Muslims, but it is strongly discouraged by public policy. Muslims are subject to the terms of The Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act of 1937, interpreted by the All India Muslim Personal Law Board. Prevalence of polygyny in India is very low: among married women, only 1.68% of Hindus, 2.45% of Muslims, 2.16% of Christians, and 1.16% of other religions live in polygynous marriages.[40]

text: China[edit]

text: In mainland China, polygamy is illegal under Marriage Law passed in 1980. This replaced a similar 1950 prohibition.[41] It is tolerated in Tibet.

text: Polygyny where wives are of equal status had always been illegal in China, and had been considered a crime in some dynasties. In family laws from Tang to Qing Dynasties, the status of a wife, concubines and maid-mistresses couldn't be altered.[42] However, concubinage was supported by law until the end of the Qing/Ching dynasty of the imperial China (1911).[citation needed] In the past, Emperors could and often did have hundreds to thousands of concubines. Rich officials and merchants of the elite also took concubines in addition to legal wives. The first wife was the head or mother wife; other wives were under her headship if the husband was away. Concubines had a lower status than full wives, generally not being seen in public with their husband and not having rights to decisions in the house. Children from concubines were considered inferior to those of the wife and did not receive equal wealth/legacy from their father. However they were considered legitimate, therefore had many more rights to inheritance of status and wealth than illegitimate children conceived outside a marriage.

text: Polygamy was de facto widely practiced in the Republic of China from 1911 to 1949, before Kuomintang was defeated in the Civil War and forced to retreat to Taiwan. Zhang Zongchang, a well-known warlord, notably declared he had three 'unknowns' - unknown number of rifles, unknown amount of money, and unknown number of concubines. 不知道自己有多少枪，不知道自己有多少钱，不知道自己有多少姨太太[43] After the People's Republic of China was founded in 1949, polygamy was strictly prohibited.

text: Chinese men in Hong Kong could practice concubinage by virtue of the Qing Code. This ended with the passing of the Marriage Act of 1971. Kevin Murphy of the International Herald Tribune reported on the cross-border polygamy phenomenon in Hong Kong in 1995.[44] In a research paper of Humboldt University of Berlin on sexology, Doctor Man-Lun Ng estimated about 300,000 men in China have mistresses. In 1995, 40% of extramarital affairs in Hong Kong involved a stable partner.[45]

text: Period drama and historical novels frequently refer to the former culture of polygamy (usually polygyny). An example is the Wuxia novel The Deer and the Cauldron by Hong Kong writer Louis Cha, in which the protagonist Wei Xiaobao has seven wives (In new edition of the novel, Princess Jianning was assigned as the wife, while others are concubines).

text: Kyrgyzstan[edit]

text: A proposal to decriminalize polygamy was heard by the Kyrgyz parliament. It was supported by the Justice Minister, the country's ombudsman, and the Muslim Women's organization Mutakalim, which had gathered 40,000 signatures in favour of polygamy. But, on March 26, 2007, parliament rejected the bill. President Kurmanbek Bakiyev is known to oppose legalizing polygyny.[46][47] Despite his opposition, he legally has two wives: Tatyana, with whom he has two sons; and Nazgul Tolomusheva, who gave birth for son and daughter.[48]

text: Tajikistan[edit]

text: Due to an increase in the number of polygamous marriages, proposals were made in Tajikistan to re-legalize polygamy.[49] Tajik women who want to be second wives particularly support decriminalizing polygyny. Mukhiddin Kabiri, the Deputy Chairman of the Islamic Renaissance Party of Tajikistan, says that legislation is unlikely to stop the growth in polygyny. He criticizes the ruling élite for speaking out against the practice while taking more than one wife themselves.[50]

text: Europe[edit]

text: Bosnia and Herzegovina[edit]

text: The Muslim communities of Bosnia and Herzegovina traditionally practiced polygamy but the practice was last observed in Cazinska Krajina in the early 1950s.[51] Although illegal in the country, polygamy is encouraged by certain religious circles, and the number of practitioners has increased. This trend appears linked with the advent of fundamentalist Wahhabism in the Balkans.[52]

text: The Bosniak population in neighbouring Raška, Serbia, has also been influenced by this trend in Bosnia. They have suggested creating an entire Islamic jurisdiction including polygamy, but these proposals have been rejected by Serbia. The top cleric, the Mufti of Novi Pazar, Muamer Zukorlić, has taken a second wife.[53]

text: Russia[edit]

text: Factual polygamy and sexual relationships with several adult partners are not punishable in accordance with current revisions of Criminal Code of Russia and Code of the Russian Federation on Administrative Offenses. But multiple marriage can't be registered and officially recognised by Russian authorities because Family Code of Russia (section 14 and others) prohibits registration of marriage if one of person is in another registered marriage in Russia or another country. Polygamy is tolerated in predominantly Muslim republics such as Chechnya, Ingushetia, and Dagestan.[54]

text: Polygyny was legalized and documented in unrecognised Chechen Republic of Ichkeria but Russian authorities had annulled these polygynous marriages after they regained control over territory of Ichkeria. Later Ramzan Kadyrov, President of the Chechen Republic, has been quoted on radio as saying that the depopulation of Chechnya by war justifies legalizing polygamy.[55] Kadyrov has been supported by Nafigallah Ashirov, the Chairman of the Council of Grand Muftis of Russia, who has said that polygamy is already widespread among Muslim communities of the country.[56]

text: In Ingushetia in July, 1999 polygyny was officially recognised and allowed by edict of president of Ingushetia Ruslan Aushev and registration of polygyny marriages had been started. But this edict had been formally suspended soon by edict of President of Russia Boris Yeltsin. One year later this edict of Aushev had been cancelled by the Supreme Court of Ingushetia because of contradiction with Family Code of Russia.[57]

text: Although non-Muslim Russian populations have historically practiced monogamy, Russian politician Vladimir Zhirinovsky offered to legalize polygyny to encourage population growth and correct the demographic crisis of Russians. Zhirinovsky first proposed to legalize polygyny in 1993, after Kadyrov's declaration that he would introduce an amendment to legalize polygyny for all Russian citizens.[58][59]

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: In the U.K, there are believed to be up to 20,000 polygamous marriages in Britain's Muslim's community,[60] even though bigamy is an offence.[61]

text: North America[edit]

text: United States and Canada[edit]

text: Polygyny is illegal in the United States and Canada.

text: Mormon fundamentalism believes in the validity of selected fundamental aspects of Mormonism as taught and practiced in the nineteenth century. Fundamentalist Latter-Day Saints' teachings include plural marriage, a form of polygyny first taught by Joseph Smith, the founder of the Latter Day Saint movement.

text: In the 21st century, several sources have claimed as many as 60,000 fundamentalist Latter-day Saints in the United States,[62][63] with fewer than half of them living in polygamous households.[64] Others have suggested that there may be as few as 20,000 Mormon fundamentalists[65][66] with only 8,000 to 15,000 practicing polygamy.[67] The largest Mormon fundamentalist groups are the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (FLDS Church) and the Apostolic United Brethren (AUB). The FLDS Church is estimated to have 10,000 members residing in the sister cities of Hildale, Utah and Colorado City, Arizona; Eldorado, Texas; Westcliffe, Colorado; Mancos, Colorado; Creston and Bountiful, British Columbia; and Pringle, South Dakota.[68]

text: Religion[edit]

text: Hinduism[edit]

text: The Hindu scriptures acknowledge numerous occasions of polygyny; it was the norm among kings, the nobility and the extremely wealthy. Pandu, the father of the Pandavas in Mahabharata, had two wives Kunti and Madri. Krishna, considered one of the incarnations of Vishnu, had eight chief wives and sixteen thousand junior wives.[69] Many other personalities including Rama had only one wife, and while this was regarded as morally exemplary, polygyny remained customary and acceptable among Hindus. It was legally abolished for Hindus in India by the Hindu Marriage Act of 1956.

text: Judaism[edit]

text: The Torah, the Five Books of Moses; Genesis-Deuteronomy, includes specific regulations on the practice of polygyny. Exodus 21:10 states that multiple marriages are not to diminish the status of the first wife, while Deuteronomy 21:15-17 states that a man must award the inheritance due to a first-born son to the son who was born first, even if he hates that son's mother and likes another wife more; and Deuteronomy 17:17 states that the king shall not have too many wives.[70][71]

text: According to Michael Coogan, "[p]olygyny continued to be practiced well into the biblical period, and it is attested among Jews as late as the second century CE."[72] The incidence was limited, however, and it was likely largely restricted to the wealthy.[73] By the first century, both the expense and the practical problems associated with maintaining multiple wives were barriers to the practice, especially for the less wealthy.[74] Since the 11th century, Ashkenazi Jews have followed Rabbenu Gershom's ban on polygyny (except in rare circumstances).[75]

text: Some Mizrahi (Mideast) Jewish communities (particularly Yemenite Jews and Persian Jews) discontinued polygyny more recently, after they immigrated to countries where it was forbidden or illegal. Israel prohibits polygamy by law.[76][77] In practice, however, the law is loosely enforced, primarily to avoid interference with Bedouin culture, where polygyny is practiced.[78] Pre-existing polygynous unions among Jews from Arab countries (or other countries where the practice was not prohibited by their tradition and was not illegal) are not subject to this Israeli law. But Mizrahi Jews are not permitted to enter into new polygamous marriages in Israel. However polygamy may still occur in non-European Jewish communities that exist in countries where it is not forbidden, such as Jewish communities in Yemen and the Arab world.

text: Karaite Jews, who do not adhere to Rabbinic interpretations of the Torah, do not practice polygyny. Karaites interpret Leviticus 18:18 to mean that a man can only take a second wife if his first wife gives her consent[79] and Exodus 21:10 to mean that a man can only take a second wife if he is capable of maintaining the same level of marital duties due to his first wife: namely, food, clothing, and sexual gratification.

text: Christianity[edit]

text: Polygamy is not forbidden in the Old Testament. The New Testament is largely silent on polygamy, however, some point to Jesus's repetition of the earlier scriptures, noting that a man and a wife "shall become one flesh".[80] However, some look to Paul's writings to the Corinthians: "Do you not know that he who is joined to a prostitute becomes one body with her? For, as it is written, 'The two will become one flesh.'" Supporters of polygamy claim this indicates that the term refers to a physical, rather than spiritual,[clarification needed] union.[81]

text: Most Christian theologians argue that in Matthew 19:3-9 and referring to Genesis 2:24 Jesus explicitly states a man should have only one wife:

text: Have ye not read, that he which made them at the beginning made them male and female, And said, For this cause shall a man leave father and mother, and shall cleave to his wife: and they twain shall be one flesh?

text: Jesus also tells the Parable of the Ten Virgins going to meet the bridegroom, without making any explicit criticism or other comment on the practice of polygamy.

text: The Bible states in the New Testament that polygamy should not be practiced by certain church leaders. 1 Timothy states that certain Church leaders should have but one wife: "A bishop then must be blameless, the husband of one wife, vigilant, sober, of good behavior, given to hospitality, apt to teach" (chapter 3, verse 2; see also verse 12 regarding deacons having only one wife). Similar counsel is repeated in the first chapter of the Epistle to Titus.[82]

text: Periodically, Christian reform movements that have aimed at rebuilding Christian doctrine based on the Bible alone (sola scriptura) have at least temporarily accepted polygyny as a Biblical practice. For example, during the Protestant Reformation, in a document referred to simply as "Der Beichtrat" (or "The Confessional Advice" ),[83] Martin Luther granted the Landgrave Philip of Hesse, who, for many years, had been living "constantly in a state of adultery and fornication",[84] a dispensation to take a second wife. The double marriage was to be done in secret, however, to avoid public scandal.[85] Some fifteen years earlier, in a letter to the Saxon Chancellor Gregor Brück, Luther stated that he could not "forbid a person to marry several wives, for it does not contradict Scripture." ("Ego sane fateor, me non posse prohibere, si quis plures velit uxores ducere, nec repugnat sacris literis.")[86]

text: "On February 14, 1650, the parliament at Nürnberg decreed that, because so many men were killed during the Thirty Years' War, the churches for the following ten years could not admit any man under the age of 60 into a monastery. Priests and ministers not bound by any monastery were allowed to marry. Lastly, the decree stated that every man was allowed to marry up to ten women. The men were admonished to behave honorably, provide for their wives properly, and prevent animosity among them."[87][88][89][90][91][92]

text: In Sub-Saharan Africa, there has often been a tension between the Christian insistence on monogamy and traditional polygamy. In some instances in recent times there have been moves for accommodation; in other instances, churches have resisted such moves strongly. African Independent Churches have sometimes referred to those parts of the Old Testament that describe polygamy in defending the practice.

text: Islam[edit]

text: Under Islamic marital jurisprudence, Muslim men are allowed to practice polygyny, that is, they can have more than one wife at the same time, up to a total of four. Polyandry, the practice of a woman having more than one husband, is not permitted.

text: Based on verse 30:21 of Quran the ideal relationship is the comfort that a couple find in each other's embrace:

text: And one of His signs is that He created for you spouses from among yourselves so that you may find comfort in them. And He has placed between you compassion and mercy. Surely in this are signs for people who reflect.

text: The polygyny that is allowed in the Quran is for special situations; however, it advises monogamy if a man fears he can't deal justly with them. This is based on verse 4:3 of Quran which says:

text: If you fear you might fail to give orphan women their ˹due˺ rights ˹if you were to marry them˺, then marry other women of your choice—two, three, or four. But if you are afraid you will fail to maintain justice, then ˹content yourselves with˺ one or those ˹bondwomen˺ in your possession. This way you are less likely to commit injustice.

text: There are strict requirements to marrying more than one woman, as the man must treat them equally financially and in terms of support given to each wife, according to Islamic law.

text: Muslim women aren't allowed to marry more than one husband at once. However, in the case of a divorce or their husbands' death they can remarry after the completion of Iddah, as divorce is legal in Islamic law. A non-Muslim woman who flees from her non-Muslim husband and accepts Islam can remarry without divorce from her previous husband, as her marriage with non-Muslim husband is Islamically dissolved on her fleeing. A non-Muslim woman captured during war by Muslims, can also remarry, as her marriage with her non-Muslim husband is Islamically dissolved at capture by Muslim soldiers.This permission is given to such women in verse 4:24 of Quran. The verse also emphasizes on transparency, mutual agreement and financial compensation as prerequisites for matrimonial relationship as opposed to prostitution; it says:

text: Also ˹forbidden are˺ married women—except ˹female˺ captives in your possession. This is God's commandment to you. Lawful to you are all beyond these—as long as you seek them with your wealth in a legal marriage, not in fornication. Give those you have consummated marriage with their due dowries. It is permissible to be mutually gracious regarding the set dowry. Surely God is All-Knowing, All-Wise.

text: Muhammad was monogamously married to Khadija, his first wife, for 25 years, until she died. After her death, he married multiple women, mostly widows,[96] for social and political reasons.[97] He had a total of nine wives, but not all at the same time, depending on the sources in his lifetime. The Qur'an does not give preference in marrying more than one wife. One reason cited for polygyny is that it allows a man to give financial protection to multiple women, who might otherwise not have any support (e.g. widows).[98] However, the wife can set a condition, in the marriage contract, that the husband cannot marry another woman during their marriage. In such a case, the husband cannot marry another woman as long as he is married to his wife.[99] According to traditional Islamic law, each of those wives keeps their property and assets separate; and are paid mahar and maintenance separately by their husband. Usually the wives have little to no contact with each other and lead separate, individual lives in their own houses, and sometimes in different cities, though they all share the same husband.

text: In most Muslim-majority countries, polygyny is legal with Kuwait being the only one where no restrictions are imposed on it. The practice is illegal in Muslim-majority Turkey, Tunisia, Albania, Kosovo and Central Asian countries.[100][101][102][103]

text: Countries that allow polygyny typically also require a man to obtain permission from his previous wives before marrying another, and require the man to prove that he can financially support multiple wives. In Malaysia and Morocco, a man must justify taking an additional wife at a court hearing before he is allowed to do so.[104] In Sudan, the government encouraged polygyny in 2001 to increase the population.[105]

text: In nature[edit]

text: In zoology the term polygyny is used for to a pattern of mating in which a male animal has more than one female mate in a breeding season.[106] Males get their mates by defending the females directly or holding resources that the females want and need. This is known as resource defense polygyny and males of the bee species Anthidium manicatum (also known as the European wool carder bee) exhibit this behavior. Males claim patches of floral plants, ward off conspecific males and other resource competitors, and mate with the multiple females who forage in their territories.[107] Males of many species attract females to their territory by either gathering in a lek or going out in search of dispersed females. In polygyny relationships in animals, the female is the one who provides most of the parental care for the offspring.[108]

text: Polygyny in eusocial insects means that some insects living in colonies have not only one queen, but several queens.[106] Solitary species of insects take part in this practice in order to maximize their reproductive success of the widely dispersed females, such as the bee species Anthidium maculosum.[109] Insects such as red flour beetles use polygyny to reduce inbreeding depression and thus maximize reproductive success.

text: There is primary polygyny (several queens join to found a new colony, but after the hatching of the first workers the queens fight each other until only one queen survives and the colony becomes monogynous) and secondary polygyny (a well-established colony continues to have several queens).