document_title: Outer space

question_text: how many miles until you are out of the earth's atmosphere

question_tokens: how many miles until you are out of the earth 's atmosphere

text: Outer space

text: Discovery[edit]

text: In 350 BCE, Greek philosopher Aristotle suggested that nature abhors a vacuum, a principle that became known as the horror vacui. This concept built upon a 5th-century BCE ontological argument by the Greek philosopher Parmenides, who denied the possible existence of a void in space.[8] Based on this idea that a vacuum could not exist, in the West it was widely held for many centuries that space could not be empty.[9] As late as the 17th century, the French philosopher René Descartes argued that the entirety of space must be filled.[10]

text: In ancient China, the 2nd century astronomer Zhang Heng became convinced that space must be infinite, extending well beyond the mechanism that supported the Sun and the stars. The surviving books of the Hsüan Yeh school said that the heavens were boundless, "empty and void of substance". Likewise, the "sun, moon, and the company of stars float in the empty space, moving or standing still".[11]

text: The Italian scientist Galileo Galilei knew that air had mass and so was subject to gravity. In 1640, he demonstrated that an established force resisted the formation of a vacuum. However, it would remain for his pupil Evangelista Torricelli to create an apparatus that would produce a partial vacuum in 1643. This experiment resulted in the first mercury barometer and created a scientific sensation in Europe. The French mathematician Blaise Pascal reasoned that if the column of mercury was supported by air, then the column ought to be shorter at higher altitude where the air pressure is lower.[12] In 1648, his brother-in-law, Florin Périer, repeated the experiment on the Puy de Dôme mountain in central France and found that the column was shorter by three inches. This decrease in pressure was further demonstrated by carrying a half-full balloon up a mountain and watching it gradually expand, then contract upon descent.[13]

text: In 1650, German scientist Otto von Guericke constructed the first vacuum pump: a device that would further refute the principle of horror vacui. He correctly noted that the atmosphere of the Earth surrounds the planet like a shell, with the density gradually declining with altitude. He concluded that there must be a vacuum between the Earth and the Moon.[14]

text: Back in the 15th century, German theologian Nicolaus Cusanus speculated that the Universe lacked a center and a circumference. He believed that the Universe, while not infinite, could not be held as finite as it lacked any bounds within which it could be contained.[15] These ideas led to speculations as to the infinite dimension of space by the Italian philosopher Giordano Bruno in the 16th century. He extended the Copernican heliocentric cosmology to the concept of an infinite Universe filled with a substance he called aether, which did not resist the motion of heavenly bodies.[16] English philosopher William Gilbert arrived at a similar conclusion, arguing that the stars are visible to us only because they are surrounded by a thin aether or a void.[17] This concept of an aether originated with ancient Greek philosophers, including Aristotle, who conceived of it as the medium through which the heavenly bodies move.[18]

text: The concept of a Universe filled with a luminiferous aether remained in vogue among some scientists until the early 20th century. This form of aether was viewed as the medium through which light could propagate.[19] In 1887, the Michelson–Morley experiment tried to detect the Earth's motion through this medium by looking for changes in the speed of light depending on the direction of the planet's motion. However, the null result indicated something was wrong with the concept. The idea of the luminiferous aether was then abandoned. It was replaced by Albert Einstein's theory of special relativity, which holds that the speed of light in a vacuum is a fixed constant, independent of the observer's motion or frame of reference.[20][21]

text: The first professional astronomer to support the concept of an infinite Universe was the Englishman Thomas Digges in 1576.[22] But the scale of the Universe remained unknown until the first successful measurement of the distance to a nearby star in 1838 by the German astronomer Friedrich Bessel. He showed that the star 61 Cygni had a parallax of just 0.31 arcseconds (compared to the modern value of 0.287″). This corresponds to a distance of over 10 light years.[23] The distance to the Andromeda Galaxy was determined in 1923 by American astronomer Edwin Hubble by measuring the brightness of cepheid variables in that galaxy, a new technique discovered by Henrietta Leavitt.[24] This established that the Andromeda galaxy, and by extension all galaxies, lay well outside the Milky Way.[25]

text: The earliest known estimate of the temperature of outer space was by the Swiss physicist Charles É. Guillaume in 1896. Using the estimated radiation of the background stars, he concluded that space must be heated to a temperature of 5–6 K. British physicist Arthur Eddington made a similar calculation to derive a temperature of 3.18 K in 1926. German physicist Erich Regener used the total measured energy of cosmic rays to estimate an intergalactic temperature of 2.8 K in 1933.[26]

text: The modern concept of outer space is based on the "Big Bang" cosmology, first proposed in 1931 by the Belgian physicist Georges Lemaître.[27] This theory holds that the observable universe originated from a very compact form that has since undergone continuous expansion. The background energy released during the initial expansion has steadily decreased in density, leading to a 1948 prediction by American physicists Ralph Alpher and Robert Herman of a temperature of 5 K for the temperature of space.[26]

text: The term outward space was used in 1842 by the English poet Lady Emmeline Stuart-Wortley in her poem "The Maiden of Moscow".[28] The expression outer space was used as an astronomical term by Alexander von Humboldt in 1845.[29] It was later popularized in the writings of H. G. Wells in 1901.[30] The shorter term space is older, first used to mean the region beyond Earth's sky in John Milton's Paradise Lost in 1667.[31]

text: Formation and state[edit]

text: According to the Big Bang theory, the Universe originated in an extremely hot and dense state about 13.8 billion years ago[32] and began expanding rapidly. About 380,000 years later the Universe had cooled sufficiently to allow protons and electrons to combine and form hydrogen—the so-called recombination epoch. When this happened, matter and energy became decoupled, allowing photons to travel freely through space.[33] Matter that remained following the initial expansion has since undergone gravitational collapse to create stars, galaxies and other astronomical objects, leaving behind a deep vacuum that forms what is now called outer space.[34] As light has a finite velocity, this theory also constrains the size of the directly observable universe.[33] This leaves open the question as to whether the Universe is finite or infinite.

text: The present day shape of the universe has been determined from measurements of the cosmic microwave background using satellites like the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe. These observations indicate that the observable universe is "flat", meaning that photons on parallel paths at one point will remain parallel as they travel through space to the limit of the observable universe, except for local gravity.[35] The flat Universe, combined with the measured mass density of the Universe and the accelerating expansion of the Universe, indicates that space has a non-zero vacuum energy, which is called dark energy.[36]

text: Estimates put the average energy density of the Universe at the equivalent of 5.9 protons per cubic meter, including dark energy, dark matter, and baryonic matter (ordinary matter composed of atoms). The atoms account for only 4.6% of the total energy density, or a density of one proton per four cubic meters.[37] The density of the Universe, however, is clearly not uniform; it ranges from relatively high density in galaxies—including very high density in structures within galaxies, such as planets, stars, and black holes—to conditions in vast voids that have much lower density, at least in terms of visible matter.[38] Unlike matter and dark matter, dark energy seems not to be concentrated in galaxies: although dark energy may account for a majority of the mass-energy in the Universe, dark energy's influence is 5 orders of magnitude smaller than the influence of gravity from matter and dark matter within the Milky Way.[39]

text: Environment[edit]

text: Outer space is the closest known approximation to a perfect vacuum. It has effectively no friction, allowing stars, planets, and moons to move freely along their ideal orbits. However, even the deep vacuum of intergalactic space is not devoid of matter, as it contains a few hydrogen atoms per cubic meter.[40] By comparison, the air humans breathe contains about 1025 molecules per cubic meter.[41][42] The low density of matter in outer space means that electromagnetic radiation can travel great distances without being scattered: the mean free path of a photon in intergalactic space is about 1023 km, or 10 billion light years.[43] In spite of this, extinction, which is the absorption and scattering of photons by dust and gas, is an important factor in galactic and intergalactic astronomy.[44]

text: Stars, planets, and moons retain their atmospheres by gravitational attraction. Atmospheres have no clearly delineated upper boundary: the density of atmospheric gas gradually decreases with distance from the object until it becomes indistinguishable from outer space.[45] The Earth's atmospheric pressure drops to about 0.032 Pa at 100 kilometres (62 miles) of altitude,[46] compared to 100,000 Pa for the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) definition of standard pressure. Above this altitude, isotropic gas pressure rapidly becomes insignificant when compared to radiation pressure from the Sun and the dynamic pressure of the solar wind. The thermosphere in this range has large gradients of pressure, temperature and composition, and varies greatly due to space weather.[47]

text: The temperature of outer space is measured in terms of the kinetic activity of the gas, as it is on Earth. However, the radiation of outer space has a different temperature than the kinetic temperature of the gas, meaning that the gas and radiation are not in thermodynamic equilibrium.[48][49] All of the observable universe is filled with photons that were created during the Big Bang, which is known as the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB). (There is quite likely a correspondingly large number of neutrinos called the cosmic neutrino background.[50]) The current black body temperature of the background radiation is about 3 K (−270 °C; −454 °F).[51] The gas temperatures in outer space are always at least the temperature of the CMB but can be much higher. For example, the corona of the Sun has temperatures which range over 1.2–2.6 million K.[52]

text: Magnetic fields have been detected in the space around just about every class of celestial object. Star formation in spiral galaxies can generate small-scale dynamos, generating turbulent magnetic field strengths of around 5–10 μG. The Davis–Greenstein effect causes elongated dust grains to align themselves with a galaxy's magnetic field, resulting in weak optical polarization. This has been used to show ordered magnetic fields exist in several nearby galaxies. Magneto-hydrodynamic processes in active elliptical galaxies produce their characteristic jets and radio lobes. Non-thermal radio sources have been detected even among the most distant, high-z sources, indicating the presence of magnetic fields.[53]

text: Outside a protective atmosphere and magnetic field, there are few obstacles to the passage through space of energetic subatomic particles known as cosmic rays. These particles have energies ranging from about 106 eV up to an extreme 1020 eV of ultra-high-energy cosmic rays.[54] The peak flux of cosmic rays occurs at energies of about 109 eV, with approximately 87% protons, 12% helium nuclei and 1% heavier nuclei. In the high energy range, the flux of electrons is only about 1% of that of protons.[55] Cosmic rays can damage electronic components and pose a health threat to space travelers.[56] According to astronauts, like Don Pettit, space has a burned/metallic odor that clings to their suits and equipment, similar to the scent of an arc welding torch.[57][58]

text: Despite the harsh environment, several life forms have been found that can withstand extreme space conditions for extended periods. Species of lichen carried on the ESA BIOPAN facility survived exposure for ten days in 2007.[59] Seeds of Arabidopsis thaliana and Nicotiana tabacum germinated after being exposed to space for 1.5 years.[60] A strain of bacillus subtilis has survived 559 days when exposed to low-Earth orbit or a simulated martian environment.[61] The lithopanspermia hypothesis suggests that rocks ejected into outer space from life-harboring planets may successfully transport life forms to another habitable world. A conjecture is that just such a scenario occurred early in the history of the Solar System, with potentially microorganism-bearing rocks being exchanged between Venus, Earth, and Mars.[62]

text: Effect on human bodies[edit]

text: Even at relatively low altitudes in the atmosphere, conditions are hostile to the human body. The altitude where atmospheric pressure matches the vapor pressure of water at the temperature of the human body is called the Armstrong line, named after American physician Harry G. Armstrong. It is located at an altitude of around 19.14 km (11.89 mi). At or above the Armstrong line, fluids in the throat and lungs will boil away. More specifically, exposed bodily liquids such as saliva, tears, and the liquids wetting the alveoli within the lungs will boil away. Hence, at this altitude the human body requires a pressure suit, or a pressurized capsule, to survive.[63]

text: Once in space, sudden exposure of unprotected humans to very low pressure, such as during a rapid decompression, can cause pulmonary barotrauma—a rupture of the lungs, due to the large pressure differential between inside and outside the chest.[64] Even if the subject's airway is fully open, the flow of air through the windpipe may be too slow to prevent the rupture.[65] Rapid decompression can rupture eardrums and sinuses, bruising and blood seep can occur in soft tissues, and shock can cause an increase in oxygen consumption that leads to hypoxia.[64]

text: As a consequence of rapid decompression, oxygen dissolved in the blood will empty into the lungs to try to equalize the partial pressure gradient. Once the deoxygenated blood arrives at the brain, humans will lose consciousness after a few seconds and die of hypoxia within minutes.[66] Blood and other body fluids boil when the pressure drops below 6.3 kPa, and this condition is called ebullism.[67] The steam may bloat the body to twice its normal size and slow circulation, but tissues are elastic and porous enough to prevent rupture. Ebullism is slowed by the pressure containment of blood vessels, so some blood remains liquid.[68][69] Swelling and ebullism can be reduced by containment in a pressure suit. The Crew Altitude Protection Suit (CAPS), a fitted elastic garment designed in the 1960s for astronauts, prevents ebullism at pressures as low as 2 kPa.[70] Supplemental oxygen is needed at 8 km (5.0 mi) to provide enough oxygen for breathing and to prevent water loss, while above 20 km (12 mi) pressure suits are essential to prevent ebullism.[71] Most space suits use around 30–39 kPa of pure oxygen, about the same as on the Earth's surface. This pressure is high enough to prevent ebullism, but evaporation of nitrogen dissolved in the blood could still cause decompression sickness and gas embolisms if not managed.[72]

text: Humans evolved for life in Earth gravity, and exposure to weightlessness has been shown to have deleterious effects on human health. Initially, more than 50% of astronauts experience space motion sickness. This can cause nausea and vomiting, vertigo, headaches, lethargy, and overall malaise. The duration of space sickness varies, but it typically lasts for 1–3 days, after which the body adjusts to the new environment. Longer-term exposure to weightlessness results in muscle atrophy and deterioration of the skeleton, or spaceflight osteopenia. These effects can be minimized through a regimen of exercise.[73] Other effects include fluid redistribution, slowing of the cardiovascular system, decreased production of red blood cells, balance disorders, and a weakening of the immune system. Lesser symptoms include loss of body mass, nasal congestion, sleep disturbance, and puffiness of the face.[74]

text: For long-duration space travel, radiation can pose an acute health hazard. Exposure to high-energy, ionizing cosmic rays can result in fatigue, nausea, vomiting, as well as damage to the immune system and changes to the white blood cell count. Over longer durations, symptoms include an increased risk of cancer, plus damage to the eyes, nervous system, lungs and the gastrointestinal tract.[75] On a round-trip Mars mission lasting three years, a large fraction of the cells in an astronaut's body would be traversed and potentially damaged by high energy nuclei.[76] Fortunately, the energy of such particles is significantly diminished by the shielding provided by the walls of a spacecraft and can be further diminished by water containers and other barriers. However, the impact of the cosmic rays upon the shielding produces additional radiation that can affect the crew. Further research will be needed to assess the radiation hazards and determine suitable countermeasures.[77]

text: Boundary[edit]

text: There is no clear boundary between Earth's atmosphere and space, as the density of the atmosphere gradually decreases as the altitude increases. There are several standard boundary designations, namely:

text:
The Fédération Aéronautique Internationale has established the Kármán line at an altitude of 100 km (62 mi) as a working definition for the boundary between aeronautics and astronautics. This is used because at an altitude of about 100 km (62 mi), as Theodore von Kármán calculated, a vehicle would have to travel faster than orbital velocity in order to derive sufficient aerodynamic lift from the atmosphere to support itself.[6][7]
The United States designates people who travel above an altitude of 50 miles (80 km) as astronauts.[79]
NASA's Space Shuttle used 400,000 feet (76 mi, 122 km) as its re-entry altitude (termed the Entry Interface), which roughly marks the boundary where atmospheric drag becomes noticeable, thus beginning the process of switching from steering with thrusters to maneuvering with air surfaces.[80]

text: In 2009, scientists reported detailed measurements with a Supra-Thermal Ion Imager (an instrument that measures the direction and speed of ions), which allowed them to establish a boundary at 118 km (73 mi) above Earth. The boundary represents the midpoint of a gradual transition over tens of kilometers from the relatively gentle winds of the Earth's atmosphere to the more violent flows of charged particles in space, which can reach speeds well over 268 m/s (600 mph).[81][82]

text: Legal status[edit]

text: The Outer Space Treaty provides the basic framework for international space law. It covers the legal use of outer space by nation states, and includes in its definition of outer space the Moon and other celestial bodies. The treaty states that outer space is free for all nation states to explore and is not subject to claims of national sovereignty. It also prohibits the deployment of nuclear weapons in outer space. The treaty was passed by the United Nations General Assembly in 1963 and signed in 1967 by the USSR, the United States of America and the United Kingdom. As of 2008, the treaty has been ratified by 98 states and signed by an additional 27 states.[83]

text: Beginning in 1958, outer space has been the subject of multiple resolutions by the United Nations General Assembly. Of these, more than 50 have been concerning the international co-operation in the peaceful uses of outer space and preventing an arms race in space.[84] Four additional space law treaties have been negotiated and drafted by the UN's Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. Still, there remains no legal prohibition against deploying conventional weapons in space, and anti-satellite weapons have been successfully tested by the US, USSR and China.[85] The 1979 Moon Treaty turned the jurisdiction of all heavenly bodies (including the orbits around such bodies) over to the international community. However, this treaty has not been ratified by any nation that currently practices manned spaceflight.[86]

text: In 1976, eight equatorial states (Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil, Congo, Zaire, Uganda, Kenya, and Indonesia) met in Bogotá, Colombia. With their "Declaration of the First Meeting of Equatorial Countries", or "the Bogotá Declaration", they claimed control of the segment of the geosynchronous orbital path corresponding to each country.[87] These claims are not internationally accepted.[88]

text: Earth orbit[edit]

text: A spacecraft enters orbit when its centripetal acceleration due to gravity is less than or equal to the centrifugal acceleration due to the horizontal component of its velocity. For a low Earth orbit, this velocity is about 7,800 m/s (28,100 km/h; 17,400 mph);[89] by contrast, the fastest manned airplane speed ever achieved (excluding speeds achieved by deorbiting spacecraft) was 2,200 m/s (7,900 km/h; 4,900 mph) in 1967 by the North American X-15.[90]

text: To achieve an orbit, a spacecraft must travel faster than a sub-orbital spaceflight. The energy required to reach Earth orbital velocity at an altitude of 600 km (370 mi) is about 36 MJ/kg, which is six times the energy needed merely to climb to the corresponding altitude.[91] Spacecraft with a perigee below about 2,000 km (1,200 mi) are subject to drag from the Earth's atmosphere,[92] which will cause the orbital altitude to decrease. The rate of orbital decay depends on the satellite's cross-sectional area and mass, as well as variations in the air density of the upper atmosphere. Below about 300 km (190 mi), decay becomes more rapid with lifetimes measured in days. Once a satellite descends to 180 km (110 mi), it will have only hours before vaporizing in the atmosphere.[93] The escape velocity required to pull free of Earth's gravitational field altogether and move into interplanetary space is about 11,200 m/s (40,300 km/h; 25,100 mph).[94]

text: Regions[edit]

text: Space is a partial vacuum: its different regions are defined by the various atmospheres and "winds" that dominate within them, and extend to the point at which those winds give way to those beyond. Geospace extends from Earth's atmosphere to the outer reaches of Earth's magnetic field, whereupon it gives way to the solar wind of interplanetary space.[95] Interplanetary space extends to the heliopause, whereupon the solar wind gives way to the winds of the interstellar medium.[96] Interstellar space then continues to the edges of the galaxy, where it fades into the intergalactic void.[97]

text: Geospace[edit]

text: Geospace is the region of outer space near Earth, including the upper atmosphere and magnetosphere.[95] The Van Allen radiation belts lies within the geospace. The outer boundary of geospace is the magnetopause, which forms an interface between the Earth's magnetosphere and the solar wind. The inner boundary is the ionosphere.[98] The variable space-weather conditions of geospace are affected by the behavior of the Sun and the solar wind; the subject of geospace is interlinked with heliophysics -- the study of the Sun and its impact on the planets of the Solar System.[99]

text: The day-side magnetopause is compressed by solar-wind pressure -- the subsolar distance from the center of the Earth is typically 10 Earth radii. On the night side, the solar wind stretches the magnetosphere to form a magnetotail that sometimes extends out to more than 100–200 Earth radii.[100][101] For roughly four days of each month, the lunar surface is shielded from the solar wind as the Moon passes through the magnetotail.[102]

text: Geospace is populated by electrically charged particles at very low densities, the motions of which are controlled by the Earth's magnetic field. These plasmas form a medium from which storm-like disturbances powered by the solar wind can drive electrical currents into the Earth's upper atmosphere. Geomagnetic storms can disturb two regions of geospace, the radiation belts and the ionosphere. These storms increase fluxes of energetic electrons that can permanently damage satellite electronics, interfering with shortwave radio communication and GPS location and timing.[103] Magnetic storms can also be a hazard to astronauts, even in low Earth orbit. They also create aurorae seen at high latitudes in an oval surrounding the geomagnetic poles.[104]

text: Although it meets the definition of outer space, the atmospheric density within the first few hundred kilometers above the Kármán line is still sufficient to produce significant drag on satellites.[93] This region contains material left over from previous manned and unmanned launches that are a potential hazard to spacecraft. Some of this debris re-enters Earth's atmosphere periodically.[105]

text: Cislunar space[edit]

text: Earth's gravity reaches out far past the Van Allen radiation belts and keeps the Moon in orbit at an average distance of 384,403 km (238,857 mi). The region outside Earth's atmosphere and extending out to just beyond the Moon's orbit, including the Lagrangian points, is sometimes referred to as cis-lunar space.[106] By consensus, any region beyond cislunar space is referred to as deep space.[107] The region of space where the gravity of the Earth remains dominant against gravitational perturbations from the Sun is called the Hill sphere.[108] This extends well out into translunar space to a distance of roughly 1% of the mean distance from the Earth to the Sun,[109] or 1.5 million km (0.93 million mi).

text: Interplanetary space[edit]

text: Interplanetary space is defined by the solar wind, a continuous stream of charged particles emanating from the Sun that creates a very tenuous atmosphere (the heliosphere) for billions of kilometers into space. This wind has a particle density of 5–10 protons/cm3 and is moving at a velocity of 350–400 km/s (780,000–890,000 mph).[110] Interplanetary space extends out to the heliopause where the influence of the galactic environment starts to dominate over the magnetic field and particle flux from the Sun.[96] The distance and strength of the heliopause varies depending on the activity level of the solar wind.[111]

text: The volume of interplanetary space is a nearly total vacuum, with a mean free path of about one astronomical unit at the orbital distance of the Earth. However, this space is not completely empty, and is sparsely filled with cosmic rays, which include ionized atomic nuclei and various subatomic particles. There is also gas, plasma and dust, small meteors, and several dozen types of organic molecules discovered to date by microwave spectroscopy.[112] A cloud of interplanetary dust is visible at night as a faint band called the zodiacal light.[113]

text: Interplanetary space contains the magnetic field generated by the Sun.[110] There are also magnetospheres generated by planets such as Jupiter, Saturn, Mercury and the Earth that have their own magnetic fields. These are shaped by the influence of the solar wind into the approximation of a teardrop shape, with the long tail extending outward behind the planet. These magnetic fields can trap particles from the solar wind and other sources, creating belts of charged particles such as the Van Allen radiation belts. Planets without magnetic fields, such as Mars, have their atmospheres gradually eroded by the solar wind.[114]

text: Interstellar space[edit]

text: Interstellar space is the physical space within a galaxy beyond the influence of each star on the plasma.[97] The contents of interstellar space are called the interstellar medium. Approximately 70% of the mass of the interstellar medium consists of lone hydrogen atoms; most of the remainder consists of helium atoms. This is enriched with trace amounts of heavier atoms formed through stellar nucleosynthesis. These atoms are ejected into the interstellar medium by stellar winds or when evolved stars begin to shed their outer envelopes such as during the formation of a planetary nebula.[115] The cataclysmic explosion of a supernova will generate an expanding shock wave consisting of ejected materials.[116] The density of matter in the interstellar medium can vary considerably: the average is around 106 particles per m3,[117] but cold molecular clouds can hold 108–1012 per m3.[48][115]

text: A number of molecules exist in interstellar space, as can tiny 0.1 μm dust particles.[118] The tally of molecules discovered through radio astronomy is steadily increasing at the rate of about four new species per year. Large regions of higher density matter known as molecular clouds allow chemical reactions to occur, including the formation of organic polyatomic species. Much of this chemistry is driven by collisions. Energetic cosmic rays penetrate the cold, dense clouds and ionize hydrogen and helium, resulting, for example, in the trihydrogen cation. An ionized helium atom can then split relatively abundant carbon monoxide to produce ionized carbon, which in turn can lead to organic chemical reactions.[119]

text: The local interstellar medium is a region of space within 100 parsecs (pc) of the Sun, which is of interest both for its proximity and for its interaction with the Solar System. This volume nearly coincides with a region of space known as the Local Bubble, which is characterized by a lack of dense, cold clouds. It forms a cavity in the Orion Arm of the Milky Way galaxy, with dense molecular clouds lying along the borders, such as those in the constellations of Ophiuchus and Taurus. (The actual distance to the border of this cavity varies from 60 to 250 pc or more.) This volume contains about 104–105 stars and the local interstellar gas counterbalances the astrospheres that surround these stars, with the volume of each sphere varying depending on the local density of the interstellar medium. The Local Bubble contains dozens of warm interstellar clouds with temperatures of up to 7,000 K and radii of 0.5–5 pc.[120]

text: When stars are moving at sufficiently high peculiar velocities, their astrospheres can generate bow shocks as they collide with the interstellar medium. For decades it was assumed that the Sun had a bow shock. In 2012, data from Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) and NASA's Voyager probes showed that the Sun's bow shock does not exist. Instead, these authors argue that a subsonic bow wave defines the transition from the solar wind flow to the interstellar medium.[121][122] A bow shock is the third boundary of an astrosphere after the termination shock and the astropause (called the heliopause in the Solar System).[122]

text: Intergalactic space[edit]

text: Intergalactic space is the physical space between galaxies. Studies of the large scale distribution of galaxies show that the Universe has a foam-like structure, with clusters and groups of galaxies lying along filaments that occupy about a tenth of the total space. The remainder forms huge voids that are mostly empty of galaxies. Typically, a void spans a distance of (10–40) h−1 Mpc, where h is the Hubble constant in units of 100 km s−1 Mpc−1.[123]

text: Surrounding and stretching between galaxies, there is a rarefied plasma[124] that is organized in a galactic filamentary structure.[125] This material is called the intergalactic medium (IGM). The density of the IGM is 5–200 times the average density of the Universe.[126] It consists mostly of ionized hydrogen; i.e. a plasma consisting of equal numbers of electrons and protons. As gas falls into the intergalactic medium from the voids, it heats up to temperatures of 105 K to 107 K,[127] which is high enough so that collisions between atoms have enough energy to cause the bound electrons to escape from the hydrogen nuclei; this is why the IGM is ionized. At these temperatures, it is called the warm–hot intergalactic medium (WHIM). (Although the plasma is very hot by terrestrial standards, 105 K is often called "warm" in astrophysics.) Computer simulations and observations indicate that up to half of the atomic matter in the Universe might exist in this warm–hot, rarefied state.[126][128][129] When gas falls from the filamentary structures of the WHIM into the galaxy clusters at the intersections of the cosmic filaments, it can heat up even more, reaching temperatures of 108 K and above in the so-called intracluster medium.[130]

text: Exploration and applications[edit]

text: For the majority of human history, space was explored by remote observation; initially with the unaided eye and then with the telescope. Prior to the advent of reliable rocket technology, the closest that humans had come to reaching outer space was through the use of balloon flights. In 1935, the U.S. Explorer II manned balloon flight had reached an altitude of 22 km (14 mi).[131] This was greatly exceeded in 1942 when the third launch of the German A-4 rocket climbed to an altitude of about 80 km (50 mi). In 1957, the unmanned satellite Sputnik 1 was launched by a Russian R-7 rocket, achieving Earth orbit at an altitude of 215–939 kilometres (134–583 mi).[132] This was followed by the first human spaceflight in 1961, when Yuri Gagarin was sent into orbit on Vostok 1. The first humans to escape Earth orbit were Frank Borman, Jim Lovell and William Anders in 1968 on board the U.S. Apollo 8, which achieved lunar orbit[133] and reached a maximum distance of 377,349 km (234,474 mi) from the Earth.[134]

text: The first spacecraft to reach escape velocity was the Soviet Luna 1, which performed a fly-by of the Moon in 1959.[135] In 1961, Venera 1 became the first planetary probe. It revealed the presence of the solar wind and performed the first fly-by of Venus, although contact was lost before reaching Venus. The first successful planetary mission was the 1962 fly-by of Venus by Mariner 2.[136] The first fly-by of Mars was by Mariner 4 in 1964. Since that time, unmanned spacecraft have successfully examined each of the Solar System's planets, as well their moons and many minor planets and comets. They remain a fundamental tool for the exploration of outer space, as well as observation of the Earth.[137] In August 2012, Voyager 1 became the first man-made object to leave the Solar System and enter interstellar space.[138]

text: The absence of air makes outer space an ideal location for astronomy at all wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum. This is evidenced by the spectacular pictures sent back by the Hubble Space Telescope, allowing light from more than 13 billion years ago—almost to the time of the Big Bang—to be observed.[139] However, not every location in space is ideal for a telescope. The interplanetary zodiacal dust emits a diffuse near-infrared radiation that can mask the emission of faint sources such as extrasolar planets. Moving an infrared telescope out past the dust will increase the effectiveness of the instrument.[140] Likewise, a site like the Daedalus crater on the far side of the Moon could shield a radio telescope from the radio frequency interference that hampers Earth-based observations.[141]

text: Unmanned spacecraft in Earth orbit are an essential technology of modern civilization. They allow direct monitoring of weather conditions, relay long-range communications like television, provide a means of precise navigation, and allow remote sensing of the Earth. The latter role serves a wide variety of purposes, including tracking soil moisture for agriculture, prediction of water outflow from seasonal snow packs, detection of diseases in plants and trees, and surveillance of military activities.[142]

text: The deep vacuum of space could make it an attractive environment for certain industrial processes, such as those requiring ultraclean surfaces.[143] However, like asteroid mining, space manufacturing requires significant investment with little prospect of immediate return.[144] An important factor in the total expense is the high cost of placing mass into Earth orbit: $7,000–24,000 per kg in inflation-adjusted dollars, according to a 2006 estimate.[145] Proposed concepts for addressing this issue include non-rocket spacelaunch, momentum exchange tethers, and space elevators.[146]


document_title: My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic (season 8)

question_text: when is the new season of my little pony coming out

root

text: Development[edit]

text: On May 25, 2017, supervising director Jim Miller announced via Twitter an eighth season for the series.[2] At Hasbro's first self-themed convention (aptly named HasCon) on September 9, an animatic from an upcoming episode was shown.[3]

tag: p

text: On February 8, 2018, Discovery Family's March press release states that this season, "viewers will witness major milestones featuring the introduction of Starlight Glimmer’s parents and Princess Celestia's big acting debut. Additionally, the Mane 6’s Twilight Sparkle, Rarity, Applejack, Pinkie Pie, Rainbow Dash and Fluttershy are accompanied by six new creatures including Ocellus the Changeling, Silverstream the Hippogriff/Seapony, Smolder the Dragon, Gallus the Griffin, Yona the Yak and Sandbar the Pony, joining them on epic adventures throughout new and familiar lands such as Mount Aris, Everfree Forest, Las Pegasus and more. Fan-favorite characters Maud Pie, Spike, the Cutie Mark Crusaders, Queen Chrysalis and Discord return with exciting storylines and a whole lot of magic!"[1]

text: Cast[edit]

text: Main[edit]

text:
Tara Strong as Twilight Sparkle
Rebecca Shoichet as Twilight Sparkle (singing voice)
Tabitha St. Germain as Rarity
Kazumi Evans as Rarity (singing voice)
Ashleigh Ball as Applejack and Rainbow Dash
Andrea Libman as Fluttershy and Pinkie Pie
Shannon Chan-Kent as Pinkie Pie (singing voice)
Cathy Weseluck as Spike

tag: ul

text: Recurring[edit]

text:
The Young Six[4]
Vincent Tong as Sandbar
Gavin Langelo as Gallus
Katrina Salisbury as Yona
Shannon Chan-Kent as Smolder
Lauren Jackson as Silverstream
Devyn Dalton as Ocellus
Kelly Sheridan as Starlight Glimmer
Nicole Oliver as Princess Celestia
Tabitha St. Germain as Princess Luna
The Cutie Mark Crusaders
Michelle Creber as Apple Bloom
Madeleine Peters as Scootaloo[nc 1]
Claire Corlett as Sweetie Belle

text: Minor[edit]

text: Single roles[edit]

text:
Maurice LaMarche as Chancellor Neighsay
Richard Ian Cox as Grampa Gruff
Garry Chalk as Prince Rutherford
Ali Milner as Ember
Kyle Rideout as Thorax
Caitlyn Bairstow as Blue Bobbin
Matt Hill as Soarin'
Kelly Sheridan as Misty Fly
Ian Hanlin as Sunburst
John de Lancie as Discord
Rebecca Shoichet as Sugar Belle
Brenda Crichlow as Zecora
Andrea Libman as Bon Bon
Trevor Devall as Iron Will
Richard Newman as Cranky Doodle
Chris Britton as Starswirl the Bearded
Sam Vincent as Flim
Scott McNeil as Flam
Patricia Drake as Yingrid
Mark Acheson as Lord Tirek[5]

text: Multiple roles[edit]

text:
Ingrid Nilson as Maud Pie, Limestone Pie, and Marble Pie
Peter New as Big McIntosh[nc 2] and Goldie Delicious
Tabitha St. Germain as Granny Smith and Mrs. Cake
Kathleen Barr as Queen Chrysalis and Trixie Lulamoon

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Arielle Tuliao provides Scootaloo's singing voice in "Surf and/or Turf" instead of Peters.

Jump up ^ Has an uncredited speaking role in "Fake It 'Til You Make It".

tag: ol

text: Guest stars[edit]

text:
Christopher Gaze as Seaspray
Adam Kirschner as Mudbriar
Shirley Millner as Apple Rose
Marcy Goldberg as Applesauce
Alex Zahara as Jack Pot
Tariq Leslie as Big Bucks
Cole Howard as Terramar
Brian Dobson as Sky Beak
Advah Soudack as Ocean Flow
Colin Murdock as On Stage
Adam Greydon Reid as Firelight
Trish Pattendon as Stellar Flare
Sunni Westbrook as Cozy Glow
Jason Simpson as Bufogren
Rachel Bloom as Autumn Blaze[6]

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal air date1701"School Daze" (Part 1)Denny Lu and Mike MyhreMichael Vogel and Nicole DubucMarch 24, 2018 (2018-03-24)
Following their adventure to save Equestria from the Storm King (shown in My Little Pony: The Movie), Twilight Sparkle and her friends discover that the Cutie Map has expanded to cover lands beyond their kingdom. Twilight receives approval from the Equestria Education Association (EEA) to open a school devoted to teaching the benefits of friendship across these lands, with her friends serving as teachers and staff. She also welcomes five students from other species to attend: Gallus, a sarcastic griffon; Yona, a clumsy yak; Smolder, a cocky dragon; Ocellus, a timid changeling; and Silverstream, an excitable hippogriff. The students initially enjoy the school, but quickly grow bored as Twilight forces her friends to adhere to the EEA's strict guidelines for teaching. The five creatures decide to skip class along with their pony classmate, Sandbar, becoming fast friends. While playing, they accidentally wreak havoc on the school during an evaluation conducted by EEA head Chancellor Neighsay. Convinced that the non-pony students are dangerous, Neighsay immediately shuts the school down.
1712"School Daze" (Part 2)Denny Lu and Mike MyhreMichael Vogel and Nicole DubucMarch 24, 2018 (2018-03-24)
A depressed Twilight mulls over her School of Friendship being unaccredited until Starlight Glimmer encourages her to try again, this time without following the EEA's rules. She and her friends attempt to convince the other species' leaders to let their students return to the school, only to learn that the students have all run away from home, unwilling to part with each other. The ponies discover that Sandbar has been hiding the other students at the Castle of the Two Sisters in the Everfree Forest, where they rescue them from being attacked by a horde of pukwudgies. The students agree to give the school another chance after the ponies assure them things will be different. Chancellor Neighsay confronts Twilight for her unauthorized re-opening of the school, but Twilight asserts her authority as Princess of Friendship and writes her own set of school rules to supersede those of the EEA. Twilight's friends use their own unique teaching methods to make the school more appealing, and the leaders allow their students to continue their studies in Equestria.
1723"The Maud Couple"Denny Lu and Mike MyhreNick ConfaloneMarch 31, 2018 (2018-03-31)
Pinkie Pie learns that her sister Maud is dating a stallion named Mudbriar, who has an interest in sticks similar to Maud's interest in rocks, and is as outwardly dull and blunt as she is. Although Maud and Mudbriar are happy together, Pinkie fails to notice their similarities, finding Mudbriar's personality and quirks to be annoying and strange. Unable to comprehend their relationship, Pinkie eventually becomes convinced that Maud prefers Mudbriar over her and flees to her family's rock farm in despair. After her sisters Limestone and Marble help Pinkie realize that Maud's happiness with Mudbriar is all that matters, Pinkie returns and makes peace with Mudbriar, putting up with him for Maud's sake.
1734"Fake It 'Til You Make It"Denny Lu and Mike MyhreJosh HamiltonApril 7, 2018 (2018-04-07)
Rarity leaves Fluttershy in charge of her boutique in Manehattan while she is out of town for a fashion show in Canterlot. Fluttershy is intimidated by the pushy customers, so Rarity advises her to wear an outfit to boost her confidence. Taking Rarity's advice to heart, Fluttershy begins dressing up and acting out different characters to match her customers' personalities, which helps the store's sales. However, she takes her role playing so far that she begins driving customers away with her rude behavior, getting rid of her raccoon helpers as well. The raccoons bring Fluttershy's friends to help, but she kicks them out of the store. Her friends then turn to Rarity, who fires Fluttershy, bringing her back to her senses. Fluttershy apologizes to her friends, and Rarity assures her that she already has the inner strength needed to succeed.
1745"Grannies Gone Wild"Denny Lu and Mike MyhreGillian M. BerrowApril 14, 2018 (2018-04-14)
Rainbow Dash is eager to ride the Wild Blue Yonder, a famous roller coaster in Las Pegasus, before it permanently closes. Applejack agrees to take over Rainbow Dash's classes at the School of Friendship if she chaperones Granny Smith and her elderly friends for their annual Las Pegasus vacation, strictly instructing Rainbow Dash to never let them overexert themselves or leave her sight. Rainbow Dash reluctantly accepts, and attempts to convince the grannies to rest in their hotel so she can have time for herself. However, the grannies sneak off while Rainbow Dash discovers the coaster's long waiting line, forcing Rainbow Dash to spend most of the day following them and interfering with their exciting activities, much to their annoyance. When Rainbow Dash apologizes for ruining their fun and explains she is only following Applejack's instructions, the grannies laugh over Applejack's overprotectiveness and invite Rainbow Dash to ride the coaster with them, using their VIP passes to skip the line.
1756"Surf and/or Turf"Denny Lu and Mike MyhreBrian HohlfeldApril 21, 2018 (2018-04-21)
The Cutie Map summons the Cutie Mark Crusaders to the hippogriffs' kingdom on Mount Aris, where half of its denizens have decided to live in the underwater city of Seaquestria as seaponies. Terramar, a young hippogriff whose parents live separately in each location, cannot decide whether he belongs on land with his father or underwater with his mother. The Crusaders are unable to agree among themselves—Sweetie Belle arguing for the mountain's captivating landscape while Scootaloo favors the fun of swimming with the sea creatures—which makes Terramar even more indecisive. The three arrange a gathering of hippogriffs and seaponies at the shoreline for Terramar, whose parents tell him he is not limited to choosing one place to live. Encouraged, Terramar settles on living as both a hippogriff and a seapony.
1767"Horse Play"Denny Lu and Mike MyhreKaita MpambaraApril 28, 2018 (2018-04-28)
Twilight organizes a stage play honoring the anniversary of Princess Celestia's first raising of the sun. Learning that Celestia has never been in a play despite her love of theater, Twilight offers her the lead role, to Celestia's glee. As Rainbow Dash excitedly spreads the word of Celestia's involvement across Equestria, however, Twilight is mortified by Celestia's poor acting skills and fears that Celestia will humiliate herself in front of her subjects, but she keeps it to herself to avoid hurting Celestia's feelings. When the day of the play arrives and Celestia's performance has not improved, Twilight panics and unwittingly vents her frustrations with Celestia in front of her, causing Celestia to storm off. Twilight apologizes to Celestia for lying and admits she only intended to repay Celestia for her years of guidance. Celestia agrees to help Twilight salvage the play by directing the other actors from backstage, making it a success.
1778"The Parent Map"Denny Lu and Mike MyhreDave RappMay 5, 2018 (2018-05-05)
Starlight and Sunburst are unenthused to learn they have been summoned by the Cutie Map to their childhood home of Sire's Hollow, due to their strained relationship with their parents: Firelight, Starlight's over-affectionate father, and Stellar Flare, Sunburst's domineering mother. They are further dismayed when their mission appears to be settling a feud between the two parents, but find this is not the case after ending the fight quickly. Starlight and Sunburst try to avoid their parents as much as possible while they look for their real mission, only for their parents to continually meddle with their search. After finally snapping at their parents for their unwanted interference, Starlight and Sunburst realize their estrangement from them is the problem they were summoned to solve. The two complete their mission by apologizing to their parents, who agree to give them more independence.
1789"Non-Compete Clause"Denny Lu and Mike MyhreKim Beyer-JohnsonMay 12, 2018 (2018-05-12)
Applejack and Rainbow Dash compete with each other to receive the "Teacher of the Month" award at the School of Friendship. Twilight selects them to lead a field trip together to teach their students about teamwork, but their constant bickering over which activities they should do creates problems. Persuading Twilight to give them another chance, the two continue the trip by letting the other take the lead, which takes up more of their focus than teaching their students. When their polite argument over making a bridge leaves them stuck over a river, the students work together to save them. The students vouch for them as teacher of the month by telling Twilight that the two were arguing on purpose to teach them the incorrect way of working as a team, but Twilight catches on to the truth, causing Applejack and Rainbow Dash to argue all over again.
17910"The Break Up Breakdown"Denny Lu and Mike MyhreNick ConfaloneMay 19, 2018 (2018-05-19)[nb 1]
On Hearts and Hooves Day, Big McIntosh sends to Sugar Belle a romantic package that is lost in the mail, being sent to Sweetie Belle by mistake. When Big Mac notices Sugar Belle at Sugarcube Corner later, he overhears her talking with Mrs. Cake about ending a relationship with someone, and concludes that she means to break up with him. Spike and Discord attempt to console the heartbroken Big Mac, with Discord suggesting he assert himself by breaking up with her before she has the opportunity. After he does so, breaking her heart, Big Mac realizes he has only been letting out his frustrations and returns to her to have a proper conversation over their breakup. Sugar Belle reveals she never received Big Mac's package and had actually planned to end her business relationship with her cousin so she could begin working in Ponyville, never intending to leave Big Mac. Realizing their miscommunication, the two get back together.
18011"Molt Down"Denny Lu and Mike MyhreJosh HaberMay 26, 2018 (2018-05-26)[nb 1]
Spike begins experiencing bizarre body changes such as breaking out in pimple-like blemishes, losing control of his fire breath, and emitting foul stenches. Smolder explains that Spike is molting, which all dragons undergo during adolescence; she adds that the molting process typically causes dragons to be kicked out of their homes, which Spike worries is the case when Twilight tells him to leave the Castle of Friendship to keep him from accidentally burning their belongings. When he visits Zecora for a solution, his smell unwittingly attracts a predatory roc that catches Zecora, as well as Rarity when she arrives for the zebra's remedies. Spike molts all of his skin to find he has grown a pair of wings, which allows him to fend the roc off and rescue his friends. Afterward, Twilight assures Spike that she has no intention of getting rid of him, and promises to help him get used to his changes.
18112"Marks for Effort"Denny Lu and Mike MyhreNicole DubucJune 2, 2018 (2018-06-02)[nb 1]
Bored with their ordinary classes, the Cutie Mark Crusaders attempt to enroll at the more exciting School of Friendship, but Twilight turns them away, saying they have already mastered the curriculum. The Crusaders later meet a young student from the school named Cozy Glow, who is struggling with her homework, and figure that helping her would be just as good as attending Twilight's school. Cozy Glow aces her assignment under their tutelage, and asks them to help her prepare for an upcoming test. When Cozy Glow fails the test and explains the Crusaders' involvement, however, Twilight believes the Crusaders intentionally gave her poor guidance and bans them from the school grounds. Later, Cozy Glow confesses that she failed her test on purpose to make Twilight consider accepting the Crusaders as students like they wanted. After Cozy Glow apologizes to the Crusaders, Twilight withdraws their ban and gives them honorary diplomas, granting them positions at the school as official friendship tutors.
18213"The Mean 6"Denny Lu and Mike MyhreMichael VogelJune 9, 2018 (2018-06-09)[nb 1][nb 2]
Queen Chrysalis creates evil clones of Twilight and her friends to seize control of the Elements of Harmony and exact revenge against Starlight. Chrysalis and the clones search for the Elements in the Everfree Forest, where the real ponies and Starlight are on a camping trip. Wandering off from each other, the real ponies unknowingly encounter their clones, who mistreat and insult them before sneaking away. Mistaking the clones for their actual friends, the real ponies get into a heated argument when they eventually regroup. However, Twilight quickly manages to resolve the argument, and they happily resume their trip. Meanwhile, Chrysalis and the clones find the Tree of Harmony, but the clones are destroyed by the Elements when they attempt to use them to betray Chrysalis, who once again swears revenge against the oblivious ponies.
18314"A Matter of Principals"Denny Lu and Mike MyhreNicole DubucAugust 4, 2018 (2018-08-04)[nb 3]
The Mane 6 are called by the Cutie Map to a mission far away from Ponyville. Twilight leaves Starlight Glimmer to run the school and to do a scavenger hunt while they're gone. Discord appears and offers to help out, but Starlight refuses. A resentful Discord begins to unleash chaos on the school with Starlight trying to control each situation. She gets fed up with his antics, and banishes Discord from the school grounds with her magic. The scavenger hunt goes underway afterwards, but Discord, manifesting as a ghost, sabotages it. Starlight realizes what she did to Discord was wrong in turning down his offer to help, and apologizes to him. She unbanishes Discord and offers him the position of vice headmare. He accepts it and helps re-do the scavenger hunt. However, the Mane 6 return and Twilight reveals that Discord created a fake friendship mission to send them away, but thanks Starlight for helping run the school.
18415"The Hearth's Warming Club"Denny Lu and Mike MyhreBrian HohlfeldAugust 4, 2018 (2018-08-04)[nb 4]
While preparing for Hearth's Warming Eve, Twilight, Rainbow Dash, and Spike see a big splash of magical purple goo powder falling down on them by a mysterious figure. They head to the dorms of the students, with all of them asking what happened. Twilight states that whoever did the prank will have to stay over at the school for the break and do more friendship lessons. The students clean up the place, with Rainbow Dash pulling each one out of the room from time-to-time for questioning. During the clean-up, each student tells their story about how their culture celebrates the holidays. As time passes, none of them come forward of doing the prank, and fear sets in that all of them will never leave the school. It escalates into an argument until Gallus admits responsibility. As he says what he did to his classmates, Twilight, Rainbow Dash, and Spike enter the room. Twilight states that despite of being honest about the prank, Gallus still has to owe up to his actions. All of his classmates say they'll stay behind to accompany him, leading to Rainbow Dash saying they don't need friendship lessons, and Twilight invites the students to a holiday dinner.
18516"Friendship University"Denny Lu and Mike MyhreChris "Doc" Wyatt and Kevin BurkeAugust 11, 2018 (2018-08-11)[nb 5]
Twilight Sparkle is shocked to find out that Star Swirl the Bearded has enrolled at a different school of friendship.
18617"The End in Friend"[12]Denny Lu and Mike MyhreGillian M. BerrowAugust 18, 2018 (2018-08-18)[nb 6]
Rainbow Dash and Rarity question their friendship when they cannot find anything they enjoy doing together.
18718[14]"Yakity-Sax"[12]Denny Lu and Mike MyhreMichael P. Fox and Wil FoxAugust 25, 2018 (2018-08-25)[nb 7]
Pinkie Pie is obsessed with a new hobby that threatens to end with her leaving Ponyville forever.
18819"On the Road to Friendship"[16]Denny Lu and Mike MyhreTBASeptember 1, 2018 (2018-09-01)
Trixie tries to convince Starlight Glimmer to go to Saddle Arabia with her and do a magic show there.
18920"The Washouts"[16]Denny Lu and Mike MyhreTBASeptember 8, 2018 (2018-09-08)
Rainbow Dash fears Scootaloo's days as her number one fan is over when Scootaloo is obsessed with The Washouts, an expedition group of stunt ponies.
19021"A Rockhoof and a Hard Place"[16]Denny Lu and Mike MyhreTBASeptember 15, 2018 (2018-09-15)
The Mane Six help Rockhoof fit in to modern-day Equestria.
19122"What Lies Beneath"[16]Denny Lu and Mike MyhreTBASeptember 22, 2018 (2018-09-22)
The Young Six find a hidden passage underneath the School of Friendship.
19223"Sounds of Silence"[16]Denny Lu and Mike MyhreTBASeptember 29, 2018 (2018-09-29)
Applejack and Fluttershy encounter a group of Kirin, a race of ponies who are scared to hurt each other's feelings.

tag: table

text: Notes[edit]

text:
^ Jump up to: a b c d Finnish dub of this episode was released via Ruutu on Demand on May 16, 2018 in Finland.[7]

Jump up ^ This episode premiered on Tiny Pop on June 6, 2018 in the United Kingdom.[8]

Jump up ^ This episode premiered on Boomerang on July 29, 2018 in Australia.[9]

Jump up ^ This episode premiered on Boomerang at 8:25am AEST, seventeen hours before its airing on Discovery Family, in Australia on August 4, 2018.[10]

Jump up ^ This episode premiered on Boomerang on August 5, 2018 in Australia.[11]

Jump up ^ This episode premiered on Boomerang on August 11, 2018 in Australia.[13]

Jump up ^ This episode aired on July 20, 2018 as part of Discovery Family's "Summer Surprises" programming block.[15]

text: Songs[edit]


document_title: West Siberian economic region

question_text: siberia's economic significance is primarily due to its

question_tokens: siberia 's economic significance is primarily due to its

text: West Siberian economic region

text: West Siberian economic region (Russian: За́падно-Сиби́рский экономи́ческий райо́н; tr.: Zapadno-Sibirsky ekonomichesky rayon) is one of twelve economic regions of Russia.

text: This vast plain—marshy and thinly populated in the north, hilly in the south—is of growing economic importance, mostly due to the abundance of natural resources: oil, coal, wood, water. There are vast oilfields in the West Siberian petroleum basin, and Russia's largest oil refinery is in Omsk. The Kuznetsk Basin around Kemerovo and Novokuznetsk is a center of coal mining, and the production of iron, steel, machinery, and chemicals. Logging is a significant industry throughout the region. Hydroelectric stations dam the Ob near Novosibirsk and Kamen-na-Obi. The navigable Ob-Irtysh watershed covers most of this area, and the southern part is also criss-crossed by the Trans-Siberian, South Siberian and Turkestan-Siberian rail lines. Agricultural products include wheat, rice, oats, and sugar beets, and livestock is raised.[1]

text: Composition[edit]

text:
Altai Krai (part of Siberian Federal District)
Altai Republic (part of Siberian Federal District)
Kemerovo Oblast (part of Siberian Federal District)
Novosibirsk Oblast (part of Siberian Federal District)
Omsk Oblast (part of Siberian Federal District)
Tomsk Oblast (part of Siberian Federal District)
Khanty–Mansi Autonomous Okrug (part of Ural Federal District)
Tyumen Oblast (part of Ural Federal District)
Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug (part of Ural Federal District)

text: Socio-economic indicators[edit]

text: West Siberian economic region accounted for 21 per cent of the national GRP in 2008. The official economic statistics give a positive profile to this region. Not only is GDP in total high due to its substantial total population, but also reported GDP per capita is almost half above the Russian mean, as is industrial productivity. In keeping with this, wage levels are a third above the national average. However, the likelihood of getting paid in full is 14% below the national level. The region's economy is, moreover, relatively low in privatized ex-state enterprises, and only average in new private sector employment.

text: Levels of social welfare are close to the national mean in terms of life expectancy for men and women, and the proportion of students in higher education. However, popular attitudes in the region give a negative picture of West Siberia. Compared to other regions, people are much less likely to expect life to improve, and are even more negative in their rating of the national economy.[2]


document_title: When I'm Sixty-Four

question_text: who sang lead on when i'm 64

question_tokens: who sang lead on when i 'm 64

text: When I'm Sixty-Four

text: Composition[edit]

text: The song is sung by a young man to his lover, and is about his plans of their growing old together. Although the theme is ageing, it was one of the first songs McCartney wrote, when he was 16.[4] It was in the Beatles' setlist in their early days as a song to perform when their amplifiers broke down or the electricity went off.[6][7] Both George Martin and Mark Lewisohn speculated that McCartney may have thought of the song when recording began for Sgt. Pepper in December 1966 because his father turned 64 earlier that year.[6][7]

text: Lennon said of the song, "Paul wrote it in the Cavern days. We just stuck a few more words on it like 'grandchildren on your knee' and 'Vera, Chuck and Dave' ... this was just one that was quite a hit with us."[8] In his 1980 interview for Playboy he said, "I would never even dream of writing a song like that."[5]

text: Instrumentation[edit]

text: A clarinet trio (two B♭ clarinets and a bass clarinet) is featured prominently in the song. Scored by Martin, he said they were added at McCartney's request to "get around the lurking schmaltz factor" by using the clarinets "in a classical way."[7] In the song's final verse, the clarinet is played in harmony with McCartney's vocal. Supporting instruments include the piano, bass, drum set, tubular bells, and electric guitar.

text: Recording[edit]

text: The song was recorded on 6 December 1966, during one of the first sessions for the as-yet-unnamed album that became Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band. There were multiple overdub sessions, including the lead vocal by McCartney on 8 December and backing vocals by McCartney, Lennon, and George Harrison on 20 December. The clarinets were recorded on 21 December.[9]

text: The song is in the key of D♭ major. Recorded in C major, the master take was sped up to raise the key by one semitone at the insistence of McCartney. Martin remembers that McCartney suggested this change to make his voice sound younger.[10] McCartney says, "I wanted to appear younger, but that was just to make it more rooty-tooty; just lift the key because it was starting to sound turgid."[4]

text: Release[edit]

text: The song was nearly released on a single as the B-side of either "Strawberry Fields Forever" or "Penny Lane". It was instead held over to be included as an album track for Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band.[11]

text: Personnel[edit]

text:
Paul McCartney – lead and backing vocals, bass guitar, piano
John Lennon – backing vocals, lead guitar
George Harrison – backing vocals, guitar
Ringo Starr – drums, tubular bells
Robert Burns, Henry MacKenzie, Frank Reidy – two clarinets, bass clarinet[12]

text: Cover versions[edit]

text:
In 1967, Kenny Ball and his Jazzmen released a cover of "When I'm Sixty-Four" as a single. Their version peaked at number 43 on the UK chart.
In June 1967, George Martin produced a recording of the song by English comedian Bernard Cribbins, which was also released as a single on the Parlophone label.
In 1970, Cliff Richard released a cover of "When I'm Sixty-Four" as an album Cliff Live At The Talk Of The Town
Barry Gibb recorded the song for the 2014 Paul McCartney tribute album The Art of McCartney
In 2007, comedian and actor Russell Brand covered the song as part of Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band's 40th anniversary.

text: Cultural references[edit]

text:
McCartney's children recorded a special version of "When I'm Sixty-Four" at Abbey Road Studios as a surprise present for McCartney's 64th birthday in June 2006, and played it for him at his birthday party. They changed the lyrics to fit the occasion with the help of Giles Martin. At the time, by unfortunate coincidence, McCartney was recently separated from his second wife, Heather Mills; they later divorced.[14][15]
In the 2007 comedy film Walk Hard: The Dewey Cox Story, McCartney (played by Jack Black) and Lennon (played by Paul Rudd) are arguing, and Lennon quips, "I wonder if your songs will still be shit when I'm sixty-four."

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Everett 1999, p. 123. "In the United Kingdom Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band...was rush-released six days ahead of its official date, June 1."

Jump up ^ Prigozy and Raubicheck 2003, p. 71.

Jump up ^ Haugen 2004, p. 169.

^ Jump up to: a b c Miles 1997, p. 319.

^ Jump up to: a b Sheff 2000, p. 183.

^ Jump up to: a b Lewisohn 1988, p. 89.

^ Jump up to: a b c Martin & Pearson 1994, p. 34.

Jump up ^ The Beatles 2000, p. 247.

Jump up ^ Lewisohn 1988, pp. 89–91.

Jump up ^ Martin & Pearson 1994, p. 35.

Jump up ^ Martin & Pearson 1994, p. 26.

Jump up ^ Lewisohn 1988, p. 90.

Jump up ^ MacDonald 2005, p. 220.

Jump up ^ Lampert 2006.

Jump up ^ Todd 2006.


document_title: Candy corn

question_text: who invented candy corn and when was it first created

text: Candy corn

text: History[edit]

text: "Chicken Feed" was the original name of the candy with production starting in the 1880s.[4] Wunderlee Candy Company was the first to produce the candy.[5] Following the 19th century, the Goelitz Confectionary Company (now called Jelly Belly) manufactured the product. Along with other agriculture-inspired treats at the time, the late 19th century, Americas' confectioners sought to market candy corn to a largely rural society.[6]

text: Sales[edit]

text: The National Confectioners Association estimates that 35 million pounds (over 9000 metric tons) of candy corn are sold annually.[7]

text: Production[edit]

text: Originally the candy was made by hand.[8] Manufacturers first combined sugar, corn syrup, carnauba wax, and water and cooked them to form a slurry. Fondant was added for texture and marshmallows were added to provide a soft bite.[8] The final mixture was then heated and poured into shaped molds. Three passes, one for each colored section, were required during the pouring process.

text: The recipe remains basically the same today. The production method, called "corn starch modeling,"[2] likewise remains the same, though tasks initially performed by hand were soon taken over by machines invented for the purpose.[9] As of 2016, annual production in the United States is 35 million pounds, or almost 9 billion pieces of candy[10].

text: Variants[edit]

text: A popular variation called "Indian corn" features a chocolate brown wide end, orange center and pointed white tip, often available around Thanksgiving.[4] During the Halloween season, blackberry cobbler candy corn can be found in eastern Canada. Confectioners have introduced additional color variations suited to other holidays.[2] The Christmas variant (sometimes called "reindeer corn")[10] typically has a red end and a green center; the Valentine's Day variant (sometimes called "cupid corn")[11] typically has a red end and a pink center; In the United States during Independence Day celebrations, corn with a blue end, white center, and red tip (named "freedom corn") can be found at celebratory cook outs and patriotic celebrations; the Easter variant (sometimes called "bunny corn") is typically only a two-color candy, and comes with a variety of pastel bases (pink, green, yellow, and purple) with white tips all in one package. In 2011, there were caramel apple and green apple candy corn variants. In 2013 there were s'mores and pumpkin spice variants. In 2014, carrot corn was also introduced for the Easter season, typically being green and orange, and having a carrot cake type flavor.


document_title: Anne (TV series)

question_text: who plays miss stacy in anne with an e

question_tokens: who plays miss stacy in anne with an e

text: Anne (TV series)

text: Premise[edit]

text: In the late 19th century, brother and sister Matthew and Marilla Cuthbert, both in their old age, decide to take on an orphan boy to help out around their ancestral farm of Green Gables, on the outskirts of the town of Avonlea, on Prince Edward Island. When Matthew goes to pick the child up at the railway station, he finds not a boy, but a high-spirited and talkative girl, Anne Shirley. At first, the Cuthberts are inclined to send her back, particularly after Marilla's brooch goes missing, and Anne, in despair, runs away. The family reconciles and Anne settles in her new home. Upon starting school, Anne once again displays boundless enthusiasm which is nevertheless easily turned into despair when things go wrong, which they often do. Slowly, her ebullient nature wins over those around her.

text: Cast[edit]

text: Main[edit]

text:
Amybeth McNulty as Anne Shirley[10]
Geraldine James as Marilla Cuthbert[10]
R. H. Thomson as Matthew Cuthbert[10]
Dalila Bela as Diana Barry[11]
Lucas Jade Zumann as Gilbert Blythe[12]
Aymeric Jett Montaz as Jerry Baynard[11]
Corrine Koslo as Rachel Lynde[11]
Dalmar Abuzeid as Sebastian "Bash" Lacroix (season 2)[13]
Cory Grüter-Andrew as Cole Mackenzie (season 2)[13]

text: Others[edit]

text:
Jonathan Holmes as Mr. William Barry
Dalmar Abuzeid as Sebastian Lacroix
Helen Johns as Mrs. Eliza Barry
Ryan Kiera Armstrong as Minnie May Barry
Deborah Grover as Josephine Barry
Wayne Best as John Blythe
Phillip Williams as Thomas Lynde
David Ingram as Mr. Harmon Andrews
Janet Porter as Mrs. Andrews
Christian Martyn as Billy Andrews
Lia Pappas-Kemps as Jane Andrews
Ella Jonas Farlinger as Prissy Andrews
Jim Annan as Mr. Gillis
Fiona Byrne as Mrs. Gillis
Kyla Matthews as Ruby Gillis
Jacob Ursomarzo as Moody Spurgeon
Stephen Tracey as Mr. Phillips
Miranda McKeon as Josie Pye
Glenna Walters as Tillie Boulter
Katelyn Wells as Mary Joe
Jacob Horsley as Charlie Sloane
Joanna Douglas as Miss Muriel Stacy
Trenna Keating as Mrs. Pye

text: Production[edit]

text: According to executive producer Miranda de Pencier, this adaptation of the novel has a different look and feel to past productions, aiming for a "documentary level of realism", as reflected in the extraordinary detail which has gone into the design of sets and costumes.[14]

text: Personnel[edit]

text: Besides the show itself having a larger number of female characters than male, women serving as executive producer and showrunner, the series has several female directors.[15] For the second season, showrunner and scriptwriter Moira Walley-Beckett is joined by a team of women writers.[16]

text: Casting[edit]

text: Approximately 1800 girls on three continents auditioned for the role of Anne Shirley. Amybeth McNulty was chosen for her ability to deliver dialogue which is "incredibly thick and dynamic and beautiful", according to Miranda de Pencier. Walley-Beckett describes her as at once "luminous," transparent, smart, soulful and emotional.[15]

text: Filming locations[edit]

text: The series is filmed partially in Prince Edward Island as well as locations in Southern Ontario (including Millbrook[17] and Caledon).[18]

text: Music[edit]

text: The opening theme is the song "Ahead by a Century" performed and originally composed by Canadian band The Tragically Hip.[15]

text: Themes[edit]

text: Moira Walley-Beckett had this to say about her treatment, which is darker than the previous productions: "In this day and age, themes of identity, prejudice, bullying, being an outsider, searching for a way to be accepted and how to belong are entirely topical and super relevant, and those are themes that are built into the story of 'Anne.'" She went on to call Anne Shirley an "accidental feminist", and how she "really wanted to tell this story now."[15] For the second season, according to what she called her "master plan", Walley-Beckett introduced an entirely new character of her own, Bash,[13] to reflect the racial diversity present in and around Charlottetown at the time of the novel, with a view to representing a community absent from previous adaptations, achieving this by having Gilbert travel on a steamship and meet with the new character in Trinidad: "Bash is the vehicle to explore intolerance and inequality, even more when he goes to The Bog, when he learns that other black people live there."[19] Walley-Beckett explains: "The Bog is the community that's just outside of Charlottetown, where people of color were marginalized and had their own community there."

text: Broadcast and release[edit]

text: The series initially premiered on March 19, 2017, on CBC and aired on a weekly basis, the season finale airing on April 30, 2017.

text: The series debuted on Netflix on May 12, 2017, under the title Anne with an E.[20][21]

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Series Overview[edit]

text: SeasonEpisodesOriginally airedFirst airedLast aired17March 19, 2017 (2017-03-19)April 30, 2017 (2017-04-30)210July 6, 2018 (2018-07-06)July 6, 2018 (2018-07-06)

text: Season 1 (2017)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal air dateCan. viewers(millions)11"Your Will Shall Decide Your Destiny"Niki CaroMoira Walley-BeckettMarch 19, 2017 (2017-03-19)0.999[22]
When a miscommunication brings a girl, Anne Shirley, to Green Gables instead of a boy, Marilla and Matthew Cuthbert are faced with a life-changing decision.
22"I Am No Bird, and No Net Ensnares Me"Helen ShaverMoira Walley-BeckettMarch 26, 2017 (2017-03-26)0.780[23]
Hoping all is not lost, Matthew races to catch up with Anne while Marilla anxiously hopes and waits for their return to Green Gables.
33"But What Is So Headstrong as Youth?"Sandra GoldbacherMoira Walley-BeckettApril 2, 2017 (2017-04-02)0.994[24]
Anne is excited to begin school and make friends, but is unprepared for the bullying that occurs when she doesn't fit in. Marilla too, is testing new waters as she accepts an invitation to join a "Progressive Mothers" group.
44"An Inward Treasure is Born"David EvansMoira Walley-BeckettApril 9, 2017 (2017-04-09)0.654[25]
Anne is faced with the decision of whether or not to return to school. But a fire at the Gillis house and Anne's generous actions help her in her choice.
55"Tightly Knotted to a Similar String"Patricia RozemaMoira Walley-BeckettApril 16, 2017 (2017-04-16)N/A
Anne must deal with the inevitability of womanhood when she gets her first period. At the same time, Marilla and Matthew acclimatize to parenthood and revisit moments of their youth through Anne.
66"Remorse Is the Poison of Life"Paul FoxMoira Walley-BeckettApril 23, 2017 (2017-04-23)0.656[26]
When her little sister Minnie May becomes ill, Diana runs to Anne for help.  Meanwhile, the Blythe farm sees change, as Marilla is reminded of what she gave up and Matthew receives some unsettling news.
77"Wherever You Are Is My Home"Amanda TappingMoira Walley-BeckettApril 30, 2017 (2017-04-30)N/A
The Cuthberts vow to do whatever it takes to save the farm which reminds Anne of the strength of friendship and love.

text: Season 2 (2018)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal air date [7]Can. viewers(millions)81"Youth is the Season of Hope"Helen ShaverMoira Walley-BeckettJuly 6, 2018 (2018-07-06)N/A
The Cuthberts' boarders stir excitement with a question: Could there be gold in Avonlea? Elsewhere, Gilbert makes a new friend at sea.
92"Signs are Small Measurable Things, but Interpretations are Illimitable"Paul FoxShernold EdwardsJuly 6, 2018 (2018-07-06)N/A
The steamer lands in Trinidad, bringing Bash face to face with his past. The Barrys get behind the gold rush, but Matthew and Marilla aren't so sure.
103"The True Seeing is Within"Ken GirottiKathryn Borel, Jr.July 6, 2018 (2018-07-06)N/A
An adventure away with the Barrys teaches Anne to trust her instincts. Marilla begins to suspect that her boarders aren’t as innocent as they seem.
114"The Painful Eagerness of Unfed Hope"Anne WheelerJane MaggsJuly 6, 2018 (2018-07-06)N/A
Anne writes letters as an "agent of romance" while Diana trains at home to be a lady. A life-changing encounter steers Gilbert toward his destiny.
125"The Determining Acts of Her Life"Norma BaileyAmanda FaheyJuly 6, 2018 (2018-07-06)N/A
A game of spin the bottle prompts burning questions about love and beauty. Anne and Cole bond over their differences as Gilbert makes his way home.
136"I Protest Against Any Absolute Conclusion"Ken GirottiNaledi JacksonJuly 6, 2018 (2018-07-06)N/A
Anne faces the world with a shocking new look while the town preps for its annual Christmas pantomime. Gilbert and Bash join the Cuthberts for dinner.
147"Memory Has as Many Moods as The Temper"Anne WheelerJane MaggsJuly 6, 2018 (2018-07-06)N/A
Cole accompanies the girls to Aunt Josephine's for a lavish party filled with surprises. Back at home, Marilla's health takes a worrisome turn.
158"Struggling Against the Perception of Facts"Amanda TappingShernold EdwardsJuly 6, 2018 (2018-07-06)N/A
With a wedding on the horizon, Anne wonders what kind of bride she'd like to be. Marilla sees an oculist, and Bash meets a friendly face in "The Bog."
169"What We Have Been Makes Us What We Are"Paul FoxMoira Walley-BeckettJuly 6, 2018 (2018-07-06)N/A
A brand-new teacher brings unconventional methods -- and a motorbike -- to Avonlea. Gilbert's plan to speed up his studies leaves Bash feeling lost.
1710"The Growing Good of the World"Paul FoxMoira Walley-BeckettJuly 6, 2018 (2018-07-06)N/A
Anne rallies her friends to save Miss Stacy in the wake of a disastrous incident. Bash gets an unexpected gift, and Cole makes a surprising choice.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: The first season has achieved a rating of 84% on Rotten Tomatoes, the site's critical consensus stating: "Anne with an E uses its complex central character to offer a boldly stylish, emotionally resonant spin on classic source material that satisfies in its own right."[27] The series has received a rating of 79 on Metacritic based on fifteen reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[28]

text: Emily Ashby, writing for Common Sense Media, calls the series an "exceptional" and "spectacular" interpretation, giving it four out of five stars.[29] Tasha Cerny, contributor for the Tracking Board, praises the cinematography as lush and colourful, the characters vibrant, and the plot "surprisingly thrilling for a story about a young girl living in a small secluded community in the late nineteenth century. I laughed, I cried, and I didn’t expect either from a show about a little girl."[30] Gwen Inhat of The A.V. Club calls the series "at once darker and sweeter than the original" novel, praising the core cast, reserving the highest for the series lead: "Amybeth McNulty defies her youth with a performance that’s less a portrayal of Anne than an absolute possession. It can’t be easy to make Anne’s fanciful language sing the way she does, and McNulty captures the endearing awkwardness that enables Anne to win over everyone she comes in contact with."[31] Writing of the 90-minute premiere episode for the Toronto Star, Johanna Schneller was appreciative of Walley-Beckett's departures from the novel, bringing its subtext to the fore: "Reading between the novel's lines and adding verisimilitude, she gives us quick but potent glimpses of the miseries many orphans faced in 1890s imperialist culture."[32] Hanh Nguyen, reviewing the series for IndieWire, concurs with this assessment, saying: "Rather than ruining the series, they give the context for why Anne would be filled with gratitude for the beauties of nature, basic human decency and having a family to call her own. Montgomery had based much of Anne’s need for escape into imagination on her own lonely childhood, and her stories have always had an underlying poignancy that made them all the sweeter."[33] Jen Chaney, writing for Vulture.com, agrees, saying: "What distinguishes it from other previous Anne iterations is its willingness to harden some of the story’s softness, just enough, to create an element of realism that period pieces, Gables-related or not, can be inclined to avoid."[34] Neil Genzlinger writing for The New York Times, commenting on reports of darkness and grittiness, goes so far as to call the adaptation "richer" than the source material: "Ms. McNulty’s Anne is still wonderfully ebullient and eminently likable; she’s just not the one-dimensional figure of other adaptations".[35]  Annie Hirschlag, writing for Mic, suggests that a genuinely contemporary Anne is bound to reflect the current television landscape and wider culture of its times (the 2010s): "Since today's entertainment is peppered with antiheroes — characters who are far from perfect, even occasionally villainous — it makes sense that Anne's familiar idealism is fringed with darkness and agony."[36]

text: Some reviewers were more ambivalent, mainly about Walley-Beckett's changes to the story. Canadian novelist Saleema Nawaz, who reviewed the 90-minute first episode for Toronto Life, said she enjoyed it more than she expected, particularly the set designs and costumes, as well as the performances by McNulty and Thomson, and she approved of the choice of theme song as reflective of the continued relevance of the source material. She was less sure about how far the series intended to stray from that source material, and disapproved of the "manufactured drama, such as Matthew’s wild horse ride".[37] Writing for Entertainment Weekly, Isabella Beidenharn expressed similar feelings, but, "putting the source material aside, it’s a fine show on its own", and she conceded that "inventing a dark side might help Anne With an E fit into today’s TV landscape".[38] Allison Keene, writing for Collider, agrees that Anne is a good drama on its own terms, but allows it is "only a fair adaptation" of the novel, at its best in the home scenes: "Anne with an E is undeniably the most stylish adaptation we’ve ever seen of Anne of Green Gables. But its desire to reveal more of Anne’s miserable past in order to be more true to what the desperation of an orphan is like feels at odds with Montgomery’s story."[39] Writing for Variety, critic Sonia Saraiya is even more ambivalent, describing the series as on the one hand "a brilliant adaptation" which "succeeds admirably", but on the other hand, "the show can’t quite sustain the brilliance, veering first into maudlin territory and then into the oddly saccharine as it tests out its tone", contending that "the show gets a bit bogged down in telling the story of Anne’s dysfunction", presenting "a slightly soapy view of Anne’s trials and tribulations that at times really humanize her and in others, are rather infantilizing".[40]

text: Sarah Larson, writing for The New Yorker, was not at all impressed with changes made to the story, arguing that they alter Anne's character to the point of non-recognition. While she acknowledges that bringing subtext to the fore is a fine idea, she is not pleased with the execution, saying that the result is part "the Anne we know and love" and part "untrustworthy stranger", calling the alteration and addition of scenes a "betrayal" of Montgomery's novel, comparing the treatment unfavourably to Patricia Rozema's 1999 adaptation of Jane Austen's Mansfield Park.[41] For Joanna Robinson, writing for Vanity Fair, a central problem with the show is that it "seems to think that in order for Anne to be a feminist figure, she has to butt up against a straw-man-filled patriarchy," and so it turned many of the male characters into misogynists, most notably the Reverend Allan, who is considered by Anne to be a "kindred spirit" in the book: "Anne with an E seems to think Anne’s triumphs are only noteworthy if she's continually told she can't succeed, when in fact her unfettered brilliance needs no such clumsy opposition. It also seems to think that Anne needs a radical feminist makeover when, in fact, the story of her success was feminist in its own right." This is part of a more general problem Robinson notes, that conflicts are exaggerated and overdone: "this series thrives on non-stop tragedy."[42]


document_title: List of largest church buildings

question_text: which is the largest catholic church in the world

text: List of largest church buildings

text: Scope[edit]

text: The term church is open to interpretation and debate. In this article, it means any building that was built for the primary purpose of weekly public Christian worship. The list does include at least one building—the Hagia Sophia—that was originally a church but later became a mosque and is now a museum. The list does not include some buildings from the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.  Two of their buildings are significantly larger than any buildings on the list - the Conference Center in Salt Lake City is 130,000 square meters and the Salt Lake Temple is over 23,500 square meters.  However neither of those buildings are used for public worship weekly. They also have scores of other temples that are large enough to be included, but are similarly not used for public worship, which are found at List of temples of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.

text: Measurements[edit]

text: Whilst claims are made about the relative size of churches many of these claims are not easily substantiated. "Largest" is at best a vague term, which is often not qualified by claimants. Accepted measures of largeness could include area, volume, length, width, height, and/or capacity, although the last is far more subjective. It is important to note therefore that churches may claim to be "the largest" based on only one of these measurements; and thus that there may be several churches that have claims to be "the largest church". Since there is no official body governing these claims, there is no generally accepted criterion for being "the largest church".

text: The list below attempts to rank churches by different (more-or-less) objective criteria, and thus may generate different orders depending on the measure used. Churches for which claims are made but dimensions cannot be found are not included on the below lists.

text: For length, width and height, there is usually a definitive statistic for each church, which can easily be compared. However, for area and volume, the situation is often more complex. It is often possible to find multiple values quoted for the area/volume of a church in references. Many values appear to be estimates or approximations (especially for volume), or may have been calculated by multiplying lengths, widths and heights. In the latter case, the exact dimensions used (internal vs. external, etc.) may give very different figures. Therefore, although area and volume are the most common 'largeness' measures, they are also apt to be the least reliable. This should be borne in mind when comparing church sizes.

text:
Area (m²)
Gross volume (m³)
Name
Built
City

Country
Denomination
Comment

15,160 (interior)[1][2]21,095 (exterior)[1]
5,000,000[3]
St. Peter's Basilica
1506–1626
Vatican City

  Vatican City
Catholic (Latin)
Area can be verified on a plan printed as 205% size in 1:1000 scale to match a 41.47 m dome internal diameter

12,000
1,200,000[4]

Basilica of the National Shrine of Our Lady of Aparecida
1955–80

Aparecida

 Brazil
Catholic (Latin)
Church dimensions 173×168 m yielding a maximum area of 29,000 m²[5]

11,520[6] (It may be larger, the size remains a subject of debate)

500,000 +
Seville Cathedral
1401–1528
Seville

 Spain
Catholic (Latin)
According to UNESCO, the largest Gothic cathedral[7]
Burial site of Christopher Columbus[8]

11,700 (interior) [9]
440,000 [10]
Milan Cathedral
1386–1965
Milan

 Italy
Catholic (Ambrosian Rite)
One of the largest Gothic cathedral in the world

11,600 [11]

First Family Church

Overland Park, Kansas
 United States
First Family Church
Closed in 2011. Now the Hilltop Learning Center in the Blue Valley School District[12][13]

11,200[3]
480,000[14]
Cathedral of Saint John the Divine
1892–present
New York City

 United States
Anglican (Episcopal Church in the U.S.)
Unfinished, lacking transepts among other components

10,090
300,000[15]
Basilica of Our Lady of Licheń
1994–2004

Licheń Stary

 Poland
Catholic (Latin)
9,240 m²[15] or 10,090 m²

9,687[16]
450,000 +
Liverpool Cathedral
1904–78
Liverpool

 United Kingdom
Anglican (Church of England)

8,700[17]
130,000

Church of the Most Holy Trinity
2004-07

Fátima

 Portugal
Catholic (Latin)
Area given as 12,000m²[4]

8,515

Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls
IV–1823
Rome

 Italy
Catholic (Latin)
One nave & four aisles by 80 columns

8,318[18]

Basilica-Cathedral of Our Lady of the Pillar
1681–1872
Zaragoza

 Spain
Catholic (Latin)

8,300

Florence Cathedral
1296–1436
Florence

 Italy
Catholic (Latin)
Largest brick and mortar dome in the world

8,260 (6,029 interior)
190,000
Ulm Minster
1377–1890
Ulm

 Germany
Lutheran
World's tallest and one of the largest brick churches

8,000

Basilica of the Sacred Heart
1905–70
Koekelberg (Brussels)

 Belgium
Catholic (Latin)

8,167

Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe
1974–76
Mexico City

 Mexico
Catholic (Latin)
Circular base of 102 m in diameter[19]

8,000[20]

Cathedral of Our Lady
1352–1521
Antwerp

 Belgium
Catholic (Latin)

8,000

Rio de Janeiro Cathedral
1964-76
Rio de Janeiro

 Brazil
Catholic (Latin)
External diameter is 106 meters

7,989 (interior)30,000 (exterior)[21]

Basilica of Our Lady of Peace
1985–89

Yamoussoukro

 Ivory Coast
Catholic (Latin)
The enclosed area approximately 8,000 m²[22]

7,960
255,800  [23]
Hagia Sophia
532–537
Istanbul

 Turkey
Orthodox (Ecumenical Patriarchate)
Was the largest church in the world for a millennium, now a museum.

7,920
258,000

San Petronio Basilica[24]

1390–1479
Bologna
 Italy
Catholic (Latin)
World's largest Gothic brick church

7,914
407,000[25]
Cologne Cathedral
1248–1880
Cologne

 Germany
Catholic (Latin)
Gross volume without buttresses

7,875[2]

St Paul's Cathedral
1677–1708
London

 United Kingdom
Anglican (Church of England)

7,712[26]

Washington National Cathedral
1907–90
Washington, DC

 United States
Anglican (Episcopal Church in the U.S.)

7,700[27]
200,000 (interior only)
Amiens Cathedral
1220–70
Amiens

 France
Catholic (Latin)
Gross volume slightly below 400,000

7,700

Abbey of Santa Giustina

1501–1606[28]
Padua
 Italy
Catholic (Latin)

7,097 (interior)12,069 (exterior)[29]

Basilica of the National Shrine of the Immaculate Conception
1919–61
Washington, DC

 United States
Catholic (Latin)
Completed Trinity Dome in 2017

7,000 (estimated)

Calvary Temple
2012[30]
Hyderabad, India
 India
Calvary Temple

6,968

Cathedral of La Plata
1884-1932
La Plata

 Argentina
Catholic (Latin)
Largest church in Argentina

6,825
660,000
Saint Joseph's Oratory
1904–67
Montreal

 Canada
Catholic (Latin)
Exterior dome rises 263 m above sea level; highest point in Montreal

6,732

Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral
1573-1813
Mexico City

 Mexico
Catholic (Latin)

6,655
160,000 (interior)
Palma Cathedral
1220-1346
Palma, Majorca

 Spain
Catholic (Latin)
With the largest rosette Gothic world

6,650

Reims Cathedral
1211–75
Reims

 France
Catholic (Latin)
The longest church in France; 149.17 m

6,044

Strasbourg Cathedral
1015–1439
Strasbourg

 France
Catholic (Latin)
World's tallest building 1647-1874

6,038

Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels
1998–2002
Los Angeles

 United States
Catholic (Latin)

6,020[31]
43,300
De Hoeksteen, Barneveld
2007–08
Barneveld

 Netherlands
Calvinist

6,000

Padre Pio Pilgrimage Church
1991-2004
San Giovanni Rotondo

 Italy
Catholic (Latin)
Vaulted church holding 6,500 seats

5,900

Bourges Cathedral
1195-1230
Bourges

 France
Catholic (Latin)

5,660

Esztergom Basilica
1822–69
Esztergom

 Hungary
Catholic (Latin)
World's largest altarpiece painting on a single canvas

5,500

Notre Dame de Paris
1163–1345
Paris

 France
Catholic (Latin)

5,400

Sagrada Familia
1882–present
Barcelona

 Spain
Catholic (Latin)
Will be the tallest church in the world when finished (172,5m)

5,300

São Paulo Cathedral
1913-1954
São Paulo

 Brazil
Catholic (Latin)
Capacity for 8,000 people

5,300

Primate Cathedral of Bogotá
1807-23
Bogotá

 Colombia
Catholic (Latin)

5,240

Cathedral of Christ the Saviour
1839–83
Moscow

 Russia
Orthodox (Moscow Patriarchate)
Rebuilt during 1995-2000

5,200

Chartres Cathedral
1145-1220
Chartres

 France
Catholic (Latin)
Ground area 10,875 square meters

5,170

New Cathedral, Linz
1862–1924
Linz

 Austria
Catholic (Latin)

5,038[32]

Provo ward conference center
2012
Provo, Utah
 United States
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
[33]

5,017

Westminster Cathedral
1895–1910
London

 United Kingdom
Catholic (Latin)

5,000
185,000–190,000
St. Mary's Church[34]
1343–1502
Gdańsk
 Poland
Catholic (Latin)
One of the largest Gothic brick churches north of the Alps

5,000
137,000
Holy Trinity Cathedral
1995–2004
Tbilisi

 Georgia
Orthodox (Patriarchate of Georgia)
Description see[35]

4,968[36]

Winchester Cathedral
1079–1525
Winchester

 United Kingdom
Anglican (Church of England)
The longest Gothic Cathedral in Europe.

4,800

Dresden Cathedral
1739-55
Dresden

 Germany
Catholic (Latin)
Largest church in all of Saxony

4,500

Basilica of St. Thérèse, Lisieux
1929-54
Lisieux

 France
Catholic (Latin)

4,320[37]

Basilica de San Martin de Tours (Taal)
1856–78
Taal, Batangas

 Philippines
Catholic (Latin)

4,273[38]

Ely Cathedral, Cambridgeshire
1083–1375
Ely

 United Kingdom
Anglican (Church of England)
Third-largest medieval Cathedral in the United Kingdom

4,188
185,000–190,000[39]
Frauenkirche

1468–1525
Munich
 Germany
Catholic (Latin)
One of the largest Gothic brick churches north of the Alps and the largest hall church

4,130

Cathedral Basilica of Saint Louis (St. Louis)
1907-14
St. Louis

 United States
Catholic (Latin)
7,700 square meters, largest mosaic collection in the world

4,000

Saint Isaac's Cathedral
1818–58
Saint Petersburg

 Russia
Orthodox (Moscow Patriarchate)

4,000 (Estimated)

Lincoln Cathedral
1185-1311
Lincoln, England
 United Kingdom
Anglican

3,822

Saint Gregory the Illuminator Cathedral, Yerevan
1997–2001
Yerevan

 Armenia
Armenian Apostolic Church

3,500[40]
170,000[40]
Church of Saint Sava
1935–89
Belgrade

 Serbia
Orthodox (Serbian Orthodox Church)
The largest church in Southeastern Europe.

3,170[41]

Alexander Nevsky Cathedral
1882–1912
Sofia

 Bulgaria
Orthodox (Patriarchate of Bulgaria)

2,972

Westminster Abbey
960-18c
London

 United Kingdom
Anglican (Church of England)

2,800[42]

Medak Cathedral
1914–26
Medak

 India
Anglican (Church of South India)

2,500[43] [44]

Nashville Stake Center
2015
Nashville, Tennessee
 United States
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

2,300

Our Lady of Dolours Syro-Malabar Catholic Basilica
1929-2005
Our Lady of Dolours Syro-Malabar Catholic Basilica

 India
Catholic (East Syriac Rite)
It has the 3rd tallest tower in Asia

2,135
64,040[45]
Basilica of St. John the Baptist
1839–55
St. John's

 Canada
Catholic (Latin)
The largest church in eastern Canada

2,025

Myeongdong Cathedral
1892-1898
Seoul

 Korea
Catholic (Latin)
In 1898, largest building in Seoul

1,760
32,162[46]
All Saints Cathedral, Halifax
1907–10
Halifax

 Canada
Anglican (Church of Canada)
The largest Anglican cathedral church in Canada

text: By height[edit]

text: By length[edit]